Food and Environment: The Quest for a Sustainable Future

Food and Environment

WIT Press publishes leading books in Science and Technology. Visit our website for the current list of titles. www.witpress.com

WITeLibrary Home of the Transactions of the Wessex Institute. Papers presented at Food and Environment 2011 are archived in the WIT elibrary in volume 152 of WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment (ISSN 1743-3541). The WIT electronic-library provides the international scientific community with immediate and permanent access to individual papers presented at WIT conferences. http://library.witpress.com.

FIRST INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON FOOD AND ENVIRONMENT

Food and Environment

CONFERENCE CHAIRMEN V. Popov Wessex Institute of Technology, UK

C.A. Brebbia Wessex Institute of Technology, UK

INTERNATIONAL SCIENTIFIC ADVISORY COMMITTEE M.D. Hubinger J. Kreyenschmidt D. Lund G. Olafsdottir C. Prentice A. Ramirez P. Zubia-Aloy

Organised by Wessex Institute of Technology, UK

Sponsored by WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment

WIT Transactions Transactions Editor Carlos Brebbia Wessex Institute of Technology Ashurst Lodge, Ashurst Southampton SO40 7AA, UK Email: [email protected]

Editorial Board B Abersek University of Maribor, Slovenia Y N Abousleiman University of Oklahoma,

G Belingardi Politecnico di Torino, Italy R Belmans Katholieke Universiteit Leuven,

P L Aguilar University of Extremadura, Spain K S Al Jabri Sultan Qaboos University, Oman E Alarcon Universidad Politecnica de Madrid,

C D Bertram The University of New South

USA

Spain

A Aldama IMTA, Mexico C Alessandri Universita di Ferrara, Italy D Almorza Gomar University of Cadiz, Spain

B Alzahabi Kettering University, USA J A C Ambrosio IDMEC, Portugal A M Amer Cairo University, Egypt S A Anagnostopoulos University of Patras, Greece

M Andretta Montecatini, Italy E Angelino A.R.P.A. Lombardia, Italy H Antes Technische Universitat Braunschweig, Germany

M A Atherton South Bank University, UK A G Atkins University of Reading, UK D Aubry Ecole Centrale de Paris, France H Azegami Toyohashi University of Technology, Japan

A F M Azevedo University of Porto, Portugal J Baish Bucknell University, USA J M Baldasano Universitat Politecnica de Catalunya, Spain J G Bartzis Institute of Nuclear Technology, Greece A Bejan Duke University, USA M P Bekakos Democritus University of Thrace, Greece

Belgium

Wales, Australia

D E Beskos University of Patras, Greece S K Bhattacharyya Indian Institute of Technology, India

E Blums Latvian Academy of Sciences, Latvia J Boarder Cartref Consulting Systems, UK B Bobee Institut National de la Recherche Scientifique, Canada

H Boileau ESIGEC, France J J Bommer Imperial College London, UK M Bonnet Ecole Polytechnique, France C A Borrego University of Aveiro, Portugal A R Bretones University of Granada, Spain J A Bryant University of Exeter, UK F-G Buchholz Universitat Gesanthochschule Paderborn, Germany

M B Bush The University of Western Australia, Australia

F Butera Politecnico di Milano, Italy J Byrne University of Portsmouth, UK W Cantwell Liverpool University, UK D J Cartwright Bucknell University, USA P G Carydis National Technical University of Athens, Greece

J J Casares Long Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, Spain

M A Celia Princeton University, USA A Chakrabarti Indian Institute of Science, India

A H-D Cheng University of Mississippi, USA

J Chilton University of Lincoln, UK C-L Chiu University of Pittsburgh, USA H Choi Kangnung National University, Korea A Cieslak Technical University of Lodz, Poland

S Clement Transport System Centre, Australia M W Collins Brunel University, UK J J Connor Massachusetts Institute of Technology, USA

M C Constantinou State University of New York at Buffalo, USA

D E Cormack University of Toronto, Canada M Costantino Royal Bank of Scotland, UK D F Cutler Royal Botanic Gardens, UK W Czyczula Krakow University of Technology, Poland

M da Conceicao Cunha University of Coimbra, Portugal

L Dávid Károly Róbert College, Hungary A Davies University of Hertfordshire, UK M Davis Temple University, USA A B de Almeida Instituto Superior Tecnico, Portugal

E R de Arantes e Oliveira Instituto Superior Tecnico, Portugal

L De Biase University of Milan, Italy R de Borst Delft University of Technology,

Netherlands G De Mey University of Ghent, Belgium A De Montis Universita di Cagliari, Italy A De Naeyer Universiteit Ghent, Belgium W P De Wilde Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Belgium L Debnath University of Texas-Pan American, USA N J Dedios Mimbela Universidad de Cordoba, Spain G Degrande Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Belgium S del Giudice University of Udine, Italy G Deplano Universita di Cagliari, Italy I Doltsinis University of Stuttgart, Germany M Domaszewski Universite de Technologie de Belfort-Montbeliard, France J Dominguez University of Seville, Spain K Dorow Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, USA W Dover University College London, UK C Dowlen South Bank University, UK

J P du Plessis University of Stellenbosch, South Africa

R Duffell University of Hertfordshire, UK A Ebel University of Cologne, Germany E E Edoutos Democritus University of Thrace, Greece

G K Egan Monash University, Australia K M Elawadly Alexandria University, Egypt K-H Elmer Universitat Hannover, Germany D Elms University of Canterbury, New Zealand M E M El-Sayed Kettering University, USA D M Elsom Oxford Brookes University, UK F Erdogan Lehigh University, USA F P Escrig University of Seville, Spain D J Evans Nottingham Trent University, UK J W Everett Rowan University, USA M Faghri University of Rhode Island, USA R A Falconer Cardiff University, UK M N Fardis University of Patras, Greece P Fedelinski Silesian Technical University, Poland

H J S Fernando Arizona State University, USA

S Finger Carnegie Mellon University, USA J I Frankel University of Tennessee, USA D M Fraser University of Cape Town, South Africa

