Faunal Remains from Klasies River Mouth

¡{·b.'60::S r:

"" \

~

v

-

,f () (;:,~?)

;1 ' ' '\

'."

)

(}-~ .... rv" .)

'a~

--,,;.':,S

b '-" ,//",; i{

"

;
C!.>.

1,1

Problcm. Approachcs, and thc proccss nf Lcaming

to thc rccognition that we need information and knowlcdge in a different

[cmn from that which grounded [he original argumcnts. This intellectual use of knowlcdge of the rnoment in argumrnr provides the imperus for skeptics' productive work, as well as an equally stimularing framework for sympathetic rescarchcrs who seek ro expand OUt presenr knowledge. Eithcr way wc win, bccausc the pursuir of knowledge itself is our long-rango goal. As ncw knowlcdge aud undersranding are generated by [he intellectual framework, rhe paradigm that guidcd the growrh of knowledge will alrnost certainlv become obsolete, or at least in need of revisión. Only by overstepping rhc sccurc knov v ledge of the moment can wc inductively generare a new

rnorivating fr.uncwork and providc frcsh inrcllcctual contcxt for rhc furrhcr pursuir of knowledge. In thc old concept of the process of scicnce as dcfined by the strict empiricists, one observed the world and rhen sought 1110re and more comprcheusivc "cmpincal lavvs" that would eventually fit inro an accumularing hody of "truth't-c-which eould he regarded as a cornpreheusive and inregrnrcd staremcnt abour the nature of the natural world. But this procedure ultimarely srultified the imagination, which is the best source for inductively gcnerated \~i~,\\'s thut go beyond OUT knowledge of the momento Meanwhile, it demanded thar WL' keep on making observations, prcsumably improving the quality of our knowledge through increasingly refined observation. After all the facts were in, their rrue significancc might be objectively recagniz;}ble; there would be no nccd for our imagination. This empirically oricnrcd procedure is now widely reeognized as both imrossihle and cOllnrerproduetive. Nevcrtheless, when the risk rakers :lll1ong liS do use ollr ill1aginatiofls and arreal to poorly grounded knowlcdge ro builJ al1 intellectual framework to serve OUT goal of kno\\'ledge growth, rhe critics hehavl' as if they still bt'lic\T in a srriet l'lllpirieisr's view of rhe growth of knowlcdgc; they generally try ro knock down rhe new argument by shmving rhat its grounding is weak. Yes, rhe grounding may be weak, but what are the porential g;'\ins for pursuing rhe knowledge required by rhe argumrnr? That is the viral issuc. Whar I am sayíng here is thar a healthy skepticism thar questions prcvailing rhcorics is l10t an attitude of rejeetion. Ir is flOt a posture of falsific:Hioll rhat illtends ro show rhar rhe faers eircd in an indlletivc argument are insllfficicnt ro warrant the conc1usions dr;}wll-\vhich is always (he case for a1l forms of inducrive argument. No, a healrhy skerticism is a prohing and construcrive artirude rhar seeks to identify rhe character of our ignorance as it emerges in forms of induerive argllmcnt. \Vt: then seek ro eonduet rescarch rhar will inerease OUT knowlcdge ahout rhat v(:ry arca that our skepticism has idenrified as perhaps inadeqllate al' amhiguous because of sorne arRumem judgcd impartant at the time. Using such
1111

:::

~

i

~

¡

u

~i'z.

¡:-

29

the modern c1imatic zones wuuld expand ourward from the cquator (Figure 2.6). The picture that emerged from this model was for rhere to be a moveroen! north (toward rhe equator] oí rbe winter rainfall partcrn during glacial máxima, with a corresponding shift even closer ro thc cquator for the zone of summer rainfall. Given the descriprion of environmenrs presentcd here, we would therefore expect more winter rainfall during glacial episodes 011 the interior plateau beyond the Cape Folded Mounrains, where today there is marginal karoo along the edges oí rhe surnrner rainfall zone (see Figure 2.5). Correspondingly, we would expect expansión northward of surnrner rcin-rcgulcrcd grassland at the expense of forested arcas nearer the cquator. This model, if ir is correcr, should permir us ro anticipare so me of the environrnenral condiriuns along the southern Africnn coast: (1) during pcriods of glacial máxima coincidenr wirh lowered sea lcvel, the fynbos should expand beyond the Cape Folded Mountains as winrer-dorninatcd rainfal! patterns shift northward. Correspondingly, grazing animals should he least likely to oceur in coastal sites, which should be dominated by the browsers and mixed feeders. (2) During interglacial-intersradial periods coincident with raised sea levels, the [ynbos should he pushcd back south of rhe Cape Folded Mountains. Thc kamo of today should beco me more lush, wirh grazing anirnals most likely on the sourh coast and thc browsers and mixcd fcedcrs becoming leasr common. Interestingly enough, Richard Klein (1972) has publishcd a most intriguing body of data from Nelson Bay Cave on rhe sourhern coasr just ro the west of Klasies River Mouth. Importantly, rhis sire is locnred 00 thc very edgc of ene of rhe more interesting rernperate-forcst biomcs known on the coasr. In rcccnt times, at lea sr, the rclanvcly high biomnss in thc urca was made possible by thc well-dramed soils and the winter rains. Most of rhc dcposits nr Nclsou Bny CH'e are witbin the rclinhlc muge of He rcchniqm-s. Hisror ically, thc fauna recorded thcre wcrc rhe Cope buffalo (Figure 2.7) bushpig (Figure 2.S) bushbuck, and grysbok, all browsers or strongly mixed feeders, as is the Cape buffalo. These arc rhc anirnals expected in a higb-biomass, metabolically slow biome. Yet the deposits dating bctween 18,500 nnd 12,000 years B.P. corresponding ro the end of the glacial maxirna at thc close of rbe l'leisrocene propcr-demonstrarc that the fauna was in fact largcly mude up of graziog antelopes and cquids: zchrn, wildcbccst. springbok, Jnd bonrebok (3 southcrn analoguc ro rhe rupi of E'1sr Afriea). Here rhen, we sec situarions directly oppositc ro the conditions anticipared by the zonal model rhat prcdicts rhar during glacial maxima thtre would have heen Jn expansion of rbe high hiomass frol1l rhe coasT roward rhe inrerior; and rhar during inrerglacial-intersradials, the intcrior SUI11!TIer rainfall panern would have expanded southward. This would mean more rain in afcas rhar rodJY arc karoo, and perhaps cven a sumiller rain pattern

31

Environmcnts Past and Prcscnt at Klasics Rivcr

" "~

00

-'" .,,-

0-

s

~

~

o

"

"-" ~-"

~

~~

¡

o o

u

"~

~ u "."

" o

~/III

t:~

s

Ñ

o s~

-."

,~ •.,If

-e o

" " S

§ S

~.~

~

~

o

~

N

_

Cape buffalo in typical bush covcr. (Colines)' of J. Ebcrt.l

U

c~~ §" .S"

-

e]

." o

o u o "

u'""

u

~_ ,~u üf;

------..

