From Precambrian Rift Volcanoes to the Mississippian Shelf Margin: Geological Field Excursions in the Ozark Mountains (GSA Field Guide 17)

From Precambrian Rift Volcanoes to the Mississippian Shelf Margin: Geological Field Excursions in the Ozark Mountains ...

Author: Kevin R. Evans | James S. Aber

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From Precambrian Rift Volcanoes to the Mississippian Shelf Margin: Geological Field Excursions in the Ozark Mountains

edited by

Kevin R. Evans Department of Geography, Geology, and Planning Missouri State University 901 S. National Avenue Springfield, Missouri 65897 USA James S. Aber Earth Science Emporia State University Emporia, Kansas 66801 USA

Field Guide 17 3300 Penrose Place, P.O. Box 9140

Boulder, Colorado 80301-9140 USA

2010

Copyright © 2010, The Geological Society of America (GSA), Inc. All rights reserved. GSA grants permission to individual scientists to make unlimited photocopies of one or more items from this volume for noncommercial purposes advancing science or education, including classroom use. For permission to make photocopies of any item in this volume for other noncommercial, nonprofit purposes, contact The Geological Society of America. Written permission is required from GSA for all other forms of capture or reproduction of any item in the volume including, but not limited to, all types of electronic or digital scanning or other digital or manual transformation of articles or any portion thereof, such as abstracts, into computer-readable and/or transmittable form for personal or corporate use, either noncommercial or commercial, for-profit or otherwise. Send permission requests to GSA Copyright Permissions, 3300 Penrose Place, P.O. Box 9140, Boulder, Colorado 80301-9140, USA. GSA provides this and other forums for the presentation of diverse opinions and positions by scientists worldwide, regardless of their race, citizenship, gender, religion, or political viewpoint. Opinions presented in this publication do not reflect official positions of the Society. Copyright is not claimed on any material prepared wholly by government employees within the scope of their employment. Published by The Geological Society of America, Inc. 3300 Penrose Place, P.O. Box 9140, Boulder, Colorado 80301-9140, USA www.geosociety.org Printed in U.S.A. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data From Precambrian rift volcanoes to the Mississippian Shelf margin : geological field excursions in the Ozark Mountains / edited by Kevin R. Evans and James S. Aber. p. cm. -- (The Geological Society of America field guide ; 17) Includes bibliographical references. ISBN 978-0-8137-0017-5 (pbk.) 1. Geology--Ozark Mountains. 2. Geology, Economic--Ozark Mountains. 3. Ozark Mountains Region--History. I. Evans, Kevin R. II. Aber, James S. QE78.7.F76 2010 557.67’1--dc22 2010007882 Cover: General locations of field trips held during the 2010 Joint Meeting of the North-Central and South-Central GSA Sections, 11–13 April 2010, Branson, Missouri. Triangles represent field trips not included in this guidebook. Inset: New road cuts at the Branson Regional Airport.

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Contents Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v 1.

Route 66—Geology and legacy of mining in the Tri-state district of Missouri, Kansas, and Oklahoma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 J.S. Aber, S.W. Aber, G. Manders, and R.W. Nairn

2.

Preliminary geology of the Proffit Mountain flood scour, Reynolds County, Missouri . . . . . . . . 23 C.M. Seeger and D.J. Wronkiewicz

3.

Geomorphology and paleontology of Riverbluff Cave, Springfield, Missouri . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 C.W. Rovey II, M. Forir, G. Balco, and D. Gaunt

4.

Civil War and cultural geology of southwestern Missouri, part 1: The geology of Wilson’s Creek Battlefield and the history of stone quarrying and stone use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 J.T. Hannibal and K.R. Evans

5.

Civil War and cultural geology of southwestern Missouri, part 2: Geologic influences on the Battle of Forsyth, guerrilla activities, and post-war vigilantism. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69 K.R. Evans

6.

Rift-related volcanism and karst geohydrology of the southern Ozark dome . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99 G.R. Lowell, R.W. Harrison, D.J. Weary, R.C. Orndorff, J.E. Repetski, and H.A. Pierce

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Preface After more than 200 years of scientific investigations—since the expedition of Meriwether Lewis and William Clark (1804–1806), the travels of Henry R. Schoolcraft (1818–1819), and early reports of the Missouri Geological Survey (published ca. 1855) under State Geologist George C. Swallow, until today—the Ozark region still provides geologists with some enigmas. The complex interconnection among the Proterozoic basement, extensive development of Paleozoic sedimentary strata, structural overprinting, and the complexities of groundwater conditions and karst development gives ample evidence that we, as geologists, have barely scratched the surface in our understanding of this region. This field trip guidebook provides a glimpse of some of the more interesting aspects of Ozark geology and some innovative approaches for investigating the evolution of groundwater systems, landscape development, and the cultural and economic impact of geology on Ozark residents. In chapter one, Aber and others provide geological insight into the extraction of the world-class lead and zinc mineral accumulations in the Tri-state mining district of Kansas, Missouri, and Oklahoma, and they highlight the aftermath of unintended consequences and environmental concerns that continue to plague the area. Seeger and Wronkiewicz, in chapter two, document the Precambrian and Cambrian geology of Proffit Mountain exposed by the catastrophic reservoir-collapse and flood scour that occurred along the East Fork of the Black River in December 2005. In chapter three, Rovey and colleagues provide a synopsis of the history of sedimentation and paleomagnetic age dates at Riverbluff Cave, which contains a rich, well-preserved Pleistocene fauna. Hannibal and Evans give a historical account of the rock resources of southwestern Missouri in chapter four, and together with the subsequent article by Evans in chapter five, both give analyses of the impact of geology on two Civil War battlefields in southwestern Missouri. In chapter six, Lowell and others report on a comprehensive geologic mapping project centered along the Ozark Scenic National Riverways in south-central Missouri; they provide evidence of the connection between structure and lithology on surface and subsurface hydrology. While this volume is by no means a compendium of Ozark geology, it does provide a diverse array of topics that elucidate small parts of the geologic record of the Ozarks. Kevin R. Evans and James S. Aber

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The Geological Society of America Field Guide 17 2010

Route 66—Geology and legacy of mining in the Tri-state district of Missouri, Kansas, and Oklahoma James S. Aber Susan W. Aber Earth Science, Emporia State University, Emporia, Kansas 66801, USA Gina Manders Earth Science, Emporia State University, Emporia, Kansas 66801, USA, and LEAD Agency, Vinita, Oklahoma 74301, USA Robert W. Nairn Center for Restoration of Ecosystems and Watersheds, School of Civil Engineering and Environmental Science, University of Oklahoma, Norman, Oklahoma 73019, USA

ABSTRACT Route 66 is among the most famous American highways of the middle twentieth century. A portion of the original Route 66 runs through southwestern Missouri, southeastern Kansas, and northeastern Oklahoma. This section of the road was intimately linked to the Tri-state region’s economic geology, namely mining lead and zinc as well as producing the fossil fuels—coal and natural gas—to smelt the ore. Mining began in the Tri-state district in the mid-nineteenth century and continued into the late twentieth century. An economic boom led to regional population growth and contributed to national development, but no environmental regulations existed during this period. The legacy of mining includes severe pollution, ruined communities, serious human-health issues, and devastated landscapes. Efforts now focus on protecting human health, reclamation of mined land, and remediation of water resources, led by federal and state agencies as well as universities and non-governmental organizations.

INTRODUCTION

southwestern Missouri, southeastern Kansas, and northeastern Oklahoma, which is the subject of this field guide (Fig. 1). This section of the road was intimately linked to the Tri-state region’s economic geology, namely mining lead and zinc as well as producing the fossil fuels—coal and natural gas—to smelt the ore. The story of how Route 66 came into being is connected largely with one man, Cyrus Stevens Avery, who became known as the “Father of Route 66.”

U.S. Highway 66, commonly called Route 66, is among the most famous American highways of the middle twentieth century. It has been called the “Mother Road” and the “Mainstreet of America” (Wallis, 2001). Linking Chicago to Los Angeles, it was one of the country’s first continuously paved, transcontinental highways. A portion of the original Route 66 runs through *[email protected]

Aber, J.S., Aber, S.W., Manders, G., and Nairn, R.W., 2010, Route 66—Geology and legacy of mining in the Tri-state district of Missouri, Kansas, and Oklahoma, in Evans, K.R., and Aber, J.S., eds., From Precambrian Rift Volcanoes to the Mississippian Shelf Margin: Geological Field Excursions in the Ozark Mountains: Geological Society of America Field Guide 17, p. 1–22, doi: 10.1130/2010.0017(01). For permission to copy, contact [email protected]. ©2010 The Geological Society of America. All rights reserved.

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Figure 1. (A) Topographic map of the Tri-state mining district showing selected cities and rivers mentioned in this description of the region. Elevations range from less than 200 m (dark blue) to more than 400 m (red). Derived from digital elevation data of the Earth Resources Observation and Science Data Center, U.S. Geological Survey. (B) Space photograph of the Tri-state region with selected cities and water bodies annotated. Adapted from Gateway to Astronaut Photography of the Earth, image ID: ISS017E019415, taken 30 September 2008, http://earth.jsc.nasa.gov/.

Route 66 Avery was a successful businessman in Tulsa, Oklahoma, with interests in real estate, coal, and oil fields. He also was quite active in state and national organizations for highway development. When national highways were first considered in the early 1920s, Avery was appointed by the Secretary of Agriculture as a special consultant to lay out what became the original U.S. Highway System (Wallis, 2001). Strong political pressure came to bear immediately on proposed routes from Chicago to Los Angeles. Some favored the old Santa Fe Trail route, while others supported a more southerly path along the Butterfield Stage Line. Avery was able to establish a third highway in between, which just happened to run through his hometown, Tulsa. Highways running generally east-west were given even numbers, and the primary routes were multiples of ten—highways 20, 40, 50, etc. These “zero numbers” were taken quickly and guarded jealously by various factions, and so the number 66 was selected for Avery’s route. The number had a pleasing sound and was easy to remember. The U.S. Highway System, including Route 66, was approved officially in 1926. In that same year, lead-and-zinc ore production reached a peak in the Tri-state mining district at nearly 15 million tons (Park, 2005). The Kansas portion of Route 66 was completely paved by 1929. Within a few years, however, the Great Depression combined with recurring drought, and Route 66 became the Dust Bowl highway. Tens of thousands of people migrated from the Midwest and Great Plains to seek better lives in California. In the Tri-state mining district, attempts to unionize mine workers during the 1930s sparked strikes, demonstrations, riots, and bloodshed in Galena, Kansas. The National Guard was called out to restore peace, and Route 66 traffic had to be detoured at times (Wallis, 2001).

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The westward movement grew after World War II, when the highway was jammed with traffic. Mickey Mantle, from Commerce, Oklahoma, got his start in the late 1940s on Route 66 playing for the Baxter Springs Whiz Kids in Kansas before signing with the New York Yankees. In the 1950s, it became apparent that Route 66 along with other federal highways could no longer support the increasing volume of cars and trucks. The interstate highway system was born in 1956, three decades after the original highway system had been approved, and gradually interstate highways were built to replace portions of Route 66. In the Tristate region, I-44 took on that role in the early 1960s, following a path slightly south of the original Route 66, thus bypassing Kansas altogether. The historic Route 66 is marked with signage across the Tri-state mining district and continues to attract many tourists to the region (Fig. 2). Several miles of the original “ribbon road” pavement are preserved south of Miami, where it is designated as an Oklahoma National Historic Landmark (Fig. 3).

A

B

Figure 2. Highway sign marking historic Route 66 in Baxter Springs, Kansas. Photograph by JSA, July 2009.

Figure 3. Route 66 “ribbon road” south of Miami, Oklahoma. The preexisting road was paved only nine feet wide to become part of the initial Route 66. The original concrete base pavement can be seen beneath an asphalt overlay with wide gravel shoulders (A). Several miles of this pavement are still open as a county road today for cars and trucks (B), but it is closed for motorcycles. Photographs by JSA, September 2009.

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Aber et al.

HISTORY OF MINING IN THE TRI-STATE REGION Historic lead-zinc discoveries and mining in the central United States were primarily in southeastern Missouri and the Tristate region. The earliest record of lead-zinc mining was in 1742 in the so-called Old Lead Belt at Bonne Terre in southeastern Missouri (Environmental Protection Agency [EPA], 2007). The New Lead Belt or Viburnum trend, some 80 km to the southwest, has five mines still operating today with ore smelting at Herculaneum (Guberman, 2009a, 2009b). Tri-state lead ore discoveries opened as prospectors moved westward in the mid-nineteenth century. Both surface and underground mining took place in these regions, but all Tri-state mines and smelters are closed today. In the Tri-state district, mining of lead ore began in 1853 near Granby, Missouri, where production of lead was important for the Confederacy during the Civil War (see Hannibal and Evans, this volume). In the 1870s, organized mining activity migrated westward when ore was discovered in the vicinity of Joplin, Missouri, and Galena, Kansas. Also at this time, zinc production began (Clerk, 1883), and zinc surpassed lead production by 1880. Primary ore minerals were galena and sphalerite; other sulfide minerals found in the ore veins included chalcopyrite, bornite, and covellite. Rogers (1900) listed more than 40 minerals from the Tristate mining district, including several copper and zinc minerals: azurite, chrysocolla, cuprite, malachite, and smithsonite. The ore bodies were typically concentrated in relatively small, rich pockets interspersed within barren limestone and chert beds. The relative abundance of ore bodies increased upward through Mississippian strata and reached greatest abundance just below the overlying Pennsylvanian strata (Fig. 4). In most cases, galena

was concentrated near the top of each ore body with sphalerite toward the bottom (Fig. 5). The early mines were quite small and simple, often operated by just two people using only pick, shovel, and human power. Agricola, the sixteenth century mineralogist and mining expert who wrote De Re Metallica, would have found the Tri-state mines of the late nineteenth century astonishingly

A

B Figure 4. Diagram of lead-zinc ore distribution within Mississippian strata of the Tri-state mining district. The quantity of ore increases upward and reaches its maximum just below Pennsylvanian strata. The relative proportion of lead (L) and zinc (Z) minerals is indicated schematically. Sketch not to scale; adapted from Siebenthal (1915, fig. 10).

Figure 5. Sketches of lead-zinc ore bodies, as exposed during underground mining in the vicinity of Joplin, Missouri. (A) Vertical distribution of ore pockets within chert beds. Scale in feet. (B) Single, small ore pocket. Scale in inches. Galena is found at the top of individual ore bodies, and sphalerite is beneath. Adapted from Siebenthal (1915, figs. 12 and 13).

Route 66 primitive (Park, 2005). The shallow mines in the Joplin-Galena region were largely exhausted by the early 1900s. Smelting of lead and zinc ore took place where fuel was abundant. At first, zinc was set aside and lead smelted exclusively due to its demand for bullets and the ease of smelting lead in small furnaces. The increase in zinc production was dependent upon coal discoveries and coal-fired zinc smelters. Three to four tons of coal were necessary to process one ton of zinc ore; thus, it made sense to transport the ore to the fuel rather than the other way. Kansas coal mining commenced in the 1850s with early settlement. The scope of mining expanded dramatically in the 1870s to supply fuel for railroad steam locomotives and for lead and zinc smelting. The first zinc smelter was built in the Tri-state mining district at Weir, Kansas, in 1873 (Park, 2005), and nearby Pittsburg soon became the center of zinc smelting based on coal. In addition, electric power for smelting and mine operations was developed at Empire Lake where Shoal Creek joins the Spring River in southeastern Kansas. Natural gas was discovered at Iola, Kansas, in 1873, but the migration of smelting to Iola and other towns with gas did not happen until around 1900. The phenomenal rise in zinc ore and metal production in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries was driven by rapid urban, electrical, and industrial growth in the United States (Clark, 1970). Missouri and Kansas mines supplied zinc ore, and smelting was done mainly in southeastern Kansas. However, the Iola gas supply was largely exhausted by 1910; gas was piped from Oklahoma, and much zinc smelting was relocated again into Oklahoma to Bartlesville and nearby sites. In 1914 larger, deeper, and richer ore deposits were discovered at Picher, Oklahoma, and nearby Treece, Kansas. Nearly all mining took place in this vicinity after 1920, and additional major deposits were found after 1925. During the Great Depression, many small companies were consolidated into a few larger companies, and by 1950 the Eagle Picher Company controlled more than half of all production in the district (Park, 2005). After World War II, production gradually declined. Larger mines had ceased operating by 1957; the last small mines were closed in 1970. Total estimated lead and zinc production from the Tri-state mining district was nearly 12 million tons (Table 1). USES OF LEAD AND ZINC Lead has been known since ancient times and was among the first ores to be exploited in the colonial New World, TABLE 1. ESTIMATED LEAD AND ZINC PRODUCTION IN THE TRI-STATE MINING DISTRICT BY STATE AND OVERALL State Lead Zinc Missouri (1850–1957) 885 3619 Kansas (1876–1970) 691 2900 Oklahoma (1891–1970) 1307 5220 Overall 2883 11,739 Note: Values in thousands of short tons; based on Park (2005).

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because of its myriad uses. In the twentieth century, Route 66 marked the beginning of popular cross-country travel with automobiles, and lead was at the forefront of this success. Lead was an additive to gasoline from the 1920s until the 1970s, small lead counterweights were added to vehicle wheels for tire balancing, and lead-acid batteries powered the vehicles. Although vehicles now run on lead-free gasoline and fewer wheels require counterweights, lead batteries still power most vehicles and account for 88% of the lead consumption in the United States (Guberman, 2009a). In the United States today, three times more lead is produced from secondary refining, mostly recycling lead batteries, than from primary refining of new lead (Guberman, 2009c). In the twenty-first century, lead continues to have many uses, ranging from ammunition to X-ray aprons and nuclear shields. Nonetheless, it is hazardous to human health when inhaled, ingested, or in contact with skin; lead concentrates in the body and can affect every organ and system, causing everything from increased blood pressure to impaired kidney and brain function. Many companies now report that their products are lead free (e.g., American Standard, 2009). Zinc, in contrast, is essential in the human body for disease resistance and wound healing. It has important pharmaceutical and cosmetic uses such as preventing sunburns and diaper rash. Zinc is used as a white pigment for paint, fire retardant, and preservative for wood. Yet more than half of all zinc produced is used for corrosion prevention, such as in galvanizing or protective coating for iron and steel. Zinc is an important alloy with copper to form brass; since 1982, a penny coin is copper-coated zinc, 97.5% zinc and 2.5% copper (Tolcin, 2009). GENERAL GEOLOGY OF THE TRI-STATE REGION Surficial geology of the Tri-state region consists primarily of Mississippian strata including limestone, cherty limestone, and chert in southwestern Missouri, northeastern Oklahoma, and the southeastern corner of Kansas. Prominent formations include the Warsaw, Burlington-Keokuk, and Reeds Spring–Elsey; Mississippian strata total about 300 m in aggregate thickness in southwestern Missouri (Fig. 6). These units are subject to considerable lateral facies changes, especially in regard to chert content. The region of Mississippian outcrop corresponds to the Ozark Plateau, specifically the Springfield Plateau sector (Thompson and Robertson, 1993; Aber and Aber, 2009). As the limestone has dissolved over millennia, chert and insoluble clay have accumulated at the surface to form leached, acidic, relatively infertile soils (Fig. 7). Caves, springs, and other karst features are ubiquitous. The Joplin-Galena vicinity is drained by the Spring River and its main tributary Shoal Creek, which carry clear water over chert gravel beds. Miami, Oklahoma, is situated at the confluence of Tar Creek and the Neosho River. Pleistocene terraces are found along most stream valleys flanking Holocene floodplains (Seevers, 1975).

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Aber et al. To the north and west, middle Pennsylvanian rocks of the Cherokee Group unconformably overlie Mississippian strata. The unconformity is marked by paleokarst features including filled sinkholes. The Cherokee Group is composed of interbedded sandstone, siltstone, and shale with thin limestone and coal beds approximately 140 m in total thickness in southeastern Kansas (Fig. 8). These strata underlie the Cherokee Lowlands physiographic region (Aber and Aber, 2009). The most prominent structural features of the Tri-state region are northwest-trending lineaments in southwestern Missouri, namely the Chesapeake, Sac River, and Bolivar-Mansfield fault systems (Fig. 9). They are high-angle normal fault zones that display extensive brecciation, dolomite alteration, calcite veins, and conspicuous drag folds. These faults continue for 100s

Figure 6. Composite stratigraphic section for Mississippian Subsystem strata in southwestern Missouri. Adapted from Thompson (1995, fig. 25).

Figure 7. Typical exposure of Mississippian limestone overlain by several meters of residual chert and clay in the Ozark Plateau upland. Section revealed by recent U.S. Highway 71 construction near Pineville, McDonald County, Missouri. Photograph by JSA, March 2007.

Figure 8. Composite stratigraphic section for middle Pennsylvanian Subsystem Cherokee Group in southeastern Kansas. Adapted from Seevers (1975, table 2).

Route 66 of km along strike, extending from the Reelfoot Rift in northeastern Arkansas to the Midcontinent Rift in north-central Kansas. Other lineaments, such as the Seneca Graben, trend NE-SW and are clearly visible in the landscape of northeastern Oklahoma and southwestern Missouri (see Fig. 1). These fracture systems probably came into existence in the late Proterozoic with the breakup of Rodinia and were reactivated subsequently during episodes of late Paleozoic continental collision and early Mesozoic breakup of Pangaea (Thomas, 2006). Early ideas about the genesis of lead and zinc ore of the Tristate region focused on artesian groundwater flow westward from the Ozark uplift. Groundwater circulating through deep Ordovician and Cambrian strata was thought to mobilize and transport lead and zinc upward into Mississippian strata; where the water encountered the impermeable cap of Pennsylvanian shale, ore deposits were precipitated (Siebenthal, 1915). Modern interpretation involves building of the Ouachita Mountains in Arkansas and Oklahoma in the late Paleozoic, when hot, chemically active fluids were squeezed northward into the sedimentary rock sequence (Oliver, 1986). These epigenetic ore deposits were concentrated in Mississippian limestone and chert, particularly along regional faults and the unconformity with overlying Pennsylvanian shale. Thus, the major ore deposits are progressively deeper from east to west following the regional westward dip of strata. Tri-state lead-zinc ores are typical of the Mississippi Valley Type (MVT), which are found throughout the world. Leach et al. (1995) considered the Tri-state region to be among the most important MVT districts in North America.

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GEOHYDROLOGY OF THE TRI-STATE REGION The Tri-state mining district enjoys ample precipitation, and several large rivers and perennial streams drain the region. In addition, subsurface solution of thick Mississippian limestone has created well-integrated underground drainage within cave systems. Surface and subsurface hydrology are connected via abundant sinkholes, disappearing streams, and springs. Shallow aquifers experience rapid recharge and discharge with the potential for contamination of groundwater from human activities at the surface. Groundwater is produced from alluvial aquifers of the river valleys as well as the Ozark Plateau aquifer system, comprising the Springfield Plateau and Ozark aquifers. This system consists mainly of limestone and dolostone of Mississippian, Ordovician, and Cambrian ages that outcrop in the Ozark Plateau. The bedrock dips westward beneath Pennsylvanian strata of the Cherokee Lowlands, where the aquifer becomes confined. In recent years, both quantity and quality of water from the Ozark Plateau aquifer have declined, however, because of increasing regional demand and surface pollution in the recharge area to the east. Because of these concerns, Kansas placed a moratorium on new appropriations from the aquifer in 2004, and an interagency investigation was undertaken on water quality and flow conditions. In general, groundwater changes from fresh to saline toward the west. In the recharge region of Missouri, water chemistry is typically calcium magnesium bicarbonate. Westward into Kansas, however, water chemistry changes to sodium calcium bicarbonate or sodium calcium chloride bicarbonate type (Pope et al., 2009). This transition takes place near the Missouri-Kansas border.

Figure 9. Major faults and lead-zinc mining districts of southwestern Missouri. Adapted from Thompson and Robertson (1993, fig. 10B).

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Aber et al.

LEGACY OF MINING Mining lead and zinc ore generated a huge volume of waste rock—chat, which was simply dumped on the surface in big piles. The word “chat” is a miner’s term derived from chert, in which the main ore zones were located. No environmental regulations existed at the time. Leach et al. (1995) noted that abandoned mines and tailings piles pose serious environmental problems for ~1800 km2 in the Tri-state mining district. At the close of mining in the 1970s, more than 500 million tons of chat were left; more than three-fourths of this waste now has been removed, but ~100 million tons of chat remain in the Tri-state area (EPA, 2007). The chat piles, water-filled mines, and former smelting sites are today sources for highly polluted water that contains heavy metals. In addition to lead and zinc, mining byproducts include cadmium, germanium, and gallium (Park, 2005). Streams, lakes, and shallow aquifers of the Tri-state mining region are contaminated (Chambers et al., 2005; Juracek, 2006; Nairn et al., 2009). Coal mining in the Cherokee Lowlands also has contributed to significant local and downstream water pollution in the region (Arruda, 1992). Such contamination led to establishment of Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) superfund sites in Missouri, Kansas, and Oklahoma beginning in the early 1980s. Lead poisoning, especially for children, was a special concern. A study in 1993 found that at least one-third of Picher children had blood levels of lead that posed a risk for brain and nerve damage (New York Times, 14 September 2009). To a large extent, the former mining areas around Joplin and Galena have been reclaimed. Chat piles were removed and the material used for concrete and construction aggregate, pits and sinkholes were filled in, and the land covered and revegetated. In the final phase of mining, after the larger companies had abandoned mines, so-called “wildcat gougers” removed the pillars that had supported mine caverns, which led to widespread surface collapse. Such collapses and sinkholes continue to take place nowadays throughout the Tri-state mining district. The risk of subsidence was, in fact, the primary justification in the federal legislation for the voluntary buyout and relocation of Picher residents, although environmental contamination and human health risk certainly were recognized by local residents and Indian tribes as well as state and federal officials. Reclamation efforts are under way also in the Treece, Kansas, vicinity, where about 70 families still live. The level of environmental degradation is comparable to Picher, but Treece had been passed over for the buyout option given to Picher until quite recently. EPA received Recovery Act funds in 2009 for Cherokee County, Kansas, to support cleanup activities at Baxter Springs, Treece, and other sites for ongoing excavation, consolidation, capping, and revegetation (EPA, 2009). This work was in progress already, and extra funding should accelerate completion of the cleanup project (Fig. 10).

In August 2009, EPA administrator Lisa Jackson sent three of her top aides to review the situation; they recommended comprehensive blood testing of all residents in Treece. Median bloodlead level was 4.0 micrograms per deciliter of blood, which compares with 2.5 for the state norm, and at least one child exceeded 10, the threshold for lead poisoning (Lefler, 2009). Following this sad finding, the U.S. Congress approved and President Obama signed the 2010 Interior-Environment Appropriations bill, which included authorization for EPA to buy out and relocate residents of Treece. In her statement, Jackson said, “EPA determined that the people of Treece, Kansas faced a unique and urgent threat from the legacy of pollution in their community. EPA has determined that relocation is the primary option to address the concerns of Treece residents—just as it was in neighboring Picher, Okla.” The Treece buyout cost is estimated at $3.0 to $3.5 million (Lefler, 2009). DESCRIPTIONS OF FIELD SITES Grand Falls, Joplin, Missouri Grand Falls on Shoal Creek is reputed to be the highest perennial waterfall in the state of Missouri with a vertical drop of 15 ft (5 m) at normal flow and 25 ft (8 m) descent at high flow (Beveridge and Vineyard, 1990). The upper portion has a low dam that impounds water upstream for the city of Joplin, but this dam has little impact on the falls (Fig. 11). Some potholes are present, particularly on the eastern side, which is inundated during high water. This site is popular on hot summer days for swimming and picnicking. Those who jump off the falls must be quite careful to dive into the deepest plunge pool below. The falls are formed on resistant, massive, sheet chert beds up to 25 ft (8 m) thick at this location (Fig. 12), which is the stratotype for the Grand Falls Chert (Robertson, 1967; Thompson and Robertson, 1993; Thompson, 1995). The Grand Falls Chert is limited to the Joplin vicinity and ranges from 24 to 40 ft

Figure 10. Reclamation of mined land in progress at Treece, Kansas. Photograph by JSA, July 2009.

Route 66

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Figure 11. Overview of Grand Falls on Shoal Creek, Joplin, Missouri. A lowwater dam runs across the top of the falls. Note person on far right. Photograph by JSA, July 2009.

(8–13 m) in thickness. It represents portions of the Reeds Spring and Elsey Formations as well as the Keokuk Limestone that have been replaced locally by chert. Lateral facies changes take place over short distances between these formations in the surroundings, and the Grand Falls Chert is discontinuous. At its type locality, it is highly fractured.

The site is best approached from the eastern side, where there is a natural parking area on top of the chert above the falls (Fig. 13). From exit 6 on I-44, take Glendale Road under the interstate highway and continue to a low-water bridge. Cross the bridge, turn north (right) on Riverside Drive, and continue to Grand Falls. Schermerhorn Park, Galena, Kansas

Figure 12. Massive chert beds exposed on the eastern side of Grand Falls, Joplin, Missouri. Water fills potholes near scene center. Parking area on top of the chert beds. Photograph by JSA, July 2009.

Located south of Galena along the northern margin of Shoal Creek, Schermerhorn Park is the best preserved Ozark terrain in the state of Kansas. Schermerhorn Park is located adjacent to Kansas highway 26, 2.2 miles south of its junction with state highway 66 (historic Route 66) at the center of Galena. The park contains picnic and swimming areas along with a small natural history museum; however, the cave is closed to the public. This region has one of the most beautiful landscapes in the state (Fig. 14), as well as some of the most serious pollution and geological hazards associated with old mines. This vicinity is underlain by thick, cherty limestone beds of Mississippian age, the Warsaw Limestone and Keokuk Limestone, totaling 250 ft (75 m) in thickness. Caves, springs, and other karst features are commonplace. The larger caves are found in the Keokuk Limestone at or near the level of valley bottoms (Young and Beard, 1993), as at Schermerhorn Park. Mining in the Galena area reached a peak in the 1890s, but shallow ores were soon exhausted, and mining migrated to deeper strata to the west from Baxter Springs to Treece and southward into Oklahoma. Although some of the ore was smelted near the mines, much was transported out of the region for smelting where fuel was abundant—coal at Pittsburg and natural gas at Iola. From a peak mining-boom population of more than 10,000 in 1900 (Clark, 1970), Galena has diminished to less than onethird that size today. The magnitude of mining in the Galena vicinity is illustrated on older topographic maps of the area (Fig. 15). Numerous tailings piles along with pitted, hummocky terrain and ponds resemble ice-stagnation topography, particularly immediately

Figure 13. Topographic map of the Grand Falls vicinity showing route (blue squares) from I-44 to the falls near the center of section 28. Adapted from Joplin West, Missouri-Kansas: U.S. Geological Survey, 1:24 000-scale, 7.5 minute series (topographic), 1962. Contour interval—10 ft (~3 m).

Figure 14. Aerial view of Ozark terrain at Schermerhorn Park, Cherokee County, Kansas. View eastward; oak-forested limestone upland to left; valley of Shoal Creek to right. Taken from Aber and Aber (2009, fig. 74).

Route 66 west and north of Galena. By the late twentieth century, the landscape had become a bleak display of chat piles, collapsed mines, and rusting machinery (Fig. 16). In the vicinity of Galena today, chat piles mostly have been removed for use as railroad ballast and construction aggregate all over the United States, and the terrain has been smoothed and revegetated. Nonetheless, several old mine shafts have collapsed in Galena recently, which dem-

11

onstrates the continuing legacy and risk of past mining for the city of Galena. Empire Lake, Riverton, Kansas Empire Lake is dammed at the confluence of the Spring River and Shoal Creek; it receives drainage from approximately 6500 km2 in southwestern Missouri and southeastern Kansas. It

Figure 15. Topographic map of the Galena, Kansas, vicinity showing the impact of lead-zinc mining on the landscape. Location of Schermerhorn Park indicated by asterisk (*); historic Route 66 marked (blue squares). Adapted from Baxter Springs, Kansas: U.S. Geological Survey, 1:24 000-scale, 7.5-minute series (topographic), 1959. Contour interval—10 ft (~3 m).

12

Aber et al.

was completed in 1905 and is owned by Empire District Electric Company; the lake provides cooling water for a coal-fired power plant at Riverton. The lake covers about 840 acres (~380 ha) and is relatively shallow owing to a century of sediment accumulation. Kansas state highway 66 (historic Route 66) crosses Empire Lake, 3 miles west of Galena (Fig. 17).

Water quality in Spring River and its tributaries is heavily impacted and degraded by runoff from abandoned mines, agricultural activities, and municipal wastewater discharge (Arruda, 1992; Davis and Schumacher, 1992; Dutnell et al., 1995). The lake appears to be a sink for phosphorus and some nitrogen (NH3-N) derived from upstream, but not for NO3-N (Chambers et al.,

A

B

C

Figure 16. Views of collapsed mines (A) and abandoned processing plants (B) on the northern edge of Galena, Kansas. Photographs courtesy of P. Johnston, 1977. (C) 1986 aerial photograph mosaic of Galena and the area immediately to the west showing extent of lead-zinc mining (light patches). Image processing by L. Lefebvre.

Route 66

13

Figure 17. Topographic map of the Galena–Baxter Springs vicinity showing Empire Lake at Riverton, Kansas. Historic Route 66 marked with blue squares. Adapted from Joplin, Missouri-Kansas: U.S. Geological Survey, 1:100 000-scale metric topographic map, 30 × 60 minute quadrangle, 1991. Contour interval—10 m.

2005). Bottom sediment of Empire Lake contains high levels of cadmium, lead, and zinc, which substantially exceed the guidelines for probable toxic biological effects (Juracek, 2006). Contaminated sediment from Empire Lake could be transported and redeposited downstream as far as Grand Lake O’ the Cherokees in Oklahoma. Big Brutus, West Mineral, Kansas The region between Pittsburg, Weir, and West Mineral in Cherokee and Crawford counties has been altered substantially by coal strip mining. Among several shallow coal beds in the Cherokee Group, the Weir-Pittsburg is thickest at 3–5 ft (1– 1.5 m) and was most important economically (Brady and Dutcher, 1974). All coal mining in this vicinity ceased in the late twentieth century. Big Brutus, a huge power shovel that operated in the Pittsburg and Midway mine #19 in the 1960s and 1970s near West Mineral, is an iconic symbol of the Kansas coal industry (Fig. 18). Big Brutus has been restored and is the main attraction at a mining heritage museum located one mile west and half a mile south of West Mineral (Fig. 19). To reach West Mineral, take state highway 102 west from its junction with state highway 7, and follow signs to Big Brutus. Prior to 1969, mined land was abandoned and left to overgrow with brush and trees. Those areas are marked by ridges of spoil and intervening troughs. As an experiment, trees were

planted on several thousand acres of mined land in northwestern Cherokee County in the late 1930s (Muilenburg, 1961), and these sites are now wildlife refuges known for excellent deer hunting and fishing. However, acid-water leaching from coal-mine debris, known as gob piles, has degraded surface and groundwater. In Cherry and Little Cherry creeks, immediately south of West Mineral, only the most acid-tolerant organisms have survived (Arruda, 1992). Since 1969, state law requires that mined land must be reclaimed for productive agricultural use. Picher, Oklahoma The Picher vicinity, including nearby Cardin, Oklahoma, and Treece, Kansas, experienced the most thorough mining of any region in the Tri-state district, primarily in the early and mid-twentieth century. Picher is located on U.S. Highway 69, which runs through the center of the town one mile south of the Oklahoma-Kansas border; Treece is along the border to the north, and Cardin is about one mile to the southwest (Fig. 20). Historic Route 66 passes nearby through Quapaw and Commerce, Oklahoma. Mines in this vicinity required modern methods and equipment in order to reach the deeper ore bodies below the water table. Ore was produced mainly from the Boone Formation consisting of cherty limestone and dolostone. Galena and sphalerite were the primary ore minerals along with chalcopyrite, enargite, luzonite, marcasite, pyrite, and barite (Nairn et al., 2009). The

Figure 18. Big Brutus restored at the mining heritage visitors center near West Mineral, Cherokee County, Kansas. One of the world’s two largest electric-power shovels, it stands 160 ft (50 m) tall with a working weight of 5500 tons (5000 metric tons). View looking to the northeast with West Mineral in the left background and reclaimed mined land on right side. Taken from Aber and Aber (2009, fig. 72).

Figure 19. Topographic map of the Weir– West Mineral vicinity, Cherokee County, Kansas. Location of Big Brutus indicated by asterisk (*). Reclaimed mined land shown in brown; unreclaimed mined land is dark green. Adapted from Joplin, Missouri-Kansas: U.S. Geological Survey, 1:100 000-scale metric topographic map, 30 × 60 minute quadrangle, 1991. Contour interval—10 m.

Route 66

15

Figure 20. Topographic map of the Picher-Miami, Oklahoma vicinity. Locations of Oklahoma field sites are indicated: 1—Picher chat piles, 2—passive water treatment system, 3—Tar Creek at Northeastern Oklahoma A&M College campus, 4—original Route 66 “ribbon road.” Historic Route 66 marked with blue squares. Adapted from Neosho, Missouri-Oklahoma-Kansas: U.S. Geological Survey, 1:100 000-scale metric topographic map, 30 × 60 minute quadrangle, 1986. Contour interval—20 m.

first large central mill for ore processing was constructed at Cardin in 1932. It had a capacity of 3600 tons per day, and 90% of the district’s ore was processed in such central mills by 1950 (Park, 2005). The magnitude of mining in this vicinity resulted in substantial disruption of both surface and subsurface environments (Fig. 21). Large chat piles accumulated within and around Picher and nearby mining communities (Fig. 22), and mine water was pumped at rates up to 50,000 m3 per day (Reed et al., 1955). Soon after active mining ceased, metal-laced mine water began discharging naturally in 1979 through open mine shafts, springs, and artesian wells of the vicinity. Initial minewater discharges were highly acidic; however, the water chemistry is now net alkaline with total alkalinity greater than total acidity. This discharge continues today, and dust from exposed

chat piles blows over the surrounding landscape. Among the most severely impacted streams is Tar Creek, which drains the Picher-Cardin-Treece vicinity (Fig. 23). According to the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, “Tar Creek is highly toxic and, for all intents and purposes, dead” (USACE, 2005); however, continued stream monitoring recently has revealed the presence of some fish and macroinvertebrates. Quapaw people live in the Picher vicinity and own much of the destroyed land. Past policies of the Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) exacerbated the pollution problems (USACE, 2005). The situation began in the 1870s when BIA forced the Quapaws to lease their land to mining interests. Those individuals who resisted were declared incompetent, and the BIA opened the land to mining companies. Lead and zinc mining commenced in 1891 and continued until 1970. BIA policy required mining companies

Figure 21. 1938 aerial photograph mosaic of the Picher, Oklahoma–Treece, Kansas, vicinity showing extent of leadzinc mining (light patches) just prior to World War II. Image processing by L. Lefebvre.

Figure 22. Overview of chat piles at Picher, Oklahoma, as they appeared at the end of the mining era in 1977. Taken from the top of a chat pile; photograph courtesy of P. Johnston.

Figure 23. Tar Creek carries highly polluted mine runoff from the Picher-Cardin-Treece vicinity, as shown by its typical rust-orange color at low flow. View downstream just east of Commerce, Oklahoma. Photograph by JSA, July 2009.

Route 66

17

Figure 24. Panoramic aerial view over Picher, Oklahoma. Assembled from two wide-angle shots taken from a small helium blimp. Photograph by JSA and SWA, July 2009.

to leave chat piles on the land, because the chat might be of economic value, but later the Quapaw tribe was prevented from selling or removing the chat because of its hazardous nature. Thus, enormous chat piles accumulated during decades of mining, and many remain to this day (Fig. 24). EPA has designated several primarily responsible parties for the environmental debacle at Picher. Most of these are now bankrupt mining companies along with the Bureau of Indian Affairs, which illegitimately leased much of the mined land. However, the BIA refuses to take responsibility for its past actions, which creates a bureaucratic impasse between federal agencies for obtaining cleanup funding (USACE, 2005). To add further misery to this situation, an EF-4 tornado struck Picher on 10 May 2008. Six people died, and 20 city blocks were destroyed by the mile-wide twister (Fig. 25). The tornado even removed portions of some chat piles, spreading contaminated dust and debris over the area. As a result, EPA accelerated

Figure 25. Aerial view of tornado damage in Picher, Oklahoma. Note lack of trees and buildings; part of chat pile in right background was removed by the tornado. Helium-blimp photograph by SWA and JSA, July 2009.

plans to close Picher, and many people had no choice but to move out. Nearly all buildings are condemned or already removed, and few businesses or governmental services remain. From a population of some 20,000 people during its mining peak, Picher now has become a virtual ghost town. It ceased to exist officially on 1 September 2009 (New York Times, 14 September 2009), but the legacy of ruined land and human health will endure for many decades to come. Passive Treatment Facility, Commerce, Oklahoma Perennial mine-water discharge through two boreholes was first identified between Commerce and North Miami, Oklahoma, in 1983 (see Fig. 20). The site is behind a carpet warehouse, on the south side of U.S. Highway 69 on the southern edge of Commerce, approximately 0.3 mile northeast of North Miami (Fig. 26). Known as site 14, this location was selected for passive treatment of the toxic water (Nairn et al., 2009). Periodic data collection began in 1998 with monthly sampling since 2004. The targeted discharge has pH just 0.78 Ma. A normal depositional or detrital remanence would give a presumed age of 0.78 Ma in age. By inference, the Matuyama/Brunhes transition must have occurred between deposition of the Gray Silt and the Red Clay, possibly within the stratigraphic interval occupied by the Gravel Beds.

35

Cosmogenic Isotope Measurements: Burial Ages Burial ages for the Riverbluff Cave sediments (Table 2) range from 1.08 Ma at the base (Layer 10) to 0.65 Ma at the bottom of the Red Clay (Layer 5). The upper portion of the Red Clay could not be dated because it does not contain enough sand-sized quartz grains. Notably, each age determination is in the correct stratigraphic sequence (i.e., the ages decrease upward) and the ages are consistent with the placement of the Matuyama/Brunhes paleomagnetic datum between the Gray Silt and the Red Clay. The sample from the intervening Gravel Beds was a composite spanning the boundary between Layers 6 and 7, and the resulting age (0.735 ± 0.073 Ma) is within error limits of the Matuyama/ Brunhes reversal at 0.78 Ma. These burial ages establish that by ~1.1 Ma coarse sediments were entering the cave from the general Ward Branch direction, and at ~0.74 Ma fossiliferous gravel was entering from the Ward Branch paleoentrance. Cosmogenic Isotope Measurements: Erosion and Incision Rates Cosmogenic isotopes can also be used to quantify rates of various geomorphic processes. The absolute concentrations of 10 Be and 26Al depend on both burial ages and the quartz grains’ effective exposure time. Thus, the isotope measurements also provide a measure of the landscape’s average surficial erosion rate that prevailed as the grains were exhumed. Isotope measurements of the cave sediments indicate that the landscape within the James River watershed generally experienced erosion rates of ~1 m/Ma (Table 2). The Gray Silt, with an erosion rate of 2.2 m/Ma, seems anomalous by comparison, possibly indicating an episode of increased landscape instability. Notably, the age of the Gray Silt (~0.90 Ma) coincides with the onset of the Mid-Pleistocene climate transition (Raymo et al., 1997; Lisiecke and Raymo, 2005) and the change from 41-ka to 100-ka climate cycles. Although the general landscape was fairly stable over this time interval, the James River and its tributaries were actively

TABLE 2. BURIAL AGES, SURFICIAL EROSION RATES, AND MAGNETIC POLARITY FOR RIVERBLUFF CAVE SEDIMENT Layer Burial age Surface erosion rate before burial Magnetic polarity (Ma) (m/Ma) 5 0.648 ± 0.079 0.963 ± 0.11 No r m a l 6/7 0.735 ± 0.073 1.306 ± 0.15 Matuyama/Brunhes datum (0.78 Ma) 8 0.899 ± 0.072 2.16 ± 0.26 Reverse 9 0.963 ± 0.068 1.187 ± 0.13 10 1.078 ± 0.073 0.883 ± 0.10 Note: Error limits are at the 1-σ level and include both analytical uncertainty and external uncertainty, which includes uncertainty in nuclide production rates and decay constants. Rovey et al. (2010) provide a detailed analysis of the burial dating process for these sediments. The sample from Layer 6/7 is a composite, taken from near the boundary between layers. The paleomagnetism of Layers 6 and 7 could not be measured due to coarse grain size. The Matuyama/Brunhes datum is inferred within these layers based on the paleomagnetic sequence within the adjacent layers.

Rovey et al.

ROAD LOG

Sys.

Ser.

PENN. Meramec. Desm.

Sub.

Channel sandstone Warsaw Formation

MISSISSIPPIAN Osagean

Short Creek Oölite Mbr.

Burlington-Keokuk limestones (undivided)

Elsey Formation Pierson Limestone Kind.

incising. At ~0.74 Ma the Ward Branch paleoentrance was an active swallow hole directing sediment into the cave. Shortly thereafter, however, this entrance was abandoned as Ward Branch eroded below that level. This entrance is ~13 m above the adjacent floodplain of Ward Branch, giving a long-term incision rate of ~0.018 mm/yr (18 m/Ma), which is ~8–20 times greater than the average erosion rates throughout the same watershed. Much of the relief along the margins of the Springfield Plateau and the James River apparently has developed since the Early Pleistocene. The James River paleoentrance is ~9 m above the active floodplain. The history here is more speculative, but the finingupward sequence of red clay above the Gravel Beds (~0.74 Ma) seems to represent downcutting of the James River below that level, with progressively finer suspended sediment being backflushed into the cave until floods could no longer reach that entrance. Thus, the long-term incision rate of the James River is ~0.12 mm/yr (12 m/Ma). Extrapolating this rate backward, a locally preserved strath terrace ~15 m above the active floodplain would have been occupied last at ~1.2 Ma. Evidence for an even older river level is preserved nearly directly above the cave’s main passage. Here, rounded river gravels are preserved at an elevation ~30 m above the current floodplain. Again extrapolating the 12m/Ma rate backward, this level would have been last occupied at ~2.5 Ma. Interestingly, these dates of 2.5, 1.2, and 0.74 Ma are very close to major expansions of the early Laurentide Ice Sheet into northern Missouri (Balco and Rovey, 2008). The correlation between terrace levels (or their incision) and glaciation requires much extrapolation and is obviously speculative. Nevertheless, testing of this possible correlation could stimulate additional research into the geomorphic development of the southern Springfield Plateau and the James River Basin.

Northview Formation Compton Limestone Bachelor Formation “Swan Creek Sandstone” Mbr.

O R D OV I C I A N Ibexian

36

Cotter Dolomite

Leave Convention Center. Turn right onto Sycamore Street, and then turn right again onto Main Street. Follow Main Street for one block to Branson Landing Boulevard. Mileage begins at this intersection. Mileage (cumulative and interval) 0.0

0.0

0.4

0.4

1.0

0.6

1.2

0.6

2.1

0.5

Intersection of Main St. and Branson Landing Blvd. Turn left onto Branson Landing Blvd. Go through roundabout, and stay on Branson Landing Blvd. Intersection with Hwy. 65. Turn right (north) onto Hwy. 65. Road cuts to the left are in the Cotter Dolomite (see Fig. 7). More Cotter Dolomite. All of the road cuts for the next 11 miles are in the Cotter. The Cotter is a peritidal deposit. Fresh cuts show color banding corresponding to cyclic alternation between subtidal, intertidal, and supratidal subfacies.

Rockaway Conglomerate Mbr.

Jefferson City Dolomite base not reached sandstone

cherty limestone

siltstone and shale

dolomite

limestone

cherty dolomite

oölitic limestone

breccia

Figure 7. Stratigraphic column, southwest Missouri (after Thomson, 1986).

Riverbluff Cave, Springfield, Missouri 4.5

2.4

4.6

0.1

7.0

2.4

7.5

0.5

9.2

1.7

10.2

1.0

10.3

0.1

11.7

1.4

12.4 13.1

0.7 0.7

14.8

15.8 16.1

1.7

1.0 0.3

Intersection with Ozark Mountain Highroad. Continue north on Hwy. 65. The hilltops provide good views of the Salem Plateau Physiographic Subprovince— relatively flat ridges are dissected by deep valleys. The round hilltops are capped by Lower Mississippian strata, or residuum of these strata above Cotter Dolomite. These hills are called “knobs” by locals; knobs without trees are “baldknobs.” A local vigilante group began meeting atop these hills in the late 1800s and, hence, became known as “Baldknobbers.” One of Branson’s popular music groups takes their name from these earlier residents. Spectacular view of knobs to the left. Note the resemblance to glacial kames. Another good view of knobs, this time off to the right. For the next half mile road cuts expose clayfilled “cutters” within the Cotter. Shallow cutters are common within the upper Cotter, but sinkholes and caves are not. Dolomitization and ubiquitous shale laminae account for its resistance to karstification. The red cherty residuum on both sides of the highway is typical of that developed from the Mississippian formations, although no Mississippian bedrock remains here. Intersection with Hwy. 176E. Continue north on Hwy. 65. From this ridge the Burlington Escarpment (edge of the Springfield Plateau) is faintly visible ahead. Look for a cluster of radio towers. Small thrust fault in Cotter on the right side. Entrance to Saddlebrook Village. The road cut directly ahead exposes Mississippian strata (Bachelor through Elsey Formations) in the upper portion. North of this point ridges are capped by Mississippian outliers. Vegetation band (cedars) along the slopes marks the approximate position of the Swan Creek member (sandstone) within the Cotter. Elsewhere, vegetation differences commonly mark the Ordovician-Mississippian unconformity with cedars within the Cotter and hardwoods rooted above within the more clay-rich Mississippian residuum. Entrance to Busiek State Forest. Exposure of Compton through Reeds Spring Formations on the right. The Northview is the thin green shale layer. We are near the southern limit of the Northview Formation,

16.7

0.6

18.3

1.6

18.9

0.6

21.3

2.4

25.2

3.9

25.9

0.7

26.5

0.6

26.7

0.2

31.0 31.8

4.3 0.8

33.2

1.4

33.4

0.2

36.6

3.2

37 which pinches out just south of Branson. Here the Northview is about two feet thick, but north of Springfield it reaches nearly 90 feet in thickness. Exposures of the Elsey Formation. We are also near the northern limit of the Reeds Spring Formation, which thins and grades into Elsey lithology. The road cut on the left is cut by the Highlandville Fault. The Northview is a good marker bed; it shows ~20 feet of uplift on the south side. From here we have a long grade up to the Springfield Plateau. For the next few miles the road follows a narrow southward trending ridge of the Burlington-Keokuk Formation. This ridge is bordered on either side by streams entrenched into the Cotter Dolomite and eroding headward into the Springfield Plateau. We’re now on top of the Springfield Plateau, which is capped by the Burlington-Keokuk Formation. Note the much flatter topography. The Burlington-Keokuk is very hard and resistant to physical weathering, but it is highly susceptible to chemical weathering and karstification. The stream density is low due to internal drainage; much of the local relief is due to sinkhole formation. Road cuts of Burlington-Keokuk Formation on the left. We’re now passing through the city of Ozark. Descending into the valley of the Finley River. More exposures of the BurlingtonKeokuk Formation. Exposures of cherty Elsey Formation along the Finley River. Intersection with Hwy. 14. Exit from Hwy. 65 and turn left (west) onto Hwy. 14 and proceed toward Nixa. Entering Nixa. Intersection with Hwy. 13/160. Continue west on Hwy. 14. Intersection with Nichols/Cox Road. Turn right (north) onto Nichols/Cox Road. We are now crossing part of the Nixa Sinkhole Plain, one of the most intensely karstified areas of the Ozarks. Most of the stock ponds are plugged sinkholes. Most of the sinkholes are of the gradual subsiding type, but occasionally a rapid cover-collapse sink will also open. In 2006, a rapid sinkhole collapse ~3 miles to the east swallowed a garage and part of the attached house. Descending into the James River Valley.