M J Fritzler University of Calgary, Canada U Gabbert Otto-von-Guericke Universitat Magdeburg, Germany

G Gambolati Universita di Padova, Italy C J Gantes National Technical University of Athens, Greece

L Gaul Universitat Stuttgart, Germany A Genco University of Palermo, Italy N Georgantzis Universitat Jaume I, Spain P Giudici Universita di Pavia, Italy F Gomez Universidad Politecnica de Valencia, Spain

R Gomez Martin University of Granada, Spain

D Goulias University of Maryland, USA K G Goulias Pennsylvania State University, USA

F Grandori Politecnico di Milano, Italy W E Grant Texas A & M University, USA

S Grilli University of Rhode Island, USA

R H J Grimshaw Loughborough University, D Gross Technische Hochschule Darmstadt,

M Karlsson Linkoping University, Sweden T Katayama Doshisha University, Japan K L Katsifarakis Aristotle University of

R Grundmann Technische Universitat

J T Katsikadelis National Technical

A Gualtierotti IDHEAP, Switzerland R C Gupta National University of Singapore,

E Kausel Massachusetts Institute of

UK

Germany

Dresden, Germany

Singapore J M Hale University of Newcastle, UK K Hameyer Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Belgium C Hanke Danish Technical University, Denmark K Hayami University of Toyko, Japan Y Hayashi Nagoya University, Japan L Haydock Newage International Limited, UK A H Hendrickx Free University of Brussels, Belgium C Herman John Hopkins University, USA S Heslop University of Bristol, UK I Hideaki Nagoya University, Japan D A Hills University of Oxford, UK W F Huebner Southwest Research Institute, USA J A C Humphrey Bucknell University, USA M Y Hussaini Florida State University, USA W Hutchinson Edith Cowan University, Australia T H Hyde University of Nottingham, UK M Iguchi Science University of Tokyo, Japan D B Ingham University of Leeds, UK L Int Panis VITO Expertisecentrum IMS, Belgium N Ishikawa National Defence Academy, Japan J Jaafar UiTm, Malaysia W Jager Technical University of Dresden, Germany Y Jaluria Rutgers University, USA C M Jefferson University of the West of England, UK P R Johnston Griffith University, Australia D R H Jones University of Cambridge, UK N Jones University of Liverpool, UK D Kaliampakos National Technical University of Athens, Greece N Kamiya Nagoya University, Japan D L Karabalis University of Patras, Greece

Thessaloniki, Greece

University of Athens, Greece Technology, USA

H Kawashima The University of Tokyo, Japan

B A Kazimee Washington State University, USA

S Kim University of Wisconsin-Madison, USA D Kirkland Nicholas Grimshaw & Partners Ltd, UK

E Kita Nagoya University, Japan A S Kobayashi University of Washington, USA

T Kobayashi University of Tokyo, Japan D Koga Saga University, Japan S Kotake University of Tokyo, Japan A N Kounadis National Technical University of Athens, Greece

W B Kratzig Ruhr Universitat Bochum, Germany

T Krauthammer Penn State University, USA C-H Lai University of Greenwich, UK M Langseth Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Norway

B S Larsen Technical University of Denmark, Denmark

F Lattarulo Politecnico di Bari, Italy A Lebedev Moscow State University, Russia L J Leon University of Montreal, Canada D Lewis Mississippi State University, USA S lghobashi University of California Irvine, USA

K-C Lin University of New Brunswick, Canada

A A Liolios Democritus University of Thrace, Greece

S Lomov Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Belgium

J W S Longhurst University of the West of England, UK

G Loo The University of Auckland, New Zealand

J Lourenco Universidade do Minho, Portugal J E Luco University of California at San Diego, USA

H Lui State Seismological Bureau Harbin, China

C J Lumsden University of Toronto, Canada L Lundqvist Division of Transport and

Location Analysis, Sweden T Lyons Murdoch University, Australia Y-W Mai University of Sydney, Australia M Majowiecki University of Bologna, Italy D Malerba Università degli Studi di Bari, Italy G Manara University of Pisa, Italy B N Mandal Indian Statistical Institute, India Ü Mander University of Tartu, Estonia H A Mang Technische Universitat Wien, Austria G D Manolis Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Greece W J Mansur COPPE/UFRJ, Brazil N Marchettini University of Siena, Italy J D M Marsh Griffith University, Australia J F Martin-Duque Universidad Complutense, Spain T Matsui Nagoya University, Japan G Mattrisch DaimlerChrysler AG, Germany F M Mazzolani University of Naples “Federico II”, Italy K McManis University of New Orleans, USA A C Mendes Universidade de Beira Interior, Portugal R A Meric Research Institute for Basic Sciences, Turkey J Mikielewicz Polish Academy of Sciences, Poland N Milic-Frayling Microsoft Research Ltd, UK R A W Mines University of Liverpool, UK C A Mitchell University of Sydney, Australia K Miura Kajima Corporation, Japan A Miyamoto Yamaguchi University, Japan T Miyoshi Kobe University, Japan G Molinari University of Genoa, Italy T B Moodie University of Alberta, Canada D B Murray Trinity College Dublin, Ireland G Nakhaeizadeh DaimlerChrysler AG, Germany M B Neace Mercer University, USA D Necsulescu University of Ottawa, Canada F Neumann University of Vienna, Austria S-I Nishida Saga University, Japan

H Nisitani Kyushu Sangyo University, Japan B Notaros University of Massachusetts, USA P O’Donoghue University College Dublin, Ireland

R O O’Neill Oak Ridge National Laboratory, USA

M Ohkusu Kyushu University, Japan G Oliveto Universitá di Catania, Italy R Olsen Camp Dresser & McKee Inc., USA E Oñate Universitat Politecnica de Catalunya, Spain

K Onishi Ibaraki University, Japan P H Oosthuizen Queens University, Canada E L Ortiz Imperial College London, UK E Outa Waseda University, Japan A S Papageorgiou Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, USA