Figure 2.7

in arcas thar today are rransitional, sueh as the Klnsics región. Farthcr wcst, rhe lower rainfal! of the karoo-like zone would be expectcd along rhe enasto Wc would expecr hrowsing-mixecl-feeder fauna! a ssociations during glacial máxima and grazing animals during inrerglacials. Bur thc facts are jusr rhe reversc: we havc grazing animals during rhe glacial maxjma, and hrowsers and mixcd-fccdcrs in historie times assocíatcd with a high-hiomass tcrnpc-

rarc foresto

U

,\\1

'"

.

~ ~ ~! •

","" M ~

u :;" E "~

..

.~:..:

~

_ ., E a:1

•a

>olIIm

o

.....ociated·hedside hearlhs, as well '" more eornmunal cooking fcatures (see, for instance, the dcposits descrihed

Stone Assemblages of the Klasies River Mouth Sites

:¡"

Thc Klasies Rivcr Mouth has been wel1-reportcd previousiy (Butzer

1978; Klein 1974, 1975b, 1976, 1979, 1982; Singer and Wymer 1982; Voigl 197.~a.¡'; \'{'Ylller and Singcr ] 972). ~. ah =p 'ifllde' "f jbLke

!jklklS unM 3nitill "8",iarrangcd alnng a V-shaped draw rhat rises approxjmatcly 23 m from irs low point at the mouth of the majn cave (Cave 1) ro rile top of the remnant deposirs at the head of the draw in Shelrer lA (Figure

by Walton 1951). BOlh the upper sites have deposits more commonly fnund

in sm:lll hahitóltion sires known fmm relativdy rn:cnt times. Thesc ash-hulllll~ lensl.'s typically
G:."~~u ,NO ~PEC.IC~

B~IUIoroK.

I(~M

10070

00Ó

• /J

...
¡rom cach samplc and the median value for cacho SS = sample size.¡From Shacklcton 1982.)

RADltH:AIUH)N DATES

A toral of 33 He dates wcre obtained on samples from Klasics Rivcr Mourh k'vels. Thesc WeTe all procc:ssed by Gcochroll l.aboratorics, Thc most thal cm he said of rhese dares is that 18 of the 27 dates (exclusive of the 6 dates on the LSA) were maximum dates; that is, the 14C was not prescnr at measurahlc Icvels, suggesting ages for rhe spccimcns grcatcr than ~,,'\l{.

-,r,

A8R:-

y''''' ... Wl-.e

4(,

2.

Klnsics Rivcr Mouth: A I'rovocntivc Case

the clapscd time leve! indicared. Stared another way, rhe . . ast mujority of the spccimcns analyzed by Gcochron were bcvond the range of He dating rcchniques. Three additional danng tests werc run hy the South African Narional Physical Rcsenrch Laboratory ar Pretoria on specimens also analvzcd by Geochron. Two of the three spccimcns had yieldcd finite dates according ro Geochron analysis: yet rhe Pretoria lab reponed maxirnum dates. This al! strongly suggests thar the entire !\,ISA scquence ar Klnsies Rivcr Mouth, inc1uding the M5A IJI levels. dates bcyond rhe measuring capabilitics of rhe 14C method-that is, hdore 40,000 11.1'. This opinion supports thc carlier arguments oí Beaumont and Vogel (1972) rhat the short ehronology for rhc MSA is suspcct. It does not, howcvcr, support rhc particular infcrcnt¡al ehronology that has hcen gcncratcd almost as a series of cunvcntions sincc ir was originally proposed by Burzer: that is, rhc assignment of M5A lcvcts ro various stages of the oxygen-isorope chronology for occrm tcruperarurcs.

Surnrnary Ir is':appu,,",,, ,,,,,,~lt>~,,.,Id>rt_"'~~A.~'\J:

,.

"o

° _ . . . "; ..,

.n

3

~o

-

~

1: ;..'] 3 E o z

•"

o

0\ .....

3

~

"T[:;¿

'2;'2 o

" f

l. '

e "'

~ •o. E o

U

t

8~

Porcupinc gn;l\ving on rhc proximal cnd of nn clnnd (T,1{1I0fr"KI151111cu,

l-.npal (Lave 1, l.cve! 14),

subtle nor difficulr ro evaluare. Figure 3.1 illustrares a classic cxarnple of porcupine gnawing. Tablc 3.] surnmarizcs the number and percenrage of MNEs (as nivcn in Tlhle .L\) idcmificd in IllY bnsic Iist of anntomical pan", scpararcd inro thc samc body-size class in rerms ot which thc fauna trom the sire wns studicd. Oppovuc rhe "uumbcr" column for cnch S;II11PIc is rhe pcrccurngc of rhc IOLlI ck-mcnts rilar WlTC gnawcd by porcupinc. Seveml facts are of interesr hcrc. Norte of the bones from the srnall animals werc gnawcd hy porcupmcs. aud only two cxarnplcs wcre noted on bones from bodv-sizc clnss Il (for hody-size classes, see pp. 77-78). Begin. ning with bones from hody-size class 111, the frequcncy of gnawcd bones gcncrally mercases wirh hody size for biased group of anatornical elemenrs. A control hody of data has hc(.'n,.-.dcscrilwd hy Hrnin (19H1:3(2) for collccltons made lmm ;1 porcupilll'!' lai0in tlll' Nossoh Rivn arCil. Therc, rhe l'xdusive agellt of hOl1l' rransprir'tto rhe site \vas the porcupinc. There was an alla[ogous near-avoidancc of hones from very sm;lll animJls. whereas hovid siZl'-dass 11, unlikc rhe situ.ltion at Klasics Ri\'l.'r f\louth, \.... :15 modcrarely well reprcscnted and size class 1II was most commoll. Unfortunately in the Nossob case, animals of hody-size classes IV :llld V were not repre. st'ntcd, ano they were not hclieved ro be generally prrsrnt in the ha hitar.

'"'1

'" -' "' < f-

2

-

.§

ó2~

~22

-

~

e

§.

R

t'

~

" ~

f•e

."

~

C>ot

_" ...o

ª 6

o e o '" ... -e U...aE~ 00' ... o . :::~

~~_.Q.