38

Rovey et al.

36.8

0.2

37.4

0.6

37.7

0.3

Crossing a high bedrock terrace of the ancestral James River. Cross the James River. Intersection with Rivercut Road. On the left (west) note the elevation of the active floodplain. To the right (east) is a low alluvial terrace. A small remnant of a higher alluvial terrace is preserved just above and to the left of the Rivercut Golf Course sign. The James River paleoentrance to Riverbluff Cave is at the top of this upper terrace. Turn left (west) onto Rivercut Road. Turn right into the driveway of the Missouri Institute of Science, and Riverbluff Cave.

REFERENCES CITED Balco, G., and Rovey, C.W., II, 2008, An isochron method for cosmogenicnuclide dating of buried soils and sediments: American Journal of Science, v. 308, no. 10, p. 1083–1114, doi: 10.2475/10.2008.02. Bosch, R.F., and White, W.B., 2004, Lithofacies and transport of clastic sediments in karstic aquifers, in Sasowsky, I.D., and Mylroie, J., eds., Studies of Cave Sediments: Physical and chemical records of paleoclimate: New York, Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers, p. 1–22. Cande, S.C., and Kent, D.V., 1995, Revised calibration of the geomagnetic polarity timescale for the Late Cretaceous and Cenozoic: Journal of Geophysical Research, v. 100, no. B4, p. 6093–6095. Graham, R.W., 1998, The Pleistocene terrestrial mammal fauna of North America, in Janis, C.M., Scott, K.M., and Jacobs, L.K., eds., Evolution of Tertiary Mammals of North America, Volume 1: Terrestrial Carnivores, Ungulates, and Ungulatelike Mammals: Cambridge University Press, p. 66–71. Granger, D.E., 2006, A review of burial dating methods using 26Al and 10Be, in Siame, L.L., Bourlès, D.L, and Brown, E.T., eds., In situ-produced cosmogenic nuclides and quantification of geological processes: Geological Society of America Special Paper 415, p. 1–16. Granger, D.E., Kirchner, J.W., and Finkel, R.C., 1997, Quaternary downcutting rate of the New River, Virginia, measured from differential decay

of cosmogenic 26Al and 10Be in cave-deposited alluvium: Geology, v. 25, p. 107–110, doi: 10.1130/0091-7613(1997)025 2.3.CO;2. Granger, D.E., Fabel, D., and Palmer, A.N., 2001, Pliocene-Pleistocene incision of the Green River, Kentucky, determined from radioactive decay of cosmogenic 26Al and 10Be in Mammoth Cave sediments: Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 113, p. 825–836, doi: 10.1130/0016-7606(2001)1132.0.CO;2. Kurtén, B., and Anderson, E., 1980, Pleistocene mammals of North America: New York, Columbia University Press, 442 p. Lisiecke, L.E., and Raymo, M.E., 2005, A Pliocene-Pleistocene stack of 57 globally distributed benthic δ18O records: Paleoceanography, v. 20, PA 1003, doi: 10.1029/2004PA001071. Lister, A., and Bahn, P., 2007, Mammoths: Giants of the Ice Age: Berkeley, University of California Press, 192 p. Raymo, M.E., Oppo, D.W., and Curry, W., 1997, The mid-Pleistocene climate transition: A deep sea carbon isotopic perspective: Paleoceanography, v. 12, no. 4, p. 546–559, doi: 10.1029/97PA01019. Rovey, C.W., II, Balco, G., Forir, M., Gaunt, D., and Kean, W.F., 2010, Stratigraphy, paleomagnetism and cosmogenic-isotope burial dates of fossilbearing strata within Riverbluff Cave, Greene County, Missouri: Journal of Caves and Karst Studies (in press). Stock, G.M., Anderson, R.S., and Finkel, R.C., 2004, Pace of landscape evolution in the Sierra Nevada, California, revealed by cosmogenic dating of cave sediments: Geology, v. 32, p. 193–196, doi: 10.1130/G20197.1. Stock, G.M., Granger, D.E., Sasowsky, I.D., Anderson, R.S., and Finkel, R.C., 2005, Comparison of U-Th, paleomagnetism, and cosmogenic burial methods for dating caves: Implications for landscape evolution studies: Earth and Planetary Science Letters, v. 236, p. 388–403, doi: 10.1016/ j.epsl.2005.04.024. Stock, G.M., Riihimaki, C.A., and Anderson, R.S., 2006, Age constraints on cave development and landscape evolution in the Bighorn Basin of Wyoming, USA: Journal of Caves and Karst Studies, v. 68, no. 2, p. 76–84. Thomson, K.C., 1986, Geologic Map of Greene County: Watershed Management Coordinating Committee, Springfield, Missouri, 1 sheet [now distributed by the Watershed Committee of the Ozarks]. White, W.B., 2007, Cave sediments and paleoclimate: Journal of Caves and Karst Studies, v. 69, no. 1, p. 76–93.

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Printed in the USA


Civil War and cultural geology of southwestern Missouri, part 1: The geology of Wilson’s Creek Battlefield and the history of stone quarrying and stone use Joseph T. Hannibal* Cleveland Museum of Natural History, 1 Wade Oval Drive, Cleveland, Ohio 44106, USA Kevin R. Evans* Department of Geography, Geology, and Planning, Missouri State University, 901 S. National Avenue, Springfield, Missouri 65897, USA

ABSTRACT This field trip provides an overview of geological features in southwestern Missouri that are related to the American Civil War and to human culture. This includes the geology and history of the Wilson’s Creek National Battlefield (where the second important battle of the American Civil War was fought on 10 August 1861), Zágonyi’s Charge (25 October 1861), the Battle of Springfield (8 January 1863), and the gravestones and monuments of the National Cemetery in Springfield in which many of those who fought at Wilson’s Creek and other Civil War conflicts are buried. Other stops include the Springfield Underground and the quarries and facilities at what was once the town of Phenix (which, along with Carthage, Missouri, was the home of some of the largest dimension-stone quarries west of the Mississippi River); and a reconstructed mill site in Point Lookout, just south of Branson. Most of the field trip involves outcrops, quarries, and bedrock composed of the Mississippian BurlingtonKeokuk limestones (undivided), providing numerous chances to examine outcrops and products made of limestone and chert.

INTRODUCTION

tle of the war. Both Union and Confederate troops desired control of the region in part due to nearby natural resources. And the karst deposits of the region provided springs whose waters were desired by armies on both sides of the war. The 10 August 1861 Battle of Wilson’s Creek occurred where it did in part because of the availability of spring and stream water. And one of the central points of the conflict was a bald-topped limestone prominence

This field trip focuses on the geological aspects of historical events, particularly during the Civil War, in southwestern Missouri and explores the use of local stone over the past 200 years in that part of the state. A number of battles occurred in this region, including the Battle of Wilson’s Creek, the second important bat-

*[email protected]; [email protected]. Hannibal, J.T., and Evans, K.R., 2010, Civil War and cultural geology of southwestern Missouri, part 1: The geology of Wilson’s Creek Battlefield and the history of stone quarrying and stone use, in Evans, K.R., and Aber, J.S., eds., From Precambrian Rift Volcanoes to the Mississippian Shelf Margin: Geological Field Excursions in the Ozark Mountains: Geological Society of America Field Guide 17, p. 39–68, doi: 10.1130/2010.0017(04). For permission to copy, contact editing@ geosociety.org. ©2010 The Geological Society of America. All rights reserved.

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Hannibal and Evans Springfield plateaus. The geology of the upper White River valley is featured in a companion article (Evans, this volume). A large portion of southwestern Missouri is underlain by lower and middle Mississippian carbonates (Fig. 1), including, in reverse stratigraphic order, the Meramecian Warsaw Formation and the Osagean Burlington-Keokuk limestones and Elsey Sys.

Ser.

PENN. Meramec. Desm.

Sub.

Channel sandstone Warsaw Formation Carthage Stone



Phenix Stone Burlington-Keokuk limestones (undivided) Springfield Underground Elsey Formation Pierson Limestone

Kind.

known afterwards as “Bloody Hill.” A famous sinkhole on the battleground was the original burial site for many of the men killed during this battle. The history of stone use in southwestern Missouri extends back to that of the Native Americans and has continued until the present day. Local limestone was utilized for buildings and lime, beginning in the nineteenth century. In the mid-twentieth century, this region once boasted that it had the largest dimension-stone quarries west of the Mississippi River. These are the quarries of the Carthage area in east-central Jasper County and the Phenix quarry in northwest Greene County. These areas historically have stood out as producers of building stone and “marble” (polished limestone) slabs. Mississippian limestones were utilized in both: Phenix quarried the Osagean Burlington-Keokuk limestones (undivided), and Carthage Marble quarried the younger Meramecian Warsaw Formation. Burlington-Keokuk limestones were also quarried outside of the small town of Wilson Creek, located within the boundaries of the Battlefield. This field trip provides an overview of geological features in southwestern Missouri that are related to the American Civil War and to human culture. In the following sections, we discuss: the physiographic and geologic setting of southwestern Missouri; the cultural geology of the area, including quarrying of Carthage and Phenix “marble”; and the Civil War in southwestern Missouri, especially aspects of the war tied into geology and geological resources. We then describe six stops: Springfield Underground; the Phenix “marble” quarries; Wilson’s Creek Battlefield; Zagonyi Park, Springfield (site of Zágonyi’s Charge on 25 October 1861), and the site of Civil War Fort No. 4 in Springfield; Springfield National Cemetery; and Edwards Mill, a reconstructed mill in Edwards Point, just south of Branson, Missouri. Please note some variation in spelling in this guidebook chapter: Wilsons Creek is the Creek (we use U.S. Geological Survey usage here), versus the Battle of Wilson’s Creek (the most accepted usage for the battle); also Zágonyi is the correct spelling of the Hungarian general but the name of the park named for the general lacks the accent mark.

Northview Formation Compton Limestone Bachelor Formation “Swan Creek Sandstone” Mbr.


40

Cotter Dolomite

PHYSIOGRAPHIC AND GEOLOGIC SETTING Rockaway Conglomerate Mbr.

In the classic work on the physiographic provinces of eastern North America (Fenneman, 1938), the Ozark Plateaus Province was divided into four sub-provinces: the St. Francois Mountains, Salem Plateau, Springfield Plateau, and Boston Mountains. The geology of each sub-province controls the physiographic expression of the landscape. The St. Francois Mountains are cored by Precambrian igneous rocks. The Salem Plateau is underlain by Middle Cambrian through Lower Ordovician dolomite and sandstone (Sauk Sequence). Mississippian carbonates dominantly comprise the Springfield Plateau, and Pennsylvanian sandstones and shale crop out extensively in the Boston Mountains. The upper White River drainage basin is etched deeply into the southern part of the Ozark Plateaus, and probably should comprise a fifth subprovince that is characterized by deep incision of the Salem and

Jefferson City Dolomite base not reached sandstone

cherty limestone

siltstone and shale

dolomite

limestone

cherty dolomite

oölitic limestone

breccia

Figure 1. Geologic column showing rock units exposed in southwestern Missouri (after Thomson, 1986). Black bars indicate units exposed at Carthage and Phenix Stone quarries and at the Springfield Underground.

Civil War and cultural geology of southwestern Missouri, part 1 Formation. These Mississippian rocks are underlain by lower Ordovician carbonates. Clay and chert-rich residuum of the Springfield Plateau in the vicinity of Springfield is underlain by the Burlington-Keokuk limestones (undivided). A thin limestone unit assigned to the Warsaw Formation (Meramecian Series) crops out locally on the western part of the Springfield Plateau. The Short Creek Oölite, the uppermost member of the Keokuk, is the marker unit that makes it possible to distinguish these units in the field and in core. Lower Mississippian strata mostly crop out around the periphery of the plateau or in valley exposures where streams are deeply incised. Lower Mississippian strata (Kinderhookian Series) include the Bachelor Formation, Compton Limestone, and Northview Formation. Around the Springfield Plateau, Kinderhookian strata unconformably overlie lower Ordovician strata assigned to the Ibexian Series. Stratigraphic units above the Kinderhookian and below the Burlington-Keokuk limestones, in stratigraphic order, include the Pierson Limestone and Reeds Spring and Elsey formations of Osagean age. The latter units are limestones with up to 50% chert. The combined Burlington-Keokuk limestones are ~160 ft (~50 m) thick. Both the Burlington and Keokuk limestones are crinoid-rich, ranging from wackestone to grainstone textures; both were deposited in a relatively high-energy carbonate banktop setting. Because of the high-magnesium calcite content of crinoids, the Burlington-Keokuk is particularly prone to dissolution and karstification. The sizes of grains present in these limestones may also help in developing adequate pathways for water to infiltrate the stone and in creating the needed porosity and permeability to remove saturated waters (George H. Davis, 2010, personal commun.). Whatever the exact mechanism, numerous caves, sinkholes, and springs are found in the karst terrain underlain by the Burlington-Keokuk limestones. Despite being situated in the Ozark Mountains, Springfield is located on a relatively flat and nearly featureless plain. This relatively flat area around Springfield, however, is pock-marked with sinkholes. A few of the small streams that drain the Springfield area have formed solution valleys of relatively low relief. Springfield-Greene County Parks oversees three parks that feature caves and springs, including Doling and Sequiota parks (Fig. 2) and Valley Water Mill. There are a plethora of springs in this region. There were more than 300 springs recorded in Greene County, Missouri, in 2001 (Bullard et al. 2001).

41

Missouri was that of the Native Americans, who used the chert found in this sequence for various types of tools, and sandstones of the region for implements used in milling grain (Chapman, 1975, p. 7; National Park Service, 2004, v. 1). This light-colored chert, derived from the Burlington-Keokuk, is typically referred to as Burlington chert in the reports of archaeologists (National Park Service, 2004, v. 1, p. 3-111–3-112). Limestones of the area were used in local construction by European-Americans as they settled in this area, especially as foundation stone. Larger-scale quarrying in southwestern Missouri began with the need for good dimension stone as cities such as Carthage and Springfield grew. Sandstones were used by Native Americans for grinding tools and by European-Americans for foundations. Limestone in Missouri also was used for lime in agriculture and for mortar in the early nineteenth century. The easiest way to produce lime at this time was to calcine (heat to high temperature to drive off carbon dioxide) limestone in a rudimentary kiln. The calcining would result in the breaking up of the stone so that it could be used as agricultural lime, and as a key ingredient of mortar. Larger, more elaborate kilns were eventually constructed in areas with suitable limestone bedrock. Carthage and Phenix Quarries Two quarry regions of southwestern Missouri have historically stood out as producers of lime, building stone, and, especially, polished limestone (“white marble”) slabs. These are the Carthage area quarries (Figs. 3 and 4) in east-central Jasper County and the Phenix area quarries in northwest Greene County. These quarry areas have been discussed in Buckley and Buehler’s classic 1904 work on Missouri quarries and Hinchey’s later report on Missouri “marble” (Hinchey, 1946). The Carthage area became the center of Missouri’s limestone industry just after 1900 (Buckley and Buehler, 1904, p. 121), stimulated, at least in part, by the need for building materials in response to the

CULTURAL GEOLOGY The geology and hydrology of the region have been important for the cultural development of the Ozarks. The carbonates that underlie this region have yielded lime, building stone, aggregate, water, and, after underground quarrying, extensive, secure underground storage space. These carbonates contain varying amounts of chert, which were utilized by Native Americans for tools, and which affect the usability of these carbonates for building stone and aggregate. The chert also is a noticeable component of the “flinty” soils of the area. The earliest use of stone in southwestern

Figure 2. Sequiota Spring, emanating from a cave, in southern Springfield (2009 photo).

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regional growth due to the lead and zinc mining in the area (Carthage Marble Corporation, ca. 1956, p. 19). The Carthage Marble Company was created in 1927 by the consolidation of six small companies, included the Carthage Marble and White Lime Co. (Fig. 3), and the F.W. Steadley Co. By the 1950s, the Carthage Marble Company had what were claimed to be the largest gray marble quarries in the world and the largest quarrying and finishing complex for marble west of the Mississippi River (Carthage Marble Corporation, ca. 1956, p. 19–20). The stones from the Carthage and Phenix areas have been used for signature buildings of southwestern Missouri (e.g., Fig. 5). There were certain advantages to quarrying in southwestern Missouri. Chief was the availability of suitable stone. The relatively warm climate of southwestern Missouri (with relatively few days of below-freezing temperatures) allowed quarrying operations to continue for most of the year, giving the region an advantage over quarries in colder climes. Both the Carthage and Phenix quarries utilized Mississippian limestones. Phenix quarried the Osagean BurlingtonKeokuk limestones (undivided) and the Carthage companies quarried the younger Meramecian Warsaw Formation (Fig. 1).

Figure 3. Carthage Marble and White Lime Co., 1890s illustration from the Carthage Press (1889), courtesy of the Powers Museum, Carthage, Missouri.

Figure 4. The quarries at Carthage in the 1950s. (Carthage Marble Corporation, ca. 1956, cover illustration.)

Both stones were used for decorative stone and lime. Stone from the two quarry areas are quite similar in appearance; both come in shades of gray and contain generally similar fossils (pelmatozoan columnals, brachiopods, etc.) and both may or may not be stylolitic. When Carthage and Phenix stone was originally cut into slabs by means of gang saws in the early 1900s, the cuts were made parallel to bedding. Later, both stones were also cut perpendicular to bedding. For interior use, Phenix stone was typically set perpendicular to bedding (Carthage Marble, 1961, no. 5); an example of this is seen in the second and third floor interior walls of the rotunda of the Missouri State Capitol building in Jefferson City. The stylolitic surfaces in both formations are typically parallel to bedding in outcrop, but the thickness and amount of organic and insoluble residue in the sutures is quite variable (see, for instance Buckley and Buehler, 1904, p. 163). Quarry workers typically called stylolites crow-feet or suture lines. They have also been called veins in the stone industry. Whatever they are called, these stylolitic surfaces add to the character of both stones. Both were cut in thin slabs both parallel and perpendicular to bedding giving stylolites different expressions: perpendicular cuts, resulting in what were known as “veined” stone, show the stylolites in cross section as jagged lines; parallel cuts, resulting in what is known in the stone trade as fleuri, show the stylolites as a dark, diffuse, undulatory pattern. Carthage Marble (and before that its predecessor, F.W. Steadley) produced these cuts under the names Ozark Gray Veined and Ozark Fleuri. If the stylolites are tightly knit (that is, without any open spaces), slabs will retain their integrity when used as decorative stone. Stylolitic stone, however, is problematical when the stone is used outdoors, especially when stylolitic surfaces are exposed in a vertical position (Fig. 6) In his classic monograph, Geology of Missouri, E.B. Branson warned against such vertical use, and also recommended that stone with stylolites that were greater than ¼ inch from tip-to-tip not be used for walls (1944, p. 389).

Figure 5. Entranceway of the Jasper County Courthouse, Carthage, Missouri. This 1895 building features elegant Romanesque stone arches. The stone was quarried by the Carthage Stone Company.

Civil War and cultural geology of southwestern Missouri, part 1 Distinguishing the Stones from Phenix and Carthage Buckley and Buehler (1904, p. 122) characterized the stone in the Carthage quarry that they examined as having “a slightly bluish gray tint, the upper beds being whiter than those deep in the quarry” and the dressed stone as being white, and Hinchey (1946, p. 29) noted it as gray and bluish gray. The stone from Phenix was noted as being somewhat darker than Carthage (Buckley and Buehler, 1904, p. 164). The Phenix stone is also somewhat browner than Carthage stone. When commercial polished slabs of the two stones are compared, Phenix stone (Napoleon Gray) tends to be close to a pale yellowish brown (Munsell 10YR 6/2) whereas Carthage stone (Ozark Gray) varies from a medium light gray (N7) to a light olive gray (5Y 6/1). The color plates published in Marble of the Month also show the Phenix stone (Napoleon Gray; Carthage Marble, 1961, no. 5), as being brown compared to that of Carthage (Ozark veined and Ozark fleuri, also known as Ozark Gray veined and Ozark Gray veinless; Carthage Marble, 1962, nos. 2 and 9). Roughly cut (thus lighter colored) pieces of both stones also differ in color in a similar way, but the color differences are more difficult to distinguish. Phenix marble had the reputation of having more prominent stylolites. Still, these differences can be subtle, so it is difficult to distinguish the two stones when used on the outside or even in the inside of a building. Both Ozark Gray and Napoleon Gray have been classified as class-A marbles using the Marble Institute of America clas-

Figure 6. Limestone block in the entranceway of the Jasper County Courthouse, Carthage, Missouri. Stylolitic surfaces have preferentially weathered. Scale is in cm.

43

sification. This classification is based on the practical workability of the stone. Class A marbles are uniform with few flaws or void spaces. They may, however, have veining, but typically this is muted as with Botticino “marble” from Italy. The veining of the Missouri stones is more prominent than Botticino, however. History of Carthage and Phenix Stone Use The history of the use of Carthage marble, also known as Carthage limestone or Carthage stone, has been chronicled in a number of publications (e.g., Anonymous, ca. 1956, p. 28–29). Carthage stone was originally used for exterior construction, with the first use just after the Civil War for paving material and trim. Stone in the Carthage area was subsequently calcined in lime kilns in the 1880s in response to the need for lime after a large fire in Carthage. The first building stone quarry was opened in the 1880s. According to Wharton et al. (1969, p. 115) polished slabs were being fabricated by 1910, but their production probably began somewhat earlier (Michele Hansford, January 2010, personal commun.). Phenix stone was primarily an interior stone, but was also used for some exterior construction including larger buildings such as the Greene County courthouse, statuary and mausoleums. It was also used for stone facing for houses in Springfield, Missouri. Both Carthage and Phenix stone were extensively used for shower stalls, including prefabricated compartments (e.g., Carthage Marble, 1961, no. 5). These stones were used from coast-to-coast. In the 1920s, one of the Carthage quarriers, F.W. Steadley, was boasting that it was one of the largest marble quarriers in the west. By the 1950s, the Carthage Marble Company, the successor to Steadley and other firms after the consolidation of 1927, employed ~350 people. The Carthage Marble Corporation purchased the operation at Phenix in 1953 (see Stop 2). Carthage Marble continues to operate in St. Louis, but it no longer owns an interest in the Carthage, Missouri, or Phenix operations. The Carthage Marble Corporation was once noted for the production of its Marble of the Month. These were 3-by-5–inch samples of a wide variety of stone accompanied by illustrated descriptive sheets. The accompanying sheets began as two-color single-sided paper sheets and evolved into two-sided cardboard sheets including a large color illustration of the featured stone. The company issued binders to keep the sheets together. Among the various stones promoted, of course, were the products of the Carthage-owned quarries. The Marble of the Month materials were sent primarily to architects and stone dealers. The series was produced in the 1960s and 1970s. These samples and the accompanying sheets remain invaluable in identifying building and decorative stones. The structures built using Carthage stone (Warsaw Formation) include the beautiful Jasper County Courthouse (Fig. 5; Buckley and Buehler, 1904, pl. 19), the Nelson-Adkins Museum of Art in Kansas City, Missouri, and a number of buildings on the Springfield Campus of Missouri State University, including Carrington Hall (completed in 1908). Most of the stone has held up quite well over time, except in a few cases such as when the stone

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has been turned on its side and preferentially weathered along stylolitic surfaces (Fig. 6). Carthage stone (with the trade name Ozark Gray marble) was also used for the exterior of the Missouri Capitol building, but only after a law requiring Missouri stone to be used was passed, and the lower bid using Indiana Limestone was therefore eliminated (Anonymous, 1913, 1917). And, as the label on the paperweight made of this stone, given out at the 28th International Geological Convention (1989), states, “it was used in many buildings and monuments in Washington, D.C.” Stone from these quarries that was not suitable for dimension stone was crushed and used for a number of purposes including aglime, terrazzo, and aggregate (Fellows, 1967). “Marble” blocks are no longer being actively cut from these quarries today, but previously cut blocks from both quarries are still being utilized to this day. The chief use of southwestern Missouri carbonates in the twenty-first century, however, is for aggregate. More information on the history of the stone quarrying in southwestern Missouri can be found in the references cited in this paper as well as those included on the web sites of Powers Museum et al. (2010) and Phillips (2010). Underground Storage Missouri is notable for its utilization of underground spaces. In fact, the state of Missouri probably has more underground storage space developed than any other state in the United States, and may have more per-capita underground resource space than anywhere on the planet (George H. Davis, 2009, personal commun.). Most of these are former mines (underground quarries) now used as storage facilities (Whitfield, 1981) and for manufacturing, but others are used for underground parking, education facilities (e.g., Park University), and other purposes. These facilities are advantageous as they offer a more controlled climate and greater security than above-ground facilities, as well as protection from storms and tornadoes. Notable facilities in southwestern Missouri include the Americold facility in Carthage (Fig. 7) and the Springfield Underground in Springfield (Stop 1). The former is developed in the Warsaw Formation; the latter in the Burlington-Keokuk limestones (undivided) (Fig. 1). The Carthage facility was a planned development, with sequential underground quarrying of stone and utilization of underground space. The facilities here have an average temperature of 56.7 °F. The Americold facilities in Carthage are quite large and are noted for their underground tennis court (Whitfield, 1981, fig. 6). The Springfield Underground began with subsurface mining in the 1950s.

In Missouri and other border states, the public was deeply divided in its sympathies. This division led to early conflict within the state. Missouri had strategic importance as it bordered the Mississippi River, its population was a source of military recruits and materiel, and the state had access to key minerals. A number of events leading up to the war occurred in Missouri (and adjacent Kansas). Indeed, John Brown raided Missouri as part of the prewar conflicts in Kansas and Missouri, and the war began early in Missouri. From beginning to end, the State of Missouri was the scene of many battles and guerrilla activity throughout the War Between the States. And some of this conflict spilled over into the post-war era continuing long after the war has ended (Evans, this volume). Twenty-nine major Civil War engagements are recognized in Missouri by the National Park Service American Battlefield Protection Program (National Park Service, http://www.nps.gov/ history/hps/abpp/battles/bystate.htm#mo, accessed 17 October 2009). If all actions were included, such as ambushes and skirmishes, the number of events would be in excess of 900 according to the Missouri Commandery of the Military Order of the Loyal Legion of the United States (2009). Edom (1963, p. 146–155) lists 716 battles, skirmishes, and events in the Missouri Sketch Book. Southwestern Missouri was a focus of much of this conflict. Union forces considered Springfield, located on the watershed divide between the Osage and Arkansas rivers, as the “key to the whole southwestern part of Missouri, commanding an area of nearly 60,000 square miles” (U.S. War Department, 1881, p. 551). And so it was fortified with several earthen forts (see Stop 4b for more on these), causing Col. Joseph Shelby (1888, p. 204) of the Confederate Calvary to call it the Union “Gibraltar of the Southwest.” This phrase, however, has been dismissed as being hyperbolic (Britton, 1899, p. 447). Several Civil War battles unfolded in and around Springfield, a major town in southwestern Missouri with a population of ~1,500 according to the 1860 census. Just south of Springfield, in the hills along Wilsons Creek, the Union Army and the Confederate Army clashed on 10 August

THE CIVIL WAR IN SOUTHWESTERN MISSOURI The Civil War in Missouri and the Importance of Springfield During the Civil War, Missouri was known as a border state, that is, a slave-holding state that shared a border with a free state.

Figure 7. Underground storage entranceways to the Americold facilities, the old Carthage Marble quarries.

Civil War and cultural geology of southwestern Missouri, part 1 1861, in what has been considered the second major battle of the Civil War, and the first major battle west of the Mississippi River. To convey the significance of this battle, after the First Battle of Bull Run (21 July 1861), the Battle of Wilson’s Creek, with more than 16,000 troops involved, was the second largest battle ever fought by Americans up to that time (Knapp, 1993, p. 18–19). Subsequently Springfield became the location of two minor engagements of note: Zágonyi’s Charge, also known as the Battle of Springfield I (25 October 1861), and the Battle of Springfield II, or simply the Battle of Springfield (8 January 1863). Between these clashes, Fulbright Spring, just west of Springfield, was the location of Price’s winter quarters from 25 December 1861 until 12 February 1862 (Anderson, 1868, p. 134–141). After the Missouri State Guard vacated and Gen. Curtis arrived, five earthen and timbered forts, known only by their assigned number, were constructed for the defense of Springfield in 1862. Citizens of the city were marshaled in to work on the fortifications which were completed by early January of 1863. Strategic Minerals Even prior to the Civil War, Missouri was known to have a great wealth of minerals, notably galena (the chief ore of lead), zinc, iron ore, and coal, which had direct military importance. Southwestern Missouri was one of the leading pre-war producers of lead and zinc ore. Lead ore had been discovered in Granby, Missouri, in 1850 and was under intense production in southwestern Missouri by the beginning of the war. These ores were mined from Mississippian carbonates of what was to be known as the Tri-State District zinc-lead ore deposits. The lead ore galena is the state mineral of Missouri. There had been some exploration for lead in the Wilson’s Creek Battlefield area after the war (National Park Service, 2004, v. 1, p. 21). A number of small mines were located west of Springfield near the present-day town of Bois D’arc. Lead was one of the chief strategic military supplies produced in Missouri during the war (see Aber et al., this volume) Both sides used lead mined and smelted in Missouri, with Union troops capturing lead ingots (pigs) from smelters that had provided lead to secessionists in the St. Louis area in May of 1861, a little more than a month after the start of the war (Cole, 1881). The lead ore deposits at Granby were purported by some to be the largest in the country, the continent, and possibly even the world (Blow and Kennett, 1862; Rosecrans, 1864). This lead was mined by both sides, but not at the same time (Winslow, 1894a, p. 291; Buckley and Buehler, 1906, p. 1–2; see Stop 3a for additional information). Both sides (e.g., White, 1881) made their own bullets at times in Missouri. The presence of iron ore in Missouri had been known since the explorations of Father Marquette, but large-scale production of iron from Missouri ores did not occur until the 1840s, with production peaking in the 1860s (Crane, 1912, p. 4). This source of iron was used and shipped via rail at the beginning of the Civil War; iron was needed for hardware, artillery ordinance (Caporaso et al., 2008), artillery (field guns were made of iron or bronze),

45

railroad rails, horseshoes (White, 1881), ironclad boats, and other materiel (Fig. 8). Coal, of course, had many uses, especially for steam engines. The caves of Missouri (and northern Arkansas) also were a source of saltpeter (nitrate minerals) used in making gunpowder. These were utilized by Confederate troops. See Evans (this volume) for more on strategic natural resources and the war in Missouri. Geologic Influences on Battles in the Springfield Area There are geological aspects to just about every battle on land, including those of the American Civil War (Higgins, 2002). The battle of Gettysburg (Cuffey et al., 2006) is the exemplar in the effect of geology on the battle, particularly with the opposing armies arrayed upon two intrusive bodies within a sedimentary basin. The loess deposits at Vicksburg were crucial elements of the defense of that key Mississippi River outpost. According to Zen and Walker (2000), inadequate Union defenses at Thoroughfare Gap, a water gap through a resistant quartzite ridge, played a crucial role in the Confederate victory at the Second Bull Run. Lithological differences, including differences in underlying carbonates, played a key role in the terrain upon which the Chickamauga campaign played out (Henderson, 2004). Topographic expression of the geologic setting and strategic water supplies supplied by springs were key elements of the Battle of Perryville in Kentucky (Andrews, 2005, p. 3). Pittman (2002, p. 99) has argued that terrain has played a central role in all Civil War battlefields, and others have echoed this view. And a number of participants in the war were knowledgeable about geology and terrain (Pittman, 2000). Mapping, including topographic mapping was used during the war, and Civil-War era maps of some of the battlefields in Missouri, including Wilson’s Creek, have been preserved (National Archives, 1986, p. 92–93). Maps showing topography remain essential for a good understanding of Civil War battles, whether the maps utilize hachures (Knapp, 1993), contours as in standard topographic maps (Kennedy, 1990), or other means of depicting topography.

Figure 8. Cannon near visitor center at Wilson’s Creek National Battlefield.

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The caves and springs of the Springfield-Greene County Parks such as Doling and Sequiota parks and Valley Water Mill, outside of the city limits during the Civil War, likely played a role in the position of troops and movement prior to the battles. A natural well, a karst window with a shallow pool of water below, was one of the principal reasons Springfield was founded in its location on the southern bank of what later became known as Jordan Creek (Bullard, 2008, p. 2). Jordan and Fassnight creeks are located in central and southern Springfield respectively and would have provided ~50 ft (~15 m) of relief at most. Confederate defensive positions on high ground above Jordan Creek seemed to have played a minor role in the outcome of Zágonyi’s Charge. In contrast, the location of Fort No. 4 on the highest point south of the square could have offered some command over the field of battle to the south. The geology of the Wilson’s Creek Battlefield and the environs of Springfield also played a role in the battles that took place at these locales. Karst features developed in the Mississippian limestones at Wilson’s Creek affected the development and aftermath of the battle. Springs that emanated from the carbonate bedrock were key features in the positioning of armies and fortifications in the area. The terrain, since it was developed on karst, was also uneven in places in what was at the time a fairly open area. Glades developed on surficial or shallow bedrock affected the battle, most critically at the knob that would become known as Bloody Hill. The shallow depth to bedrock would also have an effect on the ability to dig entrenchments and gave an advantage to artillery. And, sadly, sinkholes were used for convenient burial of corpses. Probably the most important role that geology played was the actual location of the city. Springfield was founded in the early 1830s on the uplands of the Springfield Plateau. The original land was parceled from the Campbell homestead, approximately two blocks northeast of the square, where a small spring flowed into Jordan Creek. Just north of Jordan Creek is the divide between the Sac-Osage-Missouri and James-White rivers drainage basins. Springfield is situated on the backbone of the Ozark Mountains, and it quickly became a transportation hub. Native American trails predated development of European-American roads. During the Civil War, Springfield was the northern terminus of the Old Wire Road, which ran to Fayetteville, Arkansas. Numerous other regional roads radiated toward the north and south. As a consequence, Springfield was strategically important for controlling southwestern Missouri during the Civil War. Springfield is on an ecological boundary between prairies and woodlands. The Kickapoo Prairie was an expansive grassland south of Springfield. Just a few miles west of Springfield, the Great Prairie, a sea of tall grasses stretched across the landscape, extended intermittently into eastern Kansas. Gen. Lyon’s approach to Wilsons Creek came through these fields, where it is said that grasses grew tall enough for a horse and rider to easily travel in cover. There is a major precipitational gradient that runs more or less along the Missouri-Kansas border. Springfield

averages 40 inches (101.6 cm) of rain per year, whereas parts of eastern Kansas, which are mostly prairies, receive closer to 25 inches (63.5 cm). Following the Civil War, the rival city of North Springfield developed as a railroad hub and later a repair and paint shop for the St. Louis and San Francisco (Frisco) Railroad, which currently is BNSF Railroad. North Springfield and Springfield were merged in the 1920s. Today, Springfield remains a transportation hub, as well as a regional center for health care and education. The city of Springfield currently is home to more than 150,000 people with ~250,000 in the metropolitan area. Two small claims

Walnut Grove 2

Fair Grove

Willard

16 0

65 13

Ash Grove 44

Strafford 1 4b

4a 44

Springfield

5 3

Republic

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Wilson’s C Creek eek National Battlefield

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Sparta Billings

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Highlandville Crane 65

Galena

Forsyth

Branson West

Branson 13

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Hollister 6

N 5 mi (8 km)

MI SSOURI ARKANSAS

Figure 9. Sketch map showing location of field-trip stops, southwestern Missouri. (1) Springfield Underground; (2) Phenix “marble” quarries; (3) Wilson’s Creek Battlefield; (4A), Zagonyi Park; (4B) site of Fort No. 4; (5) Springfield National Cemetery; and (6) Edwards Mill.

Civil War and cultural geology of southwestern Missouri, part 1 to fame (or infamy) for Springfield are that it was the location of the first western gunfight, which took place on the square in 1865 between Wild Bill Hickok and Dave Tutt, and that it became a transportation hub on Route 66 (and later I-44; see Aber et al., this volume). FIELD TRIP STOPS Stops (Fig. 9) are arranged so that they can be visited in the course of a day, but a detailed visit to these sites could take several days. The stops can be visited in any order. Locations of all sites are noted. Some sites, however, require special permission (this is noted where relevant). Wilson’s Creek National Battlefield is accessible to the public during specific hours. Some others, on private property, require permission from the owners. Stop 1. Springfield Underground Springfield Underground is an active mining operation located in northeast Springfield southeast of the intersection of U.S. 65 and Route 744 (Kearney Street, Historic Route 66). The underground mining and storage space extends between Route 744 in the north to Division Street in the south, and from U.S. Route 65 east beyond Le Compte Road. Because most underground facilities are secure installations, advance permission is needed to visit this and other commercial underground storage facilities in Missouri.

The operation at this location has had several name changes over the years, and was the General Warehouse Corporation underground storage facility noted in Whitfield’s (1981) report, “Underground Space Resources in Missouri.” Quarrying at this site began at least by the 1940s, with agricultural lime being the chief product, then aggregate. The quarry’s prime location along Route 66 facilitated transport of material from the quarry. The mined (quarried) area in the Springfield Underground is ~60–100 ft below the surface in the lower portion of the Burlington-Keokuk (Fig. 10). This lower section of the unit was preferentially quarried as it contained less chert than the upper more cherty beds of the unit (Whitfield, 1981, fig. 4). Aggregate from this facility has been used to pave most of I-44 to Rolla; the carbonate here is reputed to be among the most pure (lacking quartz or clay minerals) in the United States. The Elsey Formation, which underlies the Burlington-Keokuk, is extremely cherty, so was not quarried extensively. The underground facility acts as a warehouse (as reflected by the original name of the facility) as well as a distribution center and location for manufacture of various products. Companies include Graybar Electric Company, Dairy Farmers of America, and a number of other well-known companies. This and other similar underground facilities are supported by large rock pillars remaining after room-and-pillar mining. Thus features of the mined rock can be seen in some of the pillars that have not been covered with shotcrete. The ceiling height varies from 25 to 45 ft. Pillars typically are 25 to 30 ft in diameter. The excavated areas between pillars are ~50 ft across. More than

CHARACTERISTICS soil cover

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Figure 10. Diagrammatic cross section of the underground quarry at Springfield, now the Springfield Underground (adapted from Whitfield, 1981, fig. 4).

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a square mile of rock has been quarried from this facility. A new facility on the west side of Springfield is in the planning stages. Stop 2. Phenix “Marble” Quarries The Phenix Quarry is centered in the northernmost part of Section 35 of T. 31 N, R. 24 W Greene County, Missouri (Fig. 11; southernmost Walnut Grove, Missouri, Quadrangle and northernmost Ash Grove Quadrangle U.S. Geological Survey 7.5 min quadrangle maps). It is located between the towns of Walnut Grove and Ash Grove, a few miles northeast of the Nathan Boone Homestead State Park. The street address for the quarry is 9455 North Farm Road 45, Ash Grove. The quarry is actually comprised of a number of smaller quarrying opera-

tions. These quarries are within the Greene County Phenix Quarry Historical District of Phenix. Permission is needed to visit the quarries. The stone at this stop is the Burlington-Keokuk limestones (undivided) (Hinchey, 1946, p. 23; Missouri Geological Survey open-file map). There does not appear to be any easily seen sharp faunal change in the sequence here. The classic work on the conodonts of the Keokuk is that of Branson and Mehl (1941). The Phenix Stone and Lime Company first opened a quarry in Phenix, Greene County, in 1888, and continued in operation until 1943 (Hinchey, 1946, p. 22). Initially it produced both stone and lime. In the early 1900s with change in ownership and emphasis, the name was changed to Phenix Marble. A small company town replete with company housing, a library, and a

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Figure 11. Geologic map showing the Phenix Quarry as well as the Nathan Boone Homestead State Park. Geologic map modified from Kenneth C. Thomson (1982, 1983) of U.S. Geological Survey Ash Grove and Walnut Grove 7.5′ quadrangles, Greene and Polk counties, Missouri. Rock units are the Mississippian Osagean BurlingtonKeokuk (Mobk), the Mississippian Meramecian Warsaw Formation (Mmw), Pennsylvanian channel sandstones ( ) of uncertain stratigraphic position, and Quaternary alluvium (Qal).

Civil War and cultural geology of southwestern Missouri, part 1 church, grew up next to the quarry. The Vermont Marble Company bought Phenix Marble in 1945 and expanded the operation by adding a quarry to the east of the original quarry. By the late 1940s, however, activity diminished. In 1953, the Carthage Marble Corporation purchased the quarry and operations at Phenix, adding wire saws and other equipment, increasing production to over one million dollars of the Phenix product in the next two decades (Carthage Marble Corporation, 1959, sheet 2). Carthage Marble promoted Phenix along with Carthage stone, as well as stone from other domestic and foreign sources. Production of dimension stone eventually diminished during the last decades of the twentieth century, however. The little town of Phenix almost disappeared (Wilson, 1979), and today only a few structures remain. Carthage Marble no longer operates the quarry. Only a few remnant stone buildings remain of what is now a quarry ghost town, now part of the Greene County Phenix Quarry Historic District. Quarrying (now known as mining in the industry) continues for aggregate and dimension stone by Phenix Rock Quarry, Inc., however, and dimension stone from the old quarries continues to be used for various purposes. The primary dimension-stone product of the Phenix quarries was a type of limestone known as Napoleon Gray marble or, by its alternative spelling, Napoleon Grey Marble. Napoleon Gray is one of a number of “marbles” quarried in the United States and France under variants of the name Napoleon (McClymont, 1990). The classic Napoleon marble was a pale buff-brown stone quarried at Hydrequent, Pas de Calais, France (Grant, 1955, p. 65). There are several versions of the story of the naming of the Missouri Napoleon Gray, all hinging on someone (sometimes that someone is a geologist) noting the similarities of the Missouri and French stones. Napoleon Gray has been primarily used as an interior stone but has sometimes been used as exterior stone. The stone was sawn perpendicular to bedding and is typically marked by stylolites seen in cross section. This stone has had numerous uses in Missouri and elsewhere, including use as wainscoting and as bathroom and shower partitions. It has been used at or for the Missouri State Capitol, the Los Angeles City Hall, the historic 1929 Russ Building in San Francisco; the lobby of the Renaissance Cleveland Hotel in Cleveland, Ohio (Phenix Marble Company, 1922), the John Hay statue at Cleveland’s Lake View Cemetery (Hannibal, 2007, p. 85), and elsewhere. World War I provided a boost to the Missouri product as supplies from France diminished (Phenix Marble Co., ca. 1926, p. 54). The stone became popular for various usages. Advertisements for this stone in the 1920s claimed, hyperbolically, that it was an “exceptionally sound marble” that “weathers well…rain only serves to heighten its pleasing appearance” (Phenix Marble Company, 1927). Carthage Marble promoted Phenix stone in its Marble of the Month and continued to produce stone slabs from the Phenix quarries into the 1970s (Wilson, 1979). Previously quarried stone from the quarry, however, continues to be used. Freddie Flores, a sculptor and stone fabricator, operates saws and other equipment to produce ornate table tops,

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artistic bowls, and other objects. He has also worked on restoration and remodeling projects, notably the remodeling of the Missouri Capitol. Stop 2a. Lime Kilns The two partly ruined lime kilns (Fig. 12) remain at the Phenix site near the old railway line (see Figure 3 for an analogous situation at the Carthage site). At one time there were three (Wilson, 1979). These were continuous kilns; that is, kilns in which material was fed from an upper level and removed, after heating, from a lower level. The type of kilns seen here were also known as vertical kilns, distinguishing them from the now-dominant horizontal kilns which utilize a rotating metal cylinder. The kilns here utilized stone from the south part of the original quarry as well as quarry waste and weathered (“bouldery”) surficial rock to produce white lime by heating (known as burning or calcining) (Buckley and Buehler, 1904, p. 164). The kilns are made of the local limestone, but with linings of sandstone and fire brick. Limestone kilns had to be lined with other materials as the heat of the kiln could otherwise calcine the kiln itself. Stop 2b. Power House This 1922 power house, made of the local limestone, provided electricity for the quarry, the company town of Phenix, and nearby Walnut Grove (Wilson, 1979). Photographs of the power house and other facilities here have been published in various works (including Phenix Marble Company, ca. 1926). Coal was burned to produce the electricity. The power house no longer produces power, but instead houses stone-cutting saws and finishing tools. Various types of equipment used for cutting, including a wire saw (Fig. 13) used to cut large blocks of stone into thin slabs for use as table tops and other uses, can be seen near the power house.

Figure 12. One of a pair of old kilns along old railway at Phenix Marble.

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Stop 2c. Quarry The vertical quarry walls (Fig. 14) in the Phenix quarries provide excellent exposures of the Burlington-Keokuk. Since the stone was quarried over a long period of time, there are differences in weathering; older exposures are generally darker. A number of features stand out in the quarry, including joint sets, sinkholes and other karst features (Figs. 15 and 16), stylolites, and bands of light-colored nodular chert. The chert nodules vary in shape; some are flattened and others are globular. The quarry walls show evidence of various types of quarrying techniques used over time. These techniques are also documented in a number of sources (Brewster, 1914; Hinchey, 1946). The fabled ability of this stone to take a polish is still evident in the sheen seen on decades-old quarry cuts.

of Highways M and ZZ. The park is open seven days a week except for major holidays; see its Web site for hours and the current admissions charge (http://www.nps.gov/wicr/contacts.htm). The park consists of the battlefield which can be traversed via a 4.9-mi-long Tour Road. There are parking areas at key points along the Tour Road. Walking trails also lead from the Tour Road at points. The battlefield as seen today is much like it was at the

Stop 3. Wilson’s Creek Battlefield Wilson’s Creek Battlefield (Figs. 17 and 18) is located southwest of Springfield, Missouri, just west of the small town of Battlefield, and three miles east of Republic. The main park entrance is located off of Farm Road 182 just to the east of the intersection of Highway ZZ, 1.5 mi. south of the intersection

Figure 15. Cross section of sinkhole at Phenix quarry. Scale is 1.5 m tall.

Figure 13. Wire saw apparatus used to cut table-top sized slabs from limestone block at Phenix Marble.

Figure 14. Quarry Walls at Phenix Marble (2009 photo).

Figure 16. Dissolution along joints and planes with water stains, old Phenix Marble quarry.

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Figure 17. Geologic map showing the region of the Wilson’s Creek National Battlefield. Stop locations (Stops 3a–3e) are shown. See caption for Figure 11 for explanation of rock units, except for the Mississippian Osagean Elsey Formation (Moe). Geologic map modified from Kenneth C. Thomson’s (1981a, 1981b) maps of U.S. Geological Survey Brookline and Republic 7.5′ quadrangles, Greene and Christian counties, Missouri.

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Figure 18. Digital elevation model (DEM) of the Wilson’s Creek Battlefield showing geographic features, stop locations (Stops 3a–3e), buildings present at the time of the battle (small black squares), the Wire Road (Telegraph Road), the position and movement of Union (blue) and Confederate (red) forces, and the one-way modern tour route. Stop 3a is at the battlefield parking lot; Stops 3b–3e can be reached via paths or trails from parking spots along the tour route (see text for details). DEM data from U.S. Geological Survey; locations of houses and fields, from Knapp (1993); and troop locations and movements from Eicher (2001) and other sources.