J Park Seoul National University, Korea G Passerini Universita delle Marche, Italy B C Patten University of Georgia, USA G Pelosi University of Florence, Italy G G Penelis Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Greece

W Perrie Bedford Institute of Oceanography, Canada

R Pietrabissa Politecnico di Milano, Italy H Pina Instituto Superior Tecnico, Portugal M F Platzer Naval Postgraduate School, USA D Poljak University of Split, Croatia V Popov Wessex Institute of Technology, UK H Power University of Nottingham, UK D Prandle Proudman Oceanographic Laboratory, UK

M Predeleanu University Paris VI, France M R I Purvis University of Portsmouth, UK I S Putra Institute of Technology Bandung, Indonesia

Y A Pykh Russian Academy of Sciences, Russia

F Rachidi EMC Group, Switzerland M Rahman Dalhousie University, Canada K R Rajagopal Texas A & M University, USA T Rang Tallinn Technical University, Estonia J Rao Case Western Reserve University, USA A M Reinhorn State University of New York at Buffalo, USA

A D Rey McGill University, Canada

D N Riahi University of Illinois at Urbana-

Champaign, USA B Ribas Spanish National Centre for Environmental Health, Spain K Richter Graz University of Technology, Austria S Rinaldi Politecnico di Milano, Italy F Robuste Universitat Politecnica de Catalunya, Spain J Roddick Flinders University, Australia A C Rodrigues Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Portugal F Rodrigues Poly Institute of Porto, Portugal C W Roeder University of Washington, USA J M Roesset Texas A & M University, USA W Roetzel Universitaet der Bundeswehr Hamburg, Germany V Roje University of Split, Croatia R Rosset Laboratoire d’Aerologie, France J L Rubio Centro de Investigaciones sobre Desertificacion, Spain T J Rudolphi Iowa State University, USA S Russenchuck Magnet Group, Switzerland H Ryssel Fraunhofer Institut Integrierte Schaltungen, Germany S G Saad American University in Cairo, Egypt M Saiidi University of Nevada-Reno, USA R San Jose Technical University of Madrid, Spain F J Sanchez-Sesma Instituto Mexicano del Petroleo, Mexico B Sarler Nova Gorica Polytechnic, Slovenia S A Savidis Technische Universitat Berlin, Germany A Savini Universita de Pavia, Italy G Schmid Ruhr-Universitat Bochum, Germany R Schmidt RWTH Aachen, Germany B Scholtes Universitaet of Kassel, Germany W Schreiber University of Alabama, USA A P S Selvadurai McGill University, Canada J J Sendra University of Seville, Spain J J Sharp Memorial University of Newfoundland, Canada Q Shen Massachusetts Institute of Technology, USA X Shixiong Fudan University, China G C Sih Lehigh University, USA L C Simoes University of Coimbra, Portugal

A C Singhal Arizona State University, USA P Skerget University of Maribor, Slovenia J Sladek Slovak Academy of Sciences, Slovakia

V Sladek Slovak Academy of Sciences, Slovakia

A C M Sousa University of New Brunswick, Canada

H Sozer Illinois Institute of Technology, USA D B Spalding CHAM, UK P D Spanos Rice University, USA T Speck Albert-Ludwigs-Universitaet Freiburg, Germany

C C Spyrakos National Technical University of Athens, Greece

I V Stangeeva St Petersburg University, Russia

J Stasiek Technical University of Gdansk, Poland

G E Swaters University of Alberta, Canada S Syngellakis University of Southampton, UK J Szmyd University of Mining and Metallurgy, Poland

S T Tadano Hokkaido University, Japan H Takemiya Okayama University, Japan I Takewaki Kyoto University, Japan C-L Tan Carleton University, Canada E Taniguchi Kyoto University, Japan S Tanimura Aichi University of Technology, Japan

J L Tassoulas University of Texas at Austin, USA

M A P Taylor University of South Australia, Australia

A Terranova Politecnico di Milano, Italy A G Tijhuis Technische Universiteit Eindhoven, Netherlands

T Tirabassi Institute FISBAT-CNR, Italy S Tkachenko Otto-von-Guericke-University, Germany

N Tosaka Nihon University, Japan T Tran-Cong University of Southern Queensland, Australia

R Tremblay Ecole Polytechnique, Canada I Tsukrov University of New Hampshire, USA R Turra CINECA Interuniversity Computing Centre, Italy

S G Tushinski Moscow State University, Russia

J-L Uso Universitat Jaume I, Spain E Van den Bulck Katholieke Universiteit

Z-Y Yan Peking University, China S Yanniotis Agricultural University of Athens,

D Van den Poel Ghent University, Belgium R van der Heijden Radboud University,

A Yeh University of Hong Kong, China J Yoon Old Dominion University, USA K Yoshizato Hiroshima University, Japan T X Yu Hong Kong University of Science &

Leuven, Belgium

Netherlands

R van Duin Delft University of Technology, Netherlands

Greece

Technology, Hong Kong

P Vas University of Aberdeen, UK R Verhoeven Ghent University, Belgium A Viguri Universitat Jaume I, Spain Y Villacampa Esteve Universidad de

M Zador Technical University of Budapest,

F F V Vincent University of Bath, UK S Walker Imperial College, UK G Walters University of Exeter, UK B Weiss University of Vienna, Austria H Westphal University of Magdeburg,

R Zarnic University of Ljubljana, Slovenia G Zharkova Institute of Theoretical and

Alicante, Spain

Germany

J R Whiteman Brunel University, UK

Hungary

K Zakrzewski Politechnika Lodzka, Poland M Zamir University of Western Ontario, Canada

Applied Mechanics, Russia

N Zhong Maebashi Institute of Technology, Japan

H G Zimmermann Siemens AG, Germany

Food and Environment The Quest for a Sustainable Future

Editors V. Popov Wessex Institute of Technology, UK

C.A. Brebbia Wessex Institute of Technology, UK

Editors V. Popov Wessex Institute of Technology, UK C.A. Brebbia Wessex Institute of Technology, UK