'nv 0.\0\0 '" o o

::c;8

v

'~

~

-Q

~

o,

o". -o ." -0-

-e

l'

Pigure 3.1

00 ,-..1

"' -: o .., o ::!1;:;lo

::;,

'o.."t;

",:::l

.

c~

."

to h\.· t11;lt, in gcneral, thc hOIl\.''> {lf the slll;llkr .lllim,lb arc k ...... wdl represcnted in l.l've1 J 4 rhan they are in the orhu ¡('veis.That is. the gr;lph of I.(,'vt:! 14 is general1y lower for mast of rhe vcrrebrae, nlt.?rapr,JiJls, ,llld limporranrly) dl'lncnr'i of rhe rear leg, whcreas pHts having high inrrin. . i( 'lurviva] p"tefltial '>CCIll infbtt:J in their nurnhu'>. Thi'> contrast .,rrongly "llggesrs that the 1ll.1jor difference betwel'll Len:1 14 .1IlJ other Inds in Can' \ m.n- l"-c "I)m~ ~¡)rt\n::: .1LlJ nr ditteremiJ] \)r'CLH\\);l c,f J1' J!tr!~;",u1 Jgent

.u

Size clase I and lJ

IV and V

Cuher Uve] 14

Ieveí«

Leve! lJ

Cnher

Ll'opord

ícvels

tnits

----

MNE Anatomical parl

Maxilla Mandiblc Atlas Axis Cervical vertebral: Thoracic vertebral' Lumbar vertcbrac Pelvis Scnpula

Proximal hurncrus Distal humcrus I'ruximal radiocuhitus Distal rudiucubítus Proximal mcracarpal Distal rnctacarral Proximal kmur Distal fclllllT J'rnxilll;¡[ tibi,1 Disul tibia T;ns.l!s Astr'lg.dus C, I was ablc ro collect a moderare samplc of bones from around dens, ami several things :lre of rdcvanee for assessillg lbe Kbsies F:1Una. As 1 reponed I'rl'l'iomly (l\ildord 1911 1) for wolr dell~, gll;l\vnl holln :lrc ClllllInon un dCII SilCS, particularly h>r the spotrcd h)':lcna, and these may be gnawed extensively (see Figure 3,5 alld rhe dctaí! of the tooth seoring sbown in Figure 3.6), This type oF extensjve gnawing is absent on rhe bOlles ar Klasies. 1repon in a Iarer chapter the gnawed bOlles from Klasies, Thesc are most often bones wirh tooth punctures in soft cancdlolls tissue or mashed :1I1d "scooped,ollr" arcas of rhe soft :uticlllar ends. The occasional tooth ~corillg lloted :lround aniclll'lr cnds is generall)' restrieted ro a few parallel l11arks, tr.lnsvcrse ro [he longirudinal axis of the bone. The extellsive lllouthillg of boncs seen in the hyaena dells js Ilot in evidence ::Ir Kbsies River Mourh. The 11101lthing of l~olles by the hyaena produces heauriflll pseudorools of fonns not seen among woJves and other canids, such as coyore, fox, and dogo Figure 3.5 shows rhe disarticulated limb-.bones collecred at one sporred hyaena den (Groorbrak Den), Figure 3.6 is a derajl of rhe rooth scoring 01'1

~7J, ~ ~i

,';¡

'-

,~

~)~ Figure 3.6

Dct~íl

01 tooth s~oring 00 a s~apula ,howll III Figure .tSlJ.

rhe scapllla in Figure 3.5B and Figure 3.7 is the sll100thcd and worn poinr of broken proximal cnd of rhe radius shown in figure 3.51". This rype of mourhing of bones thar produce higbly polished and chipped edges was not observed at Klasies River MOllth. The U:~ ol anintal gnawing Ilored 011 rhe Klasies bones was consistemly morr;~~.!J.h{) rhat illustrareu in Figure 3.8, which shows a canine puncture ma?r and masbed anu scooped-olll can-19 cellous rissue. (For more informatian, see Maguire and Pemberton j 980);':"-,73

62

3.

Thc KJasíes Fauna: Approachcs to Analysis

Assessmcnt nI [ntegrity

63

~.

,. Figure 3,B Oct.ail of tooth puncturc and scoopcd·ont ~oft tissuc on an ,lfticuJar end-cxamplc of tYPlcal modifications on bOlles !rom KIa~lc~ /{IVCI' Mouth l:xc'lvations.

Final1y, the anatomical-part frequencies at Klasies River are complerely out of Jine with the pnrts most commonly observed in hyaena denso In my sample, horn and skuIJ fragments coupled wirh neck parts were lllost comIllon (for ;ldditional dal;) scc Skinncr el al. f1980i). Ilowcver, lowcr limhs / _1-5 may dominate in somc cases, but these are frequcntly Ic...s fragmellrary than upper-limb bones. As we will see, the mas! intenríonally and extellsively percllssion-Eractured hones Klasies River Mourh are rhose of the lower limbs from medium- to large-body-size animals. In my opinion, the case for hyaena as an agent oE bone aecumulation at Klnsies River Mouth simply cannot bc made.

iJ

Figure 3.7 Dctail ¡hom Figurc 3.5FI of chippcd and sffinothcd pscudotool produccd by spottcd hyacna.

rov~~

L

Perhaps rhe ·most

t(,Yi:l't..!c

cha.r.acteris.tic of hyaena accum-ula~iHns are (1)

;~ Eair proportion oE c¿mplete hones; (2) many bones with one articular end

and a subsrancial secrion oE ,lttached 5haft; (3) a large number of bone-shaft cylinders, as illustr:ued in BinEord (1981: 173; 198201: In); and (4) very fe\V h(>Ilc splinrel's ;111-;. ...

.~;

Inform.uion Cuiding Ohscrvation and Analysis

71

. :; . ...r ot. ••;~~~

.......

f!It:,,< V;.; . ~:(.., .... )

.

.' ~';';,,:, .~ ~.

'l :- .:l .í!>"

Figure 3.10

Ravagcd wildchcest carcnsx in tln- Nossob Rivcr vallcv

joints apart in conjuncnon with further hacking preved the mosr effective \Vay of dismembcring stiff,.R.nd.~artially dry scgmcnts of the anatomv. Thc use of a knife for short. MiCÜ-lg cuts was atrnosr totally ineffectual. This means rhat (2) rhe rcmoval of anatornical scgmcnts from a carcass in a drying sta te, prcviouslv fcd upon by other nniruu!s. is ccrrain to result in a

diffcrcnt pattern of cut, huck, and chop marks than will thc butchering of a fresh carcass, evcn if a cleaver-type strategy is used. A furthcr sct uf obscrvanons were made in rhe field: rhc state of rhe carcass at rhe time of scavcngiug will condition whcrc burcbering or the cutung-off of P;lrh will OCCIlr. "lh¡s dismcmbcnucnt Iocus relativo lo thc gro\iS anatomy of a dricd G1rOS$ is different from dismembertnenr points selected whcn faccd wirh ;1 n-l.uivcly complete, írcsh carcnss. l-or cxaruple, Figure 3,11 illusrrarcs a mulc-dcer carcass rhat I observed within thc upper Kootenec drainage of Montana. Ir had been exrensivcly fed upon by coyotes, but was sril! l'sscntially in a scmifrcsh stare in rhe .'len.'lc rhar the hOlle marrow and .'lome of rhe meat wcre stil! usable and had nor yer bcgan to exhibit evidence of putrefaction, although flies were presento Whar should be dl'ar i.'l that, at (his srage, rhe parts tllar had not heen consurned and rav;lged Wl're rhe lowl'f Icgs and fhl' he.al. Tlll' emire hody caviry had heel1 0pcllcd, ;md horh 1ll1lsc1c and soft lisSLll' had heell cOll.'lumeu by rhe coyotes, If I \\'l'ft.' a SGl\'l'llger and deciJed to rt.'lllOVt.' from this carcass parts \Virh a marginal hUI slill-col1slIlllahlc potcntial, I \\'otlld fOCllS my di...memhertllelH strategil's cither at the Jndacarpal-radiu:-, joinr nr 011 the proximal tibia-distal femoral jOillt. BOlles above these points in this Gl~l' (ould be expectt·J ro l'xhilllt toorh rnJrh derived from Gunivore activity, On orher carcasses wherc (ollsumption had not proceedcd quite so far. di"Mrinl1atioll