Civil War and cultural geology of southwestern Missouri, part 1 time of the battle, except for a generally greater amount of native and introduced vegetation, and some landscape change due to quarrying activity subsequent to the war. The Battle of Wilson’s Creek, 10 August 1861, pitted Union forces of Brigadier General Nathaniel Lyon against Confederates under the command of Ben McCullough and the Missouri State Guard under the command of Sterling Price. The battle has also been known by other names, especially by its Confederate name, the Battle of Oak Hills (U.S. War Department, 1881) or Oak Hill (Emerson, 1911, p. 64) or, less frequently, the Battle of Springfield (Piston and Hatcher, 2000, p. 319), not to be confused with other battles given that name. Union names for important battles typically took the name of rivers and streams, whereas Confederate names took the names of towns or other places. Thus the names for this battle are unusual in that both sides name it for geographical features. At the Battle of Wilson’s Creek, the pro-Southern Missouri State Guard fought side-by-side with Confederate troops, but Missouri guardsmen swore allegiance to the State of Missouri rather than the Confederacy. It was not until later that a proSouthern government in absentia convened in the southwestern Missouri town of Neosho and adopted the articles of secession, paving the way for acceptance into the Confederacy. Following this, Gen. Price and parts of the Missouri State Guard were sworn in as soldiers of the Confederacy. Some Missouri troops, however, would not enter Confederate units. Other, pro-Northern militias were formed in Missouri under sanction of the federal government, such as the Missouri Home Guard, Missouri State Militia and Enrolled Missouri Militia. The Battle of Wilson’s Creek pitted a Union force of 5,400 against a force of Missouri State Guards and other Confederate forces totaling more than 12,000. Despite the Union forces being outnumbered, Lyon split his forces, sending Union Col. Franz Sigel, a German immigrant (and veteran of the 1848 revolutions in central Europe), on a broad flanking movement that would attack the Confederate forces from the south while the main force moved in from the northwest. Both Lyon and Price had some ties with geology, or at least rocks. Lyon, according to Monagham (1955, p. 169) once said, “I was born among the rocks.” Sterling Price was governor of Missouri (1853–1857) when the Geologic Survey of Missouri was founded (Swallow, 1855). Geology and Terrain of the Wilson’s Creek Battlefield Area The Battle of Wilson’s Creek took place on karst terrain dissected by Wilsons Creek and its tributaries (Figs. 17 and 18). The battle played out as troops and artillery dueled along low hills and knobs, the most famous of which has become known as Bloody Hill. This prominence and a nearby sinkhole (Fig. 18) are canonical karst-related features of the battlefield. The Battlefield Fault, also known as the Sac River or Republic Fault (Thompson and Robertson, 1993, p. 40) is the largest structural feature associated with the Wilson’s Creek National Battlefield (Fig. 17). This NW-SE–trending fault is located along

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the northeast corner of the battlefield. Along I-44, it is fractured and dolomitized with vug and vein-filling calcite crystals. An extension of the Sac River Fault cuts Pennsylvanian strata in northeastern Lawrence County, northwest of I-44 (Middendorf, 2003). Faults likely are an expression of transpressional adjustment of the Ozarks in the hinterland of the Ouachita orogen during the Pennsylvanian. Many of the faults in southwestern Missouri are oriented NW-SE, including the Chesapeake and Bolivar-Mansfield fault zones. Segments of these faults can be traced from the Arkansas to Kansas state lines. The Highlandville Fault system, a similarly oriented fault swarm approximately ten miles (16 km) south of the Battlefield Fault has kinematic indicators that suggest a component of strike-slip movement, where a series of faults displace strata vertically up to 250 ft (76 m) in a graben (Vierrether, 1998), indicating transtensional strain. The Ten O’Clock Run Fault near Branson, which links up with the Chesapeake Fault, is similarly oriented and shows transpressional folding at a broad bend in the fault. Elsewhere, the north and south sides are variously upthrown and downthrown along the length of it (see Evans, this volume). Most bedrock directly underlying the battlefield is the Burlington-Keokuk (undivided). The Mississippian Elsey crops out along the creek sides, thickening southward at lower elevations. Both the Burlington-Keokuk and the Elsey are composed predominantly of limestone and contain chert. They are predominantly flat-lying. The stream bottoms are floored with Quaternary alluvial sediments. Some of the soils developed on the bedrock are in places high in chert, forming cherty savannas. The chert can also be seen in outcrops of the Burlington-Keokuk within the national battlefield (Fig. 19). Karst Features in the Battlefield Karst features in the battlefield area include springs, sinkholes, glades, small caves, and an estavelle (a feature that alternates from being a sinkhole to a spring, depending on the

Figure 19. Detail of chert-rich outcrop of Burlington-Keokuk within the National Battlefield. Scale is marked in dm.

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groundwater-table level). The Burlington-Keokuk is particularly noted for springs (Vandike, 2001, p. 53). In the setting around Wilson’s Creek Battlefield, chert beds or thin shale beds likely provided semi-permeable confining layers at the base of an unconfined aquifer. Springs played an important role in this and other Civil War battles and movements in southwestern Missouri (Bullard, 2001, p. 11–12). There were several springs on the battlefield site. Their presence, as well as the presence of stream water for horses, and the availability of food, was the reason that the Missouri Guard camped at this location (Hess et al., 2006, p. 23) along with the fact that the site was along Telegraph Road (also known as the Wire Road and later the Old Wire Road). Clean water, such as that supplied by springs, was especially valued during the Civil War, and soldiers’ memoirs note the presence, and absence, of springs (Anderson, 1868, p. 37, 90, 203; Sorrel, 1905; Piston and Hatcher, 2000, p. 118). Campsites and fortifications were located near springs in a number of cases in Missouri and other states. Andrews (2005, p. 16), for instance, has noted the key role of springs in the 1862 Battle of Perryville, which occurred in the karst Bluegrass region of Kentucky. At Perrysburg, as at Wilson’s Creek, Confederate armies camped near springs. Soldiers, however, would utilize almost any source of water, dependent upon the situation (Schroeder-Lein, 2008, p. 91). Springs were also the sites of field hospitals, that of the Union forces north of Bloody Hill and the two field hospitals of the Missouri Guard on the west side of the Manley House and southeast of the stream ford (1883 Souvenir Program of the battle cited in Bearss, 1978, p. 91). Additionally, the first stop for retreating Union troops after the battle was a spring. The battlefield here is notable for limestone glades (Fig. 20; National Park Service, 2004, p. 2-9, 2-13). In local usage a glade is a more or less open area developed on shallow limestone bedrock, including cherty bedrock, due to stresses (e.g., desiccation). Depth to bedrock is very shallow in places, for instance in the limestone glades where it approaches zero. Such

Figure 20. Glade along trail within park. Bedrock here is at or very near the surface, resulting in a xeric flora that includes prickly pear cactus. Kevin Evans for scale.

shallow depth provides little opportunity for cover by infantry. It also would serve as a hard surface where enemy fire, rifle and cannon, would have greater effect. Several barren areas were located in the battlefield: the most notable is that of Bald Knob– Bloody Hill. Glades here are especially stressed in the summer and characterized by plants, such as prickly pear cactus, that can withstand drought. Acoustic shadows, presumably caused by topography and weather patterns, and the lack of them, seem to have played a role in the battle as well as in some other battles of the Civil War. They presumably helped to mask the Union forces’ advance (Piston and Hatcher, 2000, p. 213). The first engagement at Wilson’s Creek Battlefield began as a detachment of Union troops swept southward on the east side of Wilsons Creek, attacking the Confederate right. Meanwhile, Lyon moved his forces from the north toward the prominence now referred to as Bloody Hill to attack the front of the Confederate forces. Col. Sigel was able to hear well enough to know that the battle was developing to his north. The battle unfolded with Sigel moving behind the eastern ridge of Wilsons Creek in an attempt to flank the Confederate Army under McCullough and Price. The object was to throw the Confederate Army into complete disarray. The two-pronged attack was initially successful, as it had the advantage of surprise. Topography also played a role in the placement of artillery (Fig. 18). Totten’s battery (Union) was located on the high ground to the rear of Union lines on Bloody Hill. An artillery duel developed as shells were lobbed at Woodruff’s Battery (Confederate) on a small prominence next to Telegraph Road. Reid’s Battery, a little to the south of Woodruff opened fire to the southwest where Sigel had taken up a position on the south along Telegraph Road. Telegraph Road was most effectively used by southern forces who quickly positioned troops where they were needed. Contrary to expectations, southern forces did not run but rapidly formed up a line of battle on the southern slope of Bloody Hill and to the west. Despite the advantage of surprise and occupation of the high ground, the north lost the initiative. Infantry movements were controlled by the erosional features carved out of the landscape by the creek and intermittent tributaries. These features helped to mask the movement of troops during various phases of the battle, including the movement of Lyon’s forces early on in the battle. The valleys between the branches of Wilsons Creek also served as effective blocks to communication between the divided parts of Lyon’s forces, however. This enabled the interior lines of the Confederate forces to respond to and defeat in turn each of the uncoordinated attacks by Sigel and Lyon, resulting in an eventual Confederate victory. On a smaller scale, the uneven ground of the battlefield caused parts of the Confederate counterattacks to stall (Hess et al., 2006, p. 58). Much of battle would focus on Bloody Hill (Fig. 18), and it was here that Gen. Lyon was fatally wounded. The battle would eventually turn out to be a Confederate victory. Further details of the battle are given below, but there are a number of resources

Civil War and cultural geology of southwestern Missouri, part 1 available for those who wish more information on the battle. Two books are especially recommended: Piston and Hatcher’s (2000) Wilson’s Creek: The Second Battle of the Civil War and the Men Who Fought It, the most comprehensive and accurate narrative work on the battle, and Hess et al.’s (2006) Wilson’s Creek, Pea Ridge, and Prairie Grove: A Battlefield Guide with a Section on Wire Road, a guidebook that includes information on the effect of terrain on the battle and which has excellent maps with topography indicated by contour lines. Knapp’s (1993) guide to the battlefield provides a military perspective. The published official records of the battle (U.S. War Department, 1881) provide vivid contemporary perspectives of both Union and Confederate sides on the events surrounding the battle. A guided audio-tour of the battlefield by Jeff Patrick is also available from the park bookstore. Subsequent Utilization of Stone at the Battlefield Site The limestone deposits in and around the battlefield were exploited for building stone and lime over time. Bedrock was used for the base of the mill on the property before the war and a lime kiln was constructed by the Rodgers White Lime Company in the short lived town of Wilson Creek (Fig. 18) in the battlefield area in the early 1900s (National Park Service, 2004, p. 75). The kiln, in operation between 1908 and 1913, utilized the Burlington-Keokuk for lime production. Archaeologists have also reported a European-American sandstone quarry just southwest of the Manley Cemetery (National Park Service, 2004, v. 1, p. 3-111), which is located on the eastern edge of the battlefield. This sandstone body, and perhaps other small bodies of Pennsylvanian channel sandstones, has not been mapped on the geologic map of the region (Fig. 17). Sandstone from these and other deposits of the general region was used for foundations and steps of several structures in the park. Stop 3a. Visitor Center and Civil War Museum The park visitor center, located off of Farm Road 182 just east of Highway ZZ, provides an introduction and overview of the Battle of Wilson’s Creek. This includes a short film and a fiber-optics map display that shows troop movements during the battle. A nearby Civil War museum in a separate building contains a variety of artifacts related to the western theater of the war. One item of particular geological interest is a lead ingot (pig) made at the Blow-Kennett (Blow and Kennett) Co.’s Granby furnace. Granby, in what is now known as the Tri-State Lead and Zinc District, was a source of lead for both Union and Confederate forces, depending on who controlled the area at the time. The importance of these mines is shown by both Union and Confederate correspondence. These include a pair of October 1861 letters (p. 717–718 in U.S. War Department, 1881) between members of the Confederacy. One, from Gen. B. McCullough to J.P. Benjamin, Confederate Secretary of War, states that 200,000 pounds of lead could be transported per month from these mines. Another, from G.W. Clark to Benjamin states that Clark had

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shipped 32,000 pounds of lead from Granby and that he thought that these mines could supply all of the lead needed by the Confederate Army. At least some of the lead was transported overland to Van Buren, Arkansas, and shipped up the Mississippi River to the Tennessee ordnance factory at Memphis. Confederate control of the mines concerned Blow and Kennett, as Henry Taylor Blow, one of the principals of Blow and Kennett, was an ardent Missouri Republican (Anonymous, 1901). A 1 December 1862 letter in the Library of Congress from Blow and Kennett (1862) to Abraham Lincoln requested that he protect Granby from the Confederates so that the mines could be reopened. The letter also claimed that these mines could supply all the lead needed for the Union cause, or even for a conflict with England (early on in the war it was feared that England may recognize the Confederacy). Consequently, Granby became the object of both Union and Confederate movements, continuing into the late stages of the war as a fall 1864 letter from Union General Rosecrans to Abraham Lincoln indicates (Rosecrans, 1864). The ingot on exhibit was discovered in the 1980s at a campground of the Missouri State Guard in Springfield (see Buckley and Buehler, 1904, pl. 4 for an illustration of an 1860 pig). Such ingots were used to manufacture bullets of various types. The Missouri State Guard troops had a variety of weapons, necessitating such local production of ammunition, sometimes in a simple manner utilizing iron skillets to melt lead from Granby (Piston and Hatcher, 2000, p. 117). Arkansas troops were molding bullets at Wilsons Creek the day before the battle (Piston and Hatcher, 2000, p. 162). Various balls and bullets made of lead, as well as a bullet mold, are also on exhibit. After the war, because of lead and zinc discoveries not far to the north in the Brookline area (Winslow, 1894b, p. 630, map after p. 542), there was some exploration for lead along Wilsons Creek (National Park Service, 2004, v. 1, p. 21). The Civil War cannons displayed outside the visitor center (Fig. 8) and elsewhere in the park are not left from the battle. Such artillery were obtained sometime after the war as surplus cannons were distributed by the federal government. At least some were produced by foundries in the Mississippi watershed. A 4.9 mi one-way loop road, known as the tour road, is accessible from the visitor center parking lot. The following stops begin at various parking areas along the loop. There are a number of other worthwhile stops along the tour road for those who have more time to explore the park. There is also a Civil War Museum located along Highway ZZ a short distance from its intersection with Farm Road 182. Stop 3b. Mill Trail, Site of Gibson’s Mill The Mill Trail leads from the park tour road (the parking area at the head of this tail is stop 1 of the official park tour route) to the site of Gibson’s Mill, which is no longer standing. Confederate James Rains had his headquarters at the mill before the battle (Piston and Hatcher, 2000, p. 156–157), and Union troops forded Wilsons Creek at this location.

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The bedrock at the upper part of the mill site seen at exposures here is a crinoidal grainstone with rugose corals belonging to the Burlington-Keokuk. The mill was powered by a millrace (headrace) which drained water from a dam ~0.7 mi. upstream of the mill This provided a 16-ft drop (16 ft of hydraulic head) to power the mill. Based on the length of the millrace (3862 ft) and the amount of fall the mill was probably powered initially by an overshot water wheel (National Park Service, 2004, p. 3-103). The headrace was necessitated by the lack of a natural waterfall in this area, which is due to the amount of alluvial sediments in the valley of Wilsons Creek (Fig. 17). This wheel was eventually replaced by a turbine. The mill is noted in a mill-turbine handbook (Leffel, James & Co., 1872) as having a 23-inch Leffelturbine water wheel. A large number of chert millstones and millstone fragments were recovered as part of a survey of the area, which reported the stones to be composed of locally quarried brecciated and cellular chert (Bray, 1967; National Park Service, 2004, p. 3–103). The use of local versus other cherts in southwestern Missouri, however, is poorly documented. Although previously identified as local Mississippian or lower Paleozoic cherts (William Hayes and Edwin Kurtz in Bray, 1967, p. 51), at least some of these stones may be from other parts of the country or even France (see Stop 6, Edwards Mill, for more on millstones). A 1966 report in files of the library at Wilson’s Creek National Battlefield notes that a millstone from this mill was once located behind the Silverleaf Shopping Center. The dam has been removed (an early case dam removal) and only parts of the foundation of the mill remains at this site (see Stop 6, Edwards Mill, for a discussion of a reconstructed mill in this region). During the Civil War, mills were key elements of the agricultural infrastructure. Wheat crops and the threshing and grinding of grain provided provisions for the field armies of both sides in Missouri (Anderson, 1868, p. 90; Piston and Hatcher, 2000, p. 115, 119). A rain-delay in threshing wheat and lack of bread rations were of special concern to Union officers in southwestern Missouri just prior to the Battle of Wilson’s Creek (Schofield, 1881, p. 58). Mills also served as headquarter buildings for various armies. Generals Price and McCullough corresponded over the destruction of mills in this theater of war during November of 1861 (U.S. War Department, 1881, p. 736–738). McCullough (1861) was adamant about destroying them, writing that, “If the enemy advance into Arkansas, I shall destroy all the mills and grain that I have to leave in my rear, having already done so on the roads towards Springfield….” Later in the war, during Marmaduke’s expedition into Missouri (see Stop 4b) Confederate troops captured and operated a mill in Hartville, Wright County, Missouri (Porter, 1888, p. 206). Confederate troops also burned Lawrence’s Mill, in Douglas County, southeast of Springfield on Beaver Creek (Crabb, 1888, p. 183–84). Wilsons Creek now is in a flood zone, but flows in the past have supposedly been more stable (National Park Service, 2004, p. 2-10). The surface water of much of Wilsons Creek is used in the Springfield southwest (sewage) treatment plant. It also collects much of the storm run-off from the city of Springfield, so

there episodically are concerns about water quality at Wilson’s Creek National Battlefield, particularly since karst allows a direct connection between surface and subsurface fresh-water resources (Richards and Johnson, 2002, p. 4, 6). Stop 3c. Ray House and Springhouse The Ray House and the accompanying springhouse are accessible from paths leading from the tour road (the parking area is stop 2, Ray House and Cornfield, of the official park tour route). These two structures are the last remaining structures that were present at the time of the Battle of Wilson’s Creek. In the aftermath of the battle, the Ray House served as a hospital for Confederate troops. The troops also brought the body of Nathaniel Lyon to this site for a time. Due to its advantageous location along the Wire Road, the Ray House was also a post office during the late 1800s. Springhouses are another common feature of the Ozarks, and are of course, tied to the karst terrain provided by carbonates. The springhouse, as well as the foundation for the Ray House is made of local stone. The spring that cooled the springhouse for cool storage was also used for drinking water for the family as well as for the temporary hospital. The initial flanking movement of the Union (under Plummer) was in the Ray cornfield, across the road to the north and northwest. As superior Confederate forces gathered to repulse the attack, Union troops withdrew under fire across Wilsons Creek. The older buildings in the park, including the Ray House, the springhouse, and the Price Cabin, utilize Paleozoic carbonates and sandstones from this area, or perhaps even from northwest Arkansas. Stop 3d. Wire Road The Wire Road is easily accessible from the parking lot of the Ray House and Cornfield (stop 2 of the official park tour route). The Wire Road passes right by the Ray House. The path from the Wire Road passes limestone quarries en route to Pulaski’s Battery. The Wire Road was constructed in 1838. A telegraph line was placed beside it in 1860 resulting in it being called the Wire Road. Both the Burlington-Keokuk and the Elsey (lighter colored lower unit) are exposed here at the quarries. The main quarry wall is ~25 ft high and includes a number of vertical drillmarks ~5 cm in diameter. Stop 3e. Sigel’s Last Position This stop is stop 5 of the park battlefield tour. It is located along Telegraph Road just to the southwest of a parking area along the tour road. Franz Sigel had successfully attacked and scattered the Confederate forces in the early part of the battle. He then waited with his troops arrayed across Telegraph Road (Wire Road) here in

Civil War and cultural geology of southwestern Missouri, part 1 the southern part of the battlefield, eventually to be attacked from the north by McCullough, who was able to marshal his forces in a “dead zone” protected from cannon fire by topography (Hess et al., 2006, p. 48). Sigel’s response to the Confederate attack was delayed, as Sigel thought that the approaching Confederates were part of Lyon’s army, and he was overwhelmed. Sigel and his troops were routed, and they fled south along the Wire Road. In retreat Sigel split his command, half taking the Little York Road to Springfield safely. Leading the other group, Sigel encountered Confederate troops that cut off his escape and nearly captured him near Delaware Town on the James River (Neal Lopinot, Missouri State University Center for Archaeological Research, 2010, personal commun.). Stop 3f. Bloody Hill and the Sinkhole Bloody Hill (Fig. 21) was the site of the decisive engagement of the battle. It was originally a Confederate position that was taken over early on in the battle by Union troops. Union Capt. James Totten then placed his artillery on this hill which was subsequently attacked by Price’s Missouri infantry. Lyon formed two lines along the southeast and southern end of the ridge and extending westward along a small gulley. Other forces were held in reserve to the north. Bloody Hill is a dissected hill. It has simply been called “the crest of a ridge” in an 1881 battle report (Schofield, 1881, p. 60) as well as in some subsequent reports. At the time of the battle it was a fairly open area, with one account noting that it was “almost bald” (quoted in National Park Service, 2004, p. 23–37). In his memoirs published not long after the war Anderson (1868, p. 42) described this prominence as “a hill whose summit was bare and imbedded with rock and gravel, known as ‘the bald or bloody hill.’” This is also the Oak Hill, named for the scrub oaks that grew in the thin soil. And Oak Hill (or Oak Hills) is the battle as named in Confederate reports. There are a number of maps that show the location of Bloody Hill, some labeling the high area on the north

Figure 21. View of Bloody Hill taken near the Edwards cabin along Wilsons Creek.

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side of Bloody Hill as Bald Knob (e.g., map 3 in Knapp,1993). But, according to other sources, Bald Knob is a synonym for Bloody Hill, adopted after the War (Eicher, 2001, p. 104). Price and McCulloch, with numerically superior Confederate forces (although most of the Missouri State Guard were poorly equipped and some were unarmed), made repeated attacks on the hill (Fig. 18). While the hill and its slopes were fairly open, the surrounding terrain, from which Price’s forces attacked, was more difficult to advance through in a uniform manner. Trees and underbrush of this lower terrain also served to screen Confederate troops and artillery, obscuring the Union’s field of fire (Totten,1881). Union soldier Bennett eloquently explained this situation: “The small ravines entering the valley of the stream and the woody slopes of the hillsides were admirably adapted for concealing the approach of the enemy, while our forces were exposed on the tops of the hills where the trees were few and the land open” (Bennett, 1966, p. 15). Southern cavalry and infantry attempted to flank the Union right, but intense fire from a detachment of Totten’s and DuBois’ batteries, two companies of Missouri Home Guards, and two companies of the Second Kansas Regiment thwarted the attempt. After roughly five hours of fighting and with the loss of Gen. Lyon, Union troops withdrew during a lull in the shooting. Gen. Sturgis took command and withdrew to Springfield and then on to Rolla. Confederate forces, equally stunned by the number of casualties declined to follow the Federals. In all nearly one out of four Union soldiers in the fight was killed, wounded, or missing, totaling ~1,300. The number of Confederates killed and wounded was ~1,200. The well-known sinkhole noted on many maps of the battlefield is located along the trail between the position of Totten’s Battery and the Lyon Marker. A path leads from the Park Road eastward to these sites. The sinkhole was in the midst of some of the heaviest fighting during the battle. It was also a place of burial just after the battle. This sinkhole was measured as being 25 by 15 ft by 37 in deep previous to one of its more recent excavations (National Park Service, 2004, v. 1, p. 3-103). The sinkhole (not always noted by that term, however) has been a stop for many visitors to this battlefield, even during the Civil War. In his diary entry for 23 February 1862, Union soldier Lyman O. Bennett (1966, p. 15) noted that he “found graves thickly scattered along the bank of the creek for a mile or more and in some places, was told scores were buried in one common trench or grave. A sort of cave upon the hill was filled with the bodies of the dead and lightly covered with logs and dirt.” In his memoir, Ephraim Anderson (1868, p. 143), who had been a Confederate soldier, told of visiting the sinkhole during the war. He noted that “We visited the sinkhole…said to contain several hundred bodies; the earth thrown on top being partially washed away, the clothing and bones protruded in some places.” Bray’s (1967) archaeological investigation of the sinkhole found more than 200 human body parts, mostly arm and leg bones, in the sinkhole. One might surmise that such bones were the remains of amputated limbs, but no evidence has been found

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to date of Federal troops performing amputations on the field at this battle. All evidence indicates that those requiring amputation were taken back to Springfield for surgery. Therefore, the smaller bones found by the archaeologists may have been parts that the previous retrieval parties missed during their excavations (Jeffrey Patrick, 2010, personal commun.). Union burial places also included an additional sinkhole and a well, and Confederate bodies were buried alongside the creek (National Park Service, 2004, v. 1, p. 1-21, 2-38). These have not been relocated. Stop 4. Zagonyi Park and the Site of Fort No. 4, Springfield Zágonyi’s Charge and Battle of Springfield: Historical Perspective Springfield, as noted above, was perceived to be the key city to the control of southwestern Missouri. Following the Battle of Wilson’s Creek, however, Union forces withdrew from southwestern Missouri to Rolla. Confederate forces under Gen. McCulloch returned to Arkansas, having successfully defended Arkansas from the Federal threat. A contingent of pro-Southern troops occupied Springfield, while the main force of the Missouri State Guard under Gen. Price proceeded northwestward to attack pro-Union militias on the Kansas border (Battle of Dry Wood Creek), then northward to re-take Lexington, Missouri. Union troops under the command of Maj. Gen. John C. Frémont continued to hold St. Louis and Rolla, and by October, his forces, 38,000 strong, advanced slowly on Springfield. By late October, his army reached Bolivar. By the end of October 1861, Price had withdrawn to McDonald County, Missouri. Zágonyi’s Charge (also known as the Battle of Springfield or the Action at Springfield) took place in October of 1861. It was the first Union victory since the earliest days of the war. After driving out secessionist troops, Zágonyi quickly retreated to Frémont’s main body. Frémont marched into Springfield and, in a political move, was summarily replaced by Gen. David Hunter. Hunter ordered his troops to pull back from Springfield to Kansas, Sedalia, and Rolla. Springfield again fell into Confederate hands. Springfield was recaptured by Union forces in the early spring of 1862. The city did not fall under pro-Southern control for the remainder of the war. Springfield became headquarters for counter-insurgency operations and was a judicial center for martial law under the Federal Provost Marshall’s command. Union dominion, however, did not go unchallenged. In the early winter of 1862–1863, a large Confederate force was advancing from Arkansas. Led by Brigadier General John S. Marmaduke, this expedition was divided into three columns. The main force, led by Marmaduke, drove north through Forsyth and Ozark. Col. Emmet McDonald led the second force up Beaver Creek in Taney County, and Col. Joseph Porter attacked Union forces in Hartville. Marmaduke’s goals were to secure provisions, recruit soldiers, and disrupt Union military actions, such as drawing troops into the Trans-Mississippi theater. As reports filtered in about the attack on the garrison at Ozark, the Enrolled

Missouri Militia (Union) troops of Springfield, under the command of Gen. Egbert B. Brown, began to prepare for the impending attack. The resultant battle came to be known as the Battle of Springfield (or, alternatively, the second Battle of Springfield). This field trip will stop at two key sites (Figs. 22–24) related to battles at Springfield: the site of the October 1861 Zágonyi’s Charge (Stop 4a) and at the former location of Fort No. 4 (Stop 4b) in downtown Springfield (corner of Elm Street and South Avenue), the focal point of the January 1863 Battle of Springfield. Those with more time are encouraged to visit the History Museum of Springfield-Greene County in downtown Springfield (which contains exhibits related to the Civil War) as well as other Civil-War related sites in Springfield. The History Museum is located on the third floor of the Old City Hall in Springfield which is located at 830 Bonneville Avenue. “Battle of Springfield: A Guide to the Historical Marker Route,” a handout or brochure showing the location of Civil War markers in Springfield is available at the Wilson’s Creek Battlefield as well as the History Museum. Geology of Zágonyi Park and Central Springfield Most of Springfield rests upon the Burlington-Keokuk limestones (Osagean Series) (Fig. 23). The Burlington is typically a lime wackestone or packstone to fine grainstone in the Springfield area; the Keokuk interval is more coarsely crinoidal with cross-bedding that indicates deposition above normal wave base. Because the Springfield Plateau dips gently (17 millstones or parts of millstones) on exhibit, including both domestic and imported stone, most from old mills in Missouri, including southwestern Missouri. The stones are finished and unfinished, monolithic and composite. There are also metates built into a low stone wall. The most eye-catching and exotic millstones in the collection are a pair of large (48 in diameter) millstones made of French buhr (Fig. 30). These are composite millstones with cut pieces of

chert fitted together and held in place with iron bands. The upper stone of the pair, known as the runner in millstone terminology, also has an added top made of plaster. The lower stone, known as the bedstone, has a flatter top and bottom. The sign by these millstones states that they came from the Pyrenees via St. Louis from which oxen were used in 1847 to transport them to the Joseph Lyons Mill near Ava, Missouri, which is located ~40 miles northeast of Branson. The stone for French buhr was typically quarried from Cenozoic deposits near Paris (Ward, 1993), however, not the Pyrenees. French buhrstones were manufactured (from pieces of stone imported from France) at St. Louis since at least 1839 (Ball and Hockensmith, 2007, p. 92). French buhr was notable for its “cellular” nature stemming from the presence of visible void spaces in the stone. The edges of the void spaces were thought to provide sharp cutting edges, thus enhancing the effectiveness of these stones in milling. There are several other chert millstones made in one piece (monolithic millstones). Some of these may have been fashioned from chert derived from the Mississippian or other carbonate sequences of Missouri or Arkansas. Chert from various counties in central and southern Missouri, as well as northern Arkansas, was known to be used for such purposes in Missouri. Hockensmith (2004) has summarized accounts of such usages of local chert (using the archaeological term “flint”) as well as potential usages of the chert, culled from the geological and other literature. For more information on chert, granite, and sandstone millstones of Missouri see Hockensmith (2004, 2009). The Kissee millstone, once owned by the last owner of the Kissee Mill (which was located ~11 mi east of Branson) is the most unusual, as it is made of dolomite, an uncommon material for millstones.

Figure 29. Overshot water wheel providing power to Edwards Mill in Point Lookout, Missouri.

SUMMARY

Figure 30. Pair of French buhr millstones at Edwards Mill. Stone to the left is the runner stone and has plaster on its top (side facing to the right). Stone to the right is the bedstone. The millstones are composite, made of polygonal pieces of French buhr.

This field trip provides an overview of the connections between southwestern Missouri culture and geology. The geologic setting and rich cultural heritage are intertwined in the saga of the Civil War and post-war eras. This karstic landscape was the stage and backdrop for historical events; geology is the underpinning of geomorphic characteristics that affected military actions (high ground, slope, terrain, and mobility). Each factor played a role in the conduct of war at the Battle of Wilson’s Creek, Zágonyi’s Charge, and the Battle of Springfield. Springs, creeks, agricultural products, and forage dictated locations of encampments and troop movements. These also were the principal factors in the development of transportation networks. Local millstones, dimensional building stone, lead and zinc, agricultural lime, cement, and limestone aggregate are the products of an industrious people. French buhr millstones, Vermont marble gravestones, and Italian marble statuary were employed only where imported products were perceived to be superior to local material. Understanding the connections between geology and culture provides for place-based learning and deeper awareness of the fundamental role of geoscience education.

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ACKNOWLEDMENTS Jeffrey Patrick, librarian of the Wilson’s Creek National Battleground, and Robert Neumann, Greene County Archives and Records Center, Springfield, Missouri, answered numerous queries and provided key sources of information used in this study. Patrick also made a number of corrections to the manuscript. Chris Wood, Cleveland Public Library; Wendy Wasman, Cleveland Museum of Natural History Librarian; Michele Hansford, Powers Museum, Carthage, Missouri; Sally McAlear, Springfield, Missouri; and Renee Glass, the Library Center, Springfield, Missouri, provided additional information and materials. Many of the stone samples studied are from the Wellington Collection of the Mineralogy Department of the Cleveland Museum of Natural History. Kathleen Farago, Cleveland Heights/University Heights Library, and Douglas Dunn and Evan Scott, Cleveland Museum of Natural History, proofread versions of the manuscript. George Davis, Missouri Department of Transportation, also commented on the manuscript. Freddie Flores provided information on the Phenix quarries. Dave Richter at Phenix Quarry made it possible to visit the working area. Cecil Ward provided information on dimension stone at the Carthage Marble quarry. The staff at a museum in Carthage found and kindly returned Hannibal’s lost field notebook. The Americold Realty underground storage facility in Carthage allowed access to their facilities. John Greismer provided access for the field trip to Springfield Underground. Photographs in this article were taken by J. Hannibal in May 2009; other illustrations, including maps, were drafted by K. Evans. The National Association of Geoscience Teachers provided sponsorship for this trip. Shermon Lundy, Cedar Falls, Iowa, and Michele Hansford provided formal reviews of the paper. REFERENCES CITED Aber, J.S., Aber, S.W., Manders, G., and Nairn, R.W., 2010, this volume, Route 66—Geology and legacy of mining in the Tri-state district of Missouri, Kansas, and Oklahoma, in Evans, K.R., and Aber, J.S., eds., From Precambrian Rift Volcanoes to the Mississippian Shelf Margin: Geological Field Excursions in the Ozark Mountains: Geological Society of America Field Guide 17, doi: 10.1130/2010.0017(01). Anderson, E.M., 1868, Memoirs: historical and personal including the campaigns of the first Missouri Confederate brigade: Times Printing Company, St. Louis, Missouri, 436 p. Andrews, W.M., Jr., 2005, Geology and the Civil War in central Kentucky: Camp Nelson: Field trip guidebook for the 42nd Annual Meeting of the American Institute of Professional Geologists, 25 p., http://www.uky.edu/ KGS/geoky/fieldtrip/2005%20AIPG%20Guidebooks/CampNelson.pdf. Anonymous, 1872, A soldier’s monument: Missouri Weekly Patriot, 12 December, p. 3. Anonymous, 1901, Blow, Henry Taylor, in Conrad, J.L, ed , Encyclopedia of the history of Missouri: New York, Southern History Company, v. 1, p. 305–306. Anonymous, 1913, Stone bid for the Missouri Capitol: Stone, v. 34, p. 636. Anonymous, 1917, The Missouri State Capitol: Stone, v. 38, p. 301–303. Anonymous, 1956, Missouri marble is world known: Missouri News Magazine, October, p. 26–27. Anonymous, 2009, Repairs planned for cracks in Tomb of the Unknowns: New York Times, November 1, p. A30. Ball, D.B., and Hockensmith, C.D., 2007, Preliminary directory of millstone makers in the eastern United States, in Ball, D.B., and Hockensmith,

C.D., Millstone Studies: Papers on their Manufacture, Evolution, and Maintenance: Special Studies no 1, Symposium on Ohio Valley Urban and Historic Archaeology, Murray, Kentucky, and Society for the Preservation of Old Mills, East Meredith, New York, p. 1–9. Bauer, A., Hannibal, J.T., Hanson, C.B., and Elmore, J.V., 2002, Distribution in time, provenance, and weathering of gravestones in three northeastern Ohio cemeteries: The Ohio Journal of Science, v. 102, p. 82–96. Bearss, E.C., 1978, Historical base and ground cover map Wilson’s Creek National Battlefield, Greene and Christian Counties, Missouri: unpublished report in the files of the library of the Wilson’s Creek National Battlefield, 125 p. Bennett, L.O., 1966, A soldier’s diary: White River Valley Historical Quarterly, v. 2, no. 9, p. 7–11. Blow & Kennett, 1862, Letter to Abraham Lincoln, Monday, December 01, 1862: Abraham Lincoln Papers at the Library of Congress, Series I, General correspondence: http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/P?mal:1./ temp/~ammem_2yxU (accessed January 2010). Bradbury, J.F., Jr., 1984, Fort No. 5: A Civil War field fortification in Springfield, Greene County, Missouri: unpublished report in the files of the library of the Wilson’s Creek National Battlefield. Branson, E.B., 1944, The geology of Missouri: University of Missouri Studies, v. 19, no. 3, 535 p. Branson, E.B., and Mehl, M.G., 1941, Conodonts from the Keokuk Formation: Journal of Scientific Laboratories of Denison University, v. 35, p. 179–188. Bray, R.T., 1967, An archeological survey and excavations at Wilson’s Creek Battlefield National Park, Missouri, 168 p. Brewster, B.B., 1914, Quarrying marble at Phenix, Missouri: Mine and Quarry, v. 8, p. 791–796. Britton, W., 1899, The Civil War on the border: New York, Putnam’s Sons, 473 p. Buckley, E.R., and Buehler, H.A., 1904, The quarrying industry of Missouri: Missouri Bureau of Geology and Mines, v. 2, series 2, 371 p. Buckley, E.R., and Buehler, H.A., 1906, The geology of the Granby area: Missouri Bureau of Geology and Mines, v. 24, series 2, 120 p. Bullard, L., 2001, Springs in the Civil War, in Bullard, L., Thomson, K.C., and Vandike, J.E., eds., The Springs of Greene County, Missouri: Missouri Department of Natural Resources Geological Survey and Resource Division, Water Resources Report no. 68, p. 11–12. Bullard, L., Thomson, K.C., and Vandike, J.E., 2001, The Springs of Greene County, Missouri: Missouri Department of Natural Resources Geological Survey and Resource Division, Water Resources Report no. 68, 120 p. Bullard, L., 2008, Jordan creek, story of an urban stream: Watershed Committee of the Ozarks, Springfield, Missouri, 21 p. Caporaso, A.L., Carlson-Drexler, C.G., and Masters, J., 2008, Metallurgical analysis of shell and case shot artillery from the Civil War battles of Pea Ridge and Wilson’s Creek: Technical Briefs in Historical Archaeology, v. 3, p. 15–24. Carthage Marble Corporation, ca. 1956, Carthage Marble: Carthage, Missouri, Carthage Marble Corporation, AIA File 22-A-2, 44 p. Carthage Marble Corporation, 1959–1970, Marble of the Month: Carthage, Missouri, Carthage Marble Corporation, [individual issues]. Carthage Press, 1889, [illustration of Carthage Marble & White Lime Co.]: Carthage Press, Special fair Issue, Sept 12, 1889, p. 3. Also available at http://cdm.sos.mo.gov/u?/riches,319. Chapman, C.H., 1975, The archaeology of Missouri, I: Columbia, University of Missouri Press, 288 p. Cole, N., 1881, Report of Capt. Nelson Cole, Fifth Missouri Infantry…May 16, 1861, U.S. War Department, 1881, The War of the rebellion: a compilation of the official records of the Union and Confederate armies: series 1, vol. 3 Washington, D.C., Government Printing Office, p. 10–11. Crabb, B., 1888, Report of Col. Benjamin Crabb, Nineteenth Iowa Infantry, of engagement at Springfield, Mo. in U.S. War Department, The War of the rebellion: a compilation of the official records of the Union and Confederate armies: series 1, vol. 22, part 1, Washington, D.C., Government Printing Office, p. 183–187. Crane, G.W., 1912, The iron ores of Missouri: Missouri Bureau of Geology and Mines, v. 10, series 2, 434 p. Cuffey, R.J., Inners, J.D., Fleeger, G.M., Smith, R.C., II, Neubaum, J.C., Keen, R.C., Butts, L., Delano, H.L., Neubaum, V.A., and Howe, R.H., 2006, Geology of the Gettysburg battlefield: How Mesozoic events and processes impacted American history, in Pazzaglia, F.J., ed., Excursions in Geology and History: Field Trips in the Middle Atlantic States,

Civil War and cultural geology of southwestern Missouri, part 1 Geological Society of America Field Guide 8, p. 1–16, doi:10.1130/2006 .fld008(01). Dale, T.N., 1912, The commercial marbles of western Vermont: U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin 521, 170 p. Edom, C.C., 1963, Missouri sketch book, a collection of words and pictures of the Civil War: Lucas Brothers, Columbia, Missouri, 163 p. Eicher, D.J., 2001, The Longest night: a military history of the Civil War: New York, Simon & Schuster, 990 p. Emerson, B.A.C., 1911, Historic southern monuments: representative memorials of the heroic dead of the southern Confederacy: New York, Neale Publishing Company, 466 p. Evans, K.R., 2010, this volume, Civil War and cultural geology of southwestern Missouri, part 2: Geologic influences on the Battle of Forsyth, guerilla activities, and post-war vigilantism, in Evans, K.R., and Aber, J.S., eds., From Precambrian Rift Volcanoes to the Mississippian Shelf Margin: Geological Field Excursions in the Ozark Mountains: Geological Society of America Field Guide 17, doi: 10.1130/2010.0017(05). Fellows, L.D., 1967, Marble, in Mineral and Water Resources of Missouri, v. 43, p. 147–149. Fenneman, N.M., 1938, Physiography of the eastern United States: New York, McGraw-Hill Book Company, 714 p. Grant, M.H., 1955, The marbles and granites of the world: London, J. B. Shears & Sons, 158 p. Hannibal, J.T., 2007, Teaching with tombstones: Geology at the cemetery, in Shaffer, N.R., and DeChurch, D.A., eds., Proceedings of the 40th Forum on the Geology of Industrial Minerals, 2–7 May 2004, Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana Geological Survey Occasional Paper 67, p. 82–88. Henderson, S.W., 2004, The geology of the Chickamauga Campaign, American Civil War, in Caldwell, D.R., Ehlen, J., and Harmon, R.S., eds., Studies in Military Geography and Geology: Dordrecht, The Netherlands, Kluwer Academic Publishers, p. 173–184. Hess, E.J., Hatcher, R.W., III, Piston, W.G., and Shea, W.L., 2006, Wilson’s Creek, Pea Ridge, and Prairie Grove: A battlefield guide with a section on Wire Road: Lincoln, University of Nebraska Press, 282 p. Higgins, B., 2002, Viewing the Civil War through a geological window: CRM, no. 4, p. 21–25. Hinchey, N.S., 1946, Missouri marble: Missouri Geological and Water Resources Report of Investigations no. 3, 47 p. Hockensmith, C.D., 2004, The millstone industry of Missouri: The Millstone, v. 3, no. 2, p. 29–34. Hockensmith, C.D., 2009, The millstone industry: A summary of research on quarries and producers in the United States, Europe, and elsewhere: Jefferson, North Carolina, McFarland & Co., 269 p. Holcomb, R.I., 1883, History of Greene County, Missouri: St. Louis, Western Historical Company, 919 p. Ingenthron, E., 1980, Borderland rebellion, a history of the Civil War on the Missouri-Arkansas border: The Ozark Mountaineer, Branson, Missouri, 373 p. Kennedy, F.H., 1990, The Civil War battlefield guide: Boston, Houghton Mifflin, 317 p. Knapp, G.E., 1993, The Wilson’s Creek staff ride and battlefield tour: Fort Leavenworth, Kansas, Combat Studies Institute, U.S. Army Command and General Staff College, 93 p. Leffel, James & Co., 1872, Illustrated book of Leffel’s improved double turbine water wheel: Springfield, Ohio, Leffel News Print, 152 p. McClymont, J.J , compiler, 1990, A list of the world’s marbles: Farmington, Michigan, Marble Institute of America, [various paginations, about 280 p.] McCullough, B., 1861, [Letter to Sterling Price, Nov. 10], in U.S. War Department, 1881, The War of the rebellion: a compilation of the official records of the Union and Confederate armies: series 1, vol. 3 Washington, D.C., Government Printing Office, p. 736–737. Middendorf, M.A., ed., 2003, Geologic map of Missouri 1:500,000: Missouri Department of Natural Resources, Division of Geology and Land Survey. Missouri Commandery of the Military Order of the Loyal Legion of the United States (MOLLUS), 2009, http://home.usmo.com/~momollus/BATTLES .HTM (accessed September 2009). Monagham, J., 1955, Civil War on the western border: Boston, Little Brown, 454 p. National Archives, 1986, A Guide to Civil War maps in the National Archives: Washington, D.C., National Archives and Records Administration, 139 p. National Park Service, U.S. Department of the Interior, 2004, Wilson’s Creek National Battlefield, Republic, Missouri: Cultural Landscape Report, 2 v.

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Office of the Quartermaster General, 1967, Records of the Office of the Quartermaster General, Record Group 92, Series 628, Card Record of Headstone Contracts and U.S. Soldiers’ Burials, in Preliminary Inventory of the Records of the Office of the Quartermaster General, Part I: Washington, D.C., National Archives. Phenix Marble Company, 1922, Napoleon Gray Marble: Stone, v. 43, no. 3, p. 123. Phenix Marble Company, ca. 1926, Napoleon Gray: An adaptable marble: New York, Tomkins-Kiel Marble Company, 61 p. Phenix Marble Company, 1927, Napoleon Gray, universally adaptable [advertisement]: Through the Ages, v. 4, no. 11, p. 43. Phillips, B., 2010, Early stone cutters in Missouri: Butler, Missouri, Poplar Heights Farm, http://www.stone.poplarheightsfarm.org/index.htm (accessed January 2010). Piston, W.G., and Hatcher, R.W., III, 2000, Wilson’s Creek: The second battle of the Civil War and the Men who fought it: Chapel Hill, University of North Carolina Press, 408 p. Pittman, W.E., 2000, Geologists and the American Civil War, in Rose, P.F., and Nathanail, C.P., eds., Geology and Warfare: Examples of the Influence of Terrain and Geologists on Military Operations: London, The Geological Society, p. 84–103. Pittman, W.E., 2002, Tullahoma: Terrain and tactics in the American Civil War, in Doyle, P., and Bennett, M.R., eds., Fields of Battle: Dordrecht, Kluwer Academic Publishers, p. 99–115. Porter, J.C., 1888, Report of Col. J. C. Porter, Missouri Cavalry (Confederate), commanding brigade, in U.S. War Department, The War of the rebellion: a compilation of the official records of the Union and Confederate armies: series 1, vol. 22, part 1, Washington, D.C., Government Printing Office, p. 205–207. Powers Museum, Joplin Museum Complex; Missouri Southern State University, Spiva Library Archives and Special Collections; Western Historical Manuscript Collection-Rolla at Missouri University of Science and Technology, 2010, Riches From the Earth, http://www.sos.mo.gov/archives/ mdh_splash/default.asp?coll=riches (downloaded January 2010). Richards, J.M., and Johnson, T., 2002, Water quality, selected chemical characteristics, and toxicity of base flow and urban stormwater in the Pearson Creek and Wilsons Creek basins, Greene County, Missouri, August 1999 to August 2000: U.S. Geological Survey Water-Resource Investigations Report 02-4124, 38 p. Rosecrans, W.S., 1864, Letter to Abraham Lincoln, September 15: Abraham Lincoln Papers at the Library of Congress, Series I, General Correspondence, 1833–1916. Schofield, J.M., 1881, Report of Maj. John M. Schofield, First Missouri Infantry, and Acting Adjutant-General Army of the West, of operations August 1–14, in U.S. War Department, 1881, The War of the rebellion: a compilation of the official records of the Union and Confederate armies: series 1, vol. 3 Washington, D.C., Government Printing Office, p. 57–64. Schroeder-Lein, G.R., 2008, The encyclopedia of Civil War medicine: Armonk, New York, M.E. Sharpe, 421 p. Shelby, J.O., 1888, Report of Col. Joseph O. Shelby, Missouri Cavalry (Confederate), commanding brigade, in U.S. War Department, The War of the rebellion: a compilation of the official records of the Union and Confederate armies: series 1, vol. 22, part 1, Washington, D.C., Government Printing Office, p. 199–205. Sorrel, G.M., 1905, Recollections of a Confederate: New York, Neale Publishing, 315 p. Springfield News Leader, 1959, Lyon monument moved from Public Square to National Cemetery May 1884: News Leader, 31 May. Springfield-Greene County Library District, 2010, Community in Conflict: the impact of the Civil War in the Ozarks: http://www.ozarkscivilwar.org/ (downloaded January 2010). R.P. Studley Company, 1873, Directory of Springfield, Missouri for 1873–74: St. Louis, R.P. Studley Company, 180 p. Swallow, G.C., 1855, The first and second annual reports of the Geological Survey of Missouri, 207 p., 239 p. Thompson, T.L., 1986, Paleozoic succession in Missouri: part 4, Mississippian system: Missouri Department of Natural Resources Division of Geology and Land Survey, Report of Investigations 70, no. 4, 189 p. Thompson, T.L., and Robertson, C.E., 1993, Guidebook to the geology along interstate highway 44 (I-44), in Missouri: Missouri Department of Natural Resources, Division of Geology and Land Survey, Report of Investigation, no. 71, guidebook 23, 185 p.

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Thomson, K.C., 1981a, Geologic map of the Republic 7.5′ quadrangle, Greene and Christian counties, Missouri: Missouri Department of Natural Resources Division of Geology and Land Survey, unpublished map SP8115, 1 sheet, http://www.dnr.mo.gov/geology/statemap/springfield/ SP8115.htm. Thomson, K.C., 1981b, Geologic map of the Brookline 7.5′ quadrangle, Greene County, Missouri: Missouri Department of Natural Resources Division of Geology and Land Survey, unpublished map SP8127, 1 sheet, http:// www.dnr.mo.gov/geology/statemap/springfield/SP8127.htm. Thomson, K.C., 1981c, Geologic map of the Springfield 7.5′ quadrangle, Greene County, Missouri: Missouri Department of Natural Resources Division of Geology and Land Survey, unpublished map SP8142, 1 sheet, http://www.dnr.mo.gov/geology/statemap/springfield/SP8142.htm. Thomson, K.C., 1982, Geologic map of the Ash Grove 7.5′ quadrangle, Greene County, Missouri: Missouri Department of Natural Resources Division of Geology and Land Survey, unpublished map SP8250, 1 sheet, http:// www.dnr.mo.gov/geology/statemap/springfield/SP8250.htm. Thomson, K.C., 1983, Geologic map of the Walnut Grove 7.5′ quadrangle, Greene and Polk counties, Missouri: Missouri Department of Natural Resources Division of Geology and Land Survey, unpublished map SP8378, 1 sheet, http://www.dnr.mo.gov/geology/statemap/springfield/ SP8378.htm. Thomson, K.C., 1986, Geologic Map of Greene County: Watershed Management Coordinating Committee, Springfield, Missouri, 1 sheet [now distributed by the Watershed Committee of the Ozarks]. Totten, J., 1881, Report of Capt. James Totten, Second U. S. Artillery, The War of the rebellion: a compilation of the official records of the Union and Confederate armies: series 1, vol. 3 Washington D.C., Government Printing Office p. 73–75. U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs, 2009, History of government furnished headstones and markers, http://www.cem.va.gov/hist/hmhist.asp (accessed August 2009). U.S. War Department, 1881, The War of the rebellion: a compilation of the official records of the Union and Confederate armies: series 1, vol. 3 Washington, D.C., Government Printing Office, 815 p. Vandike, J.E., 2001, Geologic characteristics of Greene County springs, in Bullard, L., Thomson, K.C., and Vandike, J.E., eds., The Springs of Greene

County, Missouri: Missouri Department of Natural Resources Geological Survey and Resource Division, Water Resources Report no. 68, p. 49–64. Vasvary, E., 1939, Lincoln’s Hungarian heroes: the participation of Hungarians in the Civil War, 1861–1865: Washington, D.C., Hungarian Reformed Federation of America, 171 p. Vierrether, C.B., 1998, Bedrock geology of the Highlandville 7 1/2′ quadrangle, Christian and Stone counties, Missouri: Missouri Department of Natural Resources, Division of Geology and Land Survey, Open-File Report OFM-98-327-GS. Ward, O., 1993, French millstones: notes on the millstone industry at La FertéSous-Jouarre: Reading, England, International Molinological Society, 75 p. Wharton, H.M., Martin, J.A., Rueff, A.W., Robertson, C.E., Wells, J.S., and Kisvarsanyi, E.B., 1969, Missouri Minerals—Resources, production, and forecasts: Missouri Geological Survey and Water Resources Special Publication No. 1, 314 p. Whitfield, J.W., 1981, Underground space resources in Missouri: Missouri Department of Natural Resources Division of Geology and Land Survey, Report of Investigations 65, 65 p. White, F.J., 1881, Report of Major Frank J. White, A.D.C., commanding First Squadron Prairie Scouts, U.S. War Department, 1881, The War of the rebellion: a compilation of the official records of the Union and Confederate armies: series 1, vol. 3 Washington, D.C., Government Printing Office p. 246–247. Wilson, L., 1979, Phenix, a town that is no more: self published by the author, 1 v. (unpaged) [available from Public Libraries of Springfield and Greene County]. Winslow, A., assisted by Robertson, J.D., 1894a, Lead and zinc deposits, Section 1: Missouri Geological Survey, v. 6, 387 p. Winslow, A., assisted by Robertson, J.D., 1894b, Lead and zinc deposits, Section 2: Missouri Geological Survey, v. 7, 763 p. Zen, E-an, and Walker, A., 2000, Rocks and war, geology and the Civil War campaign of second Manassas: Shippensburg, Pennsylvania, White Mane Books, 102 p.

