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FREIGHT TRANSPORT AND THE ENVIRONMENT

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Studies in Environmental Science 45

FREIGHT TRANSPORT AND THE ENVIRONMENT Edited by Martin Kroon Ministry of Housing, Physical Planning and Environmenr, Leidschendam, The Netherlands Ruthger Smit Ministry of Transport and Public Works, The Hague, The Netherlands Joop van Ham TNO Study Centre for Environmental Research, Delft, The Netherlands

ELSEVlER Amsterdam - London- New York -Tokyo

1991

ELSEVIER SCIENCE PUBLISHERS B.V. Molenwerf 1 P.O. Box 21 1 , 1000 AE Amsterdam, The Netherlands Distributors for the United States and Canada: ELSEVIER SCIENCE PUBLISHING COMPANY INC. 655, Avenue of the Americas New York, NY 10010, U S A .

ISBN 0-444-88770-9 Q Elsevier Science Publishers B.V., 1991 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the Publisher, Elsevier Science Publishers B.V./ Physical Sciences & EngineeringDivision, P.O. Box 330, 1000 AH Amsterdam, The Netherlands. Special regulationsfor readers in the USA -This publication has been registered with the Copyright Clearance Center Inc. (CCC), Salem, Massachusetts. Information can be obtained from the CCC about conditions under which photocopies of parts of this publication may be made in the USA. All other copyright questions, including photocopying outside of the USA, should be referred to the Publisher. No responsibility is assumed by the Publisher for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods, products, instructions or ideas contained in the material herein. This book is printed on acid-free paper Printed in The Netherlands

V

Studies in EnvironmentalScience Other volumes in this series 1 Atmospheric Pollution 1978 edited by M.M. Benarie 2 Air Pollution Reference Measurement Methods and Systems edited by T. Schneider, H.W. de Koning and L.J. Brasser 3 Biogeochemical Cycling of Mineral-Forming Elements edited by P.A. Trudinger and D.J. Swaine 4 Potential Industrial Carcinogens and Mutagens by L. Fishbein 5 Industrial Waste Management by S.E. Jargensen 6 Trade and Environment: A Theoretical Enquiry by H. Siebert, J. Eichberger, R. Gronych and R. Pethig 7 Field Worker Exposure during Pesticide Application edited by W.F. Tordoir and E.A.H. van Heernstra-Lequin 8 Atmospheric Pollution 1980 edited by M.M. Benarie 9 Energetics and Technology of Biological Elimination of Wastes edited by G. Milazzo 10 Bioengineering, Thermal Physiology and Comfort edited by K. Cena and J.A. Clark 11 Atmospheric Chemistry. Fundamental Aspects by E. MBszaros 12 Water Supply and Health edited by H. van Lelyveld and B.C.J. Zoeternan 13 Man under Vibration. Suffering and Protection edited by G. Bianchi, K.V. Frolov and A. Oledzki 14 Principles of Environmental Science and Technology by S.E. Jargensen and I. Johnsen 15 Disposal of Radioactive Wastes by Z. Dlouhj, 16 Mankind and Energy edited by A. Blanc-Lapierre 17 Quality of Groundwater edited by W. van Duijvenbooden, P. Glasbergen and H. van Lelyveld 18 Education and Safe Handling in Pesticide Application edited by E.A.H. van HeernstraLequin and W.F. Tordoir 19 Physicochemical Methods for Water and Wastewater Treatment edited by L. Pawlowski 20 Atmospheric Pollution 1982 edited by M.M. Benarie 21 Air Pollution by Nitrogen Oxides edited by T. Schneider and L. Grant 22 Environmental Radioanalysis by H.A. Das, A. Faanhof and H.A. van der Sloot 23 Chemistry for Protection of the Environment edited by L. Pawlowski, A.J. Verdier and W.J. Lacy 24 Determination and Assessment of Pesticide Exposure edited by M. Siewierski 25 The Biosphere: Problems and Solutions edited by T.N. Veziroelu 26 Chemical Events in the Atmosphere and their Impact on the Environment edited by G.B. Marini-Bettolo 27 Fluoride Research 1985 edited by H. Tsunoda and Ming-Ho Yu 28 Algal Biofouling edited by L.V. Evans and K.D. Hoagland 29 Chemistry for Protection of the Environment 1985 edited by L. Pawlowski, G. Alaerts and W.J. Lacy 30 Acidification and its Policy Implications edited by T. Schneider 31 Teratogens: Chemicals which Cause Birth Defects edited by V. Kolb Meyers 32 Pesticide Chemistry by G. Matolcsy, M. Nadasy and V. Andriska 33 Principles of Environmental Science and Technology (second revised edition) by S.E. Jargensen and I. Johnsen 34 Chemistry for Protection of the Environment 1987 edited by L. Pawlowski, E. Mentasti. C. Sarzanini and W.J. Lacy

vi 35 Atmospheric Ozone Research and its Policy Implications edited by T. Schneider, S.D. Lee, G.J.R. Wolters and L.D. Grant 36 Valuation Methods and Policy Making in Environmental Economics edited by H. Folrner and E. van lerland 37 Asbestos in the Natural Environment by H. Schreier 38 How to Conquer Air Pollution. A Japanese Experience edited by H. Nishimura 39 Aquatic Bioenvironmental Studies: The Hanford Experience, 1944-1 984 by C.D.Becker 40 Radon in the Environment by M.Wilkening 41 Evaluation of Environmental Data for Regulatory and Impact Assessment by S. Ramamoorthy and E. Baddaloo 42 Environmental Biotechnology edited by A. Blazej and V. Privarova 43 Applied Isotope Hydrogeology by F.J. Pearson, Jr., W. Balderer, H.H. Loosli, B.E. Lehrnann, A. Matter, Tj. Peters, H. Schrnassrnann and A. Gautschi 44 Highway Pollution edited by R.S. Hamilton and R.M. Harrison

vii

FREIGHT TRANSPORT AND THE ENVIRONMENT The free movement of goods is a cornerstone of the trading systems that we have and want. Goods movement has increased steadily and at a faster pace than economic growth. Dismantling physical, fiscal and psychological barriers to trade will also undoubtedly lead to more traffic. More and more of these goods are moving by road. In twenty years, road transport in Europe had doubled and has increased its market share from just over a half to nearly three-quarters. In cities, where the vast majority of people live, almost all freight transport is by road. This trend is not likely to change since road transport responds best to present and emerging industrial demands. But this is only one side of the story. It is now widely accepted that transport is a significant and growing source of environmental nuisance. There is an emerging hostility to trucks. Many people find them dirty, noisy and frightening. Progress in reducing polluting emissions from cars has not yet been matched for large vehicles. The share of air pollution emissions due to trucks is increasing and the prospects are worrying, in the short term for nitrogen oxides and particulate emissions and in the longer term for carbon dioxide. It is therefore entirely appropriate that attention should focus on goods transport and its environmental consequences. So many questions need to be answered or clarified. Among these questions are: Why can we not use railways or waterways more? How can we charge prices that reflect total costs including the environmental costs? How can logistic trends be made more compatible with the environment?Can the environmental consequences of our industrial and trading habits be tolerated in the longer term? These and similar questions are high on the political agendas of Governments and Transport Ministers nationally and internationally. The papers in this volume do not answer them all but they make a valuable contribution to increasing knowledge and to raising the level of debate. They should be read carefully by all those involved in moving goods or in making transport policy so that the debate can be well informed and solidly based. Jan C. Terlouw Secretary General of The European Conference of Ministers of Transport


ix

PREFACE The present volume on Freight Transport and the Environment originates from a symposium, ENVIROTRANSPORT, that was planned to be held in Scheveningen, The Netherlands in July 1990. Unfortunately, the attendance from outside the Netherlands as known a few weeks before the symposium, promised to be disappointingly low, which induced the organizers, the Ministry of Housing, Physical Planning and Environment and the Ministry of Transport and Public Works to cancel the symposium. Instead, the prospective speakers at the symposium were asked to write a contributionfor a monograph at the subject of freight transport and the environment. The present volume contains the collected papers which, for the major part, cover the elements intended to be dealt with at the symposium. Most of the papers date from the end of the summer of 1990; some, including those that were originally intended to be presented in German and have now been translated, were received during the autumn of that year. The book has an introductory part referring to the present situation with the environment and transport of goods and continues with the prospects for improvements during the next decade and the beginning of the next century along three main tracks: - the potential for technological solutions -the new approaches in logistics and transport policies -the new concepts in distribution and their application in cities. The editors hope that the present volume will help the transport sector and governments to find the solutions which are necessary to ensure a sustainable transport system in Europe in the future. Martin C. Kroon Ministry of Housing, Physical Planning and Environment Ruthger C.J. Smit Ministry of Transport and Public Works Joop van Ham TNO Study Centre for Environmental Research Leidschendam/The Hague/Delft, The Netherlands, February 1 99 1


xi

CONTENTS PROBLEM AND FRAMEWORK FOR SOLUTIONS The present environmental crisis R.B.J.C. van Noort ................................................................. Growth scenarios and corresponding emissions for the transport of goods by truck and train in Europe H.G. Graf ............................................................................... Sustainable development and goods traffic G. Maier-Rigaud ..................................................................... Facts and figures on environmental effects of freight transport in The Netherlands Th.J.H. Schoemaker and P.A. Bouman ..................................... New policy developments concerning traffic, freight transport and environment in The Netherlands M. Kroon and R. Smit ............................................................. A California and United States perspective on the impact of air quality policies on goods movement by heavy duty trucks J. D. Boyd .............................................................................

3 15 31 41 63 81

TECHNICAL DEVELOPMENTS Prospects for the reduction of noxious emissions from diesel vehicles and the role of alternative fuels and power sources C.C.J. French......................................................................... Current and future emission standards for exhaust gases and noise, and test procedures for goods vehicles C. Cucchi and M. Bidault ......................................................... The heavy-duty diesel engine: prospects for reduced emissions and improved fuel efficiency T. Bertilsson .......................................................................... Prospects for the reduction of noise from heavy duty diesel vehicles F. Filippi ................................................................................ Fuel effects on road transport engines - emissions and cold starting J.R. Puttick and G. W. Dwyer ................................................... Noise pollution from railway traffic and possibilities for improvement a t source A. Zach ................................................................................. New progress in designing inland cargo vessels. A winner for fuelefficiency H.H. Heuser ...........................................................................

93 99 1 13 1 19 13 1 143 151

xii Emissions from inland and coastal shipping and potential for improvement L. Kolle, 0. Melhus, K. Bremnes and G. Fiskaa ........................... Emissions from aircraft: standards and potential for improvement D.M. Snape and M.T. Metcalfe ................................................

163 175

NEW APPROACHES IN LOGISTICS AND TRANSPORT POL1ClES Cost-benefit-analyses for goods transport on roads W. Rothengatter .................................................................... Possibilities for a shift in modal split in favour of rail and inland shipping traffic A. Eisenkopf.......................................................................... Determining the prospect for a shift in modal split in freight transport Y .H.F. Cheung and P.M. Blok.. ................................................. Innovation in logistics: the impact on transport and the environment J. Cooper .............................................................................. Is European marine transport a way to escape from inland congestion? J. Duquesne .......................................................................... Speed limits, effects and benefits in terms of energy efficiency and reduction of emissions W.A.M. den Tonkelaar ........................................................... Road transport and environment. A view by the Dutch Road Haulage Association (NOB Wegtransport) M.G. W. Hallmans and J.M. Handel6 .........................................

187 2 15 223 235 255 26 1 27 1

TRAFFIC MANAGEMENT, DISTRIBUTION AND URBAN INFRASTRUCTURAL MEASURES Freight transport and the quality of the environment in towns R. Kurer ................................................................................ Minimizing traffic nuisance (in cities) by optimization of logistics and means of transport T. Postma ............................................................................. Strategies to rid the environment of pollution by inner-city freight transport-case studies in Cologne and Gelsenkirchen M. Garben .............................................................................

279 295 301

...

Xlll

Measures to guide traffic of dangerous goods transports in the Federal Republic of Germany H.-G. Triebel .......................................................................... Inland transport of dangerous goods - an overview P.T. Mabbitt .......................................................................... Logistical developments in urban distribution and their impact on energy use and the environment R. ter Brugge ......................................................................... The perspective of urban traffic and its pollution control in China Zi-Zhu Jia ..............................................................................

31 3 3 19 331 343

AUTHOR INDEX ......................................................................

349

INDEX .....................................................................................

351



M. h'ruon, H . Smit und J . vun Hum (&ditors), FreiRht Trunspori und rhe Environment IYYI &/sewer Science Publishers B. V . . Amsrerdum. Printed i n rhe Nerherlund.7

3

THE PRESENT ENVIRONMENTAL CRISIS R.B.J.C. van Noort National Institute of Public Health and Environmental Protection (RIVM), P.O. Box I , 3720 BA Bilthoven, The Netherlands

SUMMARY Increasing environmental pollution poses a serious threat to the human environment, even on a global scale. It is realized too little that environmental problems have a time scale, so that the effects only become apparent after many years of environmental pollution. Emissions must be cut by 50 to 80% to make sustainable development possible, as defined in the Brundtland report. Freight traffic plays a part in this pollution, also when viewed against the background of the strong growth which may be expected in this sector. The environment will have to be regarded as a production factor the use of which carries a price. Technological developments, including those in the field of new fuels and environmentally acceptable modes of transport, must be stimulated in order to cope with the growing environmental crisis with regard to freight traffic. 1.

INTRODUCTION

Our society has woken up to the fact that the increasing environmental pollution poses a threat to our environment. Visible effects in particular, such as damage to forests caused by acidification, contamination of drinking water, mass mortality of fish in rivers, and impairment of health by air pollution in Eastern Europe, demonstrate that acceptability limits have been widely exceeded. "Have reports of the serious consequences of environmental pollution not reached us before now?" This would appear to be a legitimate question. The answer to this is in the affirmative. I only need to draw attention to the report of the Club of Rome "The Limits to Growthgf,published in 1972. Certainly, the discussion on the predicted increasing environmental pollution did receive attention, but interest subsequently ebbed away. The same is true of the destruction of stratospheric ozone as a result of the sharp rise in the use of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), predicted by scientists in the early seventies. Measures have been announced after the depletion of the ozone layer recently became observable. Society apparently reacts only after effects have occurred. Insufficient account is taken here of the time scale of the environmental problems. 2.

TIME SCALES

The factor time plays a very important part in the development of these environmental problems. Our environment the possesses, as it were, a buffer capacity, so that consequences of many years of polluting the environment become noticeable only after this capacity has been exceeded. The problem of the time scales can best be illustrated by means of the following example: a study carried out by IIASA in Big Moose Lake in the United States has established the

4

relationship between the increase in SO, emission from the use of fossil fuels and its acidifying effect on the surface water. emissions in mln tons sulphur per year I

60

l 4

02emission

55

50

1780

J '

1880

1900

1920

1940

1960

1980

time (in years) lime u a k of acidic emission and acidity of sii Moose Lake, s u p p l i by gmundwrhr. (Souno:IlASA)

figure 1 The 70-year delay which can be observed in figure 1 between the increase in SO, emission and fish mortality can be explained by the delayed leaching of acid from the soil into Big Moose Lake by way of the groundwater. After the emissions have ceased, it will again take decades before the original situation in the lake has been restored. This time scale problem makes it necessary to take preventive measures much earlier. Measures taken before the environmental effects become evident cost much less than cleanup measures taken after these effects have already occurred. DIVISION OF ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS INTO SPATIAL SCALES

3.

The report "Our Common Future" , the Brundtland report of the World Commission on Environment and Development, published is in 1987, has emphasized that sustainable development essential to prevent further disruption of our society as a result of environmental pollution. In the Netherlands the National Institute of Public Health and Environmental Protection (RIVM) has published in 1988 the report "Concern for Tomorrow11,National Environmental Survey 1985-2010, which has served as a scientific background document for the National Environmental Policy Plan issued by the Dutch government in 1989. In IIConcern for Tomorrow1@,the environmental problems have been classified according to five spatial scales (see figure 2) :

-

global level

: greenhouse effect and depletion of the

ozone layer; continental level : acidification, ozone in the biosphere; fluvial level : eutrophication, dispersion; regional level : overfertilization, dispersion and waste disposal ;

5

- local level

: disturbance by noise, air pollution in

inner cities.

inner region

1

ChdraCtellStIC processes

lake rural

conslruction lormalion and demolition 01 soil 01 buildings

4

ocean/ continent 4 movement 01 air

sea lluvial m0vemen I

of water

planet

L flows 01 energy and radiation

1

characteristic environmental problems

noise odour air pollution inner cities interior environment

overlertil izalion dispersion drying out waste storage

oveder liI ination dispersion

acidilication ozone life level dispersion of dust nuclear accidents

greenhouse effect depletion 01 ozone layer

Spatial rrakr d environment probkmi; Ih. chamctarirtkrand pmb*mr at Ih.global, rontinantml, Rwhl, maional and h l kwl. (Source: RIVM)

figure

2

Environmental pollution caused by traffic has consequences especially for the global, continental and local scales. The environmental pollution load will be greater in the Netherlands than in other countries using the same environmental technology. This is because energy consumption, density of population, number of vehicles, industrial production and number of farm animals in the Netherlands, calculated per square kilometre, are some of the highest in the world. For road traffic, the transport performance per square kilometre in a number of OECD countries, for both passenger and freight traffic, is presented in figure 3. In this figure, too,

Road traffic volumes in some OECD countries (1 9 8 7 1 Nethdud. W-QemUny B.lgiun Qroot-Brlttdn Qood-

JP .n .

v ~ k .

Itdy

UJ1.d 8tot.e CWd. J

0

figure 3

600

1000

thouund km

1600

zoo0

y.u/.qwr.

km

2600

6

it is obvious that the environmental situation in the Netherlands is critical. The report glConcernfor Tomorrowgghas demonstrated that serious disruptions can be expected if the current trends in production and consumption are extended into the future. For example, without taking stringent measures, the forests in the Netherlands will be lost as a result of acidification. Many emissions will have to be cut by more than 50%, often by 70-80%, to arrive at a situation in which development is sustainable, as defined in the Brundtland report. 4.

ROAD TRAFFIC

The major environmental problems caused by road traffic relate to disturbance by noise and air pollution, and a substantial contribution to this is made by freight traffic. One specific problem of road traffic is the great increase in volume which may be expected in the years to come. For example, in 1988 the Netherlands foresaw a growth of over 50% in road traffic and even of 80% in freight traffic by the year 2000. These growth expectations are meanwhile being revised downwards, under pressure of the anticipated increase in environmental pollution. However, it is not clear which measures can effectively reduce transport mobility. A s regards the technical development of quieter and cleaner trucks, I can only express disappointment about the slow pace at which truck producers have succeeded in developing cleaner and quieter vehicles. The very slow decision-making within the EEC on a tightening of the product specifications in particular, has hampered progress. More stringent environmental requirements outside the EEC, such as the recent ban in Austria on noisy freight traffic during the night, have often induced others to take similar action. That the engineers have by no means yet reached the end of their technical capability can be deduced from figure 4 , which

Noise level of trucks as a function of the price

88

.

-

8

t

. ' . 8

noise- 86 level 84 -

5.

m U

.

.I

Measure-method: 811334lEEG 841372lEEG 841424lEEG

82 -

80

-1 0

.. I

I

100000

I

200000 300000 price in guilders

figure

4

DGM 400000

7

shows the relationship between the purchase price of trucks and the measured sound levels in accordance with the current EEC type test requirements. The same price range includes both noisy and quieter types. Considering the expenditure governments have to incur in order to reduce noise pollution by means of sound-proofing provisions such as screens and improved insulation of dwellings, it is not unreasonable to state that noisy trucks are underpriced compared with quieter ones. Because of the anticipated strong growth in traffic, especially freight traffic, and also in the light of the slow pace of development of clean technologies, it may not come as a surprise that more stringent measures are being considered to curb the increasing environmental pollution caused by traffic. The role of freight transport in the noise pollution from road traffic is significant. More and more international freight transport is taking place by night, so that the noise standards then in force are increasingly being exceeded along busy highways. This situation exists in busy urban areas too. Since noise pollution from freight traffic is expected to increase, it seems justified to ask whether in those areas where the noise standards are exceeded, freight traffic should be restricted to trucks which meet the most stringent noise criteria. The periodical tightening of these criteria will give industry an extra incentive to design quieter trucks. A market for quieter trucks can only develop if the government creates a demand for them. Industry will then certainly be able and willing to satisfy this demand. The principal air pollution constituents from road traffic, expressed as a percentage of the total emission in the Netherlands, are presented in figure 5 . Contribution of (duty) traffic to some priority pollutants in 1988

=

Traffic t~

Duty trdflc I 9 0 11.0

co NOX

Lud

0

26

60

76

P r a for U n Nbthuknd.

figure

5.

100

8

Traffic accounts for as much as about 50% of the total emission of nitrogen oxides. Of this, 4/10 comes from freight traffic. The proportion contributed by freight traffic to the sulphur dioxide and fine particles emitted by traffic is very high indeed. Here follows a more detailed account of the consequences of a few atmospheric pollutant emissions, namely carbon dioxide, nitrogen oxides, sulphur dioxide and black smoke. a. Carbon dioxide The consumption of fossil fuels leads to a rise in the carbon dioxide (CO,) concentration in the atmosphere. It has increased by 30% in the past century alone. If the current trends continue, the CO, concentration will have doubled by the middle of the next century. When the atmospheric concentrations of trace gases, which include Coal increase, less heat radiating from the surface of the earth can escape into space, as a result of which the lower layers of the atmosphere will warm up. The climate will change and the sea level rise. It is estimated that CO, is responsible for half of the greenhouse effect. Traffic accounts for about 2 0 % of the CO, emission in the Netherlands, and approximately 1/3 of this stems from freight transport. When the atmospheric concentration of CO, doubles, the global mean temperature can be expected to rise by 1.5 to 4.5 degrees Celsius. This will have far-reaching consequences for life on earth. It may be assumed that it is generally known that the greenhouse effect is not taken seriously everywhere.

GLOBAL TEMPERATURE TREND 0.6

0.4

oe8

0.2

0

-0.2

-0.4

Estimates (95%

-0.6 1880

1890

1900

_LLL 1910

1920

1930

1940

Date

figure

6

1950

1960

1970

1980

1990

9

Here, I merely want to direct attention to similar voices heard in the seventies concerning the damage to the ozone layer as a result of the use of CFCs, among other causes. At that time, too, some governments preferred to defer taking action until the effects became apparent. In the past few years, a rise in the global mean temperature has already been observed, as is shown in figure 6. Nevertheless, statistically, this cannot be interpreted as conclusive evidence that global warming has begun to occur. However, the postponement of further decisionmaking on a reduction of CO, emissions is not a realistic alternative because of the long recovery period following a drastic cut in these emissions. It can be deduced from figure 7

6 - 5

5 a, 2.

$4 v)

C

0

temperature increase

c

9 3 C

.-0 v)

.v,

E

2

a,

1 -

0 I1900

I2000 figure 7

that even after cessation of all CO, emissions, the temperature will still continue to rise and it will take a few hundred years before it has fallen again to the original level. This time-scale effect calls for stringent measures now. This applies especially to traffic because of the anticipated growth in this sector. b. Nitrosen oxides In the Netherlands, road traffic is responsible for over of the emissions of nitrogen oxides (NOx). Of this, approximately 4/10 is produced by freight traffic. Excessive concentrations of nitrogen oxides damage human health, and for this reason a Directive came into force within the EEC in 1985 which requires the EEC member states to reducg the concentrations of nitrogen oxides to no more than 200 pg/m by 1. January 1994 at the latest. Figure 8 shows the NO, concentration for a number of European cities. The EEC limit is considerably exceeded in cities such as Cologne, London, Lyons and Milan. In view of the approaching date of 1 January 1994, compliance with this 50%

10

98-P NO2 in cities 1985-87

wna

o

so

100

is0

E.C.

200

, 2so

aoo

310

400

4so

Figure 8 Directive will only be possible by taking measures designed to curb traffic. In warm sunny weather, solar radiation acts on nitrogen oxides and volatile hydrocarbons to produce ozone, which leads to an increased health risk in risk groups such as persons with respiratory disorders and people engaged in heavy physical exertion outdoors. A study carried out by the RIVM has shown that halting the traffic limited only to the Netherlands during this summer smog has only a small favourable effect on the ozone level. There is a better result in combination with measures in the surrounding countries. The contribution made by traffic to the acidification problem in the Netherlands is increasing. It has risen from 19% to 21% since 1980. On the other hand, the proportion contributed by industry is falling as a result of the reduction in SO, emissions. The acid deposition in the Netherlands consist of 40% sulphur compounds (particularly from industry), 32% nitrogen oxides (particularly from traffic) and 2 8 % ammonia (from agriculture). Foreign sources account for over half of the acid deposition in the Netherlands. The Dutch contribution to acid deposition has risen from 37% in 1980 to 41% in 1985 as a result of the growth in intensive animal farming and traffic. Actually, the Netherlands is a net exporter of acidifying air pollutants. The average acid deposition rate in the Netherlands is currently about 5000 mol/ha/year, with a range of 3000 to 7000 mol/ha/year. In the medium-long term, forests and other natural areas can only be preserved when the average acid deposition does not exceed 800-1500 mol/ha/year. Figure 9 shows that only stringent measures, both in the Netherlands and in neighbouring countries, can reduce acid deposition. It is inevitable here that traffic will have to make a substantial contribution. Acidification is not a typically Dutch problem. It also occurs in the rest of Europe as well as in the United States and Canada, and is potentially a risk to the other continents.

11

Acid depositions in the Netherlands compared to standards related to drinking water quality and the vitality of ecosystems acid depositions in mol/haly 6000

1980

-

5000

-

4000

-

3000

-

established measures additional measures in the Netherlands additional measures in Europe

drinking water standard for nitrate

deciduous forest 2000

-

deciduousforest coniferousforest heathland,coniferousforest 1000

vitality of ecosystems

-

deciduous forest 0-

Figure 9 c. Sulphur dioxide and fine Darticles During a winter smog-period, excessive concentrations of sulphur dioxide (SO,) and black smoke have serious effects on health. Unlike the summer smog situation, where the largest risk group consists of mostly healthy persons doing heavy physical exercise outdoors, the group at risk during winter smog comprises persons who are especially susceptible to the acid winter smog mixture and stay mainly indoors. These include cardiac patients, persons with chronic lung diseases and elderly people in very poor physical condition. Winter smog can result in hospitalization, and possibly even increases the risk of death. In the Netherlands, winter smog occurs during cold spells in conjunction with a strong high-pressure area over Central Europe, so that more fuel is used. A study carried out by the RIVM has shown that measures designed to curb traffic on very busy streets during these periods may reduce the health risk by approximately 3 0 % . 5.

AIR TRAFFIC

The environmental effects of air traffic cannot be passed over at this symposium because of the vigorous growth foreseen for freight transport by air. For example, Schiphol Airport, Amsterdam, expects the total number of arrivals and departures to increase by about 7 5 % between 1987 and 2 0 0 0 , whereas the growth in freight transport by air is calculated at about 300%. Consequently, the noise near airports, especially during the night, will become more and more a dominant factor. The people in the neighbourhood increasingly appeal to the courts for better protection of the environment around airports.

12

Recently, a judicial decision in the German Federal Republic imposed a ban on nighttime flying at the new Munich airport. In the Netherlands, the court has already decided upon a noise standard to be met at the North-South runway of Maastricht airport in the south of the Netherlands. The relaxation of this standard proposed by the government for a new East-West runway to be built there will certainly give rise to further discussion. This proposal was influenced by the fact that no agreement could be reached with the neighbouring countries on optimization of the prescribed flying routes, especially over Belgian territory. In this context, I should merely like to mention the obvious damage to public health caused by aircraft noise. Air pollution near airports too, poses a growing problem, which incidentally is caused chiefly by the road traffic they attract. The air pollution around Schiphol, and the associated cancer incidence, are comparable with the situation in densely populated areas. The emissions from aircraft in the troposphere and, in the near future, also the,stratosphere will cause a growing problem in aviation. This is because these airplanes inject their exhaust gases directly into the air at higher altitudes. These emissions therefore have a relatively large effect. Figure 10 shows that the NO, emissions from air traffic are

Global emission of NO2 (tonnes/year) by aircraft 1987 ~~~~

16 3 -

-

3

7

-

5

10 20

> 16

__________________--------------------------------------------

The results show in a clear way that problems do not only exist in the main shopping streets, but also in shopping streets of lower interest. It can also be seen that the problems are more serious if it is a shopping street in a more urbanized area. The shares given in table 8 for vans and trucks can be seen independent to each other, however the vans cause an overall threat equal to the threat of trucks. The noise caused by the freight road vehicles is above all important for neighbours. In contradiction to pedestrians it is for neighbours not possible to run away from the noise. About 900,000 inhabitants are threatened by noise of freight vehicles. This is a quarter of the 3.7 million inhabitants, that are threatened by noise of road traffic (by passenger and freight traffic together).

53 A further impression of the noise caused by freight vehicles can be obtained by a subdivision into different noise-categories. It is also possible make a distribution between vans and trucks on the one side, and between streets with a stronger residential function and streets with a stronger traffic function on the other side. The results of these divisions are given in tables 9 and 10. Table 9: Number of inhabitants threatened by noise of vans and trucks

_______________----------------------------------------------Threatened inhabitants in % Noise category db ( A ) 50-55

56-60

61-65

66-70

total

9 2

31 12

20 10

9 7

69 31

_______________----------------------------------------------Vans Trucks

..............................................................

Source: Min. VROM Table 10: Number of inhabitants threatened by noise of different kinds of streets

.............................................................. Threatened inhabitants in % Noise category db ( A ) 50-55

56-60

61-65

66-70

total

12

14

15

42

31

15

1

58

_________--_-------------------------------------------------_ Streets with a stronger 1 traffic function Streets with a stronger 11 residential function Source: Min. VROM Table 9 shows us that the inhabitants are threatened twice as much by noise of vans than by noise of trucks, whereas in the lowest noise category this ratio is four. Table 10 let us see that one and a half the number of inhabitants, which are threatened by noise of freight traffic, are living in streets with a residential function than in streets with a strong traffic function. Bad smell i s characterized by the smell concentrations of distinct materials for pedestrians and neighbours. Not only high traffic volumes are playing a role, but also characteristics of the build-up area and weather conditions. From the emissions of road vehicles bad smell is caused by the aldehieds out of hydrocarbons and aerosols. In case of the last soot is most important. Tables 11 and 12 show see where the emissions of hydrocarbons and aerosols of different kinds of vehicles will be found.

54

Table 11: Hydrocarbons emissions by commercial vehicles in different kinds of areas

________________________________________---------Emission in % Rural areas

Build-up areas inner cities other areas

________________---------------------------------------------Vans Trucks, foreign trucks incl. Special vehicles

6

12

la

33

7

15

1

3

5

________________--_-------------------------------------_----

Source: CBS (revised) Table 12: Aerosol emission by commercial vehicles in different areas

________________--_------------------------------------------Emission in % Rural areas

Build-up areas city centres other areas

________________---------------------------------------------Vans Trucks, foreign trucks incl. Special vehicles

3

a

lo

44

8 2

19 4

2

________________-----------------------------------------_--Source: CBS (revised)

From the overall emission of hydrocarbons more than one third is caused by (delivery) vans. Within build-up areas and particulary within inner cities this share is half to more than half. From the overall emission of aerosols one fifth is caused by (delivery) vans. Within build-up areas this share is one third and within inner cities about half. The unsafety caused by commercial vehicles is a problem for the (other) road users. Hereby is supposed that unsafety can be expressed in the real number of accidents. Looking at the risk of all kinds of vehicles for the other road users as well as for passenger, then the following is obvious: - Trucks and vans cause (except busses) most deaths among other road users per vehicle kilometre, at least five times more than passenger cars; - For truck and van drivers (except busdrivers) this risk is the smallest, only about half of that of passengers of passenger cars. Looking at accidents with hospital injuries the number of accidents in relation with vans is about the same as the number of accidents in relation with trucks. On the other hand trucks cause as twice mortal accidents as vans. Table 13 gives a more detailed information about the ratio between accidents with injuries and mortal accidents per kind of vehicle.

From accident figures (from 1981, 1982 and 1983) appears that in the case of mortal accidents and accidents with hospital injuries 56 % of the victims are pedestrians and cyclists. In contrast to emissions the other threats to the environment are directly founded problems. The negative effects of these threats to the environment are significant within build-up areas, the more if there are mostly pedestrians and neighbours. Further it is clear that bigger vehicles cause disproportionately more serious threats than smaller vehicles.

Briefly and summerized to the point the analysis led to the following results. 1 With regard to the different transport modes:

By far most of the air pollution, in relation with the freight transport, is caused by the road transport. 2 With regard to the difference between inland and internatio-

nal transport: Within the road transport by far most of the air pollution is caused by the inland transport. 3

With regard to the transported goods (or otherwise): From the emissions by trucks three fourths are in connection with the transport of food products, other goods (for a considerable portion consumer goods) and empty trips.

4 With regard to different areas:

The share of the generated emissions in urban areas varies from one fourth to three fourths of the total emissions. About one third of these emissions is generated in inner towns. 5 With regard to the difference between delivery vans and

trucks : The share of the delivery vans in the threats to the environment is considerable:

56

- From emissions of petrol-engines this can be more than half of the total freight transport emissions' - A disproportionate share of these emissions is generated

in urban areas and a comparative bigger proportion in inner towns; - The physical inconvenience caused by delivery vans is not less than that by trucks; - The same applies to the bad smell; - Twice as much inhabitants are threated by noise of vans as by noise of trucks. By trucks twice as much mortal accidents are caused as by vans. Compared with the threat to the environment by passenger traffic the threat to the environment of freight traffic is not to be neglected, but requires on the contrary special attention.

To set bounds to the threat to the environment by freight transport, it is necessary to make a distinction between the overall traffic performance and the traffic volumes, in particular in sensitive areas. To reduce emissions by freight transport the overall traffic performance has to be reduced. This is possible in different ways. The most obvious possibilities are: - To stimulate the development and use of less polluting road vehicles; - Improvement of the ratio full load and empty kms; - To use bigger road vehicles outside urban areas.

Which of these solutions will be preferred in certain cases is not only to decide by the realisable reduction of emissions per tonkm, but also by the area where the freight traffic pass through. This because also the threats such as noise and unsafety are important. Naturally the use of less polluting (road) vehicles is a good sake. However, this can not be the final solution. For this, their are several reasons. First the possibilities to get cleaner engines are limited. Particularly this counts for diesel engines. Besides that, freight traffic is increasing as a result of the increase of goods production and as a result of a shift from rail to road transport. At last there is a growing tendency to cut down the acceptable limits of the different overall emissions.

An improvement of the ratio full load and empty kms can give a contribution to reduce emissions, but also results of this possiblity will be limited. Indeed a quarter of the inland overall traffic performance by trucks is related to trips of

57

empty vehicles. However, it is not realistic to expect that it will be possible to reduce trips of empty vehicles completely. The use of bigger (road) vehicles is also mentioned as possibility to reduce emissions. Table 14 shows us see there is a remarkable difference between the emissions trucks on the one side and the emissions of trucks and lers and truck-tractors and semi-trailers on the other

a that of traiside.

Table 14: Emissions per tonkm by trucks, 1985

_________________--_----------------------------------------Emissions in gr per tonkm co HC NO, Aer

co2

SO2

............................................................. Trucks Trucks and trailers Truck-tractors and semi-trailers

451 109

2.24 0.54

1.57 0.38

5.65 1.37

0.90 0.22

0.43 0.10

127

0.34

0.34

2.30

0.19

0.11

Source: C B S (revised) The figures in table 14 concern the inland freight transport by truck. Figures concerning commodity categories 1 and 9 (not given here) show the same picture: three times to four times less emissions per tonkm in the case of trucks and trailers and truck-tractors and semi-trailers. Naturally these figures are influenced by the fact that on longer distances outside build-up areas trucks and trailers and truck-tractors and semi-trailers are used more than single trucks. Yet it can be asserted that the use of road vehicles as big as possible really can reduce emissions. Far more better for a decrease of the emissions than the use of bigger road vehicles is the use of railway or inland waterway transport. In table 15 the emissions per tonkm of the different modes are given. Table 15: Emissions per tonkm of different modes, 1985

.............................................................. Emissions in gr per tonkm co HC NO, Aer

co,

SO,

.............................................................. Road transport Inland waterway Railway

211 33

102

0.90 0.11 0.02

0.68 0.05 0.01

2.97 0.26 1.01

0.39 0.02 0.01

0.20 0.04 0.07

Source: C B S (revised) The figures of road to be considered as 14. The figures of based on inland and The above mentioned to increase the use within internationa

transport concern all kinds of trucks; are a weighted average of the figures in table nland waterway and railway transport are international transport together. shows strongly to search for possibilities of inland waterway and railway transport and inland transport.