Figure 3,11

Dccr carcass íed upon bv coyotes in Montana.

mighr be focuscd at the femoral-pclvic articularion and at rhe distal hurnerus-c-ptoxima] radiocubitus juncrion. In ;:Iny cvcur, onc could cxpcct

hacking nnd dlOpping lo be manifcsr beca me rhc tough, atr.tchcd skin and the stiff joinrs would tender a knife essenrially uselcss. Scavenging in the aboye case might also be characrcrizcd by an attempr ro rcmove the head with irs still usable tengue, soft fatty parts bchind the cyes, and in orhcr canccllous fossn of thc skull. Field obscrvations and cxpcrirncnr lcad me ro CXpt'CI th.u if a l()ol-lIsing scavcngcr dismcmhcrcd pan . . rcruaining at sitcs of ravaged carcasses. dismemberrnent marks would he concenttated at articulations gcncrully hclow ends aud surfnccs whcrc cvidcucc of carnivore gnawing might he loca red. In addiuon, those dismemhcrmrllt m:1fks effected on older carClsses would gcnerally be chop and hack rnarks, indil-ative of coping witll .'ltiff and partially desiccatcd skin and tClldon. finally~ cven when a carcass is nor extensively Jricd bur is already stiff, a number ot problems are presented to a butcher. Wln'll hutchering a supplc carcass with tools, rhe joint may be manipulated to cxert pressure on musell'S and tcndol1";, Ihercforc rendering cuttil\~ J rc!arivcly ca,,)' t;lsk. But when a carc;]ss is stiff, the joints are generally f)()lllld-the rissllc has shrunk and lockcd the articulation inro a fixed positj(\I1 , 1l1:\king manipu!arioll of the joint imrossib1c. This means that the orienrarioll of nlts rdative ro the shape of bOlles will gener311y be in regular and dcrermi!lcd places, rarher rhan the more comlllOIl sitllarion in \vhich rhe orient:1tion nf rhe cut "ihifts as the joint is flexed during dismemberrnent. Thcre are many other mechanicll comequences of a stiff versus a supple carcass, which 1 introduce as rhe

r

~

['3;-'ki-f"''''

( J7.d) .72

...... ;{'

~ ~

~

~A'¡-

te 3. Thc Klasics Fauna: Approachcs to Analvsis

spccifics of anatnmy are nddressed. Suffice ir (O say that (1) patterned.properties.of placemeur.and .orienrarioarocur marks should aid in judging tbe I sratc oí the (~§-·aLtht;.lünc,-of,dismembermenr, and (2) disrnemberrnent I uf parts during a scnvcnging cpisode can be cxpecred ro cope rnost oftcn ! with a carcass that is stiff, with relntively inflexible joints. . Observations and ñeld experirnenrs lead me to such cxpectations. Thcre was not, however, a body oí eontrollcd data from known scavenging contcxts to use for descrihing exactly what form these expectations might rakc whcn seco in rerms of starisrical frequencies, as well as clusrcred associations of anatomical parts and rool-crooth-inflicred marks. 011 the orher hand, 1did havc available samples from sorne Nunamuit Eskimo sires where rhe behavioral conrexrs werc known and, in the light of the scavcnging problerns, could he studied to provide J control on what processing of frcsh carcasses looked likc when viewed in terrns of dismembermeru marks and rnarks derived frorn filleting meato Table 3.3 summarizes ohscrvations made on a faunal assl'llIhbge collcctcd at Anakruvuk villnge in Aluska during 1971. This asscmblugc has bcen prcviously dcscribcd (Binford 1978: 123-125, particularly Tablc 3.8, Columus 1 and 2) and represenrs the ... cssentially complete caribou carcasses for parts to be dchris from pruccssing placcd on J~)[ing r¿~~kj. The parts were bcing dismcmbered in anricipation of the part ro he dried. In addition, the parts of grcnrcsr food utiliry were bcing fillcrcd so the mear could he dried in strip fashion. This mcans rhat fillering was conccntrarcd 011 rhe parts of greutest utility as far as mear yields wcre concomed (ser Binford [1978:15-45J for a discussion of thcse poinrs}. Tablc 3.3 summarizes the cut marks obscrved 011 rhe bones recovered from rhis Eskimo disrncmbcrrncnr-fdlenng opcration. Thc marks inflicted :l~ :1 conscqucncc of dismcmbcrrncnt acrs are rubulatcd in Columns 3 ami 4, whcreas the mnrks inflicted during filleting orerations (see Binford f 1981 J t'or ,1 dc... niptioll (Jf the two \.11"'''í.'S uf IIl;\rks) are presel1lcd 011 Columns .' and 6. Figure 3.12 illustrates the rclations between the frequencies of these two c1asscs relative to the gross anatomy of ungulates. Dismemberment marks are concentrat~d 00 the: occipital coodyles and the atlas vertebral', dcriving from t1w..l'cvcring'Qf the head by cutting from the dorsal surface just hchind the skull inio rhe artictllatioll hctwecn the atlas and occipit;ll con~ dyks, Dislllclllhcrlllí.·lll l1I,lrks 3rc also prCSL'1lt in high frClIlIl'lIq' on the pclvc:s, dl'fiving fmm clltting off the dislocated rear leg-something only reaHy possihlc whcn a carcass is fresh, Dismemherment J1l< 1.1..c 2::: i:'l B ... B .- e ... e ... e ... B .... ::: ~..L:: ~~~tratcgy is to scck out ~lfch'll'ol()gieally n'(o\,(.'red r.lseS thar lll"'l,.'r all the formal propcrril's of a partial dcfinition for Ihe recognirion ot a srav",ngcd assemblage, This type of search considerably narrows rhe potentially releV3nt assemblages that could be stlldied for further insighls intu patrerning possihly dcrivcd from , r.;, ( (L,{ ~\ ._

•

,;.

'"

~.;; r

l. '.

., ,,1.

11 '>-

111'

..t,¡,

e

.~.~-_..~'1i.\-



PAR.T~

P MC

l---'DMT PMT eDRC.