MANUSCRIPT ACCEPTED BY THE SOCIETY 5 FEBRUARY 2010

Printed in the USA


Civil War and cultural geology of southwestern Missouri, part 2: Geologic influences on the Battle of Forsyth, guerrilla activities, and post-war vigilantism Kevin R. Evans* Department of Geography, Geology, and Planning, Missouri State University, 901 S. National Avenue, Springfield, Missouri 65897, USA

ABSTRACT Climate and terrain, especially stream drainage basins and topography, greatly influenced European-American settlement patterns, agricultural practices, transportation networks, and the cultural and economic development of the southern Missouri Ozarks from the early 1800s to the American Civil War (1861–1865). These also were key factors, together with land cover and natural resources, that predicated the course of military operations and tactics during the war. The same factors affected widespread partisan conflicts during the war and vigilantism during the Bald Knobber era, a mid-1880s cultural extension of the Civil War in Taney, Christian, Douglas, and Stone counties. This field trip will examine the geology of selected areas in and around Branson in southwestern Taney County and integrate historical events and anecdotes, which illustrate the influence of geologic factors.

historical context? Ostensibly, the greatest influence may have been the way geology has shaped the landscape of conflicts and battlefields, because the outcomes of these events have molded the political world. Military geology—the study of geological influences on warfare and defense—constitutes a large part of cultural geology. Geology played an important role in the American Civil War because strategic resources, such as coal, iron, lead, and nitrates (saltpeter), were required for waging war, and the landscape was the stage where tactical movements and actions took place (e.g., Kiersch and Underwood, 1998; Zen and Walker, 2000). This field trip guidebook article provides background on the influence of geology during the Civil War and afterward, in and around Branson, Missouri.

INTRODUCTION The study of geologic hazards, commodities, and processes from a historical perspective largely has been relegated to cultural geographers, archaeologists, and historians, but the geological underpinnings of history perhaps can be examined and analyzed most adeptly by geologists. In the developing multidisciplinary field of cultural geology, geologists ask questions such as, what resources made land suitable for settlement? What made soils and landscapes suitable for various types of agricultural production? What fresh-water resources were available? How did the landscape affect transportation systems? What energy and mineral resources could be utilized? What building materials were available? And, how were geological concepts applied within a *[email protected]

Evans, K.R., 2010, Civil War and cultural geology of southwestern Missouri, part 2: Geologic influences on the Battle of Forsyth, guerrilla activities, and post-war vigilantism, in Evans, K.R., and Aber, J.S., eds., From Precambrian Rift Volcanoes to the Mississippian Shelf Margin: Geological Field Excursions in the Ozark Mountains: Geological Society of America Field Guide 17, p. 69–98, doi: 10.1130/2010.0017(05). For permission to copy, contact [email protected]. ©2010 The Geological Society of America. All rights reserved.

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Branson is located in southwestern Taney County ~10 miles (16 km) north of the Arkansas border (Fig. 1). Founded in the 1880s as a railroad town, Branson is a relatively young city (McCall, 1961), but Forsyth, the county seat, was established in 1838, and much of the history of this area is connected with it and the nearby community of Kirbyville (Ingenthron, 1974). The rugged terrain and frontier setting of Taney County may have precluded it from becoming a major battleground during the Civil War, but the strategic significance of the upper White River basin and perceived control of land bordering the Confederacy made it an important objective for both North and South. A brief synopsis of the historical context of the Civil War in Missouri, including economic, political, and military aspects, is given below, along with a post-war account of these conditions in Taney County. The synopsis is followed by a discussion of resources and hazards from historical and geologic perspective. The road log features nine stops that highlight the geology and history of the Branson area. Key elements include faulting; preferential karstification and erosion of Mississippian carbonate uplands; structural control on preservation of pinnacle-like karstfill sandstone features; and development of entrenched meanders in the upper White River Basin. Each had an impact on historical events that transpired across this landscape. HISTORICAL OVERVIEW Missouri in the Civil War The Civil War was arguably the most influential time in the cultural history of the Missouri Ozarks. Missouri has a southern cultural heritage (most settlers came from Kentucky and Tennessee), but geographers and historians regard Missouri as a “border state” (Rafferty, 1980). The term “border state” is descriptive of a “slave state” that bordered by one or more “free states” (Phelps and Watson, 1862). Kentucky, West Virginia, Maryland, and Delaware were also border states. Although commonly couched in terms of states’ rights versus Federalist thought, the war was inextricably linked with slavery. The 1860 U.S. Census records show that Missouri had a large population of slaves, ranking eleventh in the United States, which was a larger slave population than Arkansas or Florida. Missouri also was the sixth most populous state in the Union so the relative proportion of slaves (9.7%) was comparatively low. The largest slave-holding areas in Missouri were in the central part of the state along the Missouri River and in the southeast (Phelps and Watson, 1862), areas that roughly are coincident with the central lowlands province of Fenneman (1938) and the location of prairies, wide floodplains, and loess deposits that were suitable for large-scale agricultural operations (Fig. 2A–2C). This pattern also is coincident with the early settlement patterns, mostly along the Missouri River and west of the northern extent of the Ozarks. The Ozarks, in contrast, had a relatively small population of slaves, partly because the land was not suitable for large-scale agriculture and because it was populated by hill folk

from Tennessee and Kentucky who generally held the concept of slavery in low regard (Ingenthron, 1974; Rafferty, 1980). Politically, Missouri was a land divided; even though the vast majority were neither slaveholders nor avid supporters of Union or Confederate causes, they sought to maintain the status quo. They were conditional Unionists. Even pro-southern leaders like Sterling Price preferred armed neutrality for Missouri prior to the onset of conflict. Castel (1968) placed the events into a geopolitical context in his biography of Price; a summary is given below. Missouri, despite its southern cultural leanings, effectively remained in the Union throughout the war, largely because Federal troops marched on the state capital, Jefferson City. Having driven out the pro-southern government, pro-Union legislators declared the government offices vacant and installed a provisional governor, Hamilton Gamble. Considering this to be an illegal act, the elected but pro-secession Governor Claiborne Jackson appointed Sterling Price, a Mexican War hero, as head of the Missouri State Guard. This faction had broad support over much of rural Missouri, and they viewed the Federal takeover of state government as a foreign invasion and occupation. The ranks of many Union military units were filled with newly immigrated Germans, who spoke little or no English. Missourians with southern leanings referred to them as “Dutch.” The immigrant Germans had settled in the St. Louis area and along the lower (eastern) Missouri and Mississippi rivers, areas that still have large populations with German ancestry, particularly between Jefferson City and St. Louis. Jackson and Price recruited troops across Missouri and trained them during the summer of 1861 at Cowskin Prairie in McDonald County in extreme southwestern Missouri. Following southern victories at the Battle of Wilson’s Creek (Oak Hills), 10 August 1861 (see Hannibal and Evans, this volume), and the Siege of Lexington, 13–20 September 1861, the pro-southern government convened in Neosho, Missouri, and declared the secession of Missouri from the United States on 31 October 1861, which the Confederate Congress promptly recognized. Historians and legal scholars still debate the legitimacy of Missouri’s act of secession, and as a consequence of this confusion, Missouri is sometimes portrayed as a Union, Confederate, or a border state (implying mixed loyalties) on post–Civil War maps. The Soldiers’ Database in the Missouri Archives (http:// www.sos.mo.gov/archives/soldiers/abstract.asp) contains 308,000 records listing ~139,000 Missourians, Union and Confederate, who served in the Civil War. Many loyalists to the Union enlisted into the U.S. Army (Regulars), Missouri State Militia, or later, the Enrolled Missouri Militia. Missouri was placed under martial law with a district and local-level system of provost marshals, which provided a framework for justice. Missouri State Guard parolees and citizens whose allegiance to the Union was questioned were required to swear oaths and post loyalty bonds. Aiding or abetting rebel activities were grounds for fines, banishment, imprisonment, or summary execution. Rather than submit to this, many pro-southern families became refugees moving to southern-held territory. Many men with southern political views enlisted in the

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Figure 1. Geologic map and shaded relief map of southwestern Taney County, Missouri. Field trip stops, numbered 1–9, are indicated in filled black circles. The Branson Convention Center is indicated by white star in filled black circle. Geology and original geologic map modified from Thomson (1982b).

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Confederate Army (Regulars) or Missouri State Guard. Others took up arms in the partisan conflict, or they tried to weather the consequences of war, tending their land and attempting to protect their families from the ravages of war. The Civil War devolved rapidly in southern Missouri and northern Arkansas from large-scale conflicts to widespread parti-

san fighting (Nichols, 2004, 2006). Early in March 1862, a Union victory at the Battle of Pea Ridge, Arkansas, bolstered Union control of Missouri (Fig. 3). Many of the pro-southern Missouri State Guard were sworn into the Confederate Army. Sterling Price was commissioned a Major General in the Confederate Army, and Missouri Confederates were ordered from the Trans-Mississippi

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Civil War and cultural geology of southwestern Missouri, part 2 theater to the western theater in Mississippi and Tennessee (Castel, 1968, p. 82). This resulted in de facto Union control of Missouri for the next two years. In 1862, the last major conflict in the TransMississippi was the Battle of Prairie Grove in northwestern Arkansas (Fig. 3), another Union victory. It was not until 1864, during Price’s Second Expedition, that any consequential effort was made by Confederate forces to take Missouri. Between the withdrawal of Confederate forces in Missouri in early 1862 until the end of the war, Missouri experienced one of the most notorious guerrilla conflicts to take place on American soil (Nichols, 2004, 2006).

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The area with the most strongly pro-southern populations was centered between Boonville, in central Missouri along the Missouri River, and Kansas City, where the majority of slave owners lived and a pre-Civil guerrilla war with Kansan abolitionists alternately had raged and smoldered since the mid-1850s. Southern guerrilla leaders included William Clarke Quantrill and William T. “Bloody Bill” Anderson. Quantrill led the infamous raid on Lawrence, Kansas, on 21 August 1863. Anderson perpetrated the Centralia massacre on 27 September 1864. After the Civil War, former guerrillas like the James and Younger brothers

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Springfield

Poplar Bluff

Belmont

Old Ft. Wayne

Harrisonville

Clark's Mill

Newtonia Pea Ridge Fayetteville Prairie Grove Cane Hill

Batesville

Poplar Bluff New Madrid

Harrisonville

Batesville

1863 St. Joseph

Kansas City Lawrence

St. Joseph

Hannibal

Marshall

1864

Kansas City Westport Byram's Ford

Hunter’s Column Calloway

Hannibal

Lexington Little Blue Independence

Calloway

St. Louis

Jefferson City Shelby’s Column

Glasgow

Jefferson City

St. Louis

Marais des Cygnes Mine Creek Osceola

Osceola Shelby’s Raid (Sept.-Oct.)

Marmiton River Fort Davidson

Baxter Springs

Springfield

Cape Girardeau

Springfield

Hartville

Marmaduke’s 2nd Expedition (April-May) Marmaduke’s 1st Expedition Poplar Bluff (Jan.-Feb.)

Springfield

Newtonia

Price’s Expedition (Sept.-Oct.) Poplar Bluff

Chalk Bluff

Cabin Creek Fayetteville

Harrisonville

Pochahontas Batesville

Fayetteville

Harrisonville

Batesville

Ft. Pillow

Figure 3. Major Civil War battlefields in Missouri and adjacent areas, 1861–1864, recognized by the National Park Service American Battlefield Protection Program. Battles indicated by crossed swords. Missouri State Guard and Confederate campaigns are shown in light gray.

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achieved mythic hero status among west-central Missourians (Petersen, 2003; Stiles, 2002). A variety of names have been applied to the pro-southern guerrillas who operated in Missouri, including partisan rangers or bushwhackers. The image of guerrillas as strictly proConfederate, however, is inaccurate. Kansas “jayhawkers” and “red legs” led by Jim Lane and Charles “Doc” Jennison, respectively, were equally notorious. Lane looted and burned Osceola on 23 September 1861, killing several civilians and robbing the bank and personal effects from homes. The depredations and hardships that faced the citizens of Missouri during the war, loyalist and secessionist, were many (Nichols, 2004, 2006). Prosouthern guerrillas such as Sam Hildebrand (Hildebrand et al., 1870) targeted the “Dutch” and former neighbors, who killed two of his brothers and an uncle, drove his mother from the family home and burned it, and drove his wife and family into exile in Arkansas. Hildebrand described his motives as simply revenge rather than political. He operated from Green County in northeastern Arkansas and made excursions into southeastern Missouri, especially in the Bootheel and throughout the St. Francois Mountains. In his memoirs, he claimed to have killed more than 100 men. No part of Missouri escaped partisan conflict, but the southern and western borders were particularly dangerous (Nichols 2004, 2006). In 1863, my great-great-grandfather (aged ~60) and great-grandfather (aged 13) and other family members were among the refugees who left Washington County, Missouri for western Illinois. The horrific raids on Osceola and Lawrence and the massacre at Centralia were not isolated events. Atrocities were committed on both sides, and they date back to the Border War between Kansas and Missouri. The Marais de Cygnes massacre at Trading Post, Kansas, on 19 May 1858 involved the cold-blooded killing of five abolitionists (six others survived). Geologically, the site of the Marais de Cygnes massacre is on a butte-like outlier of Pennsylvanian limestone of the Kansas City Group perched on a slope-forming shale succession (Seevers, 1969); it was within a stone’s throw of the Missouri border. The impact of this event probably was pivotal in igniting the Civil War. John Brown built a fort at that site following the atrocity. The following year he led the raid on Harper’s Ferry. The borderland in northern Arkansas held a large force of pro-southern guerrillas. A letter from Capt. John Worthington, 1st Arkansas Cavalry (Union), reported depredations committed by refugees (secessionists) from Missouri (United States War Department, 1888, p. 780–781). The sanction of draconian countermeasures by Col. William Weer, the Union commander at Carrollton, Arkansas, dated 4 April 1863: …the forage trains of this command are repeatedly fired into on Osage Fork of Kings River by lawless men, who secret themselves in the bushes and are encouraged and entertained by the inhabitants in that vicinity, you are therefore instructed to proceed to said neighborhood with the wagons placed in your charge, destroy every house and farm etc. owned by secessionist, together with their property that cannot be made available to the army; kill every bushwhacker you find; bring

away the women and children to this place, with provision enough to support them, and report to these headquarters upon your return. (United States War Department et al., 1888, p. 197–198)

Guerrilla activities in this area continued throughout the war. On 16 April 1864, Col. John E. Phelps, Union commander of the 2nd Arkansas Cavalry and former slave owner who lived in Springfield, Missouri, wrote of the killing and mutilation of six African-American teamsters, ambushed on the Kings River as they were transporting forage for the Union (United States War Department, 1888, p. 889–890). By the end of the Civil War, southern Missouri largely was depopulated. Aftermath of the Civil War After the war, the population rebounded quickly as refugees returned (Table 1). Many of the former southern sympathizers had either lost their land or were squatters on open range that extended across the upland hills. Union veterans and their families came to settle in Taney County after the war, buying land under the Homestead Act of 1862 (Kalen and Morrow, 1993). From the late 1860s to the 1880s, “radical” Republicans controlled Missouri politics (Parrish, 1973), but Taney County was populated mostly by Democrats. The Democrats were predominantly Confederate veterans, whose families descended from the original European-American settlers. Union veterans, with a few notable exceptions, generally were Republicans and “newcomers.” Differing political views, a perceived “land grab” by Union veterans, fencing of open range, and the economic downturn of 1873 were all events that rekindled Civil War animosities in Taney County (Kalen and Morrow, 1993). TABLE 1. U.S. CENSUS DATA FOR TANEY COUNTY, MISSOURI FOR 1840–2008 Year Population 2008 47,023 (estimated) 2000 39,703 1990 25,561 1980 20,467 1970 13,023 1960 10,238 1950 9,863 1940 10,323 1930 8,867 1920 8,178 1910 9,134 1900 10,127 1890 7,973 1880 5,599 1870 4,407 1860 3,576 ** † 1850 4,373 * 1840 3,264 † Free population indicated as 4,272. *Land formerly belonging to Taney County incorporated into Ozark County in 1841. **Land formerly belonging to Taney County incorporated into Stone County in 1851, Douglas County in 1857, and Christian County in 1859.

Civil War and cultural geology of southwestern Missouri, part 2 Spencer (2004) has argued that a culture of violence permeated post-War southern Missouri. In Taney County, between 1865 and 1884, there were 30–40 murders, numerous other crimes, and only one conviction (Hartman and Ingenthron, 1988). To place the crimes in perspective, using U.S. Census data for the population of Taney County (Table 1) and recent Federal Bureau of Investigation Uniform Crime Reports (2008), Taney County had roughly the same per capita murder rate as the city of Baltimore (36 in 100,000), which ranked third in the United States behind St. Louis (47) and New Orleans (64). During the mid-1880s, Taney County was a tough neighborhood. Juries selected from kinfolk, neighbors, and political affiliates were reluctant to find guilt. From this environment, a vigilantism movement took hold. A greatly condensed summary of events concerning the Bald Knobber era is given below; these have been gathered from a variety of sources (Upton, 1939; Castleman, 1944; Mahnkey, 1975; Burrows, 1976; Hartman and Ingenthron, 1988). Nat Kinney, a Union veteran and former saloon owner from Springfield, moved to Taney County to farm in 1882. He was a reputed former prizefighter, and his physical stature, standing over 6 ft, gave him an air of authority. In 1885, Kinney organized a group of twelve men that called themselves the Anti-Horse Thief Association. The ranks of this group quickly swelled, and they proceeded to mete out justice across Taney County as they saw fit. This association was a secret society that had a military-like command structure. They met under cover of darkness on remote hilltops (Snapp Balds) around Kirbyville (Stop 6) but built large bonfires, which clearly signaled their meetings. They wore masks made from flour sacks with cork horns sewn in and further disguised their identity by wearing socks over boots and turning coats inside out. Although one might compare their notorious activities to the Ku Klux Klan, the comparison falls short in that this organization showed no noted racial bias, perhaps owing to the fact that there were few African Americans living in Taney County, and also, their political affiliations generally were Republican. Ironically, Kinney was a Democrat, along with a few of the group who were former Confederate veterans (Hartman and Ingenthron, 1988). At the hilltop meetings, criminal charges and even reputed lapses of moral rectitude were presented and discussed in mock trials for defendants in absentia. Although the group initially was formed to inculcate law and order, it transformed into oppressive extralegal mob justice. Over time, trials for horse thievery and livestock rustling gave way to lesser offenses such as cohabitation of men and women without the sanction of marriage. Lynching or “slicking” (whipping with hickory saplings stripped of bark) of supposed wrongdoers became commonplace. Nightriders drove some families from their land with verbal warnings or by tossing bundles of sticks that would indicate that next time their homes would be burned. It is difficult to assess if all of the acts were actually perpetrated by vigilantes, but in one year, the organization grew to more than 1,000 members (Hartman and Ingenthron, 1988). Most of the old settlers of Taney County resented the usurpation of authority by the Anti-Horse Thief Association, regardless

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of how powerless the County government seemed to be. Some of the old settlers began referring to members of that group as “Bald Knobbers,” and their acts as moral police were “Bald Knobberisms.” Bald Knobberism spread to neighboring Christian, Douglas, and Stone counties. Kalen and Morrow (1993) have argued that many Bald Knobbers also used their power for economic gain. Most of the upland settlers were squatters on unpatented land. Bald Knobbers, in contrast, were mostly tax-paying landowners, and they effectively stopped the practice of open range by driving out those that opposed them. In response, some outraged citizens organized their own group of “Anti-Bald Knobbers,” whose sole purpose was to stand in opposition to the Bald Knobbers. In the 1886 elections, Republicans took control of the county offices. Taney County was a powder keg (Hartman and Ingenthron, 1988). Traveling to Jefferson City, a delegation of Anti-Bald Knobbers requested intervention from Governor Marmaduke, the former Confederate general and cavalry commander who came to power in 1884 when the Radical Republicans were swept from state offices. Governor Marmaduke dispatched his adjutant general, James Jamison, who met with Kinney and other leaders of the Bald Knobbers. The Bald Knobbers and Anti-Bald Knobbers were ordered to disband immediately or Taney County would be placed under martial law. The groups complied verbally, but the troubles of Taney County continued for a few more years as the struggle devolved into factional feuding, including several gunfights. In 1888, Kinney was assassinated. His assailant was acquitted (Hartman and Ingenthron, 1988). The “rough and tumble” frontier aspect of Taney County recorded in historic accounts of the European-American settlement, Civil War, and Bald Knobber eras in part may be attributed to the remoteness and rugged “hill and hollow” landscape of the southern Missouri Ozarks; this landscape also attracted the self-reliant hill people of the southern Appalachians (see Rafferty, 1980). GEOLOGIC OVERVIEW Physiography and Bedrock Geology The Ozarks physiographic province is an upland area that includes much of southern Missouri, extreme southeast Kansas, northeastern Oklahoma, and northern Arkansas. Physiographic sub-provinces include the St. Francois Mountains, the Salem Plateau, the Springfield Plateau, and the Boston Mountains (Fenneman, 1938). Each can be related to bedrock geology (Fig. 2D). The St. Francois Mountains sub-province of southeastern Missouri is composed predominantly of igneous rocks with surrounding basins of siliciclastic and carbonate Middle and Upper Cambrian rocks. Igneous knobs of granite and rhyolite form the highest peaks in the Missouri Ozarks; these are the erosional remnants of at least four caldera complexes that date to ca. 1.4 Ga (Kisvarsanyi, 1976). The Salem Plateau is composed of lower Ordovician dolomite and sandstone units; the Salem Plateau

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forms the middle part of the Ozarks. Middle Ordovician through Devonian rocks are largely missing from this area but are found on the eastern periphery of the St. Francois Mountains and in the southwestern Ozarks of Oklahoma and Missouri. In western Missouri, the sub-Mississippian unconformity truncates lower Ordovician strata. Lower and middle Mississippian strata comprise the Springfield Plateau. These are predominantly limestones with lesser amounts of siliciclastics and nodular to bedded chert. The terrain of the Springfield Plateau and Salem Plateau differ significantly. It is difficult to imagine one is in the “Ozark Mountains” in Springfield because it is so flat, and it is difficult to envision the Salem Plateau as a former flat plateau because long-term erosion has dissected the landscape into steep hills and narrow hollows. The only relatively broad, flat area of the Salem Plateau is found around the town of Salem. Besides topography and bedrock, the plateaus differ in other significant ways. Land use on the Springfield Plateau is mostly small-scale farming with prairie hay production and grazing being the main activities. The Salem Plateau is more heavily forested so cattle and hay production are more limited, and forestry is a major component of the rural economy. Hardwoods are the primary timber harvested. American Stave Company near Lebanon, Missouri is a major supplier of oak barrels for whiskey and wine producers. Other wood products include oak flooring. Pennsylvanian strata of Morrowan and Atokan age form the high hills of the Boston Mountains in northern Arkansas on the southern edge of the Ozarks. A few Pennsylvanian channel sands have been mapped on the Springfield Plateau (Anderson, 2003). Most of these overlie the middle Mississippian strata although a few paleo-valleys are incised into the carbonates. Most are oriented in a north-south direction. Bretz (1965) considered that arrangement of the plateaus was weathering away due to successive stages of peneplanation, a view that is not widely accepted with regard to current thought on landscape evolution. The ages of uplifts or flexures related to tectonism remains poorly constrained. Tectonism and Uplift of the Ozark Dome The main episode of uplift in the Ozarks is thought to have been Pennsylvanian in age, but a substantial part of it could have occurred earlier. The St. Francois Mountains have been a positive element since the development of Precambrian caldera complexes. Cambrian sandstones and carbonate lap out against the resistant igneous knobs. The earliest phases of flexure and uplift in the western Ozarks probably occurred during latest Devonian or earliest Mississippian time (Cruz and Evans, 2007). The Upper Devonian Chattanooga Shale is beveled and truncated with angular discordance below the sub-Mississippian unconformity in extreme southwestern Missouri. New road cuts along Highway 71 in McDonald County show this angular discordance. Lower Ordovician Cotter and Jefferson City dolomites are progressively truncated below this unconformity from McDonald to St. Clair County, Missouri, near Osceola. In the eastern Ozarks of northern Arkansas, the Silurian Brassfield Formation crops out below this

surface; elsewhere in Arkansas, the St. Peter Sandstone, Everton Formation, and Powell Dolomite are preserved. Assuming the cumulative thickness of units below the unconformity is correlated with the total thickness of strata cut out, the missing section would amount to ~1400 ft. (425 m)(Cruz and Evans, 2007). During the middle Mississippian, at least portions of the Ozarks were at or near sea level (sea level at that time). Depositional facies of the equivalent of the Burlington-Keokuk reflect that the St. Francois Mountains region was a positive element that affected sedimentation. Articulate brachiopod specimens referable to Orthotetes keokuk have been recovered from sandstone blocks in float within the Crooked Creek structure in southern Crawford County, about ten miles south of Steeleville (Mulvany, 2004). These indicate shallow marine deposition of siliciclastic rather than carbonate strata, which are found over much of eastern, central, and southwestern Missouri. If one argues that the elevation of the sub-Mississippian unconformity places some constraint on subsequent uplift of the Ozark Dome, along the Buffalo River in the Ponca 7.5 min quadrangle, the elevation of the unconformity is ~335 m above sea level (Hudson and Murray, 2003). At Dewey Bald (near Stop 1) the elevation is 370 m. Constrained by water-well drill cutting logs at the Springfield Southwest Power Plant, the surface is at 285 m. Approximately ten miles to the north near the Springfield sanitary landfill, it is 315 m. At Osceola, in the type area of the Osagean Series, the elevation is around 215 m. PostMississippian faults, including the Ten O’Clock Run (Stop 1) have offset the surface of the unconformity in the Branson area and elsewhere, but the general trend is for regional dip less than 1° to the northwest from around the Arkansas-Missouri state line. The range of values for the elevation of the sub-Mississippian unconformity suggests that the movement of isolated blocks was little more than 100 m in magnitude, a small amount for such an expansive area. The uppermost Mississippian strata are mostly missing in southwestern Missouri. A few isolated exposures of Meramecian Series strata are found around Eldorado Springs in Cedar County, and a relatively thick succession is preserved near Joplin and Carthage. Chesterian Series rocks, however, are known only from near the Arkansas state line, near the town of Burlington, Arkansas, and in isolated sink-fills in Osagean strata (Thompson, 1986). In contrast, the type area of the Chesterian is relatively thick on the eastern margin of the Ozarks. Above the sub-Pennsylvanian unconformity, seas transgressed portions of southwestern Missouri, mostly northwest of the Springfield Plateau on the southern margin of the Forest City Basin. The Riverton Shale (Atokan Series) is at least partly marine black shale that was deposited in incised paleo-valleys, prior to widespread fluvial sedimentation during the Desmoinesian Series. In Arkansas, thick Atokan siliciclastics filled the Arkoma Basin. Today, these crop out along the crest of the Boston Mountains, some of which are higher than 2500 ft. Docking of the Ouachita allochthon and development of the Arkoma Basin are

Civil War and cultural geology of southwestern Missouri, part 2 thought to have initiated the generation of basinal brines that led to lead-zinc mineralization in the Tri-State District and Northern Arkansas Belt (Bradley and Leach, 2003). Many of the faults were active during the Pennsylvanian (Cox, 2009). The Ozark Dome likely has been uplifted since the Pennsylvanian. Mixed marine and non-marine Cretaceous through Paleocene strata were deposited along the margins of the Mississippi Embayment in the Bootheel of Missouri, but it is unknown whether the sea-level highstand during development of the Cretaceous Western Interior Seaway partly covered the Ozarks; there is no known record of it, other than one isolated site near Glen Allen, Missouri, that has yielded a marginal marine Cretaceous vertebrate fauna found in a karst or structural setting (Parris, 2006; Stinchcomb, 2006). At less than 600 ft elevation, Glen Allen is in the lower foothills of the southeastern Ozarks. Late Cenozoic epeirogenic uplift has long been the prevailing paradigm because of a supposed pre-erosional deposition of the Lafayette gravel (Potter, 1955). The cause of epeirogenic uplift and rejuvenation of the Ozark’s landscape is enigmatic. Despite being underlain by Mesoproterozoic basement, igneous activity has been long-lived in the midcontinent. If igneous activity is an indicator of lower crustal instability, dynamic topography may be related to the influence of mantle upwelling (cf. Conrad and Husson, 2009). Cambrian volcanism is recorded at the Dent Branch and Furnace creek near Belgrade, Missouri; strata-bound igneous flows are interbedded with the Bonneterre Dolomite (Wagner and Kisvarsanyi, 1969). The Avon diatremes and dikes are post-Devonian in age but have not been dated accurately using isotopic geochronology. In southern Illinois, an ultramafic igneous dike near Hick’s Dome, a laccolith along the Wabash Fault zone, has been dated to the Permian (Reynolds et al., 1997). Cretaceous igneous activity in the mid-continent region included emplacement of ultramafic plutons in isolated intraplate settings and along the former margin of Laurentia. Silver City and Rose Dome in eastern Kansas are lamproites. Both intruded Pennsylvanian clastics and carbonates, and ultramafic rocks are exposed at the northern edge of the Silver City Dome (Merriam, 1999; McCauley et al., 2003). Cretaceous intrusives along the suture zone include Magnetic Cove, Arkansas (Eby and Vasconcelos, 2009). The likelihood that igneous intrusives alone were responsible for uplift is remote; most intrusives tend to be localized. Also, it is difficult to argue that igneous activity is an accurate indicator of mantle upwelling. As an alternative hypothesis, a climatic driving mechanism for this episode of uplift is perhaps even more remote. The relative “fixedness” of the interregional unconformities suggests that the Ozarks behaved moreor-less as a widespread, rigid platform. Terrain and Hazards Historical Accounts The hills and hollows of the southern Missouri Ozarks are relatively steep, making travel difficult. Local relief generally is not much greater than 200 m, and most hills are generally ≤100 m

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in relief. Roads that traversed the upper White River valley either followed the sinuous ridge tops before descending into valleys or followed the narrow valleys of tributaries from the headwaters. Stream crossings, which frequently were under flash-flood conditions, made travel perilous. The influence of terrain perhaps is best illustrated from personal accounts. The diary entries of James C. Bates, from Texas, reflected on the rugged terrain in northern Arkansas en route from Van Buren, Arkansas, to Forsyth, Missouri. He noted near Jasper, Arkansas, “The country for the last two days I thought was as poor & rough & rugged as could be but our road today was over a country the poorest, roughest I have ever seen” (Lowe, ed., 2005, p. 92). Priv. Eugene F. Ware of the 1st Iowa Infantry, in his memoirs (Ware, 1907), recalled his march from Springfield to Forsyth prior to the Battle of Forsyth (see Stop 7). The expedition from 20 to 25 July 1861 began during a stifling heat wave that was punctuated by a severe thunderstorm. It rained heavily all the next day. The Union marched along the Ozark Mail Trace (see Fig. 8) to the edge of the Springfield Plateau, where they camped the second evening before descending onto the rugged Salem Plateau the next day. Ware’s notes on the nature of the geology were precise despite the inaccuracy of his speculative stratigraphic correlation with rocks in Kansas: [22 July 1861] We then started southerly over the chert hills. Missouri, in that part, must have been at one time covered with a heavy limestone ledge full of flint nodules. There are places in Kansas on high lands where this vast limestone ledge yet remains, and in the valleys the flints are packed in the bottom of the watercourses. This great ledge had been dissolved in the portion of Missouri of which I am speaking, and the hills were covered with the flint, which is there called “chert.” (Ware, 1907, p. 235–236)

Ware’s comments on the return journey wrote also of the clean fresh water of Ozark streams: [24 July 1861] The country through which we marched, while rough and flinty, was nevertheless a most beautiful country; the hills and groves were captivating, but above all, the springs and streams: they had a crystalline flash and beauty that enchanted us. It had stopped raining, the roads were no longer muddy, and the streams were no longer discolored. They were running with water as pellucid as air and sunlight. …The march of July 24th, although the weather was warm, was the most enchanting and enjoyable of any in the campaign, in spite of the situation and dangers, we often referred to it in our conversations afterwards. (Ware, 1907, p. 245–246)

Franc B. Wilkie, newspaper correspondent from Dubuque, Iowa, was among the entourage on the Forsyth expedition, and he wrote, “The road lay down the mountains—now winding along a stupendous edge, now skirting a ravine of dizzy depths, running up almost perpendicular ascents for miles, or crossing mountain torrents, or running between vast heights and along the rocky channels of the dried-up streams” (Banasik, ed., 2001, p. 121). Flash floods were a major hazard during the Civil War. Lyman G. Bennett, Union contract surveyor, wrote details of the

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landscape and nature of streams in Stone and Taney counties on the trek of Gen. Samuel Curtis’ army from Galena to Forsyth following the Battle of Pea Ridge. In Bennett’s account a teamster perished crossing the James River on 9 April 1862 (in Ingenthron, 1980, p. 174). Bennett also noted, “Bear Creek is of considerable size and after meandering six miles among the hills, empties into Bull Creek. We were obliged to ford it several times and the teams were frequently stalled.” (in Ingenthron, 1980, p. 175). The valley of Bear Creek was along the Springfield-Harrison Road. Difficulties in steam crossings along the road prompted later construction of the Boston Ridge Road (Ingenthron, 1961). Crossing the White River could be treacherous. In dry weather, the river locally was fordable and only a few feet deep but it was nearly a quarter of a mile across; swimming was not among the activities that most residents participated in (it commonly was held that too much bathing could lead to illness). A number of ferries operated on the White River at various times, but these generally ceased during the Civil War. In flood stage, the White River was dangerous because of the current, floating debris, and submerged snags. During high water, crossings at Forsyth were generally made by dugout canoe or by horse. The Turnbo Manuscripts provide anecdotal insight into the dangers of crossing the river under fire during the Civil War. Turnbo relates the following story of John May and two colleagues. “We tied the guns to the pummels of our saddles with the barrels hanging down and fixing the bridles and stirrups so that the horses’ feet would not get tangled up, we were ready to enter into the cold, swift running stream. …When May reached the edge of the water, he stopped and got behind his horse and took hold of his tail and urged him forward into the water, and he and the horse was soon in the embrace of the muddy stream…” (Turnbo, unpublished manuscript, Springfield-Greene County Library, accessed 10 January 2010, http://thelibrary.org/lochist/turnbo/ V1/ST003.html). Geologic and Hydrologic Hazards Geologic hazards are clearly present in the Ozarks. Seismicity of the New Madrid fault zone is the principal threat to the region, although a few rare and small earthquakes have also been recorded elsewhere in the state. Epicenters of the large earthquakes of 1811–1812 that caused extensive damage to the few existing structures of that time were located near New Madrid. U.S. Geological Survey risk maps of the Ozarks region indicate that most damage and severe shaking from a large event on the New Madrid fault would be focused along the Mississippi River valley between Memphis and Cape Girardeau, and to a lesser extent northward to St. Louis (Petersen et al., 2008). Other hazards include mass wasting and catastrophic karst collapse. Rockfall is an ever-present danger along steep bluffs. Freeze-thaw cycles and attendant frost wedging help to loosen blocks. Beveridge and Vineyard (1990) documented the collapse of a large bluff along the Gasconade River in Pulaski County near Waynesville. The collapse occurred in November 1971, and debris partially blocked the river. In the early 1980s, a 3-ft-

thick, 4 by 10 ft block of dolomite rolled end-over-end on a 250 ft journey from the top of a bluff next to Powersite Dam into Lake Taneycomo; it narrowly missed the author by 25 ft. Numerous large blocks along the White River and elsewhere attest to the danger. Catastrophic karst-cover collapse is a more subtle danger. These can pose a risk to property and they are relatively common, but the risks they pose to people are marginal. During the Civil War there were no major events, seismic or otherwise that were widely reported. The principal natural hazard of Missouri is flooding. In 2008, 12 fatalities were reported in Missouri, the most in the nation (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Office of Services, 2009). On the Springfield Plateau, heavy rains tend to gather in relatively low-relief valleys or to pond in sinkholes. In contrast, the generally abundant precipitation mixed with hilly terrain on the highly dissected landscape of the Salem Plateau provides for rapid rises of stream levels, large flow volumes, and relatively rapid returns to normal flow conditions. Many rural stream crossings are low-water bridges, which are essentially culverts with ramp-like cement approaches. It is common for drivers to misjudge the force of flowing water. According to the National Weather Service “Turn Around, Don’t Drown” program, three factors contribute to flood-related vehicle mishaps: (1) buoyancy counteracts the weight of a vehicle, (2) the lateral pressure of water (weight of 62.4 pounds/ft3) increases with the square of the velocity, and (3) loose substrates of sand and gravel reduce traction. It is sometimes difficult to judge water depth and assess the condition of the substrate in floodwaters. As a consequence, most vehicles can be swept from the lower-water crossings in 2 ft of water (National Weather Service, http://www.floodsafety.noaa. gov/tadd.shtml, accessed 9 February 2010). Although it is not a geologic or hydrologic risk, tornadoes are a seasonal concern for the citizens of Taney County. A massive tornado struck the town of Melva, a lead-zinc mining town three miles south of Hollister along Turkey Creek, on the morning of 11 March 1920. The storm killed several people and leveled the town. It was never rebuilt. We will pass near the town site when we drive south along Highway 65 to Stop 3. Strategic Resources Prehistoric and Historic Context The oldest known geological resource and probable trade commodity in Missouri was chert (Ray, 2007). Native Americans made extensive use of chert nodules and beds that cropped out in many parts of the Ozarks, particularly on the Springfield Plateau, where high-quality Mississippian cherts, such as the Burlington, were used for manufacture of stone tools. Artifacts made of Burlington chert have been found in archaeological sites surrounding the Ozark region. Historically, chert also was used for the manufacture of gunflints, but many imported European gunflints also were used (Ray, 2007). Other resources of the southern Missouri Ozarks were strategically important during the Civil War (Table 2). These include

Civil War and cultural geology of southwestern Missouri, part 2 galena, iron, and potassium nitrate (saltpeter). The main lead mining and smelting operation in southwestern Missouri was at Granby in Newton County. This area was securely in Confederate control early in the war. An estimated 75,000 pounds of pig lead was transported overland to Van Buren, Arkansas, where it was then shipped to Memphis for the manufacture of ordnance (Myers, 2009). Eventually, the mines at Granby fell into Union hands. The area around Granby was hotly contested; at least six skirmishes and one pitched battle were fought at Newtonia, east of Neosho, the county seat (Ingenthron, 1980). The Old Lead Belt in southeastern Missouri was mostly in Union control during the war. Other lead mines were located on the Springfield Plateau west of Springfield near the present-day community of Bois D’Arc and east of Springfield along Pearson Creek near presentday Turners Station, type area of the Pierson Limestone. A small mining area in upper Swan Creek in Christian County provided another local source of galena. With smaller mining areas, it was common practice to smelt the small quantities of ore in stumps (Ingenthron, 1974). Iron ore (magnetite) was mined at the Pilot Knob Mine in Iron County, Missouri. Other mining operations were mostly for bog ore (hematite in sinkholes), such as the old iron works at Meramec Spring near St. James, Missouri. Mines were the prin-

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cipal reason for the railroad spur lines to Rolla and Pilot Knob. Iron mines generally were held by Union forces, until the Battle of Fort Davidson at Pilot Knob in 1864. After a nominal victory over a smaller Union force that escaped, these resources were never used effectively by the Confederacy. Bat guano was mined from several caves in southern Missouri. Potassium nitrate crystals (75% by volume), extracted from guano, were combined with charcoal (15%) and sulfur (10%) to make gunpowder (Schultz, 1937, p. 129–130). Understory trees, such as dogwood and alder, were used for charcoal because of their low content of volatiles. Sulfur was a byproduct of the smelting galena. Saltpeter was such an important commodity during the war that a small skirmish was fought at Saltpeter Cave near Talbot’s Ferry in northern Arkansas. Saltpeter was being shipped down the White River then up the Mississippi River to Memphis for processing, but following the Battle of Pea Ridge, General Curtis dispatched a detachment of the 14th Missouri State Militia from Forsyth (Stop 7) to destroy the works (Ingenthron, 1980; Keefe and Morrow, 1994). Agricultural productivity was important during the Civil War. The welfare of man and beast depended on forage and the mobility of supply trains (wagon trains). Reports on forage are commonly included in the Official Records. For example, in his report on the Forsyth Expedition in July 1861, Brig. Gen.

TABLE 2. STRATEGIC AND TACTICAL RESOURCES OF MISSOURI DURING THE CIVIL WAR Resources, uses, productivity, and locations Agricultural resources Cotton, fiber (export and domestic textiles)—limited production in Missouri. Forage, sustenance (fruit, garden vegetables, grains, nut crops, hay, pastures, and livestock)—variable productivity; mostly in valleys, flat highlands, and isolated prairies. Forests, building materials and energy resources (cedar, pine, and oak and other hardwoods)—productivity seemingly limitless; pines preferred for building; hardwoods used for framing, flooring, wagon wheels, furniture, etc.; oak used for cooperage; cedar fence posts and shake shingles; charcoal used for gunpowder manufacture; all woods useful for fuels; pine forests limited to southernmost part of Missouri and St. Francois Mountains. Hemp, rope manufacture and fiber—limited to areas along western part of Missouri River; the Battle of Lexington was known as the Battle of the Hemp Bales because of the improvised use of wet bales for sapping. Tobacco, smoking and chewing—largest production along western part of Missouri River; produced on local farms across Missouri. Energy and mineral resources* Coal, fuel and coke for steel manufacture—mines in Pennsylvanian strata in central Missouri from Osceola to Kansas and northward to Missouri River. Iron, (hematite and magnetite) nails, hardware, guns, and wagon tires—St. James and Pilot Knob; other isolated sinkhole/bog ores across southern Missouri. Lead and zinc, (galena and sphalerite) bullet manufacture and galvanization—high productivity in Old Mines, north of St. Francois Mountains and Granby in southwestern Missouri; limited production at Pierson Creek. Copper and gold, (native elements and chalcopyrite) common and precious minerals—found in trace amounts in glacial drift in northeastern Missouri as early as 1860; copper mining in Jefferson City Dolomite in Ste. Genevieve County. Silver, (ore)—not discovered at Silver Mines area until 1870s; found in traces (along with cobalt, nickel, and tungsten) in Old Lead Belt. Sodium nitrate, (saltpeter) bat guano and limited hay/urine manufacture for gun powder—mostly in south-central Missouri. Stone and brick, building materials—limited use during war; bricks manufactured locally from clay-rich floodplain sediments, clay pits (sinkhole fills), and shale exposures; limestone and sandstone quarried across southern Missouri. Transportation networks Railroads—trunk lines to Ironton, Rolla, Sedalia (via Jefferson City), and St. Joseph. Roads—networks across the state; most following older Native American trail systems. Rivers—full length of Mississippi and Missouri rivers; rarely to Osceola but commonly to Warsaw on the Osage River; to Forsyth on the White River. *From Branson (1944).

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Sweeney noted the poor forage available in the White River basin (United States War Department, Series 1, v. 3, p.44–45). Later in the war, many of the major troop movements occurred during the autumn when crops were due to be harvested. Obviously, gathering forage depended in part on having an extant agricultural base and partly on weather conditions during the growing season. Because areas on the border between Missouri and Arkansas were depopulated, agricultural production was reduced, making forage difficult. Modern Mineral and Material Resources The historic lead and zinc mining areas of southwestern Missouri are no longer in operation. The world famous Tri-State Mining District ceased operations, and many of the former mine tailing sites are now considered environmentally hazardous. Other than surface and underground quarrying operations, the only active lead-zinc mines in Missouri are sub-surface operations on the western perimeter of the St. Francois Mountains along the Viburnum Trend. These continue to be profitable because of the vast richness of the deposits. A growing industry in surficial mining of fluvial chert gravel is reshaping the streams of the Salem Plateau. Front-loaders and dump trucks haul gravel from the exposed bars for washing, grading, and packaging for landscaping uses. Some concerns have been raised concerning the effect of such mining operations on the aquatic and riparian habitats (Thom, 1998). FIELD TRIP OVERVIEW All of the stops on this field trip will be in the Springfield and Salem plateaus sub-provinces (see Fig. 1). Discussion of regional structures is given at Stop 1, below. Stop 2 provides background on the history of land use in the upper White River valley. Aspects of the regional stratigraphy are discussed at Stop 3. Stops 4 and 5 highlight the historic significance of geological anomalies, such as Murder Rocks and Bear Cave on the history of the Missouri border. A brief view of Snapp Balds, prominences that played a role in the post-war vigilantism, will be given at Stop 6. Stop 7 provides an overview of the Battle of Forsyth and historical aspects of the old town site of Forsyth. Powersite Dam, the first hydroelectric dam in Missouri, is visited at Stop 8. Stop 9 is another overlook on the saddle of an entrenched meander in the White River; this location will provide an opportunity for discussing the overall tectonic history of the Ozarks region. FIELD TRIP ROAD LOG The route for this field trip begins at the Branson Convention Center at Branson Landing. Follow Main Street west through downtown Branson, where it joins Highway 76 west. Continue on Highway 76 for ~4.5 miles (7 km), and turn left (south) on Highway 376. Drive ~1 mile to the approach to the bridge across Fall Creek. Park in the pullout lane on the right side.