Published by WIT Press Ashurst Lodge, Ashurst, Southampton, SO40 7AA, UK Tel: 44 (0) 238 029 3223; Fax: 44 (0) 238 029 2853 E-Mail: [email protected] http://www.witpress.com For USA, Canada and Mexico Computational Mechanics Inc 25 Bridge Street, Billerica, MA 01821, USA Tel: 978 667 5841; Fax: 978 667 7582 E-Mail: [email protected] http://www.witpress.com British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A Catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library ISBN: 978-1-84564-554-0 ISSN: 1746-448X (print) ISSN: 1743-3541(online) The texts of the papers in this volume were set individually by the authors or under their supervision. Only minor corrections to the text may have been carried out by the publisher. No responsibility is assumed by the Publisher, the Editors and Authors for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods, products, instructions or ideas contained in the material herein. The Publisher does not necessarily endorse the ideas held, or views expressed by the Editors or Authors of the material contained in its publications. © WIT Press 2011 Printed in Great Britain by Quay Digital, Bristol. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the Publisher.

Preface

The First International Conference on Food and the Environment focused on a variety of issues from the production to the transport and storage affecting the quality and safety of food products at the retailers’ shops. The aim of the conference was to emphasise the effects of modern food production processes on the human health and the environment and to initiate discussions on the best ways to produce food of required quality, sufficient quantities and in a sustainable way which takes into account the environment. The many advances made for over a century in food production have resulted in the possibility of feeding the whole of humanity. These advances have been achieved by the introduction of new production practices and a variety of added substances aimed to enhance the quality and safety of the food products; the whole process being affected by other environmental conditions such as contamination of air, water and soil resulting from sources other than agriculture. On the other hand there are examples where the food production and food processing have detrimental effects on the environment. Some of the major challenges remain with the extensive farming, which though offering higher productivity and larger volumes should not either compromise the quality of the product or cause suffering in animals. Given the importance of the problem which affects the whole world population, it is essential to understand the consequences that food production processes and demands can have on the food consumed daily by the world population. Of particular importance are the effects on human health and the well-being of the population, as well as the more general issues related to possible damage to the environment and ecology.

Food-related problems, in spite of their importance, have not been sufficiently well discussed in relation to their possible consequences to the environment, to better understand the challenges faced by the society in this regard. The Food & Environment Conference created an atmosphere which encouraged fruitful interactions and exchange of knowledge and ideas amongst the participants working in industry and government and those employed at universities and research organizations. This volume contains some of the contributions presented at the First Conference on Food & Environment, which was held in the New Forest, UK. The conference was organized by the Wessex Institute of Technology. It was sponsored by WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment and The International Journal of Sustainable Development and Planning. The editors would like to thank all the authors for their papers and, in particular, the members of the International Scientific Advisory Committee for their help during the review process. The Editors, New Forest, 2011

Contents Section 1: Impact of food production on the environment Environmental impacts of local food production in Japan and changes needed for future sustainability S. Mishima & K. Kohyama .................................................................................. 3 Agrarian urban architecture T. Gentry............................................................................................................ 13 Dryland crop production and greenhouse gas emissions in Canada: a regional comparison S. Kulshreshtha, J. Dyer & B. McConkey.......................................................... 25 Assessment of hazards in local soy-cheese processing: implications on health and environment in Oyo State, Nigeria S. B. Fasoyiro .................................................................................................... 37 Use of blast furnace slag and water treatment residues to reduce the runoff of dissolved reactive phosphorus from agricultural lands Z. Ahmad, M. Abdel Basit, S. Yamamoto, T. Honna, H. Yasuda & M. Inoue ....................................................................................... 45 Environmental and economic evaluation of conventional and organic production systems in the Canadian Prairie provinces S. Kulshreshtha & C. Klemmer.......................................................................... 55 Section 2: Contamination of food Microbial growth models for shelf life prediction in an Icelandic cod supply chain R. Gospavic, H. L. Lauzon, V. Popov, E. Martinsdottir, M. N. Haque & E. Reynisson ............................................................................. 69

Risk assessment of exposure to multiple mycotoxins in food S. Viegas, C. Viegas, C. Ramos, M. Silva, R. Sabino, C. Veríssimo & L. Rosado ................................................................................. 81 Emerging contaminants in consumer products: environmental fate and transfer to human food-chain T. Eggen, M. Möder & A. Arukwe ..................................................................... 89 Soil composition of community gardens: are there quality concerns? S. Wunderlich, C. Feldman, K. Latif & P. Punamiya ........................................ 95 Degradation of histamine in tuna soup by diamine oxidase (DAO) A. Naila, S. Flint, G. C. Fletcher, P. J. Bremer, G. Meerdink & R. H. Morton........................................................................... 103 Microbiological quality of fresh (unpasteurized) fruit juices in Makkah, Saudi Arabia B. Mashat......................................................................................................... 113 Air fungal contamination in ten hospitals’ food units from Lisbon C. Viegas, C. Ramos, M. Almeida, R. Sabino, C. Veríssimo & L. Rosado..................................................................................................... 127 Section 3: Food processing issues Quality indices, polyphenols, terpenic acids, squalene, fatty acid profile, and sterols in virgin olive oil produced by organic versus non-organic cultivation method E. Anastasopoulos, N. Kalogeropoulos, A. C. Kaliora, A. M. Kountouri & N. K. Andrikopoulos .................................................................................... 135 Nutrient constituents, functional attributes and in vitro protein digestibility of the seeds of the Lathyrus plant O. Aletor, C. E. Onyemem & V. A. Aletor....................................................... 145 Household processing and dissemination of tomato paste technology K. O. Zaka........................................................................................................ 157 Section 4: Traceability and temperature control Multicriteria model for the selection of traceability and temperature control technologies along the cold chain. P. Zubía Aloy, E. Mechó Laussac, V. Cloquell Ballester & D. Moya Ramírez......................................................................................... 165