58

For a long time railways had a strong position in the transport of bulk cargo by the so-called trainload transport, but the transport of this kind of freight is diminishing (in the western world). Only the combined rail-road transport of containers, swapbodies and trailers on international long distance trips is increasing. This increase is concerned with the transport on a few number of important international links. However, the real problem is the much higher emissions of the inland road transport. A s an alternative for the more disperced inland transport pattern only the wagonload railway transport system exist. For this type of railway transport many shunting operations are needed. By that, railway transport by the wagonload system is expensive, slow and causes much damage. Competing with the road transport is therefore very difficult. Yet a better railway system conception for inland freight transport is needed from a point of view of protection of the environment. For the development of such a system a new approach is necessary; that is to say a system without the need of shunting operations.Further characteristics of the system have to be regularly scheduled freight trains of a fixed composition, which serve a sufficient number of transhipment terminals. It will be clear that such a railway transport system only can exist by using containers, swapbodies and trailers. As a matter of fact shunting of railway wagons is replaced by the transhipment of containers, a.s.0. between trucks and wagons and eventually between two wagons. In the case of the aimed enlargement of the share of the railways in the inland freight transport the road transport industry has not to be seen as a competitor of the railway company, but as a customer. This has to be seen in relation with the development of the integration of the activities of transporters and shippers. Freight transport is getting more and more custom-made, where quality is more important than price. Therefore the road transporter has to conform to the logistical processes of the shipper. This can not be a job for the large scale railways. The railways has to offer transport services to the road transporters. So it is possible for the road transporter in any particular case to make a choise between using road transport for the whole journey or to use combined road-rail transport. Further research is needed to develop a nationwide network for freight transport by rail and the determination of new tran shipment terminals. Naturally use of railway transport is only possible on relatively long distances also within inland transport. An earlier study proved that combined road-rail transport will be possible from distances of 150 km, if shunting operations are abondoned. In table 16 shows that the volume of freight transport on

59

distances over 150 km is relatively small, but more than half of the tonkms. Table 16: Distance distribution of freight traffic

........................................................ Share in % Tons

Tonkms

81 19

55

____________________-----------------------------------0

- 150 km

> 150 km

45

........................................................ Source: CBS (revised) Maybe rail services are needed on different relations where rail links do not exist. In such cases it is thinkable to introduce truck services as an interim solution. The use of as big road vehicles on these links wil be preferred. Perhaps it is possible to make arrangements for the use of trucks with too trailers. Besides rail transport the inland waterway transport is favourable from a point of view of the environment. But the inland waterway transport is yet in a stronger way related to the transport of bulk cargo. The best possibilities of the inland waterway transport concern the transport of containers. Nevertheless research has to be done to a possibility of using inland waterways in a network for combined transport. Inland waterway transport is slow, but unlike the railway system inland waterways has no capacity problems. However, a problem can be the fact that there are a lot of inland waterway transporters whereas there is only one railway transport company. In the foregoing attention is given to the need of the enlargement of scale in the interlocal transport in order to set bounds to the emissions. In this case it is important to reduce the vehicle kms by the use of as big vehicles as possible. However for the reduction of the other threats to the environment it is necessary to reduce traffic volumes in build-up areas and particulary in inner towns. The present day optimalization within each firm has as a result that many trucks has to deliver goods on a lot of adresses. In this way a disproportionate number of vehicle trips are generated for the provision of shopping centres. It must possible by an optimalization on a higher scale to get to such physical distribution processes, that perhaps the overall traffic performance will not change but indeed traffic volumes will decrease in sensitive (vulnerable) areas. The contemplated reduction of the number of trucks in above all inner towns can be realized by using the principle that a fully loaded vehicle will not deliver this load in many (inner) towns, but that a vehicle will be loaded by more shippers and will unload the total load only in one inner town.

60

An other possiblity is the building of consolidation terminals at the fringe of a town. S o it will be possible to provide a town from one distinct terminal. In this case the accent lies on the logistic chain integral good flows control. This transport chain can be combined with the mentioned inland railway transport system. The transhipment terminals corporated in this system can be combined with depots. Within this scope also the development of typical city-bound mini containers is thinkable. Limiting the number of trucks particulary in inner towns can not be the final solution to reduce the (other) threats to the environment in a sufficient way. A l s o attention has to be given to the extensive use of vans. Although it is better possible to reduce emissions of the petrol engines of vans than the emissions of the diesel engines of trucks, this will not be a sufficient solution of all the problems caused by vans. Therefore it will be appropriate to research the use of electric traction for vans. Two options are to distinguish for the electric traction of cars. In the first case we can think about cars only for short distances, thus driving only relatively few kms a day, so that batteries can be charged at night. In the second case easy interchangable packets of batteries are used. For this service stations will be needed all along roads. Herewith the problem of the limited range of action of electric cars will be solved. As yet the first mentioned type of electric cars has the best opportunity to be used on a larger scale, because special service facilities for battery loading are not necessary. study to the use of electric vans for the provision of inner town shopping centres will be prefered. It is thinkable that pedestrian areas only may be entered by electric vans, together with realizing freight transfer facilities at the fringe of a pedestrian area. Such a transfer facility can be combined with a warehouse, that has to be exploited by the shopholders.

A

Also research has to be done to solve the problems of the inner city freight transport by physical infrastructure. A matter of fact is the limited space within inner towns, a space that is used for many purposes. It is only possible to realize added space by building a second level, that is to say by constructing tunnels (mostly elevated roads are not acceptable from a point of view of towenscape). It may be wondered why in most cases tunnels are being built f o r passenger transport. A better solution should be to bring the freight transport in city centres underground. Perhaps it will be possible to build underground freight tunnels for smaller piece goods similar to the pneumatic post system. In this case tunnels are needed with a smaller diameter than for passerger transport tunnels. Naturally building of such an underground system will not be simple. As an example the access points to the system can br mentioned. Nevertheless a pilot study will be appropriate.

61 FREIGHT TRANSPORT POLICY

........................

The different mentioned ways out of the problems require an increasing interference of the the government with regard to the freight transport. At present the role of the government is twofold. On the one hand the government is building infrastructure such as roads, ports, etc., whether special for the freight transport or not. On the other hand the government imposes restrictions to the freight transport, set bounds to the dimensions of trucks, close streets to trucks at distinct times, etc. Mostly this kind of measures are issued by local authorities. An extra problem is the lack of coordination between the different local authorities by preparing these measures. The seriousness of the from this study appearing problems ask for a more structural approach on a strategic level. In the future the government has to fulfil a more initiating and stimulating role to get to a more environment friendly freight transport. Naturally the government has to create conditions to make things possible, but also a task of the government has to be to bring the different actors in the transportation scene together not only to get to freight transport chains from a point of view of economics but also from a point of view of environment. Also the best division among the different authorities of the work to be done and the responsibilities have to be studied. At present only the central government and the local authorities mind the freight transport. However, it is necessary to study what could be the task of the provinces and the to develop transport regions on the field of freight transport. Physical planning is a task exclusively of the public authorities. The broad use of road transport has resulted in a sprawl all over the country of industrial zones without any connection with railways or inland waterways. Particularly many local authorities has developed industrial zones which are not always situated at the best places. A better prognosis of the traffic volumes as a result of the planning of industrial zones and the kind of industry there is needed. The contribution to the threat to the environment has to be a criterion for the decision to realize an industrial zone or not. This has not to be the picture for a decision to a complete industrial zone, but also to make decisions about separate undertakings. Just as it has not to be tolerated to realize an industrial zone that can only be reached by passing through a residential quarter, it has not to be tolerated to build a big supermarket which attract a lot of freight vehicles in the middle of a historic inner city.

62 References

Boustead I & GF Hancock (1979) Handbook of industrial energy analysis. The Open University Milton Keynes. IBSN 0-85312064-1

Centraal Bureau voor de Statistiek (1986) Luchtverontreiniging emissies door wegverkeer 1978-1984 Centraal Bureau voor de Statistiek (1986) Statistiek van het binnenlands goederenvervoer 1985 deel 1 binnenvaart en spoorwegen Centraal Bureau voor de Statistiek (1986) Statistiek van het binnenlands goederenvervoer 1985 deel 2 wegvervoer Centraal Bureau voor de Statistiek (1987) Statistiek van de aan-, af- en doorvoer, goederenvervoer van en naar Nederland Centraal Bureau voor de Statistiek (1986) Statistiek van de internationale binnenvaart 1985 Centraal Bureau van de Statistiek (1986) Statistiek van de wegen 1 januari 1985 Centraal Bureau van de Statistiek (1986) Statistisch zakboek Colwill DM (1973) Atmospheric pollution from vehicle emissions: measurements in Reading 1971. TRRL-report LR 541 ESC-rapport Vermijden of bestrijden Groot de H (1983) Schepen van de binnenvaart.ISBN 90-6013918-6

Henham A (1983) The motorcar: energy and potentials for conservation. Resources and conservation no 10-1983 Langeweg F (1988) Zorgen voor morgen, Nationale milieuverkenning 1985-2010. Rijksinstituut voor Volksgezondheid en Milieuhygiene Lehmann H (1977) Bahnsysteme und ihr wirtschaftlicher Betrieb. Darmstadt Ministry of Health and Environmental Protection Handbook of emissionfactors, non-industrial sources, part 1 Ministerie van VROM Ondergrensrapport, nota ontheffingenbeleid Nederlands Vervoerwetenschappelijk Instituut (1982) Energieverbruik en energiebesparing in verkeer en vervoer, deelrapport 1 NOB-Wegtransport (1988) Wegvervoer in cijfers Prudhoe J & T Zammit (1977) Journeys made by an articulated goods vehicle and delays to other traffic. Transport and Road Research Laboratory TRRL supplementary report 307 Sliggers CJ Het CAR-Model, de meerjarenberekening van jaar tot jaar. Ministerie van VROM Directoraat-Generaal Milieubeheer Directie Lucht afdeling Luchtkwaliteit Zuylen van HJ (1987) Collegedictaat Geluid. Nationale Akademie voor Planologie, Verkeer en Vervoer Tilburg

63

NEW POLICY DEVELOPMENTS CONCERNING TRAFFIC, FREIGHT TRANSPORT, AND ENVIRONMENT IN THE NETHERLANDS Martin Kroon* Ministry of Housing, Physical Planning and Environment, P. 0. Box 450, 2260 MB Leidschendam, The Netherlands Ruthger Smil" Ministry of Transport and Public Works, P.O. Box 20901 2500 EX Den Haag, The Netherlands

INTRODUCTION

Never before has the government of a Western European country fallen over an environmental issue, let alone a question related to the reduction of car use. Yet on May 2, 1989, the seven year-old Lubbers Government, a coalition of centre ChristianDemocrats and right-wing Liberals, split over the question of curtailing tax benefits for (car) commuters in the Netherlands. A Dfl. 650 million commuter tax reform was proposed as a funding basis for several environmental and public transport programmes. It was just one of a great many projects contained in the new National Environmental Policy Plan 1990-1994 ("NMP")but it caused a political crisis for a largely successful coalition. And so, for the very first time, environmental policy was a high ranking issue during the 1989 Parliamentary elections. In June 1990, the new coalition government (Christian-Democrats and Labour Party) issued an updated and tightened up version of the NMP in the "NMP-plus", in order to accelerate the implementation of the new environmental policy. Parallel to the NMP-plus, an updated version of the Second Transport Structure Plan (SVVII) provided the guiding principles and measures for an integrated traffic and environmental policy. It is worthwhile examining what environmental problems and traffic policy concerns are at stake in the Netherlands, and which measures are being developed under the responsibility of environmental and traffic policies. This contribution describes current developments in the Netherlands' policy for the reduction of pollution due to motorized road traffic (including freight transport). Particular attention is paid to the reduction targets contained in the NMP, the three-track approach to traffic pollution - including management of traffic demand - and the integrated traffic and environmental policy measures presented in the SVVII. The final part of this contribution focuses attention on road freight and transport policy. ROAD TRAFFIC AND ENVIRONMENT

Transport and communication activities represent more than 7 per cent of gross national product in the Netherlands, surpassing even the agriculture sector in economic output. The main negative effects of road transport activities include accidents, congestion, air pollution and noise, wastes, soil

64 pollution from spilled fuels, energy consumption, and consumption of land use, other resources for infrastructure and vehicle use. The non-internalized social costs of road transport probably amount to several per cent of the gross national product. Emissions from the transport sector represent a large share of total man-made emissions. Also, the contribution of the transport sector to total emissions of air pollutants and noise is higher than in the past, compared to the contribution of other sectors. Road traffic is the largest single source of air pollution and noise nuisance. More than six million motor vehicles travel a total of about 100 billion kilometres a year (1988), producing 723,000 tonnes of carbon monoxide (CO), 198,000 tonnes of hydrocarbons (HC), and 299,000 tonnes of nitrogen oxides ( NOx ) Its CO, output (about 25 million tonnes) represents 15 per cent of the Netherlands' contribution to CO, emissions. Furthermore road traffic is by far the largest source of environmental pollution in urban areas, not only f o r the compounds mentioned above but also for particulates, asbestos, SO,, and noise nuisance. Table 1 shows the volume of air pollutants produced predominantly by road traffic in the Netherlands.

.

TABLE 1: Road traffic emissions (NL), in tonnes per year and percentage road

1970

freight transport

1988 1,700

Lead

20

all vehicles 1988

share in total

340

80%

1.470,000

98,000

723,000

65%

*x

147,000

134,000

299,000

59%

HC

280,000

49,000

198,000

45%

n.a.

480

35%

23, 000

36,000

23%

25,000,000

15%

a3

Askstos

n.a.

Particles CO,

13,000

13,300,000

7,480,000

The effects of vehicle emissions can be divided between those relating to human health and those affecting the environment as a whole. Those affecting human health are: a. b.

c. d.

nuisance: noise, odour, haze and decrease in visibility due to mild smogs; irritation: of respiratory systems, eyes, skin, etc. by nitrogen oxides, sulphur oxides, oxidants, particulates: toxic systematic action: carbon monoxide, lead compounds, certain hydrocarbons; mutagenic/carcinogenic action: particulates, asbestos and certain hydrocarbons (polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, dioxins, benzene).

High concentrations of these air pollutants are found chiefly in urban areas, near busy motorways and inside motor vehicles. High ozone concentrations due to transboundary pollution and domestic

65

traffic emissions occurred several times in the Netherlands during the hot spring and summer of 1989. Apart from the widespread ecological damage and general land use effect, the long term/long range environmental effects of road traffic are well illustrated by its share in acidification and photochemical air pollution (ozone formation). In the Dutch situation, road traffic contributes substantially to both forms through its share of over 55 per cent in NOx and 45 per cent in HC emissions (Table 1). NMP AND NMP-PLUS

Since the early 1980's "acid rain" and the long-term consequences of global warming, such as rising sea levels, brought the environmental issue to the forefront of public interest and concern. At the same time, the Government's environmental policy shifted towards a more effect-oriented approach, resulting in stricter emission reduction goals and a solid scientific foundation for stricter products/process emission standards. Since 1987 Our Common Future from the World Commission on Environment and Development ("Brundtland Committee") and the report "Concern for Tomorrow" by the National Institute of Public Health and Environmental Protection have set the terms for a more fundamental discussion of the environment issue from a global and long-term perspective. A l s o the Government itself started political discussions on the problems of traffic planning and environment and on far reaching emission reductions (70-90 per cent) for acidifying substances. The time was ripe for the environment to become a cornerstone of public policy. The fall of the centre-right coalition and the 1989 Parliamentary elections symbolise this development. On May 25, 1989, the National Environmental Policy Plan 19901994 was issued as a first step towards the implementation of "sustainable development" between now and 2010 and the strategy for a new environmental policy in the 1990's. Execution of this plan will add more than 6 billion Dutch guilders a year to the costs of environmental investments and expenditures. It became apparent in the course of the formation of the new coalition government (Christian Democrats/Labour Party) that environmental policy would have to be tightened up on a number of points if the targets in the plan were to be achieved as quickly as possible. The aim of the plan, which is to ensure that environmental problems are not passed on to subsequent generations, can only be achieved if we change our current patterns of production and consumption. The government policy statement of November 27, 1989, listed the points on which environmental policy required tightening up: * reducing carbon dioxide emissions: * stepping up policy on acidification: * stepping up policy for the conservation and development of nature: * management of entire waste chains, also viewed in relation to product policy: * cleaning up soil and underwater soil: * energy conservation policy. The tightening up on these points does mean an acceleration of the introduction of NMP measures so that the long-term objectives needed for sustainable development are likely to be achieved

66 earlier. The consistency of policy is guaranteed because the points of departure of the National Environmental Policy Plan still hold true. In June 1990, the National Environmental Policy Plan Plus (NMPplus) was launched by the ( 4 ) Ministers of Environment, Transport, Agriculture and Economic Affairs. New emission reduction targets and abatement policy New and stricter reduction goals and abatement measures concerning acidification and all "contributing" sources have been laid down in the NMP and NMP-plus. Total acid deposition (averaging 5,000 acid equivalents per hectare per annum) is to be reduced in the long run to 400 to 700 equivalents in order to prevent any ecological damage from occurring. This implies emission reductions (for SO,, NH,, NO, and HC) of a magnitude of 7 0 to 90 per cent, which are goals that cannot be met by the year 2000. So, the NMP laid down a set of maximum achievable emission reduction targets for the year 2000, aiming at 5 0 to 80 per cent reductions compared to 1980 emissions (Table 2 ) . Together with parallel reductions by transboundary sources (especially from Germany) this may result in an average yearly deposition of 2400 equivalents before the year 2000. Sadly enough, this will only slow down the continued mortality of the Dutch forests and the continuation of other forms of damage. Eighty per cent of Dutch forests will still be at risk! The NMP-plus deals not only with acidification but also with all other kinds of pollution. The following emission ceilings and targets have been set for the traffic and transport sector: TABLE 2

Rnissim reduction targets 1986

2000

2010

163,000

40,000(-75%)

40,000 (-75%)

lorries,buses

122,000

72,000(-35%)

25,000 (-75%)

HC passerger cars

136,000

35,000(-75%)

35,000 (-75%)

HC lorries, buses

46,000

Nox passengerNox

CO,

mad traffic

23,000,000

Noise passenger caTs3 Noise lorries/buse& Noise nuisance s e r i d

30,000(-35%)

12,000 (-75%)

23,000, 000(0)

20,700,000( 10%)

80

74

70

81-88

75-80

70

260,000

130,000(-50%)

Noise nuisance to any desree5

2,000,000

1 , 8 o O , ~-10%) ( 1,000,000(-50%)

target values for the maximum noise production of vehicles in dB(A).

61

number of dwellings exposed to an unacceptably high noise level, reduced by 50 per cent in 2000 through measures at source and in the transmission zone. dwellings subject to noise loading of more than 55 dB(A). The intensified policy contained in the NMP-plus is aimed especially at reducing CO, emissions. This policy must produce a stabilisation in CO, emissions in 1994/1995 at the level of 1989/1990 (182 million tonnes per year). The NMP assumed stabilisation in the year 2000. The NMP-plus anticipates an absolute reduction of 3 to 5 per cent in 2 0 0 0 . For road traffic this will imply a net cut-off of the expected autonomous growth (of 8 per cent) of CO, emissions within 5 years. So, the CO, target for the transport sector is: a. to stabilise emissions at current levels in 1994-1995: b. to stabilise at 1986 levels in 2000: c. to reduce emissions by 10 per cent relative to the 1986 level by 2010. CO, emissions from road traffic will be reduced by the same three-track approach already being developed in connection with acidification reduction policy (see Figure 1). Additional abatement measures for all acidifying sectors must make it possible to achieve the current acidification objective (2400 acid equivalents per hectare per annum) some years earlier than the year 2000, as scheduled until now. For transport and traffic this implies the need for even stricter measures during the 1990's than was foreseen in the NMP and the draft SVVII (1989). Other goals and objectives The use of carcinogenic or other harmful substances in vehicles must be reduced by the year 2000 to a level where the risks are negligible, and the quantity of reusable materials must be raised to 85 per cent. In terms of land use, further "scatteration" in rural areas will be prevented. If new infrastructure is absolutely necessary, compensatory measures will be taken where possible so that, on balance, fragmentation does not increase. The problem of soil and air pollution at petrol stations will result shortly in legislation on new and existing facilities regarding sanitation, vapour-return etc. Specifically, the objectives of the NMP-plus for traffic and transport have been formulated as follows: - vehicles be as clean, quiet, economical and safe as possible and made of parts and materials which are optimally suitable for reuse: - the choice of mode for passenger transport must result in the lowest possible energy consumption and the least possible pollution. This means a preference for public transport,car pooling and cycling for the coming decades. Great attention must also be paid to reducing energy consumption and environmental pollution in freight transport: - the locations where people live, work, shop and spend their leisure time will be coordinated in such a way that the need to travel is minimal. The policy conducted will be regularly checked to see whether it is effective. Calibration points are given for 1994 to see whether the reduction in the environmental impact in the period prior to 2000 is proceeding according to plan. If the calibration

68 point for 1994 is not achieved this will result in the timely preparation of supplementary policy. MAIN ABATEMENT POLICY LINES

Environmental pollution from road traffic is produced in a three-step process, involving (1) the vehicle emission factor, (2) the “automobility” volume factor, and ( 3 ) the traffic/drivers factor. The Dutch environmental policy towards road traffic is set up along parallel lines (see Figure 1 ) . FIGVRE 1

FACMR

FACMR

TECHNICAL VEHICLE STANDARDS (THE FIRST TRACK)

The first track approach is followed throughout the world as a natural and effective means of reducing vehicle pollution “at source“ through regulations limiting air pollution and noise per (new) vehicle. Through regulations limiting air pollution step by step over a certain period of time, car and lorry manufacturers have been persuaded to start research and produce vehicles that emit up to 90 per cent less air pollution than similar vehicles in the past. It should be realized that the European Community as a supranational body with 1 2 Member States has an almost exclusive legislative power regarding technical standards f o r products to be marketed within the Community. In doing so the EC establishes a harmonized regulatory framework in order to protect the free flow of products within the EC market. As a Member State, the Netherlands participates in negotiations regarding pollution standards and tries to reach agreements on the highest possible levels of abatement and control. The European Council of Ministers of the Environment has already agreed upon stricter emission standards for passenger cars in such a way that by the end of 1992 most new cars entering the EC market will comply with standards equivalent to current US standards. Stricter standards for air pollution and noise from lorries, vans and buses are being negotiated within the various EC bodies involved. Considerable progress still has to be made on a wide variety of issues to be covered by EC standards, before all these regulations can be said to be equivalent to state-of-the-art technology. Reducing the total air pollution from road traffic requires constant screening of those factors that influence the real exhaust gas composition of all categories (including light and heavy duty lorries) under “real life“ driving conditions.

69 Measures in the Netherlands As from April 1, 1986, several measures entered into force in the Netherlands in order to promote the introduction of "clean" cars. Regular leaded gasoline was replaced by unleaded, and fiscal benefits were provided for the purchase of "clean" cars that comply with the new EC standards. A s a result, today almost all newly sold (petrol) cars are catalyst-equipped. By mid-1990 already two out of three catalyst cars were equipped up to US '83 standards. The use of economic incentives has proven to be an effective way to "clean up" the passenger car fleet long before it could have been done with compulsory measures alone. In addition to the introduction of cleaner passenger cars, the rapid introduction of cleaner lorries is also desirable. A gentlemen's agreement, signed with the manufacturers and importers on 29 September 1987, represented the first step in this direction, establishing a 10-15 per cent NOx -reduction per vehicle for 80 per cent of all newly sold lorries as from 1988. With regard to noise reduction a financial incentive approach has been applied successfully through subsidies for investments in lorries that meet future (stricter) noise standards. The following actions will be taken during the period covered by the National Environmental Policy Plan (Plus) (1990-1994). Cleaner lorries and buses Within the EC the Dutch Government is a strong supporter of tightening up exhaust gas standards by at least 50 per cent. The Government will also endeavour to reach agreement in the EC on a rapid introduction of cleaner lorries and buses by anticipating the entry into force of stricter new EC standards. The environmental investment subsidy programme has been raised for this purpose by an amount running to Dfl. 90 million per year, which is being funded through an increase in diesel excises. The programme, which started in August 1990, will be terminated once stricter European norms become effective. Subsidies of up to Dfl. 6000 are being provided for (heavy duty) lorries and bus coaches that meet future ( 9 gr.) NOx standards and of up to Dfl. 6500 for those vehicles that meet future 80 dB(A) noise standards. It is expected that this policy, given the expected autonomous growth in freight traffic from 11 billion kilometres to 16.5 billion kilometres in 2010, will lead to about 30 per cent lower emissions of nitrogen oxides and hydrocarbons in 2000. Of equally great importance is the development of even cleaner lorries and buses. In 2010 a 75 percent reduction in the emissions of NOx and CxH must be achieved, as well as considerable reductions of Cb2 and particulates. In 1989 the Ministry of Housing, Physical Planning and Environment and the Ministry of Transport and Public Works together with the manufacturing industry embarked on wide scale international research into promising new technologies. Public transport and freight distribution in cities will serve as a spearhead in demonstrating and applying clean technologies. A wide range of possibilities is available, examples being alternatives fuels such as natural gas, electric vehicles, hybrid vehicles, storage of braking energy, use of particle filters etc. Many of the options can be applied simultaneously. In view of the specific circumstances the optimal solution will differ from case

70 to case. An attempt will be made in the next five years to ensure that public transport in cities is provided with clean vehicles. An annual amount running to Dfl. 30 million in 1994 has been set aside to support this development. Periodic vehicle inspections will be extended to diesel cars and lorries to prevent unnecessarily high emissions of smoke and soot. An enforcement system will be developed and implemented similar to developments in Germany. Reducing CO, emissions from the vehicle park Vehicle technology, the composition of the vehicle park, driving behaviour and distances travelled are the factors which determine fuel consumption and thus CO, emissions from the vehicle park as a whole. The possibilities of influencing the amount of CO, emitted by individual vehicles and by the vehicle park as a whole through improved driving behaviour are being researched. The purchase of lighter and energy-efficient vehicles will also be promoted. The Netherlands will seek the introduction by the EC of regulations concerning more energy-efficient vehicles. Although individual classes of vehicle are in any case becoming more economical on average, this trend is being countered by the fact that vehicles in general are becoming heavier owing to the preference for cars with a larger cylinder capacity, greater power and more de-luxe extras. Since this will adversely affect CO, emission trends, the possibility of varying the levy on cars to help obviate this tendency (e.g. by basing a levy on cylinder capacity or fuel consumption) pending EC regulation, is being examined: the aim would be to ensure that such a scheme was aligned with initiatives in other countries. The alternatives will be looked at to determine which provides a suitable basis for this: the motor vehicle tax or the special tax on new passenger cars. Improved engine technology, the use of lighter materials and reduced rolling resistance can combine to produce vehicles which are more economical to run and which consequently emit less CO,. It may be assumed that the trend towards more energy-efficient vehicles observed in recent years is set to continue provided that the move towards heavier and more powerful vehicles can be halted. This points to a CO, reduction of maximally 3 5 per cent for passenger vehicles and 2 5 per cent for goods vehicles (average per vehicle compared to 1986) by the year 2010. REDUCING CAR USE (AUTOMOBILITY, THE SECOND TRACK) Future levels of air pollution emitted by traffic will be determined by the average vehicle emission factor (emission per vehicle per km) and total distance travelled by all vehicles (Figure 1). The second track-approach is relatively new and will be further developed and implemented in the coming years. It follows that the expected growth in automobile use of 3 to 5 per cent a year if policy remained unchanged would inevitably consume a large part of the emission reductions resulting from the "clean" car and lorry programmes, thus frustrating environmental objectives for emission reductions on both an international and an urban scale. Furthermore the "clean" car programme cannot solve the problems of noise nuisance, land-use and CO, emissions that are expected to increase with traffic growth.

71

a period (from now to about 2000) before the total car and lorry population has been replaced by maximum feasible “clean“ vehicles. This demonstrates how imperative it is to take adequate measures soon. One must also realize that the issue at stake is an adjustment in a socio-economic trend, which is no easy task and should not be delayed any longer. Thus it is that the Second Transport Structure Plan (SVVII) which was issued by the new Government together with the NMP-plus, seeks a balance between accessibility on the one hand and environment on the other hand. It has been concluded that the only way of doing sufficient justice to both aspects is to control the use of cars. Consequently, a set of new measures and improvements in current approaches are being developed to tackle the “automobility” problem. They must result in a reduction of the growth in automobility from 70 per cent to 35 per cent from 2010. The second track brings about a fundamentally different approach from the “classical“ approach in both traffic and environmental policy. However, even for reducing traffic jams a substantial reduction of car use is thought to be justified and effective. Thus both environmental and traffic policy goals may be reached simultaneously with the same instrument, reduction of car use. A l s o it will take too long

Limits to the reduction of car use Undoubtedly, any substantial reductions in traffic volume can only be realized when both Parliament and society as a whole are willing to change the balance of interest between environment and unlimited mobility. To what extent may car use - or at least the growth of total kilometrage - be limited without disturbing the economy or society as a whole? Several studies show that a considerable part of car use in the Netherlands is not “essential”. Indeed, an estimated 60 per cent of all car rides may be judged as having a reasonable substitute in public transport, car pooling, telecommunications or the bicycle. Nearly half of all car movements are performed within reasonable cycling distance (five km) or even walking distance (two km). With regard to air pollution both long distance daily travelling (NOx) and frequent, short, cold start-and-stop trips by car (shopping, commuting, social and educational visits) with relatively high CO and HC emissions should be substituted with priority. The Netherlands is provided with the most effective and ecological answer to the needs for short distance mobility: 15 million bicycles. Moreover public transport is relatively well developed. On the other hand, a great many factors structurally favour car use. It may be expected that government measures that raise the cost of car use in order to influence present drivers’ behaviour will meet with strong opposition from various sectors of society. Given current social and political circumstances there are evidently no simple measures which can have direct and major impacts on the volume of traffic. This is because the guiding principles in the current decision-making process assume: no limitation of car ownership: guarantees for freedom of mobility for social, business and distribution purposes: and the superiority of a market-oriented approach over regulation. Given the importance of the automobile in modern society, substantial limitation of its use requires fundamental measures, capable of structuraaly influencing people’s attitudes and behaviour.

12 VARIOUS MEASURES FOR REDUCING CAR USE Only a wide-ranging package of complementary measures can have any significant effect. Certainly, within the last three years the issue of "automobility" has developed from taboo into a political battleground and widely recognized problem. "Sustainable development" in traffic and transport means that a shift will have to occur in modes of transport towards modes which are less energy-consuming and less polluting. To be effective a balanced package will have to include the following elements: * a strong increase in variable (driving) costs, possibly in combination with a reduction in fixed costs through "variabilisation", tolls, taxation etc: * reduced parking facilities for commuter traffic through action on pricing, volume, regulation: * increased attractiveness of public transport through improvements in capacity and infrastructure, service and comfort, speed and price: * optimal use of physical planning via concentration, and public transport orientation of land uses: * neutralizing existing tax allowances and other financial incentives for commuters and for the use of business cars: * promotion of cycling, and education and information on mobility behaviour.

Increasing variable car costs

-

Excises on petrol will be increased and a C0,-levy introduced in 1990/1991. The Netherlands will also tie in with EC measures to raise and harmonise duties on mineral oils and fuels. - Physical/electronic tolls will be introduced on a number of access roads and infrastructural works (tunnels) in the west of the country in 1995 (road pricing and peak hour charges will not be introduced because of strong Parliamentary opposition). - To control public transport sector operating deficits, public transport fares will be allowed to reflect cost trends, but may not exceed increases in variable car costs. - The possibility of imposing excise duties on LPG will be investigated. A levy of this kind would reduce the incentive to drive a lot which stems from current low variable costs f o r LPG users. - The municipalities will be urged to raise parking charges and reduce the number of free parking places. Parking norms are proposed for this purpose in the SVVII. - The standard tax deduction for commuter traffic has been partially cut for those commuters who travel long distances. The allocation of the revenues generated by this measure will be in favour of those who use or will use public transport, of car poolers and of other environmentally friendly traffic measures. - Consideration will be given to whether current tax regulations relating to traffic have an undesirable effect on car use. Increasing attractiveness of public transport

73 Improving and extending service by public transport will include the following: - investments in public transport infrastructure (to be raised from Dfl. 12.4 billion to more than Dfl. 20 billion until 2010) - investments in bicycle facilities near bus and railway stations: - fare and ticket integration : - contribution to public transport operating cost deficit; - encouraging cooperation between transport regions: - automobile kilometre reduction and business transport management plans; - research and public information. Tightening up physical planning policy Physical planning policy will concentrate on discouraging labour-intensive businesses and amenities attracting numerous visitors in locations which are less readily accessible by public transport. Physical planning and environmental policy instruments will be deployed to prevent buildings being constructed in unsuitable locations. The municipal authorities are being asked to view existing building plans in this light and possibly reconsider them. Every effort will be made to prevent or reduce further fragmentation of the countryside by the construction of infrastructure and other human activity. Effects of measures The mobility measures are part of a package: it is not possible to judge their effectiveness individually. The effectiveness of the whole set of measures is expressed in a curbing of the growth in the use of cars in relation to the forecast for unchanged policy and the proposed policy in the SVVII. The following index figures for private vehicles use have been laid down as a goal for the coming years:

-( 1986=100)

-

*

"unchanged plicy" forecast in 1986

1989

1994*

2000

2010

117

125

130

135

124

140

172

It has been assumed that measures can be taken in 1990.

Total investment in roads may diminish as a result of the lower growth in car traffic. These savings will first occur in the second half of the SVV planning period since there are currently backlogs which have to be caught up to reach the level of completion intended. The new Government is to reduce road construction budgets more substantially in favour of public transport infrastructure investments (Dfl. 13.3 billion will be available for new highway construction until 2010).

14 (URBAN) TRAFFIC MEASURES (THIRD TRACK)

Due to problems of noise nuisance, air pollution, visual pollution, the problem of traffic safety and lack of space, the quality of the urban environment has seriously deteriorated. This is particularly the case in the big cities, where motorized traffic is the main cause of pollution. Most of the air pollutants present at street level originate from motor vehicles. Table 3: Percentage of pollutants originating from motor with respect to the total amount present

Percentage in a busy street

co

0 3

90%

60%

SO,

30%

traffic

Pb 98%

Air pollution from carbon monoxide, benzene, lead and nitrogen dioxide originates mainly from passenger cars. In over 1000 urban streets in the Netherlands with intensities of over 10,000 vehicles per day, the concentration of these pollutants exceeds the ambient air quality standards for CO, Pb and NO,, set in 1987. Excessive levels of air pollution and noise nuisance cannot be eliminated entirely by tougher emission standards alone. In addition to the above mentioned general measures designed to reduce the use of cars, the following measures must help to alleviate the problem at a local scale: * stricter enforcement of parking restrictions and speed limits: * traffic management influencing driver's choice of routes: * special routing for freight through-traffic: * traffic-dosaging on approach roads to city centres: * restructuring urban freight distribution: * introduction of low speed zones: * circulation schemes to calm traffic and to spread it more evenly over the road network: * publicity designed to influence local people's driving habits; This kind of approach combines environmental protection with road safety. The implementation of the policy outlined above will, in the first instance, be the responsibility of the municipalities. Compliance with speed limits is of great concern. In the Netherlands the general highway speed limit for lorries and buses (80 km) is being exceeded by an average of 9 km. Our enforcement programme and publicity campaign are being executed with the help of the transport corporation branches. From practical experience it can be deduced that a consistent reduction in speeding and improved driving behaviour can reduce total fuel costs and engine and tire wear by over 20 per cent. With a view to both road safety and environmental protection the trucking branch must reduce speeding within a very short period. Compulsory introduction of speed retarders in lorries and buses will follow if speeding remains as frequent as today.

FREIGHT TRANSPORT

The Netherlands' favourable location at the mouth of the Rhine and the Meuse Rivers with ice-free harbors on the North Sea makes it excellently suited for the through-transport of goods into the vast European hinterland. More than 70 per cent of the goods imported enter the country by way of ocean shipping and 29 per cent of the goods leaving the country depart by ship. With a total value added of Dfl. 34 billion, the transport sector's economic importance for the Netherlands is beyond dispute. It should be noted that this amount is generated by the total sector consisting of transport, storage and communication companies. The sector contributes Dfl. 5 billion to the nation's balance of payments through the labour of the 340,000 individuals employed in this sector. They account for 7 percent of the Netherlands' total work force. The 1989 volume of haulage of the three inland transport modes, in million tonnes conveyed, can be indicated as follows: domestic road transport rail inland shipping

384 5 90

transboundary 112 12 167

The costs and quality of the transport sector are being put under a great deal of pressure by the increasing problem of accessibility. This is also harming the sector's competitive position. These growing problems are being caused to a significant extent by increasing private car use (this increase was 12 per cent during the period 1986 - 1989). The Netherlands' major ports - the airport Schiphol and the sea port Rotterdam - must have the best road, water, rail and telematic connections conceivable. It is clear that ensuring good accessiblity can be at odds with the pursuit of a sustainable society. It is for this reason that creative solutions must be sought for traffic and transport, solutions which make these economic activities possible within the context of a sustainable society. The Dutch Government is choosing an integrated strategy for freight transport in order to mitigate this problem. The Government is striving to improve accessibility for the transport sector through large investments in freight transport by rail and in waterways and through necessary improvements to the trunk road network. It is also being improved through utilization of the opportunities offered by telematics. Freight transport by road In 1989 the Netherlands' fleet of freight vehicles consisted of 100,000 delivery vans, 80,000 lorries, and 27,000 trailer tractors. These vehicles conveyed nearly 500 million tonnes of cargo and travelled around 30 million tonne-kilometres in the process. Total domestic freight kilometrage amounted to about 12 billion kilometres.