Stop 1. Ten O’Clock Run Fault The Ten O’Clock Run Fault is a major structural feature in southwestern Missouri. Thomson (1982a, 1982b, 1984) mapped the trace of the fault across southwestern Taney County and into Stone County (Fig. 1). As the name implies, it generally runs in a northwest-southeast direction. It can be traced for ~25 miles (40 km). To the northwest, it passes into the Marvel Cave Fault, which forms the southern boundary of a graben that crosses Indian Ridge near the Silver Dollar City theme park. On the northern side of the graben, the main segment of the fault forms the Ten O’Clock Run Monocline and continues on a more northerly direction to Spokane. More than 100 miles northwest of Spokane, the Chesapeake Fault Zone continues beyond the MissouriKansas border to the Bourbon Arch in eastern Kansas (Fig. 4). South of the White River, near Kirbyville, the Hollister Anticline, a broad open fold, runs parallel to the fault, and the fault zone is recognizable only in isolated segments (Thomson, 1982a). A little farther southeast, it runs along Bee Creek to where it is no longer detectable (Thomson, 1984). However, the trend of the fault continues well into Arkansas, where it was the focus of lead mining activity. Newspaper articles promoted the prospects along the trend of the fault in southwestern Taney County (Anonymous, St. Louis Globe-Democrat, 18–19 September 1899). Drawing a line between Joplin, Missouri, and Buffalo City, the newspaper noted that it passed through the lead mining districts at Granby and Aurora in Missouri and Lead Hill in Arkansas. Melva, near Stop 3, and Bee Creek, just a little south of Stops 5A and 5B in Taney County saw limited mining activity during the early 1900s. Segments along this fault system commonly show little vertical offset, but variously have a transpressional or transtensional expression, suggesting that there was a significant component of oblique slip. Hudson (2000) has shown that a series of complex strike-slip and oblique structures in northern Arkansas were related to the development of a foreland basin on the southern margin of the Ozark Dome with docking of Ouachita allochthon. Fault systems and broad flexure on the southern margin of the Ozarks in southwestern Missouri would comprise the hinterland of this foreland basin. Cox (2009) has argued that structural deformation in this area likely resulted in the transmission of paleo-stress from this oblique collision. He interpreted most of the SE-NW–trending faults as resulting from right-lateral oblique slip. Strata of this area are explored in detail at Stop 3, but this site provides an opportunity to see the lower Ordovician (Ibexian Series) Cotter Dolomite. Exposures along Highway 376 and virtually every other road cut in this area show the cyclic nature of the lower Ordovician. Depositional settings represented range from shallow subtidal to supratidal evaporitic salinas. Overstreet et al. (2003) have argued that meter-scale successions of these facies show the influence of precessional forcing on deposition. Plymate et al. (2003) show that the dominant cycles recorded in the gamma-ray signatures of these strata is nearer the 14-ft

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(4.3 m) spectrum, which could possibly be an obliquity signal where there is a 4:1 bundling of cycles. Lower and middle Mississippian (Kinderhookian and Osagean series) strata unconformably overlie the Cotter Dolomite. Based on the elevation of the sub-Mississippian unconformity north and south of the Ten O’Clock Run Fault, as much as 130 ft (40 m) of vertical displacement (down to the south) is demonstrable locally. The fault trace is not seen at this locality, but dipping strata on the limb of a drag fold on the up-thrown block are exposed in the road cut on Highway 376. To the southwest, the sub-Mississippian unconformity is exposed in the high wall of a quarry (see Fig. 7). This surface can be seen from the bridge. The light gray-green beds of the Northview Formation and reddish beds of the Pierson Limestone are distinctive markers for identifying Mississippian strata from a distance in fresh cuts. The sub-Mississippian unconformity can be identified just below the ~15-feet-thick Compton Limestone, which is exposed below the Northview and Pierson formations. Looking to the north, the base of the Mississippian is visible where cedar glades are replace by hardwood forests on Dewey Bald, easternmost of the high knobs to the north. Ken Thomson (1940–2004), Missouri State University, mapped more than 160 geologic quadrangles in southwestern Missouri; he noted that the thin soils over dolomite bedrock generally support cedar glades, whereas more heavily karsted Mississippian limestones support hardwood (oak-hickory) forests (Thomson, personal commun., 1986). In many areas of southwestern Missouri, the contact between dolomites and limestone is also a sharp contact in vegetation zones that are easily recognized on air photos. On the south side of the White River, south of Kirbyville, highlands along the Ten O’Clock Run Fault preserve Lower Mississippian strata on what is mapped as the downthrown side of the fault in the Mincy 7.5 min quadrangle (Fig. 1; Thomson, 1984). A notable result is that pine and hardwood forests are preserved in this area. Place names such Pine Top School and Pine Mountain reflect the influence of geology as well as biological provincialism as these mark the northern extent of southern pine forests into southwestern Missouri. The field trip route continues southwest on Highway 376, ~0.5 miles, to Highway 265. Turn left on Highway 265 and follow it to the intersection with Highway 165, ~4 miles. Turn right on combined Highways 165/265. The route crosses Table Rock Dam, then winds around Baird Mountain, which is the high hill on the left. Baird Mountain is the type area for the Baird Mountain Member of the Northview Formation (Thompson, 1986); we will see this thin reddish unit at Stop 3. Just east of Baird Mountain Highway 265 splits off to the right. Continue on Highway 165, straight ahead at that intersection. In less than a mile, turn off into overlook parking on left. Stop 2. Table Rock Mountain Overlook This overlook showcases some of the natural beauty of the southern Missouri Ozarks. Other aspects of this view are patently

attributable to human activities, so it is a convenient spot to summarize the natural and human history of this area. The White River is a southern river (Fig. 5); it shares more commonalities, physically and culturally, with Arkansas than most of Missouri. Three forks of the White River flow northward and westward from the Boston Mountains of west-central Arkansas before they merge and turn northeastward, nipping into the southern border of Missouri where the river sinuously threads eastward through Barry, Stone, and Taney counties, before adopting a southeasterly course to the Mississippi River (Fig. 5). The White River debouches into the Mississippi River just a few miles north of the Arkansas River, and its mean discharge rivals that of the Arkansas, which has a considerably longer but semiarid drainage area. The old-growth pre-Columbian wilderness that covered the upper White River Valley was homeland of the Osage, a Native American tribe that now resides in central Oklahoma. The White River was a natural transportation corridor for French trappers and fur traders, who worked closely with the local Osage tribe. Later, displaced eastern tribes, such as the Cherokee, Delaware, Shawnee, and Kickapoo were followed by settlers mostly from Tennessee and Kentucky. The southern immigrants used keelboats and flatboats or traveled overland via the Falenash Military Road in northern Arkansas or Green’s Ferry Road into the upper White River valley. By 1851 steamships plied the waters of the

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Civil War and cultural geology of southwestern Missouri, part 2 White River as far north as Forsyth. By the 1880s, smaller steamboats were able to travel as far as Branson (Ingenthron, 1974). The Ozarks are a land of heavily forested hills and hollows, but these are second-growth forests. From this vantage point, areas to the east were partly suitable for agriculture; to the west was largely wilderness. Because of the expansive forests, railroad ties became a principal commodity following the Civil War. Tie hacking was one of the main livelihoods. Tie rafts up to 300 yards (275 m) long were floated to market down the White River. During the 1880s when railroads finally traversed the hills, tie rafts diminished in importance. Branson and Chadwick, along a railroad line and spur respectively, became important tie-cutting collection centers. By the 1920s the hills were largely deforested and smallscale agricultural operations were the principal land use through the Great Depression, when some forests were reestablished. Today, the Lake Taneycomo headwaters are perhaps the most natural part of the upper White River in Missouri (Fig. 6). Powersite Dam near Forsyth impounds Lake Taneycomo; it was constructed in 1912–1913 as the first hydroelectric dam in Missouri (Stop 8). Lake Taneycomo first became the focus for establishing a tourism economy in southern Missouri. The earliest resort community was Hollister, later it was followed by Rockaway Beach, which by the early 1950s had become a popular destination for college students on Spring Break. The headwaters of Lake Taneycomo, which are directly below the overlook, are drawn from the bottom water of Table Rock Lake. The temperature of the lake water averages around 58 °F, which allowed for introduction of a cold-water, non-native fishery of rainbow trout and German browns. Fishing and hunting add significantly to Missouri’s economy. Table Rock Dam was completed in 1958. Its construction brought the next significant impact, turning this land to an even more popular destination. The number of reservoirs in this area was influential in the founding of the sporting goods retail business Bass Pro Shops. The headquarters store in Springfield is recognized as the number one tourist attraction in Missouri. Silver Dollar City, a theme park that promotes Ozark hill country of the 1880s was established by the Herschend family around Marvel Cave (known formerly as Marble Cave; see Bretz, 1965, p. 157– 165), and it was promoted in the 1960s by some early episodes of the television show “The Beverly Hillbillies.” In the late 1970s, the producers of the television show donated acreage for the Paul and Ruth Henning State Forest in and around Dewey Bald. In the 1980s and 1990s, country and western music shows on the Highway 76 “Strip” became a complementary focus for the burgeoning tourism and entertainment-based economy. A 1991 broadcast of the CBS television news program “60 Minutes,” featuring Branson country music star Mel Tillis, caught the attention of other performers who have since opened musical theaters in the Ozarks. Branson has since become a popular vacation spot for bass and trout fishing, golf, and water recreation, and an influx of retirees further has helped to spur the local economy. As a consequence, the population of Branson has increased rapidly. Land development and construction have transformed the land-

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scape again. One might speculate that sustainability issues may become the next key economic issue in this area. The field trip continues east on Highway 165 to the intersection at the main gate of the College of the Ozarks, where we turn right. The route continues on southbound Highway 65. Turn left into to the Branson Regional Airport. This street becomes Branson Hills Parkway. Follow the road to the airport and return to road cuts just north of the facility. Stop 3. Branson Hills Parkway Road Cuts New road cuts along Branson Hills Parkway near the Branson Regional Airport show some of the complexities associated with stratigraphy in southwestern Missouri (Fig. 7). Lower Ordovician stratigraphic units include the Jefferson City and Cotter dolomites (Ibexian Series). Mississippian units include the Bachelor Formation, Compton Limestone, Northview Formation, Pierson Limestone, and Reeds Spring Formation, the highest unit of the Mississippian succession exposed in these road cuts. Overlying Mississippian units, the Burlington-Keokuk limestones (undivided), including the Short Creek Oölite Member of the Keokuk Limestone, Warsaw, Hindsville, and Batesville formations are exposed farther south along Highway 65. We will pass some of these units in exposures but we will not have time to examine them in detail. As seen in Stop 1, the lower Ordovician Cotter Dolomite (Ibexian Series) is composed of a succession of meter-scale cycles of peritidal dolomites with thin shale beds. The Cotter Dolomite is nearly indistinguishable from the underlying Jefferson City Dolomite. The uppermost member of the Jefferson City Dolomite, the Rockaway Conglomerate, separates these two formations. At this location, identification of the Jefferson City Dolomite is questionable, but dolomitic breccia is found in the lowermost exposures. Facies of the overlying Cotter Dolomite include (1) light tan fine-grained laminated dolomitic grainstone that has sparse sandstone ripples and laminae, (2) light to medium brown structureless dolomitic mudstone, (3) faintly laminated dolomitic mudstone, (4) dolomitized stromatolites and thrombolites, (5) rare burrowed dolomitic mudstone, (6) rare thin beds of dolomitic rip-up conglomerate, (7) medium to thick beds of dolomitic breccia with irregular discontinuous thin sand bodies, (8) thin beds of cross-bedded quartz sandstone, and (9) thin beds of green-gray shale. Overstreet and colleagues (2003) did not visit this location (it had yet to be cut), but it compares favorably with other exposures of the Cotter Dolomite. These rocks were deposited in shallow water ranging from subtidal to supratidal settings. The Lower Paleozoic succession represented here is cut below the sub-Mississippian unconformity. Cruz and Evans (2007) noted that perhaps up to 1400 feet (425 m) of intervening strata preserved across northern Arkansas are represented by hiatus in southwestern Missouri. Flexure and tectonic subsidence on this southern margin of Laurentia may be partly responsible for the upwarping and truncation of lower Ordovician strata. Cruz and Evans (2007) have argued that this likely is an early phase of

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tectonism associated with the Ouachita orogeny that culminated during Pennsylvanian. The sub-Mississippian unconformity can show some angular discordance with local development of karst features and breccia fills. Lower Mississippian (Kinderhookian Series) stratigraphic units include the Bachelor Formation, a thin quartz sandstone and green shale couplet, 1–5 ft (0.3–1.5 m) thick; the Compton Limestone, a carbonate wackestone to mixed clay-rich lime mudstone, 10–15 ft (3.0–4.5 m) thick; and the Northview Formation, a green and red siltstone with minor carbonate cement. The red-weathering Baird Mountain Member constitutes the upper part of the Northview Formation and it is traceable for 10s of km to the west. Middle Mississippian (Osagean Series) stratigraphic units include the Pierson Limestone, a lime mudstone to wackestone locally with red chert, ~75 ft (22.5 m) thick. Only the Cotter Dolomite through Pierson Limestone are exposed at the airport road cuts. Thompson (1986) provides the most up-to-date treatment of Mississippian stratigraphic units and biostratigraphy in southwestern Missouri. Jeremiah Jackson currently is working on the sequence stratigraphy of the lower and middle Mississippian. Jackson first recognized the complexly interbedded carbonate and shaly carbonate facies of the Compton Formation in exposures at the Branson Regional Airport (J. Jackson, 2009, personal commun.). Shale-rich and carbonate-rich bundles of strata lap out onto local topographic highs and partly fill swaley areas in between. Comparable examples have been described as lateral accretion packages or lateral accretion deposits in relatively deep-water settings (Abreu et al., 2003). Jeremiah Jackson (2009, personal commun.) also has identified at least two hardground surfaces in the upper part of the Northview Formation, near the green to red transition in the upper part of the Northview Formation, which can be correlated at least tens of miles. The Kinderhookian Series in southwestern Missouri constitutes one depositional sequence: the Bachelor Formation and lower part of the Compton Limestone were transgressive systems tracts deposits. The upper part of the Compton is the highstand carbonate. The overlying Northview Formation comprises the late highstand to lowstand systems tracts. Thompson and Fellows (1970) and Thompson (1986) noted the reddish gray color of the lower portion of the Pierson Limestone. Exposures near the Branson Airport show this distinctive coloration. Jackson and Evans (2009) have noted that the top of the Pierson Limestone is truncated below the base of the Reeds Spring Formation in McDonald County, which they have interpreted as a sequence boundary. Consequently, the Pierson also constitutes a depositional sequence, but the distinguishable systems tracts have not been recognized in this area. At least one, and possibly two depositional sequences are represented in the Reeds Spring and Elsey formations. J. Jackson (2009, personal commun.) has found evidence of an isolated chert breccia succession in the Elsey Formation. It is likely that at least the upper part of the Elsey through Keokuk are related temporally as facies with broadly diachronous lithostratigraphic contacts. The Burlington and Keokuk limestones are not divided in

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southern Missouri. The distinction between these cross-bedded crinoidal grainstone units is difficult. The Burlington Limestone where it is present generally overlies the Elsey Formation (Thompson and Fellows, 1970). In contrast to the BurlingtonKeokuk below, the Short Creek Oölite Member of the Keokuk Limestone is a shallow-water carbonate that is interpreted as the upper sequence boundary zone in this succession. It marks the top of the Keokuk and the Osagean Series (Thompson, 1986). A little farther south near Burlington, Arkansas, a series of new road cuts have exposed the Warsaw Formation (Meramecian Series), Hindsville Formation, and Batesville Sandstone (both of the Chesterian Series). The base of each formation is a sequence boundary. Tectonism as well as sea-level fluctuations may have influenced their development. One of the most significant novelties of the succession at Branson Regional Airport is in the differentiation between the Springfield and Salem plateaus; they constitute distinctive landforms in the upper White River valley. The Springfield Plateau, underpinned by the Mississippian succession, was more heavily karsted. Sinkholes and linear solution-enhanced fracture zones, now filled with chert residuum and red clay, are obvious in road cuts. The limestones however are not as fractured as the underlying dolomites of the Salem Plateau, and as a consequence, the siliciclastics of the Northview Formation do not form an effective confining layer south of the Ten O’Clock Run Fault, and the water table is relatively low. Historical accounts indicate that freight wagons along the Springfield-Harrison Road south of Kirbyville had to water their teams in the valleys surrounding Pine Mountain (Fig. 8; Prather, 1994). In contrast, the Salem Plateau had abundant but relatively small springs. It is notable that the Rockaway Conglomerate Member of the Jefferson City Dolomite roughly coincides with a gentle change in slope that can be traced around southwestern Taney County (Fig. 8). Many satellite towns and mill sites such as Walnut Grove, Star (Ameera), Swan, and Garrison grew around these springs. The field trip retraces the route along Branson Hills Parkway to Highway 65. Turn left (south) on Highway 65 and drive ~7 miles to Ridgedale, Missouri, where the highway crosses the Missouri-Arkansas state line. Of historical note, Ridgedale was the border town where the notorious robber and murderer Jake Fleagle hid out for several months, masquerading as a chicken farmer (Van Buskirk, 1979; Betz, 2005). In 1928, Jake and his gang, including his brother Ralph Fleagle, Howard Royston, and George Abshier, had robbed a bank in Lamar, Colorado, killing two and kidnapping two. One hostage was released during their getaway. They killed the second hostage. Later, near their hideout in Garden City, Kansas, they killed a doctor who treated a wounded gang member. The gang had attempted to destroy evidence by staging a fiery accident pushing the getaway car off into a ravine. A bloody thumbprint belonging to Jake Fleagle was discovered on a window of the car. The gang split up but robberies continued. Within a few months, three of the gang were captured, tried, and hanged. Postal inspectors and handwriting experts noted

that letters from Jake Fleagle were being posted along the Missouri Pacific line. They finally tracked him to Ridgedale, where he had lived with an accomplice for eight months under the assumed name, Walter Cook. On 14 October 1930, a group of five policemen and three postal inspectors cornered Fleagle on a southbound train at the Branson depot (across the tracks from the present-day convention center). In the ensuing scuffle, he was shot and mortally wounded. Scientifically, the Fleagle investigation is significant in that it was the first time that a single fingerprint had been used to build a criminal case (Betz, 2005). Geographically, the lesson here seems, criminals on the lam tend to prefer border areas where jurisdictional issues and communications provide obstacles to their apprehension and capture. We will expand on this theme and include a geological perspective at Stop 4. From Ridgedale, the route continues into Arkansas. After ~1.2 miles, turn left onto Arkansas Highway 14, which goes through the small town of Crest, Arkansas. After ~1.2 miles, turn left (north) on Old Springfield Road. This road becomes Highway JJ as we re-cross the state line into Missouri. Highway JJ is a paved road that generally follows the track of the SpringfieldHarrison Road (Fig. 8). After ~8 miles (13 km), the right-of-way on the right side of the road widens and a low road cut of Cotter Dolomite is present on the right side. To the left, a group of sandstone monoliths are located ~50 ft from the road; these are known as Murder Rocks. Stop 4. Murder Rocks Murder Rocks is a cluster of resistant quartz-arenite knobs up to 12 ft (~4 m) in relief (Figs. 9 and 10). They are also known as Alf Bolin Rocks. Alf Bolin (also recorded as Bolan and Bolen) was a notorious bushwhacker and reputed southern sympathizer during the Civil War; his activities and those of his gang largely revolved around robbery, murder, and assassination of citizens that presumably supported the Union cause. The gang mostly ranged from Harrison, Arkansas, to the White River valley. Before his death in 1863, he claimed to have killed up to 30 (Hartman and Ingenthron, 1988) or 40 people (Fellman, 1989). At least two Union soldiers were ambushed and killed at this site by Alf Bolin. Hooper (1983) and Mahnkey (1975) provide anecdotal

Figure 8. Major transportation corridors of the mid-to-late nineteenth century across Taney, Stone, and Christian counties superimposed on a base map of the 1908 edition of the Forsyth 30 min topographic quadrangle. The relatively flat Springfield Plateau is indicated in white. The most highly dissected part of the Salem Plateau is indicated by the light-gray overlay. The medium gray indicates rolling hills and relatively flat areas of the plateau. The rugged parts of the Salem Plateau in the upper White River valley impeded transportation and communication, slowing the settlement and development of this area. As a consequence most of the early roads were oriented north-south between the more populated areas of southwestern Missouri and northern Arkansas (modified on Ingenthron, 1974). The old town site of Forsyth is located near the northernmost extremity of the trunk stream. The first steamships arrived there in 1851. Railroad lines came last in the 1870s.

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Boston’s Ferry Hollister

Mabry Ferry

Kirbyville The Narrows Bald Knob

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HI

IV

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SpringfieldHarrison Road TE

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Mincy

Forsyth-Lead Hill Road

Cedar Valley

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Bee Creek

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Pinetop 8

Blue Eye

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accounts of Alf Bolin. He was born near Jamesville, Missouri, and was raised by an adoptive family from the age of 13 along the Wilderness Road near Spokane, Missouri (Fig. 8). He formed a gang after the outbreak of war and proceeded to rob his family, who were Union sympathizers. During the robbery, he shot and mortally wounded his adoptive father. Among his other victims were an unarmed 12-year-old boy, an unarmed 14-year-old boy, an unarmed 16-year-old, the sheriff of Taney County, and an unarmed 80-year-old man, who was crossing the White River with his team of oxen and a load of corn (Hooper, 1983). The old man’s body was left to float downstream. For these and numerous other depredations, including robbery of the U.S. mail, a reward was placed on his head by Union authorities in Ozark, Missouri. The wife of an imprisoned Confederate sympathizer agreed to allow a Union soldier into her house with the expressed purpose of capturing or killing Bolin in exchange for her husband’s freedom. Her home was near Pinetop, along the SpringfieldHarrison Road, not far from Murder Rocks; Alf Bolin was known to frequent the farm. On 2 February 1863, Zack Thomas, a Union soldier from Iowa masqueraded as a Confederate on furlough.

Within a day or two, Bolin visited the cabin, making enquiries of the stranger. After dinner that evening, when Bolin knelt by the fireplace to light his pipe, Thomas struck him over the head with a plow coulter. His corpse was taken to Forsyth, where it was beheaded, and his body was buried along the road near Swan Creek. His head was taken to Ozark, Missouri, where it was placed on a pike for public viewing. Murder Rocks are on the up-thrown side of the Ten O’Clock Run Fault and on the flanks of the Hollister Anticline (see Fig. 1). These knobs have been interpreted as sinkhole fills that now are preserved as inverted topography (Beveridge and Vineyard, 1990). At Murder Rocks, the knobs crop out near exposures of the Cotter Dolomite. Several other sandstone knobs crop out along Bear Mountain to the southeast. The age or ages of these features remains unresolved. They may be correlative with the Middle Ordovician St. Peter Sandstone, which would have been removed subsequently, or they may correlate with the Bachelor Formation or possibly Lower Pennsylvanian sandstones. The most parsimonious explanation, based on proximity to the subMississippian unconformity, is that these are Mississippian sink fills correlated with the Bachelor Sandstone. In terms of military geology, Murder Rocks is a choke point. The surrounding hills and valleys are relatively steep, and the Springfield-Harrison Road ran up the nose of the ridge and continued southward along the crest of this ridge into Arkansas. According to Brian Thomas (2009, personal commun.), a local resident and U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service biologist, the Springfield-Harrison Road ran on the west side of the sandstone knobs; the present-day road is on the east side, uphill from the knobs. Alf Bolin reputedly would hide his horse in between the rocks and attack downhill, toward the south and west. Murder Rocks would have provided ample cover for such an ambush. A cluster of sandstone outcrops comparable to Murder Rocks are exposed on Bear Mountain ~2.5 miles (4 km) to the southeast as the crow flies. To reach these, continue north on Highway JJ for ~1.8 miles to the intersection of Highway J. Turn right on Highway J. Follow Highway J to the town of Mincy, ~2.7 miles. Turn right (south) on Gunnison Road. After ~1.4 miles, make a hard right onto Bear Mountain Road, a gravel road that angles northwest and up a steep hill. Follow Bear Mountain Road for ~0.8 miles. To the left, just beyond the fork in the road are a group of isolated sandstone knobs. Stop 5A. Bear Mountain Sandstone Outcrops

Figure 9. Murder Rocks was a choke point along the SpringfieldHarrison Road. It was the location of the murder of two furloughed Union soldiers by the bushwhacker Alf Bolin. The hoodoo at left is ~12 ft (4 m) high. Photo by author.

The rocks exposed at this location are comparable to Murder Rocks and other exposures along the trend of the Ten O’Clock Run Fault. Low-lying outcrops with sandstone composition are found along the ridge between Stops 5A and 5B. As at Murder Rocks, the age or ages of this sandstone remain unknown. Jim Miller, Missouri State University, has processed friable sands from this location but was unable to find conodont elements in heavy liquid residues (J. Miller, 2009, personal commun.). A few key observations are that the sandstone masses have discontinuous

Civil War and cultural geology of southwestern Missouri, part 2 quasi-linear deformational zones that are more resistant than the majority of the outcrop. These may be zones that were fractured and cemented with siliceous cement. One possible scenario for the formation of these isolated knobs would require early and likely recurrent movement along the Ten O’Clock Run fault zone during the late Devonian or earliest Mississippian. Flexure, followed by subaerial exposure could have aided in the formation of sinkholes that subsequently filled with the Bachelor Sandstone as sea level rose in the Mississippian. This is consistent with the features developing in the uppermost part of the Cotter Dolomite. Recurrent movement could

A

have introduced secondary deformational features and facilitated karstification in the surrounding dolomite. An alternative explanation that calls upon filling with St. Peter Sandstone would require early karstification during early to middle Ordovician time. This seems unlikely since marine strata of the Everton (middle Ordovician) through Brassfield formations (Silurian) are preserved in northern Arkansas. The alternative hypothesis that correlates these features with Pennsylvanian fluvial sandstones would have vexing problems relating the apparent location of these features near the sub-Mississippian unconformity; it would require cutting out most or all of the Mississippian along this ridge.

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oa

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Oak Trees

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Oak Tree

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Hoodoo

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Bear Cave

Low Outcrop

5m

3 km

Figure 10. (A) Sketch map of sandstone pinnacles at Stop 4, Murder Rocks or Alf Bolin Rocks. Narrow highway shoulders and limited access on private property will not allow us to stop at this location. (B) Sketch map of sandstone exposures at Stop 5A near Bear Mountain Road. (C) Inset shows locations of outcrops in relation to structural elements and stratigraphic contact between the Lower Ordovician and Lower Mississippian.

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From a historical perspective, the location of the rocks at Stop 5A and the cave at Stop 5B, a little farther to the east, suggests that this location likely was frequented by Alf Bolin, in which case any of these could have served as campsites or hideouts. Stop 5B. Bear Cave Bear Cave is located at the base of a small sinkhole in lowermost Mississippian strata ~0.5 miles southeast of Stop 5A. It is ~100 m off of Bear Mountain Road along a trail that runs southeast. The cave was a reputed hideout of Alf Bolin and his gang and location of the supposed Alf Bolin treasure (Fig. 11; Mahnkey, 1975). The rim of the sinkhole is near the sub-Mississippian unconformity. Crinoidal limestones are found along the trail, sandstone (presumably Bachelor Formation) crops out around the mouth

of the cave, and dolomitic mudstone beds are found below the sandstone. The cave is reputed to “go-a-ways,” but the narrow entrance suggests that it is small compared to some other caves that are found along the Ten O’Clock Run Fault. Marvel Cave at Silver Dollar City has an enormous six-story-high, bell-shaped entrance room. At the level of the sub-Mississippian unconformity, Marvel Cave also is restricted. The dolomite strata of the Salem Plateau are more heavily fractured than the more massive Mississippian carbonates. As a consequence, caves in Mississippian strata tend to form larger passages. Notice that the elevation of Bear Cave is a little lower than the sandstone knobs along Bear Mountain Road. There likely is a fault that has placed strata around the cave on a down-dropped block. It is notoriously difficult to do field mapping in Missouri because vegetative cover and lack of exposures do not permit one to trace formational contacts out laterally. The use of air photos is useful but somewhat limited in mapping structures at such a fine scale. Retrace the route to the intersection of highways J and JJ, and continue for ~3 miles to the intersection of Highway 76, making a short excursion into Kirbyville, ~0.5 miles to the east. Stop 6. Snapp Balds and the Bald Knobbers

Figure 11. Stop 5B, Bear Cave, is a small sinkhole cave ~0.5 miles east of the sandstone blocks on Bear Mountain and ~150 m south of the road along a path. The entrance of Bear Cave is at the subMississippian unconformity. Crinoidal limestone is found adjacent to the mouth of the cave. Sandstone and dolomite crop out next to the entrance. Bear Cave is the reputed hiding place for Alf Bolin’s hidden treasure. Hammer (40.6 cm) for scale. Photo by author.

The U.S. Geological Survey Branson 7.5 min quadrangle has misnamed the low prominences around Kirbyville Snap Balds rather than Snapp Balds after a prominent family in the area. The Snapps trace their heritage back to the early settlement of Taney County. The knobs rise only 70–100 ft above the surrounding land. During the Bald Knobber era in the mid-1880s, these features as well as much of the countryside were nearly treeless. The hilltops served as meeting ground for the vigilantes because they were close to the Springfield-Harrison Road but they were not easily approachable with being detected. Ironically, members of the Snapp family were anti–Bald Knobbers. Wash Middleton, a close associate of Nat Kinney, the leader of the Taney County Bald Knobbers, was convicted of the second-degree murder of Sam Snapp (Hartman and Ingenthron, 1988). Cotter Dolomite crops out on the slopes of the Snapp Balds. The cyclic nature of this unit, seen at Stops 1 and 3, is expressed in the stair-step-like appearance of the hills in aerial photography (Fig. 12). The dolomitic slopes tend to form thin soils, and the southern slopes particularly are drought prone. Glades tend to have sedges, grasses, wildflowers, and prickly pear cactus cover. Cedar trees tend to grow along bedding planes. Prior to European-American settlement, the glades, with dry grasses and cedars rich in volatiles, would burn regularly and perpetuate the semi-arid setting. Owing to the harsh conditions and relative isolation, glades are home to rare and sometimes endemic flora. Control of burning over the last several decades has resulted in establishment of blackjack oaks, and the “bald” nature of these hills no longer applies. Two unrelated crimes in 1884 and 1885 led to the formation of the Bald Knobbers: (1) the public killing of a Forsyth

Civil War and cultural geology of southwestern Missouri, part 2 storekeeper followed by the acquittal of the perpetrator, and (2) the killing of Amus Ring by his consort’s grown son (Hartman and Ingenthron, 1988). The Bald Knobbers held their first open-air meeting on 5 April 1885. The following evening, ~100 horsemen gathered at the Taney County jail and threatened to lynch the suspect in the Ring murder; a noose was left on the door of the jail as a warning. The following day, the suspect was transferred to Springfield. For Frank and Tubal Taylor, the timing of their crimes was unfortunate. Tubal was wanted in Taney County for cattle mutilation; he was accused of cutting out the tongues of several cows that belonged to neighbors (Hartman and Ingenthron, 1988). On 10 April 1885, Frank Taylor, together with Tubal and Elijah Sublette, an associate, robbed and shot a storekeeper and his wife at Eglinton, near Taney City, a few miles northeast of Forsyth (Hartman and Ingenthron, 1988). The storekeeper, John T. Dickenson, was an Englishman and was a member of the Eglinton Colony of the Noble and Holy Order of the

Figure 12. Snapp Balds near Kirbyville, Missouri, were meeting sites for a group of vigilantes known as the Bald Knobbers. Beveridge and Vineyard (1990) and Hartman and Ingenthron (1988) indicated the historic location was at the northern knob (upper image). Local citizens indicate the knob at right in the lower image was a meeting site as well. The entire landscape was nearly treeless in the 1880s, and bonfires lit on these hills were visible for tens of miles. They signaled members to meet and were warning to those who opposed them. The knobs are resistant beds in the Lower Ordovician Cotter Dolomite. Aerial photography from National Agricultural Imagery Program (2009).

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Knights of Labor. Dickenson had refused to extend credit to one of the Taylor brothers on an earlier occasion. He also had joined the Bald Knobbers a few days earlier. After the shooting, Sublette left Taney County. The Taylor brothers were indicted, and a reward was posted for their apprehension. They hid out in a cave on Long Creek in what today is known as Hercules Glades Wilderness Area (Hartman and Ingenthron, 1988). Some accounts say they conspired with their friends to hand them over to the authorities, in an effort to collect and split the reward. The Taylor brothers were incarcerated shortly thereafter at the Forsyth jail, a log structure northeast of the courthouse. On the evening of 15 April 1885, the Bald Knobbers gathered at the square and broke into the jail. Despite pleas for mercy, the brothers were hanged near the scenic overlook above Cedar Ridge, ~2 miles northwest of Forsyth along Highway 76. The Dickensons recovered from their wounds. An untold number of events attributed to the Bald Knobbers transpired in Taney County after this lynching, and most of the planning and meetings took place on the Snapp Balds. The Christian County Bald Knobbers were equally notorious (Hartman and Ingenthron, 1988). Inspired by the Taney County Bald Knobbers, they formed to drive out bootleggers, gamblers, and prostitutes from Chadwick, a tie-hacking center and terminus of the Springfield and Southern Railroad. The Christian County Bald Knobbers were equally intent on stamping out opposition to their movement. Lacking bald knobs for seclusion, this group typically met in caves and isolated hollows. Two caves are referred to as Bald Knobber Cave in Christian County. One is on the Taney County line (T25N, R20W, SW¼ SE¼ Sec. 7, Garrison 7.5 min quadrangle). The second was the most common meeting site for the group; it is located in the upper reaches of the Bull Creek drainage (T26N, R19W, SE¼ SE¼ Sec. 7, Chadwick 7.5 min quadrangle). Sometimes the Christian County Bald Knobbers met at the old lead mines and log smelter near the mouth of Browns Branch on upper Swan Creek. On 11 March 1887, leaving the smelter, a small group of Bald Knobbers led by Dave Walker, rode by the Edens-Green house, a small one-room cabin near Oldfield that was occupied by the extended family. Edens had publicly opposed the activities of the Bald Knobbers and had a long-running feud with Walker and his son. Armed men broke into the house, killing Edens and Green and severely wounded some of the women and children. The trial was reported in the Philadelphia Inquirer (Anonymous, 11 May 1889, p. 6). Eventually, four Bald Knobbers were found guilty of the murders. One escaped jail and fled to Oklahoma. The others were hanged on the square in Ozark. The Bald Knobber era might have passed away quietly, except for the work of Harold Bell Wright. Wright (1907) wrote the best-selling novel, Shepherd of the Hills, which featured Bald Knobbers. It later was made into a movie, starring John Wayne. During tourist season, a play based on the book is performed at Shepherd of the Hills Theater. Silver Dollar City also features 1880s Bald-Knobber-era ambience, including “Fire in the Hole,” a Bald Knobber–themed rollercoaster ride.

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Stop 7. Shadow Rock Park and Battle of Forsyth Prior to the Battle of Wilson’s Creek, on 20 July 1861, ~1,200 Federal troops under the command of Brig. Gen. Thomas W. Sweeney, were dispatched from Springfield to Forsyth, to drive out pro-southern militia forces that reportedly held the town (Fig. 13; Ingenthron, 1980). On 22 July, the Battle of Forsyth took place, one day after the First Battle of Bull Run. The entire battle lasted ~45 minutes; reports vary on the number killed. The official report of Gen. Sweeney indicates 8–10 Confederate soldiers were killed and many more wounded. Union casualties included four horses killed and two men wounded (United States War Department, 1888, p. 44–45). Information on the military units and order of events comes from a variety of sources (Ware, 1907; Ingenthron, 1974, 1980; Kemp, 1973; Banasik, ed., 2001). Sweeney was appointed commander Missouri Home Guard. Federal troops assigned to the expeditionary force included the 2nd U.S. Infantry (Regulars);

to Taney City to Ozark and Springfield

to Pedrow and Walnut Shade Field Forest k Swa n C re e

Shadow Rock

Forsyth

Taney County Courthouse

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e hit

River

Steamboat Landing

to Lead Hill and Yellville

to Harrison

Figure 13. Map of Forsyth and vicinity, April 1862, by Lyman O. Bennett, redrafted for clarity and publication by John Arnold in Ingenthron (1980), and further modified herein. Bennett was cartographer for Maj. Gen. Samuel R. Curtis. Union troops were encamped at Forsyth for a short period of time before marching to Batesville, Arkansas. Union troops were camped throughout the town and ~3.5 miles north of Forsyth at the junction of Blue Creek and Swan Creek. Some of the fences and houses in Forsyth were dismantled for construction of defensive barricades. The town was burned prior to the departure of the Union Army. Only one house remained.

the 2nd U.S. Artillery (Capt. James Totten’s Battery) with a 12-pound howitzer and 6-pound cannon under the command of Lt. George Oscar Sokalski; and the 1st U.S. Dragoons (designated 1st U.S. Cavalry in August 1861) Co. C and Co. D led by Capt. David S. Stanley and Lt.. M.J. Kelly. Other units included the 2nd Kansas Volunteer Infantry, commanded by Col. Robert B. Mitchell; the 2nd Kansas Mounted Infantry Volunteers (Kansas Rangers) Co. I, under Capt. Samuel N. Wood; and the 1st Iowa Volunteer Infantry led by Lt. Col. William H. Merritt. Merritt’s force included the Governor’s Grays, under Capt. Francis J. Herron, and Davenport Rifles, under Capt. Augustus Wentz. A small contingent of Christian and Taney county Home Guards led by Capt. Charles Galloway and Lt. F.M. Gideon, Sr., joined the column near Ozark. Confederate forces at Forsyth consisted of recruits from nearby areas in Missouri and Arkansas. According scouting reports, the total troop strength was estimated to be around 1,500 prior to the battle. The actual number of troops in the field during the battle was around 150. There is sparse information regarding the withdrawal of Confederate troops from Forsyth prior to the engagement. Ingenthron (1980) has noted that Maj. James Franklin commanded these forces. Other officers included Capt. (John?) Price, Capt. (James?) Wyatt, and Capt. Jackson, who was killed in the skirmishing. Forsyth would have provided for excellent defensive positions. The White River on the south and rain-swollen Swan Creek on the north were natural barriers to troop movements. The bluffs east and west formed a natural funnel for movement down Swan Creek, and overlooking the main approach, they provided for enfilade fire that eventually was employed by a few Confederate skirmishers. Union troops encountered Confederate pickets about three miles north on Swan Creek. Two were captured, and a third escaped to warn of the impending attack. The primary references on the order of events at the Battle of Forsyth are Gen. Sweeney’s reports in the Official Records (United States War Department, 1888, p. 44–45), Ware’s memoirs (Ware, 1907), newspaper reports of Franc B. Wilkie, a war correspondent from Iowa (Banasik, ed., 2001), and the notes of Vincent B. Osbourne, a private in the 2nd Kansas (in Kemp, 1973). Kemp (1973) and Ingenthron (1980) provide analyses of the military actions. On the afternoon of 22 July 1861, having already marched more than twenty miles, Union troops encountered Confederate pickets on Swan Creek about three miles north of Forsyth. Two were captured, and a third escaped to warn of the impending attack. Capt. Stanley, 1st U.S. Dragoons, Co. C, and Lt. Kelly, 1st U.S. Dragoons, Co. D, and Capt. Wood, 2nd Kansas mounted infantry, were ordered to attack Forsyth as Gen. Sweeney’s infantry and artillery marched double time to meet the enemy. The 1st U.S. Dragoons were formed in 1833 during the Seminole War in Florida and were seasoned veterans of the so-called Indian wars (Herr and Wallace, 1953). With 500 cavalry, Stanley’s force galloped to within sight of Forsyth on the Mail Trace. The Mail Trace crossed Swan

Civil War and cultural geology of southwestern Missouri, part 2 Creek several times and less than a mile away from town, Stanley crossed the stream once more and veered to the right, off the road and through a tall cornfield. The troops went undetected below Confederate soldiers on the bluff east of Forsyth that overlooked the approach. Companies C and D crossed Swan Creek once more just northwest of Forsyth (Fig. 14). Capt. Wood’s force made a flanking maneuver a little farther to the west. Stanley’s troops remounted and formed a line on the south bank of Swan Creek and came under intense fire from the Confederate defenders. The troops charged into town toward the courthouse (Fig. 14). The small Confederate force of ~150 men that held Forsyth were centered around the courthouse, and on the bluff east of town. After a brief exchange, most of the Confederates crossed the White River to safety. During the skirmishing, Gen. Sweeney brought up infantry and artillery to bear on the battlefield from across Swan Creek after Stanley’s charge had mostly cleared the town of rebel forces. Federal troops in town and across Swan Creek were still under fire from the bluff and hill to the east from ~75 Confederates. Three shells from Totten’s Battery mistakenly were fired on the courthouse driving out a bevy of Kansas Ranger looters from Confederate stores held there. The two Union soldiers were wounded by friendly fire from these errant shots. Totten’s Battery repositioned and opened fire on the bluff to suppress the sniping. The Confederates on the bluff were put to flight after Capt. Kelley’s cavalry charged uphill to the east. The only southern account of the battle is related in The Turnbo Manuscripts: …It was not a big fight but it was hot enough to be remembered by those interested enough to talk of past events. …[Ben] Price knowing that he and his men would soon be hard pressed and would probably be surrounded and all of them be either killed or captured vacated the summit of the bluff in a hurry and went across the river where he and his men joined the other southern forces. (Turnbo, unpublished manuscript, Springfield-Greene County Library, accessed 10 January 2010, http://thelibrary.org/lochist/turnbo/V2/ST046.html)

The Battle of Forsyth was ineffectual in maintaining Union control of the Missouri-Arkansas border, but a large store of Confederate supplies was confiscated. Most of the Union troops on the Forsyth expedition fought in the Battle of Wilson’s Creek (see Hannibal and Evans, this volume). Within three weeks, Forsyth again would be occupied by Confederate troops. Ingenthron (1980) notes that Capt. David S. Stanley in his memoirs recounted little of the Battle of Forsyth other than the sad loss of his horse, which was shot through the lungs. Stanley was ultimately promoted to the rank of major general and commander of the IV Corps. He also was recipient of the Congressional Medal of Honor for actions at the Battle of Franklin (Tennessee). Three other significant military actions occurred at Forsyth and in the surrounding vicinity. In April 1862, following the Battle of Pea Ridge, Gen. Samuel R. Curtis’ army arrived at Forsyth en route to Batesville, Arkansas. The southern troops had evacuated prior to their arrival. Curtis noted the unique natural setting of Forsyth and its potential for defense:

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High water detained me so I have only arrived today at 2 p.m. Skirmishing with a rear guard of enemy’s cavalry, and some prisoners taken. My cavalry is scouring the country down in Arkansas. No force of consequence near. Main force was cavalry, and left some days since. The country is very rough. Roads pass down deep valleys or run on narrow divides. My main force must remove back to more open ground, perhaps near Ozark, for forage and convenience of movement east or west. One division, with cavalry, could hold this point against the world, and keep the enemy pressed down. I shall try to alarm the enemy in front, but cannot extend far enough to do much. The taking of Island No. 10 may soon give you the mouth of the river, which is the key to Arkansas. I am arranging a rope-ferry for convenience. White River is not fordable, and rebels come and fire across. Will soon stop that. I will try to get into telegraphic communication as soon as I complete arrangements here. This is a dilapidated town. It is only important when steamboats are running and commerce is safe on the White River. The surrounding country is not cultivated. (United States War Department, Series 1, v. 8, p. 679)

At Forsyth, Curtis’ troops mostly camped west and north of town along Swan Creek. Many of the log cabins in town were dismantled to form defensive barricades. From Forsyth, Curtis sent a column to destroy the saltpeter works near Yellville. The following day, 22 April 1862, Federal troops left and an order was given to burn the town. The Turnbo Manuscripts give a brief account of the events. …I was given a brief account of the destruction of Forsyth in Taney County by Peter Keesee who said that he saw the town set afire but did not see it burn down, “It was burned while the place was being evacuated by the federal soldiers. The commander of the main force on leaving the town left a detail of men behind to destroy the town by fire and they set every house on fire except the court house which was built of brick. Every house burned down that was set afire except a small house that belonged to Jim Berry. After the men touched this dwelling with fire it died out and the house was saved from destruction. After the detail of men did as they were told to do they left the burning village and followed on after the main body of troops. (Turnbo, unpublished manuscript, Springfield-Greene County Library, accessed 10 January 2010, http://thelibrary.org/lochist/turnbo/V2/ST047.html)

On 3 August 1862, following a Confederate raid on Ozark, a company of Union cavalry from Ozark tracked the Confederates to their camp at the village of Snapp, about two miles southeast of Forsyth. The Union attacked the unsuspecting Confederate force at dawn. Four Confederates were killed but most escaped into the brush to fight another day (Ingenthron, 1980). The last major large movement was in early 1863, when 2,000 Confederates under the command of Brig. Gen. John S. Marmaduke passed through Forsyth en route to Springfield (see Battle of Springfield, Hannibal and Evans, this volume). Geologic Setting of Forsyth The upper part of the Jefferson City Dolomite and lower part of the Cotter Dolomite are exposed in the bluffs surrounding Forsyth. The Rockaway Conglomerate, the uppermost member of the Jefferson City Dolomite, is exposed near the level of the steel bridge. The location of the road cut on the bridge western approach precludes a closer look at the contact. The distinction

1

2

Wood 3

Sweeney 5 6 Kelly 4

Figure 14. Troop movements and positions during the Battle of Forsyth, 22 July 1861, superimposed on Forsyth 30′ topographic quadrangle from 1908. Union troops (black rectangles) and movements (arrows) show advance and attack from the north. The events during the Battle of Forsyth are shown in numbered sequence. (1) Two southern guards on picket duty were captured and a third escaped. (2) Despite his lead in galloping 500 cavalry troopers within view of Forsyth, Stanley’s approach through a tall cornfield west of the road was not detected by southern militia men positioned on the bluff. Stanley crossed the rain-swollen Swan Creek and came under fire when he assembled two companies on the south bank. (3) Capt. Wood’s company of Kansas Rangers and Missouri Home Guards from Taney and Christian counties crossed Swan Creek and in a flanking movement rode into Forsyth from the west. (4) The small contingent of Confederates provide a “warm welcome” for the Union cavalry but quickly were driven from Forsyth eastward on the Yellville Road, or they fled across the White River to take up sniping positions. (5) Sweeney sent his infantry ahead but most of the fighting was over. He also placed his artillery on the north bank of Swan Creek and mistakenly fired on the courthouse, scattering undisciplined troops looting the Confederate stores. (6) Capt. Kelley’s cavalry charge uphill dispersed the Confederate snipers overlooking the Union positions north of Swan Creek.

Civil War and cultural geology of southwestern Missouri, part 2 between these units is difficult to pick. Both stratigraphic units are lower Ordovician (Ibexian Series) in age (Thompson, 1991). The Rockaway Conglomerate, as best can be determined from the type locality at Rockaway Beach, is a solution-collapse breccia, but it is difficult to characterize the breccia from its type locality due to inaccessibility (on the inside curve of a highway with narrow shoulders) and limited exposure. A breccia unit, comparable to the Rockaway Conglomerate and at the appropriate stratigraphic level, is exposed in new road cuts on the Ozark Mountain High Road northeast of Branson (Plymate et al., 2003). That section would make an appropriate standard reference section for this enigmatic unit (base at 36° 42′ 53.83″ N 93° 17′ 48.95″W). The Rockaway Conglomerate exposed on Shadow Rock is more highly weathered and is less accessible. The name of the unit should probably be redefined for the lithology of the rock, which is breccia; according to the provisions of the Stratigraphic Code (North American Commission on Stratigraphic Nomenclature, 2005), Article 18a, a unit can be redefined based on a change in the lithic designation. For convenience herein, I use the informal name “Rockaway Breccia,” until a formal redefinition can be established. At the Ozark Mountain High Road, the breccia is ~15 ft (4.5 m) thick. The upper and lower contacts are sharp bedding planes. The basal part is a dolomitic mudstone that grades upward into a chaotic collection of angular dolomitic mudstone clasts. Clasts range upward of 10 cm in maximum dimension. Extant angular interclastic pores up to 2 cm across locally form seeps. Irregular lenses of white quartz arenite sandstone are present discontinuously across the road cut. The upper part of the unit is brecciated and grades into laminated dolomitic mudstone at the top of this massive bed. An arid, equatorial peritidal setting characterizes deposition of strata belonging to the Jefferson City Dolomite. Water depth typically ranged from shallow subtidal burrowed dolomitic mudstone facies (probably less than 3 m deep) to intertidal and sabhka facies. These depositional settings would have been consistent with development of a restricted salina, where evaporite deposits could have accumulated. Solution-collapse breccias form when evaporites go into solution and interbedded strata collapse into available spaces. Comparable breccias have been characterized as solution-collapse breccias in the Ellenburger Dolomite (lower Ordovician) in West Texas (Lucia, 2007), which is roughly equivalent stratigraphically. At Shadow Rock Park, the “Rockaway Breccia” forms a resistant ledge above more recessive beds. This change of slope can be traced up Swan Creek and around other tributaries of the upper White River in the vicinity of Forsyth, where the change in slope is correlated with wider floodplains and establishment of small settlements. The Rockaway is likely the source of several small springs in the area. The historical record of Taney County has been turbulent; Taney County has had six courthouses (Ingenthron, 1974). In the 1830s, there were two log courthouses in the county, one near the mouth of Bull Creek and one on Swan Creek at Forsyth. After

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Forsyth was selected as county seat, a brick courthouse was constructed. It was the structure shelled in the Battle of Forsyth and burned in 1862. After the Civil War, a rock courthouse was built within the foundations of the brick courthouse. It burned in 1885 during the Bald Knobber era. A replacement was built in 1891. In 1950s, construction of Bull Shoals Reservoir on the White River required the removal of all buildings in the projected upper pool level. The courthouse was rebuilt again, this time atop the hill west of Shadow Rock Park. Part of “Old Forsyth” is still on the slopes of the hill to the east. Shadow Rock Park and the Taney County Fairground were established on the former town site of Forsyth. The field trip will follow Shadow Rock Park road to the Taney County Fairgrounds, where it turns right on the low concrete bridge across Swan Creek, which is Highway Y. Follow Highway Y for ~2 miles to outskirts of the resort town of Ozark Beach. Stop 8. Powersite Dam Powersite Dam was built in 1910–1913; it was the first hydroelectric dam in Missouri (Van Buskirk, 1984). The U.S. Congress authorized its construction under the Empire District Electric Company. The dam was built by Ambursen Hydraulic Construction Company of Boston, Massachusetts. Materials for the dam arrived by rail in Branson and were floated ten miles to the construction site in 30-ft wooden barges. Heavy rains upstream immediately after the closure caused the dam to fill and overflow in just two days, where it had been estimated that it would take two weeks. The overflow of water looked like a “wide sheet of yellow velvet suspended from the top of the dam” (F.F. Bailey in Anonymous, 1963, p. 10). It is noteworthy that sediment color gives an indication of the underlying bedrock geology. The yellow sediment produced by dolomitic soils of the Salem Plateau stands in contrast to the more red soils produced by Mississippian carbonates. The flow over Powersite Dam was reported to be six feet deep and 600 feet across. The force of water from this initial flooding scoured the area downstream of the spillway down to bedrock. Since then, a number of floods have overtopped the dam; as a means of keeping the pool at a slightly higher level, a series of batter boards have been placed across the top. The field trip route continues on Highway Y through Ozark Beach and uphill. This steep drive offers views of Powersite Dam on the left and Lake Taneycomo to the right. After approximately two miles, turn left into the overlook park. Stop 9. Entrenched Meander and White River Valley Overlook The narrow saddle that the overlooks is situated on is visible in the 2009 National Agriculture Image Project aerial photo (Fig. 15). The entrenched meander that comprises the White River valley is obvious in the image but the timing of stream entrenchment is poorly constrained. Classical thought on the development of entrenched meanders indicates either a lowering of base level or uplift was responsible for downcutting. The

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most notable entrenched meanders in the Ozarks are found in the White, Osage, and Gasconade river basins, which bisect or carve the periphery of the Ozarks, respectively. Each has a preserved relief of ~100 m. Each cuts into lower Ordovician dolomites that are relatively resistant to weathering and erosion. Downcutting clearly post-dated the Pennsylvanian, the main phase of uplift on the Ozark Dome. The field trip returns to Branson Convention Center via Highway 160 east. At the intersection with Highway F, turn left and follow that route to Highway 65 south. CONCLUSIONS Re-analyzing historical events from different viewpoints can help to highlight the relevancy of history to present-day events. There were a few major battles in Missouri, but most of the history was played out between small groups of combatants. Irregular military activities during the Border War (1856–1861) and Civil War (1861–1865) were at times comparable to terrorism in which civilians suffered most. However, history is relative to one’s personal perspective. Acts of terrorism to one may be viewed as retaliatory acts or efforts to remove foreign aggressors. Bushwhackers on both sides considered themselves freedom fighters. How can these views be reconciled? One can only hope to achieve understanding. A few soldiers fought for ideals,

Figure 15. Entrenched meander in the White River valley near Forsyth. Powersite Dam is located in the south-central part of the image. Aerial photography from National Agriculture Imaging Project flown in 2009.

but most fought for kinship, friendship, and community. Even in the twenty-first century, in many parts of Missouri, the passions of the Civil War live on among the descendants. Organized vigilantes after the Civil War in Taney County could be compared with gang activities, despite the ostensible pursuit of justice for which the group originally was founded. In reality, the Bald Knobbers were mostly Union veterans and their children. Anti–Bald Knobbers were Confederates and their descendants. Conflict during the Bald Knobber era was a cultural extension of the Civil War on the borderlands of Missouri. There were economic and political as well as cultural motivations for the struggle. From an educational perspective, identifying and analyzing geologic influences on historical events and cultural connections to the Civil War and history in general provides an opportunity for integrative learning and better understanding of the connections between place and time. Geology is the backdrop on which historical events have played out. Then, just as today, resources and hazards were important in the events that shaped the making of America. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Joe Hannibal, Cleveland Museum of Natural History, suggested a cultural and Civil War geology symposium with field trips for the 2010 Joint Meeting of the GSA North-Central and SouthCentral Sections at Branson, Missouri. His enthusiasm and insight into the topics of cultural geology provided the stimulus for this paper. I also thank him for his review of this paper. Jeremiah Jackson, Missouri State University graduate student, worked on the stratigraphy of the Lower Mississippian at the Branson Regional Airport road cuts as part of this thesis; he first recognized some of the nuances discussed at Stop 3. Jim Miller, emeritus professor of geology at Missouri State University, helped put the road log together and collected and processed conodont samples from Bear Mountain sandstone exposures at Stop 5A. Nancy Williams, Missouri State University, was helpful in reading and reviewing an early draft of this manuscript. I thank Jack Ray for his thoughtful review of this manuscript and others at the Missouri State University Center for Archaeological Research for discussions. Jim Aber, co-editor of this volume, made many helpful suggestions. I greatly appreciate Dimitri Ioannides and Evangelia Petridou for their friendship and discussions on topics; they made it possible for me to work on this project while visiting Mittuniversitetet in Östersund, Sweden. I thank Bo Svenson and the folks of eTour at Mittuniversitetet for their hospitality and the facilities and space to work on this and other manuscripts. I also appreciate the support of Missouri State University, the College of Natural and Applied Sciences, and my department for the sabbatical that made it possible to explore this avenue of historical research and for the time to accomplish this and other tasks. All maps and photographs were created or taken by myself unless otherwise noted.