~~

DT

2Z Ha

ePRC.OH

G1; 10

•

Z~

ePH pT

.~c..AP

De

•

I

Id 2 :> a( Id 1

pF"

o o

re

ZO

'30

40

'=>0

eo

'70

ClENER.A'- UTI~ITV Figure 3.20

I

TR:AN~POR.T

• •

DMG

rd

~~

I

I

I

I

P ...,...,--

eD

eo

100

' ..... OEX

Front- and rcar-lcg parts of Nunamiut kilI populnnons [Hinford 197H:

Table V'r Column 21 scalcd agaínsr unlity valucs 1197H: Tablc 2.6, Colunm uu. Uf, d¡tbe,.choi.:e.¡>;,,,,,...u¡"""¡11

"

2 %

Ió %

\'J

IItc..... R.

117-

'íf,\:.J' >

~V

r'~/

14X

'0

1J{,!

/Í

)J )

. '0 of mandihlcs versuS craniJ. introduccd to the site. Tht: ratio') shown in Column ? of T able -t.n teH the story nicely..\mang the t\\ll ~n1.1lk~t ~(),Jy-,\zt" (l.1"~e, :\ .1l1d W the nurnh'r'.' 0\ cr.lnia 3fe -t5 and 4Y\,_ n.'~r('.:tiH>\Y. .l~ (OIl1!lllll1 .b .1re n1.1~h.hl~k". lhjo;. ~itu.ltion ,\;:I1.lS in Lwor of mJ.ndIHe:- \\.1" Il()tcd repeJ.ted\y ,1m()n~ the ~LlnJ.miut Eskimo

Bovid claes

m

PO.S

hunters, where mandibles were introduced to sites from fresh kills in numbers exceeding their cxpccred frequencies, givcn objcctivc mensures {)f thcir food value (see Binford 1978: 199). The overall bias in favor of mandiblcs in rhe Klasies data mighr be understood in similar rerrns, but this does not help in understauding why there is a shift in the relative rnnxtlla/mandibulur ratio, seemingly related to body size as illustrared in Tablc 4.6. In data from animal kills w"",'k<s,'f=lr.nd,':F~·· . 1", •• ~ ~ .

,

:;.

.."':

.-

',_o' ,.

","",.

,~'.

~ ./~ t....:~ ~

.....

c''

.

/'~

~

{\,.

-.

J

' > ..

:'A"' ~'. ~f

,................ _

.'

'. L

..:.

'~.~_-.... :~':,

'l"

"

~

(\

~-

....

~,

~,{

-

..~, ...\,;.-.t. .: 0/.... , \'

.:~ ~··l"'

. .- - '."

'-..J ,'. '\.' r./,.

\ ...:

,;.,.

...

plgure 4.29

~.' .'

'-"", • :

.¡

":".

...•......:,-

I

,

~"'(1

.¡{Ha"-

-

AT.

./

D1 III

---- ---

---

»>

,

~P~

pn,

.5C.Acoe

¡,,/

,

10

o".

j;/

AX

~>

PT

."....-

1-/0RtoJ

MANO

LUM8

]

O

O....c ORe PH

o

MT ____ ~

10

..,e

------

2.0

PE.... C.e:. .... TAq ...

'&0

OF'"

150....&6

OlbME...... BE.~ME. .... T

CONTROl- D'O"T.... -

40

SO

WIT"H

MAR,.1(.6

NUNAMIUT

Figure 4.37 Cornpanson bctwccn dismcmhcrrncnt mnrks in ,1 Nunanuut control populatlon nnd from rhc Klostcs Rivcr Mouth small-animnl popul.uion. AT, atlas¡ AX, axis¡ DF, distal fcmur, DH, distal humcrus. DMC, distal mcracarpal. DMT, distal metatarsaf DRC, distal radiocubitus. DT, distal tibia¡ HüRN, horn. LUMB, lumbar vertcbrac, MAND, mandible, OCC, occipital condylc, PELV, pelvis¡ PF, proximal fcmur¡ PH, proximal humerus¡ PMC, proximal mctacarpal¡ PMT, proximal rnctatarsal. PRC, proximal radiocubirus, PT, proximal tibia¡ RIB, rtb, SCAP, scapula¡ THOR, rhorncic vertcbrac.

invesr01ent in dismcOlbermenr was similar between rhe Nunamillr Eskimo and the hominids butchcring small antelope. Stated anothcr way, the dismembermcnr ractics were similar relarivc ro the hasic fl'atures of rhe MEMaER.MEt-JT

50

WITH

MAR.K.t>

CoNT~OL DATA ...... NU"-JAMIUT Figure 4.38 Comparison betwecn Jismcmbcrmcnt marks in a Nunamiut control pupu!ation and fmm thl: Kla~;ics Rivcr Momh large-animaJ populatioll. AT, atlas; AX. axis; DF, di'ital fcmur¡ DH, Jlstal hume rus; DMC, distal Ill/:ucarpal; DMT. distal md¡)tarsal; DRe, distal raJiocubitus; DT, distal tibia; HüRN, hom; LUMB, lumbar ver· tebrac; MAND, mandiblc¡ OCC, occipital cundylc; PELV, pelvis; PF, proximal kmur¡ PH, proximal humerus¡ PMC, proximal metacarpal; PMT, proximal mctatarsal; PRC, proximal laJiocubitus¡ PT, proximal tibia; RIB, rih; SCAP, seapul;l¡ THOR, thoracic vcnL!)!,IC.

memberlllcnt m;Hks, fillcring marks, and animal gnawing poinr to the same conclusion: small animals were obtained (resh, hurdh:rcd frcsh, and primarily exrloircd fnr meat yields. Turning ro rhe data from the Iarge animals, we obrain a ver)' different picture. figure 4.38 displays rhe re1arionships betwccn rhe dismemberment

IR,)

4.

