Fauna and Flora of the Bible (Helps for Translators)

FAUNA AND FLORA OF THE

BIBLE

Helps for Translators Series Technical Helps: Old Testament

Q uotations

in the New Testament

Short Bible Reference System New Testament Index The Theory and Practice of Translation Bible Index Fauna and Flora of the Bible Manuscript Preparation Marginal Notes for the Old Testament Marginal Notes for the New Testament The Practice of Translating

Handbooks: A Translator's Handbook on the Book of Joshua A Translator's Handbook on the Book of Ruth A Translator's Handbook on the Book of Amos A Translator's Handbook on the Books of Obadiah and Micah A Translator's Handbook on the Book of Jonah A Translator's Handbook on the Gospel of Mark A Translator's Handbook on the Gospel of Luke A Translator's Handbook on the Gospel of John A Translator's Handbook on the Acts of the Apostles

A Translator's Handbook on Paul's Letter to the Romans

A Translator's Handbook on Paul's First Letter to the Corinthians A Translator's Handbook on Paul's Letter to the Galatians

A Translator's Handbook on Paul's Letter to the Ephesians

A Translator's Handbook on Paul's Letter to the Philippians A Translator's Handbook on Paul's Letters to the Colossians and to Philemon

A Translator's Handbook on Paul's Letters to the Thessalonians A Translator's Handbook on the Letter to the Hebrews

A Translator's Handbook on the First Letter from Peter A Translator's Handbook on the Letters of John

Guides: A Translator's Guide to Selections from the First Five Books of the Old Testament

A Translator's Guide to Selected Psalms

A Translator's Guide to the Gospel of Matthew A Translator's Guide to the Gospel of Mark A Translator's Guide to the Gospel of Luke A Translator's Guide to Paul's First Letter to the Corinthians A Translator's Guide to Paul's Second Letter to the Corinthians A Translator's Guide to Paul's Letters to Timothy and to Titus

A Translator's Guide to the Letters to James, Peter, and Jude A Translator's Guide to the Revelation to John

HELPS FOR TRANSLATORS

FAUNA AND FLORA OF THE

BIBLE

Prepared in cooperation with the Committee on Translations

of the United Bible Societies

Second Edition

UNITED BmLE SOCIETIES London, New York, Stuttgart

©1972, 1980 by the United Bible Societies

All Rights Reserved No part of this book may be translated or reproduced in any

form without the Societies.

w r itten

permission of the United Bible

Printed in the United States of America

Books in the series of

Helps for Translators

may be ordered

from a national Bible Society or from either of the following

centers:

United Bible Societies

United Bible Societies

European Production Fund

1865 Broadway

D-7000 Stuttgart 80

New York, NY 10023

Postfach 81 03 40 West Germany

U.S. A.

L. C. Catalog Card Number: 81-452237 ISBN 0-8267-0021-7

ABS-1988-500-4000-CM-4-08513

Contents

vii

Introduction Introduction t o the S econ d Edition Abbreviations •

.

•

•

•

•

•

XV

•

System of Transliteration from Hebrew

Fauna

of

the

Bible

.

fr om Greek

System of Transliteration

xiii

.

.

xvii xvii

1

.

R7

Flora of the Bible Bibliography

199

Index of English and Latin T e rm s

203

Index of Greek Terms I ndex of Terms

.

.

.

from Other

.

.

.

.

208

.

209

Languages

210

Index of Hebrew and Aramaic Terms Index of Bible References

[ v]

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

215

Introduction For the Bible translator perhaps no aspect of his work is more com­ plex, confusing, and time-consuming than the problems encountered in attempting to render satisfactorily the terms for different plants and animals of the Scriptures. Though there are a number of books which have been published concerning the fauna and flora of the Bible, most of these prove to be of relatively little help to the translato r . In some instances these books simply contain too much information, and extracting what is specifically applicable to the translator's problems proves to be enormously difficult. Some treatments, es­ pecially those which are highly technical, deal so much with differ­ ences of scholarly viewpoints that the translator is often more confused than helped. In other instances no attempt is made to deal with some of the so-called "marginal" difficulties, for example, the use of such terms in figurative expressions--precisely the area in which the translator often encounters his most severe complications. In addition, many treatments of Biblical fauna and flora have inade­ quate illustrations, so that those who are participating in the trans­ lation program are not able to "picture" what the plant or animal would look like and therefore find it difficult to suggest a local equiv­ alent. In order to help translators deal with certain aspects of their problems of finding satisfactory equivalents, this special volume on the fauna and flora of the Bible has been prepared. As may be re adily noted from the system employed in dealing with the various terms, the names of animals and plants are listed alphabetically in English, normally based on the Revised Standard Version of the corresponding Hebrew and/or Greek terms. The suggested inter­ pretations or renderings are not, however, restricted to the equiv­ alents emplo yed as headings. Note, for example, the wide variety of usage under the term for owl. .

Immediately following the general term is the scientific designa­

tton, or designation s if two or more possible interpretations of a Hebrew o r Greek term are involved, e. g. the treatment of chameleon,

[ vii ]

a suggested translation of a Hebrew term which may also refer to a barn owl. Wherever possible or relevant, both the genus and the species of plants and animals are given, but often only the genus is mentioned, since there may be no way of knowing precisely which spe­ cies is involved. Furthermore, in many instances Hebrew and Greek terms designate classes of animals and plants rather than being names for particular species. The third type of information is the corresponding Hebrew and/ or Greek terms. In some instances there are a considerable number of words, as in the case of Hebrew terms for "goat, " and wherever pos­ sible or relevant, an attempt is made to distingui s h the various mean­ ings involved. Far more important than even the scientific nomenclature or the detailed listing of Greek and Hebrew equivalents is the next section under each term in which ( 1) the animal or plant is described, (2) any special peculiarities are listed (especially those which mi gh t be relevant in determining the meaning or usage of the Hebrew and Greek terms), (3) problems of identification are discussed (including the citing of scholarly evidence), and (4) features of appearance and be­ havior, helpful in explaining Biblical treatments (especially in figura ­ tive usage), are dealt with. In a number of cases there are also brief discussions of some critical problems, especially those involving historical evidence, for example, in the treatment of camel. This descriptive section is especially important to the translator and really constitutes the justification for this volume. For some terms there are unusually complex problems. For ex­ ample, in attempting to render behemoth (an English borrowing from Hebrew), it is suggested that in many contexts it would appear that hippopotamus would probably be t he most satisfactory equivalent. On the other hand, in Job 40.15 such a translation would be quite ridicu­ lous, for though most of the description which occurs in the following three verses may be said to fit the hippopotamus relatively well, the idea that his "tail becomes stiff like a cedar ' is simply not appropri­ ate, for the hippopotamus has a ridiculously small tail. Some persons have suggested that perh a p s the crocodile would be a more logical equivalent, and this is what the New E nglish Bible has used, but only by altering rather radically some of the syntactic structures, so

that the crocodile "devours cattle as if they were grass" rather than "eating grass like an ox. " This is, of course, only one of many dif­ ficulties which this volume considers. The final section under each heading consists of a list of refer­ ences, which are exhaustive if the term or terms are relatively in­ frequent; but if the occurrences are numerous the reader is referred to a concordance. Insofar as possible this book on fauna and flora tries to antici­ pate the major problems which Bible translators face, but quite natu­ rally not all the difficulties can be handled. Under sycamore, for example, it is clearly stated that this refers to a tree which belongs to the fig family (of which the mulberry is also a member). It does not state that the sycamore tree known generally in Europe and America, and which is such an appreciated shade tree, is in no way related to the Biblical sycamore. Furthermore, no attempt is made to resolve the many special problems which arise in individual con­ texts. For example, in speaking of the vine in John 15, one must at­ tempt to find some corresponding plant which is pruned in order to bear more fruit. In many parts of the world there is simply no vine -like plant which is so treated. It should also be quite under­ standable that this book makes no attempt to deal systematically with all the problems of Biblical symbolism. For example, in speaking of gathering "figs from thistles" (or thornbushes), the specific identification of the fruit fig is not so important as the fact of getting delicious fruit from a troublesome bush which is never known to produce fruit of any kind. On the other hand, in Luke 13 .7 the parable of digging around and fertilizing a fig tree so that it may have at least one more chance to produce fruit, may be regarded as being symbolically significant. At least for some exegetes this ref­ erence to the fig tree is an allusion to Israel. Problems such as these are treated in the various Translators Handbooks published by the United Bible Societies and really cannot be handled in detail in a volume such as this one, which is designed to provide general background information rather than specific solutions to particular problems. The actual answers which translators may arrive at may differ quite widely. In some instances one may be able to employ a term

[

ix

J

for a related species. Owls, for example, are almost worldwide, and though the specific owl existing in Bible times may not occur in the region of the receptor language, one can always choose the local term for an owl which is more or less of the same size and behavior habits. On the other hand, one may often have to employ a term for something belonging to quite a different species, but having some of the same essential features. For example, "cedar" in the Scrip­ tures refers to a wood which was aromatic and greatly valued for construction. (In reality, the English term cedar is often, in current usage, applied to wood which is produced by cypresses, junipers, and even certain tropical trees completely unrelated to cedars.) Ac­ cordingly, many translators have employed a term which designates this type of prized timber (and the corresponding trees) rather than attempt to borrow a word such as cedar, which would not have mean­ ing to the people. Another solution may be a general descriptive equivalent. For example, in place of "behemoth" one may use a term such as "huge animal. " Similarly, in talking about "wolves in sheep's clothing," some translators have used "fierce animals looking like tame ani­ mals." On the other hand, for this type of idiomatic saying, some languages already possess a well-established equivalent, e. g. "leop­ ards looking like goats. " In some instances translators have avoided the problems of a specific term by reproducing only one of the relevant components of such a term. In Exodus 16.31, manna is likened to "coriander seed. " It does not help the reader much to have one unknown sub­ stance, such as manna, likened to another unknown substance such as coriander seed. Hence, some translators have simply used a phrase such as "like small seed. " As already indicated, there is one more solution, namely, bor­ rowing; and for a number of animals and plants of the Bible this is seemingly the only satisfactory solution. For example, most trans­ lators simply borrow a term such as camel, adapting it generally to the form of the word as used in the dominant language (often a trade or national language) of the area. Whenever such "zero" words r

x

1

are i ntroduced into a text, there should be some marginal help, usu­ ally in a glossary. Which of the various solutions a translator may feel is warranted

in a particular instance will depend upon several factors.

For one

thi ng, he must carefully consider the existing tradition in translating, that is, the practice of other translations of the Scriptures into this receptor language. Of course, if the Bible is being translated into a language for the first time, one is in a sense freer to experiment, but only up to a point, for in all such instances there is normally

some relatively well-established tradition in the dominant trade or national language of the area, and more often than not any "new Ian­ guage" must conform to the patterns which have already been accepted as theologically valid. Another factor influencing the type of solution which a translator employs is the degree of cultural proximity to the Biblical life and

times. For example, a translator in East Africa can often approxi­ mate the fauna and flora of the Scriptures quite closely, for there

are so many animals and plants which are alike and so many cultural attitudes toward these which are similar. One must, however, also reckon with the factor of degree of cultural i nsecurity possessed by the people speaking a particular re­ ceptor language.

If such people are quite insecure, they are often

likely to demand very close adherence to the literal forms of the Biblical expressions and terms. They frequently prefer to have bor­ rowed words which they do not understand rather than venture to employ terms which may designate related, but not exact, equiv­ alents. Anything less than what is "technically correct" may be

interpreted by such persons as being a case of paternalism.

In cases in which the speakers of a receptor language are very

sophisticated in their knowledge of the world and the differences

which exist, one can also employ quite technical equivalents, but

what may seem perfectly understandable to educated people may be utterly unintelligible to the masses. One must, therefore, always proceed with caution in using highly specialized vocabulary. At the same time, what one places in the text of a translation will depend i n very large measure on what one is prepared to place

[

xi

]

in the footnotes or in the g l ossary . The Bible Societ ies generally

pub l ication of S criptu re s w ithout ade quate marginal helps They, therefore, want to encourage the in­ troduction of m a r gina l helps dealing with historical backgrounds and cul tu ral differences which may be essential for a satisfac to ry under­ standing of the text. A glossary of some two hundred words is usu­ ally a necessit y and an average of between one and two marginal notes per page is usually re qu i re d if people are to c om pr ehend the setting in which the Biblical events took place and if th ey are to appre­ ciate the c ul tural differences which contribu te so much to the meaning of the message. regard t he

as a serious deficiency .

The United Bible Societies are much indebted to

K. E. Jordt J ¢rgensen

the Rev. Dr.

for the basic research which went into the

paration of this volume.

pre­

Moreover, the Danish Bible Society is to

be e special l y thanked for its wholehearted support of

this

program

during the several years in which it was being carried out. Speci a l thanks is a lso due to the Rev. Clifford Culshaw for

h is

careful edit­

t he section on flora. It has been especially useful to have in the p r epar a tion of this volume the c oll abor ation of the artists who h ave prepared the excellent illustrative drawings: Mr. G. W. Smith for the section on fauna and Mrs. U. Lo l l e s gaard for the section on flora. Thanks are due to Mrs . J. Sheffiel d and especially to Miss E d yth Banks for prepa ring the f i n a l form of the ing and verification of

manuscr ipt.

Even though

this

volume

cannot be expected to provide automatic

answers to all the problems of fauna and flora which

the Bible trans­ l ate r fa c es , nevertheless, it shou l d go a long way in providing the indispensable b a ck gr ou nd information on the basis of w hi ch intelligent decision s can be made.

INTRODUCTION TO THE SECOND EDITION A number of translators and scholars have indicated

the

need for other indexes in addition to the Index of English and

Latin Tenns that was included in the first edition of this work. Therefore this second edition includes indexes of Greek, He­ brew, and Aramaic terms, of terms in certain other languages, and of Bible references.

We are much indebted to the following people who have con­ tributed to the compilation of these indexes: Rene-Peter Con­ tesse, Harold W. Fehderau, and H.W. HollanJer. Thanks are due to Paul C. Clarke, Gloria Horowitz, �rrol F. Rhode s , and Doro­ thy Ridgway for their part in editing and preparing the final form of the indexes.

Abbreviations BOOKS OF THE BIBLE Although not all of the 66 books of the Bible are referred to in this work, we list them in order here with their abbreviations: Gn

Genesis

Na

Nahum

Ex

Exodus

Hbk

Habakkuk

Lv

Leviticus

Zeph

Zephaniah

Nu

Numbers

Hg

Haggai

Dt

Deuteronomy

Zech

Zechariah

Jos

Joshua

Mal

Malachi

Jg

Judges

Mt

Matthew

Ru

Ruth

Mk

Mark

1 s

1 Samuel

1 K

1 Ch

1 Chronicles

2s

2K

Luke

2 Samuel

Jn

John

1 Kings

Ac

Acts

2Kings

Ro

1 Co

2 Co

2 Chronicles

2 Ch

Romans

1 Corinthians

2 Corinthians

Ezra*

Ga

Galatians

Ne

Nehemiah

Eph

Ephesians

Es

Esther

Php

Philippians

Ps

Job*

Col

Psalms

1 Th

Pr

Proverbs

Ec

Ecclesiastes

ss

Song of Solomon

Is

Isaiah

Je

Jeremiah

La

2Th

Colossians

1 Thessalonians

2Thessalonians

1 Ti

1 Timothy

2 Ti

2 Timothy

Phm

Philemon

Titus*

Lamentations

He

Hebrews

Ezk

Ezekiel

Jas

James

Dn

Daniel

Ho

Hosea

1 p

2P

Joel*

Am

*To

Lk

Obadiah

Jon

Jonah

Mi

Micah

2 Peter

1 Jn

1 John

3 Jn

3 John

2 Jn

Amos

Ob

1 Peter

Rv

2 John

Jude*

Revelation

avol"d possible confusion with other books and because these books are not frequently re fe r red to and the nam es are short, these are not abbreviated. ·

f

XV

1

OTHER ABBREVIATIONS

AG

AV

BOB BHH HOB ID

JB KB

Arnd t-G in grich Lex ic on*

Authorized (King james) Version of the Bible Brown-Driver-Briggs Lexicon•

Biblisch- Historische s Handworterbuch * Hastings Dictionary of the Bible*

Interpreter's Dict ionary of the Bible*

Jerusalem Bible

Koehler- Baumgartner Lexicon*

LXX

The Septuagint

NT

New Testament

NEB OT

OTTP

RSV

RV

cf

em Gk

Hb

kg

New En glish Bible

Old Testament

Old Testament Translation Problems (Hulst)*

Revised Standard Version of the Bible Revised Version (British) of the Bible

compare, see also centimetre(s)

m

mg

p

Greek

He brew

kilogram(s)

metre(s) margin page

v

verse

vv

verses

*For further information on these works, sec the Bibliog­

raphy, pages 199-201.

r xvi]

System of Transliteration from Hebrew ?

n

b

t:)

bh g gh

9

p

t.