16

Projections of economic growth and of growth in transport indicate that road transport will increase to 725 million tonnes in the year 2010. This projection already takes into account the fact that part of this growth will be absorbed by rail transport and inland shipping. The volume of haulage measured in tonne-kilometres is expected to increase by 70 per cent despite this shift. Road transport will remain the most important mode of transport. This makes it all the more necessary that the most effective measures be taken for abatement at the source, the vehicle itself. Maintenance or enlargement of market share will not be automatic. In addition to the sector's own efforts, the government will have to provide support, particularly in the fiscal sphere, to a favourable business climate in order to maintain the international competitive position. A policy of stimulation and development aimed at innovation is also being pursued in order to strengthen this position wherever possible. The Dutch Government will set qualitative standards for transporters' entry into the market and for competitive conduct. In 1993 there will be one Europe with a free transport market: the competitive position in that market of the Dutch Mainports - Rotterdam and Schiphol airport - and of Dutch freight transport will have to be such that at least the current market share is preserved. At the same time effective environmental measures will have to be taken. Empty return trips will have to be avoided as much as possible due to environmental considerations. This requires deregulatory measures. The Netherlands is an outspoken advocate of allowing cabotage, freedom to collect and deliver loads in other countries. It is estimated that the average capacity utilization in international road transport would rise 10 to 25 per cent were cabotage allowed. The Benelux countries (Belgium, the Netherlands and Luxemburg) have already agreed to allow cabotage as of January 1, 1991, or as quickly as possible thereafter. In addition, the Netherlands will continue to argue f o r a liberalization of dimensions and weights. The Government's position is that a maximum length of 18.35 metres for a lorry combination plus a short-coupling system is the minimum. This makes it unnecessary to use additional vehicles to transport the same amount of cargo. Collaboration among both professional conveyance companies and with the transport departments of other companies can also lead to an efficiency gain. In time it should be possible to save 15 per cent in vehicle kilometres for a given volume of transport through measures aimed at improving efficiency. Infrastucture An infrastructure policy for freight transport by road is being pursued on three fronts, namely: - quality of the international connections. In the first instance this involves the joining of the hinterland connections in the European road system. In addition, a European network of "principal routes" will be striven after: - quality of the Dutch trunk road network. Separate lanes for among other things lorries will be built or designated in congested areas. The quality of the road infrastructure can be translated into a maximum chance of congestion of 2 per cent on the principal routes and 5 per cent on the remaining trunk road network; - inner city accessibility. A selective infrastructural policy for urban areas should also be pursued. Solutions which keep cities

11 accessible and do not put an extra burden on the ambient environment can be found through transport regions - coordinated traffic planning and management in an agglomeration - and through active municipal policies. Freight transport by rail In 1989 the Dutch Railways had 9236 pieces of rolling stock with a total cargo capacity of 236 kilotonnes. They conveyed 17 million tonnes in 1989, 1 per cent of total domestic freight transport and 4 per cent of transboundary freight transport. The infrastructure and the performance of the Dutch Railways (NS) are equally critical for the maintenance and enlargement of rail's share of the freight transport market. The Dutch Railways are responsible for market performance and a client-oriented approach. The government must attend to a number of measures in the sphere of essential conditions. For example, the problem of the competitive disadvantage resulting from the allocation of infrastructure costs must be solved before 1994. NS freight transport must be selfsufficient for a commercial operation. NS has taken action in the meantime through the presentation of a strategic reorientation. The number of loading and unloading sites is being reduced to 30 on a couple of major lines. After 1993, the Kijfhoek shunting yard near Rotterdam will be N S ' s only functioning shunting yard. A new combined shunting/transshipment yard will be completed on the Betuwe line around 2000. The Betuwe line is the planned rail connection for freight between Rotterdam and Germany, via Tie1 and to the south of Arnhem. N S ' s internal organization is becoming more client-oriented. An important point here is the financing and allocation of costs for the construction and maintenance of the infrastructure. In the Netherlands the railroad company bears these costs itself, while the road and inland waterway modes of transport do not. One of the possibilities for creating a more equitable position relative to competing modes of transport would be to transfer financial responsibility to the State while at the same time introducing a user's fee to be paid by the NS. This is being elaborated more fully in the Netherlands as well as in the context of the EC. International cooperation among the nationally organized railroad companies is extra desirable in order to realize high quality, internationally integrated train management on the main international rail transport routes. The Dutch railway infrastructure is directed primarily toward passenger transportation. Freight transport makes use of the remaining capacity. Given all the stimulation measures, passenger transportation will make increasingly greater use of the capacity of the railway network. It is for this reason that capacity problems are expected for freight transport by rail, especially on the connections with the hinterland. This capacity can be claimed through coordination of these transport streams relative to freight transport on the domestic main routes. The point of departure here is that the remaining (domestic) freight transport must be absorbed by the current network, especially through night operations. Solving these capacity problems, increasing the axle load to 22.5 tonnes and making the modifications necessary f o r higher speeds require Dfl. 1.4 billion and are of special importance f o r preserving Rotterdam's competitive position.

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Research demonstrates that infrastructural capacity specifically for rail freight transport is unavoidable. Increasing the volume of freight from 17 million tonnes in 1989 to a scheduled 50 million tonnes per year in 2010 will require an investment of Dfl. 2.5 billion. The lion's share of this amount is needed for improvements between Rotterdam and the German hinterland, via the Betuwe line. At the moment it is being assumed that 50 per cent of the financing for this line will be provided privately. Freight transport by water In 1989 the active inland fleet consisted of more than 6200 vessels with a total cargo capacity of 5800 kilotonnes. Many customers appear to be unacquainted with the possibilities offered by inland shipping. The sector itself has undertaken self-promotion activities in order to improve this situation. New markets are being developed and technological modernization is taking place. These developments should make it possible to increase the amount of cargo from 257 million tonnes in 1989 to around 370 million tonnes in 2010. About 35 million tonnes of this increase comes from the influence on the modal split to the disadvantage of road transport. The remainder comes from autonomous growth in this sector. Inland shipping's dependence on international developments compels international consultations. The negative consequences of protectionism must be guarded against. The international scrapping scheme is currently being implemented. Possibilities for making the mercantile-exchange system commercial are being investigated in close collaboration with the organized industry. A waterway is defined as a trunk waterway if at least 5 million tonnes of cargo are transported over it annually. Trunk waterways with equal amounts of transboundary freight shipments to and from the seaports are designated as principal routes. They connect the seaport areas of Rotterdam, Amsterdam and the western Scheldt with their fore and hinterlands. These routes must be able to carry push-tow trains of at least four barges. Due to a large backlog, hefty investments are needed for modernization, improvement and up-scaling. The maintenance backlog must also be eliminated as quickly as possible. Possibilities for opening up Eastern Europe via waterways are being investigated. Other improvements have to make it possible to transport "just in time" freight shipments over water. With regard to the infrastucture, the national government considers itself responsible for maintaining the trunk waterway network which connects the most important parts of the country with each other and with other countries and which also provides access to the hinterland from our most important seaports. The highest priority is being given to the principal routes. These routes are attuned to the best possible competitive position for inland shipping. The other trunk waterways come next, followed by the national waterways which are not part of the trunk waterway network. This last category involves primarily eliminating maintenance backlogs; the national government will undertake no initiatives towards upscaling. Dfl. 4 billion is needed for investments between now and 2010. Maintenance of the waterways requires an annual budget of approximately Dfl. 340 million.

19

Inland shipping will have to make its own contribution in the area of environment and energy. Noise nuisance and air pollution, as well as water and soil pollution will have to be reduced further in an international context. Additional research is being carried out into the exact extent, composition and location of air polluting emissions from the inland shipping sector. Combined rail-water-road transport A significant share of the growth in rail transport and inland shipping will consist of combined transport. This transport consists of containers and swap bodies. Combined transport's current share is about 7.5 million tonnes. This is about 3 per cent of the total transboundary transport of freight. It is estimated to amount to about 65 million tonnes in the coming 10 to 15 years based on current expectations regarding growth in road transport. The routes most likely to grow include RotterdamGermany-Italy and Rotterdam-France-Spain. This will require a further expansion of the combined transport system (road/rail, water/rail and road/water). Industry bears the responsibility for this, but the government will contribute with stimulatory measures. An example of this would be participation by large road transport and shipping companies in the planning of route management (rail/road transport). In addition, a study has been started into the prospects of various forms of combined transport, including new concepts for "roll on-roll off" ships on the Rhine. Recent experience, particularly with container transport, has proven that inland shipping fits well in the notion of more integrated transport. For the railways this involves primarily the introduction of regular service and shuttle trains. These will go from Rotterdam to Italy, among other destinations. In order to accomplish this, rail service centers are being planned and funds have been allotted for them. Container transport by train is expected to triple during the coming 15 years to 10 to 12 million tonnes per year. The national government is contributing to the cost of introducing a new container handling system into the railroad.

Telernatics in freight transport Telematics bring the supply of and demand for freight transport together through computer communication. Telematics also play a role in transport planning and implementation. This makes it possible to separate the physical stream of goods from the accompanying stream of information, the Electronic Document Interchange (EDI). For instance this is currently being studied for application to waste transports. The Netherlands can also serve as a logistical information interchange for freight streams which take place outside the country. This advanced form of commerical service is a promising market for the Netherlands as a transport and distribution country. Telematics can also improve the quality of inspections, make it possible to provide service more quickly and to intervene more adequately in the case of disasters. Demonstration projects will be undertaken first. Well-concerted guidance for the introduction of this new technology is of the utmost importance. The tachograph in lorries is obsolete and will be replaced by a dashboard computer. Field memories for roadside checks are being introduced.

80

CONCLUSION

With the publication of the Second Transport Structure Plan the Dutch Government has provided an integral vision of the development of transportation in the medium term. The strategy described will reduce the load on the ambient environment and ensure access for the economically necessary freight transport sector. It is clear that measures must be taken comprehensively. Freight transport's greatest chance for success in a sustainable society lies with collaboration within the transport industry itself and within the European context. Mobility is an essential requirement of our society, and so is the environment. To combine the conflicting demands of traffic and environment in the best possible way is a demanding task to which administrations at local, provincial and national level have to commit themselves. The execution of this task is not going to be easy. For the time being, four major uncertainties remain: 1) Will there be enough political support for the unpopular measures that effectively raise the costs of car use and reduce automobility? 2) Will such measures really induce the mass motorist behaviour response necessary? 3 ) Can we stay away in the long run from regulatory approaches to influencing people's choice of transport mode and of activitylocations? 4 ) Can we slow the growth rate of truck-kilometrage through influencing the freight transport modal split, without compromising (the Dutch position in international) transport and distribution?

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A CALIFORNIA AND UNITED STATES PERSPECTIVE ON THE IMPACT OF AIR QUALITY POLICIES ON GOODS MOVEMENT BY HEAVY DUTY TRUCKS

James D. Boyd California Air Resources Board, P.O. Box 2815, Sacramento, C A 95812, U.S.A. Introduction:

22, 1990 . . . t h e t w e n t i e t h a n n i v e r s a r y o f E a r t h D a y April signaled the beginning o f a new e r a t h a t w i l l be By characterized by heightened global environmental concerns. w o r k i n g t o g e t h e r , i n e v e r y s t a t e a n d n a t i o n , we c a n a c h i e v e new standards o f environmental success bringing healthy a i r t o a l l o u r people, and more i m p o r t a n t , t o o u r f u t u r e g e n e r a t i o n s .

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The study o f environmental p o l i c y and a i r q u a l i t y i s an i n c r e d i b l y dynamic f i e l d . A i r q u a l i t y i s impacted b y economic activity, p o p u l a t i o n g r o w t h , l a n d use p l a n n i n g , t r a n s p o r t a t i o n , e n e r g y demand, personal lifestyle, a n d many o t h e r social, economic, and t e c h n i c a l f a c t o r s . The movement o f goods b y a i r , l a n d , a n d sea i s a n e s s e n t i a l component of our society. Whether t h e movements are by of a i r c r a f t , r a i l , s h i p , o r heavy d u t y t r u c k , the efficiency movement is a critical factor i n d e t e r m i n i n g mode c h o i c e . However, f i n a n c i a l a n a l y s e s a r e n o t enough t o e v a l u a t e t h e t o t a l costs that t r a n s p o r t modes i n c u r u p o n s o c i e t y . External costs (such as air pollution, congestion delay, and regulatory overhead) n e e d t o b e e x a m i n e d i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e economy a n d social welfare. p r o v i d e an o v e r v i e w o f t h e a i r p o l l u t i o n This paper w i l l problem i n California, examine the links between the transportation o f goods and a i r q u a l i t y , r e v i e w o u r p r o g r e s s i n control of motor vehicle emissions, and d i s c u s s some o f the e f f o r t s t h a t w i l l be undertaken i n t h e f u t u r e . The C a l i f o r n i a A i r O u a l i t y D i l e m m a : Air pollution is part of everyday l i f e f o r m i l l i o n s o f Californians. Sixteen m i l l i o n residents o f Southern C a l i f o r n i a a r e exposed r e g u l a r l y t o l e v e l s o f a i r p o l l u t i o n t h a t can cause nausea, headaches, eye i r r i t a t i o n , and d i z z i n e s s e v e n i n h e a l t h y adults. S e v e n t y - f i v e p e r c e n t of t h e population exposure i n the United States t o u n h e a l t h y l e v e l s o f ozone occurs i n Southern C a l i f o r n i a and more t h a n 90% o f t h e p e o p l e i n C a l i f o r n i a l i v e i n areas w i t h unhealthy a i r . C a l i f o r n i a , w i t h 2 8 m i l l i o n p e o p l e a n d o v e r 150,000 s q u a r e miles o f land, has d e v e l o p e d an i n t e n s i v e , t e c h n o l o g y - f o r c i n g We h a v e b e e n s u c c e s s f u l a i r p o l l u t i o n strategy over t h e years. i n m e e t i n g t h e standards f o r n i t r o g e n d i o x i d e and l e a d and have s i g n i f i c a n t l y reduced carbon monoxide l e v e l s i n a l l urban areas.

82 Nevertheless, we s t i l l h a v e some o f the worst problems-t h e C i t y o f Los Angeles, regrettably, has the h i g h e s t ozone levels i n the United States. JransDortation.

A i r Oualitv.

and a S u c c e s s f u l

Economv:

Some p e o p l e h a v e t h e m i s c o n c e p t i o n t h a t e f f o r t s t o p r o t e c t l i m i t growth and development. the environment w i l l severly However, in California, this has n o t been t h e case. C a l i f o r n i a n s r e c o g n i z e t h a t t h e movement o f i n f o r m a t i o n , goods, and s e r v i c e s i s c r i t i c a l t o t h e m a i n t e n a n c e and e x p a n s i o n o f o u r i s economy. The e v i d e n c e i s clear that a h e a l t h y economy compatible w i t h our e f f o r t s t o e s t a b l i s h t h e most e f f e c t i v e a i r p o l l u t i o n c o n t r o l program possible. The w o r s t air pollution area o f C a l i f o r n i a and t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , Los Angeles, i s a prime example o f strict environmental controls i n a robust economy. C a l i f o r n i a ' s c o n t r i b u t i o n t o t h e Gross N a t i o n a l Product (GNP) of the United States i s approximately 13%, r a n k i n g C a l i f o r n i a ' s economy p r e s e n t l y as t h e s i x t h l a r g e s t i n t h e world. Our economic growth r a t e i s s u b s t a n t i a l l y higher than this the growth r a t e f o r the r e s t o f t h e United States. All growth has been p o s s i b l e i n a s t a t e w h i c h may h a v e among t h e most s t r i n g e n t e n v i r o n m e n t a l r e g u l a t i o n s i n t h e w o r l d . We d e f i n i t e l y w a n t t o p r o t e c t C a l i f o r n i a ' s r o b u s t g r o w t h . It is f a i r l y clear O u r own a i r q u a l i t y g o a l s d e p e n d u p o n i t . t h a t we c a n n o t s u s t a i n a n i m p r o v e d e n v i r o n m e n t w i t h o u t a h e a l t h y economy t o f i n a n c e t h e e f f o r t . The c o n v e r s e i s a l s o t r u e . We need e f f e c t i v e a i r p o l l u t i o n control t o support the continued economic growth t h a t i s p r e d i c t e d f o r C a l i f o r n i a .

.

.

M o t o r V e h i c l e a n d Goods M o v e m e n t E m i s s i o n s : A p p r o x i m a t e l y 44% o f h y d r o c a r b o n ( H C ) e m i s s i o n s , 7 1 % o f t h e oxides of n i t r o g e n ( N O x ) e m i s s i o n s , and 68% o f c a r b o n m o n o x i d e (CO) emissions i n C a l i f o r n i a are from motor vehicles. Plus, a significant amount o f t h e e m i s s i o n s f r o m s t a t i o n a r y s o u r c e s a r e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h p r o c e s s i n g and d i s t r i b u t i n g motor v e h i c l e f u e l s . California i s the third l a r g e s t consumer o f g a s o l i n e i n t h e w o r l d , b e h i n d t h e U.S. and U.S.S.R. W i t h more t h a n 20 m i l l i o n c a r s and t r u c k s o n t h e r o a d i n C a l i f o r n i a t o d a y , i t i s no wonder t h a t motor v e h i c l e s c o n t i n u e t o be t h e s i n g l e largest emission source o f p o l l u t i o n i n our state. Emissions from a i r c r a f t , ships, and locomotives are not local governments. I n currently r e g u l a t e d b y t h e ARB o r general, t h e emissions from these sources are r e l a t i v e l y small compared t o a u t o m o b i l e s and heavy d u t y t r u c k s . [The o n l y exception t o t h i s general r u l e are s u l f u r d i o x i d e emissions from ships, w h i c h c o n s t i t u t e a p p r o x i m a t e l y 45% o f t h e m o b i l e s o u r c e The r e l a t i v e u s a g e o f h e a v y d u t y t r u c k s for emissions o f SOX.] s h i p p i n g v a l u a b l e and p e r i s h a b l e goods i s h i g h , due t o l o w f u e l p r i c e s and t h e premium t h a t o u r p o p u l a t i o n p l a c e s upon t h e r a p i d movement and q u i c k d e l i v e r y o f goods. I n t h e f u t u r e , as goods movement b y modes o t h e r t h a n truck i n c r e a s e and as e m i s s i o n r e d u c t i o n s b e c o m e e v e n m o r e s c a r c e , we w i l l b e e x a m i n i n g t h e s e modes f o r p o t e n t i a l e m i s s i o n r e d u c t i o n s .

83 There are approximately 750,000 heavy d u t y v e h i c l e s i n service i n California. These v e h i c l e s t r a v e l a p p r o x i m a t e l y 43 m i l l i o n m i l e s p e r day (57 m i l e s l d a y l v e h i c l e on average) and use 2.8 b i l l i o n g a l l o n s o f f u e l each y e a r . These v e h i c l e s account for 37% o f t h e NOx and 64% o f t h e P M l O e m i s s i o n s f r o m o n - r o a d vehicles. About 35% o f t h e heavy d u t y t r u c k s i n t h e state are diesel powered and t h e y account f o r about 50% o f t h e heavy d u t y truck travel. H i s t o r v of

.

I

California s R w l a t o r v Policy:

I n the United States, transportati policies have developed on s e p a r a t e pa transportation agencies (increasing mobil goods) have o f t e n been i n c o n f l i c t w i t h t h e agencies (reducing a i r p o l l u t i o n ) .

n and a i r q u a l i t y hs. The g o a l s of ty for p e o p l e and goals o f a i r q u a l i t y

A i r p o l l u t i o n c o n t r o l e f f o r t s i n t h e U S. and i n C a l i f o r n i a have f o c u s e d on b o t h i n d u s t r i a l and motor v e h i c l e sources o f pollution. The p r i m a r y f o c u s o f m o t o r v e h c l e e m i s s i o n c o n t r o l s t r a t e g i e s has h i s t o r i c a l l y been t o c o n t r o l exhaust emissions. Past p o l i c i e s have tended t o overlook the implications o f p o p u l a t i o n growth and t h e increase i n vehicle activity that w o u l d f o l l o w i n t h e wake o f e c o n o m i c p r o s p e r i t y . However, e x p l o s i v e growth i n C a l i f o r n i a o v e r the past 15 years has overwhelmed t h e p r e c e d e n t - s e t t i n g e n v i r o n m e n t a l c o n t r o l s t h a t were adopted. D u r i n g t h i s t i m e , o u r economy g r e w b y 4 . 5 m i l l i o n j o b s , i n c l u d i n g 11% o f t h e n a t i o n ' s m a n u f a c t u r i n g employment. L o o k i n g ahead, economic growth i n California is p r o j e c t e d t o b e a n o t h e r 4 . 5 m i l l i o n j o b s b y t h e y e a r 2 0 1 0 ... one-quarter o f t h e economic growth p r o j e c t e d f o r t h e whole country. W i t h t h i s economic growth, comes an increase i n vehicular emissions. Vehicle travel i n C a l i f o r n i a has been g r o w i n g a t a f a s t e r rate than population. The r a t e o f i n c r e a s e i n t h e number o f t r i p s made a n d m i l e s d r i v e n , i f i t c o n t i n u e s , w i l l o v e r w h e l m t h e r e d u c t i o n s a c h i e v e d , and t o t a l v e h i c u l a r e m i s s i o n s w i l l b e g i n t o i n c r e a s e a g a i n i n t h e l a t e 1990s. A l t h o u g h C a l i f o r n i a has an e x c e l l e n t highway system, over 430,000 hours a r e wasted d a i l y by m b t o r i s t s i n t h e Los Angeles area alone w a i t i n g on overcrowded freeways. Congestion delay, and reduced o p e r a t i n g speeds, significantly increases the emissions o f a i r p o l l u t a n t s per vehicle m i l e traveled. As m o r e p e o p l e move t o C a l i f o r n i a , t h e amount o f t i m e s p e n t w a i t i n g i n t r a f f i c i s expected t o increase. F r o m a human s t a n d p o i n t , the increase i n t r a f f i c volumes has an even b r o a d e r s o c i a l impact than j u s t t h e a i r q u a l i t y concerns. We a r e n o w g i v i n g g r e a t e r e m p h a s i s t o reductions in t r a n s p o r t a t i o n usage t o achieve a i r p o l l u t i o n c o n t r o l . At the same t i m e , the transportation sector has r e c o g n i z e d t h a t i t cannot b u i l d s u f f i c i e n t f a c i l i t i e s t o meet c u r r e n t and f u t u r e projected travel demand... we c a n n o t b u i l d o u r w a y o u t o f t h e problem. Thus, t r a n s p o r t a t i o n and a i r quality policies are beginning t o converge and f o c u s upon r e d u c i n g b o t h c o n g e s t i o n and subsequent a i r p o l l u t i o n e m i s s i o n s .

84 Therefore, we h a v e r e c o m m e n d e d t h a t t h e 1 9 9 1 a i r q u a l i t y plans prepared b y our regional air quality agencies include transportation c o n t r o l measures designed t o decrease o v e r a l l v e h i c l e a c t i v i t y and t o i n c r e a s e t h e e f f i c i e n c y o f v e h i c l e use. T r a n s p o r t a t i o n a n d t r a f f i c c o n g e s t i o n r e l i e f i s now a k e y p a r t o f our motor v e h i c l e c o n t r o l program. Jhe A i r Resources Board and Motor V e h i c l e P r o a r m : I n 1988. o u r C a l i f o r n i a L e g i s l a t u r e e n a c t e d t h e C a l i f o r n i a Clean A i r Act. This Act requires a l l areas o f t h e s t a t e t o a t t a i n b o t h s t a t e and n a t i o n a l a m b i e n t a i r q u a l i t y s t a n d a r d s at the earliest p r a c t i c a b l e date, and r e q u i r e s each l o c a l a i r p o l l u t i o n c o n t r o l agency t o p r e p a r e a d e m o n s t r a t i o n p l a n . The A c t w i l l m e a n n e w r u l e s i n some a r e a s , a n d i n c r e a s e d e m p h a s i s o n compliance w i t h e x i s t i n g regulations in a l l areas. The A c t d i r e c t s t h e ARB t o r e q u i r e t h e "maximum d e g r e e o f e m i s s i o n r e d u c t i o n p o s s i b l e f r o m v e h i c u l a r and o t h e r m o b i l e sources" to attain both federal and more s t r i n g e n t state a i r quality standards. The C a l i f o r n i a A i r R e s o u r c e s B o a r d i s c o n t i n u i n g t o d e v e l o p and i m p l e m e n t new a n d i n - u s e h e a v y d u t y m o t o r v e h i c l e s t a n d a r d s , as well as f u e l s p e c i f i c a t i o n standards. These e x i s t i n g p o l i c i e s have, and always w i l l , affect the transportation of goods b y t r u c k . Diesel exhaust from trucks and buses contributes to a multitude o f a i r q u a l i t y problems. D i e s e l NOx emissions, which p l a y a p r i m a r y r o l e i n ozone f o r m a t i o n , are a major concern. P a r t i c u l a t e m a t t e r (PM) e m i s s i o n s a r e a l s o a s e r i o u s p r o b l e m as t h e p u b l i c f i n d s t h e smoke e m i t t e d by d i e s e l vehicles to be highly objectionable and o f f e n s i v e , and a m a j o r p o r t i o n o f t h e v i s i b i l i t y d e g r a d a t i o n i n urban areas can be t r a c e d t o p r i m a r y d i e s e l PM e m i s s i o n s as w e l l a s t h e s e c o n d a r y s u l f a t e a n d n i t r a t e p a r t i c l e s formed f r o m d i e s e l SOX and NOx e m i s s i o n s . I n California, our adopted and proposed e m i s s i o n c o n t r o l s t r a t e g i e s f o r heavy d u t y motor v e h i c l e s i n c l u d e seven measures: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 1.

new v e h i c l e c e r t i f i c a t i o n r e q u i r e m e n t s , in-use v e h i c l e i n s p e c t i o n and maintenance r e q u i r e m e n t s , roadside d i e s e l i n s p e c t i o n programs, fuel specification limits, fuel transfer evaporation controls, t r a n s p o r t a t i o n c o n t r o l measures, and e n e r g y l f u e l e f f i c i e n c y measures.

. .

New V e h i c l e C e r t i f i c a t i o n P r o a r a m :

The f i r s t c a t e g o r y , new v e h i c l e e m i s s i o n s t a n d a r d s i s t h e core o f our motor v e h i c l e program. Overall, the California e m i s s i o n s t a n d a r d s f o r new medium a n d h e a v y d u t y t r u c k s a r e m o r e s t r i n g e n t than t h e requirements o f other states, a n d we are continuing t o t i g h t e n these standards. However, medium and heavy d u t y t r u c k s r e g i s t e r e d f o r i n t e r s t a t e t r a v e l , or travel between s t a t e s , are not always subject t o t h e C a l i f o r n i a motor vehicle emission standards. H o p e f u l l y , w h e n t h e new C l e a n A i r

85 Act is approved b y Congress, more s t r i n g e n t e m i s s i o n s t a n d a r d s w i l l be a p p l i e d n a t i o n w i d e and a d d i t i o n a l emission reductions can be a c h i e v e d . 2.

I ns D e c t i o n and M a i n t e n a n c e :

The s e c o n d c a t e g o r y i s our i n s p e c t i o n and maintenance program. C a l i f o r n i a adopted a d e c e n t r a l i z e d b i e n n i a l i n s p e c t i o n and m a i n t e n a n c e ( I & M ) p r o g r a m d e s i g n e d t o r e d u c e m o t o r v e h i c l e e m i s s i o n s b y up t o 25%. Under t h e "Smog Check" program, a p p r o x i m a t e l y 16 m i l l i o n v e h i c l e s are inspected biennially ( a l m o s t 90% o f t h e l i g h t and medium d u t y o n - r o a d vehicles in California). A l t h o u g h heavy d u t y d i e s e l v e h i c l e s a r e c u r r e n t l y exempted from t h e I & M program, heavy d u t y g a s o l ine t r u c k s r e g i s t e r e d solely i n California are required t o participate i n the biennial inspections, regardless o f vehicle size or weight. J a n u a r y 1, 1990 m a r k s t h e f i r s t y e a r t h a t h e a v y d u t y g a s o l i n e v e h i c l e s h a v e been included i n t h e I & M program and s i g n i f i c a n t e m i s s i o n reductions are expected. A smog c h e c k typically includes: a visual inspection, f u n c t i o n a l e m i s s i o n c o n t r o l i n s p e c t i o n , and t a i l p i p e emissions t e s t s . The t a i l p i p e e m i s s i o n s m u s t m e e t the age-based v e h i c l e e m i s s i o n s c r i t e r i a f o r hydrocarbon and carbon monoxide emissions a t i d l e . For diesel-powered vehicles, C a l i f o r n i a w i l l consider t h e i r i n c l u s i o n i n t h e Smog C h e c k p r o g r a m when t h e i r inclusion is t e c h n o l o g i c a l l y and e c o n o m i c a l l y f e a s l b l e .

3.

Heavv Dutv D i e s e l Roadside InsDectiong:

Our t h i r d p r o g r a m i s t h e new h e a v y d u t y t r u c k r o a d s i d e i n s p e c t i o n program. I n 1988, t h e C a l i f o r n i a L e g i s l a t u r e passed a b i l l t h a t was d e s i g n e d t o e n h a n c e C a l i f o r n i a ' s Smog C h e c k Program and t o p r o v i d e f o r t h e a d o p t i o n o f a heavy d u t y v e h i c l e smoke a n d t a m p e r i n g i n s p e c t i o n p r o g r a m f o r g a s o l i n e a n d d i e s e l fueled i n t e r s t a t e and intrastate vehicles operating in California. Under t h i s program, i n s p e c t e d v e h i c l e s can be c i t e d and r e q u i r e d t o i m m e d i a t e l y c o r r e c t deficiencies specified in the citation. and m a l m a i n t e n a n c e o f specific engine Tampering w i t h components and malmaintenance o f t h e e n g i n e i t s e l f are the p r i m a r y causes o f e x c e s s i v e d i e s e l emissions. We e x p e c t t h i s p r o g r a m t o r e d u c e e m i s s i o n s o f N O x b y 11 t o n s p e r d a y ( 2 % o f t h e heavy d u t y d i e s e l t r u c k NOx e m i s s i o n s ) , reduce emissions of hydrocarbons by 9 tons per day (9%), and reduce emissions o f p a r t i c u l a t e m a t t e r b y 3 1 tons per day (36%). A 3 5 % smoke o p a c i t y limit i s used f o r t h e t e s t s . I n a d e m o n s t r a t i o n i n s p e c t i o n p r o j e c t , a p p r o x i m a t e l y 240 (42%) o f t h e A preliminary review tested vehicles f a i l e d t h e t e s t procedure. o f t h i s d a t a i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e r e a r e t h r e e p r i m a r y causes of excessive smoke e m i s s i o n s : improper a i r / f u e l ratio control settings, fuel i n j e c t i o n system o r f u e l injection timing problems, and inadequate intake air. These problems were generally corrected with repairs costing less than $500 p e r vehicle.

86 T h e ARB a n d t h e C a l i f o r n i a H i g h w a y P a t r o l p l a n t o commence inspecting heavy d u t y motor v e h i c l e s under t h i s program d u r i n g safety 1990. I n s p e c t i o n s w i l l be conducted i n c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h and w e i g h t enforcement activities of t h e Department o f t h e C a l i f o r n i a Highway P a t r o l and a t p r i v a t e f a c i l i t i e s where f l e e t vehicles are serviced or maintained. 4.

. .

Fuel SDecification:

The f u e l s p e c i f i c a t i o n program i s t h e f o u r t h prong o f our control effort. Motor v e h i c l e f u e l s c o n t a i n many s u b s t a n c e s which become air pollutants upon e i t h e r e v a p o r a t i o n or combustion. C a l i f o r n i a r e g u l a t i o n s s p e c i f y l i m i t s on t h e s u l f u r content of b o t h unleaded g a s o l i n e and d i e s e l f u e l i n t e n d e d f o r use i n m o t o r v e h i c l e s . The l i m i t f o r m o t o r v e h i c l e d i e s e l fuel i s 5 0 0 ppm s u l f u r ( 0 . 0 5 % b y w e i g h t ) i n t h e S o u t h C o a s t A i r B a s i n and V e n t u r a C o u n t y . New l i m i t s t h a t w i l l t a k e e f f e c t i n 1993 w i l l establish this standard statewide. I n C a l i f o r n i a , no person s h a l l s e l l , o f f e r f o r sale, o r supply. as a fuel for motor vehicles, any unleaded g a s o l i n e o r d i e s e l f u e l s t h a t do n o t meet t h e s u l f u r c o n t e n t l i m i t s p r e s c r i b e d by law. Decreases i n s u l f u r d i o x i d e and s u l f a t e l e v e l s correspond t o decreases i n l e v e l s o f p a r t i c u l a t e matter. Both the state and n a t i o n a l standards for p a r t i c u l a t e m a t t e r o f d i a m e t e r 10 m i c r o n s o r s m a l l e r (PM10) a r e e x c e e d e d i n m o s t a i r basins. I n addition, increases i n s u l f a t e s impact v i s i b i l i t y . I n 1988, t h e Board approved a 10% l i m i t on t h e aromatic h y d r o c a r b o n c o n t e n t o f d i e s e l f u e l ( o r 20% f o r s m a l l r e f i n e r s ) , e f f e c t i v e i n 1 9 9 3 , down f r o m t h e t h e n c u r r e n t l e v e l o f o v e r 3 0 % .

W e e x p e c t t h e new r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r t h e s u l f u r a n d a r o m a t i c content for motor vehicle diesel fuel to reduce exhaust e m i s s i o n s o f s u l f u r d i o x i d e b y 80 t o n s p e r d a y ( a 9 0 % r e d u c t i o n from on-road d i e s e l t r u c k s and a u t o m o b i l e s ) , p a r t i c u l a t e m a t t e r b y 1 4 t o n s p e r d a y ( a 26% r e d u c t i o n ) , and o x i d e s o f n i t r o g e n b y 53 t o n s p e r d a y ( a 10% r e d u c t i o n ) . 5.

Fuel Transfer EvaDoration Control$:

Our f i f t h c o n t r o l s t r a t e g y i s t h e g a s o l i n e v a p o r recovery program. California's Phase I and I 1 vapor r e c o v e r y program r e d u c e s HC e v a p o r a t i v e e m i s s i o n s b y 430 tons per day (a 10% reduction i n s t a t e w i d e HC e m i s s i o n s ) . This program employs vapor balancing o r vacuum n o z z l e s a t f u e l pumps and b u l k transfer stations to r e c y c l e gasoline vapors. The p r o g r a m i s w e l l known t o C a l i f o r n i a m o t o r i s t s who u s e s e l f - s e r v e gasoline stations. The v a p o r recovery program not o n l y reduces a i r fuel per p o l l u t i o n b u t r e c o v e r s 50 m i l l i o n g a l l o n s o f v a l u a b l e year.

6.

T r a n s D o r t a t i o n C o n t r o l Measure&:

S t r a t e g y number six i s transportation control. Improved f u e l s and m o t o r v e h i c l e e m i s s i o n c o n t r o l e q u i p m e n t a r e not the s o l e s o l u t i o n t o t h e C a l i f o r n i a smog p r o b l e m . As I m e n t i o n e d e a r l i e r , v e h i c l e t r a v e l i s g r o w i n g t w i c e a s f a s t as C a l i f o r n i a ' s population.

87 T r a n s p o r t a t i o n c o n t r o l measures need t o be a k e y component o f t h e 1991 l o c a l d i s t r i c t a i r q u a l i t y p l a n s . Local governments w i l l need t o adopt t r a n s p o r t a t i o n c o n t r o l measures i n o r d e r to meet a i r q u a l i t y s t a n d a r d s . T r a n s p o r t a t i o n c o n t r o l measures can i n c l u d e r e g u l a t o r y measures and systemwide measures. R e g u l a t o r y measures s e t requirements t h a t f o c u s on r e d u c i n g as: t r a f f i c a t the source. They can i n c l u d e such measures employer t r i p r e d u c t i o n programs, p a r k i n g p r i c i n g . and i n d i r e c t source control. R e d u c i n g e m i s s i o n s f r o m i n d i r e c t s o u r c e s i s an i n c r e a s i n g f o c u s f o r t h e ARB. I n d i r e c t sources are sources which attract vehicle t r i p s and t h e r e b y p o l l u t e " i n d i r e c t l y . " An i n d i r e c t source a t t r a c t s m o b i l e sources due t o t h e n a t u r e o f t h e a c t i v i t y conducted a t t h e location. For example, a workplace might a t t r a c t t h e commute t r i p s o f t h e e m p l o y e e s , d e l i v e r y t r i p s from receiving supplies, shopping t r i p s by customers, and t r i p s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e s h i p p i n g o f p r o d u c t s w i t h i n t h e f a c i l i t y and from the facility. Typical examples of indirect sources include: i n d u s t r i a l parks, shopping malls, residential areas, grocery stores, a n d e v e n f a c i l i t i e s t h a t a r e a s s m a l l as l o c a l convenience stores. Systemwide measures a r e a c t i o n s t a k e n t o d e s i g n and o p e r a t e t h e s y s t e m i n such a manner as t o g i v e p r e f e r e n c e t o l e s s polluting transportation. High occupancy v e h i c l e lanes t h a t g i v e t r a n s i t r i d e r s and c a r p o o l e r s s i g n i f i c a n t t i m e s a v i n g s are an e x a m p l e o f a systemwide measure. Other measures i n c l u d e s t r e n g t h e n e d t r a n s i t systems and l a n d use p l a n n i n g t o m i n i m i z e vehicle activity. C u r r e n t l y , t h e ARB i s e v a l u a t i n g a n u m b e r o f t r a n s p o r t a t i o n c o n t r o l m e a s u r e s t h a t may a f f e c t h e a v y d u t y t r u c k s : o

Truck i d l i n g r e s t r i c t i o n s - e s t a b l i s h i n g a f i v e maximum i d l e t i m e f o r t r u c k s t h a t a r e n o t m o v i n g ;

o

O n s i t e f r e i g h t c o n s o l i d a t i o n c e n t e r s - r e q u i r i n g a l l new multi-business f a c i l i t i e s t o provide a single freight consolidation center for efficient deliveries and shipments;

o

Rapid accident response p r o v i d i n g emergency response helicopters an t o w t r u c k s to quickly clear truck accidents f r o m f r e e w a y segments, thereby minimizing congestion delay;

o

AM-PM p e a k - p e r i o d o p e r a t i n g r e s t r i c t i o n s limiting the urban f r e e w a y and l o c a l r o a d access o f heavy d u t y t r u c k s d u r i n g peak congestion hours t o minimize congestion delay;

o

Mandated n i g h t t i m e r e c e i v i n g requiring large facilities t o provide labor f o r receipt o f deliveries a f t e r normal working hours;

minute

-

-

88 Peak p e r i o d p r i c i n g - i m p l e m e n t i n g e c o n o m i c i n c e n t i v e s t o s h i f t t r u c k and/or automobile t r a f f i c out of peak congestion hours; Truck-only facilities - providing the capital for c o n s t r u c t i o n o f new f a c i l i t i e s d e s i g n e d e x c l u s i v e l y f o r t h e movement o f goods b y h e a v y d u t y t r u c k s ; Improved parking enforcement improving the e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f p a r k i n g c i t a t i o n and t o w i n g programs t o minimize t r a f f i c congestion;

-

e n f o r c i n g maximum Improved enforcement o f speed l i m i t s speed l i m i t s t o p r e v e n t t h e r a d i c a l i n c r e a s e i n e m i s s i o n r a t e s t h a t a r e noted t o occur above 55 m i l e s p e r hour;

- preparing Public awareness and s a f e t y campaigns educational programs designed to improve driver awareness and s a f e t y , e s p e c i a l l y f o c u s i n g on a u t o / t r u c k r o a d s h a r i n g , i n an e f f o r t t o r e d u c e a c c i d e n t s ; Technological i n n o v a t i o n s - encouraging t h e development of alternatives t o the current methods of goods movements.