Interpretation of Panemmg

A Pattern Rccogrution Studv

marks (both cut and hack marks, T able 4.32, Cnlumn 17) and the control data 011 dismcmberruenr {rom the Nunamiut Eskimo (Table 3.3, Column 3). Unlike rhe siruation wirh the small animals, where there was a clcar, correlated relationsbip between the Klasies marerials and the control data, the pattern for the largc mammals is spread al1 ovcr the graph relative to the ~ontr()1 data. Clearlv, any attempt to fit thesc data would yield a strong indicatinn of no relarionship. However, there do aprear to be sorne complicated groupings within thc distribution, so that 'lome sets uf parts appear positively correlared (horn, proximal metatarsal, and ribs), although each is arrayed in a further grouping that appears to be negativcly correlated (proximal metatarsal, proximal tibia, distal humerus, distal femur, occipital condylc, and rnandihle). This type of partitioned dismbution is eommon when onc or more additional factors are contributing lo the parreming and these are not monitored. In shorr, there is a srrong multidimensional set of deterrninants at work aud rhe control data nnly aecuunt for a small pro portio n of the total variance. We may suspect rhar the frequencies of dismemberment marks are conditioncd in this case by considerations other than simple variarions in (1) body size and (2) differental proportions of mear on thc skclctal framework of the largc animals. Given the assumption thnt the arnounr of inflicred marks should correspond ro rhe amount of labor invested in dismemhering, 1 would have to conclude thar dismembermenr of the large bovids and the dismernbermeru of the caribou used as a control ser of facrs reflecting dismemberment for meat were in terms of different goals. This "eoping with other conditions" in the large-animal case is certainly implied in rhe earlier analysis oí anatomical parts, and in thc discussion of gnawing marks. Both of rhcse characteristies werc parterncd so as to strongly suggest (1) biased selection of parts íor marrow rccovery, and (2) eommon recovery of lnrge-bovid parts from carcnsscs prcviously ravagcd by carnivorcs. Both of thcse suggcstions are consistent wirh [he lack of relarionship berween the large-anirnal dismemberrnent-mark frequencies and the control Eskimo data, in which the carcasses had been butchcred fresh to recover maximum amounts of meat. Still further differences belween smal! and large animals were indicated hy fhe cut marks thclllselvcs. It will be recalled that when there was evidence of but..:hering re1ati\-'(.'ly stiff joints. this was exclllsively a property of the large-bovid material. This alonc sllggests that the arnount of labor, and henee numhers uf inflicted marks, might be expected tn vary wirh the degree of dislllembcrrnellt díffieulty, and not only with rhe numbers of disrnembering nprcscntcd at thc site. More commonly, sclccted segrnents of the uppcr-fronr limb wcrc inrroduced, cullcd ro rhc rnost productive or most gourmet choice, the scapula. On thc orhcr hand, thc parrs suspected as yielding cvcn grcater food (uppcrrcar leg) were gencrally not imroduced as culled parts. fluve viewed this situation as most likely rcflecting prilll:uy (onsumptíon at the points of procuremenr must uf rhe rimt:, sincc the introduction of second-ordcr parts cannor rensonably be attributcJ ro scavenging behind other primary pred:ltors, hecause no animal gnawing is evidellt on rhe bOlles oE the 5null animals. Of extreme importallcc is the bct that lower limbs processed for marrow, mJndibles broken for edible pulp, ano in general the introduction fur use oí marginal parts did Ilat characterize the expluitatioll of rhe sm~lll animals at Klasies River Mouth. The hominids behavcd as if there was adcqllate foad available Jnd marginal ridhits cOllIJ he ignored. Neverthek"s, the edih1c part . . (lf a complete G\pe gry"hok (Ihe 1110S1 COI1l1110n srnall bovid) would be about 13 pounds (5.9 kg), and for an upper[ront qllarrer (the Illosr commonly imroduced piccc-hutchered p.lrt) wfluld bt, aroul1d 11 POllllt!S (.6H kg), ;lIld the hcat! arollnd olle pOllnd (.454 kg), These smal1 package sizes certainly suggest thar rhe COnSlll1ler units were very small inJeed and that the planning depth was very short~ rhar is, they generally ate choice parts in spire of the fact thar the qU:lntities available wOllld certainly Ilot last very long. This pattt'rtl Joes no! imply much food sharing, :tnd cert¡]inly docs nm suggesr :111 ;Hrt'lllpr ro use all of the sITIall animal so ;IS ro m'lxilnize Ihc selle uf the cOllsumer pool through sharing. The COnSLlIlll'f ll11its appear ro he individual s mos( oE the time, and very small groups on rhc r:ue occasions when complete and ncar-complete animals were imroJllccd. Sharing Illay have characterized the llnils fecding at the point of prol:urCl11t'llt, hut certainly the transporr of P:lrts back to the cave uoes llor SCClll ro h;1\T heell carried out \Vith the aim of rnJximizing the siZt of the COI1SlIlller unit. Given what w" have seen oí utilization among the slllall anilTI:1Is, we

196

S. Hornínid Subststcncc Ecclogy and Land Use

might be leo ro expect rhar if a largc animal was av.ulahle. there would be an extreme gourmet pattern, with thc choice parrs commonly rcturned and marginal pnrts complerely ignored, beca use a largo animal would provide food for a much larger consumer unir thnn the little Cape grysbok. 011 thc other h.md. if sharing W¡lS extensive and rhe consumer group large, we 'could cxpect that a vcry high percenrage of rhe us.ible foods would he inrroduccd. What pancru is observed? 2. The larger the animal, the more marginal rhe parts that were genernlly introduced to thc sire (see Figure 4.19), Metapodials and parts of the head [rom the larger animals wcre most cornmonlv returned to the sire at

Klnsics. 1 hnvc already presented whar I considcr ro be an ovcrwhclming case favoring thc vicw thar thc parts of lurgc animals wcrc scavenged from thc kili nnd death sites prcviously ravaged by nonhomiuid scavcngers. The anatonucal-purt frequency data, rhe pattcm of animal gnuwing, thc evidence of dismemberment whcn sriff, and rhe proccvsing invesnnentv in very marginal foods sccru (O me compeijing proof th:.lt !vlSA man \\',-lS not huIlting rhese nnimal.s: (1) the larger animals wcre being scavcnged and (2) the package sin's that were rl'gularly introduced to the si te fmm large individuals were ver}' small, perhaps even smal1er than from the small animals. These cOllsisted of Il1ctapodials, which on processing yie1ded only J few ounces of marrow; Trdgelaphine horns processed for the pulp ¡mide the hom sinuses; Il1Jndib1cs that werc proeesscd for small quantities of pulp below the 100th rows; amI, most of the time, partially desiecated parts uf the axial skeleton thar yiclded SOll1C strings of naturally dried meat ¡lIld perhaps skin. (3) In addilioll 10 IwillR S111;1/1, rhe~l' partubsistl'IlCl' ;lS'>l1me~ sh:ning, and shar· ing gellcrally ¿lSSUllles that produel'rs scck tu obtain food .. in p:lekage sizcs that execcd their individual food demands, other"'i~c rl1cre would he nothing ro slurc, Tbe model of lancl use thar is demonstrably appropri;He lO the

11._

~.

~

(/,A.;) /98

.s

Hununid Subsistcncc Ecologv and LUIlJ Use

Was Klasics River Mouth CaVl: l a Heme Basd

6P"CI""~~ \._~_

~

home base or ccntral-bascd turaging modcl oí subsistence is one in which thc basic lifc spucc of a group is within a sitc-the home buse-c-and produccrs foragc out of tltis lifc sp.tcc into the surrounding cnvironmental "pace in scarch oí foot!s nnd othcr ncccssary provisions (fircwood, water, ctc.). Thc poiutv of procurcmcnt are spco.il-purposcs locaticns or points of exploitation by thc foraging producers. Provisions obtained al such loc.nions are thcn n..' WrJH:J to the homc base, and sharing normally follows. The scalc