�,

E)

ph

y

.... ,

�

ts

k

p

kh

q

i

r

7

1

tv

s

.,

;:,

1, :J

d

h.

dh

o,

7.)

m

w

sh

h

1, )

n

.t=l

t

w

D

s .

n

th

z

v

System of Transliteration from Greek a

L

i

b

}{.

k

9

A.

d

p

r

C1

s

1

"'["

t

).1

m

u

u'

e

'V

n

(j)

ph

z

E

X

X

ch

�I

e

0

0

4J

ps

th

Tt

p

w

0

[ xvii]

y

Fauna of the Bible Ant

Messor semirufus

Hebrew: nemalah DE SCRIPTION: The ant in question is the harvester ant, Messor semirufus, which is to be found everywhere in Palestine. It stores grain within its nests, and is therefore used as an illustration of industry, but it also causes much damage to farmers. REFERENCES:

Pr 6.6; 30.25

Ants

(Messor semirujw) [ I ]

Antelope Hebrew:

An ti l ope addax, O r yx leucoryx dish o n

DESCRIPTION:

TI1 e clean and unclean an i m a ls contained in the ca t­

a l o gu es of Lv and Dt are usually very difficult to identify.

true of the Hb dish on.

AV follows

LXX a nd renders it

'p

This is

ygarg ',

which litera l l y means a wh ite rump and is the Gk name of a kind of a nte lope .

Because of this Gk name,

it seems reasonable to connect

the animal in question with the An til ope a ddax, a native of North

Afric a , which h a s greyish-white hi nde r parts, a white patch on the

foreh ea d a nd twisted and ringed horns.

Antelope (Antilope addax) r ? 1

Antelope (Oryx leucoryx)

RSV tran slate s 'ibex ' , but according to Bodenh eimer this i s a m i sta ke . He i s incl ined to i denti fy the di shon with the Arabian o ryx, Oryx leuco ryx, the biggest a ntelope o f Iraq, which inhabits the des­ erts o f Arabia and great parts o f Afr ic a a nd has characte r istic long ho rns stretc h i ng s tra i ght bac kward s . Bode nhe ime r a rgues from the similarity between the Hb word d ishon and the Akkadian da - a s -su, which is the Arabi a n o ryx . JB has 'ant elope ' and NEB have 'a ntelop e ' for te?o in Dt

'white - rumped deer ' . RSV and NEB 14.5 and Is 51.20. See IBEX.

REFERENCE:

Dt 14.5

[ 3 ]

Ape

simire

Hebrew: qoph, tukki D ESCRIPTION: Apes are mentioned only once in the Old Testament and without definite description, so that a specification is mere guessing. Apes were listed among the goods imported by the luxury­ loving King Solomon on board his mighty mercantile fleet. Boden­ heimer points out that the reference in the same verse to 'ivory' makes East Africa most probable as the exporting area, so that the old translation of tukkiyim as 'peacocks' is most unlikely. He fol­ lows Albright, who identifies the Hb tukki with an Egyptian word ky meaning a species of ape, just as qoph is to be identified with the

Egyptian � another kind of monkey. For the RSV translation, see OTTP, p 38. JB has 'apes and baboons', NEB 'apes and monkeys'.

Feliks in BHH points out that in Ancient Egypt, as in Palestine at the time of the Mishna, guenons (long-tailed monkeys, Cerco­ pithecus pyrrhonotus) and baboons ( Papiobabuin) were kept as domes­ tic animals. An old Egyptian picture shows a man carrying ivory and a lion hide, with a baboon on a leash. The picture is part of a larger illustration representing tribute being paid to Pharoah from the Southern countries. R EF ERENCES: 1 K 10.22; 2 Ch 9.21

Arrowsnake Hebrew:

Otus scops ( ?) Eryx jaculus (?)

qippoz

DESCRIPTION: Many commentators now translate this Hb word 'arrowsnake' (so RV). The arrowsnake is a serpent which is able to coil itself back and dart forward quickly like an arrow, or to leap from a tree. The translation 'arrowsnake' has a long tradition and is linked with the Aramaic root qaphaz, 'to leap, spring'. ID finds it advisable to translate 'owl' like AV and RSV follow. , Ing the sugge stion made by Houghton, quoted in BDB under qippoz, that 'the ar rows nake does not incubate' (the word baqe'ah used in r

A

1

ans 'to hatch'), but whether Isaiah is to be credited with Is 34.15 me such accurate knowledge of natural history is questionable. JB has 'v i p er ' .

Driver in HOB suggests that qippoz may be a variety of the s a nd

partridge Caccabis s inaica (so NEB).

REFERENCE:

Ass

Is 34.15

WBd Ass

Equus asinus

Equus hemionus

Hebrew: l). amor , 'ayir (male ass), ?athon (she-ass) pere? (wild ass), 'arodh, 'aradh (Aramaic for wild ass)

Greek: on os ,

onarion

iUij)'Ozugion

(little donkey),

polos (colt or ass's foal),

(beast of burden, ass)

DESCRIPTION: The European ass of today cannot that of the Orient. The domestic as ses of Europe

be compared with are usually small,

stubborn and malicious animals, often cons id ered s tu p i d. In the East the ass de ve l ops into a beautiful, stately and lively animal.

The colour of the

ass in the Middle East

is

usua lly reddish

brown , which must also ha ve been its colour in Biblical times , as indicated by the Hb wo rd l;lamor, derived from the root meaning 'to be r e d ' . An a llus ion to the colour may be found als o in Jg 5.10, ' you who ride on tawny ass es ' , translating tsabor as 'tawny' (RSV and NEB.

AV and JB have 'white').

The s to ry of Salaam (Nm 22) s erves as an illustration of the s as 's character. The ass s ees the angel of the Lord, whom Salaam does not see, and halts each time. Salaam in his bl in d ness beats his animal and rebukes it. Finally the as s begins to talk and says (v 30): I "A m I

to

not your ass, up on

thi s day?

"No".'

which you have ridden all your life long

W a s I ever accusto med to do so to you?" And he s aid, This is not a description of a foolish or stubborn animal.

The ass was us ed as a mount from early times. Until the days of King Solomon the hors e was not used in Palestine. Bu t from that t i me

[ 5]

Wild

ass

(Equus hemionus)

on it was ridden by the warrio r , wher e a s th e a s s was u s e d by tho s e who were travelling pea c e fully, l ike the king of peac e (Zech 9 . 9) and Jesus entering Je rus alem ( Mt 21). The ass was al so the I s rael ite ' s bea s t of burden, and its frugal ity a nd staying power made it m o re u s e ful in that country than the horse or even the camel . After the return of the people from Babylonia we find that the s tatement o f sto c k number s ten tim es a s m a ny a s s e s as ho r s e s and c amels ( Ez ra 2 . 6 6-67; Ne 7 . 6 8 69) . ' Ox a nd a s s ' is an almo s t proverbial exp re s s ion for the dom e s tic anima l s at the tim e of Je sus (Lk 13 . 15; cf Lk 14.5). -

Th e a s s was also u s ed as a wo rking a ni m al , e. g. in grinding mill s . The word ' m illstone ' u s e d in Mt 1 8 . 6 a nd Mk 9 . 4 2 l iterally means 'a m ill stone worked by donkey powe r ' ( m ulo s oniko s ) . REFE R E NC ES : }J.am or : Cons ult a concordanc e ' ayir: G n 3 2 . 15; 4 9 . 11; Jg 10. 4 ; 12 . 14; Job ll . 12; Is 30.6, 2 4 ; Zech 9 . 9 [ 6]

?athon : Con sult a conco rdance pere?: Gn 16.12; Job 6.5; ll . l2; 24.5; 39.5; Ps l04.ll ; Is 32.14; Je 2.24; 14.6; Ho 8.9 'aro dh : Job 39.5 ' a ra dh : On 5.21 ono s: Mt 21.2, 5, 7 ; Lk 13.15; 14.5 (som e MSS ) ; Jn 12.15

o na r ion: Jn 12.14 palos : Mt 21.2, 5, 7; Mk 11.2, 4, 5, 7; Lk 19.30, 33, 35; J n 12.15 hupozugion: Mt 21.5; 2 P 2.16 OIFFICUL T PASSAGES: Jo b 11.12:

It s eems evident that this ver s e proverbial saying (Weis e r ): No o n e c a n expec t wis do m from a stupid man , any more than a wild a s s c an be expected to become a man. The Hb word pere? is tran s la ted 'zebra ' by Wei s e r (follow­ ingKB). JB h a s 'a young wild donkey grows ta me ' . is a

Undoubtedly the parallel i s m of Zech 9.9, ' riding o n a n a s s , on a colt, the foa l o f an a s s ' , h a s bec o m e the rea son why Jes u s , acc o r d­ ing to Mt 21.2, a s k s for an a s s and a c o l t, although he ne e d s only one moun t. He wishes to poin t out that he is now b r i n ging about the fulfilm ent of that old and ch eri shed prophecy. Not th at J e s u s m eant that Zec h a riah was talking about two s eparate a nimals ; h e wanted rather to show tha t th e literal agreement between h i s own c ommand an d the poetical fo rm of the prophet ' s wo rds w ould prove that no mere coinc idenc e but God h im s elf wa s directi ng the steps of th e Me s siah . The d iffi c u lty of the double au ton i n v 7, 'they put their c lothes on them , and he s a t on them ' , h a s made s o m e co m m entato rs ex plai n that Jesus wa s rid ing on each animal in turn. On thi s s ee Zahn, who reads auton ins tead of the firs t auton: ' they put the i r c l othe s on i t (the a nimal ) and he sat on th em (t he c lo th e s )'.

Bat

C h i ropt era

He bre w:

'atal l eph

DESCRIPTION: In th e Law of Moses the bat i s listed a mong the un­ cl ean birds ; but it b e l o n gs to the m a m m al s . It i s a quadruped whic h

[ 7 ]

Bat

(Chiroptera)

suckles its young. The 'wings ' are membranes connecting the fore and hind legs. The Hb name is used in general for all the many s pecies of bats in the area.

Modern zoologis ts have counted some twenty different

species in Palestine alone. There do es not s eem to be any doubt about the identification in view of the allusion to the creature's

haunts in Is 2.20:

on the day of the Lo rd the ido ls w ill be cas t forth

to the bats, i.e. into ruins and caves.

REFERENCES:

Bear

Lv

11.19; Dt 14.18;

Is 2.20

Ursus s yriacus

Hebrew:

dobh

DESCRIPTION:

Greek:

arko s

The Syrian bear which to day may be found in the

mountains of Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon is bro wn in colour and may reach a length of two metres and a weight of up to

[ 8 ]

250

kilos .

Its

fo o d cons ists of vegetables, roots, gras s, berries, fruits, nuts, ho ney and ants. In cas e s of emergency it als o feeds on game, o xen,

sh ee p or ho rses . The bear may be dangerous to man if provoked or 'robbed of her cubs' (2 S 17.8). The bear and the lion are often mentioned to gether in the Bible

(e. g. I S 1 7.37)

as they are the two larges t and s tro ngest beasts of

prey. Th ey may thus symbolize s trength and terro r (e. g. Am 5.19). Isaiah uses the growl of the bear to illustrate the impatience of the

Jews :

'We

all growl like bears'

(59.11).

The paws of the bear s o me­

times s erve as a dangerous weapon; this furnishes a clue to the inner meaning of the vision in Rv 13.2. REFERENCES:

do bh: arko s:

Co ns ult a concordance Rv

13.2

Bear (Ursus syriacus) [ 9 ]

Bees (A pis fasciata)

Bee

Apis

fa s ciata

Hebrew : debho rah DESCRIPTION: Th e way in wh ich the Bible compares bee s with a n army cha s ing and surro unding m a n s u gge s ts the s pecies s till com­ mon i n Palestine, Apis fasciata, which is very inclined to s ting.

The honey of wil d bee s is often referred to (e. g. Mk 1.6), but there is no indica tio n in the Bible of bee- keeping (known i n Egypt from 2400 BC) , except perhaps in Is 7 .18, w h e re the reference to hi s s ing (AV) or w h i s tl i n g (RSV, JB, NE B) fo r bee s may sugges t that

Hornet (Vespa orientalis)

r 10 1

a bee f a rmer could cause bees to swarm by this procedure (so

Brockington in HOB).

Wild be es lived in rocks and woods.

The word debhash may not only s ig n ify bee honey, b ut also the

honey or syrup extracted from such fruits as fi gs, dates and g r a pe s . 'A land flowi ng with mil k and hon ey ' (Ex 3. 8) thus does not stand for

a la nd of bees,

but a land rich in fruit.

REFE R E NC E S : Dt 1.44; Jg 14.8; Ps 118.12; Is 7.18 DIFFIC U L T PASSAGE: 1 S 14.26: Instead of helek debhash 'the fl ow ing of honey ' , some read halak debhorim 'its bees ha d fl ow n aw ay ', cf JB 'the swa rm had gone'.

Behemoth Hebrew:

perhaps Hippopo tamu s amphibius

behemoth

D E S C R IPTION : The head of the h ippopo tam us is almost quadran­ gular; its h igh ly developed s ense - or ga ns are placed in su ch a wa y tha t the an ima l ca n see, hear and smell a l most without bei n g seen, because its eyes, ears and nostrils c a n reach above the wa ter

while the rest of the a n i m a l l ies submerg ed in the river. Its mouth is enormous, with tu s ks re ach in g a length of 70 em, and i ts throat is short and heavy. The legs are un usual l y strong and s ho r t,

its

so that

belly a lmost reaches to the ground when the animal is on land.

The

this

h ippopo tamu s

spends most of its time in

the water where

appa re n tl y clumsy a nimal moves with great agility.

It lives on the g r ass and he rbs that grow in the rive r, and if it do e s not find e no ugh food there it comes on la nd. In spite of its

heavy body the h ippopo tamu s is a lso quite a gile on land, even on s teep and high banks. It usually come s ashore at n ight, but in d ay ­ light nobody can avoid notici n g where it has been, as it tr amp l es everyth ing in its path. Lotus plants a nd oth er herbage along the river Nile are consumed in large qu a nt it i es by hippopotami.

[ 11 ]

REFERENCES:

Lv 11.2; Job 40.15; Ps 73.22; Is 30.6 etc . Consult a concordance

PASSAGES: Job 40.15: behemo th is origi na l ly the plu­ ral of behema h ' wild bea s t ' , a nd in this pas sage probably shoul d be trans lated a ccord ingly. DIFFICULT

One reason fo r rendering the Hb wor d ' hippopotamus ' , as many modern tra ns lator s do, i s that th e Hb may be d eriv e d from an Egyp­ t ian word p-ih-mw which i s s u ppo s ed to mean ' the o x of the wa te r ' . But the e xis ten ce of th is Egyptian word i s pro bl ematica l. Fur ther, there are two difficulties in c onnec tio n w ith the deta iled description of the a nima l i n Job 40. One is v 17, 'He makes his ta il s tiff l ike a cedar', which d oe s not apply to the ridic ulo us ly s h ort ta il of a hippo­ pot amu s . Also , the m ention of the s inews a nd bone s of the a nimal in v 17f is not appropriate , as the very th ic k hide of the hippopotamus makes it impo s sible t o discern what i s be nea th. It is therefore advi s able to trans late Job 40.15 'wild bea s t'. NEB h as 'crocodile'. Lv 11. 2, Ps 73 . 22 and Is 30.6 etc . should be tra ns­ lated ' beast s '.