7.

. .

Fnerav E f f i c i e n c v : Finally,

our

l a s t s t r a t e g y i s improved energy e f f i c i e n c y . and we b e l i e v e t h a t t h e s e e f f o r t s w i l l h e l p u s m e e t t h e a i r q u a l i t y goals o f t h e C a l i f o r n i a Clean A i r Act. Although air pollution control has been c r i t i c i z e d as c o n f l i c t i n g w i t h energy For example: e f f i c i e n c y , t h i s it not necessarily t r u e today. i n t h e e a r l y 1970s, p o l l u t i o n c o n t r o l f o r m o t o r v e h i c l e s w a s "bolt-on" equipment. I t d i d i n t e r f e r e w i t h performance and gas mileage. However, t o d a y a i r p o l l u t i o n c o n t r o l i s an i n t e g r a l emi s s i o n s p a r t o f the engine. And i n p a r t , because o f s t r i c t e r standards, t h e a u t o m o b i l e ' e n g i n e has been d e s i g n e d t o be more e f f i c i e n t and on-board computers p r o v i d e e a r l y de e c t i o n o f engine malfunction.

We s u p p o r t and encourage improvements i n e n e r g y e f f i c i e n c y ,

Conclusions: Some a r e f e a r f u l that stricter air quality rules w i l l the s t i f l e economic g r o w t h and c o s t j o b s . Our e x p e r i e n c e o v e r last t w o d e c a d e s shows t h a t h a s n ' t h a p p e n e d a n d t h a t i t d o e s n ' t have t o be t h e case i n t h e f u t u r e . There a r e many s a f e g u a r d s built into the California Clean A i r Act and-the planning p r o c e s s , g e n e r a l l y , t o i n s u r e t h a t t h e need f o r a s t r o n g economy and b e t t e r a i r q u a l i t y a r e b a l a n c e d . A l l o f t h e emission c o n t r o l s t h a t reduce large amounts of pollution at low cost are already i n place. Each o f t h e m e a s u r e s we a d o p t i n t h e f u t u r e w i l l c o n t r o l s m a l l e r a m o u n t s of pollution and a t a higher unit cost t h a n a n y t h i n g we h a v e a l r e a d y done. previously As g r o w t h and strict

s t a t e d , i n C a l i f o r n i a we f e e l t h a t e c o n o m i c environmental controls are not only

89 complementary, but i t i s i m p o s s i b l e t o pursue one w i t h o u t t h e other. We a r e e n t e r i n g a n e r a i n C a l l f o r n i a w h e r e t h e g r e a t e s t c o n t r i b u t i o n t o c l e a n a i r w i l l come f r o m t h e l i f e s t y l e c h a n g e s i n d i v i d u a l s and s o c i e t y w i l l h a v e t o make. Our e f f o r t s toward c l e a n a i r w i l l i n t u r n h e l p t o f u e l our economic growth.



93

PROSPECTS FOR THE REDUCTION OF NOXIOUS EMISSIONS FROM DIESEL VEHICLES AND THE ROLE OF ALTERNATIVE FUELS AND POWER SOURCES C.C.J. French Ricardo Consulting Engineers Ltd., Bridge Works, Shoreham-by-Sea, West Sussex BN43 5FG, United Kingdom

While there has been for many years concern about the emission of nitrogen oxides from diesel engines used in underground mines, it is only relatively recently that the attention which was paid from the early nineteen sixties, initially in California, into exhaust emissions from gasoline engined cars has widened to encompass diesel powered trucks and buses. Exhaust smoke has o f course been the subject of legislation for a longer period and this certainly could be called a noxious emission in the quantities which were at one time encountered! In order to prevent the production of excessive smoke, diesel engines operate under lean conditions and therefore produce low levels of carbon monoxide in their exhaust. In fact a well designed and maintained diesel engine emits lower levels of carbon monoxide and of hydrocarbons than does an uncontrolled gasoline engine. The natural levels of oxides of nitrogen are similar for the two but, due to the heterogeneous nature of diesel combustion, diesels produce particulate material in the exhaust, even when there is no visible trace. Later papers in the Programme will describe in more detail the steps which can be taken to meet very low levels o f diesel exhaust gas legislation but it has to be said that intensive work carried out by the whole engine and component industry over the past few years has produced engines with very much lower levels of pollution than until recently seemed possible. HEAVY DUTY DIESEL ENGINES

In general this work has indicated the need for lower levels of air swirl in direct injection diesel engines; much higher injection pressures, up to and perhaps exceeding 1200 bar; larger diameter and shallower combustton chamber bowls; higher compression ratios to enable injection timing retard to be carried out without the introduction of misfire with consequent high hydrocarbon levels; and the desirability for using rate shaping of the fuel injection with a very sophisticated map of such timing with both load and speed. Variable geometry turbocharging to reduce emissions under peak torque conditions may be essential to achieve very low limits and in fact, turbocharging and intercooling is probably essential for all low emission heavy duty engines. The most difficult pollutants to control in a diesel engine are oxides of nitrogen and exhaust particulates. NOx is largely nitric oxide, NO, but with some N O 2 , which can give a brown coloration to the exhaust. The particulates are more difficult to define but the average of typical analyses for heavy duty truck engines driven over the U.S. heavy duty test cycle is given in Figure 1.

94 Average Total Particulate (03 7 g l h p h )

Carbon L1 0 "I.

\

UnburLd Oil

250°/o

/

Other 13 0 V O

Sulphate and Water 1L oo/.

Fig. 1 Typical Engines ]

FTP Particulate Composition [Average of 16 Heavy Duty, TCA DI

The sulphates come from the sulphur in the fuel and can only be reduced by essentially desulphurising the fuel. I n fact if a catalysed particulate trap is fitted into the exhaust, much more of the sulphur is oxidised to SO3 and appears as increased sulphuric acid in the test, giving yet higher sulphates and hence higher total particulates. The burnt oil is emitted under lighter load conditions when oil, which enters the combustion chamber, is not burnt and can only be reduced by reducing the total engine oil consumption. The "Other" material will contain lubricating oil additives. At present the U.S. 1991/4 standards are the most stringent worldwide. Currently standards similar to U.S. 1991 are being proposed and discussed in Europe for the mid-90's with the distinct possibility that more stringent standards could follow. Figure 2 shows the U . S . emission legislation limits, in s o far a they concern NOx and particulates together with the band of experimental data produced for the best 1988 natural aspirated and turbocharged engines. The positive effect of turbocharging is clearly indicated.

NOx

(glhph)

Fig. 2 - Particulate/NOx Trade-offs for 1988 Certification Heavy Duty Diesel Engines over the FTP Cycle

95 The tighter "Engineering Targets" which are shown on the figure are set by the need to maintain low emission levels over a very long period despite some tendency for emissions to rise with usage. By means of the steps indicated earlier we can now bring engine emission levels down to the 1991 engine targets. Ways of meeting the 1994 truck and the 1991 bus levels have s o far eluded us however, although by applying all the steps and by the use of a special low aromatic, high cetane very low sulphur fuel we can achieve particulate levels approaching or possibly at the legislative level, but with no allowance for service depreciation or for production variability. It seems likely that by adding an external trap/oxidiser to the exhaust we should finally be able to achieve 1994 levels albeit with substantial additional complexity added to the powerplant and at present unknown effect on vehicle durability and first and maintenance costs. It is certain that a very low sulphur fuel will be required - perhaps as low as 0.02%. MEDIUM DUTY If severe emission limits are imposed on all diesel engine vehicles, which appears likely, this will pose a major additional problem for medium duty vehicles where naturally aspirated DI engines are commonly used in many parts of the World including Europe. A switch to turbocharging with aftercooling would involve considerable development and additional cost and there is also likely to be the need for higher pressure and more expensive fuel injection equipment. These costs will bear relatively more heavily on a medium duty vehicle than on a large heavy duty onefor which turbocharging is already widely if not universally employed. LIGHT DUTY DIESEL ENGINES The majority of the diesel engines used in light duty applications employ indirect injection. Compared with the DI engines, the ID1 systems offer superior exhaust emissions and noise whereas the DI has better fuel economy. As fuel prices rise this factor will become more important and it may of course be emphasised by the growing concern over the Greenhouse effect which will emphasise the need to use the engine with the highest thermal efficiency provided it does not emit other gases of a harmful or a potentially harmful nature. It is of course difficult to forecast the level at which exhaust emissions legislation will ultimately be stabilised but it clearly is possible to set levels which would effectively debar the use of the diesel engine. The ability of mid class cars to meet current and possible future EEC It can be seen that limits for exhaust emissions is given in Figure 3 . prototype Direct Injection engines have now been produced that give encouragingly low levels of emission such that they may find it possible to meet future legislation. There is some pressure however, for example within the "Stockholm Group" of countries to employ the U.S. Federal transient test procedure, with tighter limits than are currently being considered within the EEC. Until recently there was little evidence that these limits could be met by a Direct Injection engine. Improvements to the injection equipment, including electronic control have resulted in significant reductions in particulates but meeting HC and NOx limits is still problematic.

96 1 5 Particulates ( g / t e s t )

Diesel

ECE 15Cyde --

% 7

A

T

W

D

i

x

Gasoline I

I

0, *25 -25 Chanoe in Typicol 'Euromix Volumetric Fuel Consumption 2 0 HC. NOx i g / t e s t ) Pre 5th Amendment ECE 15Cycle

-540 -

&?D&

yGit 3wc Stoichiomet ric

I 1 -25 0 "/. Change in Typical 'Euromix' Volumetric

1

-50

I

*25 Fuel Consumption

3 W C - Three-Way Catolyst P - Prototype DI 1989

Fig. 3 - Fuel Economy/Exhaust Emissions for Mid-Class Vehicle Ricardo's research with unit injectors has shown that the combination of high injection pressure and Exhaust Gas Recirculation enables the DI to approach 1987 U.S. Federal limits, although the cost of such a solution will be relatively high. A l s o the necessary levels of Exhaust Gas Recirculation would result in increased piston ring and liner wear and deposits in the intake system. Overall, the recent development of improved injection equipment with suitably matched combustion systems gives the DI the potential of meeting U.S. limits but there is no certainty of success and the extra cost is likely to be significant.

ALTERNATIVE FUELS While it is technically feasible to burn alcohol or gaseous fuels such as natural gas and LPG i n a diesel engine either by adding an ignition promoter or by dual fuel operation, these solutions are not attractive. If an ignition promoter is employed it has to be used in relatively large amounts and this i s expensive. Dual fuel operation adds expense and complexity to the engine due to the need to have a second injection system. Vehicle range is of course a problem with fuels with a low volumetric calorific value. A l l these fuels are better burnt with spark ignition without the production of particulates and a three way catalyst can be employed to achieve very low levels of gaseous emissions. The fuel consumption will be higher than with a compression ignition engine hence giving higher COq emissions however.

ALTERNATIVE ENGINES While the fuel cells may become a possibility in the long term, giving good fuel economy and potentially very low exhaust emission levels, these devices are today very bulky, heavy and expensive and we are unlikely to see their use in transport applications for many years.

97 Both Stirling engines and gas turbines employ continuous combustion. Vaporising combustors should give low particulate levels and NOx may be reduced by recirculation of exhaust gas into the combustion chamber and/or by rapid cooling of the combustion gases, although care must be taken not to partially quench the flame or high hydrocarbon levels would result. At present levels of development however, both types of engines require breakthroughs before they could be considered for use. The Stirling engine tends to be heavy, somewhat bulky and expensive and the fuel consumptions achieved on pre-prototype engine are below that which would be required for truck or bus use. Problems also remain in retaining the charge of gas, be it hydrogen or helium, within the engine for an acceptable time. Despite its pre-eminent usage in commercial aircraft, the gas turbine has far been unable to compete in land transport applications. Due to the smaller sizes involved, the use of cooled turbine blades appears to be impossible and it is therefore necessary to provide a material for the "hot parts" of the engine which can accept the high temperatures necessary to achieve adequate efficiency. Metal alloys appear to have reached their limit and attention is now concentrated on the development of engineering ceramic materials. so

This is This development has currently reached 1200°C or s o . substantially lower than 1300°C which would be necessary to compete on fuel economy with the gasoline car engine. Even higher temperatures would be required to compete with a diesel truck or bus power plant. A breakthrough of this order is unlikely before the end of the century and even then, substantial effort may well be necessary to bring the production costs down to an acceptable level. SECONDARY POWER PLANTS While storage batteries may be employed to give a pollution free vehicle, they are currently unable to store enough energy to produce an acceptable power plant for any but a short range, low performance vehicle. Current batteries are very bulky, very heavy and very expensive and have a limited life. There are no indications that this situation will change radically in the near future. Furthermore, electricity for charging the cells must be generated somewhere and this is likely to be an equivalent source of pollution, particularly when transmission and other losses must be allowed for. Hydrogen for use as an engine fuel is being considered since only water and oxides of nitrogen would be emitted. The hydrogen must of course be generated and hence a hydrogen engine is really only a secondary power plant and the same reservations as above will apply. If however solar cells o f adequate efficiency and cost could be produced then hydrogen might be produced by the electrolysis of water and a truly low emissions power plant could result.


M. Kroon. R . c

Sinir

und J . vun Hum IEdirim). breighr Trunsporr and rhe Envrronnienr

1991 E l w w r Science Publehers B. V . , Anorerdunr. Printed

in

rhe Nerherlunds

99

CURRENT AND FUTURE EMISSION STANDARDS FOR EXHAUST GASES AND NOISE, AND TEST PROCEDURES FOR GOODS VEHICLES

C. Cucchi and M. Bidault CCMC, Square de Meezis 5, Box 7, B-1040 Brussels, Belgium

SUMMARY

The emergence of the European Internal Market will result in an increase of the road transport of goods. Truck manufacturers and governments are keenly aware of the environmental issue posed by this increase and are reviewing the actions that should be undertaken to contain the impact of commercial vehicles on the environment in terms of exhaust emissions and noise levels. Exhaust emissions and noise from commercial vehicle diesel engines are presently regulated by Dir. 88/77/EEC and Dir. 84/424/EEC. A recent Commission proposal introduces a two-step plan for a further reduction in the exhaust emission limit values to be implemented in 1992 and 1996 respectively. It will apply to commercial vehicle diesel engines and is based on a test procedure which closely reflects the present conditions on European roads. At the same time, the truck industry, the Commission and Government experts are actively pursuing the definition of possible noise levels that could still be achieved in series production vehicles. However, a further reduction in noise standards raises the problem of redefinig the measuring method before numerical recommendations can be proposed. The introduction of these requirements will have an important impact on vehicle design and will represent a major challenge for the auto industry. It also raises the question of the quality of the diesel fuels that will be available on the market in the years to come. Diesel fuel characteristics have an effect on both noise and exhaust emission levels. They should therefore be covered by an appropriate set of specifications. 1.

INTRODUCTION

The increase in road traffic during the recent years has brought the problems related to the exhaust emissions and noise of the commercial vehicles to the attention of the public. As a consequence, the legislators are under pressure to take action in these areas.

100

Exhaust emissions of commercial vehicle diesel engines were originally covered by two ECE regulations dealing with the main aspects of the phenomena, i.e.: Regulation R-24 limiting the emission of "smoke" under full power running conditions - Regulation R-49 limiting the emissions of unburned hydrocarbons (HC), carbon oxide (CO) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) . -

Technological developments in the following years made meeting more stringent requirements feasible and the truck industry started to certify new engines according to the R-49 limit values minus 20% on a voluntary basis. The Council of Environment, on a Commission proposal, transposed both ECE regulations in the Community law with some delay, consolidating the state of the art in engine technology as f a r as exhaust emissions are concerned. Table 1 summarizes the present situation. Table 1

Present Emission Requirements for Commercial Vehicle Diesel Engines

5CE Regulations Smoke Emission Date of Publication Limit Values

bates of Implementation Exhaust Emissions Date of Publication Limit Values: HC g/kWh CO g/kWh NOx g/kWh Dates of Implementation

R-24 23/08/71

R-49 5/04/82 3.5 14 18 -

I

EEC Directive 72/306/EEC 2/08/72

2/01/74 88/77/EEC 3/12/87 2.4 11.2 14.4 07/88 - 10/90

Directive 88/77/EEC recognizes the aeed for a further step that should be undertaken at a later date and should introduce a limit value for particulate matter emissions together with more stringent limit values for the gaseous emissions. At the same time, the requirements on engine smoke, as layed out by Dir. 72/306/EEC, are very stringent (more exacting than the corresponding requirements enforced in the US) and will still correspond to the state of the art for some years to come. With reference to the issue o f noise generated by commercial vehicles, permissible maximum levels were first introduced by Dir. 70/157/EEC.

101

New limit values were then established by Dir. 84/424/EEC on the basis of a comprehensive report that the truck industry issued detailing the state of the art of the available technology. A large number of existing and prototype vehicles were tested to generate the data base. These new standards (see table 2) will come fully into effect by October 90. Table 2

Present noise level requirements Dir. 84/424/EEC dated 3/09/84

Vehicle Category:

Noise Levels dB (A)

Busses ( > 3.5 tons): - with an engine power < 150 kW - with and engine power 2 150 kW

80

83

Trucks ( > 3.5 tons): - with an engine power < 75 kW - with an engine power between 75 - 150 kW - with an engine power > 150 kW

81 83 84

Dates of implementation: Busses Trucks

1

1/10/88 1/10/89

- 1/10/8 - 1/10/9

2. TEST PROCEDURE

In setting limit values for emission levels, the legislator has to define a test cycle/procedure for their measurement. The testing of the vehicle must be carried out under conditions that can be easily repeated and correlate with the average patterns of use in real life. 2 1

Test Cycle for Measuring Exhaust Emissions

At present, three test cycles for emi s s ons are widely recognized. They are:

measuring

exhaust

- the European 13 Mode test cycle described by ECE

(see fig.l)

- the US transient cycle developed by EPA (see fig. 2) - the Japanese test cycle (see fig. 3)

The European 13 Mode test cycle corresponds to the combination of 3 idle modes and 10 steady state modes at 2 engine speeds (intermediate and rated speed) and five torque settings. Various studies confirm that this cycle fits well with the actual driving conditions on the European roads.

102

Fig. 1

Points of measurement and weighing factors of ECE R.49 13-mode cycle

I

Weighting Factor

*

3 measurements of

' 2 ' weighting factor Idle-

'008

25%

i> 0 02

( ' 0 08

10%

0002

Intermediate-

Fig. 2

Rated Speed

US transient cycle

New York Los Angeles Los Angeles New York NonFreeway NonFreeway Freeway NonFreeway

b

0

,

'

200

'

I

400

600

800

Record (Seconds)

1000

1200

103

Fig. 3

Japanese Test Cycle

IW 95

80

60 Load

rate

1%) 40

20

5

0 Revolution speed ratio (‘/o)

(Note I ) The figure on the upper right of each circle re resents the coeffcicnt percentage (Note 2J The encircled numerals denote the driving orifer

Figure 4, 5a and 5b show the driving patterns of a city bus in Turin and of a truck on several Italian roads. Fig. 4

Urban bus circuit in Turin; Engine rated speed: 2300 rpm, peak torque speed: 1400 rpm

104

Fig. 5a Torino/Courmayeur/Torino: typical example of mixed road circuit f o r a gross vehicle weight equal to 38 tons; engine rated speed: 2300 rpm, peak torque speed: 1400 rpm

Fig. 5b Versilia Highway: typical example of highway driving conditions f o r a gross vehicle weight equalto 38 tons: engine rated speed: 2300 rpm, peak torque speed: 1400 rpm

105

The most frequent operating conditions of a commercial vehicle diesel engine are idle (city traffic) and peak torque where minimum brake specific fuel consumption is achieved. Power train of commercial vehicles are engineered t o obtain minimum fuel consumption in the region close to max. torque and drivers tend to operate the vehicle in this region for evident economical considerations. The 13 Mode test cycle was retained by Directive 88/77/EEC and has been adopted also by other European countries such as Switzerland, Sweden and Austria. On the contrary, the US transient cycle was developed mainly around the driving patterns encountered in the cities of L o s Angeles and New York. The engine operates almost exclusively close to idle and in a region characterized by 80 to 100% of the rated speed and 30 to 90% maximum load (see fig. 6). Transient modes occur at a low rate of change (see fig. 7). Deceleration modes require an engine dynamometer with monitoring capability. Fig. 6

60

Time frequency of US transient cycle: performance diagram without monitoring and idle phases

106

Fig. 7

Time frequency of torque and speed changes of US transient cycle without monitoring and idle phase

The main feature of this cycle is the measuring of emission levels during transient conditions which are considered important from the point of view of the formation of pollutants. However, it has been often criticized on the basis of the following considerations:

- it

is questionable whether the test conditions truly reflect the most common driving patterns in the rest of the United States

- it

requires the use of very sophisticated equipment in terms of the engine dynamometer and computer controlled system (an engine cell for US certifications is 6 times more expensive than the one required by the European or Japanese legislation)

-

the response of the injection system to changes of the engine running conditions is almost instantaneous. Thus diesel engine transient operations, that do not occur in an extremely short time, can be well approximated by sequential steady state running modes

- under motoring conditions (decelerations) the governor of

the injection pump cuts pollutants are emitted.

off

the

fuel

delivery

and

no

There is no apparent reason for the European legislator to follow the approach adopted by EPA and introduce the US transient cycle, in its present definition, in Europe. The Japanese government apparently shared this opinion when it defined a test cycle based on a sequence of steady state modes.

107 2.2

Test procedure to measure t h e engine smoke level

The smoke level of a diesel engine is determined using an measuring the opacimeter, i.e. an instrument capable of absorption coefficient of the exhaust gas stream when it is crossed by a light beam. These measurements are carried out under steady state full load conditions or under f ee acceleration. Tests under free acceleration can be used to verify the conformity of a vehicle with the legislat ve requirements. 2.3 Test procedure to measure the vehicle noise level

The present pass-by test with full acceleration is based on the IS0 R.362 recommendation. With reference to fig. 8 , the procedure can be summarized as follows : i) the vehicle approaches the line A A ' at a steady state speed and in a fixed gear ii) the vehicle speed is either 50 km/h o r corresponds to 3 1 4 of the engine rated speed, whichever value is lower iii) when crossing line A A ' , the vehicle is accelerated at W.O.T. and the throttle is maintained in the full-open position until line BB' is crossed.

Fig. 8

Test for measuring vehicles noise level

C

108

Care is suggested in selecting an area with low background noise level; no defined specifications are listed for the pavement surface and/or tyre type (smooth surfaces and quite tyres are recommended). The major noise sources at the time the test was developed were the engine, the transmission, the a i r intake/exhaust systems and the radiator/fan systems. 3.

EVOLUTION OF THE LEGISLATIVE REQUIREMENTS

Road transport is today the most efficient way to move goods throughout Europe. Consequently, with the completion of the internal market in ' 9 2 , the road traffic is expected to increase considerably. Actions are deemed necessary by public opinion in order to assure that this evolution will not take place to the detriment of the environment. The Commission has already layed out the plan for a further tightening of the exhaust emission standards while new, more stringent requirements for vehicle noise levels are being discussed by the national experts within the ERGA-Noise group. 3.1 Future Exhaust Emission Standards

The Commission has recently disclosed its proposal f o r the future emission standards. Table 3 outlines this proposal and compares the limit values with those that will be implemented in the near future in other European countries. For reference, we also include the limit values that have been proposed to the Commission by the industry. Table 3

Commercial Vehicle Diesel Engines Emission Standards (in g/kWh)

Cornmission Proposal Step I

Step 1 1

Switzerland

Sweden

I

1

CCMC Proposal Step I

Step I 1

I

(Particulates

4.5

4.0

1.1

1.1

8.0

1.0

6 85 kW

>

0.63 85 kW

4.9

4.9

1.23

1.2

1.25

9.0

9.0

9.0

0.1

0.4

0.3/0.15*

0.36

Dates of Implementation Test Fuel

NT: 1.7.92

\NV: 1.1.93 current

7.0

0.1

NT: 1.10.96 ANV: 1.10.97

model year 1994

NT: end'92 NT: late'96 W V : in steps A N V : in steps

! low Sulphur. low Arom.

low Sulphur

low Sulphur low Arom.

* P.M. limit values and test fuel specifications to be defined by the Counci 1 , o n a Comni ssion proposal. before the end of '94. NT: New types ANV: All new vehicles

109

The CCMC regrets that the Commission has decided not to accept its proposal. The truck industry has already proven their concern about the environment in the recent past. The limit values brought forward are very progressive and would have ensured the uniformity of the emission requirements in Europe. On the other hand, the Commission proposal overlooks the following fundamental issues: i) implementation dates: truck manufacturers produce a large number of engine types to meet their customers' demand. The process to obtain the type approval for a l l of them has been estimated in approximately 2 . 5 years and involves considerable efforts from both national authorities and truck manufacturers. Even within the hypothesis that the Commission proposal can be finalized in a Directive by mid '91, the time interval provided for the implementation o f the new requirements to the full production will not be sufficient (mid '91 to January ' 9 3 ) . ii) lead time for engineering and production planning: the emission limit values being proposed for ' 9 2 require an important evolution of the present HDD engine population. The definition of the technical solutions and the planning of their introduction in full production require a sufficient lead time (3-5 years). The '92 dates of implementation of the new requirements for new types is feasible only as a consequence of development efforts undertaken by the industry on a voluntary basis. iii) exhaust emission levels: while awaiting guidelines from the Commission, the development of low emitting engines was started with the goal of meeting the limit values proposed by CCMC. Any deviation from these figures will add to the engineering efforts currently underway and raise the need for longer lead times.

iv) diesel fuel quality: the issue posed by the diesel fuels quality cannot and should not be overlooked, especially in view of the long term goals proposed by the Commission/ CCMC . A decision in '94 will be too late to be effective. It is also premature to discuss particulate limit values below g/kWh at this time. They will require the use of an exhaust

0.25

gas after treatment system. presently being evaluated: a)

b)

Two

types

of

such

systems

are

particulate filters - field tests on city busses are underway in several European locations. The feasibility of these systems in urban driving conditions has been demonstrated. However, further optimization of the system lay out is still needed in view of their widespread use on urban vehicles. catalytic converters: important reduction of the soluble particulate fractions and gaseous unburnt components such as CO and HC can be achieved. It is however questionable whether they are sufficient to reach such low P.M. emission levels.

110

The widespread use of the above systems is also hindered by the sulphur content of today's diesel fuels (0.3% in most of the EEC Member States; 0 . 2 % in Germany). The installation of particulate filters will also require the reviewing of the test procedures for diesel engine type approval with specific reference to the engine power and smoke (Dir. 72/306/EEC) measurements. 3.2 Future Noise Standards

The further tightening of the permissible levels for vehicle noise is being debated by the ERGA-Noise group of the Commission. No final recommendations have been reached yet at the writing of this report. One important issue raised during the discussion has been the need to improve the test procedure for measuring the vehicle noise. A s vehicle noise levels were reduced in the past years, the test surface and the interaction between pavement and tyres have acquired increased importance in determining the test results. There is the need for a more precise definition of the test conditions before reviewing the feasibility of meeting noise standards more stringent than the present levels. Other issues that should be carefully evaluated are the following:

- truck manufacturers, especially those manufacturing heavy -

-

-

vehicles, market a large number of different models which exceed 15000 covering the EEC sales of around 3 0 0 . 0 0 0 units per year model life, and more particularly major components life cycles, are extremely long technical solutions to reduce the noise levels often involve major vehicle redesign and can be introduced only at the time of a model change as discussed in the above chapter, significant changes in exhaust emission requirements are planned in ' 9 2 and in ' 9 6 . Their impact on the vehicle noise levels should be fully evaluated in oder to confirm the feasibility of more stringent noise standards diesel fuel quality plays a role not only concerning engine emissions but also engine noise levels.

The ERGA-Noise group has identified urban noise as a key element in the discussion. A possible compromise solution between the political need to see progress in this area and the industrial reality could be to require certain categories of vehicles to be produced o r available in "low noise" version by certain dates. 4.

RECOMMENDATIONS

The European truck manufacturers are concerned about the environment and are willing to develop and market environmental friendly vehicles in terms of exhaust emissions and noise levels. The legislator must guide the industry efforts towards this goal by defining requirements and their corresponding dates of implementation. This task should be carried out taking into proper account certain unavoidable constraints posed by the

111

availability of technical solutions, the need of sufficient lead time f o r their development and the planning of their introduction in full production, and the related social costs (vehicle prices and fuel consumption levels). Achieving harmonization of the legisltative requirements throughout Europe is another important goal. Therefore, CCMC would like to put forward the following recommendations:

- the CCMC proposal concerning future emission standards for commercial vehicle diesel engines should be adopted without any amendment with specific reference to the limit values and dates of implementation. This proposal is based on the following considerations: o the development work that the industry has already carried out on a voluntary basis o the lead time necessary f o r the system definition and required by the procedure for obtaining the type approval certificate o the need t o reach an harmonization of the emission requirements within Europe - with regard to the setting of future noise standards, the quantification of any limit value must be based on a

realistic assessment of what is achievable both in terms of technical feasibility and timing -

the industry cannot envisage a generally applied 8 0 dB (A) limit on heavy trucks until at least the end of the century

- limit

values of 2-3 dB (A) lower than the present requirements for urban busses and urban delivery vehicles by '96 may be an acceptable compromise

- the

oil industry should be asked to join the truck manufacturer efforts in making available environmental friendly products that meet the public expectation.

REFERENCES 1.

2.

3.

4. 5.

G.M. Cornetti, K. Klein, G.J. Frankle and H.S. Stein, in: SAE (Ed.), US Transient Cycle Versus ECE R.49 13-Mode Cycle, SAE Technical Paper Series N o 880715, February 29-March 4, 1988. 0 . Shinozaki, C. Shinoyama and K. Saito, in: SAE (Ed.), Advances in diesel particulate control. SAE SP. 816, March 1989. J.R. Puttick, G.W. Dwyer, VROM Diesel Fuels Programme Summary Report, Ricardo, 28 July 1989. CCMC, Reduction in Pollutant Emissions from Diesel Engines for U s e in Commercial Vehicles - Directive 88/77/EEC Proposal f o r a second step + addendum, 8 November 1989. A. Balzotti, G.M. Cornetti, F. Pidello, M. Signer and V. Scorsone, in: SAE (Ed.), Italian city buses with particulate traps. SAE Technical Paper Series No 900114, February 26-March 2, 1990.


M. liroori. R . S n i i t urrd J . 1’011 Ifurrr /&rlitorJI. Freight Trunsport and rhr Environment 1991 E/x,iwr Scimce Piih/i.~lrers8. V . , Ain~terdurrr.Printed i n the Nerherlmds

113

THE HEAVY-DUTY DIESEL ENGINE: PROSPECTS FOR REDUCED EMISSIONS AND IMPROVED FUEL EFFICIENCY Tommy Bertilsson Saab Scania A .B., Scania Division, S-1.5187 Sodertalje, Sweden Summary The interest in emissions from heavy diesel engines has awaken recently. This has led to intensified engine research and development. The short-term solution has been to adjust parameters on existing engines, equipping them with charge-coolers and, in some cases, with particulate traps. Some of these measures have resulted in a slightly reduced fuel efficiency. The long-term solution will be new engine generations, primarily developed to produce low emissions, both gaseous and particulate. New injection systems with facilities for timing control and rate shaping will enable very low levels of particulate and nitrogen oxide emissions to be obtained. In combination with much improved hydrocarbon fuel, these engines will require no particulate traps. However, to eliminate all nuisance, catalytic converters will probably be used to eliminate hydrocarbon residue in the exhaust gases. The diesel engine is currently the most fuel-efficient power unit, and it is constantly improving. The introduction of turbo-compounding will help further reduce fuel consumption, and thus the emissions of carbon dioxide from the diesel engine.

Background As a truck producer must produce what his clients demand, most of the development work has earlier been focused on performance and economy. During the last ten years there has also been a slowly growing demand for low emissions. This demand has risen very quickly during the last five years and today the development work for low emissions has the same priority as for performance and economy. To reduce emission of any of the four compounds, carbon monoxid, hydrocarbons, nitrogen oxides or particulates is rather simple. The problem is to reduce them simultaneously.

Nitrogen oxides The means to reduce nitrogen oxides often tend to increase particulates and fuel consumption. Ten years ago it was the common opinion that reducing the emissions of nitrogen oxides from heavy duty diesel engines would mean increasing the fuel consumption dramatically. Now we know that that is not the case. If course, just changing the settings of the 1980 engine to reduce harmful emissions resul-

114

CHARGE COOLING -LOWER NOx

//

HIGHER POWER AND TORQUE

- BETTER FUEL ECONOMY

ted in high fuel consumption. But the introduction of charge air cooling made it possible to decrease both emission of nitrogen oxides and fuel consumption. However just changing settings and introducing charge air cooling makes it possible to reach about 8.5 g/kWh nitrogen oxides with 5-10 % fuel consumtion penalty. By redesigning basic engine parameters such as inlet swirl, compression ratio, injection pressure and injection duration it is possible to achieve the limit proposed by the EEC commission for 1992 of 8 g/kWh nitrogen oxides with a fuel consumption penalty of only 2-3percent. The limit of 7 g/kWh NOx proposed for 1996/1997 requires additional development work. At Scania we have proven the possibility to achieve nitrogen oxides emissions below 7 g/kWh on a city bus engine. To further reduce emissions of nitrogen oxides fuel injection systems with full timing flexibility will be needed. Pilot injection may also extend the limits for nitrogen oxides further down. Rate shaping, that is low rate during ingnition lag and then high rate and pressure once combustion has started, is a further development which can reduce nitrogen oxides. Additional functions like water injection and ex-

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN NOx AND FUEL CONSU MPTlON

115

haust gas recireulation also offers prospects for lower emissions of nitrogen oxides but also give problems with control and wear. Achieving low NOx- emissions without considering other emissions is rather easy. However hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide and particles must not be forgotten.

Carbon monoxide The direct injection diesel engine has the advantage of inherent low carbon monoxide emissions. Even without regulations on carbon monoxide emission some current diesel engines have been developed to emission levels below those proposed for 1992 and 1996/1997. The adoption of turbocharging, charge air cooling and high pressure injection systems has gradually decreased carbon monoxide emission to a level where it has to be considered insignificant.

Hydrocarbons Gaseous hydrocarbons are emitted from diesel engines in very small quantities. However they have an unpleasant odour wich indentifies diesel exhaust. There is also concern that hydrocarbons may be carcinogenic. The main hydrocarbon source is the injector sac. The fuel volume trapped in the sac ofter injection evaporates and enters the combustion chamber after combustion. Thus it a not is combusted, but scavanged through the exhaust pipe. The sac volume has been reduced in steps over the years and further reduction can be forseen. In the future many engines will probably have valve covered orifices with no sac at all. This will mean a major reduction of hydrocarbon emission.

NOZZLE PRINCIPLE Vco Nozzle FUEL FROM INJECTION PUMP

Sac Nozzle FUEL FROM INJECTION PUMP

There are also additional causes for hydrocarbon emission. They have in common that combustion of the fuel is either not initiated correctly or interrupted to soon. To ensure good ignition of the fuel, high compression ratios will be used in future engines.

116

Particulate Particulate emissions, solid and liquid, can be reduced in different ways. The solid part, the soot, must be reduced through better fuel-air mixing. This is achieved with very high injection pressure, optimized injector hole contiguration and an optimized air swirl in the combustion chamber. Better turbo chargers will give a more favourable air-fuel ratio so that rich air-fuel mixture is avoided in all driving conditions. I

PARTICULATE E LEME NTS lubrication oil SO4 HPO

fuplf

I

The introduction of electronic injection control makes it possible to correct injection for different ambient conditions and further decrease soot formation. The fuel hydrocarbon part of the particles will be reduced by using valve covered orifice injectors. The lube oil contribution can be reduced very much by using valve stem seals and improved piston rings. Also better lube oils will help reducing the lube oil share of the particulate. The sulphate particulate can be eliminated by using sulphur-free fuel. This may sound expensive, but I am convinced that within a few years we will see a reduction of today’s sulphur content of approximately 0.2percent down to 0.05 percent. In Sweden there is already available limited quantities of diesel fuel with sulphur content below 0.005 percent.

All these measures on engine hardware and fuel will make it possible to reduce particulate emissions below the 0.4 g/kWh limit proposed for 1992.

After-treatment What are the prospects of after-treatment of the exhaust? As oxygen content of diesel exhaust is rather high an oxidation catalyst easily oxidizes carbon monoxide and hydrocarbons. We are testing catalysts and have reached emission levels well below 0.1 g/kWh both for carbon monoxid and hydrocarbons.

117

As hydrocarbons are also a part of the particulate, such emissions are also reduced by the catalyst. The flow-through catalyst, however does not reduce soot emission to any significant extent. Therefore catalysts should be used with modern “smokeless’’ engines. Can the catalyst reduce emissions of nitrogen oxides? Not yet! But I am an optimist. I believe that catalyst companies will develop some kind of catalyst for nitrogen oxides. Such a catalyst would enable control of nitrogen oxides t o a very low level and still optimize the engine for low fuel consumption and low particulate emission. What about particulate traps? Particulate traps or filters may be a good help to reduce emissions of soot from today’s diesel engines. But tomorrow‘s diesel engine will have so low soot emission that further reducing soot will not be worth the effort. To use the money for a trap to make a better engine will be more cost effective than equipping the present engine whit a trap.