Civil War and cultural geology of southwestern Missouri, part 2 REFERENCES CITED Abreu, V., Sullivan, M., Pirmez, C., and Mohrig, D., 2003, Lateral accretion packages (LAPs): an important reservoir element in deep-water sinuous channels: Marine and Petroleum Geology, v. 20, no. 6–8, p. 631–648. Anderson, K.H., ed., 2003, Geologic map of Missouri: Missouri Department of Natural Resources, Division of Geology and Land Survey, 1 sheet. Anonymous, 1889, History of the Bald Knobbers. An Organization That Originated in a Desire to Suppress Crime: Philadelphia Inquirer, 11 May 1889, p. 6, col. 5. Anonymous, 1899, “Ten O’Clock Run in its peculiar relation to recent zinc discoveries,” and “Mineral discoveries inspire a run on Uncle Sam’s land office”: St. Louis Globe Democrat, 18 September 1899, in Stevens, Walter B., ed., 1990, The Ozark Uplift: St. Louis and San Francisco Railroad, St. Louis, 71 p. Anonymous, 2002a, Physiographic regions of Missouri: Missouri Department of Natural Resources, Division of Geology and Land Survey, Fact Sheet FS-02, 1 p. Anonymous, 2002b, Surficial materials map of Missouri: Missouri Department of Natural Resources, Division of Geology and Land Survey, Fact Sheet FS-16, 1 p. Bailey, F.F., in Anonymous, 1963, Lake Taneycomo and Powersite dam fiftieth anniversary: White River Valley Historical Quarterly, v. 1, no. 7, p. 2–10. Banasik, M.E., ed., 2001, Missouri in 1861: the Civil War Letters of Franc B. Wilkie, Newspaper Correspondent: Unwritten Chapters of the Civil War West of the River, Camp Pope Publishing, Iowa City, Iowa, v. IV, 424 p. Betz, N.T., 2005, The Fleagle gang, betrayed by a fingerprint: Author House, Bloomington, Indiana, 448 p. Beveridge, T.R., and Vineyard, J.D., 1990, Geologic wonders and curiosities of Missouri: Missouri Department of Natural Resources, Division of Geology and Land Survey, Educational Series, no. 4, 391 p. Bradley, D.C., and Leach, D.L., 2003, Tectonic controls on Mississippi Valleytype lead-zinc mineralization in orogenic forelands: Mineralium Deposita, v. 38, no. 6, p. 652–667. Branson, E.B., 1944, The geology of Missouri: University of Missouri Studies, v. 19, no. 8, 535 p. Bretz, J.H., 1965, Geomorphic history of the Ozarks of Missouri: Missouri Department of Natural Resources, Division of Geology and Land Survey, 2nd Series, v. 41, 142 p. Burrows, W.E., 1976, Vigilante!: New York, Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 311 p. Castel, A., 1968, General Sterling Price and the Civil War in the West: Baton Rouge, Louisiana State University Press, 300 p. Castleman, H.N., 1944, The Bald Knobbers: The Story of the Lawless Nightriders Who Ruled Southern Missouri in the 80’s: Girard, Kansas, Haldeman-Julius Publications, 29 p. Conrad, C.P., and Husson, L., 2009, Influence of dynamic topography on sea level and its rate of change: Lithosphere, v. 1, no. 2, p. 110–120, doi: 10.1130/L32.1. Cox, R.T., 2009, Ouachita, Appalachian, and ancestral Rockies deformations recorded in mesoscale structures on the foreland Ozark plateaus: Tectonophysics, v. 474, p. 674–683. Cruz, D.C., and Evans, K R., 2007, High-resolution stratigraphy of the subMississippian unconformity in southwestern Missouri and northern Arkansas: Geological Society of America Abstracts with Programs, v. 39, no. 6, p. 308. Eby, G.N., and Vasconcelos, P., 2009, Geochronology of the Arkansas alkaline province, southeastern United States: The Journal of Geology, v. 117, no. 6, p. 615–626. Fellman, M., 1989, Inside war: the guerilla conflict in Missouri during the American Civil War: New York, Oxford University Press, 352 p. Fenneman, N.M., 1938, Physiography of the eastern United States: New York, McGraw-Hill Book Company, 714 p. Hannibal, J.T., and Evans, K.R., 2010, this volume, Civil War and cultural geology of southwestern Missouri, part 1: The geology of Wilson’s Creek Battlefield and the history of stone quarrying and stone use, in Evans, K.R., and Aber, J.S., eds., From Precambrian Rift Volcanoes to the Mississippian Shelf Margin: Geological Field Excursions in the Ozark Mountains: Geological Society of America Field Guide 17, doi: 10.1130/2010.0017(04). Hartman, M., and Ingenthron, E., 1988, Bald knobbers, vigilantes on the Ozarks frontier: Gretna, Louisiana, Pelican Publishing Company, 306 p. Herr, J.K., and Wallace, E.S., 1953, The story of the U.S. cavalry, 1755–1942: Boston, Little, Brown and Company, 275 p.

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Hildebrand, S.S., Keith, A.W., and Evans, J.W., 1870, Autobiography of Samuel S. Hillenbrand, the renowned Missouri bushwacker, in Ross, K., ed., Autobiography of Samuel S. Hillenbrand, the renowned Missouri bushwhacker (2005 edition with commentary): Fayetteville, The University of Arkansas Press, 280 p. Hooper, V., 1983, Who the heck was Alf Bolin? Forsyth remembers an outlaw: Bittersweet, v. 10, no. 3, p. 15–19. Hudson, M.R., 2000, Coordinated strike-slip and normal faulting in the southern Ozark dome of northern Arkansas: Deformation in a late Paleozoic foreland: Geology, v. 28, no. 6, p. 511–514. Hudson, M.R., and Murray, K.E., 2003, Geologic map of the Ponca quadrangle, Newton, Boone, and Carroll counties, Arkansas: U.S. Geological Survey Miscellaneous Field Studies Map, MF-2412, 1 sheet. Ingenthron, E., 1961, The Boston road: White River Valley Historical Quarterly, v. 1, no. 1, p. 8–9. Ingenthron, E., 1974, The land of Taney, a history of an Ozark common wealth: School of the Ozarks Press, Ozark Regional History Series, Book II, 523 p. Ingenthron, E., 1980, Borderland Rebellion, a history of the Civil War on the Missouri–Arkansas border: The Ozark Mountaineer, Ozark Regional History Series, Book III, 373 p. Jackson, J.S., and Evans, K.R., 2009, Sequence Stratigraphy of the Lower and Middle Mississippian Subsystem in Southwestern Missouri: American Association of Petroleum Geologists, Eastern Section Meeting, Evansville, Indiana, 20–22 September, Abstracts volume. Kalen, K., and Morrow, L., 1993, Nat Kinney’s Sunday school crowd: White River Historical Journal Quarterly, v. 33, no. 1, p. 6–13. Keefe, J.F., and Morrow, L., eds., 1994, The White River Chronicles of S.C. Turnbo: Man and Wildlife on the Ozarks Frontier: Fayetteville, Arkansas, University of Arkansas Press, 424 p. Kemp, H.A., 1973, Forsyth: curtain-raiser for Wilson’s Creek: White River Valley Historical Quarterly, v. 5, no. 1, p. 1–8. Kiersch, G.A., and Underwood, J.R., Jr., 1998, Geology and military operations, 1800–1960: An overview, in Underwood, J.R., Jr., and Guth, P.L., eds., Military geology in war and peace, Geological Society of America Reviews in Engineering Geology, v. 13, p. 5–27. Kisvarsanyi, E., 1976, Studies in Precambrian geology with a guide to selected parts of the St. Francois mountains, Missouri: Missouri Department of Natural Resources, Division of Geology and Land Survey, Contribution to Precambrian Geology, no. 6, 200 p. Lowe, R.G., ed., 2005, A Texas Cavalry Officer’s Civil War: The Diary and Letters of James C. Bates: Baton Rouge, Louisiana State University Press, 366 p. Lucia, F.J., 2007, Carbonate reservoir characterization: an integrated approach, 2 ed.: Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 336 p. Mahnkey, D., 1975, Hill and holler stories: Point Lookout, Missouri, School of the Ozark Press, 232 p. McCall, E., 1961, The Branson story: White River Valley Historical Quarterly, v. 1, no. 2. McCauley, J., Brosius, E., Buchanan, R., and Sawin, R., 2003, Geology of south-central Kansas field trip: Kansas Geological Survey Open-File Report 2001-41, 14 p. Merriam, D.F., 1999, Geologic map of Woodson County, Kansas: Kansas Geological Survey, Map M-52, scale 1:50,000, 1 sheet. Mulvany, P.S., 2004, Field Trip II: Geology of the Crooked Creek Ring Structure, Crawford County, Missouri, in Gilman, J., ed., Association of Missouri Geologists Field Trip Guidebook, 51st Annual Meeting, Rolla, Missouri, 1–2 October 2004, p. 13–29. Myers, R.A., 2009, Lead and zinc mining: The Encyclopedia of Arkansas Culture and History, Central Arkansas Library System, http://www .encyclopediaofarkansas.net/. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Office of Services, 2009, Natural Hazard Statistics, http://www.weather.gov/os/hazstats.shtml (accessed 20 December 2009). Nichols, B., 2004, Guerrilla warfare in Missouri, 1862: Jefferson, North Carolina, MacFarland and Company, Inc., 256 p. Nichols, B., 2006, Guerrilla warfare in Missouri, volume II, 1863: Jefferson, North Carolina, MacFarland and Company, Inc., 389 p. North American Commission on Stratigraphic Nomenclature, 2005, The stratigraphic code: The American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin, v. 89, no. 11, p. 1547–1591. Overstreet, R.B., Oboh-Ikuenobe, F.E., and Gregg, J.M., 2003, Sequence stratigraphy and depositional facies of Lower Ordovician cyclic carbonate

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rocks, southern Missouri: Journal of Sedimentary Research, v. 73, p. 421–433. Parris, D., 2006, Chronister site investigations: new information on the Cretaceous of Missouri: Association of Missouri Geologists Field Trip Guidebook, 53rd Annual Meeting, p. 9–13. Parrish, W.E., ed., 1973, A history of Missouri, volume III 1860–1875: Columbia, University of Missouri Press, 332 p. Petersen, M.D., Frankel, A.D., Harmsen, S.C., Mueller, C.S., Haller, K.M., Wheeler, R.L., Wesson, R.L., Zeng, Y., Boyd, O.S., Perkins, D.M., Luco, N., Field, E.H., Willis, C.J., and Rukstales, K.S., 2008, Documentation of the 2008 update of the United States national seismic hazard maps: U.S. Geological Survey, Open-File Report 2008-1128, 61 p. Petersen, P.R., 2003, Quantrill of Missouri, the making of a guerrilla warrior: Nashville, Cumberland House Publishing Inc., 504 p. Phelps and Watson, 1862, Phelps and Watson’s historical and military map of the border and southern states: New York, Watson and Phelps, pub., 1 map sheet. Plymate, T.G., Evans, K.R., Thomson, K.C., Miller, J.F., Rovey, C.W., II, Davis, G.H., and Cutler, J., 2003, Field trip III: Ordovician and Mississippian stratigraphy and structural geology of the Springfield-Branson area, Southwestern Missouri: Missouri Department of Natural Resources Division of Geology and Land Survey Report of Investigations, no. 75, field trip 26, p. 43–62. Potter, P.E., 1955, The Petrology and Origin of the Lafayette Gravel Part 2: Geomorphic History: Journal of Geology, v. 63, no. 2, p. 115–132. Prather, R., 1994, The Springfield-Harrison road: White River Valley Historical Quarterly, v. 33, no. 3-4, p. 15–23. Rafferty, M.D., 1980, The Ozarks, Land and Life: Norman, University of Oklahoma Press, 282 p. Ray, J., 2007, Missouri chipped-stone resources, a guide to the identification, distribution, and prehistoric use of cherts and other siliceous raw materials: Missouri Archaeological Society Special Publications, no. 8, 423 p. Reynolds, R.L., Goldhaber, M.B., and Snee, L.W., 1997, Paleomagnetic and 40 Ar/39Ar results from the Grant intrusive breccia and comparison to the Permian Downey’s Bluff Sill; evidence for Permian igneous activity at Hicks Dome, southern Illinois Basin: U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin 2094-G, 16 p. Schroeder, W.A., 1981, Presettlement prairie of Missouri: Missouri Department of Conservation, Natural History Series, no. 2, 37 p. Schultz, G., 1937, Early history of the northern Ozarks: Jefferson City, Missouri, Midland Printing Company, 192 p. Seevers, W.J., 1969, Geology and ground-water resources of Linn County, Kansas: Kansas Geological Survey Bulletin, v. 193, 65 p. Spencer, T.M., 2004, The bald knobbers, the anti–bald knobbers, politics, and the culture of violence in the Ozarks, 1860–1890, in Spencer, T.M , ed., The Other Missouri History: Columbia, University of Missouri Press, 241 p. Stiles, T.J., 2002, Jesse James, last rebel of the Civil War: New York, Alfred A. Knopf (Random House), 510 p. Stinchcomb, B.L., 2006, Field trip 1: Chronister Mesozoic vertebrate fossil site Bollinger County, Missouri: Association of Missouri Geologists Field Trip Guidebook, 53rd Annual Meeting, p. 4–8.

Thom, R., 1998, Common as dirt: Missouri Department of Conservation, Missouri Conservationist, v. 59, no. 2, http://mdc.mo.gov/conmag/ 1998/02/20.htm. Thompson, T.L., 1986, Paleozoic Succession in Missouri, Part 4—Mississippian System: Missouri Department of Natural Resources, Division of Geology and Land Survey, Report of Investigations 70, no. 4, 189 p. Thompson, T.L., 1991, Paleozoic Succession in Missouri, Part 2—Ordovician System: Missouri Department of Natural Resources, Division of Geology and Land Survey, Report of Investigations 70, no. 2, 163 p. Thompson, T.L., and Fellows, L.D., 1970, Stratigraphy and conodont biostratigraphy of Kinderhookian and Osagean rocks of southwestern Missouri and adjacent areas: Missouri Department of Natural Resources, Geological Survey and Water Resources, Report of Investigations, no. 45, 263 p. Thomson, K.C., 1982a, Bedrock geology of the Hollister 7.5-minute quadrangle, Taney County, Missouri: Missouri Department of Natural Resources, Division of Geology and Land Survey, unpublished map HA8437, scale 1:24,000, 1 sheet. Thomson, K.C., 1982b, Geologic map of Taney County: Taney County Planning Commission, scale 1:63,360, 1 sheet. Thomson, K.C., 1984, Bedrock geology of the Mincy 7.5-minute quadrangle, Taney County, Missouri: Missouri Department of Natural Resources, Division of Geology and Land Survey, unpublished map HA8445, scale 1:24,000, 1 sheet. Turnbo, S.C., dates uncertain, unpublished manuscript, in Springfield-Greene County Library District, Springfield, Missouri, 2010, The Turbo Manuscripts, http://thelibrary.org/lochist/turnbo/toc.html, v. 1, no. 3; v. 2, no. 46; v. 2, no. 47. United States War Department, Moody, J.S., Cowles, C.D., Ainsworth, F.C., Scott, R.N., Lazelle, H.M., Davis, G.B., Perry, L.J., and Kirkley, J.W., 1888, The war of the rebellion: a compilation of the official records of the Union and Confederate armies, series 1, v. 22, ch. 34, 1265 p. Upton, L.M., 1939, Bald knobbers, second edition: School of the Ozarks Press, Point Lookout, Missouri, 253 p. Van Buskirk, K., 1979, Outlaw for my neighbor, the Jake Fleagle story: White River Valley Historical Quarterly, v. 7, no. 1, p. 4-11. Van Buskirk, K., 1984, Powersite dam: program of June 10, 1984 meeting: White River Valley Historical Quarterly, v. 8, no. 8, p. 6–7. Wagner, R.E., and Kisvarsanyi, E.B., 1969, Lapilli tuffs and associated pyroclastic sediments in the upper Cambrian strata along Dent Branch, Washington county, Missouri: Missouri Geological Survey and Water Resources, Report of Investigations, 80 p. Ware, E.F., 1907, The Lyon campaign in Missouri: Crane and Company, Topeka, Kansas, 377 p. Wright, H.B., 1907, The shepherd of the hills: New York, A.L. Burt Company Publishers, 352 p. Zen, E-an, and Walker, A., 2000, Rocks and war, geology and the Civil War campaign of second Manassas: Shippensburg, Pennsylvania, White Mane Books, 102 p. MANUSCRIPT ACCEPTED BY THE SOCIETY 11 FEBRUARY 2010

Printed in the USA


Rift-related volcanism and karst geohydrology of the southern Ozark dome Gary R. Lowell Earth & Environmental Sciences, University of Texas–Arlington, Arlington, Texas 76019, USA Richard W. Harrison David J. Weary U.S. Geological Survey, MS 926A, 12201 Sunrise Valley Drive, Reston, Virginia 20192, USA Randall C. Orndorff U.S. Geological Survey, MS 908, 12201 Sunrise Valley Drive, Reston, Virginia 20192, USA John E. Repetski Herbert A. Pierce U.S. Geological Survey, MS 926A, 12201 Sunrise Valley Drive, Reston, Virginia 20192, USA

ABSTRACT This field trip examines the geology and geohydrology of a dissected part of the Salem Plateau in the Ozark Plateaus province of south-central Missouri. Rocks exposed in this area include karstified, flat-lying, lower Paleozoic carbonate platform rocks deposited on Mesoproterozoic basement. The latter is exposed as an uplift located about 40 mi southwest of the St. Francois Mountains and form the core of the Ozark dome. On day 1, participants will examine and explore major karst features developed in Paleozoic carbonate strata on the Current River; this will include Devil’s Well and Round Spring Cavern as well as Montauk, Round, Alley, and Big Springs. The average discharge of the latter is 276 × 106 gpd and is rated in the top 20 springs in the world. Another, Alley Spring, is equally spectacular with an average discharge of 81 × 106 gpd. Both are major contributors to the Current and Eleven Point River drainage system which includes about 50 Mesoproterozoic volcanic knobs and two granite outcrops. These knobs are mainly caldera-erupted ignimbrites with a total thickness of 7–8 km. They are overlain by post-collapse lavas and intruded by domes dated at 1470 Ma. Volcaniclastic sediment and air-fall lapilli tuff are widely distributed along this synvolcanic unconformity. On day 2, the group will examine the most important volcanic features and the southernmost granite exposure in Missouri. The trip concludes with a discussion of the Missouri Gravity Low, the Eminence caldera, and the volcanic history of southern Missouri as well as a discussion of geologic controls on regional groundwater flow through this part of the Ozark aquifer.

Lowell, G.R., Harrison, R.W., Weary, D.J., Orndorff, R.C., Repetski, J.E., and Pierce, H.A., 2010, Rift-related volcanism and karst geohydrology of the southern Ozark dome, in Evans, K.R., and Aber, J.S., eds., From Precambrian Rift Volcanoes to the Mississippian Shelf Margin: Geological Field Excursions in the Ozark Mountains: Geological Society of America Field Guide 17, p. 99–158, doi: 10.1130/2010.0017(06). For permission to copy, contact [email protected]. ©2010 The Geological Society of America. All rights reserved.

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I. GEOLOGY OF THE SOUTHERN OZARK DOME

Physiographic Setting

This field trip visits various locations in the Current River drainage basin in the south-central portion of Missouri. Most of these locations are within or near the Ozark National Scenic Riverways, a National Park which includes parts of the upper Current River and its major tributary, the Jacks Fork (Figs. I.1, I.2). We visit outcrops of Mesoproterozoic igneous basement rocks exposed in the area between the towns of Eminence and Big Spring (Fig. I.1, Stops 7, 8, 9). The age, origin, and micro-scale and macro-scale characteristics of these rocks will be discussed in detail. This field trip will also examine some characteristics of, and relationships between, the overlying Paleozoic stratigraphy, geologic structure, physiography and karst hydrology of the dissected Ozark Plateaus in southern Missouri. Several of the Paleozoic stratigraphy and karst localities (Stops 3, 4, 5, 6) were visited in a previously published field trip sponsored by the Association of Missouri Geologists (Vineyard, 1985). Stops 5 and 6 were visited by a field trip run in conjunction with the 15th International Congress of Speleology (Stafford and Fratesi, 2009).

The Current River drains well-developed karst terrane along the southeastern margin of the Salem Plateau of the Ozarks Plateaus physiographic province (Fenneman, 1938; Bretz, 1965) of the midcontinent United States. Karst refers to a type of topography and unique subsurface conditions created by the dissolution of soluble rock material, which is typically of carbonate or evaporite composition. Karst is characterized by losing streams, sinkholes, caves, and springs. Typically, there are rapid and complex surface-water and groundwater exchanges in karst terrane. A regional digital elevation model reveals a ragged, rough topography of relatively high relief, compared to the low-relief of the rest of the Salem Plateau and Mississippi River floodplain (Fig. I.2). River flow is in an overall southeast direction away from the Salem Plateau and toward the Mississippi River floodplain. The Current is a tributary of the Black River, which occupies the western lowlands of the Mississippi River Valley in northeast Arkansas. In the field trip area, altitudes range from a high of 1359 ft at the summit of Thorny Mountain to a low of ~430 ft at Big Spring

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in the southeastern corner of the area. In the headwaters of the Current River, the crest of the Salem Plateau is typically above 1000 ft and with relatively flat topography except for karstic and epikarstic features. The latter produce gentle rolling hills and depressions and ephemeral losing streams (Gann et al., 1976, Harvey, 1980). Most of the population and economic development of the area is in the upland headwater areas. Downstream incision, chiefly in the eastern portion of the area, has produced a relatively steep, mountainous topography with local relief of hundreds of feet; this region is typically heavily forested and accessibility is poor. Groundwater Hydrology In the incised eastern portion of the Ozarks, numerous large springs (Table 1) discharge into the Current River and also into the Eleven Point River drainage, just to the south, producing a world-class natural resource unrivaled elsewhere in North America. Flow from the two largest of these springs, Big Spring and Greer Spring, ranks in the top twenty largest springs in the world (Vineyard and Feder, 1982). Numerous dye traces delineate large, well-integrated, karst drainage systems feeding the large springs (Fig. I.3). Geologic Mapping The field trip area was the focus of U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) geologic mapping projects for the years 1998–2009.

Mississippi Embayment ssi flo ssipp od i R pla ive in r

K

R ZA

Figure I.2. Shaded relief map of Missouri showing major physiographic features, topography, and location of the field trip area.

Mi

AT

PL

N

90˚ 36˚

This mapping was completed in association with USGS studies on the potential effects of expanded base metal mining and mineral exploration in the Viburnum Trend and a prospecting area in the Mark Twain National Forest to the south (Fig. I.1). In addition, detailed geologic mapping of quadrangles along the Ozark National Scenic Riverways was supported by the National Park Service (NPS) as part of the NPS Geologic Resources Inventory. Most data and interpretations presented in this report have been developed from geologic mapping and field observations made while preparing various geologic maps. Scales used in map preparation were a mixture of detailed at 1:24,000 and reconnaissance at 1:100,000. These 24,000-scale geologic maps, as well as those still in review, are indicated in Fig. I.4. The Grandin SW, Briar, and Poynor quadrangles, located in the southeastern corner of the study area (Fig. I.4), were mapped by Baker (1999), Starbuck TABLE 1. AVERAGE FLOW VALUES FOR LARGE SPRINGS IN THE CURRENT AND ELEVEN POINT RIVER DRAINAGE BASIN Spring County Quadrangle Average discharge (gallons per day) Big Carter Big Spring 276,000,000 Greer Oregon Greer 214,000,000 Blue Shannon Powder Mill Ferry 90,000,000* Alley Shannon Alley Spring 81,000,000 Welch Shannon Cedar Grove 75,000,000* Blue Oregon Billmore 61,000,000 Montauk Dent Montauk 53,000,000 Round Shannon Round Spring 26,500,000 Note: From Vineyard and Feder (1982). *Estimated.

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(1999), and Wedge (1999) of the Missouri Department of Natural Resources. A small, structurally complex area near the town of Thayer was mapped in detail by Hedden (1968); with some reinterpretations, this is incorporated into Fig. I.5. Early mapping at 1:62,500 in the Current River and Jacks Fork area was published by Bridge (1930). Heyl et al. (1983) mapped at 1:24,000 scale ~30 square miles in the southeastern quadrant of the study area, as part of a mineral resource potential investigation. Based on the geologic setting, and on aeromagnetic data and interpretations (Spector, 1982; Moss, 1984) Heyl et al. (1983) concluded that “the potential for mineral resources of the Viburnum-type or lead-zinc deposits in the Potosi Dolomite is rather high—better than many areas, but since none are exposed at the surface, their existence cannot be confirmed or ruled out without deep drilling and more detailed geophysical surveys.” A new geologic map, based on these sources is presented here as Fig. I.5. Proterozoic Rocks Metamorphic rocks are shown as basement by Sims (1990) beneath the Current River basin, but their presence has not been confirmed by drilling. If present, these rocks record the Southern Central Plains orogen, which formed 1700–1600 Ma ago (Van Schmus et al., 1996; Sims and Peterman, 1986). It is inferred that these rocks host the younger Mesoproterozoic intrusions

91° 30'

92° 00' 37° 30'

91° 00'

Montauk Springs

MISSOURI

Dye trace recovery locations injection point

C

ur

re

Current River Watershed

nt R

37° 15'

Round Spring

iv

Fork

J

a

c

k

s

USA Ozark Plateaus Province

er

Alley Spring

37° 00'

Big Spring Curre nt

7 Miles

Mammoth Spring

Paleozoic Stratigraphy

r

36° 30'

10 Kilometers

River

0

ve

nt

0

Ri

oi

Greer Spring

N

P

Eleven

36° 45'

of the St. Francois terrane (Van Schmus et al., 1993) that consist mainly of granitic and rhyolitic volcanic rocks belonging to two age groups: those of the eastern granite-rhyolite province (≈1.47 Ga) and those of the southern granite-rhyolite province (≈1.38 Ga) according to Sims (1990) and Van Schmus et al. (1996). Both provinces are part of a larger anorogenic terrane extending from New England to the southwestern United States (Anderson, 1983). The orthogonal tectonic fabric of Paleoproterozoic basement in the mid-continent influenced structural development of the St. Francois Terrane at all scales of observation (Harrison et al., 2003). At the largest scale, the NW-trending Missouri Gravity Low (MGL) is now recognized as a major rift zone defined by gravity and magnetic anomalies (Lowell et al., 2005). Geophysical models (Darnell et al., 1995) suggest the MGL is filled by 12–20 km of granite, rhyolite, and clastic equivalents covered by a relatively thin veneer of Paleozoic sediments. At the southeastern end of the MGL (Fig. I.6), rocks attributed to the anomaly are exposed in southern Missouri, where two riftmargin volcanic fields erupted during a major strike-slip event and were subsequently deformed by multiple episodes of postvolcanic shear (Lowell et al., 2005). The southwestern boundary of the rift is coincident with the Shannon County Fault (Fig. I.6) and the NE boundary coincides with the Black Fault (Lowell et al., 2005). Both boundaries are regional vertical faults with net sinistral slips. In the Current River basin, a cluster of ~50 knobs of Mesoproterozoic rocks protrude to the surface through the Paleozoic section. Two knobs are granite; the others are rhyolites that are referred to as the Eminence–Van Buren volcanic field by Lowell et al. (2005), Lowell and Harrison (2001), and Harrison et al. (2000). The base of the exposed volcanic section is the lower unit of Coot Mountain which is succeeded by the upper unit of Coot Mountain, tuff of Little Thorny Mountain, rhyolite of Russell Mountain, rhyolite of Sutton Creek, and rhyolite of Story Creek. This lower sequence of volcanic rocks exhibit 65–90° dips and are mainly ignimbrites related to caldera collapse. The probable thickness of the intracaldera fill is 4–5 mi (6–8 km) with a volume estimated to be ~360 km3. The lower ignimbrite sequence is unconformably overlain by post-collapse, subhorizontal effusive and volcaniclastic rocks with a thickness of ~300 m; they are intruded by contemporaneous, steep-walled domes dated at 1470 ± 2.7 Ma (Pb/U age). A distinctive air fall tuff unit generally marks this syn-volcanic unconformity. These units are discussed in detail later sections dealing with Stops 8 and 9.

Figure I.3. Dye traces to major springs in the Current River watershed area in southern Missouri (Aley and Aley, 1987; Imes and Kleeschulte, 1995).

Paleozoic units in the Current and Eleven Point River basins consist of marine carbonates, dominantly dolomite of mixed primary and secondary genesis, and lesser siliciclastic rocks that were deposited on the floor of late Cambrian shallow open seas, as well as in valleys between topographic highs formed by Mesoproterozoic knobs. As a result of the irregular submarine

Southern Ozark dome floor, locally there are great variations in the thickness and intraformational facies; this is particularly true for Cambrian units. Further complications to an otherwise “layer-cake” stratigraphy arise from syndepositional draping due to differential compaction above and adjacent to the Mesoproterozoic highs (Bridge, 1930), regional and local transgressive-regressive cycles, and a

92° 00'

Prescott

3

Licking

91° 00'

Montauk Spring

Montauk Weary in progress

Grove 2 Cedar Weary, 2008 Gladden

Welch Spring Big Piney River Basin Houston

significant but unknown amount of probable syndepositional tectonism active during the Cambrian. In the early stages of Late Cambrian sea-level rise, sedimentation in southern Missouri is viewed as a series of large- and small-scale depositional cycles (He et al., 1997). This is especially true in the region of the Current and Eleven Point River basins

91° 30'

1

Cu

rr

en

Loggers Lake

Raymondville

Hartshorn

5 Alley Spring Weary and Orndorff Summersville Summersville NE in progress

Eunice

6 Cu ent

Clear Springs

Pine Crest Weary, in progress

Jam Up Cave F Weary, in progress

o

The Sinks

iv

Midridge

Corridon SE

Redford

Powder Mill Ferry McDowell and Harrison (2000)

Exchange

Ellington

er

Eminence Orndorff and others (1999)

Alley Spring

Blue Spring

7

rk Bartlett

Jacks

Winona Orndorff and Harrison (2002)

Stegall Mountain Harrison and others (2002)

8

Van Buren North Weary and Weems (2004)

Garwood

Big Spring

9

Van Buren

Peck Ranch

37° 00'

Mountain View

Trask

Montier

Birch Tree

Pomona

Weary (2007)

Brandsville

Rover

Alton

Many Springs

Grandin SW Baker (1999)

Riverton

Bardley

er

Lower Black River Basin

Spring River Basin Moody

Lanton

Koshkonong

Thayer Hedden (1968)

Couch

Blue Spring Myrtle

Briar Starbuck (1999)

Gatewood

Billmore

r

West Plains

Handy Harrsion and McDowell (2003)

ve

P E l e v e n Greer o i nt Spring

Wilderness Harrsion and McDowell (2003)

Big Spring Van Buren Weary and South McDowell Weary and 10 (2006) Schindler (2004)

Ri

South Fork

Greer McDowell (1998)

Fremont Orndorff (2003)

Riv

North Fork White River Basin

White Church Peace Valley Thomasville

Piedmont Hollow

11

rent

Eleven Point River Basin

Low Wassie Weems (2002)

Cur

Willow Springs South

Centerville

Upper Black River Basin

Current River Basin

36° 45'

Corridon

t

Round Spring Orndorff Lewis Hollow and Weary (2009) R

Round Spring

Willow Springs North

Bunker

4

37° 15'

Elk Creek

103

Poynor Wedge (2000)

5 Miles 36° 30'

100 Miles

MISSOURI

Study Area

Ozark National Scenic Riverways (National Park Service)

State parks, forests, and wildlife management areas

Mark Twain National Forest

Approximate location of Viburnum Trend (southern part)

Prospecting Permit Application Area (PPAA)

River drainage basin divide Boundary of Fig. I.5

Figure I.4. Location of geographic and geologic features in the study area. Box outlines area of Fig. I.5. White rectangles delineate 7.5-minute quadrangles, authors and publication dates; grey rectangles are unpublished quadrangles in U.S. Geological Survey review. Numbered boxes are field trip stops.

17

re

Ri

Moun ain View 60

6

8 Miles 10 Kilometers

Alley Spring

Round Spring

4

19

3

5

19

Winona

Eminence

lt

fa u

Mesoproterozoic igneous rocks Wilderness-Handy fault zone

19

on

gt

lin

El

8

Alt 8

fault (primarily strike-slip)

7

37°30' N

60

106

21

10

9

Van Buren

11 Big Spring

21

Ellington

92°W

60

Figure I.5. Generalized geologic map of the Current River and Jacks Fork area. Surficial deposits not shown. Map based on detailed and reconnaissance geologic mapping by the U.S. Geological Survey. Numbers in white boxes correspond to field trip stops. The Ellington Fault is discussed in conjunction with Stop 3; the Hartshorn Fault is discussed in Stop 6.

dd Derby-Doe Run Dolomite

Map Location

r

lt

fau

ve

106

ho rn

Ha r ts

nt

J a c k s MISSOURI

17

ur

Summersville

C

2

Ojc Jefferson City Dolomite Or Roubidoux Formation Og Gasconade Dolomite

60

17

APPROXIMATE MEAN DECLINATION, 2006

37°15' N

TRUE NORTH

Montauk Springs

F

1

k or

MAGNETIC NORTH

92°30’ W.

92°52'30"W

Southern Ozark dome where these cycles were, in large part, controlled by topography related to the northeast-trending structural fabric of the Cambrian Reelfoot rift (Palmer, 1989; He et al., 1997; Seeger and Palmer, 1998). This produced a complicated Late Cambrian pattern of sediment facies including a deep depositional basin centered over the Reelfoot rift, carbonate shelves along uplifted rift margins and paleo-topographic highs, and relatively shallow intrashelf basins. Late Cambrian shallow-water, oöid-skeletal barrier complexes, and stromatolitic banks and bioherms developed on the leading edge of prograding carbonate ramps and migrated across this shelf-basin terrane toward the paleo–St. Francois Mountains (He et al., 1997). These “edge” facies later became favorable sites for Mississippi Valley–type base-metal mineralization in the Late Paleozoic. Variations in uplifted rift shoulder morphology, from narrow and discontinuous to wide and continuous, contributed to variations in sedimentation in intrashelf basins from limestone-dominated (typical of Bonneterre Formation) to shale-dominated facies (typical of Davis Formation) according to Seeger and Palmer (1998). Late Cambrian continental separation failed along the Reelfoot rift, but succeeded in opening a basin off the southern boundary of the North American craton. Deeper intracontinental basins in the tectonically quiescent midcontinent were filled with sediment and ultimately their floors were leveled, except adjacent to steep basement highs, which persisted as islands. Increasing water depths, coupled with increasing distance from major sources of sediment from the Canadian Shield, resulted in continental-shelf deposition on the trailing edge of

105

Laurentia for the remainder of geologic time recorded by the uppermost Cambrian and lower Ordovician section in southern Missouri. During that time, this region was located in tropical to subtropical latitudes and deposition was dominated by relatively shallow-water carbonate sediments (Repetski et al., 1998). All of the carbonate section in the uppermost Cambrian and lower Ordovician interval is dolomite, formed by both primary-digenetic and secondary-alteration processes (Repetski et al., 1998). Fig. I.7 summarizes the generalized lithology and thickness of sedimentary units in the map area. The color alteration index of conodonts reported from the lower Ordovician rocks of southern Ozarks of Missouri is 1–1.5, indicating low levels of longterm post-burial heating in the range of less than 50 °C to ~90 °C (Repetski et al., 1998). This suggests that total burial depth did not exceed ~5000–9000 ft (1500–2700 m) (Epstein et al., 1977). Outcropping Paleozoic Stratigraphy The Derby-Doerun Dolomite ( dd) is the oldest exposed Paleozoic unit in the map area (Fig. I.5). The upper part of the formation is exposed in outcrops along the Middle and West forks of the Black River in the extreme northeastern corner of the map area. The oldest exposed Paleozoic unit in the Current River basin is the Potosi Dolomite ( p), which crops out in several locations in the river valley and along some of the main tributaries. The type locality for this unit is the area of Potosi, Washington County, eastern Missouri (Winslow, 1894) but no type section has been designated. Potosi Dolomite is a massive

BF = Black fault

SCF = Shannon Co. fault

SGFZ = St. Gen. fault

SMFZ = Simms Mt. fault

NMSZ = New Madrid seismic zone

CGL = Commerce geophysical lineament

Red = Exposed Recambrian

Figure I.6. Location of major faults and exposed Mesoproterozoic rocks (red) in southeastern Missouri. Eminence–Van Buren volcanic rocks visited on this fieldtrip occur in the extreme southwestern portion of the outcrop area (just northeast of the Shannon County Fault).

EXPLANATION OF LITHOLOGIC SYMBOLS

Shale

Sandy dolomite

Limestone

Quartz drusy, vuggy, dolomite Shaley dolomite

Cherty Limestone Sandstone and orthoquartzite

Formation (Map Unit)

ST. FRANCOIS CONFINING UNIT

DerbyDoerun Dolomite

Davis Formation

CAMBRIAN

100 FEET

OZARK AQUIFER

CAMBRIAN Yv

UPPER

Lamotte Sandstone PROTEROZOIC IGNEOUS ROCKS are locally exposed adjacent to overlying units upsection into the Gasconade Dolomite

Roubidoux Formation

Cryptozoon chert upper part

middle part lower part

Lower

Bonneterre Formation

UPPER

ST. FRANCOIS AQUIFER

“Quarry ledge”

Upper

Elvins Group

Found in subsurface only

Lithology

Middle

Hydrostratigraphic Unit

Jefferson City Dolomite (part) LO W E R O R D O V I C I A N

x

Dolomite

Gasconade Dolomite (Og)

x

x

Cherty dolomite

Age

x

Cryptozoon chert

Buff-colored dolomite interval

Gunter Sandstone Member

Eminence Dolomite

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

x x

x x

x x

Yg

x

x

x x

x

x

x

Potosi Dolomite

x

Unnamed quartz sandstone interval, in southeastern part of field trip area only

x x

x x

x x

x

x

Figure I.7. Generalized stratigraphic column for Paleozoic rocks in the Current River drainage basin modified from Thompson (1995).

Southern Ozark dome to thick-bedded, fine- to medium-grained cherty dolomite and is characterized by secondary quartz druse that lines vugs and coats chert. It is typically brown to brownish gray in color and fetid. The Potosi Dolomite grades upward into the Eminence Dolomite. The contact between these units is indistinct and probably related to secondary alteration (silicification) rather than to deposition. This is supported by the observation that in several well logs the thickness of the Potosi is inversely proportional to the thickness of the Eminence. In addition, Potosi exposures often completely circle exposed Mesoproterozoic knobs at higher elevations than Potosi exposures elsewhere, suggesting mineralizing fluid-flow up and around the knobs. This outcrop pattern was noted by Bridge (1930). The Potosi ranges from ~50 to 525 ft thick in the upper Current River basin. Overlying the Potosi Dolomite is the Eminence Dolomite ( e). The Eminence was named by Ulrich (1911) for exposures near the town of Eminence, Missouri. It is exposed extensively in the map area in the lower valleys of the Current and Black River drainages. Except for a few areas of Potosi Dolomite outcrop in the Eminence–Stegall Mountain area, the main-stem Current River flows almost exclusively on the Eminence Dolomite from ~2 mi (3 km) downstream of its headwaters at Montauk Springs to a point 5.5 mi (8.9 km) southeast of the town of Van Buren. The Eminence consists of massive to thick-bedded, medium- to coarse-grained, light- to medium-gray cherty dolomite. The massive dolomite beds of the Eminence typically weather to short, stubby pinnacles. Many beds are stromatolitic with pits and vugs developed between the laminae; some are cross-bedded. In downstream areas of the Current River basin a 10- to 20-ft-thick (3–9 m) interval containing interbedded thin, friable to silicified quartz sandstone and sandy dolomite is present ~50–80 ft (15–24 m) below the upper contact. This sandy interval has not been observed west of the Powder Mill Ferry quadrangle. Although Bridge (1930) described the sandstone in the Eminence to be localized lenses, this sandstone-dolomite interval was observed in outcrops throughout the Van Buren area. Assuming that this interval is correlative across the area, it may mark a regressive event similar to, but less widespread than, the regression indicated by the unconformity beneath the basal Gunter Sandstone Member of the overlying Gasconade Dolomite. The variation in thickness of the Eminence above the sandstone-dolomite interval is probably due to erosion of uppermost Eminence before deposition of the overlying Gunter Sandstone Member. The upper part of the Eminence is cavernous, with caves often developed beneath the sandy interval and beneath the upper contact with the overlying Gunter Sandstone Member of the Gasconade Dolomite. Bridge (1930) reported the Eminence to be abundantly fossiliferous, especially with trilobites and gastropods in residual cherts. The fossils observed during the course of this study were mainly gastropods. The Eminence Dolomite ranges in thickness from ~130 to 840 ft (40 to 256 m) in the Current River basin. Earlier maps produced by the latest U.S. Geological Survey project placed the Cambrian-Ordovician boundary in the upper part of

107

the Eminence Dolomite (McDowell, 1998; Orndorff et al., 1999; McDowell and Harrison, 2000; Orndorff and Harrison, 2002; Harrison et al., 2002; Weems, 2002; Harrison and McDowell, 2003). However, a recent international redefinition of this boundary requires that it be placed at the contact between the Eminence and Gasconade Dolomites (Cooper et al., 2001). Bridge (1930) speculated that an important unconformity exists at the base of the Gasconade. Conodont biostratigraphy suggests that, in fact, there may be multiple unconformities within the basal Gasconade interval (Repetski et al., 2000b). The Gasconade Dolomite (Og) overlies the Eminence Dolomite and was named by Nason (1892) for exposures along the bluffs of the Gasconade River in Laclede, Pulaski, and Phelps Counties in central Missouri. The Gasconade Dolomite crops out extensively in the uplands adjacent to the Current River, in the upper Jacks Fork Valley, and in the northeastern part of the map area (Fig. I.5). The basal 15–45 ft (5–14 m) consists of interbedded sandstone, orthoquartzite, and thin-bedded dolomite and sandy dolomite named the Gunter Sandstone Member by Ball and Smith (1903) for exposures along the Niangua River at Gunter (now Hahatonka Springs), Camden County, central Missouri. The thickness and composition of the Gunter Member varies locally within the Current River basin. In the southeastern part of the area, in the Van Buren North, Van Buren South, and Big Spring quadrangles (Fig. I.4) the lower part of the Gunter is relatively thin quartz sandstone and dolomite and is often buried in residuum from the beds above. The upper part of the Gunter is typically thick-bedded or massive quartz sandstone as much as 15 ft (5m) thick and produces a prominent topographic bench on many hillsides. The total thickness of the Gunter is in the range of 20–45 ft (6–14 m) within this part of the basin. The Gunter progressively thins and contains less quartz sand in areas to the northwest of the Van Buren area where the total thickness rarely exceeds 15 ft (5 m), and the lower sandstones are usually more prominent than the upper sandstones. In the northwestern part of the basin, in the area of the Cedar Grove and Montauk quadrangles, the Gunter quartz sandstone forms discontinuous lenses less than 24 in (61 cm) in thickness. In some places quartz sandstone is absent, making identification of the base of the Gasconade difficult. Conodont biostratigraphy indicates that unconformities exist both at the base and within the Gunter (Repetski et al., 2000b). Bridge (1930) used the name “Van Buren Formation” for medium-bedded cherty dolomite above the Gunter and below an oölite bed in the middle part of the Gasconade Dolomite. The Van Buren Formation was defined by faunal content, but the name is no longer used. Pratt et al. (1992) discussed a lower and upper part of the Gasconade Dolomite that is divided by a persistent Cryptozoon chert. This distinctive Cryptozoon chert is located 80–100 ft (24–30 m) below the top of the Gasconade and provides a reliable marker for the upper Gasconade throughout the area of Fig. I.5. In the southeastern part of Fig. I.5, an algal facies or a diagenetic change coincides with the location of the Wilderness-Handy fault zone. Northwest of this zone the

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Cryptozoon chert usually comprises parallel columns, a few inches wide, of convex upward algal laminae. Southeast of the zone, the bed is white chert with varied fabrics and may be difficult to distinguish from chert derived from the overlying Roubidoux Formation. This change might be associated with paleotopographic effects related to southeastward down-stepping across faults in the Wilderness-Handy fault zone, or to silicification of different beds at slightly different stratigraphic levels near the boundary of the middle and upper parts of the Gasconade. The upper part of the formation above the chert is thickbedded dolomite (Fig. I.7). When not buried in residuum from the overlying Roubidoux Formation, this interval tends to form dolomite glades on south-facing and west-facing slopes. The Gasconade Dolomite is one of the richest cave-bearing units in this part of the Ozarks. Caves are numerous in the upper part of the Gasconade beneath the overlying Roubidoux Formation. Jam Up Cave, exposed in cliffs along the Jacks Fork River in the Jam Up Cave quadrangle, is an example. Caves are also concentrated in the dolomites below the Cryptozoon chert horizon that separates the middle and upper part of the formation. Lost Man Cave and Coal Bank Cave in the Big Spring quadrangle are examples. Macrofossils, other than of algae, are rare in the Gasconade, although the presence of planispiral gastropods and cephalopods from cherts in this unit was reported from Fort Leonard Wood and northeast of Van Buren (Harrison et al., 1996). Conodonts collected from just above the Gunter Sandstone in the Van Buren North quadrangle indicate early Ordovician age (early Ibexian, middle part of the Rossodus manitouensis Biozone; see section II). Conodonts collected from the Gasconade in the Low Wassie quadrangle also are indicative of early Ordovician (early Ibexian). Thickness of the Gasconade Dolomite ranges from as much as 700 ft (214 m) to as little as 280 ft (85 m) adjacent to volcanic knobs. It is the youngest Paleozoic unit observed in contact with the igneous rocks in the Current River basin. The Roubidoux Formation (Or) overlies the Gasconade Dolomite. The Roubidoux Formation was named for exposures in the area of Roubidoux Creek ~80 mi (130 km) northwest in Pulaski County by Nason (1892). This unit consists of thin- to thick-bedded, fine- to coarse-grained sandstone and orthoquartzite, intercalated with thin- to medium-bedded, mediumto coarse-grained dolomite and sandy dolomite. Sandy, oölitic, porcelaneous, and “dry-bone” varieties of chert are common throughout the formation. Symmetrical and asymmetrical ripple marks, polygonal desiccation cracks, and cross bedding are all common in sandy intervals. The contact between the Roubidoux and the underlying Gasconade is probably conformable and is placed at the base of the first significant sandstone or orthoquartzite in the Roubidoux. The lower 20–30 ft (6–9m) of the Roubidoux is usually sandstone-rich and commonly produces a topographic bench that sheds sandstone float onto the slopes below. In some locations, however, the basal Roubidoux is chiefly thick-bedded dolomite

through an interval ~50 ft (15 m) above the basal sandstone. In these locations, identification of the Roubidoux-Gasconade contact is difficult. The middle part of the Roubidoux is chiefly thick-bedded gray dolomite resembling the dolomite in the upper part of the Gasconade. A well-exposed section comprising rocks of uppermost Gasconade Dolomite through the middle part of the Roubidoux Formation can be seen in road cuts along Missouri State Highway 17 just north of its crossing of the Jacks Fork River in the Pine Crest quadrangle. This section was originally described in detail by Muilenberg and Beveridge (1954) and their description is repeated by Thompson (1991). The conodont biostratigraphy of this section is reported in Repetski et al. (1998). Highway widening, completed in 2006, has slightly modified the road cuts relative to published accounts. The upper part of the Roubidoux is sandstone-rich and forms a topographic bench. Upon weathering, the Roubidoux produces a sandy, orange-colored soil littered in places with tabular sandstone and orthoquartzite float blocks as well as white chert cobbles and boulders. Fossils are rare in the Roubidoux, though impressions of snails (mostly Lecanospira) locally are common in cherts and sandstones. Heller (1954) reported the occurrence of brachiopods, cephalopods, and trilobites from this formation elsewhere within the Salem Plateau, and Harrison et al. (1996) and Repetski et al. (1998) reported the occurrence of conodonts indicative of early Ordovician (early to middle Ibexian) age. The Roubidoux Formation ranges from ~200 to 280 ft (60 to 85m) thick in the Current River basin. The youngest Paleozoic unit in the Current River drainage basin is the Jefferson City Dolomite named by Winslow (1894) for exposures near Jefferson City, Missouri. The unit consists primarily of thin- to thick-bedded, light-brown, medium- to fine-grained dolomite and argillaceous dolomite. Lenses of quartz sandstone and orthoquartzite as well as beds and nodules of white chert are common. Some areas exhibit an interval of thick- to massivebedded, brown, medium-grained, siliceous, pitted-weathering dolomite informally known as the “Quarry Ledge.” The Quarry Ledge is 25–40 ft (8–12 m) above the base of the Jefferson City and is a useful marker for the Roubidoux–Jefferson City contact which is seldom exposed. The Quarry Ledge, although regionally persistent, does not crop out everywhere, requiring mapping based on float or soil color. The Jefferson City Dolomite weathers to a characteristic yellowish color and produces a silty, sand-poor soil compared with the underlying Roubidoux Formation. Residual sandstone and orthoquartzite float from the Jefferson City are usually less tabular in shape than those produced from the Roubidoux. These characteristics enable differentiation between Roubidoux and Jefferson City bedrock in areas with no outcrop. The unit averages ~200 ft (60 m) in thickness in Missouri (Thompson, 1991) but is considerably less than this value in the Current River basin. The Jefferson City Dolomite is sparsely fossiliferous, but has yielded trilobites and conodonts as reported by Repetski et

Southern Ozark dome

The regional style of deformation in the field trip area is brittle failure with vertical jointing and strike-slip faulting predominant along northeast and northwest trends (Clendenin et al., 1989; Harrison and Schultz, 2002). Strata in the area are generally subhorizontal to gently dipping with gentle, open folds developed in compressional (or transpressional) domains near faults and in subsidence features related to large karstic voids. Rocks in the field trip area are pervasively jointed. The two primary joint sets trend north-northwest and northeast and are indicative of development under a regional stress field. Cox (1995) interpreted similarly oriented joints throughout the Ozarks as far-field deformation related to the Ouachita and Appalachian orogenies. Cataclastic deformation bands occur locally in sandstones within the field trip area (Fig. I.10). All those observed were found in float blocks, diminishing their usefulness. The deformation bands are of tectonic origin and are created by millimeter-scale shear displacements that involve porespace collapse, fracturing, and grain comminution (Davis, 1999; Harrison and Schultz, 2002). This strain-hardening mechanism (Davis, 1999) produces resistant bands that often stand in relief on the surfaces of sandstone boulders. These deformation bands will be examined at Stop 3.