Birds of prey Hebrew:

'a yi�

DESCRIPTION: The Hb wor d may be der ived from a roo t which means 'to sc ream' or ' to shriek'. In ge neral it may be said th at specificati on of the birds o� prey me ntio ne d in the Bible is diffi ­ c ult. Proba bly th e authors of the Old Tes tament did no t always distinguish betwee n them, though in c a s es whe n som e k ind of desc riptio n is to be fou nd, it may be po s sible to do so. See VUL­ TIJRE.

Boden h ei mer has l isted th irty-th ree spec ie s of birds of prey which h a ve bee n found mum mifi ed in Egypt. REFERENCES: Gn 1 5.11; Job 28. 7; Is 18.6; 46.11; Je 12.9;

[ 12 ]

Ezk

39.4

Camel

Camel Hebrew:

Camelus dromedarius

gamal , belcher and bikherah ( youn g camel);

plural: Greek:

(Camelus dromedarius)

kirkaroth

kamelos

DESCRIPTION:

The camel belongs to the ruminants but has no clo­ ven hoof. The feet have cushion-like soles enveloped in ha r den e d skin. On Shalmaneser' s obelisk ( now in the British Museum in London ) one may see a portrait of the two-humped camel ( C amelus �ctrianus) wh i c h is bigge r , heavier and slower than the one­ humped (C. dr m darius).

o e

[ 13 ]

The c amel h a s been c alled 'the ship of the de s ert', and it is true that this animal is by nature adapted for life in des ert regions. This is not only bec aus e of its feet, but also becau s e of its s tomach which hol ds water cells and may s e rve a s a re s e rvoir la sting s ev­ eral days . The hump with its reserve store of fat also make s it po s sible for the animal to subs i s t on very littl e food during a de s ert journey. The original hom e of the camel wa s among the e astern ne igh­ bours of Pale s tine, the Midianites, the Amalekite s and 'all the peo­ ple of the Ea st' (Jg 7 .12 ). A well-fed bea s t of burden c an carry up t o 250 kg. This make s the de scr iption of the glory of the Je rus alem to come the more impre s sive ( Is 60. 6) and is an ind icat ion of the wealth of Abraham (Gn 24. 10) . C a m el ha ir was u s ed for tents and s o m etime s fo r c lothes ( Mk 1. 6) . REFERENCES: gamal: Consult a concordanc e bekh e r: Is 60. 6 bikherah: Je 2. 23 kirkaroth: Is 66. 2 0 (RSV, JB, NEB: 'dromeda ries') kam elo s : M t 3 . 4; 1 9 . 24; 23 . 24; Mk 1 . 6; 10 . 25 ; L k 18. 25 DIFFICULT PASSAG ES: Mt 19 . 2 4 (and parallel s ) , a proverbial say­ ing which compares one o f th e large st animal s , the c a mel, with one of the small est openings , the eye of a needle , in o rder to underline how difficult, not to say impo s s ible , it is for man to break away fro m earthly goods. A sim ilar pa radox is u s ed by Je sus in his warn­ ing against the Pha r i s ee s who 'strain out a gnat and swal low a camel' ( Mt 23. 24). The gnat is one of th e s mallest ins ects, and Je sus is alluding to the habit of filtering wine before drinking. Gn 12 . 16 says that fo r Sarah's sake Abraham wa s given ca mel s b y Ph aroah. But Dalman and Pro c ksch comment that c amel s were not to be found in Egypt at that time ( s e e a l s o Ex 9 .3 ) , but only much la ter, at the time of the Pe r sian war s . Either the autho r of this chapter is mis taken, or Pharoah m u s t have i m ported his gift . (Bodenh eimer s tates th at the camel is an anachronism in the patriarchal s tories . )

r

14 1

Chameleon ( Chamceleo vulgaris)

Chameleon

Chamc:eleo vulgaris

Bam Owl Tyto alba

Hebrew: tinshemeth

DESC R IPTION: We deal with these two in the s a m e artic le, because th ey repr e s e nt two different trans latio n s of the sa m e Hb word. In Lv 11.30 AV and Luth er translate tinshemeth 'mole ' . In our time s cholars are m o r e inc lin ed to consider it to be th e chameleon (so RSV and NEB. JB tran sl iterate s 'tin sham eth '). The reason is,

in the firs t place, that it is l i s ted a m o ng the reptile s , a nd the

chame leon belongs to the s a m e order a s the l izards . In the secon d place, the Hb nam e i s derived fro m a verb nasham 'to pant'. The lungs of a lizard are very large , and Pl iny's Natural Hi s to ry (8, 51) Proves tha t in anc ient ti mes l izards were believed to live on air.

One .peculiarity of the cl-tameleon is its power to c h ange colour a c cording to its surro u n d ing s . Its eyes m o ve independently of ea ch other, and it may a t the same time turn one eye upward s and the other downwards, In Palestine the cham e l eon lives in trees and bushes, clinging to the branches with its long tail.

[ 15 ]

JB trans l ate s l;10met a s 'chameleon'.

See LIZARD.

Lv 11.18 and Dt 14.16 deal with a bird. AV follows Vulgate in ren­ dering ' s wan'. Today zoologists s uggest Athene noctua, the little owl (so NEB), or Tyto alba, the barn owl, the breathing of which sounds like s no rting and thus gives an explanation of the Hb name.

RSV has ' water hen', JB 'ibis'.

REFERENCES: Lv 11.18, 3 0; Dt 14.16

Cock

Cock, Hen, Chicken

(Gallus domesticus)

Gallu s domesticus

Hebrew: s ekhwi, zarzir Greek: alektor (cock, rooster), ornis (hen), nos sia (brood of chicken s), nos sion (chicken) DESCRIPTION: Poultry farming originated in India, whence it spread to Babylon, Egypt, Greece and Palestine .

[ 16 ]

According to the T almud (Strack-Billerbeck I,

992) , t he Jew s were

forbi dden to have poultry in Je ru salem, becau se insect s and larvath : ' s cops owl ' ( RSV a n d JB ' pe l i c a n ' , NEB ' ho rned owl ' )

bath

[ 61 ]

Al l owl s wo uld be unc l ean a s p r eda to rs fee d i n g o n raw fl e sh . Th e r e a re two oth er words tra n s l a ted ' owl ' i n E n gl i s h vers io n s . q i ppoz i n I s 3 4 . 1 5 i s m o s t l i kely ' ar rowsna k e ' ( s o R V ; J B ' v iper ' ) a nd not ' ow l ' (AV and RSV ) . See A R ROWS NAKE , but see als o PARTRIDGE ( s o NE B) . l il ith in Is 34. 14 is the n i ght j a r ( NE B and RS V ' night hag' ) and not the scree c h ow l (AV ) . JB t r ansl iter ate s . Th e identific ati o n o f the d ifferent spec i e s o f owl s i s very d iffi ­ Th e fac t tha t owls c h i efl y dwell in ru i n s and d e s erted plac e s , and that the hoot o f a n owl c a u s e d muc h s upersti tiou s fea r, ha s m ade it a s ym bol of desol atio n and deva s tation in the Bibl e . cult.

Ox,

Cow

bo s

Hebrew : baqar (ox , c a ttl e , h e rd), shor ( s i ngl e h e ad of ca t tl e ) , pa r ( young bul l ) , parah (cow), ' e gh e l (c alf) , ' e ghlah ( h e i fe r ) , ?eleph (c a ttl e ) , ?abb i r (l i t : s tron g, m igh ty) Greek : bou s , tauro s , kteno s , dama l i s (heifer), m o s c h o s (c a l f) , thremma ( c a t tl e ) , s i t i s ta (ca ttl e that have been fa ttened) An i n te r e s tin g po int a bo u t the desc r iption of t h i s a n i ­ m al in th e O T i s the e m ph a s i s on its b e auty . Th i s has m ade s o m e com m e n ta to r s t h ink o f o l d E gyptian a n d A s s yrian i l l u s t r a ti o ns , s how ­ i ng a s t a t el y a n i m a l not unl ike the I nd i a n z ebu , o r small humped ox . D ESC RIPTION :

wa s rich i n c attl e , e s pec iall y i n the Del ta a r ea , Go shen , wh e re th e Hebrews s ettled unde r Jo s eph . Abraha m rec e ived oxen a s a gi ft fro m Pharoah when he went i nto Egypt ( Gn 1 2 . 1 4 - 1 6 ) . In Pale s t ine c attle gr aze d on the pla in s (e . g. the plain of S h a ron ) , in B a s h a n a nd i n Gil e a d . The behaviour and habits of c attl e a re de ­ sc r i be d in the book of the h erd s man Amo s . Egypt

o f fa tte n i ng c a ttl e for s pec i a l pu rpo s e s i s m ention ed i n l K 1 . 9; 4 . 23 ; Mt 2 2 . 4 ; Lk 15 . 2 3 ; cf l S 2 8 . 24 ( ' e ghe l m arbe q , ' a sta ll­ fatt e ne d c a l f' ) . m ar be q lite r ally means ' a t ying pla ce ' . The c at tle tha t w e re to be fattened w e r e not intende d to ge t too much ex e rc i s e . Th e h a b it

[ 62 ]

C a t tl e w e re u s e d no t o n l y fo r s a c r i fi c i a l p u r po s e s a n d fo r foo d ,

but a l s o a s d r a u ght a n i m a l s gr a i n ( Dt 25 . 4 ;

1

( e . g . Lk

1 4 . 1 9 ) a nd fo r t r ea d i n g o u t

Co 9 . 9 ; 1 Ti 5 .1 8 ) .

Th e m i l k o f th e c o w i s o f te n m e n t i o n e d a s foo d ( Gn 1 8 . 8 ;

Eve n c h e e s e i s m e n t i o n e d (Jo b 1 0 . 1 0 ) ; Duh m c o m m e n t s ,

of a nc ient

ph ys i o l o gy ,

Jg 4.19).

' a sa mple

th e fo rmation o f th e e m b ryo i n t h e wo m b

'

pl a i ned i n te r m s o f the c u rd l i n g o f c h e e s e . ? a bb i r i n J g 5 . 2 2 i s ' b u l l ' o r

' h o rs e ' ; i n I s

ex ­

10.13 k e ? abbir i s

tr an s l a te d by s o m e ' l i k e a m i gh t y m a n ' , m o r e c o r r ec t l y R S V a n d

NEB

' l i k e a bul l ' .

In J n 4 . 1 2 A G expla i n th re m m a a s ' do m e s t i c a te d

c i al l y s h e e p o r go a t .

a ni mal ,

espe ­

'

R E F E R E NC E S :

Dt 7 . 1 3 ; 2 8 4 , 1 8 , 5 1 ; P s 8 . 7 ; 5 0 . 1 0 ; Pr 1 4 . 4 ;

? el eph :

.

I s 3 0 . 24

? a hb i r s i gn i fy i n g ' bu l l ' :

3 4 . 7 ; Je 4 6 . 1 5

P s 2 2 . 1 2 ; .5 0 . 1 3 ; I s 1 0 . 1 3 ;

Fo r o th e r Hb wo rd s c o n s ul t a c o n c o rda n c e

te ? o :

s e e IB E X

bo u s :

L k 1 3 . 1 .5 ; 1 4 . 5 , 1 9 ;

Jn

2 . 14, IS;

1

Co 9 . 9 ; 1 T i 5 . 1 8

ta u ro s :

Mt 2 2 . 4 ; A c 14 . 13 ; He 9 . 13 ; 1 0 . 4

k t e no s :

c a ttle :

Rv 1 8 . 1 3 ; a n i m a l s u s ed fo r r i d i n g :

L k 1 0 . 3 4 ; Ac 2 3 . 2 4 ; do m e s t ic ated a n i m a l s :

1 Co

15.39

m o s c ho s :

L k 1 5 . 2 3 , 2 7 , 3 0 ; He 9 . 1 2 1 9 ; ,

m o s c ho po i e6 :

s i t i s ta :

Mt

th rem m a : DI F F IC U L T PASSA G E S :

' to m a k e a c a l f ' Ac 7 . 4 1

22.4.

Jn

4.12

re ? em :

Ps 2 2 . 2 1 ; 2 9 . 6 ; 9 2 . 1 0 ; I s 3 4 . 7 ' unic o rn ' ) , Bo s p ri m igen i u s ,

da m al i s :

Rv

4.7

He 9 1 3 .

Nu 2 3 . 2 2 ; 2 4 . 8 ; D t 3 3 . 1 7 ; J o b 3 9 . 9 ;

i s ge n e r a l l y t ra n s l a ted ' w i l d o x ' ( A V

wh i c h in a n c i e n t t i m e s w a s hu n te d b y As syr i a n k i n gs . Th e Akk a d i a n wo r d ri mu u ndoubte d l y s ta n d s fo r th e au roc h s , o r w i l d ox . So m e c o m m e n t crto r s h av e c o n n e c ted the Hb

Wo rd w ith t h e A ra b i c r i m ' a n te l o pe ' . Th i s a n i ma l , how eve r , i s ra the r s h y a n d e a s y to ta m e w h ic h do e s not fi t t h e O T d e s c ri p tio n of a W il d , s tro ng a nd unta m ahl e an i m a l . ,

[ 63 ]

Partridge

Caccabi s c huka r o r Ammoperdix heyi

Hebrew : qore ? DESC RIPT ION : The roc k partridge o r Cac c a bis chukar was a favou rite ga m e bird in Bibl ical t i m es . It wa s hunted i n th e moun ­ t a in s of Pale s tine , a s its delicate fl e s h ma kes exc ell ent eating. Anothe r spec i e s which i s th e only pa rtri dge fo un d in the des ert of Enged i (cf l S 2 6 . 20) is the sand pa rtridge , Ammoperdix heyi. The wildernes s o f Z iph (l S 2 6 . 2 ) is aro und Engedi . The roc k pa rtridge i s a c o lourful bi r d with red l egs a nd b ill , and a wh ite throat edge d w ith a blac k l ine . Th e sand partridge i s o f m edium s i z e , with yell ow feet. The mal e has s andy buff plumage , the upper ta il c o verts penc illed and bar red with brown, the under - s u r face c h e s tnut and white ; the fem a l e i s greyi s h buff. Th i s partridge is a great runner and speeds along t h e ground w h en i t i s cha sed, until it beco m e s exhaus ted a nd can b e knocked d ow n by the hunter ' s s t ic k . Th e H b na me o f the pa rtridge , qor e ? , l i teral l y m e a n s ' the c a l l er ' , alludi ng to the pec ul i a r call the b i rd makes w hen frighte ned . The pa rtridge i s often s na red by m ea n s of a decoy. Ecc l e s i a s ­ tic u s ll . 3 0 mentio n s a ' dec o y partridge i n a c age ' which indicates th e c u s tom of c onceal ing a c a ge som ewh ere i n the hun ti ng area, with a captured bird i n s ide which with i ts call notes will attra c t wild bi rd s . J e 1 7 . ll , ' the partr idge that gath e r s a brood which s h e did no t hatch ' , refe r s to a n anc ient bel ief that the partridge s teal s eggs fro m other n e s t s but that hatched fledgl i ngs retu rn to the i r own m o ther . Th i s e r ro neous idea may be due to the fac t that the hen lays a n un u su ­ al l y l arge number o f eggs (a ne s t co nta ining 2 6 has been found ) ; o r to the fac t that th e c h ukar o r roc k partri dge lays two c l utch e s , o n e fo r the coc k to i nc ubate . Jeremiah and 1 Sam uel a r e therefo re (no t s urp r i s i ngl y ) us ing the s a m e Hb wo rd to d e s c ribe two different s p e ­ c i es . Dr iver in HDB sugge st s that qippoz (see ARROWS NAKE ) m a y be a var iety of the s and partr id ge Caccabis s inaic a , which hop s or l e ap s away w ith great agility when disturbed .

[ 64 ]

R E F E R EN C ES :

1 S 26. 20; je 17.11

jg 1 5 . 1 9 ' en haqqo re ? s houl d n o t b e tra ns l ated idge well ' , but ' the caller ' s well ' , a s i ndic ated in t h e RSV not e , a ' p rt r a s i t co m m em o ra te s S a m s o n ' s c al l i ng on God fo r h elp .