Fuel efficiency Will it be possible to maintain or even improve diesel engine efficiency with low emission engines? Well there are prospects of at least maintaining the efficiency of todays diesel engine. Reducing losses, wherever they appear, helps in improving efficiency. Mechanical losses - friction - can be reduced by reducing the number of piston rings and reducing their tension. Introducing roller tappets also reduces friction. Better lube oils and better matching of materials makes it possible to use lower viscosity lube oils and this is important for friction reduction. Optimizing inlet systems and exhaust systems to keep flow losses down will also contribute to improved fuel efficiency. ~

SCANIA

TURBOCOMPOUND

EXHAUSTGASES 6 W C AIR XHAUSTGASES 5 W C

CHARGE COOLER

AIR 150’C

118

However, the major single contribution for improved efficiency will probably come from new turbo-machinery. The turbocompound engine, which has an additional turbine, after the turbocharger, transmitting its power to the crankshaft, can improve fuel efficiency substantially. Turbocompounding may improve fuel efficiency by 4-5 percent. New insulating materials may be used in pistons and exhaust ducts to increase the exhaust energy which will further contribute t o the efficiency of the turbocompound engines.

The Future Seeing all the possibilities of diesel development makes me confident that the future belongs to the diesel, a diesel engine with very low emissions and superior economy. If we would get help from the catalyst companies t o reduce nitrogen oxides in a catalytic converter, I believe that we have a clean engine within reach with 50 percent thermal efficiency.

1 I9

PROSPECTS FOR THE REDUCTION OF NOISE FROM HEAVY DUTY DIESEL VEHICLES Federico Filippi Iveco Fiat SPA, via Puglia 35, I-I056 Torino, Italy

1. Fmblem statement

Road-traffic mise has at o the fore in recent years as an e n v l r m t a l issue of g r m g mprtance. In t h s respect, according to a recent G E m study (hg.l),heavy duty trucks take t h e t h r d place as an "annoymg" source of noise Mnnd a r c r a f t and nutorcycles and ahead of construction iradimery and cars. PERCENTAGE OF PEOPLE ANNOYED BY NOISE OTHFRS

h g . 1 - "~nnoymg" sou~ces of noxe [Infratest, 19871.

Although mst of the people who m i d e r traffic noise t o bf a nmsarice are the mhabitants of bult-up areas,those who live close to busy hlghways often find t h s noise no less hsturbmg. Tlus has been damstrated very

clearly by the Austrian opposition to rught traffic an their highways. Heavy duty truck noise is therefore a major enr;irmital prablem and will be increasingly so in the future. &fore discussing ways arid methcds to reduce this noise we must h e r make a very clear statement. Noise being a very elusive subject we must f i r s t define what we are aiming at : - are we trying to lower the " measured" noise level of trucks as defined by current EEC regdatians ? or - are we trying to reduce the nuisance caused t o people by truck traffic ? As we will see below, the two objectives are not the same. 'ha-e are clear indications today that wthcds us& to reach the flrst objxtiv? have no ylfluence on truck noise nuisance.lihat is mre serious , there are hmts that m i s t i n g on reduclng "maasured" noise my even hamper t e d m c a l developrents mrected towards reducing "real" noxe as perceived by people. In any case today's truck noise evaluation standa,rds,wfuch are b e d on a totally obsslet e technique, are leading t o a waste of efforts by all truck manufacturers and to an increase in transportation costs with 170 real

120 advantages for the f m a l "custaner" : the public.

Sources of nom y (Flg.2):

m a travellmg truck are

- the w e ,

- engmedriven

accessories ( a x ampressor, steerlng gear p a p , etc.), - the engme a r mtake. - the ervJlne exhaust, - the engLne cmlmg axflow and the r d a t o r cmll.mJ fan, - the e n m e brake valve, - the exhaust of the peumatic brake system valves,

- the - the -

-

gearh. tranmssion shaft (s), the front and rear axles, a e r d y n m c noise fran the cab and f r m , aerdynanc noise fm the superstructure, noise mma f r m superstructure m t a l l a tions (refrigeration mnpressors, etc.) , the triuler or s m t r a l e r , tyre-road mterface noise.

Scme of these were not mportant when very l i t t l e attzitian was a t t a c h 4 to truck noise and the r a n soace of nusance was the engme enaust. As swn as better exhaust mufflers &an t o ie r~~:allid and the e n m e noise was reduccd by the mtch-over frcn naturallya s p r a t = tG turbocharged enames (a chanue whch was dxtated by fuel consumption requirements) the "iillllor" noise sources k c c m e unprtant. Tday none of thex can be nmlected and tyre-road mterface noise is clearly cor u g t o the front. b s t of the m p r o v m t s have occurred m the last 10 years (the acoustic pressure level e mtted by t d a y ' s trucks is 1/10 of that a t ted by a truck of the early '80s). W s has t o be kept m mnd when assesslng their m t r i bution t o truck noise nusance: today there are m y m r e o l d "noisy" trucks on the road than "old" cars. Notmthijtandmg these mprovenwts, the stardard methais for evaluatmg truck rmse h i cally have no: changed for 15 years.We are m the sane position as we were,evaluatmu a Boeing 717 vlth methds devlsed t o "certiff' the Wright m a h e .

2.- w a y ' s measurePent methods

and their li-

mitaticns The current metha3 for masurmg truck noise d m g h p e a n type approval tests is defmed by EEC mrective 84/424 in the t e r n of 1x1 362.

Fig.3

- Schematic of

IS0 362 "ps-by" noise

test. The test has to be performed by the truck manufacturer. 'fberefore anly light vans or buses are tested m their final form. All other trucks are tested as chassis-cab (vlthout any superstmcture) or as isolated tractors. The test requres that the unladen vehcle be driven up to the start l m e (Mg.3) vlth the sped and engine rumba at 3/1 its &al vehlcle speed ( 50 )an/h and then k a c m l t rated at m u m engme power over the 20 m long test track.?he maum noise k z e l dmiig acceleration is waswid by two mcrsi;i;i,~s lccated a t 7 . 5 m f r a the track cfnterlue. The test is rewated vlth different U s x s engagid and the truck noise level is the hlghhest .xasured durlng this series of tes5;s. Normally t h s o c m s with the gear ratio r f x h allows the enwns to reach i t s m w a rs;.Jated sped m the second half of the t t s t track. l h u m u m values for " ai-rbient" noise and m d velocity are specified.To take into account all other influences (anbien: tenprature,rmd surface type,road surface t a n p x a t u e , tyre tyw, tyre we=, tyre pressure, prdiction toleran:zs,fuel specificatia?,etc.) E &/U4 grants a +1 d B 2 tolerarce.That is: wise masurid with the saw mthd on a p r d w i a n truck can deviate by + l d B ( A ) f r m the lvfel measured durmg type approval tests Kithoilt the truck bemg rejected.In order to evalute t h i s "tolerance" it has to be kept III u n d that changes in the ambient temperature alone can b r q a 2 dFI(A)charqe between the noise levels mqsured at 0 'C and 33 ^C. A slightly different acceleration test is specified for "silent" v&cles by the German Adage X X I to para.49 of the S t W ~ c is h also used in other D.lropear countries.'Ihe main diffuence consists in t e s t q d y mth tha gear ratios that a l l o w raxmm engule s p e j to h reachsd within the 20 m length. W,i:ional tests are specified :

121 -for the truck staticaGuy mth engue r e w at max. speed (8 nucrophones at 7 m around the truck), -for m e brake nolse. -for pneumatic system ahaust noise.

I n any case the acceleration test is the strictest me so that the chassis-cab has to be designed acoustically m order to uunuuze the "pass-by" noise: a d t i o n that is very seldan encountered m real l i f e today smce it corresponds t o an unladen truck or isolated tractor acceleratmg at uamnuro. engue speed andengue pwer. No truck driver mll normally drive like that for the sake of fuel mnsunption, nor would road cangzstix allow hm to do so excipt m totally & a b l t d areas. Even i f the test is performed at a relatively low speed are its rssults to be taken as a Sound l e v e l

measure of the "noismess" of the chassis-cab or tractor or as a measure of the noismess of the t y r e t r a c k surface mnbmtion ? In &ern trucks, where engvle noise has already reduced to a very low value, tyre noise can be dormnant even durlng low sped acceleration as shown m Rg.4. l l u s figure presents the results o b t u e d durmg a standard IS0 362 test on two identical hlgh-pwer IYECO 190.AgT tractors f i t t e d mth two bfferent udzs of tyres. The tests were performed on the sam3 day, on ths s m track, wrth the sane UIs t m n t a t i o n and the sax drivers.Admttedly the tvo "extrew" makes of tyres madable on the market were used, but even so the results are so mldly bfferent as t o cast me doubt a b u t what one is really measuring durlng the test. Of course the r b pattern of the tyre ("traction" or "non-traction") has the mt

[dBIAll

Fig.4-Test results Kith different tyres. [IVRTlI

Rib pattern

Traction Pattern

Fig.5 -Influence on -road interface wise of drivinJ mode ard tyre inflatim pressure. [(Xmtinental] m e size 315/80 R 22.5 - IS0 362 (7.5 m). me load = 9250 N/whxl : speed = 37 M.

122 90

gunrr

EG = Abnahme nach 8 4 1 4 2 4 EWG ga = gerauscharm nach 5 49f3 SIVZO dBfAl

FahrbahnIReilenkombination

-

8o

80.5

8ol u

m

u

m

h

75

m

w

u

r

n

m

m

- - . P

9

c

1

C

h

Vorbeilahrt

fig.6

-

m

m

m

79.5

-

v

c

I

80

80

m

v

n c

h

-m )

-

o

c

Vorbellahrl 60 kmlh

s

-

m 9 c

>stante ,beltahrt !igung 2% 60 kmlh

ns~anle Vorbeilahrl Steigung 2 % 60 kmlh SlraRe naR

- Tests on

the Brenner Aut&,7.9.1989 rJercedes-Benz]. 1st set : IS0 362 pass-by test 2nd set : same tyres, canstant spsed = 60 3rd set : bfferent tyres, 2% climb, cmstant speed = 60 kmh 4th set : as no. 3 but on wet road.

lnfluence but mflation pressure IS also lmportant (Fig.5). The same figure also shows that tyres produce bfferent noise levels wha rollmg, whv, drivlng at constant speed and *en acceleratmg. Incidentally i t can be noted that no truck nll ever respect an 80 &(A) noise lmt if even one of its tyres durmg the pass-by test produces a noise lev21 of 80 & ( A ) wkLch is a c ~ m occul~ence ~ n mth today's traction tyres, Another lnfluence whch has to be ccmbmed n t h tyre mfluence is that of the track surf ace. There are udxations that a a f e r e n c e of up to 5 & ( A ) can enst ktween a concrete and a " d r u e d asphalt'' surface.The surfaces of tracks u s d for noise masurewat x e m s t l y asphalt but e e n lxtweJ1 these a 2-3 db(Z bfference is not unusual. To further canplicate thmgs, the temperature of the track surface also has a very strono mfluence. Tests pfrformed by the Geman Emdesanstalt fuer Strassenwesen have shown that an rncrease of 10 C m the road surface tanperatwe brlngs a reduction of 1 & ( A ) m the noise levils masured durn9 pass-by tests. The a h e results refer to car tyres . An even largsr depaknce has to k W t e d wlth truck tyres ar~dt k s effect &mes mth the u i l u e n c e 01 arblent tmpxature. S b i w : up, n k a s u r m t s perfonxd on ricdcrr~ trucks accordmg to IS0 362 K E unriliable, unrepeatable and do not q v e any mdication of thz real "noismess" of the truck even under the me operatrng conbtion for which they were d e n s 4 : f u l l power acceleration of an

.

unladen truck III urban d t l o n s . It is M wonder then that "silent" trucks designed t o pass such a test m.11 III practice p m t o be as noisy as "rrormal" trucks. Thls pomt has been very clearly dmmstrated by Mercedes - Benz durlng the sumner of 1989 h e n "silent" and "nonnal" trucks were ampred durlng actual operation on the very m t m e r sial Brenner Autobahn (Rg.6). 'Ihe " n o d " truck (1748 D;) was "rated" at 84 &(A) acmrdmg to the current EEC W424; the "silent" trucks (1748 ga and 1733 ga)r;ere "80 &(A)" trucks a m d u g to the Austrian requrewnt. khvl fitted mth the sanr tyres the "normal" truck was ln fact gueter than the "low nose" trucks when travelug at 60 M h . yhen the "low noise" trucks were fitted n t h b f f e r e n t tyres (less w e d l adapted t c the rcad surface) they becare actually much than the "normal" truck. Cn a wet road the tyre noise k a m e so d m a n t that all three trucks regxtered a noise level of about 89 & ( A ) .

3.- Methods t o reduce noise measured accordmg to IS0 362. Before b s a s s m g the xthods wkLd, cai~ k usd to r d u E pass-by noise l e t us corsider a practical case, takrng a --code 4x2 tractor d 5 i g n . d t o met EC 8 4 / 4 2 r e q u m t s . 1.e. 84 db(L1. R s w k r m g the uncertamties due to

the masurement method, the target design value s h a l l be a m m m of 83 dB(A1. T&na into account only the mxt unportant noisa s w c e s ( h g . 7 ) and the state of the art tcday

123

Fig.7

- Noise level of

main sources, a t t a u t i a n and resulting noise level for a truck designed accordiryl to EEC 84/424.

we can bssumE the folloKLnp situation.

nes have a vlscostatic or h y d r a S a l l y driven fan so that the fan itself is rotatlng at a very low speed durmg acceleraticm cm a flat road. Norse fran the muffler is not a big problem: a good m f f l e r m l l glve a noise level of LiiF 95 @(A) a t 0.5 m, mrresponclx~to 75 &(A1 at the mcrophone lagam : measured values). As far as t r m s s i o n noise is concerned a level at 1.5 m of I d 4 3 d B ( A ) i s sufficient t o mure a level a t 7.5 m of 70 dBW. In a 4x2 vehxle mth a smglereduction rear axle such a transnssion nose l w e l does not requre encapsulatian either mth spur gear or mth helical gear gearbaues. I n a 6n4 vehxle the situation IS a bit wre critical but still manageable. In 4x4, 6x6, 8x8 veiucles the trarmiussron noise is much more rmportant but these veiucles f a l l under the "off-road" categop for h c h a slightly hlgher total mise level is allow€d. h n a l l y we can forget the noise of the front tyres s m (hg.5) i t is about 65 &(A) at

b g m e (and accessories) mise at 1.5 rn Le = 101 &(A) wh~chcorrespands t o 88 &(A) at 7.5 rn (measured value; theoretical attenuation muld be - 14 dB (A) 1. As thls value is clearly ta, b g h we have two alternatives: - use an w e h a m g a noise level at IMX. rpn of 95 db(A) ; or : - encapsulate the engme in order to brmg the noise level a t 7.5 m to 82 @(A). The secMld alternative IS currently the me mt used SUE designng a new heavy duty truck w e franscratch can take anythmg fran 5 to 7 years. An attenuation h=-6dB(A) at 7.5 m can k o b t m d today by fully encapsulatlng the ~ M U C (top. sidzs. b t t a n , r i u ) . This pses serious problems for engine and accessories m l m g . mess problem can k solved but at a c e r t m cost : for instance i t i s much m r e c h f f i d t to wtall e l e c t m c s on the i n a n e UI Europe than ln the USA. b far as the front engme noise frun the mlmg f a n is mncernai, a l l m i e m heavy duty ens-

Rib pattern

Traction pattern

Fig.8 -Influence of tread pattern cn tyre/road noise at different

.

distance [ccntinentall '&re size 315/80 R 22.5 - Inflation pressure 7.5 bar Tf1-2 load = 9250 N/vheel - S p d = 37 kdh

-

124

Le-95

Ld683

Lm-90

f

LtL90

. /

fig.9

- NoSoise level of

main mas, attenuatian and result* noise level for a truck designed Krcofdiap t o an 80

&(A)

requirement.

7.5 m, while we can allow up t o 70 &(A) a t 7.5 m for the rear tyres, correspding t o a tyre-road interface noise level at 0.5 m of Lt= 90 &(A) or less. This is clearly incurpatlble with the current generation of traction tyres or even of straight rib tyres (Fig.8) Y that the type approval tests will have t o kx run Kith "low noise" tyres.Talay "low noise" tyres with f a i r l y go3d traction performan= are available m the market.bwever i t must k borne in uund that, in the w e of trucks, the choice of tyres is made by the custaner smce tyres represeii: a cansidecable part of the operating cats. It cannot be guaranteed, therefore, that a truck tested for noise with a specific kmd of tyres will be run on the road with the saw tyres. Clearly the situation muld becane untenable hen the nurkr of driven tyres increases and the tyres thenselves have to be of the "traction" type ( l i k e on "off-road" v e h d e s 4x4, 6x6, 6x4 etc.) but fortunately so far remved fran reality the measuretent mfthcd is that evin these vehicles can bi ' ~ ~ l q a t e d " . In fact in the unladen vd-icle conbtion the traction load , Mch is not very h f f e r m t fran a 4x2 version, is spread hstrlbutd 0-m a largsr n w k r of tyres. So much for the current EM: 84/424 requlat ion

L

J

105 115 125 135 145 155 165 175 mnn

V*ICIO

w

1"

w h o r

76

86

%

1 0 6 116 126 136 146 166 166 176 nmw&wad!Jl-

Fig. 3. Speed dependence of the emissions of NOx (a), CO (b), HC (c), and the fuel consumption (d) of passenger cars on motorways with a diesel contribution of 15% (1985). The C 0 2 , lead and SO2 emissions can be calculated directly from the fuel consumption. In this study the following conversion factors were used for C02 (grammes C02 per gram fuel) (5): petrol : 3.12 diesel fuel : 3.12 LPG : 3.04 Relatively few emission measurements are known of lorries driving at speeds exceeding 80 km/h. It is certain that the emissions increase with higher speeds (6 - 7). The calculations here depart from the same relative speed de endence as is valid for passenger cars. Based on the data of a study by Rijkeboer,)!( which shows a relative increase of fuel consumption with an increasing driving speed similar to the one of passenger cars, the fuel consumption at higher speeds was estimated. Both the emission factors and the fuel consumption of vehicles are constant1 liable to changes. Increasingly cleaner engines are being produced because o legal measurements, mainly on the EC directives. The built-in catalysts in new passenger cars have resulted in a decrease of the regulated emissions. The fuel consumption and the C02 emission have slightly decreased as well due to the ever more fuel-efficient engines. This implies that the 1985 data which was mentioned before, cannot be applied without alterations on the period May 1987 - May 1988.

Y

266

(4,

The data on this particular period primaril departed from the fuel consumption from as is shown in Table 2. (8), and the CBS-based emission factors from TABLE 2 Emission factors and fuel consumption of passenger cars and lorries on motorways in the period May 1987 till May 1988. Component

Passenger cars

Lorries

c 3.5 ton

> 3.5 ton

NOx in g/km (1987)

3.3

19.4

CO in g/km (1987)

4.9

2.2

HC in g k m (1987)

1.o

2.6

Petrol in g/km

56.5 a

Diesel in g/km

58.4 a

LPG in gkrn

55.4 a

195.0

a passen er cars; for light duty vehicles the following values apply: gasoline 96.2, diesel 98.5, L8G 89.0 g/km. A comparison between the data on passenger cars and Figure 2, while taking into consideration a decrease of the emission factors and the fuel consumption since 1985, shows that the emission factor for CO as given by the CBS rather deviates. The reason for this is that the CBS data is based on emissions at constant speeds. For CO, (3) considers this a serious underestimation of the emission factor. Therefore, the calculations have been made with an emission factor for CO of 10 g/km, a figure closer to reality. After the im lementation of the new motorway speeds the emission factors and the have developed as follows, as the CBS data (5) shows (Table 4): fuel consumption

(b)

TABLE 4 Changes of the emission factors and fuel consumption in terms of percentage (%) compared to the period May 1987 - May 1988. Passenger cars

Lorries

NOx

CO

HC

FC

NOx

CO

HC

FC

1/588-1/5’89

-5

-5

-5

-1

0

0

0

-1

115’89-1/s90

-10

-10

-10

-2

0

0

0

-2

Period

267

2.3 Kilometres -Ds The amount of vehicle kilometres spent on motorways increases yearly. Two effects are responsible here, an increase of the traffic intensity and the extension of the road system. Table 5 shows the spent vehicle kilometres on Dutch motorways in 1987, as provided by the CBS (5),and the increase in 1988 and 1989 (preliminary figures). TABLE 5 Amount of vehicle kilometres (in millions) spent on motorways in 1987 and the increase in 1988 and 1989 compared to 1987. 1987

1988

1989

Vehicles < 3.5 ton

25044

+6%

+12%

Vehicles > 3.5 ton

2527

+11%

+22%

total

27571

+6.5%

+13%

Table 5 shows that the lorry traffic on motorways increases faster than the traffic of passenger cars. REFERENCES

1 K.T. Joustra, Speed measurements and data handling, Internal Report (in Dutch), Dienst Verkeerskunde, Ri'kswaterstaat, Rotterdam, 1990. 2 Dienst Verkeerskunde, dpeed measurements on motorways, periodical reports (in Dutch), Rijkswaterstaat, Rotterdam, 1988-1990. 3 Umwelt Bundes Amt, Das Abgas-Emissionsverhaltenvon Personenkraftwagenin der Bundesrepublik Deutschland im Bezugsjahr 1985, Berichte 7/87 Erich Schmidt Vertag, Berlin, 1987. 4 TUV Rheinland, Abgas-GroOversuch, AbschluObericht, Forschungs rojekt im Auftrage des Bundesministers fur Verkehr, Verlag TUV Rheinland GmbH, KSk, 1986. 5 CBS, Air pollution: emissions by traffic in 1987, 1988 and 1989, Internal memorandum in Dutch), Voorburg, 1988-1990. 6 . Latham and A.J. Hickman, Exhaust emissions from heavy diesel engined vehicles, Sci. Tot. Env., 93 (1990) 139-145. 7 P. Leisen, Determination of the trend of highway emissions by means of emission balance measurements, Sci. Tot. Env., 93 (1990) 339-348. 8 R.C. Rijkeboer, Evaluation fuel consumption on motorways, The effects of modified speeds (in Dutch), IW-TNO Report nr. 733 930 009, Delft, 1990.

L

3.

RESULTS

The results of this study are represented in two ways for a sound judgement on the effects of the implementation of the new motorway s eed limits. On the one hand there is the result of the changed driving speeds, and on t e other the totality of influences of driving speeds, emission factors, and spent vehicle kilometres.

E

Table 6 presents data on the emissions and fuel consumption of passenger cars (including light duty vehicles) and lorries of the period prior to the introduction of the new speed limits, as well as of the changes due to the fluctuations in speed.

268

TABLE 6 Effects of changes in vehicle speeds on the emissions and fuel consumption, expressed as tons per year compared with the period prior to introduction of the new system of speed limits.

1-5-87I 1-5-88

Period Policy's aim

1-5-88I 1-5-89

1-5-89I 1-5-90

. .

NOx-emlsslons Passenger cars Lorries total

83,800 49,100 132,900

-6.000 -2,300 -8,300

-4,500 -1,400 -5,900

-2,500 -900 -3,600

Passenger cars Lorries total

250,000 10,000 260,000

-1 8,000 -500 -1 8,500

-1 3,000 -300 -1 3,300

-7,000 -200 -7,200


21,700 6,600 28,300 -320,000 -90,000 -410,000

-245,000 -53,000 -298,000

-1 36,000 -34,000 -1 70,000

-79,000 -1 7,000

-44,000 -1 1,000 -55,000

COp-emissions Passenger cars Lorries total

E&&g.%F Lorries total

4,530,000 1,870,000 6,400,000 1,460,000a 600,000 2,060,000

b b b

-96,000

a petrol 91 4,000,diesel fuel 244,000,LPG 304,000tons per year. b not included in the policy's aim. Due to the introduction of the new system of speed limits on motorways on May 1,

1988 the emissions and fuel consumption appear to have decreased, except in the case of HC for which the emission hardly depends on speed (Table 6).The aim of the policy, in which a sharper decrease was anticipated, did not come true. In the second year after the implementation the emissions and fuel consumption on motorways increased again due to an increase of the mean driving speeds. When beside chan es in driving speed also the changes in emission factors and amount of spent vehicle ilometres are taken into consideration a comparison of the situation prior to and after the introduction of this new speed system shows another picture. Table 7 presents an overview of the effects on emissions and fuel consumption one year and two years after the implementation of the new speed limits.

1

269

TABLE 7 Emissions and fuel consumption of passenger cars (incl. light duty vehicles) and lorries on Dutch motorways prior to and after introduction of a new system of speed limits on 1 May, 1988,in tons per year. Period

115'87-'88

1 15'08-'89

115'89-'90

. .

NOx-enUSSIQaS Passenger cars Lorries total

83,800 49,100 133,000

80,000 53,000 133,000

83,000 59,000 142,000


250,000 10,000 260,000

239,000 11,000 250,000

248,000 12,000 260,000


21,700 6,600 28,300

21,900 7,300 29,200

22,100 8,000 30,100

COpemissions Passenger cars Lorries total

4,530,000 1,870,000 6,400,000

4,510,000 2,020,000 6,530,000

4,800,000 2,200,000 7,000,000


1,460,000 600,000 2,060,000

1,450,000 650,000 2,100,000

1,550,000 700,000 2,250,000

Table 7 shows that there is an increase, mainly because of lorry traffic (a sharp increase in vehicle kilometres at steady emission factors). The CO figures show a decrease for the first year after implementation. All calculations are based on mean speeds. For two articular road sections calculations have been made with the actual speed distribution. nly for CO, the emission turns out to be higher (about 8%). The speed distributions before and after 1 May 1988 show no differences. Therefore, the method to calculate the means does not influence the size of the calculated effects (Table 6).

8

Because the aim of the polic has not been reached as far as the speeds are concerned, either the number of roa sections with a maximum speed of 100 kmlh might be enlarged, or the limit on these sections might be lowered to.90 kmlh. The decision should yet be taken. The enforcement of the speed limits is the major problem here.

cy

270 4.

CONCLUSIONS

The introduction of a new system of speed limits and the related changed speed pattern caused a decrease in emissions and fuel consumption on Dutch motorways. In the second year after implementationthese effects partly perished, because the mean driving speed slowly increased again. The amount of spent vehicle kilometres on motorwa s has increased sharply in the last few years, especially for lorries, and consequently, t l e fuel consumption and emissions have increased in total, the CO emissions excepted. The introduction or tightening up of speed limits is a means to reduce emissions and fuel consumption. The introduction, however, requires an active enforcement policy and it should be presented extensively to the public. A permanent improvement will require need measurements to restrict motoring.

M. Kroon. R. Snr,r und J . vun Hum (Edirors), Freighl Trunsporr and the Environmenl 1991 Elsevrer Science Publishers 6. V . . Anrsrerdure. Printed in the Nerherlunds

27 1

ROAD TRANSPORT AND ENVIRONMENT. A VIEW BY THE DUTCH ROAD HAULAGE ASSOCIATION (NOB WEGTRANSPORT) M.G.W. Hallmans and J.M. HandelC NOB Wegtransport (Dutch Road Haulage Association), P. 0. Box 5302, 2280 HH Rijswijk, The Netherlands

SUMMARY The transport of goods over the road makes a considerable contribution to the overall air pollution. The completion of the European internal market will result in an increase of the cargo trade. The environmental policy should be shaped on a international level for the sake of effectiveness. More transport by rail and inland shipping: cleaner lorries: a more efficient transport, allowing larger dimensions and weights and a more efficient transport by allowing cabotage and applying telematics are directions in wich the solution to the enormous problems must be sought. In addition transport companies also have their own responsibility. INTRODUCTION The pollution with which society is confronted is enormous. The gradual heating of the atmosphere and acidity are subjects wich in the meanshile have become prominent on the political agenda. In order to prevent future generations being saddled up with the consequences of the economic activities of the present generation, it is important that economic developments are tested on the conditions of "sustainable development". If we take "sustainable development" as a starting-point, road transport will also have to make its contribution. If we leave aside issues such as (company)waste products, soil contamination, noise pollution and limit ourselves tot the emissions of polluting substances, then road transport makes an important contribution to acidity (in particular NO,), the greenhous effect (CO,) and the smog problems (NO,, aerosols). acidifying emissions (NH,, NO,, SO,), sources in the Netherlands: agriculture road traffic power plants refineries other industry miscellaneous

50%

21% 9 % 6 % 11% 3 %

of which (only NO,): cars freight traffic delivery vans busses

57% 36% 4 % 3 %

212

is known, these problems -certainly with respect to the emissions of CO,, NO,- have an important international dimension: approx. 808 of the acidifying emissions in the Netherlands are exported and approx. 60% of acidifying substances falling down in the Netherlands come from abroad. There have never been boundaries for air pollution in Europe: realised emission restrictions on an international level are simply nullified as a result of depositions from other countries.

As

Another international aspect of the problems is the European unity. The disappearance of physical, technical and fiscal obstacles between the members states undoubtedly has positive effects on the economies of the members states, as a result of wich the demand for transport will increase considerably. In addition it is possible tot carry out the transport in a simpler way due tot the disappearance of physical restrictions. A study carried out on the authority of the European Commission [l] expects an increase of international freight traffic as a result of the completion of the internal market. SOLUTIONS

The much discussed "Dutch Enviromental Policy Plan" (NMP) [2] and the following NMP+ [3] contains the strategy for the enviromental policy for the long-term period and aim at achieving a sustainable development. The NMP indicates what measures are required for all societal and economic sectors in order to quarantee a durable economy. In addition to the NMP, the "Structure Schem for Traffic and Transport" ( S W ) [4] is very relevant to the transport sector. The SVV also makes the idea of "durable development" a central issue of its policy. Both policy documents indicate what policy the Dutch government should use in order to tackle the enviromental problems, which have also been caused by the cargo trade. The main aim of the policy has been laid down in so-called emission ceilings. Within a number of periods, considerable emission reductions will have to be realised in order to stay under the ceilings. The most important means to achieve the goals can be generally divided into technical measures, a shift in modes of transport and measures increasing efficiency. Emission ceilings: NMP: 1986 NO, road haulage Carbon hydrogens road haulage

co;

2000

2010 NMP+:2000

2010

122

72

25

72

25

46

30

12

30

12

24,000 24,000 2,160

23,000 23,000 kilotons per year

the emission maximum for both personal and cargo traffic

273 Measures to improve transport techniques contribute in an important degree to the emission reductions. Proposals to considerably hiahliaht the emission standard are an important step in the right iirection. European emission standards f o r lorries: standard:

R-49

88/77/EEC3

EEC proposal’ first phase

NO,

co

18 14

14.4 11.2

8.0 4.5

7.0 4.0

CarbonHydrogens soot

3.5

2.4

1.1 0.38

1.1 0.3 / 0.15

-

-

second phase

gram per kWh It is estimated [5] that a NOx reduction through technical measures by 35% in 2010 in comparison with 1980 is the maximum attainable. The technical measures must therefore be added by measures aimed at restricting the use of energy. A restriction in the use of energy is not only necessary to reduce polluting emissions, but also the greenhouse gas CO,. The restriction in driving and rolling resistance and the application of lighter materials are the technical options with respect to the saving of fuel. Last, but not least, it is also possible to have a reduction in the emission of SO, and soot by using a better quality of diesel fuel. shift from part of the road cargo traffic to rail transport and inland shipping is also an important means to realise the intended emission reductions.

A

The expectations of a change in the modal split are high. It is without a doubt that the transport by rail and inland shipping is cleaner and sounder with respect to energy than road transport. The expected growth of road transport is so large that it is also for reasons of a smooth circulation that part of the growth will have to be taken over by other modes of transport. F o r the time being it seems that it is only for long international distances that the train can be an alternative f o r cargo trade. The use of containers and swap bodies offer a favourable perspective. In addition the international organisation and the necessary infrastructure for combined transport require much attention. The road transport companies and the government stick tot the principle of a “shippers free choice”, which means that the choice of a mode of transport by a loader is based on the relation price/quality and that a forced restriction of the road transport is not carried out.

The first phase would be enforced on 1 January 1993 and the second phase on 1 Oktober 1997. enforced starting from 1 Oktober 1990

214

Part of the expected doubling of the road transport in 2010 in comparison to 1986 could be taken over by train and inland shipping. It has been calculated [ 6 ] that the growth of the road transport on Dutch territory could be at most "restricted" to approx. 68% instead of 100%. Besides an improvement in the transport techniques and a larger transport contribution by rail and inland shipping, measures that improve the efficiency can also realise a considerable reduction of the emissions. Allowing cabotage, extending the allowed dimensions and weights and increasing the loading degree of lorries by applying telematics very strongly contribute to the restriction of rides without cargo and a more efficient effort by lorries and therefore to the necessary decrease of the emissions. According to estimates [ 7 ] , the loading degree of the international road transport can increase by 10% to 25%, if national transport is allowed by foreign transport companies (cabotage). Cabotage will be allowed in the Benelux (Belgium, The Netherlands and Luxemburg) in 1991. Finally, considerable reductions can also be realised by extending the allowed dimensions and weights. According to a study [8] on the consequences of changing the allowed dimensions of lorrytrailer combinations, a certain combination uses 9.2% less fuel than a vehicle with 10.85% less loading capacity for the same transport performance. Other data [9] also show that articulated lorries and lorries with trailers emit three to four times less per ton per kilometer than normal lorries. The conditions to have the formulated policy succeed depends to a large degree on international arrangements. Emission standards, dimensions and weights, standardisation of containers and swap bodies are subjects to the determined on an European level. Telematics is already a subject of study through EUREKA. Allowing cabotage is an item which marvellously fits in with the spirit of European unity. The completion of the internal market is not only - as a result of the consequences of the expected economic growth - a threat to the environment, but the unity also offers chances to tackle the environmental problems in an effective and efficient way. The EC should make the most of its opportunities to formulate a progressive european environmental policy. At present there is a chance that progressive member states are stopped by member states with less priority as regards the environment. The completion of the internal market is not only a success if the economic expectations are realised, but if in addition the result of the European environmental policy is more than just the sum of the environmental policies of the separate members states. The success of the policy depends on the international efforts to realise a common approach of the problems. An important advantage of a international approach of the environmental problems is an equilibrium of the effect - also for the road transport - in the competition relations.

275 The road transport must and can make a contribution to the solution of the problems. The road transport also has its own responsibility with respect tot these problems. This responsibility demands from this branch of trade that it will actively pay attention to the maintenance of its fleet of lorries, the maintenance of the maximum speed and the driving behaviour of the drivers. Furthermore, transport companies must keep their minds open to developments like telematics and alternative modes of transport. REFERENCES

Environment and the Internal Market. Task Force. Brussels, 1990. Parliament, meeting year 1988-1989, 21 137, nos. 1-2. Parliament, meeting year 1989-1990, 21 137, nos. 20-21. Parliament, meeting year 1989-1990, nos. 20 922 Milieu & Concurrentiekracht, Nederland Distributieland, Den Haag, 1990 idem idem Kleinere laadlengte, grote gevolgen (Smaller loading length, greater consequences). NEA. Rijswijk, 1989. Goederenvervoer moet schoner kunnen (Cargo Trade can be cleaner), Schoenmaker, T. J.H. : Bouwman, P.A., Tijdschrift voor Vervoerswetenschap 1990, no. 1, NEA, Rijswijk.



M. Krooii, H. . S w r und J. vun Hum (Edirors). Freighr Trunsporr und the Environinenr c 1991 Elsevier Science Publishers B. V . , Aiiisrerdain. Printed in rhe Nerherlands

279

FREIGHT TRANSPORT AND THE QUALITY OF THE ENVIRONMENT IN TOWNS Ralf Kurer Urnweltbundesamt, Bismarckplatz I , 0-1000 Berlin 33, Germany

SUMMARY

Motor lorry traffic may have only a share of roughly 10 per cent in all road vehicle transport in towns, but the pollution it causes, both in air pollution and in noise, is much more than that percentage. An extensive set of instruments is available which should be able to help us bring about freight transport which is not harmful to the environment in towns. Among these are, for example: Avoiding unnecessary transports, the use of low-emitting vehicles and operating methods, concentration of freight traffic on major thoroughfares and loading and unloading methods that are not harmful to the environment. If, however, traffic continues to increase as it does now, then government measures to control traffic as well as protect the environment over and above the measures outlined above will be inevitable in order to safeguard the essential economic traffic and to ensure environment protection. 1.

INTRODUCTION

A properly functioning freight transport system is one of the most important conditions for the efficiency of trade and industry. Due to the unchecked increase in motor traffic, however, a situation has been created in our streets, which threatens not only the proper functioning of freight transport, but also the entire economic traffic. From traffic, and here in particular road traffic, emanates environmental pollution to the extent that the population refuses to live near the polluted road sectors if in any way possible, mainly because they fear that this may impair their health. Therefore measures to ensure the continued operation of essential transport services and at the same time measures to reduce the environmental deterioration caused by motor vehicles are urgently needed. To this end integrated concepts 'Environment and Traffic' must be prepared in a cooperative effort by all interested parties at all planning levels. The concept for action which has been developed in the 'Second Structural Notice for the Development of Traffic in the Netherlands' may be mentioned as an example for such programmed and coordinated concepts ( 1 ) . In Germany the initial steps have been taken to start such a concerted programme 'Environment and Traffic' ( 2 ) . Unless it is stated differently, the following statements apply to Germany. 2.

ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION CAUSED BY FREIGHT TRANSPORT IN TOWNS

280

Traffic is one of the main causes of environmental pollution. Without countermeasures this pollution can hardly be expected to diminish, as traffic is steadily on the increase. The total distance covered in 1988 amounted to 427 billion kilometers, representing an annual rise of some 5 per cent since 1985. The share of motor lorries (including semitrailer trucks) in this total is roughly 8.5 per cent. The share of the total distance travelled within towns so far amounted to over 30 per cent ( 3 ) . If we assume that the relative proportion of lorries and passenger cars is the same inside and outside towns, then we arrive at a result of goods traffic movements within towns of approximately 1 1 billion kilometers per annum. As it is, lorry traffic takes a share in urban traffic of less than 10 per cent. However, the share in the pollution caused by this traffic in the form of air contamination is considerably higher, especially in the case of nitrogen oxides and sulphur oxides and of soot (9d). Moreover with regard to traffic noise, which upsets the population in particular, it is the lorries, apart from motorcycles, people really complain about. The following expositions relate especially to air pollution and noise. On the one hand these are, according to an opinion poll of experts ( 4 ) , the admittedly most gravitating pollution, on the other hand the availability of data regarding other pollutions in towns that are typical of freight transport (water and soil pollution etc.) are at present far from complete. 2.1

Air Pollution

The air pollution caused by traffic leads to dangers to the environment and risks to public health. In addition to carcinogenic substances (in particular soot particles) nitrogen oxides and HC-emissions deserve special attention, as they, being the initial substances producing oxidants such as ozone, are considered the chief causes of damage to health and nature. Great importance from an environmental point of view should also be attached to carbon dioxide, which affects the climate. Table I shows the share of traffic-related emissions in the total emissions, based on figures for the year 1987 and a prognosis of the Federal Environment Office for the year 1989. It is obvious that the share of traffic in the total emissions is considerable. In the Federal Republic of Germany traffic accounted for shares of the total emissions of 62 per cent of NO,, 53 per cent of HC, 75 per cent of CO, 30 per cent of soot particles and 20 per cent of C02 in 1987. Approximately 25 per cent of the total energy consumption is used up by traffic. These values should first of all be attributed to road traffic, which is responsible for 82 per cent of passenger traffic and 58 per cent of goods transport in an upward trend. At present motor lorries account for almost 2 0 per cent of the nitrogen oxides and soot particles and in future this will be an even much higher relative share. So far the nitrogen emissions of utility vehicles have not been reduced to a degree corresponding to the efforts made in respect of passenger cars. Therefore motor lorries will be the worst source of NO, emissions in traffic by the turn of the century. Measurements on the main roads in towns in Germany showed as an average over one year 98 per cent-values ranging from 0.15 to

28 1 0.22 m g / m 3 of NO,. These values are, compared with the appropriate limiting value of the EC-directives applicable to public health (0,2 m g / m 3 ) , in the critical range. This shows very clearly the urgent need for action to reduce the pollution burden caused by traffic in town areas. It is unlikely that the situation is any different in other European countries.

TABLE 1 Air pollution and its share for traffic and motor lorries in the Federal Republic of Germany (Source: Federal Environmental Office 1990).

Emissions

1987

1988

NO,

Total in 1000 tons

2900

1970

share in per cent: traffic utility vehicles

62 18

70 31

Total in 1000 tons

2470

1380

share in per cent: traffic utility vehicles

53 4

49 9

Total in 1000 tons

8770

5110

Share in per cent: traffic utility vehicles

75 1

HC

co

CO,

soot

2.2

Total in 1 ,000,000 tons

60 3

719

720


20 4

23

Total in 1000 tons

220

179


30 17

35 22

5

Noise

In discussions about the effects of pollution on individual citizens it is said that noise is the worst offender. In opinion polls held in 1989 the population left no doubt that traffic noise is the dominant source of nuisance: close to 70 per cent of the West German population feel that traffic noise in the streets is a nuisance, 24 per cent even call it a grave nuisance (6). In the effects of noise nuisance the motor lorries take the major share. They are classified as the second noisiest source, second only to motor cycles. Figure 1 shows the average noise levels of various types of motor vehicles passing (7). It is clear that motor lorries in actual operation produce noise emissions to

282

------- > sound-pressure level in dB(A)

FIGURE 1 . Passing-by noise levels of different types of vehicles (7) (LAR= arithmetic average of noise levels; L,, = noise levels only exceeded by 5 per cent of vehicles)

283 values exceeding those of passenger cars and small delivery vans by as much as 10 dB(A), which means that it will take ten small delivery vans passing simultaneously to produce the same noise as the passage of only one motor lorry. If the relevant calculation procedure ( 8 ) is applied to ascertain the average noise level e.g. in inner-city traffic, then the noise from motor lorries is already preponderant if the number of motor lorries exceeds 4 per cent of the total number of vehicles. For main streets in residential areas a share of 10 per cent to 20 per cent is estimated for motor lorries ( a ) , in mixed-use areas a share of motor lorry traffic of as much as 2 0 per cent may occur, depending on the type of street examined, whereas in residential areas an average of motor lorry shares of well below 5 per cent should be reckoned with (9c). From these figures it becomes clear that the greatest potential for reduction of noise lies in a changeover to smaller types of motor lorries and in the reduction of the share of motor lorries especially in main thoroughfares with mainly residential buildings. 3.

REDUCTION OF POLLUTION CAUSED BY FREIGHT TRANSPORT IN TOWNS

One needs little foresight to recognize that a further growth in traffic at the present rate will lead to serious problems in maintaining a minimum quality level for the livability in town centres and in guaranteeing the execution of the tasks of economic traffic. In the meantime it is hardly disputed that additional streets will inevitably result in still more traffic and consequently in even greater traffic and environmental problems. Meanwhile this has been recognized not only by town planners and environmentalists, but also by responsible traffic planners, and so the, until recently, frequently heard demand that the traffic problems mentioned should be solved by building more roads, is heard less often today. In addition, the city areas are far too valuable to leave them solely to the mercies of road builders and car owners (parked vehicles). For a long time it was assumed that the environmental problems caused by traffic could be solved by technical measures. Meanwhile it becomes clear that an adequate reduction in trafficrelated environmental pollution cannot be achieved in this manner, if traffic will increase at a rate it has so far. In the following some possibilities to reduce environmental pollution caused by freight transport in towns are presented. Many of the suggestions have already been published by other authors (9). This publication, however, intends to work out the common interests of trade and industry, traffic and environmental protection and, in addition, certain specific conflicts as well. 3.1

Case studies and location specific analysis

The general problem situation has been sufficiently set out in the above expositions. Each reduction in air pollution within towns contributes to a global reduction in air pollution. To achieve this first of all technical measures and especially reductions in numbers of vehicles are a very simple and always effective concept. The solutions for certain cases and locations

284

which are suitable for the latter can, however, only be determined on the basis of detailed analysis geared to each investigated case and to action plans based thereon. In particular in respect of the avoidance of noise pollution small scale considerations are inevitable. Because the sound decays quickly near its source and the spreading can be influenced by obstacles, the avoidance of noise pollution is primarily a matter of local problems for which local solutions must be found. 3.2

Plannins and leqal possibilities

One of the fundamental possibilities of reducing traffic, which could only be realized in the l o n g t e r m , would be the implementation of traffic-preventing town planning. This, however, requires first of all traffic planning and town planning becoming better geared to each other and besides the adoption of active rather than reactive town planning. The decentralized authority in the various competent bodies that until now set the rules nearly everywhere is not at all conducive to the purpose of land-use planning aimed at reducing traffic. Another disadvantage is the deconcentration of the utilisation of various buildings, which has been practised for a long time. Sophisticated measures to protect the environment provide for a situation where people live much closer to their places of work. This would accomplish a significant reduction in traffic volume. The German Road Traffic Act with its Road Traffic Ordinance (StVO) and the Federal Immission Protection Act (BImSchG) offer a variety of decisive possibilities for measures in respect of existing as well as new roads. Such measures, however, should preferably only be taken within the scope of regional and large scale planning, as otherwise the risk of problems only being shifted from one place to the other cannot be ruled out. In the recently amended BImSchG ( 1 0 ) complementary and new regulations for regional measures aimed at fighting air and noise pollution have now been included. In the area of noise abatement new regulations for noise reduction plans have been included (par. 47a). Here analyses of the situation and plans for reduction will be carried out, when harmful effects of noise on the environment can be expected and coordinated action against noise sources of various types is required. This situation will mostly occur in the main streets in the town centres, where often also a variety of responsable authorities can be found, so that the instrument of noise reduction plans can or must be applied. Details of the measures that may be taken are mostly in accordance with par. 4 5 StVO; consequently restrictions and blockades can be imposed for reasons of noise protection and noise protection zones can be declared banning all motor vehicles except so-called low-noise vehicles. The conference of Environment Ministers of the German States strongly advised the municipalities in March this year to use this instrument of incentives for low-noise motor lorries ( 1 1 ) . Both the proposed introduction of noise reduction plans as well as the implementation of areas where incentives schemes apply,

285

require the municipal situation reports and location analysis, mentioned in the previous chapter, and the resulting plans for measures aimed at prevention and reconstruction. In the area of the fight against air pollution the same applies. On top of that par. 4 0 of the BImSchG provides more rigorous regulations which make it possible to take areawide measures restricting traffic in order to avoid excessive air pollution, if certain limiting values for immissions are exceeded and/or as a precaution. Measures restricting traffic represent a serious intervention in the field of transport. But they are especially inevitable, when certain limiting values set to protect public health are exceeded. Then the authorities no longer have any latitude for discretionary decisions. On the other hand such high pollution levels can already be countered at an early stage with suitable precautionary measures. These include the use of advanced technology (in the vehicles), but also appropriate measures in town planning and traffic planning. Therefore it is inevitable that in future analyses of pollution and environment-oriented objectives become part and parcel of town and traffic planning. Moreover it should also be in the interest of trade and industry that the danger implied in traffic restrictions is avoided by the earliest possible utilisation of all technical means we have at our disposal to reduce pollution. The representatives of trade and industry should give this more thought at the continuously very difficult negotiations on the determination of internationally coordinated emission limits of motor lorries. Besides, one should also see to it that the permitted emission margins are not increasingly exhausted by traffic while on the other hand locally licensing problems erise from the location of industries. This would lead to considerable structural disadvantages for the regions concerned. 3.3

Reduction bv means of technical measures

Technical measures for the reduction in emissions usually require sizeable effort - in as far as they can be realized at all from a technical-economic point of view. Manufacturers are therefore right in demanding timely and internationally coordinated objectives. It must, however, be quite clear - as has already been elucidated above - to all participants involved in the determination of such objectives (authorities as well as the opposing lobby of manufacturers) that any lack of courage to realize the technical possibilities will only necessitate far more deplorable measures in the non-technical area (traffic restrictions). 3.3.1

Reduction of air pollution

The major share of emissions of air pollution in traffic, with the exception of soot, comes from passenger cars. Here considerable reductions can be expected from a consistent pursuance of a sophisticated catalyst technique (electronically controlled catalytic converter). This statement refers especially to the existing NO,-, CO- and HC-pollution and their reduction. Measures in respect of motor lorries should first get to grips with the pollution with NO, and sootparticles which is mainly caused by motor lorries. For that reason the relevant EC limits

286 should finally be introduced (soot) and tightened (NO,) respectively, making it compulsory for manufacturers take steps in order to comply with these limits. For instance, limiting NO, emissions to 7 g/kWh and so halving the present NO,-limit compared with today is justifiable, in considerations regarding the limitation of the overall consumption. On a national level efforts should be stimulated to implement those techniques for reduced emissions by motor lorries, which have already been tested, for instance the at least partly successful techniques tested at the large scale fleet test conducted by the Federal Environmental Minister for the purpose of introducing soot-filters in motor lorries, but apart therefrom those for low-noise vehicles as well, at the earliest possible date. The development of lorry engines with low emissions of NO, and soot is to be given top priority in the public interest. The official promotion of appropriate engineering output must therefore be continued unconditionally. 3.3.2

Reduction of noise levels

During the past ten years the development of technical measures to reduce noise levels of motor lorries already met with considerable success (12). Partly these achievements could be converted into tightened EC limiting values for noise by the end of the eighties. Consequently the motor lorries approved in the nineties should be quieter to a degree that ten of these together produce as much noise as one single motor lorry did in the early eighties [reduction by 1 0 dB(A)I. Nevertheless the limits of the technical and economical capabilities have not yet been reached. In the course of 1 9 9 0 there will be over a hundred types of lorries made by seven European manufacturers, which will meet the clearly more demanding definition - in comparison with the EC limits - for low-noise motor lorries stated in the German Road Traffic Licensing Ordinance (Annex XXI StVZO). A comprehensive and regularly updated list of the now available low-noise lorry-types (at present, April 1 9 9 0 , more than 1 0 0 types from 2.8 tons to 32 tons and from 51 kW to 282 kW) can be obtained from the German Federal Environmental Agency in Berlin. At the new negotiations on a further tightening of EC limiting values for noise the German delegation will propose the definition of traffic noise values f o r low-noise vehicles as given in the German StVZO as the new EC limiting values for motor lorries. Meanwhile the chances for success on the market for the low-noise motor lorries which are already available, but a little more expensive, should be improved by providing incentives. This is already practised today in as much as they are exempted from road restrictions or receive financial benefits (for instance in Bad Reichenhall, Baden-Wurttemberg, Berlin). In other countries, too, the purchase of low-noise vehicles is encouraged by incentives, but the criteria laid down still vary. In this area standardisation on a European level is highly desirable. Recently the effectiveness of such incentives has been noticeable in Austria, where there is a ban on night traffic for commercial vehicles

287 with the exception of low-noise vehicles. This ordinance has led to a sharp increase in the supply and the sales of low-noise vehicles. When, however, lorries are deployed in town centres, the nuisance is not only caused by the operation of the vehicle itself, but also by the noise produced by work units mounted on the vehicles. AS an example the substantial disturbance caused by municipal vehicles especially in residential areas may be mentioned. As has been demonstrated in developments ordered by the German Federal Environment Office (13), this noise can also be reduced by the introduction of sophisticated technical measures. At the recommendation of the UBA the German 'Environment Label Jury, has meanwhile laid down criteria for permissable noise levels. Commercial vehicles meeting these criteria will be distinguished with this Environmental Label ( 1 4 ) . The technical possibilities of reducing pollution by vehicles also include exercising influence on the driving behaviour. It has been shown that driving with low revolutions and a constant speed results in both a reduction in fuel consumption and in noise levels (15). In addition, a constant driving style results in reductions in air pollution as well. Such attitudes among the drivers can be achieved by the training of drivers; this is already done by the Federal German Freight Transport Association (BDF) in order to save on fuel. But also with technical devices, such as automatic gears, revolution and speed limiters and (within town limits) with suitable traffic controls (adaptation of traffic lights to the flow of commercial vehicles) the style of operating vehicles can be changed in such a way that emissions are reduced.

So far little attention has been paid to the nuisance produced during loading and unloading work and ways to combat this. Training of workers can help to eliminate unnecessary nuisance resulting from incorrect behaviour. Examples are that engines should not be kept running during loading and unloading and the avoidance of unnecessary noise during these activities, especially at times when this would obviously annoy the neighbourhood. Besides there is a series of technical solutions, for instance special loading ramps with loading doors that are virtually flush with the body of the vehicle, and low-noise rolling platforms for containers which will help to avoid disturbances during (unlloading activities. 3.4

Reduction by means of traffic control

Due to the continuous increase in traffic it is unlikely that the necessary reduction in pollution caused by traffic can be achieved with technical measures alone. As there are more vehicles on the roads, non-technical measures to control traffic are becoming increasingly important to the protection of the environment, but also to ensure an efficient traffic management. 3.4.1

Controlling traffic volume

Apart from leaving and arriving long-haul traffic freight transport within towns is performed on the streets for close to 100 per cent. Shifts to other carriers less harmful to the environment, are now under discussion, but only for planning in the very long term. For the purpose of reducing pollution it must also be examined whether general traffic reductions, or at least

288

local changes in traffic volumes, can be realized. It would be most important for the global reduction of air pollution if the necessity of transport services were queried, as this would possibly bring a general reduction in traffic volumes about. On the one hand this is a matter of reducing the number of trips by improving the weight load factor of the vehicles. With improved logistics (e.g. distribution centres for goods, intertransporters cooperation, introduction o f mobile telecommunication equipment), and by cancelling legal transport restrictions the proportion of empty runs, until now calculated to amount to 30 per cent to 50 per cent ( 1 6 ) , should be reduced. This should not lead to contradictions with the endeavours of trade and industry, as they can now purchase the transport services they need at better prices because of the improved loading techniques. In addition unnecessary and economically not justifiable transport services should be avoided, too, by a concentration of production processes in one location which can be achieved with town planning and internal planning by companies. The proportion of the cost of procurement, sales and storage of the total cost of a product is approximately 2 5 per cent to 30 per cent. ( 1 7 ) . The ever increasing tendency to decentralize manufacturing and to make 'just-in-time' deliveries finds its cause in the fact that motor lorry traffic bears only part of the cost it is responsible for and that for that reason and by cheaper decentralized manufacturing possibilities savings in costs are made. Manufacturers will probably persevere in their decentralized manufacturing for as long as it yields advantageous prices and their deliveries reach their destinations promptly and reliably. Especially the latter is only possible - the streets today being hardly capable of accomodating more traffic - if the forwarders anticipate long waiting times in the city streets as a precaution contribute considerably to pollution and and, in so doing, traffic problems. If trade and industry do not soon begin to be aware of these self-inflicted problems, there will in the long run hardly be any other possibility but to increase taxes for traffic or for the government to resort to measures (e.g. issuing licenses for transport services or rationing fuel for manufacturers). How serious manufacturers take the argument of punctual deliveries becomes clear when we see that many companies with easy access to the railway system have converted to rail carriage for their tjust-in-timel business again, in spite of the price advantage offered by motor lorries. Until now the railways still have the upper hand over road traffic in respect of punctuality. For the reduction of noise pollution in built-up areas, but also for the reduction of locally excessive air pollution local regulations controlling traffic volumes are very important. Noise decays quickly near the source. But it can also be easily controlled by means of screens or embankments. Therefore it is possible to free large town areas from noise to a large extent with the use of a directionality concept concentrating traffic on main roads, and to concentrate measures to reduce noisiness by building screens etc. along main thoroughfares (regional traffic noise abatement). In this respect it should be known that right now 80 per cent of transport services is performed on only 20 per cent of the road network in town centres. In paragraph 2 . 2 it was already mentioned to what extent motor lorries can be found in

289

the various types of streets and in the various types of areas. Concepts for the local control of motor lorry traffic should ensure that motor lorry traffic, which is particularly noisy, is channeled through priority routes. These priority routes should preferably be constructed through areas where the noise sensitivity is low - even if the roads would need to be longer. In those cases where such sectors are not available, temporarily differentiated solutions (e.g. night ban on lorry traffic), speed limits and incentives regulations (e.g. exemption from traffic restrictions) could be applied to the operators of vehicles that are less harmful to the environment. Short cuts through residential streets should be prohibited regardless. 3.4.2

Influencing traffic management

The above mentioned measures to control local traffic are in part and at the same time measures to control traffic management. By increasing driving resistance leading to reduced travelling speeds of individual vehicles or by the installation of gating traffic lights it will for instance be possible to reduce the pollution by vehicles on certain routes. In residential areas traffic jams should be avoided regardless, because of the local pollution they cause. This can be achieved by appropriate construction of road junctions, phased traffic lights and priority routes. For (locall freight transport planning of trips and of vehicle utilisation will result in a traffic management less harmful to the environment. Here freight transport transfer centres will be able to play an important role. So it can be ensured that long distance vehicles, that are basically not meant for the road infrastructure in towns, are transferred to distribution vehicles suited to inner-city transport. Moreover the operation of lowemitting vehicles with exemption certificates can be coordinated for trips through noise-sensitive areas or through areas where precautions against severe air pollution are necessary. The installation and maintenance of such transfer centres should be sponsored by the authorities because of their important public function. 3.5

Elucidation and Information

In order to implement many of the above-mentioned measures it is necessary to raise the acceptance by the parties concerned by enhancing their awareness of the overall traffic problems. What is still lacking is the realization of the interdependence between the three main factors in traffic: the assurance of the transport function, the guarantee of individual freedom of movement and the conservation and maintenance of proper environmental quality standards. It is particularly important to clarify that none of these factors should be allowed to prevail. In any case it should be left to a political weighing up of goods to determine to what extent the individual choice of transport should be limited in order to simultaneously guarantee the necessary traffic and to prevent avoidable environmental nuisance. Time and again it is evident that the people concerned are full of good will, when it is a matter of a sensible need for behavioural changes. This, however, is conditional upon furnishing the general public with proper information and

290

transparency of decisions. In an important work written for the Verband der offentlichen Verkehrsbetriebe (Association of Public Transport Companies) ( 1 8) it was demonstrated that the population points out the decisive role to the traffic problem, before any other municipal problem. On the other hand the investigation shows as well that the political decisionmakers totally underestimate the willingness on the part of the population to changes in behaviour. One of the most important steps in enhancing public awareness is to make road users realize better how their personal activities in traffic affect the environment. This information should already be imparted in the general education of young people, but at the latest during driving lessons (also see paragraph 3.3.2) and it should be part of the driving test. But it is equally important to show possible alternative ways of conserving the environment. Information on the existing types of low-noise and low-exhaustgas cars that are produced in series by the manufacturers should clearly be improved. This applies in particular to advice to customers by salesmen. 4.

EMISSION REDUCTION (AIR POLLUTION AND NOISE)

Without concrete case studies it would hardly be possible to quantify the emission reduction of the various measures outlined above. All the same an attempt should be made to describe these measures as to their qualititive significance and the space of time until they will take effect. Nevertheless, it is only fair to express a warning that the effects of the various measures cannot be added up unconditionally on account of their mutual dependence. Since none of these measures is very clearly superior to any of the others, a decisive improvement of the environment can only be achieved by simultaneously applying as many of the measures described as possible. TABLE 2 Evaluation and designation of measures. Reduction Effec- Action Costs effect tiveness by 1.

Town- and Traffic Planning (see par. 3.2)

1 . 1 Concentration of planning

competence in public authority 1 . 2 Coordinated town- and

traffic planning 1 . 3 Land-use planning to

reduce traffic - continued

-

++

m/l

B

-

++

m/ 1

B

-

++

1

B

29 1 TABLE 2.

2, continued

Planning and traffic regulation measures (see par. 3.2)

2.1 Plans to reduce air

pollution and noise 2.2 Traffic restrictions 2.4 Tightening of limiting

+++

m/l

B

---

++

k

B

-

+I+++

values of emissions

mfl

3.

Technical reduction measures (see par. 3.3)

3.1

Development of lowemission commercial vehicles

3.2 Promotion of low-emission

vehicles 3 . 3 Influencing operating

method with technical aids 4.

++

mfl

B

P

-I--

_-

+I++ mfl

PfB

-

+I++ kfm

PfB

--

Control of traffic volumes (see par. 3.4.1)

4.1 Improved loading of vehicles

++

m,1

P,B

+

m,1

B

-

1

B

-

4.2 Local concentration

of manufacturing 4.3 Road-pricing 4.4 Mileage or fuel quotas

++

for companies 5.

Influencing traffic management (see par. 3.4.2)

5.1

Speed limits

k/l

B

-I---

k

B

- f ---

k/l

PfB

--

mfl

B

--

+

k

P

--

++

1

P,B

-

+

k

P

-

+ f ++

+

5.2 Sustaining traffic flow 5.3 Non-polluting vehicles

++ f +++

for distribution 6.

Elucidation and information (see par. 3.5)

6.1 Information on pollution

air and noise nuisance charts

++

6.2 Information campaigns 6.3 Information and education 6.4 Training of drivers Reduction effect: Measures come into effect: Action by: costs:

+t+

k B

___

high short term public high

+ t medium

+ low medium term 1 longterm P private body (e.g.companies) -- medium - low

m

292 REFERENCES

1 2 3 4

5

6

7

8 9

10 11

12 13

14 15

16 17

Ministry for Transport and Public Works, in: Second structural report on traffic development in the Netherlands, Den Haag, 1989. (German) Working group ‘Environment and Traffic, of the Federal German Conference of Environment Ministers, Celle, 1990. (German) Federal Minister of Transport, in: Traffic in Figures 1989, Bonn, 1989, pp. 139/141. (German) K. Gluck, G. Krasser, in: Weighting of Environmental Criteria, Publication series Research into Road Building and Traffic Engineering of the Federal Minister of Transport, part 229, Bonn, 1980. (German) Directive of the Council ( 8 5 / 2 0 3 / E W G ) on Air Quality Standards for Nitrogen Dioxide of 7th March 1985, Official Journal of the European Community of 27th March 1985. (German) Updating the Environmental Policy 1989, Institute for Practice Oriented Social Research (IPOS), Mannheim, 1989. (German) H. Steven, in: Traffic noise - Causes, Influencing parameter, Possibilities of reduction, Private publication Research Institute for Noise and Vibration (FIGE), Herzogenrath near Aachen, 1990. (German) Directives for Noise Protection in Roads - Edition 1990, RLS 90, Federal Minister for Transport, Bonn, 1990. (German) Association of Town-, County- and Landscape-Planners (Hrsg.), in: Goods Traffic compatible with City-life, Report on meeting SRL-publication series No. 26; Bochum, 1989; especially noteworthy: a Ahrens, G.-A.: Nuisance caused by Goods Traffic; b Beckmann, K.J.: Remarks and Theses on the Interrelationship between Goods Traffic and Urban Development, Town Construction, Civil and Underground Engineering; c Bracher, T: Goods Traffic in Towns - Development, Structural Change, Ideas on Objectives, Approaches to Solutions; d Kiedrowski, D. von: Problems and Approaches to Solutions with regard to the example of the town of Kassel. The new edition of the Federal Immission Protection Act (BImSchG), taking into account the 3rd amendment, 14.9.90, BGB1. I, p. 880. (German) Resolution of the Federal Environment Ministers Conference, Celle, 1990. (German) R. Stenschke, in: Noise Emissions from Motor Vehicles and Possibilities of Noise Reduction - Activities of the German Federal Environmental Agency, INTERNOISE, 1990. V. Irmer and K. Stinshoff, in: Low-noise Goods Vehicles with Mounted Equipment, Journal Larmbekampfung 35, 1988, p. 151. ( German ) Criteria for Low-noise and Low-soot Municipal Vehicles of the Jury for the Environmental Label, RAL U Z 59, state 1990. (German) Research on the Effect of Fuel-saving Engine Design and Driving Style on Noise Emission by Motor Lorries, Research Report 105 05 124, FIGE, commissioned by the UBA, Berlin, 1 983. (German) ADAC Motorwelt, Motoring World 4(1990), p. 8. (German) M e r c e d e s - B e n z : M o t o r l o r r i e s l e s s h a r m f u l t o the Environment, for Europe, page 9, Stuttgart, 1989. (German)

293 18

Valuations regarding Mobility - Basic Factors f o r a Public Awareness Concept, Association of Public Transport Companies (VOV)/ Social data, Cologne, 1989. (German)


M. Krooii. R . S I I I Iund ~ J. voti Huiir (Edirors), treighr Transporr and the Environntent ' c 1991 Elsevier Science Piihlislrers B. V . . Aiiisrerdoiii. Prinred in rhe Nerherbnds

295

MINIMIZING TRAFFIC NUISANCE (IN CITIES) BY OPTIMIZATION OF LOGISTICS AND MEANS OF TRANSPORT T. Postma Ahold N. V., Eurodesk Logistics and Distribution, P.O. Box 33, 1500 EA Zaandam, The Netherlands

Any distribution company in our economic system will seek to optimize its logistics and means of transport. However, the solution to the optimization problem may be influenced by external parties. Naturally one can think of the company's image in the eyes of the public, its customers. Many times however, the government will act against traffic nuisance, either on behalf of the citizens or for other e.g. political reasons. Both stimuli will cause adjustments in the company's distribution system through internalization of a priori external effects. Ahold being a large distribution company in The Netherlands, it will be shown what ways it follows towards performing its role in society. As a matter of course this will begin with the requirements of the retail outlets, being the places where it ultimately meets its customers. A picture will be drawn of the current infrastructure and the methods and means by which it fulfills those requirements. Without ignoring the possible influence of individuals in society, we will then concentrate on government action against traffic nuisance. A number of measures will be mentioned and their possible effects analyzed. Special attention will be drawn to the fact that there appears to be no concerted action of local governments, which is rather confusing to a nationally operating company. Under the influence of these measures one may choose from a limited number of reactions and thus come towards an adapted distribution policy. The possibilities will be shown with their respective effects. Also other considerations and restrictions will be taken into account. More specifically attention will be paid to actual plans to combine the physical distribution of currently separately handled product groups. 1. Introduction

It is only logical that a distribution company in our economic system will seek to optimize its logistics and means of transport. My company Ahold, a large food distributor in the Netherlands with an annual turnover of some f 8 billion in this country and equally substantial interests in the USA, is no exception. Basically our task is to distribute our goods as Close to the consumer as she appreciates. (I use the word "she" because most of our customers appear to be women). Currently we distribute chiefly via retailoutlets with either a neighbourhood or regional function. This function highly determines the size and composition of the range of products. But also for a number of years we have been experimenting with a distribution system that delivers the desired products to the customer's home. Operating within the economic system that we know, we naturally have profitability as a starting point or, if you prefer, as a precondition. This means that we must keep a watchful eye on both revenues and costs. Marketconditions are close to what economists call perfect competition, so that prices have largely lost their relation to costs and are mainly determined by value as perceived by the individual consumer.

296 The implication is that it is practically impossible to pass on any extra costs to the consumer, unless she appreciates the added value or all our competitors do the same. An extra complication in this respect is that we do not apply price differentiation by geographic location. If we did it would mean that all customers would have to pay for those that are living in less accessible areas. This leads us to the question whether a company like ours can be expected to design a policy towards minimizing traffic nuisance. Unless it hampers us in performing our job, we can s e e no reason to do so. Naturally we are aware of the fact that our distribution system generates traffic and therefore causes nuisance like noise, pollution and congestion. But if it does not specifically affect our image in the eyes of the public and does not, for that reason, lead to a loss in revenue, we may not be tempted to adjustments that generate extra costs. And this is where the government, principally being the representative of the public at large, comes into the picture. Of course the people in government may have other, for instance political. reasons to intervene with the process of distribution but here we shall refrain from other motives than those that are in the interest of the citizens. So the government, be it local, regional or national, will act upon obvious external effects of us fulfilling our role in society. Whatever means it may apply, the end will always be to internalize these external effects into the company’s profit and loss account. In some instances levies and taxes are appropriate but also on many occasions measures are taken that indirectly cause our costs to rise. We shall now have a short look at what sort of a company Ahold really is, what distribution system it applies in the Netherlands and which variables can be manipulated to optimize logistics and the means of transport. We will than concentrate on a selected number of government actions against traffic nuisance and their possible effects. Subsequently I will look at the possible reactions upon these measures and more specifically at actual plans to adapt the distribution system to new circumstances. Last but not least I will try to answer the question of what the government could do for us. 2. Ahold: a large food distributor in the Netherlands

By far the largest part of our Dutch operation is the Albert Heijn supermarket chain with an annual turnover of some f 7 billion through more than 550 retail outlets. Grootverbruik Ahold is specialized in supplying institutional customers like hospitals and company restaurants and has a growing turnover of now f 700 million a year. Our specialty stores Etos (health and beauty aids) and Gall & Gall (wine and spirits) generate annual sales of respectively f 210 million and f 350 million through some 150 and 270 outlets. In addition to the retailtrade we operate a food production and packaging company (Marvelo), a processed-meat company (Meester) and a bakery (Albro) as well as a few other, more or less experimental, ventures. Focusing on the Albert Heijn supermarkets we see that they are spread all over the country, albeit with a relative concentration in the Western part. A little more than 450 are wholly owned by us and some 106 are operated under franchise contract. Sales areas vary between under 100 square meters to over 4 , 0 0 0 square meters, but two-thirds of them you will find to have a surface of between 500 and 1,500 square meters. From a sales point of view many of the stores really should be larger than they are, but simply do not have enough room to expand. Replenishment of the Albert Heijn stores takes place from 3 regional warehouses for fast moving groceries and perishable products (together some 2,300 lines), 4 meat processing plants, 5 agricultural produce centers and 1 nationally operating warehouse with some 6.000 medium and slow moving articles. Deliveries are made within 24-36 hours after ordering and with frequencies of 3-6 times a

297 week from each distribution center. Altogether more than 220 billion cases, crates and boxes are handled each year or on average some 4.3 million a week, the equivalent of approximately 3,000 average truck-loads. In addition to that we have direct deliveries from suppliers and contract-distribution by third parties. The relative volume shares in 1988 of each channel by product category can be shown as follows:

Product category

own distribution

Fresh meatlchicken Produce/flowers

Contract distribution

Direct deliveries

60%

40%

100%

-

Groceries

90%

5%

Beerslsoft drinks

85%

15%

Perishables

95%

5%

Fresh bread Milk

100%

-

100%

Deep frozen

The first question to be asked in (reldesigning a physical distribution system ought to be: what is it the stores require to be able to perform their task i.e. serving the customer as close to her house as she values. Customer demand (and suppliers’ push) has caused the range of products and the volume of sales to grow steadily over the years. To make this possible the stores required more and more sales area and where space was short anyway, this trend made backrooms diminish. Thus in-house stocks grew smaller and smaller, while at the same time more and more fresh products entered the range. Since the customer expects a full and neat store that invites her to shop around pleasantly the frequency of deliveries had to rise. We have seen that we have a number of separated distribution channels. From each channel arrangements are made with the stores as to ways of ordering, leadtimes, frequencies of delivery, drop volumes and moments of supply (usually time windows). These are all more or less independent variables of the distribution system and can be manipulated. Frequency is of course very much related to drop volume, but there is yet another way of affecting the quantity to be delivered at a certain moment in time. We can either combine or separate groups within the product range or, in fact, determine the number of distribution channels that lead towards the retail outlets.

Last but not least we have a choice in the means of transport. It is hardly a question of whether or not to use lorries, of which traffic laws and physical circumstances limit the range of types and sizes. Economies of scale have led us to the larger types of trailers, carrying either 18 or 26 pallets and swop-bodies with a capacity of 16 plus 14 pallets. The pallets we now use measure 1,000 * 1,200 mm; an alternative could be the Euro-pallet measuring 800 * 1,200 nun, which we do not apply now for reasons of scale, but we may have to do so in future since most European countries do. Another possibility is to use rollcages and we do so for product-groups that are less voluminous.

298 So much for our current distribution systems. Now let us have a look at where and how we meet (local) government in using them.

3. Government measures and their effects: a selection Ideally from our business point of view we would expect the government to create an infrastructure that facilitates our physical distribution. However, the government has other interests to watch over as well. Traffic jams are a pain in the neck for every transport operation that requires the use of the road. Pollution of the environment neccessitates government to bring the growth of car usage to a halt, partly by maintaining the bottle-necks, thus discouraging (potential) car drivers. In so doing not only commuters and pensioners are hampered in their freedom of choice and mobility, but also the professional hauliers. It appears to be rather difficult to apply different measures to different groups of road-users. So far only public transport has. in some instances and places, been awarded the advantage of having their own lanes. Nevertheless the share of roadtransport in the total national freight movement (measured in tonkilometers), has grown from 66% in 1975 to 71% in 1987. while the average lorry capacity has increased from 8.3 tonnes in 1980 to 8.7 tonnes in 1985. Most lorries that enter our cities do so for delivery purposes. Unloading time is relatively big in comparison to driving time, especially when full car loads must be discharged. And yet, getting there becomes more and more difficult, because of traffic circulation schemes, parked cars, many times double and/or in prohibited places and obstacles intended to be just that. When finally arrived, the unloading zone is occupied with private cars, possibly owned by customers, or the road must be blocked by the lorry because there is no zone at all. Only recently we came into conflict with a local police force that would no longer allow our lorries to replenish one of our franchising stores. The road leading towards it was said to be unsuitable for that much weight i.e. 10 tonnes of vehicle and up to 20 tonnes of load. This of course may be true enough, but we had been doing so for many years and therefore we claimed to have a right to continue this. To spare citizens the nuisance of noises caused by engines, electromotors, the clattering of bottles and other disturbing sounds, periods of time have been set, during which no (un)loading is to take place. Usually this is allowed from 07.00 to 19.00 hours only, a period of time being the busiest and largely overlapping opening hours of the store. In addition to this limitations have been set on soundlevels, differentiated by the hours of the day. A few months ago we found ourselves confronted with quite a difficult problem in the delivery of goods to one of our newly built stores. Some people living and/or working in the direct vicinity of this store used every legal possibility to protect their interests. This resulted in a high court of law deciding upon a strict limitation of sound levels and a time-window for loading and unloading from 0700 hours to 1300 hours only. What made this a problem is the fact that we had to comply in order to be allowed to open the store, while a thorough investigation learned us that actual soundlevels were higher than allowed and that the customary replenishment procedures would not fit the restricted time-window. It took us quite some time and effort to solve the problem, but after all we did. Earlier I mentioned a general lack of space in our stores. As a result of that returnables are often put down on the sidewalk because there is nowhere else to place them. This however makes them a special target to the environmental police. We have a system that enables for empty bottles to be returned in order not to charge the environment with more waste. Having little space to store them, we are urged to make extra trips to take them away, thereby causing some extra pollution.