JEFFERSON CITY DOLOMITE SINKHOLES (lower part) SINKHOLES

ROUBIDOUX FORMATION

GASCONADE DOLOMITE

100 FEET 30 METERS

BIG ROOM BIG ROOM

EMINENCE DOLOMITE

SINKHOLES

ALLEY SPRING CAVE

The Salem Plateau contains numerous caves, springs, sinkholes, and other karst features. Measurement of joint structures, exposed in caves in the field trip area, indicate little or no joint control on cave passage direction (Šebela et al., 1999). An example from one of the caves studied, Round Spring Cavern, is discussed in Stop 5. On the other hand, evidence for bedding control on cave and conduit development is strong; this includes a relationship between cave horizons and stratigraphic position, the branching morphologies of the caves, and caves parallel or subparallel to bedding planes. Palmer (1991) showed that branching cave systems are indicative of bedding control where curvilinear passages of branch-work morphology are controlled by bedding plane parting porosity. Dom and Wicks (2003) confirmed that cave systems of the Salem Plateau are dominated by branch-work morphology, with nearly 72% of the caves having branch-work passage morphologies. Cave passages in the Current River drainage basin are concentrated at particular stratigraphic levels, particularly in the upper part of the Eminence Dolomite and in the uppermost part of the Gasconade Dolomite. Both of these levels are characterized by thick- and massive-bedded stromatolitic dolomite beneath caps of quartz sandstone. The sandstones are the basal Gunter Sandstone Member of the Gasconade Dolomite and the basal sandstones of the Roubidoux Formation, respectively. These observations lead to the concept of phreatic conduit formation under at least partially confined conditions beneath the sandstones (Orndorff et al., 2006; Fig. I.8). Although sinkholes occur throughout the Current River basin, the greatest concentration occurs in areas underlain by the Roubidoux Formation and Jefferson City Dolomite (Orndorff et al., 2000). GIS analysis shows that this high concentration of sinkholes occurs adjacent to major fault zones. Fig. I.9 illustrates sinkholes density in the Ozark Plateaus of Missouri and Arkansas. Sinkhole concentrations with rectilinear map patterns, as in south-central Missouri, are probably controlled by preexisting tectonic features. The distribution of sinkholes in the Ozarks is profoundly affected by the thickness of ubiquitous residuum

Structural Geology

ORDOV C AN SYSTEM (lower part)

Karst

above the Paleozoic bedrock. This residuum, usually quartz sandstone and chert derived from the weathering of the predominantly carbonate strata, can be several hundred feet thick. Variation in residuum thickness is one factor influencing the distribution and density of sinkholes at the surface. Presumably, there are many solution voids in the carbonate bedrock, as well as in the overlying regolith, now buried. Most sinkholes are closed-throat type, however, historical records indicate several catastrophiccollapse-sinkholes (Aley et al., 1972) beneath the residuum.

CAMBR AN SYSTEM (upper part)

al. (1998). The Quarry Ledge is paleontologically significant because its top and the immediately overlying beds have produced most of the trilobites known from the lower Jefferson City. At the town of Vichy, ~45 mi (72 km) north of Montauk Springs, a short section in the lower part of the Jefferson City Dolomite produced both trilobites and conodonts. This trilobite taxa marks the Jeffersonian Stage assemblage and the conodonts permit recognition of the Acodus deltatus–Oneotodus costatus Biozone from the appearance of Ulrichodina deflexa and Eucharodus toomeyi (Repetski et al., 1998). Another Jefferson City section at Jim’s Creek, ~48 mi (77 km) northwest of Montauk Springs, yielded conodonts that suggest the boundary between the Macerodus dianae Zone and the Acodus deltatusOneotodus costatus Zone may fall near or at the base of the Quarry Ledge.

109

POTOSI DOLOMITE quartz sandstone

bedded chert

Figure I.8. Generalized conceptual model of cave and sinkhole distribution related to stratigraphy in south-central Missouri. From Orndorff et al. (2006).

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Faults mapped in the field trip area (Fig. I.5) strike NW-SE and NE-SW but are difficult to observe directly due to vegetation and residuum. Most are inferred from indirect evidence which includes: (1) vertical offset of strata with insufficient observed dip to explain the change; and (2) cataclastic deformation bands observed in outcrop or in float blocks of sandstone (Fig. I.10). Faults in this area are interpreted as strike-slip even though only vertical offset is observed; this is based on analysis of similar faults exposed in mines of the Viburnum trend in the northeastern part of the map area (Clendenin et al.,1989). Faulting in rocks in the Current River drainage basin is polyphase. A few faults are interpreted to be strictly of Mesoproterozoic age since they do not extend into the Paleozoic section and at places they are mineralized or altered by high-temperature hydrothermal fluids interpreted as syn- or slightly post-volcanic age (Lowell and Clendenin, 2003). The Mesoproterozoic faults are interpreted as products of two different stress fields: (1) an east-

northeast to west-southwest oriented maximum horizontal stress direction; and (2) a northwest-southeast–oriented maximum horizontal stress direction. Both are thought to have had orthogonal horizontal least principal stress directions and are therefore strikeslip structures. The larger structures, and many of the small-scale structures identified in Fig. I.5, formed under the east-northeast– oriented stress field and interpreted as approximately contemporaneous with 1.48 Ga volcanism (Lowell and Clendenin, 2003). The other set includes small-scale structures thought to be younger and coeval with 1.37 Ga plutonism. The majority of manganese oxide deposits in the area occur along northwest-southeast trends (Lowell and Noll, 2001); this is consistent with dilation along the axis of compression in the younger stress field. Later faulting affecting Lower Paleozoic rocks often occurred by reactivation of Proterozoic faults. The most intense post-Cambrian faulting is Late Paleozoic in age and is ascribed to far-field deformation related to the Ouachita and Allegheny orogenic events (Harrison

ILLINOIS MISSOURI

FIELD TRIP AREA

ARKANSAS

0-0.1 sinkholes/km2 0.5-5 sinkholes/km2 5-42 sinkholes/km2 Areas underlain by dolomite Areas underlain by limestone

Figure I.9. Sinkhole density in areas underlain primarily by carbonate rocks in the Ozark Plateaus province of Missouri and Arkansas. Sinkhole location data for the Missouri portion of the map from Missouri Department of Natural Resources (2003). Sinkhole data for the Arkansas portion of the map derived from U.S. Geological Survey topographic maps with contour intervals of either 10 or 20 ft.

Southern Ozark dome and Schultz, 2002). In the Mississippi embayment and around its northern and northwestern periphery, middle Ordovician faulting (Harrison and Schultz, 1994, 2002; Clendenin and Diehl, 1999) as well as Mesozoic and Cenozoic faulting (Harrison and Schultz, 1994, 2002; Harrison and Litwin, 1997; Harrison et al., 2002) has been documented; some of the faults in the Current and Eleven Point River basins are likely of similar age. The trace of the Wilderness-Handy fault zone (Fig. I.5), an important tectonic feature, intersects the southeastern corner of the field trip area. It is described and discussed in detail in Stop 11. II. CONODONT-BASED UPPERMOST CAMBRIAN AND LOWER ORDOVICIAN BIOSTRATIGRAPHIC FRAMEWORK FOR THE OZARK REGION The Ozarks region, comprising that part of Missouri south of the Missouri River and the part of Arkansas north of the Buffalo and White Rivers, contains one of the largest areas of exposed Upper Cambrian and Lower Ordovician, or Ibexian Series, rocks in the United States. Due to its inboard location on the trailing margin of Laurentia, in tropical to subtropical latitudes during this time, this area accumulated chiefly shallow-marine carbonate sediments. Most of the section is now dolomite, much of it primary or early diagenetic, but also much of it is coarse-grained cherty dolostone, reflecting one or more periods of later dolomitizing episodes. Periods of massive diagenesis related to subsurface fluids moving through Pennsylvanian and Permian strata associated with the Ouachita orogeny are an example of such a process. The Latest Cambrian to Ibexian section in the Ozarks reaches more than a thousand feet in thickness. The units considered

Figure I.10. Cataclastic deformation bands in a float boulder of Roubidoux Formation quartz sandstone. Lighter-colored anastamosing features (arrows) are deformation bands. Brunton transit for scale. Photo by D. Weary, February 2010.

111

here are, in ascending order: the Eminence Dolomite, only the upper part of which is Ibexian; the Gasconade Dolomite, 150– 300 ft (45–90 m) thick; the Roubidoux Formation, 100–300 ft (30–90 m) thick; Jefferson City Dolomite, 125–350 ft (40– 110 m) thick; and the Cotter/Powell formations, 100–300+ ft (30–90+ m) thick. Figs. II.1 and II.2 illustrate relative age and regional stratigraphic correlation of these units. Although dominantly dolomite, the section does contain sandstones, mostly quartz sands, and most of them are multiply reworked, as the region was hundreds of miles from the lowlying exposed sources of Precambrian and Cambrian rocks in the upper Midwest. Most of these Ozarks sandstones are thin lenses, stringers, and channels of local lateral extent. However, intervals contain laterally persistent horizons that have been used both for subdividing the section into formations and for local and long-distance correlations. Some of the sand horizons have been incorporated into sequence stratigraphic schemes of various scales. Little biostratigraphic control exists for this succession of rock, especially considering its areal extent. Certainly pervasive dolomitization destroyed much of the original fossil record, but the depositional environments for most of the units were hypersaline with restricted circulation and probably did not produce diverse faunas in the first place. Most of the macrofauna known from the Ibexian Series of the Ozarks is from preservation as molds or casts in chert. Because much of the record is from chert float blocks, precise occurrence and range data are lacking. Mollusks are the most abundant and diverse of these macrofossils. Trilobites are known from relatively few intervals, but brachiopods are useful in some of the Cambrian units. Most of these faunas were described in works of the 1930s, 1940s, and 1950s. Conodont microfossils have proven to be the most abundant and useful fossils for biostratigraphy in Ozark carbonate rocks. Conodonts are the phosphatic (fluorapatite) food-gathering structures (teeth) of a group of primitive swimming chordate animals. These teeth are small, usually between 0.25 and 1 mm in the Ibexian. They are the only mineralized skeletal parts of these animals and are scattered through the sediment after death. For the stratigrapher, especially working in otherwise poorly fossiliferous successions such as the Ozarks, conodonts are extremely valuable: their apatitic composition allows them to be extracted from carbonate rocks relatively easily and inexpensively using acetic and formic acid; their composition also made them resistant to most diagenetic and mineralizing processes that affected the host rocks; their small size permits recovery from drill cuttings; and conodonts were widespread and evolved rapidly through this time interval. In fact, they underpin the current biozonation through the Ibexian. The strategy used here for conodont stratigraphy in the Ozarks involves location and measurement of multiple sections of each unit, including type sections where possible. This especially includes sections which contain formational boundaries and other marker horizons. Samples of 4–6 kg are collected with the object of bracketing these boundaries and markers. Large

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samples are necessary because productive samples yield only a few conodont elements per kg. We run samples through 170- or 200-mesh sieve. Accessory mineral content in the heavy residues is minimal so that following magnetic separation only snowy dolomite requires hand separation. Conodont separation from the heavy-fraction insoluble residues is facilitated by low conodont color alteration index values of 1–1.5. Preservation in Ozark samples is generally good. True conodonts (euconodonts) first appeared in the mid-Late Cambrian but, thus far, the oldest euconodonts recovered from the southern Ozarks are from the upper part of the Eminence Dolomite (Fig. II.1). Recovery is sparse in numbers of specimens per kg of rock (as is the case in most samples from the Ozarks dolomites); however, the uppermost Cambrian Eoconodontus and Cordylodus proavus Zones are documented in sections near Eminence and Van Buren. Kurtz (1981) reported conodonts from Eminence strata exposed near Van Buren, and used them to place the Cambrian-Ordovician boundary within these upper Eminence beds. However, because the base of the Ordovician has been standardized globally at a level somewhat higher than was used traditionally in North America when Kurtz published (Cooper et al., 2001), these Eminence conodonts now fall into the

Ozark Formations

[revised] Upper Cambrian, and no Ordovician faunas are known from the Eminence using the revised systemic boundary. The Gunter Sandstone Member of the Gasconade Dolomite lies on the top of the Eminence. The contact is sharp and at some sites shows some erosional relief. This contact will be examined at Stops 2, 4, and 5. The Gunter has resisted precise age-dating thus far; numerous large samples have yielded small faunas of longranging or abraded conodont elements that in most places do not constrain the age to either the Cambrian or the Ordovician. An exception is a section near Round Spring (Stop 5), where a sample from approximately one meter above the base of the Gunter contained basal Ordovician conodonts. The carbonate succession above the Gunter, while not prolific in conodonts, contains taxa of the Lower Ordovician Cordylodus angulatus Zone followed by Rossodus manitouensis Zone faunas. The latter biozone is represented through the lower and middle parts of the Gasconade. However, there is an abrupt change in the faunas ~2/3 of the way up through the Gasconade section. This level coincides with a regional chertified horizon above a prominent interval of microbial stromatolite and thrombolite development. This horizon is informally referred to as the “cryptozoon chert” and will be seen at Stop 6. Above this chertified interval, which may be a silicified

Conodont Zones

Trilobite Zones J Zonation not yet established

?

?H-?I

Oepikodus communis

Cassinian Stage

?

?

Bolbocephalus clairi

Jefferson City Dolomite Jeffersonian Stage

Acodus deltatus Oneotodus costatus

Petigurus cullisoni

G

Lutesvillia bispinosa Ranasasus brevicephalus ?

Demingian Stage

Roubidoux Formation

Macerodus dianae

Low Diversity interval

Gasconade Dolomite Gasconadian Stage

Rossodus manitouensis

Poorly fossiliferous

? ? Paraplethopeltis Bellefontia-Xenostegium

Eminence Dolomite

Cordylodus angulatus & lapetognathus Cordylodus lindstromi & Cordylodus intermedius

Cordylodus proavus from Ross and others, 1997

Symphysurina Missisquoia from Arbuckle Mts. Oklahoma (Loch, 2007)

?D-?F

Ibexian Series

Ordovician System (Lower)

Reutterodus andinus

?

C

B Utah

Figure II.1. Stratigraphic framework of the southern Missouri Ozarks region from uppermost Cambrian to lower Ordovician. Conodont symbol indicates horizons of conodont recovery. Vertical ruling indicates missing strata.

Cincinnatian

Gamachian

Conodont Zones/ Subzones

S. Oklahoma

Richmondian

divergens

Maysvillian

grandis robustus velicuspis

Edenian

Keel Fm. A. ordovicicus

A. superbus

Mohawkian

tenuis

Fernvale Ls.

Viola Springs Fm.

Viola Springs Fm.

Bigfork Chert

Corbin Ranch Fm. A. tvaerensis

Joachim Dol.

quadri-

“Chazyan” friendsvillensis

P. anserinus Pygodus serra

Simpson Group

Whiterockian

Ordovician

sweeti

Bromide Fm.

gerdae subz.

aculeata

Lower

Tulip Creek Fm.

Womble Shale

.

McLish Fm.

. Oil Creek Fm.

H. holodentata H. sinuosa H. altifrons T. laevis R. andinus

Joins Fm.

Blakely Sandstone

West Spring Creek Fm.

Kindblade Fm. Cool Creek Fm.

Low Diversity Interval Rossodus manitouensis C. angulatus I. fluctivagus C. lindstromi Cordylodus intermedius Cordylodus proavus

Croixan

Trempealeauan

Crystal Mountain Ss.

Signal Mountain Fm.

Collier Shale

Proconodontus muelleri

Fort Sill Ls. Timbered Hills G.

Franconian

Cotter Dol. Jefferson City Dol. Roubidoux Fm.

Eminence Dol.

Potosi Dol.

.Pposterocostatus

P. tenuiserratus

Smithville Fm.

Gasconade Dol.

McKenzie Hill Fm.

Eoconodontus

Cambrian (part)

Mazarn Shale

M. dianae

Demingian Arbuckle Group

Ibexian (Canadian)

A. deltatus -O. costatus

Everton Fm.

Powell Dol.

Oepikodus communis

“Gasconadian”

Dutchtown St Peter Fm. Ss

Phr. “pre-flexuosu”

Cassinian

Jeffersonian

Kimmswick Ls. Plattin Fm.

dactylus

Middle

Cason Sh.

undatus

compressa

Blackriveran

Polk Creek Shale

Welling Fm.

confluens

Rocklandian

Ozarks

Sylvan Sh.

Shermanian Kirkfieldian

Ouachitas

oolitic unit

shatzeri

Viola Gp.

System/ Series/ Stage

Honey Creek Ls.

Elvins Gp.

Reagan Ss. ?

Dresbachian

Bonneterre Fm.

Figure II.2. Regional correlation of stratigraphic units and conodont zones in the upper Cambrian and Ordovician of the south-central USA. Black areas represent hiatus. Modified from figures 1 and 2 of Derby et al. (1991).

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unconformity surface, faunas of the “Low Diversity Interval” occur through the remaining Gasconade carbonates as well as the lower 1/3 of the overlying Roubidoux Formation. This abrupt faunal change at the top of the Rossodus manitouensis Zone is recognized over most of Laurentia, not only in the conodonts but also in other groups such as the trilobites; this almost certainly reflects a craton-wide eustatic regression-transgression couplet (Ethington et al., 1987; Ji and Barnes, 1993). The Low Diversity Interval faunas give way upward in the lower Roubidoux to species demarking the Macerodus dianae Zone (Fig. II.3). The boundary between the M. dianae Zone and the overlying Acodus deltatus-Oneotodus costatus Zone has not been located precisely, but it is near the contact between the Roubidoux and the overlying Jefferson City Dolomite (Repetski et al., 1998, 2000a). In central and eastern Missouri, the Jefferson City extends upward into the Cassinian Stage (of Laurentian stadial nomenclature), as it contains conodonts of the Oepikodus communis Zone in that region. However, in the southern and south-central Ozarks, the A. deltatus–O. costatus Zone faunas continue through the Jefferson City and into the Cotter Dolomite, at least in the Rolla area (Repetski, unpublished, USGS collections). Examples of conodonts from Upper Gasconade Dolomite, Roubidoux Formation, and the lower part of the Jefferson City Dolomite are shown on Figure II.4. Stratigraphic and facies relationships of the Jefferson City, Cotter, and Powell Dolomites in southern Missouri are not clear and are beyond the scope of studies related to the Ozark National Scenic Waterways. Conodonts probably are the best fossil group with which to address these relationships, but such studies remain to be undertaken. STOP 1. MONTAUK SPRINGS Location (Figure 1.1) About 10 mi (16 km) east-southeast of the town of Licking, Missouri, and 14 mi (23 km) southwest of the town of Salem, Missouri: NE1/4 of Section 22, T32N, R7W, Dent County, Montauk 7.5 min quadrangle. UTM coordinates 4,146,780 mN, 616,443 mE, Zone 15, NAD83 Datum. Road Directions From the town of Salem, Missouri, follow State Highway 32 southwest ~11 mi (18 km), left onto State Route 119 and follow to the south ~8 mi (13 km); turn left at the base of a steep hill, just prior to crossing the bridge over Pigeon Creek, onto County Road DC6660 and follow to the east ~0.8 mi (1.3 km); turn right into a parking lot for Montauk Springs. A very short (0.1 mi; 0.2 km), flat trail leads to the south and a view of one of the spring rise pools. Site Description Named by early residents after Montauk in Suffolk County, Long Island, New York, this area became a milling center with

a total of four mills extant at various times. A grist mill built in 1896, still stands in the park. The mill contains most of its original machinery and is open to visitors during much of the year. Montauk became a state park in 1926 and houses a trout hatchery which produces non-native fish that are stocked in the local spring-fed waters and in rivers and streams statewide. Montauk is one of the most popular vacation spots in Missouri, especially during the trout fishing season. Field work has recently (2008–2009) been completed on 1:24,000 scale geologic mapping of the Montauk quadrangle and a published map is planned by the USGS within the next few years. Montauk Springs is a group of several springs that issue from quartz-sand choked basins in the valley floor. The primary source of the sand is from weathering of sandstones in the Roubidoux Formation, which is exposed on ridge crests and upland surfaces locally and to the west. The sand is transported locally down the hillsides and then downstream along the valley of Pigeon Creek. The springs are estimated to produce an aggregate flow of ~53 million gallons of water per day (82 ft3/sec; 2.3 m3/sec). The influx of groundwater at Montauk Springs marks the official headwaters of the Current River. The channel of the surface stream continues upstream to the northwest for another 9 mi as Pigeon Creek. Downstream from the springs, the Current River flows in a southeastward direction through the Ozark Plateaus physiographic province for ~90 mi. where it enters the Mississippi Embayment near the Arkansas state line. The river then changes direction and flows southwestward, parallel to the northwestern margin of the embayment to join the Black River near Pocahontas, Arkansas. The Black River continues southward to join the White River which enters the Mississippi River in southeastern Arkansas. The Current is one of the premier canoeing rivers in the United States, with clean water, fine scenery, and chiefly class I and II whitewater, making it very popular for group float and canoe trips. A large part of the river and the immediate shore areas are protected by Missouri Department of Conservation lands and by the Ozark National Scenic Riverways (ONSR) which begins ~1.5 mi. southeast of here. The ONSR extends downriver for ~60 linear miles (many more river miles!) to near the town of Doniphan, Missouri, making it possible to float and camp within the park for several days. Stratigraphy and Geohydrology The bluffs adjacent to the springs area and most visible to the east are exposures of the lower Gasconade Dolomite. Based on the local stratigraphic and structural context and observations at other large springs in the Current River system, we infer that the conduit feeding Montauk Springs flows, at least for a time, in the Eminence Dolomite, beneath the basal Gunter Sandstone Member of the Gasconade which is only a few tens of feet below the surface at this spot. Figure I.8 is a generalized conceptual model of karst conduit development in this area. This main cluster of springs is at ~930 ft elevation (above mean seal level [MSL]),

B

Gasconade

Roubidoux Formation JF-E

JF-D

JF-C

JF-B

JF-A

JF-O

JF-N

JF-M JF-L JF-K RC-113

RC-100

RC-46

RC-26 RC-17 RC-16 RC-09 RC-02

JF-F

aff. Colaptoconus quadraplicatus “Oneotodus” gracilis Eucharodus paralellus Aloxoconus staufferi Histiodella donnae Eucharodus c.f. E. paralellus Ulrichodina c.f. U. abnormalis aff. Oneotodus simplex aff. Laurentoscandodus triangularis Ulrichodina n. sp. 1 of Repetski Eucharodus ? sp. Aloxoconus sp. Colaptoconus quadraplicatus cf. Histiodella donnae Protopanderodus ? sp. Drepanodus sp. Juanognathus ? felicitii Eucharodus aff. E. toomeyi

RC-160

JF-J

JF-H 10 feet

RC-126

Striatodontus? proificus

RC-136

Laurentoscandodus ? n. sp. Striatodontus ? prolificus Eucharodus aff. E. parallelus aff. Oneotodus simplex cf. Colaptoconus quadraplicatus Aloxoconus sp. cf. A. iowensis Colaptoconus quadraplicatus Histiodella donnae

RC-55

RC -37.5

n. gen. ?, n. sp. Oneotodus simplex

Jefferson City RC-169

Striatodontus? aff. S. prolificus

Drepanodus sp.

Roubidoux Formation RC-149

Aloxoconus iowensis

Oneotodus simplex Oneotodus cf. O. simplex

Gasc.

A RC-177

?

Low Diversity Interval

Acodus deltatus Oneotodus costatus Zone ?

RC-75 ?

?

Macerodus dianae Zone

RC-88

?

RC-64

Low Diversity Interval

Quartz Sandstone Dolomite

Conodont collection

Macerodus dianae Zone

?

JF-G

Figure II.3. Conodont biostratigraphy of sections from the Upper Gasconade dolomite and the lower part of the Roubidoux Formation in the Missouri, Ozarks. (A) Roubidoux Creek section. (B) Jacks Fork Crossing section (Repetski et al., 1998).

Southern Ozark dome

Figure II.4. Typical conodont fauna from the Gasconade Dolomite, Roubidoux Formation, and Jefferson City Dolomite in southeastern Missouri (from Repetski et al., 1998). Scanning electron microscope photomicrographs of some representative conodont elements from the Gasconade, Roubidoux, and Jefferson City formations in southeastern Missouri from Repetski and others (1998). (A–B) Juanognathus? felicitii (Ji and Barnes); posterolateral views of two specimens from sample RC-149 (very high Roubidoux Formation) at Roubidoux Creek section, X 85, USNM 498496 and 498497. (C) Drepanodus sp., inner lateral view of drepanodontiform element, from sample RC-149 (very high Roubidoux Formation), Roubidoux Creek section, X 85, USNM 498498. (D–E) Colaptoconus quadraplicatus (Branson and Mehl); posterolateral (D) and lateral (E) views of triplicatiform and quadraplicatiform elements, respectively; (D) from sample JF-H (Roubidoux Formation), Jacks Fork section, X 110, USNM 498499; (E) from sample JC-J (lower part of Jefferson City Dolomite at a section along U.S. Highway 63, sec. 2, T.39N, R9W, Maries County), X 64, USNM 498500. (F) Cf. Colaptoconus quadraplicatus (Branson and Mehl); shallowly grooved specimen, from sample JF-J (Roubidoux Formation), Jacks Fork section, X 90, USNM 498501. (G) Ulrichodina deflexa Furnish; posterolateral view of immature(?) specimen from lower part of Jefferson City Dolomite at same Maries County section as specimen E, sample JC-J, X 110, USNM 498502. (H) Paroistodus? sp.; inner lateral view of scandodontiform element, same sample and location as G, X 110, USNM 498503. (I–L) Histiodella donnae Repetski; posterior views of blade-like elements (I, K, L) and inner lateral view of coniform element (J), from samples JF-H (K) and JF-J (I, K, L), Roubidoux Formation, at Jacks Fork section; I and J—X 90, K—X 170, L—X 110, USNM 498504-507. (M) Laurentoscandodus? n. sp.; inner posterolateral view of shortbased element, from sample JF-J, Roubidoux Formation, at Jacks Fork section, X 70, USNM 498508. (N) Drepanoistodus sp.; inner lateral view of drepanodontiform element, from sample JF-J (Roubidoux Formation), Jacks Fork section, X 90, USNM 498509. (O) Juanognathus? n. sp.; posterior view of nearly symmetrical element, from sample JF-J (Roubidoux Formation), Jacks Fork section, X 90, USNM 498510. (P–Q) Striatodontus? prolificus Ji and Barnes; posterolateral views; P from sample JF-J (Roubidoux Formation), Jacks Fork section, X 90; Q from upper part of Gasconade Dolomite (sample RC02) at Roubidoux Creek section, X 95, USNM 498511 and 498512. (R–S) Oneotodus aff. O. simplex (Furnish); posterior and lateral views of two specimens from lower part of upper Gasconade Dolomite at Phillips Quarry, Bartlett 7-1/2 minute quadrangle, Shannon County, Missouri, X 65, USNM 498513 and 498514. (T) Chosonodina herfurthi Müller; posterior view of specimen from upper part of middle Gasconade Dolomite at Phillips Quarry, X 75, USNM 498515. (U) Rossodus manitouensis Repetski and Ethington; inner lateral view of coniform element; Gasconade Dolomite, same sample as T, X 50, USNM 498516. (V) Loxodus bransoni Furnish; inner lateral view; specimen broke during preparation; from upper part of middle Gasconade Dolomite at a section near Rolla, Missouri, X 45, USNM 498517. (W) Acanthodus uncinatus Furnish; lateral view of non-serrate suberectiform element, Gasconade Dolomite, same sample as T, X 50, USNM 498518. (X) Variabiloconus bassleri (Furnish); Gasconade Dolomite, same sample as T, inner lateral view, X 60, USNM 498519. (Y) Oneotodus simplex (Furnish); Gasconade Dolomite, same sample as T, lateral view, X 75, USNM 498520. (Z) Scolopodus sulcatus Furnish; inner lateral view of scandodontiform element, X 75, Gasconade Dolomite, same sample as T, USNM 498521. Illustrated specimens are reposited in the type collections of the Paleobiology Department, U.S. National Museum (USNM), Washington, D.C. 20560.

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the nearest outcrop of the top of the Eminence Dolomite, ~2 mi to the southeast, is at 990 ft (302 m). A log for the nearest well, ~0.4 mi (0.6 km) to the south-southwest, indicates the contact elevation at 849 ft (259 m). However, structure contours derived from recent geologic mapping (Fig. 1.2) indicate that these springs are on the flank of a structural high and that the elevation of the contact extrapolates, at the springs, to ~919 ft (280 m). We will examine this contact at Stops 2, 4, and 5. The basal 250 ft (76 m) of bluffs to the east are lower Gasconade Dolomite which consists of silty, buff-colored dolomite, massive gray dolomite, and cherty dolomites. The interval of buff-colored dolomite is a consistent stratigraphic marker for the lowest part of the Gasconade Dolomite above the Gunter Sandstone Member. At an elevation of ~1180 ft, there is a topographic bench held up by the top of a Cryptozoon chert interval; this is the top of the lower Gasconade Dolomite (Fig. I.7). We examine this chert at Stop 6. The upper hill slopes above the chert, for ~80 ft, are thick-bedded, non-cherty, pitted gray dolomites of the upper Gasconade Dolomite. These are capped by resistant, quartz sandstone-rich basal beds of the Roubidoux Formation, which form the relatively flat top of the hill. Structural Geology Bedding in the vicinity of Montauk Springs is flat-lying to gently dipping. Dips measured in the Montauk quadrangle do not exceed 14° and are usually in the 1°–3° range. Broad undulations in the bedrock, illustrated by the structural contour map of the base of the Roubidoux Formation are probably tectonic, the result of transpression between strike-slip faults like the Gladden Creek Fault northwest of the park (Fig. 1.2). This fault was named for stratigraphic offsets observed in the Cedar Grove quadrangle to the east (Weary, 2008a). The fault trace extends to the northwest to a point ~1.7 mi (2.7 km) north of Montauk Springs, and ~30 mi (48 km) to the southeast to a point in the northwestern corner of the Powder Mill Ferry quadrangle (McDowell and Harrison, 2000). The topography on the bedrock structural surface has affected the local physiography in the Montauk area. Note that elevation highs on the structural contour map coincide with local highs in the topography. In addition, the valley of Pigeon Creek and the Current River is located in troughs in the structural surface (Fig. 1.2) winding between areas of higher elevation (Roubidoux Formation). The structural high located east of the spring is probably a factor in localizing groundwater rise here. STOP 2. UPPER CURRENT RIVER, OZARK NATIONAL SCENIC RIVERWAYS BAPTIST CAMP RIVER ACCESS Location About 12 mi (19 km) east-southeast of the town of Licking, Missouri, and 15 mi (24 km) southwest of the town of Salem, Missouri: NW1/4 of Section 36, T32N, R7W, Dent County,

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Lowell et al. The farthest upstream exposures of the Gunter Sandstone Member of the Gasconade Dolomite and the underlying Eminence Dolomite in the Current River valley crop out in this area (Fig. 1.2). The last exposure of the top of the Eminence is a point on the river about 0.7 mi upstream (north) of here. Under normal and low flow conditions the Gunter Sandstone is visible in the base of the bluff directly across the river from the boat ramp (Fig. 2.1). Under flood conditions, that part of the outcrop is inundated. This is an important stratigraphic interval because it marks the Cambrian-Ordovician boundary, a regional unconformity, the Eminence Dolomite–Gasconade Dolomite formational contact, and, at least locally, the major hydrologic features are confined in the upper Eminence Dolomite beneath the Gunter Sandstone. See Section II for discussion of the conodont biostratigraphy of this interval. The Gunter Sandstone Member is also an important factor affecting the local physiography. Because it is resistant to both physical and chemical weathering, it produces topographic benches on hillsides, small waterfalls, and streams that are “perched” on the sandstone and flow down dip. With the exception of the structurally high area of basement rocks exposed in the Stegall Mountain area, the gradient of the Current River approximates the regional dip of bedrock from this locality southeastward ~51 mi to a point just southeast of Big Spring

Montauk 7.5 min quadrangle. UTM coordinates 4143986mN, 618772m E, Zone 15, NAD83 Datum. Road Directions Turn right onto state park road from the Stop 1 parking lot; Follow to the south for ~0.9 mi (1.4 km); turn left onto main park road and follow to the east for ~2.8 mi (4.5 km). This road becomes State Road YY on exiting the park. Turn right onto the Baptist Camp Access Road (NPS 100) and follow ~1.5 mi (2.4 km) to the south; it will terminate in a parking lot and concrete boat ramp at the Current River. Park and walk down to the boat ramp to look across the river. Site Description This is Baptist Camp, the second farthest upstream put-in for the Ozark National Scenic Riverways (ONSR). Please keep in mind that we are in a National Park; hammering on the rocks and collection of samples is prohibited without a National Park Service (NPS) collecting permit. The ONSR, the first national scenic river, was authorized in 1964 and established in 1972. There are trash cans and a restroom at this stop.

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STOP 3. STANDING ROCK, AN ANOMALOUS OUTCROP OF CHERTY QUARTZ SANDSTONE AND BRECCIA Location About 8.7 mi (14 km) south-southeast of the town of Salem, Missouri: NE1/4 of Section 34, T32N, R5W, Dent County, Doss 7.5 min quadrangle. UTM coordinates 4,153,448N, 635260E, Zone 15, NAD83 Datum.

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The contact between the Cambrian Eminence Dolomite and Ordovician Gasconade Dolomite is marked by an unconformity and overlain by the Gunter Sandstone Member of Gasconade. The bluffs visible to the west above the Gunter here are all lower Gasconade Dolomite culminating with the Cryptozoon chert at the ridge crest. The Gunter here contains a single bed of quartz sandstone up to 2 ft thick (Fig. 2.1). The sand was deposited as starved ripples and sand waves in a shallow subtidal environment. The bed contains low-angle cross beds and pinches and swells in thickness. As is typical of the Gunter in the Current River basin, parts of the sandstone are quartz-cemented, producing a very hard quartz arenite. At many localities in this area the sandstone is discontinuous, with quartz sand being absent or very sparse at this horizon, so that detecting it requires breaking dolomite with a hammer and inspecting for grains with a hand lens.

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(Fig. I.5). This Eminence Dolomite-Gasconade Dolomite contact interval will be revisited and discussed at Stops 4, 5, and 6.

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Figure 1.2. Preliminary geologic map of the Montauk area with locations of Stops 1 and 2 (labeled with white numbered boxes). Bedrock map units are: e—Eminence Dolomite, Og—Gasconade Dolomite, Or—Roubidoux Formation. Structural contours are elevation, in feet above sea level, of the base of the Roubidoux Formation. Apparent vertical offset across the Gladden Creek Fault is indicated by U (up) and D (down). The fault is actually a strike-slip feature. Base is U.S. Geological Survey 1:24,000-scale Montauk quadrangle.

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Road Directions From Stop 2, return to State Road YY and turn right. Follow State Road YY for ~4.6 mi (7.4 km) to the northwest and turn right onto County Road 649. Follow County Road DC 6490 ~1.2 mi (1.9 km) east and then north to an intersection with State Road K. Turn acutely to the right onto K and follow for ~1.5 mi (2.4 km) to the southeast. Turn left onto State Road BB and follow toward the east for ~2.2 mi (3.5 km). Continue to the east on the same road, which becomes County Road DC 6240 (where pavement stops, gravel begins), for another 5.3 mi (8.5 km) until it intersects with State Highway 19. Turn left on 19 and drive ~1.6 mi (2.6 km) to the north-northwest. Immediately after crossing a conspicuous steel bridge over Little Gladden Creek, a large rock outcrop is visible on the left; pull into the gravel parking area just past it. Walk just a few yards to inspect the outcrop. Caution, there is usually poison ivy growing around and on the rocks. Outcrop Description Standing rock is elongated in a northwest-southeast direction and stands ~8 m above the adjacent stream bed of Standing Rock Creek. It comprises sandstone and lesser chert of the Ordovician Roubidoux Formation. Brecciation is extensive and the mass is mostly devoid of bedding or other sedimentary features. Anastomosing deformation bands are abundant in the outcrop. Discussion Standing Rock is described as an example of a paleokarst feature by Vineyard (1985) based on geometric similarities to rock bodies in Miller County described by Ball and Smith (1903). Evidently, it formed either by collapse or cave fill,

although neither was specified by Vineyard (1985). The rock material is typical of that found in the Roubidoux Formation; however, the contact between the Roubidoux and underlying Gasconade Dolomite is placed ~20 m uphill from Standing Rock on an unpublished geologic map of the Stone Hill 15′ quadrangle (Hayes, 1960). The purpose of this stop is to showcase the deformation bands (Fig. 3.1) that occur in Standing Rock and to highlight the nature of these structural features, which were utilized in the geologic mapping of the Current River region by the U.S. Geological Survey. Deformation bands (Aydin, 1978; Davis, 1999) are of tectonic origin. They are formed by millimeter-scale displacements through shearing that involves a combination of pore-space collapse, fracturing and comminution (i.e., cataclasis). This is a strain-hardening mechanism (Davis, 1999) that is characteristic of deformation in porous sandstones and imparts a mesoscopic fabric resembling quartz stringers (Fig. 3.2). The deformation bands that cut Standing Rock are interpreted as having a tectonic origin. Standing Rock lies on the projection of the Ellington Fault (Fig. I.5) STOP 4. DEVIL’S WELL, OZARK NATIONAL SCENIC RIVERWAYS Location About 3.5 mi (5.5 km) east of Akers Ferry, Missouri: SW1/4 of Section 16, T31N, R5W, Shannon County, Gladden7.5 min quadrangle. UTM coordinates 4,137,694N, 633,357E, Zone 15, NAD83 Datum. Road Directions From Stop 3 turn back toward the south on State Highway 19 and follow it for ~8.6 mi (13.8 km). Turn right onto State

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Figure 2.1. View of contact between the Eminence and Gasconade Dolomites at the Ozark National Scenic Riverways, Baptist Camp boat ramp. The black dashed line marks the base of the Gunter Sandstone Member. Photo by D. Weary, March 2009.

Figure 3.1. Photomicrograph deformation band (lower portion of photo) and undeformed sandstone; comminuted grains of quartz microbreccia are set in very fine-grained recrystallized matrix (ultracataclasite). Photo is not of Standing Rock material, it is St. Peters Sandstone in a road cut along Interstate Highway 55, near St. Marys, Missouri (Harrison and Schultz, 2002, figure 10).

Southern Ozark dome Road KK and follow ~2.1 mi (3.4 km) to the southwest. Turn left onto Devil’s Well Road (there is usually a sign for Devil’s Well). Follow road ~1.6 mi (2.6 km) to the south to its terminus. Park in parking lot and walk a short distance to Devil’s Well. There is a walkway into the sinkhole as well as information kiosks. Site Description Devil’s Well is a sinkhole opening up into a large cave chamber partially filled by a deep underground lake. This feature has been developed by the NPS, which maintains a stepped walkway down into the sinkhole to a viewing platform above the cave. Electric lights, operated by a timer button just above the platform, allow a partial view of the cave chamber. In wet weather, a small waterfall forms, drenching the platform; a raincoat or umbrella may be desirable. In cold weather, ice may form on the walkways, making them hazardous. The Gunter Sandstone Member of the Gasconade Dolomite as well as the underlying uppermost Eminence Dolomite are both exposed in the throat of the sinkhole. This locality was described in detail in a previous field trip guide for the Association of Missouri Geologists and in Springs of Missouri (Vineyard 1985; Vineyard and Feder, 1982). Dye traces introduced into Devil’s Well were recovered at Cave Spring on the Current River ~1 mi (1.6 km) to the southsouthwest (Fig. 4.1).

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Stratigraphy This stop is located at about the same stratigraphic horizon seen at Stop 2. Medium- and thick-bedded dolomite of the lower Gasconade Dolomite are exposed above the sinkhole leading into the cave. Quartz sandstone of the basal Gunter Sandstone Member of the Gasconade Dolomite is exposed in a small natural bridge just above the lower viewing platform. The Gunter is also visible in the stream channel ~300 ft (91 m) to the southeast of the sinkhole. The sandstone is 2–3 ft thick, and very well indurated. About 15 ft (4.6 m) of medium and thin-bedded silty dolomite of the Gunter Member are exposed above the sandstone in the lower part of the sinkhole. Above these beds, part of the interval of buff-colored silty dolomite discussed at Stops 1 and 2 is exposed. The cave and cave lake below are developed in the Eminence Dolomite (Fig. 4.2). The cave has stoped upward through the upper part of the Eminence Dolomite to the base of the solution-resistant Gunter Sandstone. Eventually, a large collapse may occur, producing a feature similar to Grand Gulf, a large collapsed cave in the Jefferson City Dolomite, ~58 mi (93 km) to the south in Oregon County, Missouri. Discussion This cave is unusual for this area in that the main level for solution inception and conduit formation is not confined beneath the

State highway 19, 2.1 mi (3.4 km)

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Figure 3.2. Cut block of St. Peter Sandstone showing intense deformation banding. Photomicrograph in Figure 3.1 is from this block (Harrison and Schultz, 2002, figure 10).

Figure 4.1. Location of Devil’s Well and dye trace to the Cave Spring and Wallace Well area of the Current River after Vineyard and Feder (1982).

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Gunter Sandstone, but rather, occurs lower in the Eminence Dolomite (compare Figure 4.2 with Fig. I.8). In the southeastern part of the field trip area, near the town of Van Buren and Big Spring, a quartz sandstone horizon occurs ~80 ft (24 m) below the top of the Eminence. This horizon is lithologically similar to the Gunter Sandstone and may also mark a hiatus in deposition or unconformity. Numerous caves in the Van Buren area are concentrated just beneath this unnamed sandstone in the Eminence Dolomite (Figs. I.7, I.8). Similarity of cave level relations at the two sites is striking. It is possible that the cave inception horizon at Devil’s Well is at the same stratigraphic level as at the unnamed Eminence sandstone interval and that some subtle lithologic feature has contributed to focused solution and conduit formation at that level. STOP 5. ROUND SPRING CAVERN AND ROUND SPRING Location About 10 mi (16 km) north-northwest of the town of Eminence, Missouri: SE1/4 of Section 19, T30N, R4W, Shannon County, Round Spring 7.5 min quadrangle. UTM coordinates 4,127,157N, 640,478E, Zone 15, NAD83 Datum. Road Directions From Stop 4 drive north ~1.6 mi (2.6 km) on the Devil’s Well road to its intersection with State Road KK. Turn right

and follow KK for ~2.1 mi (3.4 km) to the northeast and its intersection with State Highway 19. Turn right onto 19 and follow to the south-southeast for ~11.8 mi (19 km). Immediately after crossing the 2 bridges over the Current River and then Spring Creek, turn left into the Round Spring NPS facility. Bear to the left and the road that curls back around under the highway bridge and ends in the Round Spring Cavern parking lot. Park here. Site Description Round Spring and Round Spring Cavern are located at the confluence of Spring Valley Creek and the Current River in the Round Spring quadrangle, Shannon County, and are among the major attractions of the Ozark National Scenic Riverways (Fig I.1). The spring issues out of the Eminence Dolomite at the edge of the floodplain of the Current River. Its name is derived from the circular feature where the water rises through a collapsed cavern, part of which remains as a natural bridge where the water exits and flows into the Current River (Fig. 5.1). The spring averages 26 million gallons per day (40 ft3/sec; 1.1 m3/sec) and has had a maximum discharge of 336 million gallons per day (520 ft3/sec; 14.7 m3/sec) in 1933 (Vineyard and Feder, 1982). It is suspected that a tubular conduit similar to other Ozark springs occurs at depth in Round Spring. Divers were able to investigate the spring to a depth of 55 feet, but their access to the conduit was blocked by breakdown blocks. Dye traces have shown that the groundwater that feeds Round Spring comes from

Figure 4.2. Profile of Devil’s Well after Vineyard and Feder (1982). View south (left) to north (right).

Southern Ozark dome the west and southwest (Aley and Aley, 1987; Imes and Kleeschulte, 1995; Fig. I.3). The entrance to Round Spring Cavern is in a bluff 60 ft (18 m) above Spring Valley Creek, a tributary of the Current River (Fig. 5.2). It is located ~1600 ft (500 m) southwest of Round Spring. The entrance is 20 ft (6 m) wide by 13 ft (4 m) high and is at 740 ft (225 m) altitude. The cave is well known for its speleothems and has had a commercial history since 1932. It is now owned by the U.S. National Park Service. Round Spring Cavern was described by Bretz (1965) and detailed geology of the cave system was described by Šebela et al. (1999). Stratigraphy Most of the cave is developed in the upper part of the Eminence Dolomite just below the basal Gunter Sandstone member of the Gasconade Dolomite. The entrance passage is within the Eminence Dolomite (Orndorff and Weary, 2009). Beyond the entrance passage, the cave splits into passages referred to as the

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Right-Hand Route and Left-Hand Route (Fig. 5.3). For this trip, we will traverse the Left-Hand Route. The Right-Hand Route is within cherty strata of the Eminence Dolomite and ends stratigraphically higher at the base of the Gasconade Dolomite where sandstone is exposed in the ceiling. The Left-Hand Route climbs through the Eminence Dolomite to where ripple marks can be seen in the sandstone ceiling of the cave at the base of the Gasconade Dolomite between cave features, Theater Hill and Bat Hill. At Bat Hill the sandstone is not visible because the ceiling lowers back into the Eminence Dolomite. West of Tobacco Barn the sandstone is again exposed in the ceiling, and the cave stopes up through the sandstone and terminates in the Gasconade Dolomite (Fig. 5.3). Structure In the entrance passage, beds predominantly dip toward the southwest and southeast at ~3°. Several gentle synclines and anticlines occur in the Right-Hand Route with their axes in various orientations. Near Onyx Mountain and Dragon’s Mouth, the bedding is subhorizontal. In the Left-Hand Route, strata have a consistent dip toward the west. In the southern part of the Right-Hand Route near the junction with the entrance passage, well-developed joints have a dip direction of 60°. Where the smaller western passage intersects the Right-Hand Route, the principle dip direction of joints is 130°. Here, the cave passage trends N-S. Where the Right-Hand Route makes an abrupt turn to the east, the frequency of vertical joints increases noticeably; they trend E-W. Near the Fountain of Youth, two prominent joint sets occur; one trends about E-W with a dip direction of 170°, the other trends NE with a dip direction of 140°. The eastern terminus of the Right-Hand Route is in breakdown and flowstone where the dip direction of joints is 140°. The Left-Hand Route at Theater Hill is a collapse chamber that exhibits well-developed joints with a dip direction of 140°. The southern side passage at the Tobacco Barn follows the trends of joints with dip directions of 80°, 90°, 105°, and 130°. Just west of the Tobacco Barn in the Left-Hand Route, joints are moderately well developed with dip directions of 30° and cross the passage. Where the Left-Hand Route turns to the southwest, joint dip directions are 150°–160°. The terminus of the Left-Hand Route is a collapse area with joint trends of E-W and N-S. Passages in Round Spring Cavern are developed along four prominent trends, 0°–10°, 60°–70°, 330°–340°, and 280°–290°. Dominant joint trends are 80°–90° and 50°–60°. Comparison of rose diagrams of cave passages and joints shows poor correlation, even though several areas of the cave have moderately welldeveloped joints parallel to the cave passage (Fig. 5.3). Hydrology

Figure 5.1. Round Spring. The spring rises from a circular pool, partially visible in the lower right part of photo. Discharge occurs under a natural bridge (beneath figures) of massive Eminence Dolomite. Photo by D. Weary, May 2000.

The initial development of Round Spring Cavern was probably phreatic and has been modified by recent water flow in the vadose zone and stoping. Water flow in the stream in the

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Right-Hand Route is southeast toward Spring Valley Creek; flow in the Left-Hand Route is also to the east toward Spring Valley Creek. Bedding dips are generally to the west and southwest. Both streams have cut small lower subsidiary passages that drain to Spring Valley Creek from other parts of the bluff near the entrance to the cave. The entrance passage is probably younger than the main passages and during high precipitation events water drains from Round Spring Cavern into Spring Valley Creek. Red clay is found throughout the cave and occurs in joints in the ceiling and walls indicating that the cave was filled with red clay in the past. The stratigraphic position of Round Spring Cavern, in the uppermost Eminence Dolomite and lowermost Gasconade, is nearly identical to that of the large conduit feeding Alley Spring (Stop 6) and is probably similar to that of the conduit feeding Montauk Springs (Stop 1). This fact makes the fossil conduit of Round Spring Cavern a valuable analogue for understanding parts of the current conduit system. Cave Development Initial phreatic development of Round Spring Cavern occurred in the upper part of the Eminence Dolomite, similar to the model shown in Figure I.8. Early water flow was probably from south-southwest to north-northeast since the Left-Hand Route is higher than the Right-Hand Route. This

direction is toward the Current River. Changes in surface and groundwater flow have caused drainage in the vadose zone to flow eastward to Spring Valley Creek. Later modifications to the cave include stoping up to and through the basal sandstone of the Gasconade Dolomite. STOP 6. ALLEY SPRING Location About 4.7 mi (7.6 km) west of the town of Eminence, Missouri: SE1/4 of Section 25, T29N, R5W, Shannon County, Alley Spring 7.5 min quadrangle. UTM coordinates 4,113,157mN, 638,402mE, Zone 15, NAD83 Datum. Road Directions From Stop 5, exit the Round Spring Caverns parking lot via the park road to State Highway 19. Turn left and follow ~12.2 mi to the south-southeast. Just after entering the town of Eminence and crossing over the Current River, turn right onto State Highway 106. Follow for ~5.9 mi (9.5 km) to the west. Just after crossing a bridge over the Jacks Fork River, turn right into the NPS Alley Spring parking area. Park at the north end of the lot and take walkway to Red Mill.

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Figure 5.2. Geologic map of the Round Spring and Round Spring Caverns area based on Orndorff and Weary (2009). Map units: e—Eminence Dolomite; Og—Gasconade Dolomite; Or—Roubidoux Formation; QTrr—residuum of Roubidoux Formation; Qt—alluvial terrace deposits; Qa—alluvium.

Southern Ozark dome Site Description

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Conservation Corps work camp for World War I veterans in the middle 1930s. The area of Alley Spring, part of the Ozark National Scenic Riverways (ONSR), has been developed by the National Park Service as a historical and recreational site with preserved historic buildings, river access, and campground facilities. The most prominent building on the site is the bright red Alley Spring Mill. The mill was built in 1893–1894 and houses working machinery for converting part of the impounded spring flow into power for grinding grain. The spring orifice is located in the mill pond just to the northeast of the mill building. The mill pond is

Alley Spring (Fig. 6.1) flows at an average rate of ~81 million gallons per day (125 ft3/sec; 3.6 m3/sec) and is ranked as Missouri’s seventh largest spring (Table 1; Vineyard and Feder, 1982). Discharge flows for ~0.6 mi (0.9 km) before joining the Jacks Fork River, the largest tributary of the Current River. The confluence of the two rivers is ~9.4 mi (15 km) east-northeast of the spring and ~5.4 mi (8.7 km) northeast of the town of Eminence. Formerly a state park, Alley Spring served as a Civilian

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Figure 5.3. Map of structural features at Round Spring Cavern after Šebela et al. (1999).