DI F F I C U L T PASSA G E :

Pelican Pel icanu s onoc rotalus He brew : qa ? ath DES C R IPTIO N : The Hb qa ?ath is one of the numerou s unc l ean birds in Lv 11 and Dt 1 4 who s e identific a tion i s doubtfu l . Many s c hola rs nowadays translate ' pel ican ' , mo s t o f the m howeve r noting that the O n e rea son fo r thi s i s that the m e a n i n g of the word i s unc e rta i n . p el i c a n frequen ts r i ve r s and lakes rather th an ruin s , a s it i s said to in Is 34 and Z eph 2 . Th e o n l y sure th ing we c an s a y about the Hb w ord i s that it stands fo r an unc lean bird, whi c h dwell s i n ruin s , a nd that the word may be derived from a root ' to th row out ' , cons eq uentl y 'a vom iter ' , which is taken by comm entator s to allude to the pel ican ' s all eged habit of throwing up food fo r i t s young fro m its c ro p . The pel ican i s a pic turesque b i r d with s nowy white feathe rs , bro ad wings the expa n s io n of whi c h i s 3 . 6 to 3 . 9 m , and a l a rge yel ­ l ow bill . ' Wh en it s it s m o tionles s a t the e dge of a swa mp , its h e ad a ga i nst i t s brea s t, dige s ting th e fis he s it has sc ooped u p in i t s pouc h , i t bec o m e s the very image o f brood i n g so rrow ' ( Pa rm elee , p

169 ).

Dr iver i n H DB s u gge s t s the scops owl , o tus scop s , wh ich i s qa ? ath ma y the n be an ono matopo eic word to repre s en t hooting. NEB has ho r n e d OWl' ( ' de se rt owl ' in P s 102 . 6); RSV 'pelic an ' in Lev it icus and Deute ­ ronomy , e l s ew he re 'vulture ' or ' hawk ' .

c o mm o n in o l ive grove s a nd about ru i n s in Pale s ti n e .

'

.RE F E R E NC ES :

Lv 1 1 . 1 8 ; Dt 1 4 . 1 7 ;

Ps

[ 65 ]

1 0 2 . 6 ; Is 3 4 . 11 ; Ze ph 2 .14

Porcupine , Bittern

Hys t rix c ri st a ta ( E u ro p ean po r c u p i n e )

Bo taurus stel l a r i s ( bitte r n ) Hebrew : q ippo d h D E SC R IPTIO N :

The Hb q ippo dh m a y be d erived fro m a v e r b wh ich

m e a n s ' t o roll up ' ; th is

l ed to the trad itional i dentific atio n w i th the p o r c u pine. 11uee s p ec i e s a r e fo u n d i n Pal e s t i n e , a m o ng them Hys tri x: c ri s tata . has

Th e c on tex t o f th e refere n c e s i n d i c a t e s tha t we h ave to do with

a n an i m al which haunts d e s o l a te pl ac e s . Th i s , in additi on to th e a ll u s i on to po ol s of water ' in I s 1 4 . 23 , ha s led so m e tra n s lato rs to r e n d e r the wo r d ' bittern ' , a bird with l o n g n ec k a nd l egs , whic h l ives n e a r ponds a n d moo r s ; it s weird and mo urnful c r i e s have al ­ wa ys c a u s ed superstitious dread. No defi n i te dec i s ion a s to identifi ­ c a t i o n c a n be m a d e . '

D r i ve r i n HOB rej ects ' po rc up i ne ' o n the grounds tha t i t c ould s c a rc el y l o dge in th e capita l s ' o f p i l l a r s i n Ni neveh ( Z eph 2 . 14 ) . ' Bit e t rn ' m i gh t fi t the ' poo l s o f wate r ' i n I s 1 4 . 23 but no t the deso ­ l a t e p l a c e s o f the o ther two pa s s age s . He s ugge s ts tha t the m ea n i n g r o l l ed u p ' o f qippodh w o u l d s u i t the b u s t a rd (oti s ) , wh i c h h a s a b u n c h ed - up nec k that swell s i n s o m e s pec i e s i n to a ru ff i n t h e breed ­ ing s ea s o n . At l ea s t t hree spec i e s a re s e e n in Pal e s tin e , s h y bi rd s wh i c h a re u s ua l l y fo u nd i n w a s te grou n d , op e n plac e s o r the de s e rt ed ge . N EB t ransla t e s ' bu s t a rd ' . '

'

A V has ' bittern ' . RV , fo l l ow in g LXX and Vulgate , has 'porcu ­ p ine ' · R. SV h as 'porcup ine ' in Is 3 4 . l l and ' hedgehog' e l s ewhe r e . JB has ' h edgehog' in Is aiah , ' heron ' in Zeph aniah . R E F E R E NC E S :

Quail

Is 1 4 . 2 3 ; 3 4 . 1 1 ; Z ep h 2 . 1 4

C o tu rn i x c oturn ix

Hebrew :

s el aw

D E S C R IPTION : Al l c o m m e n ta to r s are now i n agreement wi th re ga rd i d e ntific a tio n o f th i s bi r d . The qua i l i s a s m all m i gra to ry

t o th e

[ 66 ]

b i rd, 1 9 e m long. It i s brown o r s andy i n c olour w ith yellowi sh s t r ea k s , and c o m e s to Pal e s t ine during Ma rc h and April in e no rm ou s fl o c k s . I n i t s fl i ght it u s ual ly follows the wind , b u t if the wind s ud ­ d e nly ch ange s , the entire flo c k may be driven to the ground where it l ies exh au s ted and c a n e a s i l y be c aught o r killed . The ' sprea ding o ut ' m e ntioned i n Nu 1 1 was fo r the pu rpo s e o f dr y ing the fl e s h and thu s p re s e rv i ng i t fo r future u s e . Bodenheimer ( i n I D ) po ints o u t tha t the reference i n Nu 11 . 3 3 to c a u s ed b y the eating of qua il s h a s m edico - h i s to r ic al sup ­

a pla gu e po r t .

R E F E R E NC E S :

Ex

1 6 . 1 3 ; Nu 1 1 . 3 1 , 3 2 ; Ps 105 . 40

Quail (Coturnix coturnix)

Raven Heb re� :

Cor vidae Greek : ko rax

' o rebh

DE S C R IPTIO N :

fl ight of the tn e s s e n er g ,

As

his rec ko n i ng by the n o t a dove as h i s fi r s t highly d eve lo p ed bi r d a n d much

a w i s e s a il o r No ah m a de

b i r d s , s e nd i n g out a raven a nd b e c a u s e the r av e n i s a

[ 67 ]

a bl e to s u rv i ve

do ve .

Th e raven d i d n o t r e tu r n to the a rk .

It w as h e l p as i t feed s o n c a rr i o n a n d wou l d ' fi n d e no ugh t o e a t i n th e fl o a t i n g w r ec ka ge o f a flooded world ' ( Pa rm el ee , p 5 5 ) .

h a r d i e r th a n th e

wi thou t human

Th e raven i s l i s ted a m o n g t h e u nc l ea n b i rd s . Its n e s t i s u s u a l l y found i n s o l i t a r y plac e s . It i s a c o m m o n bi rd all o v e r Pal e s ti n e , h a s a bea u t i fu l bl a c k c o lo u r a n d i s a bo ut 6 2 e m long. Ac co r d i ng to Lv 1 1 , the Hb wo r d i s a general nam e fo r a l l ra v e n s ( Co rv i d a= ) . R E F E R E NC ES :

' o rebh : Gn 8 . 7 ; L v 1 1 . 1 5 ; Dt 1 4 . 1 4 ; l K 1 7 . 4 , 6 ; J o b 3 8 . 4 1 ; P s 1 47 . 9 ; P r 3 0 . 1 7 ; SS 5 . 1 1 ; I s 3 4 . 1 1 . (Jg 7 . 2 5 and I s 1 0 . 2 6 r e f e r to p l a c e na m e s . )

kora x :

D I F F IC U L T

PASS A G E :

Lk 1 2 . 2 4

Th e m i r a c l e by t h e b ro o k C her ith ( l K

Raven (Corvidw)

r 68 J

17),

whe re th e raven s brough t Elijah bread and m eat every mo rning a nd e ve n ing, has been interpreted in a natu ra l i stic way by s o m e c o m m e n ­ ta to r s : t h e y read ' Arabs ' in s tead o f ' rave n s ' . Th i s i s po s s ibl e by cha nging the vowel s , as th e cons onants of the wo rds ' Arabs ' a nd ' ' raven s are the same in Hebrew.

Rock badger (Procavia syriacus)

Rock

Badger, Syrian Coney

Proc avia s yr ia c u s

Hebrew : shaph an

DE SC RIPTION : Mo dern transl ato rs generally agree in identifying

thi s an imal with the rock ba dge r , al though it do e s no t belong to the rum i nants a m o ng wh ich it i s m e n t i o n e d in Lv 11 .

Whe n c he w i n g i t

mov e s its jaws in a way that resemble s a rum inant.

Th� roc k badger l ives among roc k s fro m th e De ad Sea va lley

t o Mt. Herm on . Ol der E u ro pean tran s lato r s , such as Lu ther a n d

AV, w ho were not fam i l i a r with th i s an imal , thought i t to be the rab ­ The roc k badger is a h e rbivoro u s a n i m a l about th e s iz e o f a ha r e . It belongs to t h e o rde r of Hyrac o idea and to the gro up of th e bi t .

r 69 1

s ubu n gul a te s . I t h a s n o hoofs but broad nail s . The toe s , four on the fo r e - l egs and three on the bac k l i m b s , a re connec ted with s kin a l m o s t like a web. Under i ts feet i t ha s pads l ike s u c k in g - d i s c s wh i c h e nable it to keep i t s footing o n s l ippery roc k s . Its habits a r e grega r io u s , rather l i k e tho s e of the marmot. Its fur i s yellow and brown, and i t ha s short ears and a ve ry s m a l l ta i l . J B tra n s late s ' hyra x ' ( ' ro c k rabbit' i n Prove rbs ) . R E F E R E NC ES : L v 1 1 . 5 ; D t 1 4 . 7 ; Ps 104 . 1 8 ; Pr 3 0 . 2 6

Scorpion Hebrew :

Buthus quinqu e s t riatu s ' aqrabh

Gree k :

sko rp io s

DESC RIPTION: Th e s c o rp io n belongs to the order o f Arachnida ancl is a k i n to the spider. It is quite c o m m o n in Mediterranean countri e s and wa s al s o i n Palestine i n Bibl ical tim es , a s i s shown b y a n a s c e n t south o f the Dead S e a nam e d Akrabbim ( Nu 3 4 . 4 ; ]o s 1 5 . 3 ; J g 1 . 3 6 ) .

It i s a s mall a n i m a l w ith eight l egs l ik e a spide r . Its m a i n characte r i s ti c s a r e i t s two c l aws , l i k e a lobs te r ' s , with w h i c h i t catc h e s and hol d s i t s prey, and i t s l o n g j o i nted t a i l w h i c h c a n be c u rl e d up over its head and which contain s the venom gland . Th e ta il a l so h a s a s ting, which i s extrem ely painfu l , a n d c an o n occa s ion even be dange rous to m a n ( Rv 9 . 5 , 1 0 ) . It feeds on loc u s t s and be e t l e s .

Scorpion (Buthus) r 70 1

H auc k po i n t s o u t th a t wh e n c o n t r ac t e d at rest a s c o rpio n m a y have s o m e s i m i l a r i t y t o a n egg, s o t h a t a p ers o n re ac h in g fo r a n e gg in th e da rk in a s mall ho u s e m i gh t m a k e a s e r io u s mi stake. M a ny em

lo ng.

spec ies o f sco rpion a re fo u n d i n Pa l e s t i n e , fro m 4 to 2 0

R E F E R EN C E S :

' a q rabh : Nu 3 4 . 4 ; Dt 8 . 1 5 ; Jo s 15 . 3 ; Jg 1 . 3 6 ; l K l 2 . ll , 1 4 ; 2 Ch 1 0 . 1 1 , 1 4 ; E z k 2. 6 s k o r p i o s : Lk 1 0 . 1 9 ; 1 1 . 1 2 ; Rv 9 . 3 , 5 , 1 0

DIF F IC ULT PASSAG ES : m a ' al eh ' aq rabb i m ( Nu 34 . 4 ; Jo s 1 5 . 3 ; J g 1 . 3 6) i s a geograph i c a l name whic h i n d i c a te s the p re s e n c e o f the anima l , as st ated above . The w ord ' aqrabh in l K ing s and 2 Ch r on i c le s refers n ot t o the an im al but to a w h ip c alle d a ' s c orp ion ' .

Sea Gull, Te rn

L a r u s o r S te r na

fluv i a til i s

Hebrew : s hapa ph DESC RIPTION: Th e roo t o f th e Hb wo rd s h a p ap h su gge s t s the m ea n ­ ing ' thin ' o r ' l ean ', and th i s , o f c o ur s e , i s a good d e sc r i pt i o n o f t h e co mmon tern , S terna fluviatil i s .

Today i t i s th e Hb n a m e fo r ' gull ' , but, a s Bo denh e i m e r s ays , whe th e r it was so in Bibl ical tim e s i s n o t c e r ta i n . Vul gate, LXX, RSV and J B t ran s late ' se agu l l ' , AV h a s ' c u c k oo ' , a nd Driv e r ( fo ll o w e d by N EB) s u gge s ts ' lo n g - e a re d owl ' , As ia o t u s . R E F ER ENC ES :

Lv 1 1 . 1 6 ; Dt 1 4 . 1 5

[ 71 ]

Serpent, Viper, Adder, Leviathan

Biti s varietans ( C e ra s te s c o r n u ta )

( Naj a haj e )

( Ec h i s colo rata )

nal}ash ,

He br ew : Gre e k :

?eph ' e h ,

tsepha ' ,

s h a raph , l iwyath a n ,

aph i s ,

ec hidna ,

DES C R IPTION:

pe then,

' ak h s h ubh,

he rpeto n ,

s h eph ipho n ,

zol).eleth

ta n n i n ,

aspis

Se rpents a r e among t h e mo s t wide spread repti l e s

a nd are to be found in all continent s ; the y dec rea s e in number and sp e c ie s towa rds the po l e s , but inc r e a s e as o n e app ro ache s the equa ­ to r . Th i rty - three different s pec ie s have b e e n found in Pal e s tine a nd

n e i ghbou ring c ou n t r i e s , twenty o f wh ich are po i s onou s . of v i p e r s

'

(Ps 140 . 3 )

' The po i s on

m ak e s th em feared by the inhabi tants .

The

po i s o n of e. g. the cobra ( Naj a h aj e ) is dangerous and may lead to

dea th with i n half a n h o u r . The s e rpen t ' s weapon of atta c k is its po i ­ s o n fa ng, but in Bibl i c al times it wa s bel i eved to be th e to ngue Qob

20. 1 6 ;

Ps

140. 3).

Other

d a n ge ro u s charac te r i s tic s o f th e s e r p e nt

notic ed by Bibl i c a l w r i t e r s are i ts i nc o n s picuou s way o f moving a nd th e e a s e with whic h it hide s itself.

So

it bec o m e s a s ymbol of th e

unexpec tedne s s of the Day o f the Lord ( Am

5 . 19 ) and an i l l u s tration (Mt 3 . 7 ; Gn

o f the treac h e ry and subtl ety of bo th m an and the devil

3 . 1). t s epha ' :

BOB says th a t the identific ation of th i s word i s diffic u l t .

He r efers t o Tr i s tra m , who s ugge s ts daboia xanth i na , a veno mou s

vipe r , but a dds tha t vipe r s do not l a y eggs , and quo tes Furre r who

propo s e s a il uroph i s vivax .

AV h a s ' c oc katric e ' ; R SV ' viper ' ; JB

' adde r ' , ' ba s il i s k ' and ' v iper ' ; N E B u s ually ' v ipe r ' .

p e th en i s u s ua lly rendered ' a sp ' o r ' c obra ' (Naj a haj e ) . " eph ' e h , acco rding to Bodenhei m e r , i s identified in mode r n Hb wi t h th e c a r pet v iper , Ec h i s colo rata , and th i s may al s o be the B i b l i ­ c al meaning.