299 The biggest problem appears to be that local Government action seems to lack co-ordination, so that we are confronted with a mess of regulations and prohibitions. This makes it rather difficult to devise a comprehensive and effective policy to meet them. Nevertheless we shall now consider the possibilities to do so anyway. 4. Changing distribution policies: responses and challennes

The distribution channels leading towards the stores make their delivery agreements independently from one another. One distinctive way to lessen nuisance would be to improve co-ordination between them. More and more we are discovering that the retail outlets and their surroundings are the place from which all thinking and planning should start. In terms of logistics this would mean taking the specific requirements regarding the flow of goods into account when building or remodeling a store. This is only logical: after all a retail outlet is nothing else but a warehouse, dressed up by marketeers. But of course store designers must balance between many, sometimes contradictory or even conflicting, requirements at the same time taking account of all the limitations. Once the store is in operation in fact it should be the manager himself that devises the delivery plan together with his suppliers. And again there will be conflicting interests often paired with a lack of know-how on the side of the manager, who is expected to be practically omnipotent. Evidently, life for him would be easier if he only had to talk to one organization, instead of having to deal with several suppliers. Within Albert Heijn we are gradually taking over physical distribution from external parties for this purpose, although we must admit that we have other reasons to do so as well. Also we are planning to integrate distribution channels, at least from a transport point of view. The general idea is to create regional warehouses that contain all fast moving articles. as well as perishables, agricultural produce, fresh meat and frozen food. Of course we must take into account that product characteristics differ, for instance because temperature conditions need to be maintained. Giving each product category its own sector of the warehouse and (variable) compartment in the trailer will mean that this requirement can be taken care of. To illustrate the effect of this we expect the following statement to hold true: a combination of agricultural produce, meat, long life chilled, superfast groceries and frozen food distributed from a composite warehouse to a 150 stores in the Northwest of Holland will require a total of 1,200 deliveries per week, whereas in the current situation 3 , 4 5 0 deliveries are necessary. Thus the number of trucks arriving at the backdoor of a store would be sharply diminished. However, one must realize that deliveries will be more voluminous and therefore unloading times longer. The quantity of kilometers driven will hardly be affected, although less trips will have to be made between stores, thereby minimizing traffic nuisance in cities. We expect to have the first composite warehouse in operation by 1992, but already in some places and instances we are required to operate as if we had one now. Our store on Texel, one of the islands in the north of Holland, is being replenished by lorries that combine groceries, long-life chilled goods and produce. Since the goods originate from different locations some regrouping is necessary. The decision to do so was based upon cost saving considerations. Earlier I spoke about the problem we found ourselves confronted with in opening a new store. Here too regrouping of goods coming from the different warehouses appeared to be the greater part of the solution, even if we had to make some flows to come from other warehouses than they did before.

300 One might be tempted to think that using smaller vehicles would also reduce traffic nuisance. For the smaller stores this may be true, or more generally speaking, we could strive to having one delivery per trip only, thus reducing interstore traffic to zero. This, however, has two distinct disadvantages for us: 1) having a variety of vehicles in different sizes reduces our flexibility and 2) smaller trucks are relatively more expensive. For instance a capacity of 12 pallets costs almost as much as a 24 pallet load. That is why we cannot simply comply to a local authority demanding us to use smaller vehicles because of the condition of the road. On a smaller scale of course there are other things that can be done. To lessen noise when loading and unloading more rubber can be applied in the trailers. Manufacturers of mobile equipment can be urged to make less noisy engines and electromotors. When building or remodeling stores we can take more account of changing attitudes towards nuisance and employees can be made more conscious of the environment they work in. And that of course is what we do whenever the occasion asks for it. 5.

Minimizing traffic nuisance: what the uovernment can do.

As I said, my company fulfills a role in the Dutch society in distributing food and related products and we expect government to help us doing s o . We appreciate the fact that other interests of the people must be watched over as well and we accept the governments pursuit of internalizing the external effects of our activities. Important for us however is that policies are devised and applied consistently throughout the country. Widening the allowed timeslots would certainly help us a lot, as suggested earlier. After all, during evenings and nights there will be no congestion, neither in the streets nor in the store. But again this is a trade-off with noise and risks of criminal action. Also it would be very helpful if our trucks could use the traffic lanes of public transport. More generally speaking, some help from the government with regard to time windows and free traffic lanes would be very welcome in doing what must be done anyway.

hf.KI’O<JII.R . Siriit ond J . vun Huiri (EdirorsJ. Freighi Transport und the Environmenr

301

1991 Elsewer Science Piiblirhers B. I/.. Airisierdaiii. Printed in the Netherlands

STRATEGIES TO RID THE ENVIRONMENT OF POLLUTION BY INNER-CITY FREIGHT TRANSPORT - CASE STUDIES IN COLOGNE AND GELSENKIRCHEN Manfred Garben I VU - Data Processing, Traffic Consultancy and Applied Operational Research Company Ltd, Bundesallee 129, 0-1000 Berlin 41, Germany

SUMMARY

The most important measures in strategies for relieving the environment of pollution caused by goods traffic in towns are those aimed at a dispatch of goods traffic compatible with town life. This can be achieved through a guiding concept for motor lorries. Specific problem situations arising from goods traffic in towns, and recommended measures contained in a guiding concept for motor lorries are given in two representative cases. 1.

INTRODUCTION

The larger part of goods traffic in towns is carried by motor lorries. Apart from its significance to business life and therefore to the proper functioning of towns, this motor lorry goods traffic is also a major factor in pollution e.g. because it produces emissions of noise and noxious matter, takes up a lot of space and is accident-prone. Whereas up till now research used to concentrate mainly on the effectiveness of city goods traffic, today the environment impact has added greatly to potential conflicts. Superproportional nuisance for traffic, infrastructure and environment is caused especially by big and heavy motor lorries. Therefore problems and ideas for solutions of conflicts involving big and heavy motor lorries will be prominent in the following exposition: This is based on case studies in Cologne (Poll) and Gelsenkirchen which were made in connection with the project ,Strategie,s for goods traffic for the purpose of improving the environment, The following exposition highlights a few high-priority problem areas :

.

- heavy traffic resp. - example Gelsenkirchen, and

( 1 ) dangerous goods

( 2 ) a town area with a highly mixed ustilisation and a sharp rise

in motor lorry traffic - example Cologne-Poll.

The specific problem in Gelsenkirchen is the sharp rise in mineral-oil transports operated by tankers calling at a total of

302

four loading stations in the town area and plying between these stations and the nearest motorway junction. The specific problem in the Cologne-Poll town area lies in the circumstance that not only the Deutzer Hafen (port), but also the companies established in the industrial areas generate considerable lorry traffic, which travels through residential areas and the centre of the suburb Poll. Figure 1 shows selected areas for possible measures and starting points for municipalities to develop strategies for the reduction of pollution in towns by goods traffic on the basis of the main fields of research currently carried out in Gelsenkirchen (GE) and Cologne-Poll (K). M E A S U R E

I

1

Main field of research GE K

..

Space utilisation Land-ure planning in industrial areas Connection points - Longhaul and local traffic - Rail- and waterways Transfer stations for goods (storage and transshipment facilitieslparking lots/ Branch depots Function-related reconstruction of roads

m

.

Design of road areas Definition of delivery zones with specialized utilisation Cross-sections - division and realisation (Traffic moderation)

.

Low-noise road-surface coating

1

Traffic management Separation of passenger cars and lorries Concentration on main roads and bypasses Priority roads for dangerous goods/ heavy traffic Guiding systems f o r direction-finding Municipal regulations policy Regulatingicontrolling stationary traffic Regulating traffic flow - right of way rules - turn filters - dosage of feed-in traffic - speed - traffic direction signs

1

Closina roads to traffic - temporary - local - depending on type o f vehicle (length, weight. nolse emission) Road tax

FIGURE 1 Main research points for municipal approaches to strategies for reduction of pollution by freight transport in towns. In the following test results and resulting recommendations for measures to be taken in both examples are presented:

303 EXAMPLE GELSElJKIRCHEN

2.

Description of problem

2.1

In the Federal Republic of Germany the town of Gelsenkirchen has the largest refinery capacity. Whereas the feedstock products are delivered almost exclusively by pipelines, water and rail, the distribution of the refined products mainly takes place by road.

Number of trips:

BAB

-

access roads

BU = GE Buer Sc = GE Schalke is

53

"'3

;;3

LOO

GI = Gladbeck He = GE Hessler

L?O

FIGURE 2 Routes to and from the four loading yards ( N = ScholvenNord, S = Scholven-Sud, H = Horst, A = Aral) with the extrapolated sector loads of mineral oil- or heavy transports over 2 4 hours on a typical workday. The special nature of the pollution by road transport is based on the fact that the vehicles employed are chiefly heavy motor lorries and trailer trains and that essentially dangerous goods are transported (basically inflammable liquid substances). The available data on nature, place, time and quantity of the environment load in the town area were insufficient. Therefore close to 600 drivers, who operate their vehicles to the four big

304 loading yards of the oil- and plastics industry, were polled during 2 4 hours on a normal workday regarding: - the quantity, time and nature of their loads - the origin and destination -routes selected in the town area and - their own specific problems. The opinion poll covered 6 7 0 of the total of 1 , 0 7 6 transports that were handled at the loading yards. 80% to 90% of all transports consisted of dangerous goods of class 3 , i.e. inflammable, liquid substances and roughly 7 5 % of all vehicles had a maximum total weight of 4 0 tons. Figure 2 above shows the position of the loading yards and the routes of the vehicles in the town area with the extrapolated sector loads of mineral oil and heavy transports during 2 4 hours on a workday. The roads to and from the four loading yards are concentrated in certain sectors and lead partly through residential areas and short-cuts in the inner-city. special problem for the residents is the sometimes considerable traffic density in the city streets generated by motor lorries travelling to and from the loading yards between 2 2 . 0 0 and 6 . 0 0 hours. They are partly in the order of 30% of the daily density. A

2.2

Recommendations for measures

T h e r e s e a r c h in G e l s e n k i r c h e n l e a d s to t h e f o l l o w i n g recommendations, which may be conveyed to other town areas: o T h e definition and the positive identification of a local network of roads for heavy and dangerous transports, connected with a corresponding regional network. Strict requirements in respect of practicability and environmental feasibility should be enforced for such priority roads. Residential areas should always b e y i d e d .

o Traffic-technical procedures on the priority network. These should in principle be aimed at stabilizing traffic flows at a relatively low speed (in relation to lorry-compatibility). This can, for instance, be achieved, when traffic lights are phased enabling lorry drivers to carry on at a steady speed without racing or stopping all the time. Moreover all streets, where at present speeds of over 50 km/h are permitted, should be checked to find out if speed limits can be reduced. guiding concept for a priority network, efforts to arrive at information to operators and publicity in general. This is necessary for the realization of the network and for the acceptance by lorry drivers, forwarders and the general public.

o A

o Restrictive measures for streets outside the priority network, where nevertheless heavy and dangerous-goods transport as discussed here, takes place. Measures that are feasible are: Closing of certain sectors, closing certain sectors at night (possibly with an exception fok low-noise vehicles); speed limits cut back to 30 km/h for motor lorries and a general overtaking prohibition; rebuilding of roads.

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306

Figure 4 shows the comparatively high proportion of motor lorries in the Siegburgerstrasse.

FIGURE 4 Proportions of motor-lorry traffic of the total lorry traffic at specific times; Lkw = motor lorries and trailer trains in passenger-car units [Source: C o l o g n e m u n i c i p a l i t y , Townplanning department: Traffic statistics 1 9 8 1 - 1 9 8 4 1 . In the past years individual measures were already taken in Cologne-Poll in order to reduce nuisance from motor-lorry traffic. For instance, road signs were installed prohibiting entry into the Siegburgerstrasse in the direction toward the inner-city by motor lorries exceeding a total weight of 1.5 tons. However, this failed to accomplish a significant reduction in motor-lorry traffic. S i n c e so far n o inquiry i n t o the originating/terminating lorry-traffic - exempted from the entry prohibition - was carried out, it was not possible up till now to supply information on the question whether the reason lies in lacking acceptance by lorry drivers of possible by-passes or in the high density of originating/terminating lorry traffic. The question in how far a by-pass, indicated in the zoning plan (figure 51, will relieve the Siegburgerstrasse, especially from lorry traffic, can likewise only be answered on the basis of inquiries into originating, terminating and transit traffic. precondition for the processing of effective proposals for solutions to improve the environment is that the flows of freight and lorry traffic are known. Such data should be differentiated per branch to allow deduction of intelligible information. For this purpose the following data are required: (1) basic details of operator (situation, branch, number of staff), ( 2 ) Structure of lorry fleet, ( 3 ) Nature and relationships of goods, ( 4 ) Frequency of lorry trips (origin, destination, routes, times)

A

307 ( 5 ) Average loads on specified sectors,

(6) Freight carried by rail, ( 7 ) The number of residents and, where applicable, also the

values characteristic of the environmental sensitivity. D a t a u n d e r ( 5 ) to ( 7 ) a r e a v a i l a b l e f r o m t h e C o l o g n e municipality. Data under (1) to ( 4 ) were not available in the required differentiation for the area of our research. They were determined by means of an opinion poll among certain companies and can be complemented for the purpose of detailed examination by taking averages and by tcordont counts. 3.2

Recommended measures

As is shown in the research carried out in Cologne-Poll, the crucial point in developing strategies for measures to relieve the environment from nuisance caused by freight transport at the level of a town district is a traffic management of motor lorries which is compatible with the town in all its aspects. This can be achieved with a guiding concept. The development of a guiding concept for motor lorries at town district level can be divided in three main steps: The first step is the definition of an overriding priority network for motor lorries. The second step is the development at town district level of a comprehensive concept for small scale lorry traffic aimed at channeling the lorry flows along the desired routes. The third step is directed at measures to control traffic in such a way that lorry traffic on these routes is compatible with town life, for instance with a view to lowering and stabilising speeds. The initial steps toward a priority network for motor lorries have been taken in Cologne and in Hamburg.’ For the priority network for lorries in the examined area Cologne-Poll the Ostliche Zubringerstrasse with the access roads Deutzer Ring, Rolshover Strasse, Am Grauen Stein and Im Hasental as well as the A 4 with the access road Cologne-Poll are recommended. The motor-lorry guiding concept should be directed at these access roads in order to relieve the traffic in the Siegburgerstrasse. The routes to be taken by motor lorries are determined on the basis of the average lorry-flows and road sectors sensitive to traffic. The criteria for sensitive roads are zoning, the number of residents and town planning standards. As is shown by the valuation of the poll among operators there is a lot of traffic between the industrial area Deutzer Hafen and the BAB-access road Cologne-Poll on the one hand and between the industrial area Vingster Strasse and the BAB-access road ColognePoll on the other. This causes a heavy load, especially by lorry traffic to and from the harbour area, on the sensitive sectors of the Siegburger Strasse and the Hauptstrasse in Poll. The frequency of lorry movements between Vingsterstrasse and the BAB-access road Cologne-Poll causes corresponding nuisance to the residents of the street ‘Auf dem Sandberg, (cf. ( 1 3 ) in figure 5). In the southern part of the Siegburger Strasse the nuisance

factors accumulate due to the heavy traffic from the harbour and the Vingster Strasse to the BAB-access road Cologne-Poll (cf. ( 1 4 ) - ( 1 6 ) in figure 5). Therefore the object of a guiding concept for motor lorries in Cologne-Poll should be to direct the flow of lorry traffic in such a way that: -from the harbour area more traffic will use the access road Deutzer Ring, and - from the Vingster Strasse more traffic will use the access road Rolshover Strasse. This would reduce the load on the sensitive sectors in comparison with the present situation. In figure 5 examples of possible separate measures within the framework of a guiding concept for lorries for the research area Cologne-Poll are indicated. The guiding concept for lorries is composed of measures which will guide lorry traffic onto the desired lorry-routes and of measures restricting lorry movements where these are unwanted. These should be integrated in planning at a higher level. 3.2.1

Guiding lorry traffic onto desired lorry routes

The following areas provide opportunities for measures which would make the guiding of lorries onto desired routes more attractive: -guiding and information systems - extension of roads - stabilisation of the flow of lorry traffic Examples of recommended measures have been indicated and localized separately in figure 5: Guiding and information systems: For companies in the town area maps showing the recommended lorry routes should be prepared. In addition signposting of lorry routes from the priority road network to the industrial areas or to important factory sites should take place. (cf. ( l ) , ( 1 9 ) , (20)). Extension of roads: Drivers mentioned the short accelerating lane at the junction Deutzer Ring as a problem. In order to improve the connection for lorries from the harbour area to the Deutzer Ring an extension of the acceleration lane at the junction Deutzer Ring should be considered (cf. ( 2 ) 1 . For the lorry guiding concept the construction of a by-pass provided in the zoning plan would seem to be rather counterproductive, as it does not strengthen the connections to the North for originatingfterminating lorry-traffic in the area, but the lorry connections to the South, to the Cologne-Poll access road. Since the transit lorry traffic is far less significant than the originatingfterminating traffic, there is no need for the planned by-pass, even from the point of view of the total lorry traffic.

Homogeneous traffic flow: To achieve this measures aimed at speed restrictions and at phasing of traffic lights for the benefit of lorries in the Siegburger Strasse south of the business area

309 should be investigated (cf. (15)).

FIGURE 5 Localisation of measures for a guiding concept for lorries at town district level. 3.2.2

Guiding lorry flows by means of restrictions

Restrictive measures as part of a guiding concept for lorries comprise the following areas where measures can be taken: -Narrowing of roads, -Closure of roads, -Mandatory directions and - Temporary restrictions. Narrowing of roads: In order to discourage the use of the connection between the harbour area and the BAB access road Cologne-Poll a narrowing of the Siegburger Strasse, especially in the shopping sectors, is recommended. The same goes for the street 'Auf dem Sandberg' in respect of the aggravating connection from the BAB-junction Cologne-Poll to the industrial area Vingster Strasse (cf. (lo), ( 1 3 ) ) . Closures: The route Alfred-Schutte-Allee / Poller Hauptstrasse/ Im Wasserfeld should be completely closed for lorry traffic to

310 the harbour area, in order to guarantee the protection of the narrow Hauptstrasse in the old village centre. It would be sufficient to close a small section of the Alfred-Schutte-Allee south of the Schutte factory; this would leave the adjacent estates accessible to traffic, and passenger car traffic would still be able to reach the Alfred-Schutte factory. (cf. (9)). Mandatory directions: Mandatory directions are a very effective method to guide traffic, as there is no need to supplement them with exception regulations that are difficult to test, and they can easily be supported by constructional measures. In Poll they are feasible as they will guide the (lorry) traffic coming from the harbour area and turning into the Siegburger Strasse toward the north (see ( 3 ) and ( 4 ) ) to the Deutzer Ring (see (1)); it will also guide the lorry traffic from the industrial area Vingster Strasse turning into the Rolshover Strasse to the north to the access road Rolshover Strasse (see (17)). Temporary driving restrictions for lorries: These are meant in particular to ensure quiet during the resting times of residents and should be imposed by narrowing the sensitive road sectors. In Cologne-Poll night-driving bans in the Siegburger Strasse (in the actual business area) (see (10)) and in the street 'Auf dem Sandberg' should be investigated (see (13)). 3.2.3

Integration of the guiding concept f o r lorries in overriding planning

Both the definition of a road system for the entire town with priority roads for lorries and the guiding of lorry traffic in a town district requires the integration into the overall traffic and town planning. Only with this integration will separate measures in the guiding concept (e.g. the narrowing of a thorough fare) and positive retroaction (e.g. by issuing licences to lownoise lorries as an incentive) be at all realizable. The integration includes in particular l a n d - u s e p l a n n i n g , reconstruction of roads and protection against immissions. 4.

SUMMARY

Even today municipalities have a variety of tools for control at their disposal, which enable them to control the lorry traffic in towns. As is evident from the research in Gelsenkirchen and Cologne, measures to arrive at a guiding concept for lorry traffic compatible with urban life should be oriented towards the following guide lines: -Definition of a concept for a road system for lorries, whereby a concentration on transport of dangerous and heavy freight should result in a positively defined road system. -Keeping transit traffic well away from sensitive town areas (e.g. residential areas) and channelling lorry traffic on the town roads by means of constructional measures and/or effective traffic routing systems. -General protection of zones and periods with low emissions against lorries over a certain weight (e.g. 3.5 tons at night); this should also encourage the purchase of low-noise and lowemission lorries or smaller delivery vans.

31 1

- Taking into account lorry movements in the land-use planning of companies generating lorry traffic and in the planning of traffic infrastructure in order to safeguard essential freight transport.

- Promotion of driving attitudes that are environmentally acceptable (phased traffic lights to accomodate lorries, low maximum speeds). As freight traffic is closely interconnected with the operativeness of towns and their business activities, general approaches to solutions for the elimination of problems are not adequate. Local and detailed research is much more desirable, so that the specific structure of problems can be defined and fitting approaches to solutions based on the typical situation in an area or location can be pursued. REFERENCES

1

2

cf. Bracher, Garben, Krafft-Neuhauser, Schneewolf, in: 'Strategies to relieve the environment in connection with freight transport in towns,, commissioned by the Ministry for Town Planning, Housing and Traffic (MSWV) of NordrheinWestfalen, IVU final report, Berlin, 1989. (German) cf. Bublitz, in: 'Risks in Distribution of Goods - Proposals for Solutions in Hamburg', in: Research company f o r roads and traffic (Hg.) Report on meeting 'Freight transport in town and district', Cologne, 1988. (German) also cf.: Holsken, in: 'Aids to Function Definition in Road Networks - Design Study Cologne', in: Research company for roads and traffic (Hg.) Report on meeting 'Freight transport in Town and District', Cologne, 1988. (German) cf. also: Gitter, in: 'Problems and Proposals f o r Solutions in the Example of the Town Cologne', in: Report on meeting 'Compatible Freight Transport in Towns', SRL list of publications, part 26, Bochum, 1989. (German)


M. Kroon. K. .Si!i!r und J. wn Hum (Ediror~),Freighl Trunsporr und [he Envirunmenr 1991 E/.wvier Science Publ~shersB. V . , Ani~rerdunt.Prinred in rhe Nerherlands

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MEASURES TO GUIDE TRAFFIC OF DANGEROUS GOODS TRANSPORTS IN THE FEDERAL REPUBLIC OF GERMANY Hans-Giinter Triebel Ministry for Town Planning, Housing and Transport in Nordrhein- Westfalen, Breite Strasse 31, 0-4000 Diisseldor- Germany

SUMMARY

In this paper measures to guide traffic of dangerous goods transports in the Federal Republic of Germany will be discussed. In this respect the following measures are relevant: - restriction of the free choice of means of transportation for freight which is highly dangerous; - problems with combined transport with dangerous freight; -definition of travel lanes for the transport of highly dangerous freight; -closure of certain roads to motor lorries with compulsary designation carrying dangerous goods; - accident preventing encapsulation of dangerous goods instead of measures to control traffic. 1.

INTRODUCTION

From the point of view of warding off danger the transportation of dangerous goods on all carriers is subject to special regulations. These legal standards, equally valid for national and international transports, define which goods are permitted to be conveyed, which encapsulation must be used, how these must be labelled, which documents must accompany the shipments, if and how drivers must be trained and much more. Therefore, it may be assumed that this ensures compliance with these regulations in respect of the dangers involved in the transportation of dangerous goods. However, doubts, whether adequate legal standards to ward off danger are included in the specific laws and regulations, which are translated from international treaties, with regard to the conveyance of dangerous goods, arise when we consider that in the Federal Republic of Germany additional, specific regulations for dangerous goods and the general highway code are used for the transportation of dangerous goods. 2.

CHOICE OF

MEANS

OF TRANSPORTATION

The free choice of means of transport for some so-called highly dangerous goods has been restricted in the Federal Republic by the regulation governing the inter-state and border-crossing road transportation of dangerous goods (GGVS) - superseding international regulations - in such a way that these dangerous goods, which in principle are allowed on the roads, may only be transported by road in part or in whole subject to certain

314 conditions. The corresponding rules of this German regulation provide a preference for direct rail and inland shipping traffic and for combined traffic ,rail/road, and 'inland shippinglroad,. The paragraphs 7 , 7 a GGVS allowing the transportation of dangerous goods by road only, when certificates from German Rail and from the Directorate for Inland Shipping are submitted stating that a rail-connection, container transport or pickaback transport are not possible. This concerns goods on the so-called list I , which comprises among other things a series of explosives, articles containing explosives, gases, and poisonous and corroding substances. Furthermore this negative certificate is for container transport required only, if the distance in the Federal Republic exceeds 200 km and the container can be transported over the larger part of that distance by rail or barge. The same applies to pickaback transports in respect of distances exceeding 4 0 0 km. These regulations apply to bordercrossing traffic as well. Whenever the forwarder opts f o r combined transportation of containers by rail/road or roadlinland shipping, or if he uses pickaback transport, then this must be recorded on the bill of lading for the conveyance to or from the nearest railway station or port. 3.

COMBINED TRANSPORT

The fact that highly dangerous goods are referred to combined transport of containers or of pickaback transport over distances exceeding 200 km or 400 km respectively has as a consequence that transports of dangerous goods to and from railway or inland shipping terminals can also be expected in the streets of towns, where they would not appear if they were carried exclusively by road. The reason is that first of all many transfer railway stations are located in the town centres. The maker of the regulation was well aware of this situation, that is of the increase in dangerous goods transportation in the town centres. If he has after all decided to choose for the compulsary use of combined transport, then he did so, because in weighing up the dangers he preferred the shorter distances by road together with the transfer, especially transfer to the railways. Due to the sharply increased road traffic dangerous loads carried by lorries are constantly in the vicinity of people, also on roads outside the built-up areas. Since the risks of accidents on the road increases with the lengths of the distances covered, it seemed justified to further reduce the risks of road accidents involving dangerous goods by minimizing the utilization of roads to part of the total transport distance. 4.

DEFINITION OF TRAVEL LANES

For the transportation of goods mentioned in list I and a few other dangerous substances, included in the so-called list 11, only those roads may be used which have been officially defined, or whose use has not been banned. Here the following principles, laid down by law, apply: - The dangerous goods included in the lists I and I1 are to be forwarded by motorway.

- The transporter is exempted from using the motorway, if such use is inpermissable. According to the GGVS this is in particular

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the case, if the travel distance is at least twice as long as it would be if other suitable roads were used. - The route on roads other than motorways is confirmed in writing

by the competent traffic authority for one single trip or for a limited or unlimited number of trips within a specified period not exceeding three years. This may also be done by a so-called general order, which may be made public. The designation of routes other than motorways must be applied for by transporters, forwarders, shippers or consignees with the competant authority. The transporter may only carry the goods after a route designation has been granted. He has to see to it that the document regarding the route designation is handed to the driver before transportation commences. The driver has to carry this document with him throughout the trip. The risks which are involved in the road transport of dangerous goods and which consist of the possibility of dangerous matter being accidentally released, endangering people’s life and health and the environment, are limited in the Federal Republic by regulations contained in the Traffic Ordinance (StVO) as well. For instance, paragraph 3 section 3a of the StVO determines that drivers of motor lorries with compulsary designation must behave in such a manner that any danger to others is impossible, if due to fog, snow or rain visibility is less than 50 m. The same applies to slippery road conditions on account of snow or glazed frost. 5.

CLOSURE OF ROADS

Furthermore the routes of dangerous goods transports are also designated by means of road closures indicated by two traffic signs. These traffic signs are the sign no. 2 6 1 , a round white sign with a red border, showing the back view of an orangecoloured motor lorry, and sign no. 2 6 9 , also a round white sign with a red border, but showing the back view of tanker with an orange tank over a wavy, blue double line. The first sign indicates a ban for lorries with compulsary designation carrying dangerous goods, also for such motor lorries, including trailers, which must be distinguished by orange-coloured warning signs, the second sign indicates the ban for vehicles carrying a load which may be dangerous to water. Since the tragic accident involving a tanker in Herborn in July 1987 these signs have been put up in the Federal Republic at an increased rate. Criteria for the erection of these signs are contained in the administrative provision of the Traffic Ordinance and in the directives of the Federal Minister for Transport ordering measures for the control of traffic involving road transport of dangerous goods. Besides, the signs are to be put up if there is reason to fear that owing to an accident or incident, or to leakage of a tank, the dangerous goods may pose a serious danger to life, health, the environment or buildings. This will be the case on a fairly long, i.e. at least 500 m long, gradient - with steeper gradients even shorter sections - with an average gradient of more than 4 % , which is situated in the immediate vicinity of a built-up area or runs through a settlement or through a business area or an industrial area. When the passage through a town or village involves the negotiation of narrow and/or winding streets where it is not

316

possible to pass oncoming traffic, especially lorries, without actually reducing speed or coming to a standstill at narrow spots the sign 261 must also be put up. Where a public road crosses the catchment area of a ground water or spring preservation area (a so-called ground-water preservation zone I) the erection of the sign 269 must be ordered. In Nordrhein-Westfalen, the most densely populated area in the Federal Republic, over 125 gradients have been closed to dangerous goods transports by traffic signs. Thereby the authorities cannot restrict themselves to the closing of certain road sections. Simultaneously relief routes must be defined in order to avoid dangerous situations at other locations. Moreover it is essential to announce the closing and the diversion in time by means of special traffic signs. Should there not be any suitable diversion routes, then other traffic control measures, to ensure safety at the location where a dangerous situation exists, must be taken. To this end road signs with a warning about especially dangerous road sections (gradients, narrow passages, water preservation areas) can be considered, but more appropriately, a reduction of the speed limits should be considered first of all. In road tunnels there are, according to the directive of the Federal Transport Minister, as a rule no additional dangers in connection with the transport of dangerous goods. Here the fire presention, however, insists on certain traffic restrictions, in particular a ban on transports of explosives or inflammable substances through tunnels. In the risk analysis it is examined whether the potential danger of underground transportation of dangerous goods is justifiable and which structural and traffic regulatory measures must be taken. is the case with all rules based on legal regulations, their purpose is only served if they are observed. The traffic control measures are first of all directed at the driver. It actually depends on his attitude whether the goal the standards aim at, is reached. Moreover traffic control measures are not effective, if, due to technical defects in the vehicle or mistakes in the operation of the equipment or instruments the lorry with its dangerous load finds itself on a road which the driver should not use and did not even intend to take in the first place. As

6.

ENCAPSULATION OF DANGEROUS GOODS

The legal and official measures presented so far are necessary, because the encapsulation of dangerous freight, be it packaging or containers or tanks are not in every respect absolutely accident-proof, even in conjunction with additional measures for maintenance and stowage or - in the case of tanks - with anticollision barriers on the sides and at the back. All in all, the encapsulation is not accident-proof as is demonstrated by a large number of accidents. It may be that the traffic control measures to reduce the danger inherent in the transport of dangerous goods are suitable and desirable, and also acceptable and therefore appropriate to the people concerned. All the same one may wonder why no adequate measures are taken specifically with regard to the encapsulation of dangerous goods in order to render their transport safer.

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The question whether it is possible to increase the resistibility and so the safety of the encapsulation permitted today can be answered affirmatively for the simple reason that test requirements for encapsulation, as shown in the various regulations can be tightened. Even the most stringent test requirements can be tightened further. What also may be considered is to leave the test requirements as they stand and supplement them with additional safety precautions, such as containerisation of packed dangerous goods or the banning of any reductions in the thickness of tank walls, which at present can be allowed under certain conditions. Once the test requirements are tightened or additional safety precautions are taken, naturally the prices for the manufacture of encapsulation materials or the additional cost of safety precautions will go up, the transport rates will rise because of the higher tare and dangerous goods can no longer be supplied under the present price conditions. But should not this price increase be accepted as a cheap price to pay for the protection of the environment? It may be argued that the total cost of compensating damages in connection with the transport of dangerous goods is less than the cost involved in manufacturing and utilising accident-proof encapsulation coupled with additional safety precautions. Whoever introduces this argument to block greater safety in the transportation of dangerous goods, should, indeed, be prepared to face the counter-argument that he accepts the unjustifiable, partial risk of people dying and having their health impaired due to accidents involving the transportation of dangerous substances. Damage to the environment resulting from traffic accidents involving dangerous goods, may be expressed in terms of money, on the basis of liability under civil law, but as a rule restoration of the natural environment is very much restricted within narrow bounds, because the restoration of the situation, as it existed before the damage was done, is just not possible. Often irreparable damage, handed down from generation to generation, stays with us. Safe encapsulation for dangerous goods can initially only be prescribed as an ideal in the form of legal regulations. It would seem easier to enforce this regulatory target, since the regulations are not directed, as is normally the case in respect of traffic control rules, against only one person, namely the driver. When, however, several persons are made responsible, such as the manufacturer of the encapsulation, the packer or filler, the owner of the goods at the transfer point, the transporter and the driver, then the risk of an offence being committed will be smaller. What remains is the necessity of an international agreement on the formulation of a set of technical regulations regarding the transport of dangerous goods, which will ensure that in future the transportation of dangerous goods does not present any greater danger than the transportation of harmless goods.


M. Proon. R . Sriirr arid J . van Ham /Edrtors), Freighi Transporr and rhe Environrnenr , ' 1991 Elsnwr Science Pirblrshers 8. V . , Arrisrerdarn. Printed in rhe Nerherlands

319

INLAND TRANSPORT OF DANGEROUS GOODS AN OVERVIEW

P.T. Mabbitt Exis Limited, 71-77 Leadenhall Street, London EC3A 2PQ, United Kingdom

SUMMARY

This paper summaries the regulatory position concerning the transport of dangerous goods with particular reference to inland transport within Europe and recent initiatives on the part of the European Economic Commission. HAZARDOUS MATERIALS

Almost every advanced manufacturing process utilises dangerous chemicals as raw materials or intermediates, and increasingly the end products are themselves potentially dangerous to health pesticides, household cleaners, motor car chemicals, paints, aerosol sprays. Some 15% of all freight containers contain items that are classified as hazardous and this percentage is growing as industry utilises more sophisticated materials and the regulations themselves are extended to cover more commodities. We are concerned with the hazards posed during transport, and these are categorised under the United Nations system shown in Diagram 1. This system is applied in the regulations covering each transport mode, with variation in classifications and implementation that take account of the different threat posed in each mode. For example, some laundry chemicals may warrant little restriction for road transport, but pose a great threat when carried in the hold of a passenger aircraft, so the practical aspects of the respective regulations reflect this in rules such as packaging specifications. When discussing hazardous materials, the distribution operation is broken into two categories:

- BULK Primarily feedstock chemicals and fuels for industry and agriculture. For inland transport this includes barge traffic and road tanker/tank container/intermediate bulk container traffic, in which individual loads can extend to 30,000 litres (approx) for road and for rail tank wagons.

- PACKAGED Traditionally extending from the smallest packagings (ie medical samples, cosmetics) up to the bulk quantities, this traffic includes all forms of containment and is moved by all modes. Because such a wide range of substances are

3 20

involved and the fact that packages are handled in transit by many persons unfamiliar with the exact regulatory requirements and properties of the substances concerned there is the increased need for information in this area. Diagram 2 shows in simplified form the elements of the transport chain for hazardous materials. Many processes involve primary shippers (ie chemical companies) supplying feedstocks to industry, where manufacturers become the secondary shippers of the product to market (an integrated chemical company can perform both roles). The dangerous goods competence of those involved in this chain generally declines rapidly downstream (left to right in the diagram whilst the information needs increase in volume and complexity. For example, a manufacturer of cellulose solvents is necessarily competent in dangerous goods transport, but a motor spares distributor re-packing and distributing the product with car paints is usually unfamiliar with the transport constraints. REGULATIONS AND CODES OF PRACTICE

Several layers of regulations impact EEC internal, import and export traffic flows, including the regulations of main trading partners. Diagram 3 shows the bodies involved in promulgating the international codes of practice that, when adopted by signatory countries, are given the force of national law. The Commission of the European Communities has recently entered this regulatory arena and its emerging role is being followed with interest, not to say concern in some quarters. Thus we have -

INTERNATIONAL CODES

- NATIONAL LAW - LOCAL REGULATIONS (ie port/city/tunnel) An objective for the single market is harmonised international and national regulations. This is achieved for rail and air through the RID and ICAO regulations, but road transport presents special difficulties. Table 4 lists the current status of adoption of the international ADR regulations as national regulations. ROLE OF THE EUROPEAN COMMISSION

Some three years ago, following the 1984 Mont Louis incident in which this French To-ro vessel sank after a collision off Ostend carrying amongst other items, containers of uranium hexafluoride, the European Parliament passed a resolution calling on the Commission to submit proposals for the regulation of "dangerous and radioactive substances and wastes". The resulting report cited the complex arrangements of laws, conventions, regulations, agreements, codes and recommendations governing such movements, and concluded that the need existed for no less than six Directives or other instruments with the stated objectives of achieving greater harmony, more uniform adoption

321

and enactment and much stricter enforcement of existing dangerous goods legislation. Fearing yet another layer of possibly counter-productive legislation, industry held its breath. Unlike the UN-based committees responsible for developing and maintaining the present international codes which are only recommendations until adopted into law, the European Commission is able to impose requirements on the internal legislation of its member states and establish standards and which must be adopted in national regulations. A redeeming feature was the Commission's decision not to duplicate existing regulations.

The accommodation of previous EC-imposed Directives on national dangerous goods legislation has been uncomfortable to say the least. The adoption by the Commission of a quite different system for the classification of products for supply and use resulted in a duplication of labels and classifications under National laws. This new initiative went some way to re-dressing the balance by conceding that the earlier legislation might require modification in order to achieve the goal of a fully unified classification and labelling system for all hazardous substances and wastes transported and marketed within the Community. However, about one year later the Parliament's Committee on the Environment, Public Health and Consumer Protection, in welcoming the initiative, added the far-reaching proposal that where the transport of dangerous substances is unavoidable "...it should be kept entirely separate from passenger transport. Mixed transport, e.g. on ferries or in aircraft, should be prohibited." Once again, industry held its breath in the face of admirable but impractical propositions. The committee opined that "A free transport market can be created in the European Economic Community by 1992 only if, at the same time, binding decisions on harmonisation are taken to guarantee the safety of humans and the environment when dangerous substances and wastes are transported.'! At the same time it proposed that there should be an additional progressive list of hazard categories for dangerous substances and waste with increasingly stronger controls for the more hazardous materials. In other words, another layer of regulation. The Commission finally focused on four specific areas for proposals to the European Council of Transport Ministers relevant to road traffic : 1.

Directive requiring member states to accept road vehicles conforming to ADR for international transport of dangerous goods or wastes.

2.

Directive on the training of drivers of road vehicles carrying dangerous goods or wastes.

3.

Directive on the training of road transport managers concerned with the transport of dangerous goods or wastes.