Novel solutions supporting inter-organisational quality and information management V. Raab, R. Ibald, W. Reichstein, D. Haarer, B. Petersen & J. Kreyenschmidt ......................................................................................... 177 Quality losses in deep-frozen foodstuffs at cyclically modified storage temperatures M. Braun, R. Stamminger & G. Broil .............................................................. 189 Section 5: Characterisation of foodplants The phytotoxicity of 2,4,6-Trichlorophenol and Phenol to local agricultural plant species in China K. Poon, K. L. Hon & J. J. Huang ................................................................... 203 Siddha herbs for obesity J. Raamachandran & T. Venkatasubramaniam............................................... 215 Author Index .................................................................................................. 225

This page intentionally left blank

Section 1 Impact of food production on the environment

This page intentionally left blank

Food and Environment

3

Environmental impacts of local food production in Japan and changes needed for future sustainability S. Mishima & K. Kohyama National Institute for Agro-Environmental Sciences, Japan

Abstract We employed the distance-to-target method to devise a single environmental impact indicator (EII) of the total environmental impact of agricultural production, mainly fertilizer use. We focused on the effects of fertilization on greenhouse gas (nitrous oxide, N2O) emission, groundwater pollution by nitrogen (N) through leaching and surface (river) water eutrophication by N and phosphorus (P) through erosion as environmental impacts in the base year of 1990 as well as in 2005. We estimated each environmental impact in all (47) prefectures and at the Japanese national scale as a reference value. Target values were set temporally, except N2O emission, which has a midterm governmental target. The EII in each prefecture in 1990 and 2005 was calculated from normalized environmental impacts and weighting factors using reference and target values. The EII in each prefecture ranged from 0.9 to 81.1 in 1990 and from 0.7 to 68.4 in 2005. Surface water eutrophication by N and P contributed greatly to the EII, especially in prefectures with high EII values. To mitigate high EII values, the agricultural sector should reduce the N surplus by decreasing the fertilizer input and fertilizing with P dependent on soil P fertility to prevent excessive accumulation of P. Keywords: distance-to-target method, environmental impact indicator, fertilization, prefectural scale.

1 Introduction Although fertilization is essential for agricultural production, it causes various negative environmental impacts, such as greenhouse gas emissions, eutrophication and pollution of surface and groundwater. Previous studies have WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 152, © 2011 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line) doi:10.2495/FENV110011

4 Food and Environment considered these problems individually, but it is important to examine the total environmental impact of fertilizer use to evaluate the optimal conditions of agricultural production by life cycle assessment (LCA). The distance-to-target (DtT) method [1] is sometimes used in LCA to simplify the total environmental impact consisting of various kinds of impacts. In this study, we estimated nitrous oxide (N2O) emission due to agricultural production, potential groundwater pollution by nitrogen (N) due to surplus N from agricultural production and potential surface water eutrophication by N and phosphorus (P) due to farmland soil erosion in 1990 and 2005 for the 47 prefectures of Japan. We then aggregated these four impacts into one indicator value as an environmental impact indicator (EII) using the DtT method. We evaluated the relative environmental impact due to prefectural agricultural production by comparing EII values among prefectures and between the two years. In addition, we analyzed what factors may have caused high or low EII values in particular prefectures.

2 Materials and methods 2.1 Data sources The amounts of N and P flow associated with agricultural production in the 47 prefectures and in Japan as a whole were those reported by Mishima and Kohyama [2]. Soil fertility data were taken from MAFF [3]. 2.2 Nitrous oxide emission Nitrous oxide emission was estimated by IPCC Tier 2 methodology [4]; namely, N2O emission was calculated as N flows multiplied by emission factors of the various model components. This study included direct N2O emission from livestock waste processing and fertilization of farmland soil and indirect N2O emission through leaching and deposition of N. 2.3 Groundwater pollution potential The potential groundwater pollution by N (GW) was calculated based on residual N in agricultural production (RN), precipitation (Prec) and the potential evapotranspiration (ET) from Mishima et al. [5], using eqn (1): GW

RN ( Prec. ET )

(1)

2.4 Surface water eutrophication potential The potential surface water eutrophication by N and P due to erosion (EN, EP) at the watershed and prefecture scales were estimated based on the erosion

WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 152, © 2011 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

Food and Environment

5

potential (E) calculated using the USLE, residual N and P (RN, RP) and available N and P in farmland soil (AN, AP), as follows: EN

( RN

AN ) E

(2)

EP

( RP

AP) E .

(3)

2.5 Target setting The Japanese government set as a midterm target a 25% reduction of total greenhouse gas emissions by 2025 as compared to 1990 levels. Therefore, we used a 25% reduction of N2O emission versus the level in 1990 as the anticipated target. In contrast, no governmental or regulatory targets have been set for reductions in groundwater pollution and river water eutrophication. Therefore, we set tentative targets based on the inverse of the regression reported by Mishima et al. [5], which is the correlation between groundwater pollution potential and the percentage of observation wells in prefectures that exceeded the water quality standard (10 mg N L-1): EOW

0.606 (0.634 GW )

(4)

where EOW is the percentage of observation wells in prefectures that exceeded the water quality standard. The target groundwater pollution potential was set such that all observation wells would meet the water quality standard. For the surface (river) water eutrophication potential, 2 mg N l-1 and 0.1 mg P -1 l were employed as tentative targets [6]. At river water-quality monitoring points (n=1260) set at the output of each watershed, first the correlations between total N and P flow and EN and EP, respectively, were tested. Then we calculated the total N and P flows necessary for N and P concentrations to meet our tentative standards and tested the correlations of these flows with EN, TN’, TP’ and EP. 2.6 Application of the DtT method for aggregation According to Brentrup et al. [7], impacts were normalized, weighted and then aggregated using eqn (5):

EII

( wi i

Ii ), Ni

(5)

where Ii is the impact indicator for impact category i, Ni is the normalization reference (national average in this study) for impact category i, wi is the weighting factor for impact category i and wi is set as follows: Pi , wi Ti (6) WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 152, © 2011 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

6 Food and Environment where Pi is the present normalization reference of impact category i and Ti is the target reference of impact i. Here i represents N2O emission, groundwater pollution potential by N or surface water eutrophication potential by N and P. The baseline year was set to 1990.