Th e c a rpet v iper i s a po i s onou s s nake , quite co m m o n

in the J ericho plain . vipe r ' in Is

30).

RSV, J B an d

NEB

[ 72 ]

a l l h a ve

' viper' ( N EB ' s a nd ­

RE F E R E NC E S : nal)a sh : C onsult a c o nc o rdance ?eph ' e h : Job 2 0 . 1 6 ; Is 3 0 . 6; 5 9 . 5 ts epha ' : P r 23 . 3 2 ; I s 1 1 . 8 ; 1 4 . 29 ; 59 . 5 ; J e 8 . 1 7 pethen : Dt 3 2 . 3 3 ; Job 2 0 . 1 4 , 1 6 ; P s 5 8 . 4 ; 91 . 13 ; I s 11 . 8 s h eph ipho n : Gn 49 . 17 tannin : G n 1 . 21 ; Ne 2 . 1 3 ; Job 7 . 1 2 ; Ps 7 4 . 1 3 ; 14 8 . 7 ; Is 2 7 . 1 ; 51. 9; Je 5 1 . 3 4 ; La 4 . 3 ; E zk 2 9 . 3 ; 3 2 . 2 ( in a ll the s e pa s s age s the Hb word s tand s fo r som e ' s ea

mon s te r ' ; only in the following pas s age s shoul d tannin be tra n s l a ted ' s e rpent ' :

Ex 7 . 9 , 1 0 , 1 2 ; D t

3 2 . 3 3 ; Ps 91 . 1 3 ) Nu 2 1 . 6 , 8; Dt 8. 15 ; Is 14 . 2 9 (In Is 6 . 2 , 6 it s h ou ld be tran s lated ' se r aphim ' . ) l iwyath a n : Job 3 . 8 ; 41 . 1 ; Ps 7 4 . 1 4 ; 1 04 . 2 6 ; I s 2 7 . 1 a ph i s : M t 7 .10; 1 0 . 1 6 ; 2 .3 . 33 ; M k 1 6 . 1 8 ; L k 1 0 . 1 9 ; 11 . 1 1 ; Jn 3 . 14 ; 1 Co 10. 9 ; 2 Co 11. 3 ; R v 9 . 1 9 ; 1 2 . 9 , 14f; 20 . 2 ec h i dna : Mt 3 . 7 ; 1 2 . 34 ; 23 . 3 3 ; Lk 3 . 7 ; Ac 2 8 . 3 h e rpeto n : Ac 1 0 . 1 2 ; 1 1 . 1 6 ; Ro 1 . 23 ; Ja s 3 . 7 a s pi s : Ro 3 . 1 3 sharaph:

DIF F IC ULT PASS AG ES : 1 K 1 . 9 : ?e ben z ol}e leth i s th e n a m e o f a place in the neighbo u rhood of Jerusa l e m . RSV and JB render ' Th e S erpe n t' s Sto ne ' , bec au s e th e word may be derived fro m z ahal , ' to c reep , to c rawl ' (c f Dt 3 2 . 24 ; Mi 7 .17 ). NEB tra n s l iterates ' the s tone Zoheleth ' .

Ps 140 . 3 :

' akhshubh i s ' vipe r ' o r ' spider ' .

See S PID E R.

l iwyath a n , Leviath a n , i s der ived fro m a wo rd wh ich m e a n s ' to Win d ' .

Is 2 7.1 and P s 7 4 . 1 4 a re connec ted w i th the m yth olo gica l bac k ­ gro und o f the Is rael ite s , o f wh i c h w e know very l i t tl e . Bodenh e i m e r

sa y s i t i s th e prim ord ial drago n k nown i n C a naa nite m ytho logy.

It

may be i nflu enc ed by the Babylonian c reation m yth , th a t the c re ation o f the wo rl d w a s c au s ed by Go d ' s vic to r y ove r a snake o r a dragon

Wi th s ev en h ead s .

In th i s way o rde r wa s introduc ed.

Th e Talm ud ,

c o mm e n t i ng on th es e two pa s s age s , talk s o f a m a l e and a fem ale levia th an a s a h u ge fi sh o r s ea mon s ter. The female l eviathan h a s

bee n killed , the m ale will be killed b y t h e angel Mi c h a el o n the d a y o f j ud gm e n t .

[ 73 ]

The d er ivation of the wo r d sugge s t s a snake o r fi sh. J o b 3 . 8 m en t i o n s l e viatha n i n a way th at sugge s ts to s o m e c om m entato rs th e r m y , but i t m ay al s o be that the poet has in m i nd a h eav ­ E g yp t i a n a o n s ter, wh i c h by magic can be bro ugh t to dark en th e e n l y s nak e - m

h e a ve n . Jo b 41 . 1 i s o ften expl a ined a s the c rocodile (cf JB n o t e ) , bu t the de r iva tio n of the word doe s not fit the c roc od il e, who s e nec k a n d s p i n e a r e ent i rel y s ti ff, s o tha t a m a n on l a nd can esc ape f r o m it ea s il y by run n ing a z i gz a g c o urse. Som e c o m m en ta to rs have po i n ted out that ' d r a wi n g out th e tongue with a c o rd ' would not app ly in anc ien t tim e s , bec ause th e c ro c odile wa s t h o u gh t to have no t o n gu e . It d oe s have one, but it is flat a nd fas tened to th e lowe r

j aw .

,,

I t wa s o nc e th ou ght that the tongue of th e s nake wa s poi s o nou s and that the po i s ono u s snake bit w i th its ton gu e . Th i s m i gh t have led to the tr anslation ' s nake ' .

Som e of the wo rd s i n Job 41 : ' m e rc ha n t s ' , ' ha rpoo n s ' , ' fishing i n vv 6 ff s ugge s t fi s h ing, and s o m e trans l a te l iwya t h a n b y ' whal e ' (s o NE B) . Wh al e s have o ften b e e n c a ugh t in the Medite r ­ rane an, bo th in an c i e nt and rec e nt tim e s . A wh a l e i s too h e a vy to be c a u gh t by a hoo k (v 1 ), and i t s h ide c a n not be penetrated by ba rb s . Ev en the d ifficult v 5 c an be m ad e to s u i t the c o n t e x t , be ­ ca us e it i s s a id tha t wh e n fi s h er m e n i n the Nile have c augh t a rare fis h a n d w i s h to s how it, the y keep i t alive b y l ea v ing i t in the wa te r a fte r fast eni ng a ri ng to its n o s e and tying i t up with a l ine . Th i s c an s c ar c e l y b e done t o a whale . Ps 1 0 4 . 2 6 c a n , of cours e , b e

s pe a r s '

t r a ns l ated ' wha le ' .

should b e bo rne in m ind that a l l qu ota tion s dealing with l evia ­ th an are po e ti c a l . It

tannin, ' se a mon s te r ' or ' s e rp e nt ' should b e c a refu ll y distin ­ guished from tanni m , ' j ac kal ' o r po s s ib l y ' wol f ' . It i s often c o nfu s e d in t he Mas oretic text . In La 4 . 3 the kethib ta n n i n ( AV) is m o r e l ike ly tha n the q e r e ta nnim ( RSV) .

ech idna i n Ac 2 8 . 3 i s probably a non - po i sonou s sn ake with s m a l l

tee th .

[ 74 ]

Sheep, Lamb, Ram Hebrew :

Sheep (Ovis laticaudata) O v i s latic a u da ta

s eh pl u ral , t s o 'J n

( m ou n t a i n s h e e p ) ,

ta l eh

( s m a l l c attl e , ral;le l ( ew e ) ,

( l a m b ) , k a r (l a m b , r a m ) , yobh el

c ornet) Aram a ic :

Greek :

sh eep o r go at s ) , z e m c r

k ebh e s

d e kh a r

( l a m b ) , '7 a y il (ram), ( ram , r a m ' s ho r n ,

(ram ) , ? imma r (la m b )

a m n o s ( l a m b ) , p robato n ( s ma l l c a ttl e , sh eep), pro b a t i o n ( l i t t l e s h e e p ) , a ren (la m b), a r n i o n ( l a mb ) , p a s c h a (the Pasc hal l a m b )

--

DE S C RI P TIO N : Th e sheep m en t io ne d in th e Bible i s u s u a l l y t h e b ro ad - ta i l e d s h e e p ( Ov i s l a ti a u d a ta ) . Whe reas the ta i l o f o t h e r c

sh eep i s s ho rt, tha t of the broad - ta i l ed i s

long and broad , c o n ta i n i n g a m a s s o f fa t w h i c h m a w e i gh u p to 1 3 kg. Th e fa t ta i l wa s u s ed a s y a s a c r ifi c e , Ex 2 9 . 2 2 ; Lv 3 . 9 ; 7 . 3 ; 8 . 25 ; 9 . 1 9 . O n l y t h e ra m o f th is

sp ec i e s h a s h o r n s , but t h e r e a re o the r va r i e t i e s o f s h e e p i n Pales t i n e , o f Wh ic h t h e ew e also h a s h o r n s . Th e r a m ' s h o r n s m i gh t b e u s e d a s trumpe t s (Jo s 6 . 4 ) o r a s o i l - c o ntai n e r s ( I S 1 6 . 1 ) .

a r e o ft e n m e n t i o ne d a s ' s m a l l cattle ' , which go a t s a s wel l . O f the s e t h e s h eep were m o r e n u m e r o u s and llll. p ort ant . Th e rich man Nahal h a d 3 , 000 s h e ep and 1, 000 go a ts .

In

th e

�nc lu d e s

B i bl e s h e e p

[ 75 ]

m a n of who m J e s u s spo ke i n th e p ar a b l e ( Lk 1 5 . 4 ) w h o h ad on l y 1 00 sheep , c ould no t a ffor d to l o s e a s ingl e one o f the m .

(1 s

25 . 2) .

The

Mo st sheep were white ( Ps 1 4 7 .16 ; Is 1 . 1 8 ; On 7 . 9 ; Rv 1 . 1 4 ) R E F E R ENC E S :

Fo r seh a nd tso ? n c o ns ul t a co nco rdanc e zem er : Dt 1 4 5 ral;lel : Gn 31.38 ; 3 2 . 14 ; S S 6 . 6 ; Is 53. 7 For kebhe s , ?ayil and y obhel c on s u l t a conc ord ance ta l eh : 1 S 7 . �4 0 . 1 1 ; 6 5 . 2 5 kar : D t 3 2 . 1 4 ; 1 S 1 5 . 9 ; 2 K 3 . 4 ; Is 1 6 1 ; 3 4 . 6 ; Je 5 1 . 4 0 ; E z k 27 . 21 ; 39.18 ; Am 6 . 4 dekh a r : E z ra 6 . 9 , 1 7 ; 7 . 1 7 ? i m m a r : Ezra 6 . 9 , 1 7 ; 7 . 17 a m n o s : Jn 1 . 29 , 3 6 ; Ac 8 3 2 ; 1 P 1 . 19 F o r p r o b ato n c onsult a c oncordance p a s c h a : Mk 14 .12 ; Lk 2 2 7 ; 1 Co 5 . 7 p robatio n : J n 21 . 1 6 , 1 7 a re m : Lk 10.3 arnion : Jn 2 1 . 1 5 , and 2 9 tim es in Re v elati o n -

� .

.

.

.

D I F F IC U LT PASSA G E S :

Dt 1 4 . 5 :

and J B , fol low ing Tristram , translate z e m e r a s m o u n ta i n s h e ep ' ( O v i s tragelaphus ) . NE B ha s ' ro c k - goa t ' . The 'chamoi s ' of AV a nd RV d oe s no t o cc u r in the a r e a . RS V

'

For 1 S 9 . 24 , s ee OTTP, p 2 8 .

Snail

Mollus c a

He b r ew :

shabbelul

to a trad i tio n dating from earl y tim e s , t h i s word ha s b een identified with the s nail . S c h o l ar s have d e r i ve d the nam e from the verb balal , ' t o wa s te away, to fade away' . Wellhausen rende r s th e sentenc e : ' L i k e th e snail that d i s s o l v e s a s i t c rawl s ' . JB h a s ' slug' . In mo dern Hb the w o r d s tand s fo r ' s n ai l ' • but t h e po s s ibil ity rem a i n s tha t i n the Bibl e , where it o c c u r s o n l y o n c e , it ma y h ave no relation to any animal . Dr iver Q ournal o f DESC RIPTION:

Ac c o rd ing

[ 76 ]

The ological Stud ie s , X X� IV , 41£) argue s for the meaning ' m is car ­ ri age ' , cf ' untime ly birth ' in the paralle l l ine . NE B ' abort ive bir th ' . RE F E R E NC E : Ps 5 8 . 8

Snail (Mollusca)

Sparrow

Pas s er dom e s ticus

Hebrew : ts ippo r ( ? )

Gree k : s trouthion

DESC RIPTION: The sparrow, which always builds its nest close to the home of man, is so common all over the world that a desc ription of it is unnec e s sary.

Acco rding t o t h e Law of Mo s e s th e Jews were not fo rbidden to eat the fl e sh of the sparrow, and th e wo rds o f Jesus : ' Are not two spa rrows sold fo r a penny? ' i ndic ate that thi s was a cheap and co m ­ mon food for the o rdinary man i n Palestine . Jesus directs his words not to the powerful a nd rich, but to the wo rried and care - worn . Th i s is why h e makes u s e of the sparrow, a cheap and c om mon c rea ­ ture , a s a n illus tration . Som e tran slato rs also render the Hb wo rd tsippo r a s ' s parrow ' . This wo rd i s derived from a root meaning ' to c heep or whi s tl e ' , so

that

ts ipp or probably stands for ' bird' in genera l , leaving it to the

context to deci de , i f po s sible, wha t kind of bird is refer red to . The

spar row ' s habit o f s taying clo s e to huma n l iving quarters has c aus e d many comm entators to translate tsippor ' spa rrow ' in Ps 84. 3 and Ec 1 2 . 4 (so RSV, JB in Ps , and NEB).

REFE R ENC E S : For tsippo r co n sult a c o nc o rdanc e s trouthio n : Mt 10. 29, 31 ; Lk 1 2 . 6, 7 [ 77 ]

Spider

Aranea

Hebrew :

' akkabh i s h

D E S C RIP TIO N: Th e r e a r e 600 to 7 0 0 s p e c i e s o f Arach n i d a i n p re s e n t - day Palestin e . Pec ul ia r to t h e s p i d e r i s the web, refe r r ed to in t h e pa s s age s m en t i o n ed bel ow.

R E F E R E NC ES : Job 8 . 14 ; Is 5 9 . 5 DI F F I C U L T PAS S A G E S :

tra n s l a ted ' a s p ' ,

' v i p er ' .

Ps 140.3 :

The H b wo rd ' akhshubh i s u s ua l l y

But som e m o d e rn s c h o l a r s (e . g. Bo den ­

h e i m e r ) m a i n ta i n th a t th i s i s th e s a m e wo r d a s ' ak k a bh i s h ( s o N E B ,

' sp i d e r s ' poi s o n ' ) .

' a kkabh i s h .

S o m e l i ngu i s t s s a y that i t i s a c o r r upted fo r m of

3 0 . 2 8 : Th e H b s e m a m i t h i s o ften tra n slated ' l i z a r d ' (so R V, NEB), but Bo d e nh e i mer and o th e r s under s ta nd it fro m the context to be the s p i d e r . Whether the text s uppo rt s Boden he i m e r ' s c o n te n tion i s a m a tt e r for conj ec ture. Pr

RS V, J B a n d

Spider

Stork

(A ranea)

C i c o n i a alba , C ic o n i a n i gr a

Hebrew : {l a � idhah D E S C R I PTIO N :

Th e Hb na m e ma y be d e r ived from a root wh i c h

m e a n s ' goodn e s s , k i ndn e s s ' , a nd the b i rd wa s

probably so c a l l e d be ­

c a u s e it wa s c o n s id e re d to be a ffec tio nate to its yo ung, i n c o n t ra s t to t h e o s tr i c h ( q .