of sharing varics wirh thc

JI110unt

jJP

U

..r.E, LOCA"TION~

/

*

"-" ~ 4".• KOP~J _, _"~~'["'~ ,:'\, ~/ L, ; '~

~

~

G

~~~~,~,~" '00

) - - BU"'_,_'-------

~~

Homimd Subsisrcncc

Eco[lI.~Y

aud Land Use

t>';~~~~~

NOON

--

"'OR1LL ..... ~ R&~rIN~

9

T

\, 80

. ~

R..... '''"0

, 7'

--

'"

-_.. _-- ______.I..

O ~

60

,

6

$

50

e-"-LIVORE.~

40

O

..

30

....

_._---

6..:........ 0"-

".«H /

O

. ~

O

Hou~:6

1200 .. 00

OF'

.sce

'400

TH"

lt>OO ''''00

rtoo

'SOO

--- ............. 2.2o:J

ZD<Xo

'900

~100

noo

24I::n

0"'...... -

•

Ln:h pndc confines itself ro a definiré arca in which ih l1ll"ml)t'r~ spend several or in the case ot sume lionesses, rbeir whole life. Thc main requieres tor thc cxistClKC uf a pridc arca are a water source and sufficient pre)' tlmm¡.;1.'o/ll tbe year, cOlldi/lOI/s c:úslill~ in thc «oodlands mili 1l1()1I~ their edKes bur, [or Ihe rnost parr. not un rbc pl.uus. (S(halkr IY72b:Sfí; cmphavis addcd;« ]971 hy thc Univcrsitv of Chil.lgO) Jcmnmcs vary in size, but do not secrn ro change in vrzc 11l1Kh with lime. Whert: rhere are umple numbers of residenr prt·y animals,:1 pndc lhll,llly ocnlpio berween ten and tortv square miles. (Bertram 197H: lOS; Brian Bertrarn, J'lidc (jI l.iol/';. C()p~·righr l' Brian Bertram 1975. Repnnred with thc pc'rmi-vron oj Lh.Hks Suihner'~ Som.) yt;'\r~.

-

~L.ItIl!.PI""'Ct

0400

209

~

~

oiJ

---

EL........... o

''0'1

----

~

:l

'...

Tbc Eeulogy ni Scavcngmg

L.E.Go~NO: PERIOO oF PE.A1J4" s . 214

5.

~

.g VZl'fll\

2

¡'OT

cus. Bushpi¡.; '1

llippn/lu{lltlJ1lS 11111-

vtnbsus. Hippo potamus Uuphict'Tlls lIlc/aIJ()I1" Cape

2

4

xrvsbok l'elea l'fll'/('()lu." Vaalribhok 2

l/ippfJITOgII_' fe!lenphd/Tlx ilfTlc(/e-¡¡¡¡~· Ir,¡{,~,

Porcupinc lIical1y those rhat "yidd only bom:' marrow a~ ediblc materiJl" (BinforJ 19,1{ 1:29 J), ARain, this i~ pcrfectly cOl1sistenl \Virh rhe scavt'ngl'r pattl'fIlS identificd ,H Klasics River Mourh,

'c ~

."

U

- .a... ~

.

'alc

.!:!

"5 ." ~

... :%: 'O

-

¡;

'O

e E E

o

lJ

C'I

~

~

~

'c ~

E

.~

et

o

259

premise is attemprcd. In short, the world of (he ancicnt post is accommo-

"

t=

ncbnvior

which thc conclusión is given by the prcmise. and no cvaluarion of thc

1Jfr~~

~ .~

QJ

Homimd

alteruative model rcgarding the way early rnau wns (lr~alliz('d adaptivclv. This mcans that lsaac's argurnent has rhe form of a logical t.uuologv in

~

::1

~.

u

~

An Altcrnarívc In rhc Central-Place Furaging Model r)/

.

e . g . •C;; g "-.-~l

"5 E

.

dared (O his hclicf about organiznriona! form hy virruc oí an intcrprctative convention. In thc devclopmenr of nrchaeological mcthods, it is the validity of che premises Irom which wc start that is crucial. If, as in the case of lsaac's approach, these prcmises are suspcct. then of CO(lfSI.: al! sratcrncnts reasoned frorn rhesc prcnnscs are suspect. I havc offered a set of possihlc hominid behaviots thar coukl yicld regular associarions betwcen stone tools and animal boncv, yct nor imply sharing, homc bases. and m forth. I havc raised rhc spcctcr of .unbiguuy over rhe interpretative convcntions commonly in use, At this point wc nced to explore the possihiliry that still Iurther ambiguitv mny surround rhe facts in disputc-assoeiations of srone too!s and animal boncs-c-hut at thc same rime scek ways to reduce the arnbiguity and therefore pmvide diagnostic criteria for rccognizing onc possible condition from .morhcr. As Gould has 50

cogeruly said: it ~l1~gt'~t~.I false conccpr of how scil, 255 B

Backed knives, 245 Bams, T., 26

Banholorncw, G. A., 1 Basetmc population, 67,

ss,

76

Beads, H Beaumonr, 24H

r. S.,

20, .1Y, 45, 46, 47, 240,

Bedding arcas, 33, 37 Bedside bearrhs, 33 Behrensmeyer, A. K., S4

277

278

11lJl')(

Bdl, C. D., 227 BenrCrcek sire, 107 Berrram, B., 209 Berrram, j., 87

Biface, 111 Biltong, 49, IAI, 183 Binford, L. R., 6, S, 10, 12, 15, 16, 17, 19, 34,36,49, 50, 53, 6(J, 62, 65, 67, 68, 72, 7J, 74, 76, 80, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 89,90,91,102,103,104,105,107, 108, 1u, 114, 116, 120, 125, 126, 128, 137, 139, 153, 159, 164,167, 186, 187, 199,202,213,222,240, 245,249,250,255,261 Biome, 24, 236 high-biomass, 24, 26, 27, 211 high producnon, 24 grassland, 25 quick turnover, 25 Birdsell, J. B., 2 Boiling, 161 Bone cylinders, 62 splinters, 62 Bordean ~y~tel11, .H Bordcr Cave sire, 19,46,249 Bordes, F,, 36 Brain, C. K., 52, 53, 54, 56, 58, 67. 77,17] Breakcge patrern, 15,66,67,134, In, 175 Bunn, H., 17, 119, 132 Burmng, 1,59, 161, 164 pattem, 160, 161, 164 Bushman, 143, 161 Kalahan, 161 'Kung. 164 Masarwa, 146 Nharo, 145 Nyae Nvae. 161, 164, 165,213.214 Butchering

field, 114 knife, 115 Burchery sitt:s, 7