3 Results and discussion 3.1 Environmental impacts 3.1.1 Nitrous oxide emission National N2O emission levels in 1990 and 2005 were 4.45 and 3.84 kg N2O-N ha-1, respectively. The main causes of the reduction in N2O emission were the reductions in chemical N fertilizer application from 116.4 to 91.9 kg N ha-1 and in livestock waste production from 148.3 to 145.6 kg N ha-1. In both years, the highest N2O emission was observed in Shizuoka, followed by Miyazaki and Kagoshima. Among all prefectures, Shizuoka has the largest area of tea plantations, which receive the highest chemical N fertilizer input [8] and have the highest emission factor (2.62) [9] among all crops. Miyazaki and Kagoshima are prefectures with intensive livestock farming, which is a major source of N2O emission in Japan. The lowest N2O emission levels were in Fukui and Ishikawa, which both have extensive livestock farming and rice paddy farming that receive the lowest chemical N fertilizer [8] and that has the lowest emission factor (0.31) among crops [9]. 3.1.2 Groundwater pollution potential The national average groundwater pollution potential was 5.36 mg N l-1 in 1990 and 4.06 mg N l-1 in 2005. The highest values were observed in Kagawa (26.21 mg N l-1 in 1990 and 25.11 mg N l-1 in 2005), because of high livestock waste production caused by the most intensive poultry farming, as well as the lowest (Prec – ET) value (569mm) in Japan. Kumazawa [10] reported that groundwater pollution by N tends to occur in intensive livestock and upland farming areas rather than in paddy farming areas. According to our estimates, however, Miyazaki, the prefecture with the most intensive livestock farming, and Kagoshima, that with the second most intensive, did not have high groundwater pollution potential, because of large (Prec – ET) values. The Kanto region (around the Tokyo metropolitan area) had a relatively high groundwater pollution potential, although the reasons are unclear. 3.1.3 Surface water eutrophication potential The national average surface water eutrophication potential values were 10.3 kg N ha-1 and 4.7 kg P ha-1 in 1990 and 5.1 kg N ha-1 and 8.9 kg P ha-1 in 2005. Shizuoka had the highest values for both N and P (161.6 kg N ha-1 and 69.7 kg P ha-1 in 2005), followed by Aichi (135.7 kg N ha-1 and 56.5 kg P ha-1 in 2005) and Okinawa (115.0 kg N ha-1 and 51.3 kg P ha-1 in 2005). The lowest values were in Shiga (0.018 kg N ha-1 and 0.007 kg P ha-1 in 2005). This environmental impact was largely dependent on erosion potential. In general, prefectures in the southWIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 152, © 2011 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

Food and Environment

7

west of Japan or on the Pacific Ocean side had higher surface water eutrophication potential than prefectures in the north-east or on the Japanese Sea side. In addition, prefectures dominated by paddy rice farming had lower values than those dominated by upland crops or orchards. 3.2 Weighting factors and aggregated indicator 3.2.1 Nitrous oxide emission The weighting factor for N2O emission was 1.33 (=100/75), because 25% cut is governmental direction. 3.2.2 Groundwater pollution potential The regression equation between the percentage of observation wells in prefectures that exceeded the water quality standard and potential groundwater pollution by N was as follows: GW

5.42 (0.52 EOW ) (r=0.563, p45 2: 64% 1: 10% 3: 30% … 4: 6% … 2: 76% 1: 23% 3: 20% … 4: 4% … 2: 68% 1: 18% 3: 29% … 4: 02% … 2: 89% 1: 23% 3: 7% 2: 02% 4: 04% …

3 Herbs for hormonal problems 3.1 Andrographis paniculata Andrographis paniculata is a herb widely used in Siddha medicine for centuries. This is known as ground neem and is very widely used by Tamils for various ailments. Its stem is dark green, 30 to 100 cm in height, 2 to 6 mm in diameter, quadrangular with longitudinal furrows and wings on the angles of the younger parts, slightly enlarged at the nodes. Its leaves are glabrous, up to 8 cm long and 2.5 cm broad, lanceolate and pinnate. Its flowers are small, in lax spreading axillary and terminal racemes or panicles. The flowers are white with rosepurple spots on the petals. The capsules are linear-oblong, acute at both ends, 1.9 cm by 0.3 cm with numerous seeds that are sub quadrate and yellowish brown in colour. The whole plant is bitter in taste. The dried stems are sold in market, (Fig. 4).

Figure 4:

Root of Andrographis paniculata.

The plant is much valued for its stomachic and tonic properties. Mixed with other drugs it is successfully used in general debility and convalescence after fevers. The powder of the stem is quite useful in hypothyroidism which causes WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 152, © 2011 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

222 Food and Environment obesity. In fact, Andrographis paniculata has positive effect on one’s immune system. Half a gram of the powder along with warm water taken on empty stomach for nearly three months restores the function of thyroid.