The

v. ).

s to rk i s a m i gra t o ry b i r d (Je

s outh - e ast Afr ic a , and i t i s known a l l

r 78 J

8 . 7 ), spending i t s w i n t e r s i n

over Europe a n d

Asia, where

it

feed s on s maller r e p t i l e s and fi s h in sw a m p s and c reeks .

eve r,

How ­

it i s general l y o m n ivorous , so that it wa s c o n s idered u n c l e a n

by the Law

It i s a big bird ,

h igh , with a long red The bl a c k s to r k i s entirely b l ac k , exc ept fo r th e bill and l e gs . In the the s to rk often bu i l d s o n h i gh t re e s (Ps 1 04 . 1 7 ) . t Or ien of Mo s e s .

bill an d l e gs , a l on g n e c k

a nd

1. 2

m

l a r ge bla c k win gs ( Zech 5 . 9 ) .

R E F E R E NC E S : L v 1 1 . 1 9 ; D t 1 4 . 1 8 ; J o b 3 9 . 1 3 ; Ps 1 04 . 1 7 ; J e 8 . 7 ; Z ech 5 . 9 OIF F IC U L T PASS AG E : tran s l a te s

l)e� idha h

Fo r Job 3 9 . 1 3

s e e OTTP, p

' o f love ' , R V ' k i ndly ' .

90.

RSV h e r e

Ho ffm an ' s emen datio n

l;taserah ( ' a re p i n i o n s a n d p l u m a ge la c k i ng ? ' ) m a k e s goo d s en s e .

Stork (Ciconia alba)

[ 79 ]

Swallow Hebrew :

and Swift dero r ,

DES C R IPTION:

C yp s el u s apus

H i r u n do ru s tic a ,

!? U !? ,

1? 1 1?

P re v iou s

Bible t r a ns lato r s d id not d i s t ingu i s h

be tween de ror and �U1? or � i � , but Tr istram has unde r l ine d two he m e t th e m

pe culiar it ie s about the sw allow and the sw ift , as

in Pale st ine , which m ay be of impo r t ance whe n it c ome s to an ident ification o f the bird in que s t io n . One i s th a t th e swallows of

Pal estine a re to a l a r ge exte nt

r e s ident , and th i s c i r c um s tanc e m ak e s it l e s s l i kely th a t the sw a l l ow

i s r e fe r red to in J e 8 . 7 , wh ere th e su� i s s a i d to ' k eep th e ti m e o f ..___,_ its c o m in g ' . The swift, o n the o th er hand , i s a m igrato ry b i r d .

Secondly, t h e twitte r i n g o f a swallow i s not a pa rti c ul a rly s tr i k i n g illu stratio n o f Ki ng H e z e k i a h ' s c ry o f

pain ( I s 3 8 . 1 4 ) , w h e r e a s the

swift of Pal e s tine is s a i d to have a no te ve ry m u c h l i ke

hum an s c ream ( s ee Parmel e e , p 1 7 4 ) .

a

p i e r c i ng

I t th e r e fo r e seem s adv i s abl e t o tran s l ate th e wo rds s u s a n d s i s ' swift ' , i n spite o f RV, RSV a nd JB ' swal l o w ' . NE B has ' s wift ' fo r ...__,_

Th e s e wo rds a r e u s ed in m o dern Hb fo r

s i s but ' dove ' fo r ..:,.__,a_ sus .

-=----t..-.

' swift ' .

d e ro r wa s u s e d in th e medieval Hb c o m m enta r i e s

R E F E R E NC ES :

R S V, JB,

dero r :

---

� U 1? :

si� :

S wine, Pig Hebrew :

fo r ' swal -

It s e e m s p rac tic al to t r a n s l ate

low ' ; it now m e an s ' s pa r row ' .

' swallow ' , a s do

· ·

NEB.

P s 8 4 . 3 ; Pr 2 6 . 2

Is 3 8 .14

J er 8 . 7

Sus s c ro fa

Gree k :

l)az i r

DESC RIPTION :

cho i ro s , h u s

S i n c e th e swine was an unc l e a n

we re fo rbidden to ea t i ts fle sh ( Lv 11.

7;

animal a n d Jews

D t 1 4 . 8 ) , the swine mentioned

in the Bibl e m u s t i n m o s t c a s e s h a v e b e e n t h e wild pig, s till c o m m o n in Pa l e s t i n e

p a r a ll e l s , s e e and th i s

may

below.

( Martin

No th ) .

wh i ch i s W ith rega rd t o Mk 5 and

Th e pig i s om nivo rou s , e v e n eat ing c a rr i on ,

be e nou gh to expl a i n the law .

[ 80 ]

Howeve r , it i s r e m a r k -

abl e th a t i t s un s avou r y a s pec t i s e m ph a s i z e d in th e c o mparativel y few p a s s a ge s wh e r e it i s m en t io n ed . The pig bec a m e the s ymbo l of fil t h i n e s s a n d pagani s m ( Pr 11 . 2 2 ; Mt 7 . 6 ; 2 P 2 . 2 2 ) . Du ring the

Bab yl o n i a n c aptivi ty th e people were l e d a s tra y and a te pork ( Is 6 5 . 2 - 4). Th e fa c t th a t th e Prod igal So n w a s s ent into ' th e fields to feed

' swin e indicates how deeply h e wa s hum i l a t e d ( Lk 1 5 . 1 5 ) .

RE F E R ENC ES : l) a z i r :

Lv 1 1 . 7 ; Dt 1 4 . 8 ;

66. 3 , 17

Ps 80.1 3 ; Pr 1 1 . 2 2 ; I s

65 . 4 ;

Mt 7 . 6 ; 8 . 3 0 - 3 2 ; Mk 5 . 11 - 13 , 1 6 ; Lk 8 . 3 2f; 15 .15f hu s : 2 P 2 . 2 2 cho i ro s :

DIF F IC ULT PASS A G E S :

Is

Som e c o m m e nta to r s a d d before l i b a t i o n o f pi g ' s bloo d . Paul Volz , who th i nk s th at th e a dd i ti o n makes the ver s e too l o n g, reads Q.om ed in s te a d o f d a m , wh ich give s the translation c ov e to us of 66.3 :

dam - l)az i r t h e wo rd no sek refe r ring t o the

'

pork ' . p

Mk 5 . 13 and pa ralle l s :

163 .

see ' A Tran s l a to r ' s Ha nd boo k o n Ma r k ' ,

Herd s m en and he rds

of p i g s were no t s u ppo s e d t o b e fou nd i n Jewish territo ry, b u t only a m o ng Ge n ti le neighbou r s .

[ 81 ]

Vulture (Eagle) He bre w :

Gre e k :

Gyp s

ful vu s ,

G yp a e tu s

ne s h c r

( Ara m a i c : ne s h a r ) , ' o z niyah

barbatus

d a ?ah ,

p e re 9 ,

ral) a m , ---

a eta s

i s a l a r ge bird o f prey with a w i n g ­ sprea d o f a s m u c h a s 2 m . At one tim e i t c o u l d be s e e n eve rywh e r e in Pal e s tine s o a r i ng a t a n i m m e n s e he igh t ( Tr i s tram ) . Head a n d nec k a r e feathe r l e s s , and i t fe e d s mo stly on c a r rion. D E S C R I PTIO N :

Th e v u l t u r e

Zoologi s ts o f a nc i ent times did not di s t ingu i s h b e tw e e n the dif­ ferent l a r g e b i r d s o f p r e y . Ar i s totle ( 4 th c ent BC ) a nd Pl iny ( l s t c e n t AD) c l a s s the vul tu r e a mong the e a gl e s . Th e c o ntext a nd the de s c r iption of the bird m u s t th e r e fore d e c id e whi c h tra n s lation

Vulture

(Aquila chrysatus) [ 82 ]

I n m o d e r n tim e s e ight s p ec i e s o f eagle a n d fou r o f vul ture a r e found i n Pa l e st i n e .

sh o uld be c ho s e n .

spec i e s

In t h e l i s t o f c l e a n and unclean bird s , it i s rea s o nable

to

tr a n s l a te ne s h e r ' e a gl e ' a nd pe re !? ' vul ture ' ( Lv 11 . 1 3 ; Dt 1 4 . 1 2 ) .

eagl e , Aqu ila h e l ia c a , c o m m o n i n Pa l e s t i ne , i s alm o s t c e r t a i n l y the bird desc ribed i n Pr 2 3 . 5 a s fl yin g t o w a r ds heaven . 2 S 1 . 2 3 ; Je 4 . 1 3 a n d La 4 . 1 9 (NEB ' vulture ' ) m a y refe r t o thi s s pe c ie s , o r t o th e golden ea gl e , Aquila ch rysaetu s , the fe m a l e of wh ic h h a s been known to catch h e r young o n her wings , a s de ­ scribed i n Ex 1 9 . 4 ; Dt 3 2 . 1 1 . Th e i m p e r i a l

Lv 11 . 1 4 : d a ? a h i s tr a n s l a t e d gup s ' v u l t u r e ' i n the LXX a n d m ilvus ' kite ' in the Vulgate , which is p robably the c o rrec t tra n s l a ­ tion ; s o RSV, JB and N E B. Lv 11 . 1 8 and Dt 14 . 1 2 : ral) a m ' c a r ri o n vul tu r e ' (vultur pe r c no p ­ terus) a s i n RSV m a y well be co rrect (so Berthelet). Dri v e r i n H DB, however, thinks ' vu l ture ' u n l i k e l y bec a u s e o f its s i z e a n d t h e p o s it i o n of ra}.lam i n the l i s t of b i r d s in L v 1 1 . 1 8 . The root r - 1). - m d e sc r i b e s a blac k and wh it e o bj ec t , a nd m a y the r e fo r e refer t o the o s p rey, Pandion h a l i a etu s , wh i c h f it s the ' bl a c k a n d wh ite' d e s c riptio n . I ts habits al s o would s ugge s t its p l a c e i n t h e l i s t between predato r y owl s on the one h and a n d fi s h e r b i r d s l i k e s to rk a nd hero n o n the o th e r .

In Lv 1 1 . 13 a n d Dt 14 . 1 2 ' o z niyah i s a l s o l i sted

It is diffi c u l t to i d e nt i fy .

as a

b i r d o f prey.

Tr i s tram s u gge s t s the o s p r e y ; o th e r s th i n k i t i s the bearded vul tur e , Gyp ae tu s ba rba tus ; D river in HDB s ugg e s t s th e sho rt - toed e a gl e . In p a s s ages in wh i c h th e word n e s h e r oc c u r s , u nl e s s s pec i f i c c h a r ac te r i s tic s o f th e vultu re a re d e s c ribed , the wo rd s h o ul d b e tra n s l a t e d ' eagl e ' . Suc h cha ra c te r i s t i c s a r e :

l ) fe ed i n g o n c a r rion . C f P r 3 0 . 1 7 , w h e r e p e r h a p s t h e re i s a l so an all us ion to th e vultu re ' s habit of s ta r t i n g o n t h e e y e s o r o t h e r s o ft Par ts pf th e victi m ' s bod y . Ho 8 . 1 m ay d e s c ribe a v u l t u r e s o a r i n g ove r a b a ttl efi e l d filled w ith c o rp s e s , bu t m a n y com m e n ta to r s em en d t e h

te x t a n d so ] B .

i n s tead

o f ' e a gl e ' o r ' vu l tu re ' r e a d ' wa tc h m a n ' ( n o t s e r ) ;

[ 83 ]

M i 1 . 1 6 ough t therefo r e to be tr a n s lated ' vulture ' ( i . e . th e gri ffo n - vu l tu re , gyps fulvus , o f E zk 1 7 . 3 , 7 , bec a u s e the gr iffo n - vulture i s remar k able fo r its large wing - s prea d ) as in J B and N EB, and not a s in RS V ' eagle ' . 2 ) bal dnes s o f h ead a nd n ec k .

3 ) n e s t i ng o n c l i ffs .

J o b 3 9 . 2 7 f; J e 49 . 1 6

4 ) gather i ng from a d i s ta nc e at the pro s pec t o f c a r rion . 28 . 49 ; Je 49 . 2 2 ; Hbk 1 . 8

Dt

Mo s t pass age s in whic h th e wo rd n e s h e r o c c u r s speak o f th e beauty and m aj e s ty o f a bird o f prey , which c a n most adequa tely be attr ibuted to the eagl e . Th i s i s also true of the two pa s s age s fro m the boo k o f Dan iel (ne s h a r ) . a e ta s in Mt 24 . 2 8 and Lk 1 7 . 3 7 s hould be rendered ' vu l ture ' and

in Revela tion probably ' eagle ' .

Drive r ' s m o re o r l e s s t e n t a t i v e identific atio ns in HDB may be s um m a rized a s follows :

n e s h e r - imper ial e agle , Aquila hel iaca , o r golden eagle, Aqu ila c h rys aetu s , o r griffo n - vu l tu re , Gyps ful v u s , a c c o rd i ng to c o ntext.

da ?ah k i t e , Mil y u s m i grans . pere� - vulture , perhap s Arr i a n ' s vultu re , Gypaetu s ba rbatu s . RSV ' o s s i frage ' , J B ' gr i ffo n ' , NEB ' black vul ture ' . ral;lam o s s i frage o r o s p rey , Pandion hal iaetus , so NEB. RSV v u l ture , JB ' white vul tu re ' . ' o z n iyah sho rt - to ed ea gl e , C i rcaetus ga l l i c u s . R S V and JB ' o sprey ' , NEB ' bea rd e d vulture ' . -

-

'

'

-

--

R E F E R ENC ES : nesh e r : Ex 1 9 . 4 ; Lv 11 . 13 ; Dt 1 4 . 1 2 ; 2 8 . 4 9 ; 3 2 . 11 ; 2 S 1 . 2 3 ; Job 9 . 2 6 ; 3 9 . 2 7 ; Ps 1 03 . 5 ; Pr 2 3 . 5 ; 3 0 .1 7 , 19 ; I s 4 0 . 3 1 ; J e 4 . 1 3 ; 4 8 .40; 4 9 . 1 6 , 2 2 ; La 4 . 1 9 ; Ezk 1 . 1 0 ; 1 0 . 14 ; 1 7 . 3 , 7 ; H o 8 . 1 ; O b 4 ; Mi 1 . 1 6 ; Hb k 1. 8 neshar : Dn 4 . 3 3 ; 7 . 4 da ?ah : Lv 1 1 . 14 pere � : Lv 1 1 . 1 3 ; Dt 1 4 . 1 2 ral;lain : Lv 11.1 8 ; D t 14.1 7 --

[ 84 ]

' ozn i yah : Lv 1 1 . 1 3 ; Dt 1 4 . 1 2 aeto s : M t 2 4 . 28 ; Lk 1 7 .3 7 ; Rv 4 . 7 ; 8 . 1 3 ; 1 2 . 14 .

Wolf C anis lupu s

Heb r ew :

ze ? ebh

Wolf (Canis lupus) Greek : luko s

D ES C R IPTIO N :

The wo l f was c o m m o n i n Pale s tine i n Biblical t i m e s In no rth e r n Win te r s wolves h unt i n pack s , but in s u m m er and in wa rm c o u n t r i e s th e wo lf i s a s o l i t a r y hunter. Bibl ic al a c c o u n ts o f Pal e s ti n i a n s h e p ­ he rqs tell o f m a n y bloody fi ght s betwee n ma n and wo l f. It is a res tl es s a n i m al , hu nting i t s prey m a i n l y by night.

.

Th e wolf' s h abi t o f s e e k i n g its prey at n i gh t i s m e nt ioned in Je 5 . 6 ; Hbk 1 . 8 a n d Z eph 3 . 3 : ' even i ng wolve s ' . Th e l atte r pas s a ge a ls o a ll u d e s to the proverbial greed i n e s s o f the wo l f . Bo th its c o u r ­ age a n d a l so its c ru elty a r e i n the m ind o f the pa triarc h J a c o b w h en he Pr e dic ts th e fa te o f th e tribe o f Be nj am in , Gn 49 . 27 . ,

The s trategy o f the w ol f is desc ribed i n J n 1 0 . 1 2 : snatching' and ' s c att e r i ng ' the floc k.