322 4.

directive for the enforcement of the regulations on the carriage of dangerous substances and wastes by road.

A

(further recommendations concern the sea mode) Industry is responding to these and other Commission initiatives, for example on waste transport, in a constructive but it must be said, sometimes critical stance, especially where it is perceived that established and proven regulatory regimes are to be overlayed rather than strengthened. Bald statements from the Commission, such as "transport by rail is safer than road transport" find little favour without sound substantiation. There may well be an argument in favour of switching dangerous traffic from road to rail, but I have yet to see any conclusive evidence that one of the modes is safer than the other. Arguments in favour of rail may include the fact that there is less likelihood of a product spill occurring on rail due to the highly regulated control in traffic flows by the railway signalling systems and that in the event of an incident the width of the railway tracks offer a barrier distance between spillages and the public. Conversely railways tend to run through City centres, whereas much road traffic moves on motorways which are usually routed around towns rather than through centres of population. A rail incident may involve very much larger quantities of dangerous goods than one on the road, as rail wagons may have a greater capacity than road vehicles, and wagons containing the same dangerous substances are often deliberately marshalled together. Even if there were clear evidence that one mode of transport were safer than the other it would still be necessary to ensure that each mode is adequately safe. Certainly improvements in design of vehicles has been made over the years, these being reflected in the UIC (International Union of Railways), RID and ADR regulations. Since packages may well be conveyed by more than one means of transport it is essential that there is conformity in the regulations concerning packages for the various modes of transport and this has been achieved by the introduction of the UN performance test criteria into the separate regulations. It is necessary to recognise that the current international dangerous goods regulations have a very much wider applicability then the EEC countries themselves, so in the interest of safety and of world trade it is necessary that the international regulations reflect the necessary safeguards. There may well be a place for EEC countries to agree amongst themselves on what needs to be in the international regulations and then put forward proposals. This way would be much more effective than the EEC imposing its own conditions which may be out of line with the thinking of the rest of the world. Committees responsible for framing international regulations can spend many hours deliberating on what improvements need to be made and then drafting the revised regulations, but all this is of little avail if the regulations are not observed in practice. This lack of observance may be deliberate or unintentional and may be due to a number of factors. For instance economic ones, such as carriers levying a surcharge on dangerous freight, or

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others being due to lack of understanding or indeed knowledge of the regulations. In the past there has been a conflict between the regulations governing the individual modes of transport, but gradually this has been overcome mainly through harmonisation the United Nations recommendations. Whilst this process of harmonisation must still go on it is perhaps time that attention was paid to making the various regulations more logical and easily understandable thus making them easier to observe. For air transport IATA has the requirement that each Freight Forwarder's office should employ someone who has passed a recognised dangerous goods course, but this requirement does not apply to other modes of transport and consequently dangerous goods are often consigned by persons with scant knowledge of the regulations. Commission initiatives in this area are to be welcomed. In any event, our chart of regulators and regulations look set to become more complicated. There is one final point to be made here, and it is this. Hazardous materials are an integral and indivisible part of general freight. Invariably any accident involving hazardous materials is followed by demands from politicians and the media to ban this traffic or to introduce draconian controls, the impracticality of which is obvious after the most cursory study. Some transport companies, for example integrated 'door-to-door' operators, claim not to carry dangerous goods, only to find large quantities of them in their traffic because staff are not trained to exclude them, and in any case would have difficulty in doing so and maintain reasonable service. The current regulatory regime, for all its shortcomings, has ensured remarkably safe distribution of millions of tons of hazardous materials over the past decades, and its effective enforcement and sensible development will continue this good record. In contrast to that approach, there is currently proposed US legislation that all 500,000 daily US domestic shipments of hazardous materials be tracked on a national database at an estimated annual cost to industry of $12 billion. The key to more effective control is consistent and uniform application and enforcement of existing rules.

- STATISTICS Because 'danger' is not a customs category, there are no national or EC statistics produced on hazardous materials traffic, and a great weakness in debate on this subject is this lack of basic information. My own company is involved in a study for the UK Department of Transport, to estimate packaged dangerous goods flows in and out of UK seaports, the first time that this has been done. SIXUC-

CHANGE IN THE TRANSPORT INDUSTRY

The transport industry (at the "packaged goods" level) is undergoing radical change. Some elements have been evolving at a

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strong but steady pace (intermodalism), others are new and proceeding rapidly (ie integration). All these affect dangerous goods transport. The most relevant developments are:

-

Intermodalism Dangerous Goods packed in a freight container, rail or road vehicle may travel in a single journey by road, rail, sea or soon through sub-sea tunnel, creating significant modal and national regulatory problems.

-

Integration The fastest growing sector is the 'door-todoor' or integrated carrier services. Founded on documents and small parcels traffic, these highly efficient operations are now developing into general freight ( 2 4 hours delivery throughout Europe) with wholly-owned aircraft and vehicle fleets. This sector presents critical (and currently largely ignored) problems for dangerous goods management.

-

'Just in time' supply This concept, being adopted across industry, has profound implications for dangerous goods. For example, instead of a ship tankload of solvent being moved to storage tanks at an electronics plant, tankcontainer loads may be received daily and held at the plant for direct discharge.

-

Quality Management The concept of total quality management is rapidly gaining ground in dangerous goods distribution, spurred by the chemical producers as part of their evolving safety audit and environmental protection programmes.

DANGEROUS GOODS AND THE ENVIR-

There are two types of threat to the environment posed by the inland transport of hazardous materials: Environmental impact of normal operations Over and above the normal environmental impact of vehicle emissions, there are such routine operations as cargo tank washings, residue disposal etc that are unique to hazardous materials transport. These are a matter for the national or local authorities concerned, and there are no centralised data available. Environmental impact of incidents involving dangerous goods The major large-scale dangerous goods incidents of the past have mostly involved sea-borne traffic although the Hebron and L o s Alfaques disasters were exceptions that prompted public outcry and legislative change. The environmental factor remains largely a threat, for example of groundwater contamination from chemical or fuel spills. Directed against this all the regulatory and operational effort may be seen in the context of risk management, with cost benefit as part of the equation. If the definition of transport is extended to include storage, then the risk (and the record) changes dramatically, as illustrated by the Sandoz fire and subsequent pollution of the Rhine.

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Again to our knowledge there is no centralised information on the overall environmental impact of hazardous materials distribution, although studies are being carried out. INFORMATION

-

THE VITAL LINK

No activity could be more information-dependent than hazardous materials transport. Complex technical data, often involving chemical names and classifications, is handled by normal clerical staff down an extended chain stretching from original manufacturer to final consumer. With paper-based procedures there are plenty of opportunities for breaks in the chain and little support for hard-pressed staff.

Apart from normal operational data, there is vital emergency response information, for which there may be no second asking or checking. Automation presents a unique opportunity for hazardous materials transport, particularly by helping to eliminate the errors and omissions endemic in manual procedures. Programs can be written that will take a user through all the relevant requirements before and during the carriage of dangerous goods and, since these programmes are written in a logical way and bring together all the pertinent points no matter where they occur in the regulations themselves, consignees and carriers can have much more confidence in their ability to observe the regulations and thereby enhance safety. The first stage of the transport industry's move into computerisation has proceeded slowly, with little co-ordination. One manifestation of this is the large number of software vendors, each with a small market share. Unlike its American counterpart, the European market has been inhibited and fragmented by language and trading barriers. The second wave of automation looks set to proceed at a much faster pace. With the speedy agreement on Electronic Data Interchange (EDI) standards and harmonisation of EEC trade procedures, the adoption of information technology will be irresistible at all levels. This presents a unique opportunity for better dangerous goods information management on a European scale, but there are formidable practical barriers. With the implementation of the single market and interconnection of community national and international data networks, and with the goodwill and co-operation of those involved, better tools for environmental protection and accident prevention will help continue a good record.

REFERENCES Hazardous Cargo Bulletin, London OECD Road Transport Research Group

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(i)

" & --.

CLASS3 CLASS 4

Flammable Liquids Fl;immable Solids Substanics

CLASS 6

Toxic/Infcctious Substanccs

CLASS 7

Radioactive Sulxtanccs

CLASS 8

Corrosivc

CLASS 9

hlisc. Dangerous Substunccs

3

(A

"

, : I

- (!>

(ii)

~

b

BULK Road tankers Rail tank wagons Tank containers and intermediate bulk containers

Road, sea Rail Road, rail, sea

PACKAGE11 Ail typcs (drums, single and coniposite containers)

Road, rail, sea, air

~

~~~~~~~

(iii) SI'ECIAL SIIll'hlENlS High hazardnarge quantity nuclear or wask shipmcnts

Road, rail, sea, air

(iv) SIIII'LOAI) UULK - Clicmicals - Oils

Sea

-G~SCS

- Solids (coal, ore ctc)

DIAGRAM 1 DANGEROUS GOODS CLASSES AND CONTAINMENT

-Transport

Phase

MANUFACTURER

CHEMICAL P L A N T TERMINAL

( i e AGRICULTURAL)

-

1

SECONDARY SIIIPPER

WAREHOUSING AND DISTRIBUTION

ua

0

,"IIEI4ICAL TAIlKER

TANK COllTAINER ROAD TAIIKER 0 I)I11JI~I/III'I'EII~~lEDIATE BULK COIJ'TAIIIER - D I S T R I H I I T I O N BY IIOAD, R A I L , S E A 0 0

O P A C K A G E D GOODS -DISTRIBUTION BY ROAD, R A I L , A I R , SEA

DAllGEROUS GOODS E X P E R T I S E DECREASES[>

DAIICEROUS GOODS IIIFORI~IATION HEED I N C R E A S E S I N VOLUME AND V A R I E T Y D

DIAGRAM 2 DANGEROUS GOODS TRANSPORT CHAIN

W h)

4

W h)

m

DIAGRAM 3 MAJOR ORGANISATIONS INVOLVED IN THE REGULATIONS FOR THE INTERNATIONAL TRANSPORT OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS

329

TABLE 4 National Regulationsfor Road Transport in Relevant Member States (Source: OECD Road Transport Research Group and EXIS)

Belgium Since 15 March 1976 Belgium has had national regulations on the transport of dangerous goods. For 95% of the goods these regulations are the same as the ADR rules. For the other 5% the national rules are stricter than ADR ie. for goods of Class 3 (flammable liquids), Class 1 (explosives) and Class 5.1 (goods which contribute to combustion). The national rules are less strict than ADR for gas-oil. Denmark Denmark has been a party to the ADR agreement since 1 August 1981.The aim is t o issue a body of national rules very sim/.ar to the ADR agreement. Technical specifications similar to the ADR have been adopted for Class 2 (compressed gases), Class 6.1 (poisonous sub:,tances) and Class 8 (corrosive substances). The regulations for Classes 3 (flammable liquids), 5.1 oxidizing substances) and 5.2 (organic peroxides) have been in line with ADR since 1986.For Classes 4 (flammable solids) and 6.2 (repugnant substances and substances liable to cause infection) there are no regulations for national transport in Denmark. The regulations for Class 1 (explosives) are very old and different from the ADR regulations. Labels according to EEC directive 67/658/EECare permitted for national transport of dangcrous goods in Denmark. Federal Republic of Germany The regulations for the carriage of dangerous goods by road in Germany are stated in the “Gefahrgutverordnung Strasse (GGVS)”. These regulations are very similar to the ADR. The differences mainly concern authorisation for other dangerous goods to be carried and additional types of packaging. The FRG is proposing domestic regulations diverting dangerous goods traffic from road to rail (including ’piggyback‘carriage) for certain types of journey. France The French legislation concerning the transport of dangerous goods was stated in the rcgulation of 15 April 1945 (RIMD), but this was reviewed in May 1985 with a transitional period until 1 May 1990.These rules were developed in France earlier than in other nations, therefore the international agreements were not the basis for the original legislation, although the review brings the French legislation partly into line with ADR. The main differences from ADR arc: - Some classes are diffcrent from those of ADR, but the review brought Classes 3,6.1and 8 into line as far as packaging and testing is concerned. Those classes which arc different from ADR are further divided into categories and groups with their own restrictions. - The labels are slightly different and they must be applied to all vchicles carrying dangerous goods, including packaged goods. - The form of the transport document is more strictly defined. To meet a decision of 30 July 1975 vehicles transporting dangerous goods with a PMA above 10 tonnes must have a speed limit set at 80 km/h. There are route limitations and restrictions concerning days on which it is prohibited to drive trucks with dangerous goods. The French rcgulations are under review for ADR harmonisation. Greece Greece is not a party to the international ADR agreement. The reason givcn is that the ADR agreement is still under study prior to being submitted to the Parliament. Thcre is no national legislation on the transport of dangerous goods in Greece and there is no spccial training for drivers of vehicles transporting dangerous goods.

Ireland Ireland has not yet signcd the ACR agreement. The rcason given is that the inland transport of dangerous goods is not of very grcat importance and the entire ADR agrcement must bc translated into Irish in order to be approved by thc Irish Parliamcnt. However, Ireland’s domestic legislation (Dangerous Substances - Conveyance of Scheduled Substances by Road (Trade or Business) Rcgulations 1980 and Amendments 1986)is very similar to the ADR agreement and rcfcrs to ADR

330 in all the main points. Substances of A D R Classes 2,3,4.1,4.2,5.1,5.2,6.1and 8 arc declared dangerous. Substances of A D R Class 1 are governed by the Department of Justice. Substances of Class 6.2 are omitted. Class 7 comes under the Nuclear Energy Board. Differences to A D R regulations are: - Some general rules concerning the routing of dangerous goods. - Packaging and labelling in accordance with the Community Directive 67/548/EEC or other international or national regulations is deemed to comply with the Irish regulations. Italy

In Italy a set of rules was stated in August 1980 based o n the ADR classification and following 90% of the ADR regulations. However, some derogations a r e possible and regulations for national transport are less tough than for international. The Netherlands National transport of dangerous goods by road has to comply with the regulations of the VLG (Vervoer Over Land van Gevaarlijke Stoffcn) which is in fact the same as A D R plus: - Rules for routing of dangerous goods. - Extensive professional training requirements. - Special conditions for explosive goods (Class 1). - More extensive information requirements. Portugal

Portugal, as a new member European Community state, applies thc A D R regulations for international and national transport. Spain Spain, as a new member state of the European Community, follows the A D R regulations for the international transport of dangerous goods. For domestic transport the Spanish regulations arc practically copies of the international ones with minor amendments. With rcgard to road transport the T P C (Reglamento Nacional d e Transportes d e Mcrcanias Pcligrosas por Carretera) is applicd. United Kingdom In recent years United Kingdom legislation concerning the transport of dangerous goods has hccn comprehensively revised enabling much earlier legislation to be revoked. Four sets of rcgulations now control: a) Carriage in road tankers and tank containers. b) Classification, packaging and labelling of dangerous suhstanccs. c) The operational aspects of the carriage of packagcd dangerous goods by road. d)The loading, unloading and storage of dangerous goods in portsharbour areas. All these regulations were made under the 1974 Health and Safety at Work Act and are consistent, as far as possible, with the Recommendations of the United Nations Committee of Experts o n the Transport of Dangerous Goods. T h e United Kingdom uses the Hazchcm Hazard Code for the placarding of tank vehicles and tank containers. Vehicles carrying packagcd dangcrous goods above a ccrtain specified quantity arc required to display blank orangc (ADR)plates. Drivers of both tankcrs and vehicles carrying packaged goods must receive instruction and training. Recently the U K has initiated moves towards harmonisation o f domestic regulations with ADR.

A D R = European Agrcement conccrning the International Carriage of Dangerous Goods by R m d

M . Kroon. I?. Sin!! and J. vun Huiir (Edtrors), Freighi Trunsporr and ihe Environriieni IY91 Elsewer Science Publishers B. V . , Ainsicrdani. Prinred in rhe Nerherlunds (

33 1

LOGISTICAL DEVELOPMENTS IN URBAN DISTRIBUTION AND THEIR IMPACT ON ENERGY USE AND THE ENVIRONMENT R. ter Brugge Department of Logistics, INRO- TNO (Institute of Spatial Organization), P.O. Box 45, 2600 A A De,ft, The Netherlands

SUMMARY

Prior to dealing with urban freight distribution, an overview will be presented of the overall freight market and the existing trends in logistics from the point of view of environmental impacts. An illustration will be given of the growing use of automobiles, to prove that this is the main problem to focus on. Subsequently the possibilities and limits of technological developments are given. In a recent study we have indicated that the use of technical improvements, that are known at the very moment, can curb energy consumption with 17 % . In other words, given the expected growth rates technical solutions are not sufficient. Based on other research it is shown that the organization of transport, i.e. the logistical organization can be instrumental in getting a much higher efficiency in transport. Based on these principles the paper evaluates the strategies for freight transport in urban areas. Also the improvement of freight transport in urban areas will ask for a better logistical organization, implementation of information technology and new transport technologies and for measures in the field of physical planning within cities. These measures will be asked for in that order and in their combination. 1.

FREIGHT TRANSPORT I N PERSPECTIVE

1.1 Introduction

It should be noted that transport is not a goal on its own. It is a result of activities that are necessary or desirable in a society. So for transport there are a great number of alternative solutions, substitutions and direct and indirect effects. For that reason to define policies, to define potentially interesting fields

The author is grateful for the help given by his colleagues B.J.P. Janssen, A.A.W.G. Mulders, C. J. Ruijgrok and P.T. Tanja.

332 of research and also to give a technological assessment of the RLDoutcomes a system approach is needed in transport. The lack of a system approach in transport may be one of the reasons that we seem to have lost control of transport and the related negative effects. An overview of RLD in transport shows that in this field research is very diverse, fragmentated and a significant proportion of it is not in the public domain (1). The need for a system approach is one of the basic philosophical assumptions in this paper. An other one is that in transport solutions are only realistic if they are market oriented i.e. not striving against economic forces in the market. car in city car out city subway/tram bus in city coach out city train truck load mck unload van in city van out city train

0

20

40

60 80 100 I20 140 mega joules per vehicle hlometer

160

180

2W

Diagram 1 Energy consumption per vehicle kilometer in 1986 and the technical minimum amount used for inland transport in the Netherlands (MJ/W. Peld J O U h

I

1986

bcst plant

223, I

technical minimuin

Diagram 2 Total energy consumption for passenger and freight transport by car and other transport modes in 1986, for the 'best plant situation' and the 'technical minimum' in PJ.

333 A good illustration of environmental losses caused by transport can be given by a study INRO-TNO recently completed on technical opportunities to reduce energy consumption in transport. The study was commissioned by the Dutch Central Bureau for Economic Planning(2). It should be noted that by doing so, we assume the energy consumption in transport is closely related to the loss of environmental quality. So, where pollution is related to the energy consumption and given the fact that energy consumption has its price, economic forces in transport will work in line with environmental goals. This statement is only true to a certain extent. Firstly not all energy consumption is related to environmental damage of transport, for instance we can mention the effects on the landscape of transport infrastructure. Secondly in some cases energy is needed to decrease pollution; as in the case for catalytic converters. Thirdly, as will be shown in the paper, there is a trade off between production and transport costs. Nevertheless an analysis of energy consumption gives a fairly good picture of several components of the transport market related to environmental quality.

1.2 Energy consumption per vehicle The number of passengers or the amount of freight transported is not the prime cause of energy consumption in transport. The focus should be on vehicular movement. The efficiency of the (logistical) organization will relate the volume of traffic to the amount of freight and passengers transported. Diagram 1 shows the energy consumption per vehicle in megajoules per kilometer. At first sight the low figures for the automobile might be confusing. In this diagram a variety of capacities are compared. Given these figures a train should at least transport 30 persons to be equal in energy consumption to a car carrying one person. The train is here defined as a locomotive with an average number of train cars behind it. Consequently, if there are 4 persons in a private car, the train should carry 120 passengers to compensate in energy consumption. Moreover, in the diagram, the comparison is made for 'a generalized kilometer' . Actually we should wonder if the train brings passengers from places where they are, to places where they want to be, i.e. here we deal with the fundamental problem in transport of spatial distribution and consolidation. 1.3 Existinu mobility patterns Diagram 1 also gives an indication of the potential energy savings by technical measures. We have calculated the energy consumption based on the mobility patterns and several modys used in 1986. Based on this existing mobility pattern the 'best plant' and the 'technical minimum' situation were defined. For the 'best plant' situation it was assumed that all vehicles used possess those technical features that are normal when purchased in 1990. For the 'technical minimum' we moreover assumed that all vehicles have the technical features that are available and can be used, even if they are hardly economic at this moment. By doing so the basic assumption is, that most technical possibilities available in 1990 are being used. At the same time it is postulated that all other conditions are

334

unchanged, i.e. people make use of comparable types of vehicles and arrange their transport as they did in 1986. On this basis the overall energy consumption is described in diagram 2 for inland transport in the Netherlands for these three situations. This diagram illustrates that 10 to 17 % of energy consumption in transport could have been saved in 1990 by merely technological measures. A number of things can be learned from the analysis thus far: * About 92 % of the total energy consumption in transport concerns private cars, trucks and vans. The share of trains, trams and inland water transport is very limited. * Freight transport does ask about 30% of the overall energy consumption in transport. It may be expected that this share will increase. * Analysis on energy consumption in transport contains in many cases a lot of ambiguity, because the overall figures are the result of spatial and behavioral patterns, the necessity of transport, the organization of transport. This include the number of unloaded kilometers driven and the modal choice. All those aspects are related, because transport is an integrated activity within the society. * Technical solutions surely will have a significant effect on energy savings. At maximum it will give a contribution of 17 % in the savings, especially important is the efficiency of passenger transport by car. So our analysis leads to the conclusion that it is not only technological development that may help to solve environmental problems. Since 1973 a lot of research has been done on more energy efficient vehicles. Many features have already been implemented. The limits of energy conversion for traction by employing the currently applied techniques will be reached soon. Illustrative can also be the comparison given between loaded and unloaded vehicles in diagram 1, showing that these vehicles carry their load rather efficient. Moreover it is important to realize that the use of all these newer techniques will ask for an overall replacement of the transport equipment and thus will ask for a destruction of capital. By doing so we destroy the internal energy of these existing vehicles. In a number of cases it can be more efficient, in terms of overall energy consumption, to keep the older machinery for a restricted number of jobs i.e. kilometers driven, then to replace them for more efficient ones. This also proves that 17% savings is the technological minimum. An important part, almost half of all transport, is on a regional scale, where people live and work together in a "well known" area. Here the negative effects of transport are severely felt. This statement does however not mean that long distance transport is of no importance, nor without problems. But on long distances the share of transport in the total price of a good will be higher and so economic efficiency already will be a greater incentive to save energy and thus the environment. So it might be expected that the energy efficiency of long distance transport is higher.

335 Pela Joules 300 269,6 250

-17%

L,,,, 7

200 out

150

100

fr. in

50 0 1986

best plant

technical minimum

Diagram 3 Energy consumption in transport inside and outside cities in 1986 (PJ)

Peta Joules

400 350 300

288,4 269,6

262 3

250 200 150 100

50

fr

0 1986

201 5 low

201 5 medium

2015 restricted

Diagram 4 Forecast of the energy consumption in transport in 2015, given the "best plant" situation for a low and medium economic scenario. For the latter also the scenario of a very restrictive policy towards energy consumption is given (in PJ)

336 Diagrams 3 shows that indeed nearly half of the energy consumption in transport takes places in cities and large conurbations. These figures are for inland transport in the Netherlands, including international transport in the country, but excluding the energy consumption in air traffic and marine transport. 1.4 Scenarios for future mobility Within 25 years, in the year 2015 we may expect that most of the techniques known at this moment will be implemented. To estimate the overall effects a forecast is needed of economic growth and mobility patterns. These forecasts are very uncertain. The best thing to do is to formulate possible scenarios. Diagram 4 does give such scenarios with a low economic growth (GNP growth rate till 2000 of 1,5 % and from then 2 %) and a medium one (GNP growth rate till 2000 of 2,75 % and in succession 2 , 8 8 % ) . Along with the economic and population forecasts some of the reasonably expected trends in mobility have been prognosticated. For the 'medium scenario' a number of additional political measures are presumed given a very restive energy policy. Such an analysis shows that only in the low scenario the energy consumption is equal, or even some lower, then the 1986 situation. This scenario does not seem to be very likely, because a low economic growth will not be a stimulate for technical development, neither for the implementation of newer techniques, so the overall priority to preserve environmental quality probably will be less. If we believe that the pollution of today's traffic already is too high, the conclusion seems to be inevitable that all other possibilities to curb mobility will be needed. By doing so we should bare in mind that this might be in contrast with economic progress and also with a greater individual freedom of all mankind, trying to become global citizens. This statement may seem to be dramatic, but does demand serious consideration given the recent developments in the Third World and behind the former "Iron Curtain". So the fundamental question will be: "Is a less mobile society also less enjoyable, or can mobility be more efficiently organized?" This last questions concerns logistical organization. 2. IS LOGISTICS IN FAVOR OF ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY ?

2.1 Loqistical trends of consianors In 1989 INRO-TNO completed a research project on logistics, energy and the environment (3). Based on experts interviews and a literature review the study explores changes in energy consumption in transport caused by the expected dynamics in companies that produce and transport goods.

337 For a better understanding of this dynamic process a subdivision was made on the effects of: - origins and destinations - volumes of transport flows - modal split - optimizing transport in terms of sizes of the shipments, loads, frequencies and so on. In the course of the research it turned out that there are important differences between the logistical developments taking place at the consignors and consignees (companies in production and trade) and at the shippers and carriers (logistical service organizations). Trends of the consignors are all very negative when we judge them in environmental terms and look at the amount and the type transport needed. Growing internationalization, a better customer service, greater variety in products, shorter life cycles, flexible production, just in time (JIT) production and delivery, etcetera all are leading to more transport over longer distances and with higher frequencies. The greater value of the freight, automation and economies of scale within companies will have the result that more money can be spent on transport as such. A greater energy consumption in transport can be substituted with a greater efficiency in production, but such a trade off is not necessarily one in terms of energy only. At the other hand a vicious circle can be noted. Economies of scale, also in transport itself, will lead to lower prices and thus an increased movements of freight. Some 'positive' trends for consignors are the greater (spatial) concentration on nodal points, i.e. main ports and the stronger market orientation of a lot of activities. Developments that might lower energy consumption are moreover: * in the short and medium term: - subcontracting transport and distribution - decreasing the number of suppliers given more stable relationships - rationalization of distribution networks by eliminating intermediate links * in the long term: - separation of the early production stages and assemblage, in which the production is concentrated in a restricted number of centers and assemblage is market oriented - spatial integration of producing companies given their JITrelationship. Differences in long and short term mainly concerns the possibilities for the relocation of activities. Nevertheless it can not be denied that all this inevitably will lead to an enormous growth of freight transport. The described trends should be considered in many respects as autonomous. A point in case may be the Cecchini report (4) in which the advantages are given of the enlarged European inner market after 1992, which can only be reached when interrelations, and thus transport, will grow.

2.2 Potentials of loqistical services organizations In contrast to the consignors, trends in the transport services are potentially much more positive from an environmental point of

338 view. The only negative trends can be the growing importance of express transport and an increased usage of specialized vehicles. At the other hand the developments in transport have important potentials for operating more efficient. In general it concerns all those situations where information technology can be supportive in getting a better control, architecture or organization of transport. - Very high potentials do exist for decision support and expert systems on load planning or route planning or allocation to vehicles - Strong reduction of energy can be reached by hub 6 spoke networks and main ports, intermodal transport and other possibilities that lead to increasing consolidation by the use of standard load units (containers, swap bodies) . Also tracing and tracking, on board computing, mobile communication, fleet management and transport technology like high cube containers should be mentioned. - Energy reductions seem possible in case of public warehousing and co-makership. Essentially it should not be a surprise that the potentials are the greatest for the transport services. Consequently these measures are in contradiction to their business, i.e. to transport goods from A to B. Only competition will force them to drive less. Moreover a lot of the solutions given, do ask for co-operation to reach a sufficient scale and have possibilities to optimize. The transport market is very fragmentated, complex, with many niches. Given the variety of goods, modes, origins and destinations we can see many 'monopolists' in a free market system. Here we come to the basic problem in logistics. At the one hand severe competition is needed to force transport firms to be efficient and at the other hand there has to be co-operation to reach a sufficient scale for delivering services within enlarging networks. No wonder a balance is needed between public and private facilities. Key issues are here: * logistical organization to optimize control * information technology and telematics * transport technology. 3. URBAN FREIGHT DISTRIBUTION

3.1 Loqistical Organization to optimize control It has been shown that trends in logistics are not primarily technology driven. The ability to control integrated logistical chains stems from the greater knowledge we have to control complex organizations. Customers do not ask for high speed in transport, nor for continuous information on their goods, nor for containers and quick load systems. They simply ask for reliability; delivery of goods at the right time, without damage and at a fair price. They need to have the feeling that their things are in good hands during transport. The example of the express companies proves that this will ask for an organizational concept. They offer a transport concept that can be used as a model for many logistical services. This concept is based on quality and so their operation is almost inelastic to an increasing price of transport, for instance by raising energy prices. A good logistical organization has potentially

339 incentives for a more energy efficient transport, but it will be hardly sensitive to higher energy prices, so this dimension should be brought into the process in some other way. The organizational challenge will be to make systems in which capacities can be shared in an optimal way, without diminishing in the same time competitive forces of private enterprises. Even sharing the capacities of passenger and freight transport can be of interest, given the fact that there is often a great correspondence and complement in places and in times that people and goods should be moved from one place to the other (5) 3.2 Information technology and telematics

Information technology is an aid or resource to accomplish the organizational requirements. Here we are confronted with a remarkable situation. At the one hand almost all the techniques for the decennia to come are available, but we have only a very vague idea about applications and consequences (6). Telematics is especially important in trade and transport having many intercompany connections, that can be facilitated by EDI-systems (Electronic Data Interchange). At the moment ED1 is introduced in the bigger companies, setting standards for their subsidiaries. But in the years to come the normally, smaller transport firms and the governmental services (customs, traffic management, infrastructure management) will also be involved. The extensive programs within the scope of DRIVE, EURET, RACE, TEDIS and EUREKA might be an illustration. Information technology gives the possibility to monitor freight and vehicle flows and so control them. Main questions here will be: who is responsible and how can we protect privacy? 3.3 Transport technoloqy Transport technology is also changing very rapidly. For consolidation and distribution of inter city and intra city freight transport, interfaces between several modes and flows is the main issue. Terminals making use of quick load systems, robotica and automatic guided vehicles (AGV) for the arrangement, for sorting and for storaging freight of different sizes, shapes and nature can be built. As far as the nature of freight is concerned an institution as Collomodule in the Netherlands, making standardized packing material is essential. At this moment the technological developments in industries and public research institutes are enormous. Apart from the terminal facilities, vehicle technology is changing. For reasons of interfacing, this also concerns load units like containers and swap bodies. A main option for R&D seems to be to develop an urban car. The design requirements can easily be specified and are in many respects the same for freight and for passenger transport. We are looking for quiet, non polluting vehicles, that normally will not drive long distances every day and make frequent stops. So the solution can be a modular electrical car, built of standard components that can be replaced and recycled. Braking energy can be used for instance with fly wheels and/or by recharging batteries. But also here the main item is not the technical design, butthe logistical organization in big conurbations

340

in which these urban cars will be used. In looking at those technological developments we should be aware of the fact that basically, transport belongs to nobody. It is an intermediate activity. If governments have the opinion that urban transport for reasons of economy and environment is an important item, then they should take their responsibility. Transport always crosses borders, thus co-operative technological research, coordinated and stimulated by the European Community and elsewhere, will be asked for. 3.4. Physical planninq

Finally the physical structure of towns has to be changed in accordance with modern transportation techniques and logistics. Spatial structures are the result of activity patterns in the past and can be shaped in accordance with future forecast of spatial organization. Changes will be only possible in the long term. These concern the locations of activities, transport infrastructure (free lanes), telematics, parking facilities and so on. Especially important are the terminals and distribution centers in the urban area. 3.5 Final remarks

In this paper is has been stated that: - Industrial trends inevitably lead to a growth of freight transport

with characteristics that are in conflict with environmental quality. - There is abundant technology to save energy and protect the environment, but the impact will for itself not be sufficient, so we are forced to define the transport problem on a higher level, i . e. the generation of mobility and the organization of transport. - On this higher level we will be confronted with fundamental conflicts between the interests of economy and ecology. - There are good opportunities to match this conflict in a period of rapid technological change, if the organizational principles of logistics are used to solve these problems and to optimize transport operation. - In doing so a balance will be needed between at the one hand abundant suppliers to stimulate competition and the other hand the scale of their operations, to get an optimal usage of capacities. - The hardest case is urban distribution, where the flow of freight transported by trucks can not be shifted to another mode. Here almost half of the energy in transport is consumed and the operations are far from optimal. - Under the recognition that transport is a combined public and private action the answers should be contrived by giving the development into modern logistics incentives to internalize aspects of energy and the environment. Finally it should be noted that the concept of distribution centers at the edge of large conurbations is not new at all. There have been many plans and experiments. Until now the results have been poor, because of complexity of the market and because of costs involved for an extra transhipment. Interfaces (the technical

34 1 facilities to load, sort and reload) and interfacing (the organization of this process) are crucial. The enormous increase in logistical knowledge in the last decennium in combination with the newly developed technologies in transport and in informatics, make it worthwhile to re-evaluate the efficiency of such urban freight distribution systems for the near future. A first question however, that need to be answered is, who will develop and be responsible for the logistical organization of the urban freight transport system. If the outcome of an evaluation like that, turns out to be insufficient, problems of environmental quality will force us t o make them sufficient. A city community can do so by delivering the infrastructure, either the information and communication systems needed, or by building the terminals or the free lanes and parking facilities in the cities. REFERENCES 1 Rens, J. van, Research and development in the transportsector, publication of the European Society of Transport Institutes (ESTI), Brussels, 1985. 2 Mulders, A.A.W.G., P.T. Tanja, R.C. Rijkeboer and R. ter Brugge, Energiebesparingspotentielen in het verkeer en vervoer tot 2015, INRO-TNO, Delft, 1990. 3 Tanja, P.T., H.F.W.J. de Leijer and R. ter Brugge, Logistiek, energie en milieu: een verkenning van de opties in logistiek en transport ter vermindering van het energiegebruik en luchtverontreiniqing, INRO-TNO, Delft, 1989. 4 Cecchini, P. (e.a.), The european Challenge 1992: The Benefits of the Single Market, Gower, Aldershot, 1989. 5 Bierman, M., Toekomst op het spoor. in: Plan, 20(1989)5, 9-61. 6 Ruijgrok, C.J., Telematics in goods logistics process, in: 3. Soekha (ed) "Telematics-Transportation and Spatial Development" The Hague, 1989.


M. Kroon, R . Smit and 1. van Ham (Editors), Freight Transporl and the Envimnment 6 1991 Elsevier Science Publishers B. V., Amsterdam. Printed in the NeIherlands

343

THE PERSPECTIVE OF URBAN TRAFFIC AND ITS POLLUTION CONTROL IN CHINA

Zi-Zhu Jia Chengdu Institute of Environmental Protection, 610021 Chengdu, People's Republic of China

SUMMARY

The urban traffic and its pollution control have become one of the focal points in urban development and environment in China. This paper introduces the general situation of this problem for some Chinese metropolises, and put forward a comprehensive strategy for our developing cities in this field. URBAN TRAFFIC

Since the rapid development of urbanization and industrialization during the past fifteen years, the discordant increase between the motor vehicles, bicycles and urban road systems, as well as other relevant problems, have made most of our cities more crowded with motor vehicles, bicycles and pedestrians. In Beijing City, for instance, by the end of 1988, the motor vehicles and bicycles had increased to 430,000 and 7,300,000 respectively, the urban district population counted up to 5,000,000, with the exception of the temporary resident population 1,300,000. However, in spite of the fact that the passenger and goods flow volumes increase more than 100 and 50 times by contrast with the year of 1949, the existing length of urban roads increases only 12 times, the density of urban road is 0 . 7 kilometer per square k'ilometer, and the one third of the load is undertaken by lorries. At the peak hour, 7 : 3 0 to 8:30 am, all buses were overloaded almost double what they did in many districts of these urban areas. At that moment, the bicycles shuttled everywhere. In Tianjin City, the volume of bicycle traffic was up to 37,000 per hour in some sections of main communication artery. It is obvious that the mixed traffic is always apt to result in traffic congestion. For example, the average speed of the buses from some 2 3 kilometer per hour decreased to 13 kilometer per hour during the past forty years in Chengdu City. This situation will keep itself up in the future if the urban population and scale cannot put under control. The tendency concerning the increase of urban population scale, motor vehicles and bicycles, passenger flow volume, as well as the situation of Chinese cities and towns (Figure 1-3, Table 1) are as follows:

344 TABLE 1.

The s i t u a t i o n o f C h i n e s e c i t i e s a n d towns

Population

>1,000,000

Freight Transport and the Environment

Freight Transport and the Environment

Transport and the Environment

Air Transport and the Environment

Air Transport and the Environment

Air Transport and the Environment

Globalisation, Transport and the Environment

European Integration of Rail Freight Transport

Public Transport (Natural and Built Environment Series)

Transport, Environment and Society (Introducing Social Policy)

Contaminant Geochemistry: Interactions and Transport in the Subsurface Environment

Detailing Freight Cars

Transport, Environment and Health (WHO Regional Publications European Series)

Socio-Economic Projects in Energy, Transport and Environment

Handbook of Chemical Mass Transport in the Environment

Nanotechnology and the Environment

Photosynthesis and the environment

Institutions And The Environment

Genes and the Environment

Islam and the Environment

Volcanoes and the Environment

Plastics and the Environment

Nanotechnology and the Environment

Aquaculture and the Environment

Economics and the Environment

Polymers and the environment

Cancer and the Environment

Energy and the environment

Energy and the Environment

Nanotechnology and the Environment

Aviation and the Environment

Freight Transport and the Environment