4 Menstrual problems On close scrutiny of Table 1, one may find that most of the above mentioned herbs did not give satisfactory results in case of women older than 48 years. On examination it as found that most of them were in the menopause stage and some of them even reached menopause. For such women Siddha medicine advises using another herb in conjunction with one or other herbs to be decided case by case. The following herb is for such women. 4.1 Erythrina variegata (“kaliyaana murukkan” in Tamil) The Erythrina variegata is a medium sized tree which grows about 3 to 10 meters in height. The tree has lot of thorns in it so that it is normally grown as hedge plant. Its legume has 6 to 8 seeds. The flower is very attractive and red in colour, (Fig. 5). The fresh bark has a smooth grey colour with unpleasant smell but not very bitter in taste. The bark is used medicinally to reduce bile and it is also febrifuge and anthelmintic. The bark is also used as collyrium in opthalmia. The leaves are normally used not only as medicines but also as part of food. Its medicinal properties are many. The leaves are normally applied externally to cure venereal buboes and to relieve pain in the joints. There is another variety of this tree yielding white flowers and is more useful in medicines. The leaves of this plant are especially used to cure many problems associated with menstrual disorders. The phytochemicals content of this plant are erythratine, ferulic and caffeic acids etc. Alkaloids like erysotine, erythratidine, 11-hydroxy-epierythratidine, epierythratidine etc. isoflavonoids, seadenone, erycristagallin erythrabysin II, phaseollin etc. and fixed oil. The efficacy of Erythrina variegata in reducing cholesterol level was analysed by Balamurugan and Shantha [7].

Figure 5:

Erythrina variegata.

WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 152, © 2011 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

Food and Environment

223

Method: Extract the juice from the leaves of Erythrina variegata and drink 20 millilitres at a time for three months. This will not only reduce weight but will also remove stomach pain that normally occurs during menstrual period. The result of such administration is shown in Table.2. The first row gives the result for those whose obesity is due to digestive problems. The second row gives the result for those whose obesity is due to genetic cause. Menstrual problem is common to both. The results are obtained by the first author after 6 months of continued use of these medicines. As before (1: 78%) indicates that the BMI number is reduced by 1 for 78% of the persons treated and so on. Table 2:

BMI reduction in females during and beyond menopause. Herb

Age: > 45

Erythrina variegata + Ginger

1: 78% 2: 64% 1: 68% 2: 54%

Erythrina variegata + Dolichos biflorus

5 Conclusion The oldest medicinal system of India, namely the Siddha medicinal system has several formulae to tackle obesity. Some of the herbs used in the clinics are reported in this paper. Most of them are administered to obese and overweight people and their BMI are monitored over a period to prove the efficacy of Siddha medicines for such problems. It is to be noted that Siddha medicinal system did not simply prescribe herbs for obesity. It goes to the root of obesity, that is, whether obesity is due to genetic reasons or sedentary life or hormonal problem or menstrual problem and then prescribes medicine accordingly. The herbs mentioned in this paper are only a few, but there are several others which are in use for different combination of diseases. For example, if an obese person is also suffering due to blood pressure then Withania somnifera (“amukkaravu” in Tamil) is prescribed and so on. It is hoped that obese community at large will make use of such Siddha medicines to shed off their excessive flesh, the only thing that one will lose using Siddha medicines!

References [1] Raamachandran, J., Herbs of Siddha Medicines-The First 3D book on herbs, Murugan Pathippakam, Chennai 600087, 2008 [2] Birari R, Javia V, Bhutani KK., Antiobesity and lipid lowering effects of Murraya koenigii (L.) Spreng leaves extracts and mahanimbine on high fat diet induced obese rats. Fitoterapia. 2010 Dec; 81(8):1129-33 [3] Goyal, R.K., Kadnur, S.V. Beneficial effects of Zingiber officinale on gold thioglucose induced obesity. Fitoterapia 77, (2006) 160-163

WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 152, © 2011 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

224 Food and Environment [4] Jeyakumar SM, Nalini N, Venugopal P Menon. Antioxidant activity of ginger (zingiber officinale Rose) in rats fed a high fat diet. Med Sci Res 1999; 27:341-4 [5] Ganga Raju and Rama Raju., Anti-adipogenic compositions containing piper betle and Dolichos biflorus, United States Patent Application 20100203117, 2010 [6] Kottai Muthu A, Sethupathy S, Manavalan R, Karar PK. Hypolipidemic effect of methanolic extract of Dolichos biflorus Linn in high fat diet fed rats. Indian J Exp Biol 2005; 43:522-5 [7] Balamurugan, G and A Shantha., Effect of Erythrina variegata seed extract on hyperlipidemia elicited by high-fat diet in wistar rats, J. of Pharmacy and Bio-Allied Sciences, Year : 2010, Volume : 2, Issue : 4, Page : 350-355

WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 152, © 2011 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

Food and Environment

225

Author Index Abdel Basit M. ........................... 45 Ahmad Z. ................................... 45 Aletor O. .................................. 145 Aletor V. A. ............................. 145 Almeida M. .............................. 127 Anastasopoulos E..................... 135 Andrikopoulos N. K................. 135 Arukwe A. ................................. 89 Braun M. .................................. 189 Bremer P. J. ............................. 103 Broil G. .................................... 189 Cloquell Ballester V. ............... 165 Dyer J......................................... 25 Eggen T...................................... 89 Fasoyiro S. B. ............................ 37 Feldman C.................................. 95 Fletcher G. C............................ 103 Flint S. ..................................... 103 Gentry T. .................................... 13 Gospavic R. ............................... 69 Haarer D. ................................. 177 Haque M. N. .............................. 69 Hon K. L. ................................. 203 Honna T. .................................... 45 Huang J. J. ............................... 203 Ibald R. .................................... 177 Inoue M...................................... 45 Kaliora A. C. ............................ 135 Kalogeropoulos N. ................... 135 Klemmer C. ............................... 55 Kohyama K. ................................. 3 Kountouri A. M. ...................... 135 Kreyenschmidt J. ..................... 177 Kulshreshtha S. .................... 25, 55