fresh,67, 70, 72, 76, 110,111, tl~, 120, 138,141,180,18 7 prey, ss, 166 ravaged,15, 70,97,99,112,184, IS6, 201,225, 255, 260 scavenged. J, 67, 99,167,172,173.186 sriff,67, 71, uo, 111, 125, 1J6,I7h supple, 71,110,111,112,124,141 unravagcd, 187, 191 Cape dimane province, 22, 21 I folded belr, 22, 13, 26, 27, 29, 211 Casablancu, 21 Central-place foraging, 8, 198, 259, ló 1, 264 Chaparral, 21 Chaplin, R. E., 49 Chile, 21 Chopper, 117 Clark, J. D., 20, 251, 253 Cleaver, 70, 117 Combe Grenal sire, 160, 222, 223 Consumer demand,49, 192, 19\ 194, 199 location, 193 straregy, 195 unir, 97,193, 194, 1~5, 196 Controls, 66, 7f>. 114, 170, ISO, IH4. IHG, 220 Convennonahsm, 8, 9,10,11, 15, IU, 243, 255,259 Cooking, 145, 161, 182, 196,201,244, 260,261 in the skin, 145, If,O racncs, 143 Core scraper, 111 Corms,24 Crader, 0.,5 Cresccnrs. 34, 245 Crown heighrs, 222, 223 Cueva Morin, Ha Culling, 94, 97, 195,206

Burzer, K. W., 20. 32, 38, 39, 40, 41, 45,

233

D

e Campbell, B. c., 4 Caprure-carry-nnd-kill rnodcl, 218 CJ.rLas~

dr~', fJ7, 69, 70, 99, 110, 111, 116, 117,

12.0,191,200,254

Oaly, P., 16 Dart, R., 2, 3 Darwin, c., 144 Darwm ccnrcnn¡al. 3 ()'Y, 1- W., 21 Deacon, H. J., 35 Deacon . .I...l~, 248

lndcx

27'J

Definmons, 7 De Hangen sirc, 33 De Lumley, H., 250 Die Keldcrs site, 19, 22 Direcr procurernenr, 175 Disjoinnng srrategy, 70,138, 11'10,181

Diumal dnnkers, 204, 20S, 206 feeders, 204 Division oí labor, 5, 90 Dog yard, 166, 179 Dried meat, 49,176, ISO, 190,191,200, 260

E

Eberr, J., JI Economic anatomy,13 geographv, 191'1 Elands Bay Cave, 32, 42, 238, 239· Elandsfonrein sirc, 19,212,213,220,221 Empiricisrs, smct, 14 Eskimo, 72, 106, 120, 161, 172, 180, 184 Etkin, W., 1 Evolucionar)' funcnonalism, 9, 247 Expended deñnuion, 76 Expedienr production, 36 rools, .H

F Falkland lslands, 144 Feedmg behavior, 186 strarcgy. 176 Filleting, 49, 72, 74, 75, In, 126, 132, 132, 182, 188 marks, 127, 121'1, 129, l.B, 183, 189,190 Fire, 160,260,264 Fisher, H. E., 265 Flexibihty, 192, 193, 194,261

Food glut, 194 sharing, J, 5, 6 shorragc, 194 utihrv. 72, 75, 171 Formation condinons, 77 conkxts,21 proccsses, 37, 50 Freeman, L G., 17,250

Function.u .trgumcnt, 1 Fynbos, 21, 22, 24, 26, 27, 1.9, 41, 43, 209, 211,221,222,225,233,236

G Garden of Eden. 19 Gautscha P.II1, 161 Gillen, r. j., 34 Could, S. J., 159 Gourmet selection. 'J6, 191, 194, 196 strategv, '017,176,187

Graduali-r posinon, Z Grear B,l~lI1 (Norrh Amenca). 35 Grear Pl.IÚ1\ [Norrh Ameri..:.)), .~h Groorbrak hvaena den, 60, 61 Guilday, j. L, 180 H Habirarron sires, 33 Hammer, 157,260 Handax, 34, 111, 112 Hayden, H., .u Havnes, e., 166,186 Hearth. 37, .18 Hil1, A. P., X5, 166, 11'16 Home base. 4. 5, 6, 7, S, 17,90. 19.1, 196, 197, j(}l'I, 200, 201, 244, 255, 256, 257,2h)

Homo erectus, 248, 249 habilis, 5 Howell, F. c., 3, 4 Howieson's Poort, 33, 36, 45, 47, 210, 230, 241, 242, 244 Huntcr-gatherer,4, 16, so, 90, 93, 143, 188,192,193,194,197,226

Hunrers ambush, 209 pack, 1, 216 pursuit, 209 social,249 Hunnng ..:.lmp, 157, 160 hominid. 197, 211 for opponunines, 200, 217 parriev, 114 schedule, 194 stand, 157 tactical, 76, 200 technlJllI¡':'lCalI)' aided, 200, 216 Hyaena krll, 166

ISO

lnJe"

lnducrive procese, ¡ I reasoning 11, 1J, 14 lnskecp, R. R., 27 lnstrumentv for measurernenr. 9 Inregnrv {lf deposirs, 48, 63 Isaac, G. u., 4, 5, 6, 7, 17, 119, 197, 255, 256, 2_~7, 260

J jarvís, J. U. M., 2.H [elinek. A. J., 36

l.corurd lair, 56, 5H. 64 occnpation, 56, 57 Lesorho, 27 Levallois technique, 35 Living fioor, 4 snc, 8,16,49,105,108,111, 69, 70, 71, 106,122,160,165,167,174,1':lI,

201,101,206,212,213,214,216,

/

" ~

':-",

282

lndex

Scavengmg (nmrinueJ) B l, 23'J. 241, 246, 249, 251, 252, 253,2.\4.255 srage, 2 Schaller. c., UI, 208, 209, 216, 252, 253 SOJlk.., H. [.. \2 S..:hiHcr, 1\1., 50 S..:hkrr effccr, 16, 197,214 Sccopcd-cur Dones, 60, 62 Search im.igc. 194 Serengcri Narionall'Mk,20S plain,20'::! Sex profilc, 50, 109 Sbackleron. N. J., zo, ]'::1, 44, 45, 238

Tankard, A. J., 27 Tanner, N. M., 265 Tasmanians,249 Terra Amate sire. 250

Sharing

ncrns. 264 TrdnsvJal,27 TS;lVO National Park, 202, 20ll, lit Turnover rute, 24 Tzirzikamma coasr, 21, 23, 24, 26, 20H, 209 river, 22, 210, 211

behavior. 40, 98, 1H2, 1'::1.1, 194, 195, 1%, 1'J7. 198,245,266 hypoehcvis, 8, 259 unir, l'Jl Shipman, P., !'I.'i", 86, 186,250, 25S

Shock WC;lpom, 216 Singcr. R., 19,20, .H, 34, 37, 41, 44, 45,

Sleeping arcas. 59, 108, 261 places, 10.11, 244, 252, 260, 261, 262 Smnh, P., 20 South Carolina, 21 Spears. 254 Special-purposc locanons, 198, 199, 20R, 244, 263, 264 Spencer, B., ]4

Sperh, J., 13

Srorage. In r, 1';14. 199 Stow, G., 144 Suberde sire, 16 Subsisrencc rcpcrtoire, 191

Surrogarc rncasure. 240 Swarnklip sitc, 109

T goals, 1"2 rcpcrtorrc. 198

kills, 115

motives, 261 Transponed

assembl.rgc, 109

u Units of observanon, 64 Uppcr Palcolirhrc, 20, 33, 34, 36, ]8, 39,

47,244,245 Use hfe, ]6 Utility indl"