[ 85 ]

' s teal i ng' o r

The wo rd i s u s e d in t h e Bibl e not o nl y i n a l iteral s e n s e , but o fte n s ym bol i c a l l y abo u t m e n who s e q ua l i t i e s in s om e respects re ­ sembl e tho s e o f the wolf, s uc h a s l e a d e r s who rob th e peo ple , Ez k 2 2 . 27 , or teac h e r s who d ec e iv e th e i r di s c iple s , Mt 7 . 1 5 ; Ac 2 0 . 29 .

R E F E R E NC E S : z e " ebh : G n 4 9 . 2 7 ; J g 7 . 2 5 ; 8 . 3 ; P s 8 3 . l l ; I s 11 . 6 ; 65 . 2 5 ; J e 5 . 6 ; E z k 2 2 . 2 7 ; Hbk 1 . 8 ; Z eph 3 . 3 luko s : Mt 7 . 1 5 ; 1 0 . 1 6 ; Lk 1 0 . .3 ; J n 10 . 1 2 ; Ac 20. 2 9 DI F F I CULT PASSAG E S : It s hould be n o t e d th a t z e ? ebh i s u s ed a s a pro per name i n Jg 7 . 2 5 ; 8 . 3 ; Ps 8 3 . 11 .

Worm, Maggot v e rm i s Hebrew : tol e ' a h ,

r im m ah

Greek :

s k6 l e x

D ESC RIPTIO N : I t i s no t po s s ibl e t o giv e a general d e s c riptio n , as th e c o ntext m ust dec i d e wh at k i n d o f c rea tu re i s m ea n t . to l e ' ah u s u al l y stands for a worm t ha t d e s troys grap e s and pl an t s , d evo u r s corps e s a n d s ym bo l iz e s t h e weakne s s a nd i n s i gn i fi c a n c e o f m a n .

r imm ah i s derived fro m a roo t m e a n i n g ' to grow ro tte n ' a n d m a y be understood a s a wo rm wh ich c a u s e s o r ind i c ates c o r rupt i o n , a m a ggot. Th e word s ym bo l iz e s dec ay o r (Job 2 5 . 6 ) a n i n s ign i fi ­ cant m an.

R E F E R ENC ES : to l e ' a h : E x 1 6 . 20; Dt 2 8 . 3 9 ; Job 2 5 . 6 ; Ps 2 2 . 6 ; I s 1 4 . 1 1 ; 41 . 1 4 ; 66 . 24 ; J o n 4 . 7 (al so found i n m any pa s s a ge s i n Ex , L v a nd Nu , fo r the c occ u s i l i c i s o r c o c h i neal , a n i n s e c t p roduc i n g s c a r l e t dye) r i m m ah : Ex 1 6 . 2 4 ; Job 7 . 5 ; 1 7 1 4 ; 21 . 26 ; 24 . 20 ; 25 . 6 ; Is 14.11 s k6lex : Mk 9 . 48 (perhaps al so vv 44 a n d 4 6 ) sk olekobrot os: ' e aten by worm s ' , A c 1 2. 23 .

DIF F IC ULT PASSAGE : F o r Job 2 4 . 20 , wh i c h l itera l l y t ra n s l a ted gives no m eani ng, s e e OTTP, p 7 9 . I t is a d v i s abl e to read sh e m o ( ' h i s name ' ) i n s te a d o f r i m m a h ; so RS V a nd J B . [ 86 ]

Fl o ra of the Bible Acacia Heb rew :

Ac a c i a

raddiana

s h i tta h

DE S C RIPTION : The AV does not identify th i s tree, but s imply tra nsliterate s ' sh i ttah ' o r ' sh ittim ' . Today it is generally rec o gn i z e d th at s h itta h i s identic a l w i th the a c a c i a ( a s rendered by R V, RS V, JI3 and NE B). a m e m b e r of the M i m o s a fam il y. Four d i ffe rent i n mm b e i n g th e A. ra d spec i e s a r e found n Pa l e s ti n e , th e m o s t c o o

The

a c a c ia

is

Acacia

(A cacia raddiana)

flowerin g twig b. opening pod with seeds a.

r s1 1

d i an a , wh i c h grow s i n the valleys a round the Dead Sea . It is a n ;verg ree n tree , 3 to 5 . 5 m high , with s p i n y branche s c a r rying yel ­ low flowers ; its wood i s very u s eful fo r building pu rpo s e s . The oth er th r e e spe c i e s a re A. spinoc a rpa , A. a rabic a and A. albida . The wo rd s h i tt i m , plural o f s h itta h , is sometimes us ed to des ­ ignate different localiti e s , a s for ins tance the region eas t of the river Jo rda n oppo s ite Jericho : Nu 3 3 . 4 9 ; Joel 3 . 1 8 (a valley). R E F E R E NC ES : Ex 2 5 . 5 , 1 0 , 13 , 2 3 , 2 8 ; 2 6 . 1 5 , 2 6 , 3 2 , 3 7 ; 2 7 . 1 , 6 ; 3 0 . 1 , 5 ; 3 5 . 7 , 2 4 ; 3 6 . 20, 3 1 , 3 6 ; 3 7 . 1 , 4 , 1 0 , 1 5 , 2 5 , 2 8 ; 38.1, 6;

Dt 10 . 3 ; Is 41 . 1 9

Algum, Almug timber

Jun ipe ru s phoenicea exc elsa

Hebrew :

?almuggim

?algum m im ,

DESC RIPTION: Traditio nally, algum o r almug (JB ' algum m im ' , ' almuggi m ' ) has been regarded a s s and alwood , Pte rocarpu s s an ­ talinu s , wh ich may have been imported by King Solomon from s ou th e r n India and u s ed fo r the pillars and balustrades of th e tern ­ pie and ro yal palace . It i s a large tre e with very hard red wood, wh i c h takes a fine po l i s h . But Jo s ephu s says ( Antiq . VIII, 7 , 1 ) that the wood used fo r Solomon ' s templ e and palace was even ' wh iter a nd more sh ining' than that of the fig tree, so some commentato rs identify it with Santalum albu m . However, the white sandal tree , a native o f In d i a , is l i ttl e more than a bush and has no value a s timbe r . Bec a u s e algum is a l s o m entioned a s a native o f Lebanon ( 2 C h 2 . 8 ) , KB sugge s ts that i t i s identical with Juniperus phoenic ea ex ­ c el sa ' wh ich i s exc ellent timber and abundantly to be found on Mount Lebanon ' . There i s no val id r ea son fo r a s s um i ng that almug and algum are diffe rent tree s . R E F E RE NC ES : I K 1 0 . l l , 1 2 ; 2 C h 2 . 8 ; 9 . 1 0 , 11 r 88 1

Almond

'{_ Ll

( .-1 myydalus commu nis)

f ! ow c- r i n p; shoot. h . shoot with f ru i t c . seed

Almond tree Hebrew :

A m ygda l u s

a.

communis

s h a q ed h , l u z

Th e a l m o n d tree belo ngs t o t h e pea c h fa m i l y . It gr o ws w i l d in Pal es tine and Syria , rea c h i n g a h e i gh t of 4 . 5 to 6 m . Du ri ng th e winter i t sheds its leave s , wh i c h a r e oblong. Th e flo we rs , wh ite or p i n k , bloom a s early a s January, a p p e a r i n g l o n g before the leave s . Th i s ex pl a i n s t h e Hb na m e fo r the tr e e , ' t he Wak efu l ' ( s ee Je 1 . 1 1 ) . The fru it i s a drupe , i . e . a fl e sh y o r p u l p y fru it e n c lo s in g a stone , w h i c h i n th i s c a s e conta in s o i l . DESC R IPTION :

-Ec 1 2 . 5 m e n t i o n s the a l m o n d tree a s a s ign sp r in g w h ic h does not b r i n g j o y to an old m a n .

of the beauty of

Lu z i s al s o th e n a m e o f a town i n Eph ra i m , p ro b abl y d e r ive d fr om the fa ct t h a t the h ills a bo u n d e d w i th a l m o nd t re e s ( G n 2 8 . 19 ) . [ 89 ]

R E F E R ENC E S :

shaqedh : Gn 43 . 1 1 ; Nu 1 7 . 8 ; E c 1 2 . 5; Je l . l l Luz : Gn 2 8 . 1 9 ; 3 0 . 3 7

DIF F IC U L T PASS AG ES : E x 2 5 . 3 3 - 3 4 ; 3 7 . 1 9 - 20 : the Hb m e s huq ­ qadhim i s m o s t l ikel y a pa rtic i p i a l plu r a l of a verb der ived fro m sha g edh a nd i s u s u a l l y tra n s l a ted ' s haped like almonds ' , o r (JB)

' l i k e a l mo n d blo s s o m s ' .

Aloes

Al o e suc c o t r i n a ,

Heb rew :

?ahal im,

Aqu i l a r i a a gal l o c h a

? a haloth

Greek : a l o e

DESC R I PTION: Alo e s i s a n a rom a t i c s ub stanc e m entio ned i n th e Bibl e toge th er w i th m y r rh , bal m and o th e r fra gra nt plant s , e . g. Ps 4 5 . 8 ; Pr 7 . 1 7 ; Jn 1 9 . 3 9 .

Mo s t m o d e r n c o m m enta to rs c o n s i d e r tha t th e s e p a s sage s refe r t o two d i fferent pl a n ts . Th e pl a n t m e n tio n ed i n the O T i s l i ke l y to have been Aqu i l a ria aga l lo c h a , th e ea gl ewoo d , a l arge tree wh ich m ay re ach a h e igh t o f 3 6 m . It is na tive to s o u th - ea s t As i a a nd northern Indi a . Th e t r e e sec rete s a n a ro m a t i c res i n , e spec i al l y when i t i s o l d . The a l o e o f J o h n 19 i s th e Alo e succotrin a , nam ed a ft e r its native i s l a n d , So c o t ra i n th e Ind ian Oc ea n , south o f Arab i a . Its th i c k succul e n t leaves fo rm a t i ght ro s ette ; th e flowe r s a r e red a nd bel l - s h a p ed , growing together o n a s p i k e . The a ro m a t i c j u i c e i s extra c ted from th e l eave s . Al th o u gh the fra granc e i s very pl ea s ­ a n t , th e ta s t e i s bi tte r . Like myrrh , alo e s had to be i m po rted i n to I s rael , which made i t exp e n s ive. Th e l a r ge quan tity brought by Nic od e m u s , ' about a h u ndred poun d s w e i ght ' , i s a n i n d i c a t io n of h i s wealth . Th e Alo e i s a m ed i c i nal pl ant known from very early ti m e s a n d u s ed b y t h e E gyptia n s fo r emba l m i ng the dea d . R E F E R E NC E S :

?ahal i m , ? ahaloth : N u 24 . 6 (NEB ' l i gn - alo e s ' ) ; P s 4 5 . 8 ; Pr 7 . 1 7 ; SS 4 . 1 4 aloe : Jn 1 9 . 3 9

[ 90 ]

It may s e e m i nc o n g r u o u s th at Sa l a a m ' s d e ­ sc r i p t io n o f th e l a n d s c a p e i n Nu 2 4 . 6 i nc l u d e s m e n ti o n o f a t re e w h i c h i s n o t i n d i genou s . Bu t th e wo r d s a r e not to b e u n d e r s tood a s a n a u ­ the nt ic po rtra i t o f th e l a n d of C a n a a n ; h e ' s e e s t h e v i s io n o f th e Al ­ m ighty ' . SS 4 . 1 4 l i s t s c o s tl y p l a n t s a nd tr e e s w h i c h be l ong to th e ga r d e n o f a r i c h m a n who c a n a ffo rd to i m po r t t h e m fro m fo re i gn

DI F F IC U LT PASSAG E S :

cou nt r i e s .

Aloes

( A liie succotn:na)

f J t Jwt>rin!!: p l a nt. w i t h

[ 91 ]

�t !,lll

Plwrt. r:tll l'h , . . flowPr d . f r u i t

Barley

H ebrew :

Ho rde u m d i s ti c h o n s e ' o rah

G ree k :

k r i th e

A d e s c riptio n o f ba rl e y i s n o t nec e s s a ry a s i t i s o n e old e s t c u l t i va ted pl a nt s . It wa s grown i n E gyp t i n 5 0 00 B C a nd i s cul tivat e d to d a y o v e r m o s t o f t h e No rth e r n h em i s ph e re . B a r ­ l e y gro ws w e l l i n bo th wa r m a nd c o l d te m p e r a tu r e s a n d i n dry a n d d a m p c l i m a te s .

D E S C_R I PT IO N :

o f th e

r 9s 1

i n the de s c r i p t i o n of the fa m ine d u r i n g t h e s i e ge of Sa m a r i a ( 2 K 7 . 1 ) . Ord i n a ry foo d w a s very e x pe n s ive , b u t wh eat c o s t tw i c e a s much a s b a r l ey , the c h e a p e s t food o b ta i n a bl e . U s e d m a inl y fo r fe e d i n g _ c a t t l e , b a rl e y a l s o s e rved fo r m a k i n g bread i n t i m e s o f e m e r ge n c y , a s i n S a m a r i a d u r i n g th e s ie ge , and a m o ng th e poor ( 2 S 1 7 . 2 8 ; E z k It i s i n t e re s t i n g to note the p r i c e s o f wh e a t a n d ba r l e y

4 9 ; Rv 6 . 6). .

The l ow c o s t of ba rl e y m a k e s

it a s ym bol o f d i sp a ra ge m en t k 1 3 . 1 9 ) . ' A c a ke o f ba rl e y i n J g 7 . 1 3 i s a de ­ ( Ho 3 . 2 ; Nu 5 . 1 5 ; Ez ro ga to r y te rm fo r a n I s r a e l i t e , j u s t a s ' te nt ' s t a n d s fo r the Bedo u i n . '

Th e ba rley h a rv e s t c o m e s earl y , i n the lowe r r e g i o n s o f Pal e s ­ t i n e i n Ma rc h - Ap ril , i n th e moun ta i n s i n M a y , a month e a r l i e r th a n I t w a s t he re fore often ne ce s s ary t o e at bar ley whe at ( E x 9. 3 1 ) . c a k es e a r l y in th e yea r (2 K 4 . 4 2 ) . So , fo r exampl e , it do e s not ne ­ c e s s a ri ly imply pove rty wh e n Jes us feeds 5 000 peopl e with fi v e ba r ­ l ey l oav e s O n 6 . 9 ). Th i s w a s ea rly i n th e yea r , befo r e t h e Pa s sover (v 4 ) . R E F E R E NC E S :

s e 'orah : k r i th e :

C o n s ul t a c o n c o r d a n c e Rv

6.6

k r i th i no s ( ' m a de o f ba rl e y ' ) :

Jn

6 . 9 , 13

Bdellium Comm ipho ra ( A fr i c a na ) H e b r ew : be d ho l al;l D E S C RI PTIO N :

Mo s t m o d e rn com m enta to r s follow the o l d e s t tr a ­ to

d i ti o n a c c o r d i n g to wh i c h th e Hb wo rd i s e xpl a i n e d a s r e fe r ri n g

bdell imp , a yel lo w i s h tra n s pa r e n t and fragrant gum w h i c h fl o w s o ut fro m an i n c i s i o n in th e ba rk of a c e rta i n s h r u b , proba bl y s o m e s pe ­ c i e s of C o m m ip h o r a (pe rhaps Afr i c a na ) , wh i c h gro ws i n S o u t h Ar a ­ bia. m e an i ng ' bdell iu m ' i s , however , d o u b t ful . Ac c o rding to a l ater tr a d iti o n i t was under s tood to b e a pea rl o r s o m e prec io u s s to ne . 'The

R E F E R E NC E S :

Gn 2 . 1 2 ; Nu 1 1 . 7

[ 96 ]

BeaD

V i c i a fa ba

Hebr ew : D

po l

ESC R I PTIO N :

Th e broad b e a n h a s b e e n known a s foo d s i nc e th e

Bro nz e Age ( 3 000 - 2000 BC ) . It i s an annual p l a n t wh i c h reache s a h e i gh t o f 6 0 to 90 e m . Th e s m a l l ova l l ea v e s a re greyi s h - gree n ; th e fl o wers , s i tuated i n th e a x i l s between b r a n c h and l ea f, a r e whi te w ith a purpl i s h blotc h . Th e po d s a r e l a rge a nd c o nta i n th e

brow n c o m p r e s s e d s e eds .