Latif K. ...................................... 95 Lauzon H. L. .............................. 69 Martinsdottir E........................... 69 Mashat B. ................................. 113 McConkey B. ............................. 25 Mechó Laussac E. .................... 165 Meerdink G. ............................. 103 Mishima S. ................................... 3 Möder M. ................................... 89 Morton R. H............................. 103 Moya Ramírez D. .................... 165 Naila A..................................... 103 Onyemem C. E. ....................... 145 Petersen B. ............................... 177 Poon K. .................................... 203 Popov V. .................................... 69 Punamiya P. ............................... 95 Raab V. .................................... 177 Raamachandran J. .................... 215 Ramos C. ........................... 81, 127 Reichstein W. .......................... 177 Reynisson E. .............................. 69 Rosado L. ........................... 81, 127 Sabino R. ........................... 81, 127 Silva M. ..................................... 81 Stamminger R. ......................... 189 Venkatasubramaniam T. .......... 215 Veríssimo C. ...................... 81, 127 Viegas C. ........................... 81, 127 Viegas S. .................................... 81 Wunderlich S. ............................ 95 Yamamoto S. ............................. 45 Yasuda H. .................................. 45 Zaka K. O. ............................... 157 Zubía Aloy P............................ 165

This page intentionally left blank

...for scientists by scientists

Island Sustainability Edited by: S. FAVRO, Hydrographic Institute of the Republic of Croatia and C.A. BREBBIA, Wessex Institute of Technology, UK

The massive scale of the seasonal mobility of population is a comparatively recent phenomenon which imposes considerable stress on the environment and is particularly acute in the case of coastal regions and islands. The problems are more serious for the case of islands or archipelagos, which have limited resources and possibilities of developing supporting infrastructures. Most islands cannot provide all resources required to maintain a large seasonal tourist population and in many cases basic requirements such as water and energy, as well as agricultural produce, need to be imported.The impact of large seasonal population increases in the community and the resulting socio-economic factors need to be carefully evaluated, as well as issues related to transportation and communication, all of which should be part of an overall strategy. The papers are published under the following topics: Tourism Impact and Strategies; Community Issues; Changing Climate and Environment; Infrastuctures; and Transport Issues. WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 130 ISBN: 978-1-84564-434-5 eISBN: 978-1-84564-435-2 Published 2010 / 304pp / £116.00

WIT Press is a major publisher of engineering research. The company prides itself on producing books by leading researchers and scientists at the cutting edge of their specialities, thus enabling readers to remain at the forefront of scientific developments. Our list presently includes monographs, edited volumes, books on disk, and software in areas such as: Acoustics, Advanced Computing, Architecture and Structures, Biomedicine, Boundary Elements, Earthquake Engineering, Environmental Engineering, Fluid Mechanics, Fracture Mechanics, Heat Transfer, Marine and Offshore Engineering and Transport Engineering.

...for scientists by scientists

Heat Transfer in Food Processing Recent Developments and Applications Edited by: S. YANNIOTIS, Agricultural University of Athens, Greece and B. SUNDÉN, Lund University, Sweden

Heat transfer is one of the most important and most common engineering disciplines in food processing. There are many unit operations in the food industry where steady-state or unsteady-state heat transfer is taking place. These operations are of primary importance and affect the design of equipment as well as safety, nutritional and sensory aspects of the product. The chapters in this book deal mainly with: heat transfer applications; methods that have considerable physical property variations with temperature; methods not yet widely spread in the food industry; or methods that are less developed in the food engineering literature. The application of numerical methods has received special attention with a separate chapter as well as emphasis in almost every chapter. A chapter on artificial neural networks (ANN) has also been included since ANN is a promising alternative tool to conventional methods for modelling, optimization, etc in cases where a clear relationship between the variables is not known, or the system is too complex to be modelled with conventional mathematical methods. Series: Developments in Heat Transfer, Vol 21 ISBN: 978-1-85312-932-2 eISBN: 978-1-84564-292-1 Published 2007 / 288pp / £95.00

...for scientists by scientists

Sustainable Development and Planning V Edited by: C.A. BREBBIA, Wessex Institute of Technology, UK

This book contains the proceedings of the latest in a series of biennial conferences on the topic of sustainable regional development that began in 2003. Organised by the Wessex Institute of Technology, the conference series provides a common forum for all scientists specialising in the range of subjects included within sustainable development and planning. It has become apparent that planners, environmentalists, architects, engineers, policy makers, and economists have to work together in order to ensure that planning and development can meet our present needs without compromising future generations. The topics covered by the papers included in the book include: City planning; Regional planning; Social and political issues; Sustainability in the built environment; Rural developments; Cultural heritage; Transportation; Ecosystems analysis, protection and remediation; Environmental management; Environmental impact assessment; Indicators of sustainability; Sustainable solutions in developing countries; Sustainable tourism; Waste management; Flood risk management; Resources management; and Industrial developments. WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 150 ISBN: 978-1-84564-544-1 eISBN: 978-1-84564-548-5 Forthcoming 2011 / apx 900pp / apx £342.00

...for scientists by scientists

Energy and Sustainability III Edited by: Y. VILLACAMPA, University of Alicante, Spain, C.A. BREBBIA, Wessex Institute of Technology, UK and A.A. MAMMOLI, University of New Mexico, USA

It has been clear for some time that the way in which our society exists, operates, and develops is strongly influenced by the way in which energy is produced and consumed. No industrial process can proceed without an adequate energy supply, and without industrial production, society lacks the commodities on which it depends. Our energy systems have evolved over a long period and continue evolving in response to the needs of both Industry and Society. This evolution involves technological development and innovation, especially now that we need to look beyond simple fuel combustion as a source of energy and consider both greater efficiency in the use of energy and new ways of producing it. The Third International Conference convened on the subject is the latest in a biennial series that brings together experts from around the world. Their papers, contained in this book, will include research on: Renewable Energy Technologies; Energy Management; Energy Policies; Energy and the Environment; Energy Analysis; Energy Efficiency; Energy Storage and Management; Conversion Process for Biomass and Biofuels; CO 2 Sequestration and Storage. WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 143 ISBN: 978-1-84564-508-3 eISBN: 978-1-84564-509-0 Forthcoming 2011 / apx 600pp / apx £228.00

WITPress Ashurst Lodge, Ashurst, Southampton, SO40 7AA, UK. Tel: 44 (0) 238 029 3223 Fax: 44 (0) 238 029 2853 E-Mail: [email protected]