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Lowell et al. graphic level coincident with the top of the Eminence Dolomite, at a depth of ~130 ft (39 m) below the surface (Fig. 6.2). The mapped portion of the conduit is relatively horizontal with the elevation of the main conduit at ~532 ft (162 m) meters. The cave maintains this level for the rest of its known extent, except where collapses of the overlying basal Gunter Sandstone Member of the Gasconade Dolomite occur and the conduit has migrated vertically over the top of the breakdown piles. Compare the cave profile (Fig. 6.2) with the conceptual model for caves in the Current River drainage basin area (Fig. I.8). An accessible walking path circles the mill pond/rise pool giving visitors a good view of the spring and spring run. A separate path, diverging from the main loop northwest of the mill, leads to a relatively steep, but smooth, switchback trail up the flank of the bluffs to a viewing platform above the spring. Near the top of the climb, an excellent example of bedded white Cryptozoon chert from the uppermost part of the Lower Gasconade Dolomite is exposed on the north side of the trail. From this platform, the upland surface of the Salem Plateau, the incised valley of the Jacks Fork River, and the Alley Spring millpond are visible.

Figure 6.1. Alley Spring. The spring rises near bluffs of Gasconade Dolomite visible in the background. Photo by D. Weary, July 2007.

partially enclosed in an amphitheater-like alcove in steep bluffs of dolomite rising nearly vertical more than 100 ft above the water surface. The spring orifice is usually not visible from the pond banks, but rising bubbles and small water boils indicate the flow out of it. About 3000 ft (914 m) of the surveyed passage of Alley Spring Cave has been mapped by divers of the Ozark Cave Diving Alliance (OCDA, 2005). The cave descends at an angle of ~24° to the northwest of the spring where it levels out at a strati-

Stratigraphy Alley Spring rises from thick-bedded dolomites in the lower part of the Gasconade Dolomite. Some earlier reports indicated that the spring flows from the Eminence Dolomite, but this is definitely not the case (Vineyard, 1985). Data from recent detailed geologic mapping of the Alley Spring quadrangle (USGS,

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Figure 6.2. Map and profile of Alley Spring Cave simplified from a map produced by the Ozark Cave Diving Alliance (OCDA, 2005). Geologic interpretation by D. Weary, based on surface geologic mapping, observations by OCDA divers, video footage, and analogy to geologic control seen in air-filled caves in the region. Dashed line indicating 165 m elevation is the level of the electromagnetic resistivity map (Fig. 6.7).

Southern Ozark dome Audio-Magnetotelluric Studies of Alley Spring

unpublished data) combined with observations and sample collections by divers of the OCDA, confirm that the basal Gunter Sandstone Member of the Gasconade Dolomite lies ~140 ft (43 m) below the ground surface at the spring (Fig. 6.2). However, most of the mapped part of the conduit upstream of the rise tube is developed in the uppermost Eminence Dolomite. About 100 ft (30 m) of thick, non-cherty dolomite beds in the lower Gasconade Dolomite are exposed in the bluffs above the rise pool. Above this is an interval of dolomite and bedded white Cryptozoon chert, ~40 ft (12.2 m) thick, marking the uppermost part of the Lower Gasconade Dolomite (Fig. I.7). Above the highest chert bed is an interval, ~80 ft (24.4 m) thick, of thick- and medium-bedded, non-cherty dolomite in the Upper Gasconade Dolomite. The final 60 ft (18.3 m) of the knob to the north-northwest of the spring is Roubidoux Formation dolomite and quartz sandstone (Fig. I.7). The best place to observe the Gasconade-Roubidoux contact in the area is the road cut on State Highway 106, about 0.75 mi (1.2 km) west of Alley Spring and just west of the peak of the hill (Fig. 6.3). Here a thick, basal quartz sandstone in the Roubidoux overlies the dolomite beds of the uppermost Gasconade.

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Groundwater flow in karst areas is often poorly understood and difficult to model because of the heterogeneous permeability of karstic aquifers. Dye traces have been used to delineate the major groundwater basins; these yield an average flow velocity over a straight-line distance but provide little information on the actual path of groundwater flow. Mapping discrete karst conduits will enable more realistic modeling of the fast flow component of the aquifer. Audio-magnetotelluric (AMT) data was collected by the USGS in the vicinity of the spring in an attempt to identify the electromagnetic signature of the conduit (Fig. 6.4), and to map its probable location. Unlike induction resistivity techniques, AMT uses natural-source multi-frequency electromagnetic signals from lightning or atmospheric disturbances as an energy source. These AMT soundings consist of electric and magnetic field measurements over a range of frequencies from 10 to 100,000 Hz with fixed receiver locations. Since low-frequency signals penetrate to greater depths than high-frequency signals, measurements of the electromagnetic response at several frequencies

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Figure 6.3. Geologic map of the Alley Spring area. Dashed lines with arrows are dye traces to Alley Spring (Aley and Aley, 1987; Imes and Kleeschulte, 1995). Map units: Og—Gasconade Dolomite; Or—Roubidoux Formation. Structural contours are elevation above mean sea level drawn on base of the Roubidoux Formation. Topographic base is the Alley Spring 7.5 minute quadrangle, contour interval 20 ft.

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contain information on the variation of resistivity at depth. Conduits should be visible in the processed AMT data as volumes of low resistivity due to water-saturated rock as well as electrical streaming potential oriented along the conduit. Advantages of AMT over most other resistivity methods are portability of equipment and depth of exploration, typically ~1 km. The AMT sensors are two ground electrodes and two magnetic coils that can be set up by one person and that require an area of ~50 × 50 m. A team of two persons can easily collect ~6–8 soundings per day. Traditional resistivity studies require line lengths 4–5 times the intended depth of investigation, limiting their use as reconnaissance tools. Although resolution is limited to discrete anomalies ~250 m wide, AMT surveys should be adequate for use in regional groundwater models. Preliminary analysis of the data from Alley Spring indicates low-resistivity anomalies which may be associated with groundwater flow through the spring conduit and along faults. AMT line P-3 clearly delineates the location of the Hartshorn Fault, a strike-slip feature identified at the surface by geologic mapping (D. Weary, USGS, unpublished data). The fault (Fig. 6.5) appears as a set of tight, vertically arranged, low-resistivity anomalies that offset broader areas of high resistivity to the northwest from area of generally low-resistivity values to the southeast. Aley and Aley (1987) recognized this fault trace as

their Alley Hollow lineament and speculated that fractures along it played a role in guiding groundwater from uplands in the northwest to Alley Spring. Data from a line of soundings orthogonal to the trends of two dye traces, collected 4.7 mi (7.5 km) WNW of the spring, show a subtle, low-resistivity anomaly that might indicate the main spring conduit or a major subsurface tributary (Fig. 6.6). The vertical chain of low-resistivity areas just to the southeast of this anomaly may also be associated with fracturing along the Hartshorn Fault. The fault is not recognizable at the surface and is mapped at reconnaissance scale in this area. It is possible that the actual fault plane is located further southeast of where it is indicated on Figure 6.6. Alternatively, the structure may be a fault zone rather than a discrete, fault plane. Figure 6.7 presents AMT data in map-view of the Alley Spring area at an elevation of 165 m (541 ft) above MSL. This is the approximate elevation of the main cave level, beneath the Gunter Sandstone, in the mapped part of the system (Fig. 6.2). This map shows a low-resistivity saddle, coinciding with the western part of the mapped cave that turns to the northwest and leads to a low-resistivity anomaly under AMT station ASP-34. If this is the location of the cave beyond the explored zone, it would require an abrupt turn in the passage. Such turns are not uncommon in caves in the Ozarks. See the map of Round Spring

ASP-12 Audio-magnetotelluric sounding station P-4 Audio-magnetotelluric profile line sinkhole Fault, bar and ball on downthrown side Dye trace, arrow indictes direction of flow Mapped part of Alley Spring cave Jacks Fork River Intermittent Stream Major road

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Area of high resistivity

Hartshorn fault

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Figure 6.5. Audio-magnetotelluric and topographic profile line P-3. 5× vertical exaggeration. See Fig. 6.4 for line and station locations. Horizontal black line marks approximate elevation (165 m) of the known cave to the east.

Area of low resistivity (conduit?)

Hartshorn fault

Figure 6.6. Audio-magnetotelluric and topographic profile line “Western Trace.” See Fig. 6.4 for line and station locations. 5× vertical exaggeration. Lower horizontal black line marks approximate elevation of the known cave to the east (165 m). Upper horizontal black line marks approximate base of Roubidoux Formation and top of the potentiometric surface based on local water well data.



ASP-12 Audio-magnetotelluric sounding station

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Cavern (Fig. 5.3) for an example. Where the cave/conduit may extend beyond is, at this point, speculative. We expect it to trend generally to the west-northwest and possibly flow through the nearby low-resistivity anomalies back to the southwest to reach the Hartshorn Fault (Fig. 6.7). The size of the conduit and its associated electromagnetic signature are probably just below the functional resolution of this (AMT) method, at least at the station spacing used here. The conduit may also bifurcate upstream into a few or numerous tributaries, becoming even smaller and more difficult to resolve. Another complication is the 3-dimensional nature of the conduit. It may oscillate vertically through the strata, becoming difficult to image and visualize at the elevation used by our modeling software. A conceptual model for this karst spring system (Aley and Aley, 1987) is that rainfall in areas to the west and northwest of Alley Spring percolates down through the surface residuum and into the bedrock. This water capture is particularly effective in areas where numerous sinkholes exist in uplands underlain by the Roubidoux Formation. The latter then collapses into caves in the underlying Gasconade Dolomite (Fig. I.8). Water must then travel via conduits, several miles to the spring. The rapid connection between precipitation events and spring flow is demonstrated by the flash discharges recorded at Alley Spring (Fig. 6.8). The two dye traces to Alley Spring indicate a fast flow connection between the surface recharge and outflow from of the spring. One trace traveled 11 mi (18 km) at a velocity of 300 ft (91 m)/hr and the other traveled 14.5 mi (23 km) at 228 ft (69 m)/hr (Aley and Aley, 1987). In addition to traversing horizontally, the water has to travel downward both topographically and stratigraphically to a level below spring level and then maintain sufficient head to emerge at Alley Spring. We believe that fracturing associated with faults probably plays a major role in allowing water down through the stratigraphic stack (Fig. I.8). This involves passing, from the recharge areas, through the Roubidoux Formation, all of the Gas-

Tropical Storm Claudette

Figure 6.8. Daily discharge measured at Alley Spring for 1979, the last year the spring was routinely gauged (U.S. Geological Survey data). Tropical storm Claudette dropped record rainfall over widespread areas of the south-central United States.

conade Dolomite, and into at least the upper part of the Eminence Dolomite. The phreatic loop is completed when, at the spring rise tube, the water passes back up through the basal Gasconade and emerges to the surface 130 ft above the contact with the underlying Eminence Dolomite. The density and chemically resistant nature of the Gunter Sandstone restricts, at least locally, groundwater flow to the top of the Eminence. STOP 7. PROTEROZOIC-CAMBRIAN UNCONFORMITY: CAMBRIAN EMINENCE DOLOMITE OVERLYING MESOPROTEROZOIC RHYOLITE OF SHUT-IN MOUNTAIN Location About 8.9 mi (14.3 km) east-southeast of the town of Eminence, Missouri: SE1/4 of Section 6, T28N, R2W, Shannon County, Stegall Mountain 7.5 min quadrangle. UTM coordinates 4109501mN, 659756mE Zone 15, NAD83 Datum. Road Directions From the intersection of U.S. Highway 60 and State Route 19 in the town of Winona, Missouri, take State Route 19 to the north for about 0.8 mi (1.3 km). Turn right onto State Road NN and follow ~8.7 mi (14 km) toward the northeast. Turn right onto State Road Y and follow ~3.2 mi (5.1 km) to the northeast. Turn left onto an unnamed access road and follow toward the northwest about 0.1 mi (0.2 km) and park. Take footpath downstream along Rocky Creek a few hundred yards to the north side of the shut-in for inspection of dipping carbonate strata along the west side of Rocky Creek. The footpath is along a portion of the Current River section of the Ozark Trail, which is maintained by the Ozark Trail Association. This stop is also within the boundaries of the Ozark National Scenic Riverways, U.S. Park Service. Please observe all Park Service regulations. “Shut-in” is the local term in the Missouri Ozarks for a stream segment that flows over erosion-resistant igneous bedrock, producing waterfalls and pools in a narrow gorge. Outcrop Description Exposed along the west side of Rocky Creek at this locality are strata of the Eminence Dolomite that were deposited on the flank of a paleo-topographic high composed of Mesoproterozoic igneous rocks (Fig. 7.1). The Eminence beds here strike approximately N50°W and dip from 28° to 38° to the NE. Igneous rocks below the unconformity consist of rhyolite of Shut-in Mountain (Harrison et al., 2002); this unit is visible in the narrow shut-in and along the trail leading to the outcrop, and it will be seen again at the next stop. At this stop, as well as elsewhere around the periphery of Buzzard Mountain to the west of the shut-in (Fig. 7.1), the dip of the sedimentary strata is away from the mountain’s summit,

Southern Ozark dome forming a radial pattern (Harrison et al., 2002). As such, Eminence strata on the opposite side of Buzzard Mountain from this stop dip toward the SW at ~20°. Similar radial patterns of moderately dipping sedimentary strata peripheral to Mesoproterozoic knobs are recognized at many locations in the Current River area and St. Francois Mountains to the north, as well as in the underground mines of the Viburnum trend. The geometry of the dipping Eminence beds at this stop also provides evidence for the existence of a paleo-channel that occupied the same location as the shut-in prior to deposition of the carbonate strata. If conditions are favorable (i.e., low water level), small exposures of Eminence Dolomite can be found in the bed of Rocky Creek immediately north of the shut-in. Beds in these small exposures have a strike of approximately E-W and dips of 15° to 20° to the north. Coupled with the attitude of beds on the west bank of Rocky Creek, a partial V-shaped pattern is revealed, indicative of a paleo-valley. Discussion

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The surface upon which middle to late Cambrian and Ordovician sediments accumulated in the midcontinent of North America was highly irregular and marked with steep-sided hills and mountains with hundreds to thousands of feet of topographic relief. This surface had been created by extensive subaerial erosion during the Neoproterozoic and Early Cambrian. Bedrock was

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composed principally of granites, silicic lavas, and welded ashflow tuffs in the Missouri Ozarks’ region. The more resistant igneous rocks typically held up the topographically higher elevations. Initially, sediments laid down on this irregular surface pinched out against the hills and mountains, which then would have been islands in the sea. As sea level rose, higher topography was progressively submerged and sedimentation ultimately blanketed all but the highest summits. The resulting stratigraphy is one of Mesoproterozoic igneous rocks protruding upward hundreds to thousands of feet into relatively flat-lying Early Paleozoic carbonate and clastic rocks. Bridge and Dake (1929) and Bridge (1930) were the first to recognize that the moderately dipping (20° to 40°) beds of sediment on the flanks of igneous knobs in the Current River area are the result of deposition on a slope related to the buried topography. They also recognized that in the vicinity of Mesoproterozoic knobs, many present-day stream valleys coincide with valleys that existed prior to deposition of Paleozoic sediments. The irregular paleo-topographic relief on the Precambrian-Paleozoic unconformity has had profound influence on groundwater flow since diagenesis, localizing Mississippi Valley type base-mental mineralization in the Late Paleozoic, as well as development of modern karst features. This influence is due to the contrast in permeability between the igneous protrusions below the unconformity and overlying sedimentary rocks and from facies changes, strata pinch outs, slumping, and dissolution. In the midcontinent region, a close relationship between the location of Mississippi Valley type deposits and buried Precambrian features has long been recognized as an ore control (Snyder and Gerdemann, 1968; Gerdemann and Gregg, 1986). Mouat and Clendenin (1975) emphasized ore location control exerted by a buried Precambrian high at the Ozark Lead Company’s Sweetwater Mine located ~20 km north-northeast of Stop 7. Paarlberg and Evans (1977) described similar ore control in the Fletcher Mine located ~15 km north of the Sweetwater deposit. Unpublished and proprietary mining company subsurface data between the Sweetwater deposit and Stop 7 indicate that there are numerous occurrences of base-metal mineralization in proximity to buried basement highs. Aspects of basement topography’s influence of modern groundwater flow and karstification will be discussed further at subsequent stops.

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1 km Figure 7.1. Geologic map of area around Stop 7. Stop 7 will visit dipping Paleozoic carbonate strata near the 38° attitude in the center of the map. Rocky Creek is the bold dashed and dotted line through the middle of the map; the Rocky Creek shut-in is located where stream flows between Buzzard and Mill Mountains. Qal—Quaternary alluvium; Qt—Quaternary terrace deposits; Og—Gasconade Dolomite; Ce—Eminence Dolomite; Ysi—rhyolite of Shut-in Mountain.

STOP 8. UNCONFORMABLE CONTACT BETWEEN UPPER AND LOWER VOLCANIC SEQUENCES OF MESOPROTEROZOIC ROCKS EXPOSED ON STEGALL AND MULE MOUNTAINS Location About 9.0 mi (14.4 km) southeast of the town of Eminence, Missouri, and ~8.3 mi (13.4 km) northeast of the town of Winona: SE1/4 of Section 24, T28N, R4W, Shannon County, Stegall Mountain 7.5 min quadrangle. UTM coordinates 4104500mN, 658324mE Zone 15, NAD83 Datum.

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Lowell et al. and implications and regional tectonic significance of the unconformity. There are two alternate field exposures where this stop can be held, depending upon time considerations and accessibility. One is on the southern side of Mule Mountain (Fig. 8.1) and the other is on the southern and eastern sides of Little Thorny Mountain (Fig. 8.2); because of the distance required to hike into the Mule Mountain area, this stop will probably visit Little Thorny Mountain. At both sites, moderately to steeping dipping tuff of Little Thorny Mountain is overlain by subhorizontal tuff of Mule Mountain, which is overlain by outflow lava of the rhyolite of Shut-in Mountain. The contact between these first two units is an angular unconformity, the existence of which dates the rotation of the Little Thorny Mountain unit as syn-volcanic. At the stop, participants will inspect moderately to steeply dipping primary foliation in the tuff of Little Thorny Mountain, indicating that these pyroclastic flows have been rotated to moderate and/or steep dips. Participants will also see the stratigraphic sequence of the air-fall tuff (tuff of Mule Mountain) and rhyolite lava (rhyolite of Shut-in Mountain), which were deposited directly upon an intra-caldera erosional surface that developed after rotation.

Road Directions From Stop 7 turn around and follow the unnamed road back to State Road NN, turn right and follow for ~3.2 mi (5.1 km) toward the southwest. At the intersection with State Road H, bear left and follow H for ~0.5 mi (0.8 km) to the southwest. Turn left and follow County Road H-525 to the south about 0.5 mi (0.8 km), turn left onto County Road 527 and follow toward the southeast ~1.2 mi (2 km) to an intersection with the Peck Ranch Road (County Road P-159). Turn left onto the Peck Ranch Road and follow for ~1.3 mi (2.1 km) toward the east-southeast. Turn left onto the Stegall Mountain Road (County Road P-159) and follow for ~1.0 mi (1.6 km) toward the north-northeast. A small unnamed access road turns off to the left. If road is impassible, park vehicles here. Hike, or drive part way, along the road to the west-northwest ~0.6 mi (1 km) to the outcrop area. Outcrop Description This stop will focus on a Mesoproterozoic angular unconformity, stratigraphic units above and below the unconformity,

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1 km Figure 8.1. Geologic map of the Mule Mountain–Stegall Mountain area (simplified after Harrison et al., 2002). Ysi— rhyolite of Shut-in Mountain; Ysm—rhyolite of Stegall Mountain; Ymm—tuff of Mule Mountain; Yltm—tuff of Little Thorny Mountain; Ce—Eminence Dolomite; Og—Gasconade Dolomite; QTr—Peck Ranch unit of Harrison et al. (2002); Qt—Quaternary terrace deposits; Quaternary alluvium in stream valleys is solid white. AM—aeromagnetic lineaments. Contour interval is 100 feet. See text for description of units.

Southern Ozark dome Overview of Regional Mesoproterozoic Stratigraphy Mesoproterozoic igneous and metamorphic rocks form the basement of the Current and Eleven Point River basins in southeast Missouri (Sims, 1990). Most of these rocks are confined to the subsurface and their boundaries and relations are poorly known. However as noted at Stops 3 and 7, there is a cluster of more than 50 knobs of Mesoproterozoic rocks that protrude through the Paleozoic section and crop out at the surface in the Current River basin (Fig. 8.3). They have been referred to as the Eminence–Van Buren volcanic field by Lowell et al. (2005), Lowell and Harrison (2001), and Harrison et al. (2000) because all but two of these protrusions are composed of volcanic rocks; the two exceptions are granite outcrops, one of which will be visited at Stop 9. The volcanic knobs consist of two stratigraphic sequences. Neither sequence displays any metamorphic characteristics, implying that they have never been buried to depths of greater than a few kilometers. The lower sequence consists predominantly of caldera-forming ignimbrites and flow-dome complexes that commonly exhibit 65°–90° dips and strikes that trend predominantly NW-SE (Fig. 8.4), and minor hypabyssal intrusive domes. Lower-sequence rocks have a probable thickness of 6.4–8.0 km and a volume estimated to be ~360 km3. These lower-sequence

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1 km Figure 8.2. Geologic map of area around Little Thorny Mountain (simplified after Harrison and others, 2002). Ysi—rhyolite of Shut-in Mountain; Ysm—rhyolite of Stegall Mountain; Ymm—tuff of Mule Mountain; Yltm—tuff of Little Thorny Mountain; Ce—Eminence Dolomite; Og—Gasconade Dolomite; Or—Roubidoux Formation; QTr—Peck Ranch unit of Harrison et al. (2002); Qt—Quaternary terrace deposits; Quaternary alluvium in stream valleys is solid white. Contour interval is 100 feet. See text for description of units.

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rocks are overlain by an upper sequence of post-caldera collapse units that are subhorizontal. The rhyolite of Shut-in Mountain in the upper sequence has been dated by the U/Pb technique at 1470 ± 2.7 Ma (Harrison et al., 2000). This age is contemporaneous with dates for Mesoproterozoic volcanic eruptions in the St. Francois terrane reported by Lowell (2000). Accordingly, the Eminence–Van Buren volcanic rocks are considered an outlier of the St. Francois volcanic field. Lower Sequence Units Lower sequence units of the Eminence–Van Buren volcanic field are the tuff of Little Thorny Mountain (Harrison et al., 2002), rhyolite of Russell Mountain (Harrison et al., 2002), rhyolite of Storeys Creek, rhyolite of Sutton Creek (Orndorff et al., 1999), upper unit of Coot Mountain (Orndorff et al., 1999; McDowell and Harrison, 2000), and lower unit of Coot Mountain (Orndorff et al., 1999; McDowell and Harrison, 2000). The Coot Mountain units occupy the lowest stratigraphic position in the sequence but stratigraphic relations between other units are uncertain. Only the tuff of Little Thorny Mountain will be described in this guidebook; see citations above for descriptions of other units in this sequence. Tuff of Little Thorny Mountain The tuff of Little Thorny Mountain (Harrison et al., 2002) directly underlies the angular unconformity in the Stegall Mountain– Little Thorny Mountain area. It is a densely to moderately welded, crystal-rich, quartz-poor ash-flow tuff. It is estimated to be several thousand feet thick (Harrison et al., 2002) and roughly correlative to the ash-flow tuff unit of Sinha and Kisvarsanyi (1976). Microscopically, the rock is aphanophyric with alkali feldspar in the size range of 5–10 mm as the sole phenocryst (15%–20%) set in a matrix that varies from felsitic to “snowflake” type. The matrix is strongly foliated due to compaction, indicating that these rocks are welded ash-flow tuffs. Lithic fragments, spherulites, relict shard structures, and fiamme are, however, absent. The feldspar phenocrysts preserve Carlsbad twinning and are somewhat less altered to sericite or clay than other volcanic units in the area. Relict perthite is disturbed, but retained, in a few samples; this is expressed chemically by relatively high Na2O content (Table 2). The matrix contains minute dispersed grains of hematite due to devitrification which are responsible for the reddish-brown color of the rocks. Secondary hematite also replaces a Fe-Mg phenocryst phase and fills fine fractures; it may comprise as much as 5% of the rock. A trace of fluorite was observed in one sample. Table 2 presents the average of 5 analyses of the tuff of Little Thorny Mountain. SiO2 ranges from 69.16 to 74.51 wt% and K2O/Na2O varies between 3.2 and 28.8 in the sample set. Relative to other map units, the former range is somewhat wider, suggesting more intense silicification, and the latter is somewhat narrower, reflecting less intense alkali exchange alteration. The average classifies as rhyodacite by the method of Winchester and Floyd (1977) and alkali rhyolite by the IUGS method (Wohletz, 2004). One sample in our data set is anomalous in terms of low

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granite

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Elling Ellington

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Figure 8.3. Map of exposed Mesoproterozoic protrusions in the Eminence–Van Buren area of the Current River basin in southeast Missouri. The darker-shaded units in the center of the map belong to the upper volcanic sequence; all other units belong to the lower volcanic sequence or are granite exposures.

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light rare earth elements (REE) and high As (139 ppm); another sample shows 11.3 ppm W.

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Figure 8.4. Lower-hemisphere equal-area plot of poles to foliation for Mesoproterozoic lower sequence volcanic rocks of the Stegall Mountain–Little Thorny Mountain area. N = 127. Contour interval is 1%. Thick solid line represents trend of the Missouri gravity low and the dominant structural fabric in volcanic rocks of southeastern Missouri.

The upper sequence volcanic units of the Eminence–Van Buren volcanic field consists of the tuff of Mule Mountain, rhyolite of Stegall Mountain, and the rhyolite of Shut-in Mountain in that stratigraphic order (Orndorff et al., 1999; McDowell and Harrison, 2000; Harrison et al., 2002). Of these units, the Shutin Mountain unit is by far the most widespread; its oval-shaped outcrop pattern covers ~100 km2 (Fig. 8.3). Tuff of Mule Mountain The tuff of Mule Mountain is a poorly outcropping, thin, widespread, friable unit. It is, however a unit of major importance because it marks a pronounced angular unconformity between the early pyroclastic, caldera-forming stage of volcanism and the later, predominantly effusive volcanic episode. The only known exposures of this unit occur in the Stegall Mountain 7.5′ quadrangle (Harrison et al., 2002), where it occurs in an east-west– trending, linear outcrop belt ~8 km long. The tuff of Mule Mountain is correlative to the air-fall tuff unit of Sinha and Kisvarsanyi (1976). The thickness of this unit ranges from a few meters to as much as 30 m. The rock is a fine-grained dark-gray to purple, crystal-lithic– poor tuff that lacks clastic texture and well-defined sedimentary

TABLE 2. GROUP AVERAGES OF MAJOR OXIDE AND TRACE ELEMENTS IN STEGALL MOUNTAIN VOLCANIC ROCKS BY LITHOLOGIC UNIT SiO2 TiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3 MgO MnO CaO Na2O K2O P2O5 LOI Total Ymm (n=1) 74.07 0.18 10.81 2.53 0.02 0.03 0.02 0.16 9.61 0.84 0.55 98.82 Yltm (n=5) 72.64 0.32 11.57 3.90 0.06 0.03 0.11 1.02 8.28 0.10 0.63 98.65 Ysm (n=4) 74.70 0.19 11.49 2.56 0.05 0.02 0.07 0.74 8.63 0.02 1.45 99.90 Ysi (n=21) 75.07 0.19 11.35 2.54 0.07 0.02 0.06 0.84 8.21 0.09 0.96 99.39 Ymm (n=1) Yltm (n=5) Ysm (n=4) Ysi (n=21)

La 46.0 35.5 22.7 38.5

Ce 84.8 80.9 57.5 75.8

Ymm (n=1) Yltm (n=5) Ysm (n=4) Ysi (n=21)

V 0 20 0 2

Ga 7 47 13 13

Ymm (n=1) Yltm (n=5) Ysm (n=4) Ysi (n=21)

Th 9.8 11.6 12.7 11.9

U 1.8 3.3 3.3 3.1

Pr 12.07 9.42 6.76 9.68

Nd 48.2 40.6 28.2 38.8

Sm 9.0 9.9 5.9 7.9

Rb 324 113 293 307

Cs 3.3 23.4 5.0 5.9

Ba 1741 585 1084 1807

F 100 262 405 286

Cu 0.0 0.0 5.3 0.0

Be 0.0 1.8 0.5 1.0

Eu 0.89 1.25 0.69 0.92 Sr 17 6 25 26 Ge 1.0 1.8 0.8 1.0

Gd 8.2 9.6 5.9 7.5

Tb 1.3 1.7 1.1 1.3

Dy 7.4 9.7 6.6 7.5

Ho 1.5 2.0 1.5 1.5

Er 5.0 6.3 4.8 5.1

Tm 0.81 0.96 0.77 0.81

Yb 5.4 6.2 5.4 5.5

As 87 33 19 72

Sb 12 5 7 8

Tl 1 5 2 1

Bi 0 1 0 0

Sn 1 4 4 4

W 4 2 3 3

Mo 2 4 3 3

Cr 292 128 210 418

Ni 45 20 33 17

Co 2 2 2 1

Sc 3 1 2 6

Ag 0.0 0.1 0.1 0.2

Pb 5.0 27.4 16.2 0.2

Zn 22.0 36.4 29.2 0.2

Lu 0.87 0.98 0.94 0.90

Ta Nb Hf Zr Y Nb/Hf Zr/Nb Zr/Hf Sc/Nb Ce/Nb Yb/Ta Y/Nb Rb/Sr Ymm (n=1) 0.78 11.10 8.1 278.0 49.0 1.37 25.04 34.32 0.27 7.64 6.92 4.41 19.06 Yltm (n=5) 0.85 12.52 9.0 313.0 62.0 1.38 25.00 34.57 0.61 6.43 7.33 4.93 9.15 Ysm (n=4) 0.82 11.81 8.6 295.5 55.5 1.24 26.57 32.96 0.61 5.44 6.76 4.55 12.79 Ysi (n=21) 0.80 10.80 8.2 269.3 50.3 1.33 24.84 33.04 0.51 7.06 6.58 4.61 14.58 Note: Ymm—tuff of Mule Mountain; Yltm—rhyolite of Little Thorney Mountain; Ysm—Stegall Mountain rhyolite; Ysi—Shut-in Mountain rhyolite. Major elements in wt%, trace elements in ppm.

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fabric. The devitrified matrix commonly displays vapor-phase silicification and fabrics that may be variously dominated by shard forms, accretionary lapilli, felsitic texture, or spherulites. Secondary Fe is generally present as opaque blebs and patches of hematite comprising 50% open space; possible cave passage

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Figure 11.3. Diagrammatic cross section through 4 drill holes located approximately 2 km south of Stop 10 based on unpublished logs by John Repetski, U.S. Geological Survey, 1999. Ce—Eminence Dolomite; Cp—Potosi Dolomite; Cel—Elvins Group (upper Derby-Doerun Dolomite and lower Davis Formation); Cb—Bonneterre Formation; Cl—Lamotte Sandstone. Locations of wells: SF-22: UTM 4090165N, 673037E, SW 1/4SW1/4, sec. 3, T. 26 N., R. 1 W; SF-36: UTM 4089548N, 673441E, SE1/4NW1/4 sec. 10, T. 26 N., R. 1 W; SF33: 4089105N, 673772E, NW1/4SE1/4 sec. 10, T. 26 N., R. 1 W; SF-27 UTM 4089328N, 674773E, NW1/4SW1/4 sec.11, T. 26 N., R. 1 W.

Southern Ozark dome intervals of white rock alteration, fractures covered with unidentified orange-colored oxides, a 3 ft interval of solution-widened fractures, hydrothermal dickite coatings on fractures and bedding planes, open vugs lined by calcite, and some fault-related fracturing. In the underlying Bonneterre Formation, the log of SF-36 reports a 2.5 ft interval of presumed faulting, scattered occurrences of hydrothermal dickite, localized intervals of pronounced vertical fractures, a 1 ft interval of vuggy, recrystallized dolomite, zones of brecciation with oxidation on fracture surfaces, intervals of coarsely crystalline calcite, intervals of solution-widened fractures, several intervals (up to 21 ft in length) of chaotic breccia that the logger interpreted as slump breccia, and an 18 ft interval of “white rock” (local usage for dolomitized and silicified rock). The drill log of SF-33 includes description of three intervals of fault breccia in the Potosi Formation. In the Derby-Doerun Formation this log describes two intervals of possible fault breccia, as well as intervals of vertical to steeply inclined fractures, intervals possessing fine to coarse pores and pits, and intervals of vugs lined by hydrothermal dickite. In the Davis Formation, the SF-33 log reports zones of white-rock alteration and a notable 14 ft interval of strongly fractured vuggy rock that is stained yellow. This log describes the lower Bonneterre Formation as containing a 60-ft-long interval of 60% vuggy recrystallized white rock followed by a 112 ft interval described as “slump breccia”; the latter contains abundant disseminations and seams of sphalerite. In addition to multiple intervals of fractured rocks in the Potosi Dolomite, the logs of SF-27 identify five intervals of faulting in the Potosi, several of which possess slickenside surfaces with striations plunging 45° to the core’s axis; this indicates oblique slip. The log of SF-27 reports the following sequence of tectonic-related features with depth in the Derby-Doerun Dolomite: (1) abundant white dickite in small vugs followed by a 20 ft interval of intensely fractured, oxidized pink and yellow mottled rock; (2) a 7 ft interval of soft and broken altered rock; (3) a 6 ft interval of soft, yellowish-pink rock; (4) a 30 ft interval of fractured, soft, spongy, porous rock; and (5) a 20 ft oxidized interval of substantial core loss. Near the base of the DerbyDoerun, the SF-27 log describes three fault intervals (1 ft, 2 ft, and 1 ft wide, respectively) of extremely fractured, broken, and oxidized rock containing slickenside surfaces. More than half of the ~60-ft-thick Davis Formation in SF-27 is logged as very oxidized (bleached white and yellow), fractured, rotten, soft, and mildly to moderately vuggy. The Bonneterre Formation cored by SF-27 contains numerous fault intervals and more than 150 ft of slump breccia. This deep faulting cannot be correlated to faulting in the Ordovician units at the surface and is interpreted as evidence of Cambrian tectonics (Seeger and Palmer, 1998; Harrison and McDowell, 2003; Weary and Schindler, 2004) which is consistent with deformation on the Greenville Fault (McCracken and McCracken1965; Clendenin et al., 1989, 1993). Approximately 9 mi (15 km) to the southwest of Stop 11, descriptive logs of several drill holes (STH-1, 112-A, 112-B, 112D, 112-G, PK-16, SF-22, SF-36, SF-33, SF-27; on file Bureau of Land Management, Rolla) that were collared in the Wilderness-

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Handy fault zone describe high-angle faults and open fractures in the Bonneterre Formation and overlying Elvins Group zone (Harrison and McDowell, 2003). Several of these core logs also describe intense fracturing in the underlying Mesoproterozoic basement rocks and minor quantities of base-metal sulfides. The log of drill hole PK-16, collared ~6 mi (10 km) southwest of Stop 11 along the Wilderness-Handy fault zone, reports: (1) 20 ft of intensely fractured, open rock in the Derby-Doerun Formation; (2) intervals of calcite-lined vugs in both the Elvins Group and Bonneterre Formation; and (3) traces of disseminated sphalerite in the upper Bonneterre. It also describes zones of brecciation and massive calcite-fill in the Davis Formation that we interpret as fault zones. The log of PK-16 reports intervals of brecciation, massive calcite-fill, high-angle fracturing, vugs lined by dickite, numerous disseminations of pyrite and sphalerite in the Bonneterre Formation. Alteration and Base-Metal Mineralization along the Wilderness-Handy Fault Zone The Ozark region of the United States midcontinent is host for numerous occurrences of Mississippi Valley–type (MVT) mineralization, including the world-class economic district of the Viburnum Trend, which extends into the Current River basin. There has been considerable exploration for new MVT type deposits throughout both the Current and Eleven Point River basins, particularly during the period 1960–1990. Both surface exposures and drill core recovered from the subsurface show that large volumes of rock from the entire stratigraphic column are intensely silicified and brecciated along the Wilderness-Handy fault zone; extensive carbonate dissolution and increased porosity accompanied these changes. Cherts and chert breccias are conspicuous at the surface in virtually all exposures of the Roubidoux Formation from the Current River to the Eleven Point River along this fault zone. All carbonate material has been removed from these silicified rocks. Excellent exposures of this paleokarst texture occur along Coward’s Hollow in the Handy 7.5′ quadrangle (Harrison and McDowell, 2003). Several cores from drill holes in the fault zone show that the entire Paleozoic section from Ordovician Gasconade Dolomite to the Cambrian Bonneterre Formation consists of “white rock alteration” so intense it was impossible to distinguish the stratigraphic units. This faulting produced high fracture-permeability for the MVT mineralization and silica deposited by circulating hydrothermal fluids. This alteration is most pronounced along the Wilderness-Handy fault zone near Big Spring. The following excerpts from logs of drill holes along the fault zone are of interest. DDH 112-C logs a zone of highly broken dolomite and high-angle fractures with traces of galena in the Derby-Doerun Formation ~100 ft above its contact with the Davis Formation; numerous high-angle fractures associated with traces of galena and sphalerite in the lower 100 ft of the Davis Formation; high-angle fractures and traces of galena and sphalerite in the upper 100 ft of the Bonneterre Formation. DDH 112-E logs

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abundant high-angle fractures in the lower 65 ft of the DerbyDoerun Formation with minor pyrite disseminations; abundant high-angle fractures in the lower 100 ft of the Davis Formation with traces of sphalerite; abundant high-angle fractures lined with pyrite blebs and disseminations, in the upper Bonneterre formation. DDH 112-B logs abundant high-angle fractures and sparry dolomite-lined vugs in the lower 200 ft of the Derby-Doerun Formation, pyrite disseminations throughout; sporadic traces of sphalerite; some high-angle fractures and traces of sphalerite in vugs in the lower 100 ft of the Davis Formation; high-angle fractures and minor sulfides throughout the upper Bonneterre Formation. DDH 112-G logs abundant high-angle fractures in the lowermost Potosi Dolomite; high-angle fractures and 1.3 ft zone of breccia in the Derby-Doerun Formation; abundant high-angle fractures throughout the lower 50 ft of the Davis Formation; abundant high-angle fractures and sulfide disseminations, a 1.75 in veinlet of massive galena, sphalerite, and pyrite. DDH 112-D logs calcite-filled high-angle fractures in the lower 125 ft of the Derby-Doerun Formation; traces of sphalerite and galena in the upper part of the Bonneterre Formation. DDH 112-A logs healed high-angle fractures, pyrite disseminations, and sparry dolomitelined vugs in the lower 100 ft of the Davis Formation; traces of sphalerite and chalcopyrite in fractures in the upper 100 ft of the

Bonneterre Formation; abundant vertical fractures in the Mesoproterozoic volcanic rocks. Facies Change across the Wilderness-Handy Fault Zone Our surface and subsurface geologic investigations indicate that the Wilderness-Handy fault zone has influenced sedimentary deposition. Cross sections and facies distribution maps constructed from drill-core logs indicate that a major facies change occurred across the fault zone during accumulation of the Cambrian Davis Formation. Northwest of the fault zone, the Davis Formation of the Elvins Group is dominated by shale facies and southeast of the fault the dominant facies is carbonate. This facies change was noted by Howe et al. (1972), but not correlated to the Wilderness-Handy fault zone. The transition occurs across a margin between a shallow marine intrashelf basin, the central Missouri Basin of Seeger and Palmer (1998), and the uplifted shoulder of the Reelfoot Rift (Fig. 11.4). Several periods of transgression and regression are recorded in these syntectonic sediments (Seeger and Palmer, 1998). Our interpretation of the Wilderness-Handy fault zone during the Cambrian is consistent with interpretations of the of Greenville Fault by Clendenin et al. (1989, 1993).

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Figure 11.4. NW-SE cross section across the structural margin of the Cambrian Reelfoot Rift illustrating relations between structure, sedimentary facies, and paleokarst horizons. Modified from unpublished model of J. Palmer, Missouri Department of Natural Resources. Based on the Amimco Spense well in the Reelfoot Rift, deep seismic profiles, and other data.

Southern Ozark dome Influence of the Wilderness-Handy Fault Zone and Facies Change on Groundwater Flow to Big Spring The overall flow of groundwater in this portion of Missouri is from west to east. Three distinct hydrogeologic systems control flow according to the nature of their subsurface features. They are: (1) the Ozark Plateaus hydrogeologic system (Gann et al., 1976; Imes, 1989; Imes and Smith, 1990; Imes, 1990a, 1990b; Kleeschulte, 2001); (2) a transitional hydrogeologic system; and (3) the northern Mississippi embayment hydrologic system (Grubb, 1984; Arthur and Taylor, 1990; Hosman and Weiss, 1991). Ozark Plateaus Hydrogeologic System Hydrogeologic units for the Ozark Plateaus physiographic province, which includes the upper reaches of the Current and Eleven Point River drainage basins west of the WildernessHandy fault zone, are referred to as the Ozark Plateaus hydrogeologic system (Gann et al., 1976; Imes, 1989; Imes and Smith, 1990; Imes, 1990a, 1990b; Kleeschulte, 2001). This system extends throughout southwestern Missouri, northwestern Arkansas, and eastern parts of Oklahoma and Kansas and consists of four major hydrogeologic units (Gann et al., 1976; Imes, 1989; Imes and Smith, 1990; Imes, 1990a, 1990b; Kleeschulte, 2001) which in ascending order are: (1) the basement confining unit; (2) the St. Francois aquifer; (3) the St. Francois confining unit; and (4) the Ozark aquifer. Figure I.7 shows the relations between these hydrogeologic units and stratigraphy. The basement confining unit consists of 1.47 Ga igneous rocks of the St. Francois terrane (Imes, 1989) and older metamorphic rocks (Sims, 1990) that are mostly impermeable, except in fracture zones where small water yields are possible. The St. Francois aquifer is composed of Upper Cambrian strata above the basement confining unit and below the St. Francois confining unit (Imes, 1990a). In the Current and Eleven Point River basins, the St. Francois aquifer consists of a basal conglomerate that rests on the PrecambrianPaleozoic unconformity and is succeeded by the Lamotte Sandstone and the Bonneterre Formations. From drill data, the basal conglomerate appears to be ubiquitous, although it is generally less than 20 ft thick. The Lamotte Sandstone is absent adjacent to many basement highs but, in general, thickens toward the west in this area. The St. Francois confining unit lies above Bonneterre strata of the St. Francois aquifer and is composed of the Cambrian Elvins Group (i.e., the basal Davis Formation and overlying Derby-Doerun Dolomite) as defined by the Missouri Geological Survey (1979). Typically, these units contain moderately thick beds of shale, shaley mudstone, and thinly bedded, dense finegrained dolomites that are low in porosity and permeability (Kleeschulte and Seeger, 2000; Kleeschulte and Seeger, 2001). No studies have evaluated the secondary porosity characteristics of these rocks. The Ozark aquifer (Imes, 1990a) extends from the top of the St. Francois confining unit to the topographic surface and

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includes the Potosi Dolomite, Eminence Dolomite, Gasconade Dolomite, Roubidoux Formation, Jefferson City Dolomite, and the Cotter Dolomite in the Current and Eleven Point River basins. This aquifer is unconfined and is the principal domestic water source for most of southeastern Missouri, except for the St. Francois Mountains where near-surface St. Francois aquifer is the usual water source. Transitional Hydrogeologic System The principal subsurface difference between the Ozark Plateaus hydrogeologic system and the transition zone hydrogeologic system is the absence of the Ozark confining unit in the latter. Instead of the low-permeability shales and fine-grained carbonates typical of the Elvins Group in the Ozark Plateaus system, the Elvins Group in the transition zone consists of shallowwater carbonate facies that include digitate- and planar-algal bioherms and breccias with notable porosity. In effect, there is an unconfined aquifer extending from the basement to the surface in the transitional system. The margin of the transition system closely follows the facies change in the Elvins Group which is fault controlled and corresponds to the northeast-southwest– trending Wilderness-Handy fault zone (Fig. 11.4). Northern Mississippi Embayment Hydrogeologic System The northern Mississippi Embayment hydrologic system (Grubb, 1984; Arthur and Taylor, 1990; Hosman and Weiss, 1991) has two subsystems: (1) unconsolidated to semi-consolidated sands, silts, and clays of Coastal Plain origin that range in age from Eocene to Late Cretaceous (Campanian); and (2) overlying Mississippi River Valley alluvial deposits. Extensive and high-water-bearing sands in the Coastal Plain subsystem slope and thicken eastward in Missouri toward the axis of the Mississippi Embayment. In southeast Missouri, groundwater moves southeastward down dip of the sand beds in Coastal Plain aquifer subsystem under the Mississippi River with no discharge to the river (Miller and Appel, 1997). The Mississippi River Valley alluvial subsystem consists of Pleistocene braided stream deposits of the paleo-Ohio and paleo-Mississippi Rivers that are overlain by point-bar and over-bank deposits of the modern Mississippi River. These deposits are saturated to within a few feet of the flatlying alluvial surface of the Mississippi embayment and produce relatively rapid flow to the south. Groundwater Flow to Big Spring Dye-tracing studies for the upper Current River basin (Imes and Kleeschulte, 1995; Kleeschulte, 2000) indicate that groundwater flow commonly crosses surface drainage divides and is more complicated than surface flow; the latter is, itself, complicated by the karst features of the area. For example, some groundwater traces to Big Spring originated from more than 50 mi (80 km) away and crossed beneath the entire Eleven Point River surface basin (Imes and Kleeschulte, 1995; Kleeschulte, 2000). Other dye traces show inconsistent patterns of crossing flow

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paths (see Imes and Kleeschulte, 1995) that are best explained by an overriding karst control on groundwater flow. When the effects of losing streams are taken into account (Imes and Kleeschulte, 1995), there is little similarity between surface-water and groundwater flow. This is characteristic of karst control on regional hydrology. A regional potentiometric surface (Fig. 11.5) was created from water-table data provided by the Missouri-USGS Water Science Center in Rolla (Imes et al., 2007) to determine correlations between groundwater flow and geologic structures. We are particularly interested in the relations between mapped faults, the subsurface facies change, and groundwater flow toward Big Spring. Upper water levels from more than 100 wells were measured during the low flow period 25 October– 17 November 2000. These data were hand-contoured using strict rules of interpolation to produce maps similar to those of Imes and Kleeschulte (1995). Our maps show features similar to those Imes and Kleeschulte (1995) as well as significant differences. These differences arise from different contour methods (program grid contouring versus hand contouring) and the fact that our contours cover a much larger area with a database three times that of Imes and Kleeschulte (1995). Our potentiometric surface (Fig. 11.5) is irregular in shape and consists of a series of northwest-trending troughs and ridges interrupted by an elongated northeast-trending groundwater high. The latter feature coincides with the Wilderness-Handy fault zone and the regional subsurface facies changes. This correlation is especially striking in the area between the intersection of Wilderness-Handy fault zone and the Teresita Fault (~19 mi southwest of Big Spring) and Big Spring. Adjacent to this elongated groundwater high (Fig. 11.5), are two prominent closed depressions connected by a trough. One of these depressions occurs at the confluence of the Eleven Point River and Hurricane Creek; the other is in the Pike Creek basin south of Fremont, Missouri. The trough connecting our depressions is similar to that in the potentiometric surface of Imes and Kleeschulte (1995), who emphasized the necessity of groundwater flow in this trough in order to explain dye traces to Big Spring; we agree with their assessment. In addition to a close correlation between the northeasttrending groundwater high and the Wilderness-Handy fault zone, there is close correlation between two northwest-trending groundwater troughs and mapped faults cutting the Paleozoic section. Specifically, relatively steep-sided groundwater troughs follow the Teresita and Low Wassie Faults for tens of kilometers (Fig. 11.5). This suggests that increased permeability along these structures is responsible for the troughs. We think that the groundwater high along the Wilderness-Handy fault zone represents upwelling of deep water from the St. Francois aquifer where it is unconfined and enters a zone of increased permeability. When areas of elevated basement topography are plotted on the potentiometric map (Fig. 11.5) an additional spatial relation to groundwater flow is apparent (Fig. 11.6). We note that the basement highs (Fig. 11.6) vary greatly in elevation with the largest in the north (outcrops visited on this field trip) and

decrease progressively to the southeast with the regional dip. It is suggested that in addition to becoming unconfined eastward, the St. Francois aquifer also becomes somewhat restricted along its base. These factors, plus a hydraulic head derived from higher elevations to the west drive deep groundwater flow upward. CONCLUSIONS Hydrologically, the transition zone in the upper Current River basin separates the Ozark Plateaus system (up dip to the west) from the Mississippi embayment system (down dip to the southeast). This transition zone possesses unique hydrologic characteristics, the most importance of which is the absence of a regional confining unit. This zone is related to syntectonic depositional facies within the Cambrian stratigraphic section. The largest springs in southern Missouri (Big Spring and Greer Spring) and northern Arkansas (Mammoth Spring) occur in this transition zone. Faulting in the Current River basin exerts structural control on regional groundwater flow, particularly along the WildernessHandy fault zone, which coincides with the boundary between the Ozark Plateaus hydrogeologic system and the transitional hydrogeologic zone. A groundwater high exists today along the Wilderness-Handy fault zone; rock alteration patterns indicate that this fault zone has been a conduit for upwelling flow, especially during the late Paleozoic mineralizing event that formed the MVT deposits. The Teresita Fault and the Low Wassie Fault also closely coincide with major groundwater troughs, suggesting further structural control of flow. The rugged basement topography of the Current River basin also plays an influential role on flow regimes. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The authors thank Kevin Evans, Jim Aber, and Mark Hudson for their comments on an early draft of the manuscript. The final version is significantly improved by their efforts.

Figure 11.5. Map of potentiometric surface for a portion of the upper Current River basin, including recharge area for Big Spring, overlain with mapped faults and suggested groundwater-flow paths. Data base is water-well levels collected during a lowstand from 25 October to 17 November 2000 by U.S. Geological Survey Water Science Center in Rolla, Missouri. Faults are from USGS maps. Stop 10 indicated by white-lined black hexagon near Big Spring. Big Spring, Greer Spring, and Mammoth Spring are marked by black stars. Mississippi Valley–type mineralization is denoted by white-lined star north of Greer Spring. White arrows are suggested flow paths to Big Spring. Small black-lined white hexagons mark dye-trace origins recovered at Big Spring (Imes and Kleeschulte, 1995). Topography decreases from west to east. Dye traces were introduced into the Ozark aquifer (Gann et al., 1976; Imes, 1989; Imes and Smith, 1990; Imes, 1990a, 1990b; Kleeschulte, 2001). Big Spring issues from the transitional hydrogeologic system.

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