The c ro p r ip e n s a t the t i m e o f in ga rden s a n d i n th e fi e l d s . wn gro foo d a nd a re e a t e n either bo i l ed o r

w h e a t h a rv e s t .

Bea n s a r e

Th ey c o n s t i tute a n o u r i s h i n g r o a s ted .

So m e t i m e s

th ey a re

m ixed wi th gra i n fl o u r fo r b read - m a k i ng. R E F E R E NC E S :

2

S

17 . 2 8 ; Ezk 4 . 9

b a.

[ 97 ]

Bean ( Vicia faba)

plant b. part of stem with leaf and young pod c . & d. flower

Bitter herbs Heb rew :

C e nta urea

m e ro r i m

D E S C RI PT IO N : Th e Hb w o r d m ea ns ' bi tte r ' . I n the two p a s s a ge s m e n t i o n e d below, i t i s u s ed i n co n nec tio n w i t h i n s t r u c t i o n s fo r th e pa s s o v e r m ea l , a nd i s t r a n s l a te d a s ' bitte r h e r b s ' i n m o s t ver ­ s io n s . S o m e m o d e rn s c h o l a r s i d ent i fy th i s h e rb wi th the C e n ta u r c a , of wh ich s everal s pec i e s a re foun d i n th e dese rt a rea s o f Pa l e s t i n e . I t h a s sm al l flowe r hea d s p rotec t ed by th o r n s , a n d i t s l eaves grow i n r o s e t t e s a nd are b i tte r in ta ste . Even now th e Bedo u i n eat th e m a s s al ad . M old e nke and othe r s are

m or e in c l ined to suppose that t he m e r or im w e r e plant s l ike e n d iv e ( C ic h o r iu m e nd i v i a ) , ch i c ory (Cichoriu m inty bu s ) , d ande l ion (Tar ax a cu m o ffic i­ n a le ) , a nd s o r re l ( Rumex a ce t oce l l a ) .

RE FE RE NCES : Ex 1 2 . 8; Nu 9. 1 1

Bitter herbs

[ 98 1

(Cichorium intybus)

Bitter herbs

Box tree Buxu s

Hebrew:

6

rn .

l o ngifo l i a

t e ?ash s hur

DESC RIPTION :

W ith

o blon g

Th e

l e a ve s .

l o n g - l e aved box is a n e v e rgreen s h rub or tr e e The r a th e r s l ender s t e m m ay a tta i n a h e i gh t

Th e woo d i s v e r y ha r d and s uitable fo r c a rpentry a nd

carving. re gions Pale s tine. !dentif� te ?ash s hur w the box �yPre s s',

ou s

Po s t ( a nd W a l k e r ) have

U str at ion

' box ' or ' ced ar ' .

of

fo und

it

of

wood­

growing in th e mo un ta i n ­

So m e bo tan i s ts therefo re a re inc l i n e d to

of

i th

:-

( Taraxacum vulgare)

box tree . )

rFI!R.l!NCES: L

t re e .

R S V t ra n s l a t e s ' pi n e ' , JB

See a l s o CYPR E SS.

I s 4! . ! 9 ; 6 0. 1 3 ; Ezk 2 7. 6

[ 99 ]

(See page

100 for

Broom He brew :

R e t a m a ra eta m

ro them

D E S C R I PT I O N :

Mo s t m o d e r n c o m m entato r s are of th e o p i n i o n th a t

th e wo rd rothem s ta nd s fo r the broo m , Arab ic ratam , which gro w s i n t h e d e s e rts o f Pa l e s t i n e a nd A ra b ia . I t i s a bu s h w i th m a n y bra n c h e s

a n d tw igs , a few s ma l l lea y e s , a n d l a rge c l u sters of wh i t e flow e r s . I t s woo d , to gether w i th the l a r ge s tem o f the root, i s u s ed b y th e

Bedo u i n fo r m a k i n g c ha rcoal ( s e e JB a n d N E B o f Ps 1 20 . 4 : c h a rcoal ' ) . AV and RV t ra n s l a te ' j u n i pe r ' . R E F E R E NC E S :

1 K 19.4,

5

Q B ' furze ' ) ; Job 3 0 . 4 ;

' red - h o t

Ps 1 2 0 . 4

DIF F I C U L T PASS A G E : Job 3 0 . 4 : Moldenke po i n t s o u t th a t the root o f broom i s po isonou s , a n d i dent i fi e s th e p l a n t w i th the s c a rlet

Box tree (B1aus longifolia) r 1 00 1

Broom (Retama ra:tam)

a.

Sxnom orium.

bran ches b . inflorescence c . tip of branch

Moffatt and Fohre r conj e cture lel)ummam ' for giv ­

ing Wa nnth ' , in s tead o f laQ.mam ' fo r the i r food ' . So also R V m g and RS V . Bu t the po int o f the vers e c ould b e that thes e refugee s t o

th�

de se rt ar e so hungry a nd starved that they a re glad to eat any ­

:lng.

I � ':h i c h

c as e , retain ' their food ' , with

JB and ,N EB. L�X

ep s t h i s Idea , though gr eatly expandi ng the vers e : Who enc i rc l e &altworts with loud c rie s , wh o s e food was sa itworts , who we r e ,"f.thout hono ur and o f no repute, and who ch ewed the roots of trees au se of gre a t h un ge r . '

L

r H ll

1

Caper plant Hebrew :

c appa ri s spino s a , c . s ic ul a

'� ahhiyonah

DESC R I PTION: Th e c aper pl ant grows everywh e re i n Pa l e s t i ne , Syr i a a nd Leba no n . I t s h eavy, drooping branc h e s c o ver the wall s of Je rusalem and the roc k s o f m any vall eys . It bloo m s in May, a n d i ts l a r ge white flowe r s a re open fo r o nly one n ight. The buds a r e pic k l ed i n v inegar and eaten a s a con d i m ent w i t h m ea t . Bo th fru it and buds a re s uppo s e d to s t i m ulate appetit e . In anc ient t i m e s caper - be r r ie s w e r e a l s o s a i d to s t i m u l a te s e x u a l de s i r e . ?abh i yonah, rendered ' de s ire ' i n AV and R S V , i s identified i n modern dic tio na r i e s with the c ape r be r ry ( so a l so J B and N E B) . Th i s acco rds with th e LXX ( kappa r i s ) a n d Vul gate (c appa r i s ) , a s well a s with t h e bota n i s ts Low, Po s t a nd Moldenke . The a c c ompa nying verb taph er (fro m para r ' to break ' ) i s t r a n s ­ l a ted either ' to fa il ' o r ' to bur s t ' , thus i l l u s tra ti ng the fa il ing pow ­ ers o f an o l d m a n , h i s lo s s o f ta s te and appetite . R E F E R E NC E :

Ec 1 2 . 5

a

b

Caper plant (Capparis spinosa) a.

flowering shoot

b. bud

[ 102 ]

c.

fruit

a.

Carob tree

Carob (Ceratonia siliqua)

leaf and fruit b. half of fruit with seed c. fl ower showing style and stamens

C e r a to n i a

s il iqua

Gr e ek : k e r a tio n DE SC R I PTI O N : Th e Gk word k e r a tio n l i te ra l l y m ea n s ' a l i ttl e h o r n ' , and o nly oc c u r s o nc e in th e N T, i n th e pa rable o f t h e Pro d i gal So n , e re i t s ta n d s fo r the · po d s ' o r ' h u s k s ' gen e ral l y e a t e n by pigs . e Po d of th e c a r o b t r e e i s s h ape d l i k e a l i ttl e h o r n , from 1 5 to 2 5

�

[ 103 ]

e m l ong and 2 . 5 to 3 . 7 e m broad; when ripe it h a s a r i c h c o ntent o f s yr up whi c h m akes it a valuab l e and nou r i s h ing food fo r c attle a n d pigs . Now, as i n the pa s t , the fru it o f th e c a rob tree i s a l s o eate n by poo r peopl e . Th e c a rob tree i s grown in almo st a l l Med i terranean countr i e s a n d h a s been i n troduc ed into Am e r ic a . It i s an eve rgreen tree reach i ng a h eight o f 9 m. The leave s r e s e mble tho s e o f the a s h tree. The flowers are s m al l , yellow or red, and the fru its ripen i n Apr i l and May. The c a rob tree is sometimes c al l e d ' St. John ' s b read tree ' be ­ c a u s e it has been a s s um ed that the honey eaten by John the Baptis t in the de s ert wa s not real honey but the s yrup pre s sed o ut o f the pod of the c a rob tre e . It is al so s o m etim es c a l l ed ' l o c u s t tree ' be ­ cause s o m e commentato r s m i s takenly a s s um e that the loc u sts m en ­ tioned i n Mt 3 . 4 were no t real insec ts but the fruits o f the c a rob tree . See LOC UST. R E F E R ENC E :

Cassia

Lk 1 5 . 1 6

C i nnamomum c a s s ia , Sau s s u rea lappa

Hebrew : q i ddah , qets i ' o th D ESC RIPTION : The de riva tion of the Hb wo rd qiddah a s well as i t s identific ation i s dubio u s , although s o m e h ave t r i e d t o expla i n it a s meaning ' a ba rk that peel s o ff' . The co ntext denotes a n a ro m atic plant, and �n old tra d i tion i dentifie s thi s with c a s s ia , a tree na ti ve to Ceylon and Ind i a , and much l ike the c i nnamon tree . The th i c k c o a r s e bark is u s ed a s a s pic e whe n peeled o ff and d r i e d , altho u gh it i s infe r io r to c innamon. The buds m a y a l s o be added to food as sea so n in g. The s m a l l e r l eaves a n d pod s are sometime s u s ed fo r medic inal purpo s e s .

Th e plant bea rs n o relation to the Linnaean genus C a s s ia , wh ich include s the s e nna s . AV, RV and RSV tra n s l i terate the Hb wo rd qetsi ' oth in Ps 4 5 . 8 a s ' c a s s ia ' . J B ' m yr rh and alo es waft fro m your robe s ' ; NEB ' yo u r

[ 104 ]

rob e s a re all fragran t w ith m y r rh and powder of a l o e s ' . So m e co m ­ rn ent a to rs , quo t e d i n Molden k e , s ugge s t th a t Da vid a nd Solomo n

c oul d h ave k nown the Indian o r r i s , Sa u s s u rea lappa . Th i s na tive o f the H i malaya s is a p e r e n n i al with l a r ge l eave s , a p ric kl y stem an d pu r p l e flower s . Its roo ts a re strongl y a rom a ti c and can be u s ed for p e rfu m e s and inc e ns e .

R E F ER E NC ES : q id dah : E x 3 0 . 2 4 ; Ezk 2 7 . 1 9 qets i ' o th : Ps 4 5 . 8

Cassia (Saussurea lappa) leaves and inflorescence

[ 105 ]

d

Castor oil plant (Ricinus communis) shoot with flowers b. inflorescence (female flowers above, male below) c. mature fruit d. seed a.

Castor oil plant Hebrew :

q iqayon

h ave been d i ffe rent op i n i o n s with r e ga rd to tra n s l a tion o f t h e Hb q iq ayo n . The Vu l ga te tra n s l a t e s a s ' iv y ' ; In t h e O r i e n t a n d N E B fo l l o w the LXX i n tra n s l a t i n g a s ' gourd ' . go urd , Cucu rbita pepo ( pu m pk i n ) develo ps a rapid gro wth w i t h po s s ib i l ity of giv i ng s h a d e a s t h e book of Jo nah v i v i dl y de ­

D E S C R I PTIO N :

t he AV

the the

Ric inus communis

Th e r e

,

s c r ibe s .

i nte rprete rs ( e . g. m a d e by J e rom e, t r a n s -

Mo s t m o d e rn bo ta n i s ts ( e . g. Mol d e nk e ) a nd

T. H . Ro b i n s o n ) h ave ado pted a s ugge s ti o n

[ 106 ]

}ato r o f t h e Vu lga te , tha t q i q a yon m i gh t be the c a s to r o il tree , R i ­ c inu s c o m m u n i s or Pa l m a Ch r i s ti . Th i s i s a fa s t - grow i ng pl a n t

a o f .3 m . I t s l e av e s are l a rge an d w ell o o r shade . It s fruits a re c a p s u l e s w i t h ui t e d f r s h re e e s As wel l a s the s e feature s , anoth e r rea ­ son fo r i de nti fying q iq a yo n w i th R ic i n u s c o m m u n i s i s th e s i m i l a r i ty

� h e i gh t pr oviding sh elter : ed c o nta i n ing o i l .

-

e Hb wo rd a nd th e E gyptian k i k i a n d As s y r i a n kukan i tu . e be tw en th B a nd N E B m g tra n sl ate a s ' c a s tor o i l pla n t' .

J

RE F E R E NC E S : Jon 4 . 6 , 7 , 9 , 1 0

a.

Ced a r (Cednu; libani)

out l i n P pf

l rPt'

1> . l > r a n t'h w i t h

[ 107 ]

I ' one

Cedar

Cedrus l i ban i

H e brew :

" e rez

DE SC R IPTION : The enth u s ia s m with wh ich t h e OT w r i t i n gs pra i s l' t h e ced ar of Le banon i s unde r s tandable . It i s a m aj e s tic tree o f gr eat beauty, re a ch i n g 2 7 m i n heigh t a n d 1 2 m i n girth . Its lo ng br a n c h e s spread o ut hor izontal ly from th e trunk , and th e l ea v e s J r c: da r k and evergreen , gl ittering l ike s i lve r i n t h e s u n . The c o n e s take th ree yea r s t o m atu r e . Th e f r a gr a n t wood i s m u c h so ugh t a f ­ t er fo r buil d i ng p u r po s e s , a s i t does not e a s i l y rot. Its gr e a t va l ue a s timb e r i s often m entioned, espec iall y i n th e h i s tory o f K i n g Solom o n . R E F E R ENC ES : C o n s ul t a conco rdanc e DI F F IC U L T PASSAG ES :

Lv 1 4 . 4 - 6 a nd 49 - 5 2 ;

Nu 1 9 . 6 .

Al tho u gh

tra n s l a te ? e rez i n the s e pas sa ge s a s ' c edar wood ' , it i s unders tood by s o m e s c h o l a r s t o b e a d i ffe r ent k ind o f c ed a r , o r a j u n i p e r . Wal ker i d e n t i f i e s i t with J un iperus oxycedru s , other schol a r s with Sabina phoe n i c i a , wh i c h grows in the S i na i m o u n ta i n s . C e d a r s o f L e b a n o n were never c o m mon outside Lebano n , a nd in the s e pa s sa ge s some ea s il y a va i l ­ abl e a rom a t i c woo d s eem s to be i m p l i e d . m o s t c o m m e n ta to r s ,

Is

44 . 1 4 : RSV,

i n c l u d i n g th e m o d ern o ne s ,

JB and NEB

t r a n s l at e ?oren a s ' c eda r ' ;

see L AU R E L.

Cinnamon

on

th i s

C in n a m o m u m z e yl a n ic um

Hebrew : qinnamon

Greek : k innamomon

DES C R IP TION: This eve rgr e e n tree , bel o nging to t h e Lau r el fa m i l y, i s a nativ e of C ey l o n and Ma l a ya . I t grow s to 9 m high and i s c ul ­ tivat ed fo r i ts valuab le inner bar k , fro m wh i c h the c i n n a m o n i s o b ­ ta i ne d . Th e ba rk i s c ut and th e n ea s il y peel ed o ff. C i n n a m o n w a s

u s e d a s a co ndiment bec au s e o f i t s de l i c i o u s fl a v o u r ; also a s a p e r ­ fum e and a n i n gr e d i e n t of ' hol y ' o i l .

[ 108 ]

R

E F E R E NC ES :

q innamon : Ex 3 0 . 23 ; Pr 7 . 1 7 ( N E B ' c a s s ia ' ) ; SS 4 . 1 4 kinnamo m o n : Rv 1 8 . 1 3 e

!

I,

d

b

Cinnamon

(Cinnanwmwn zcylanic um)

flowering shoot b . bark c. flower d. & e. bark and leaf of cinnamom u m cassia a.

atron tree, Sandarac tree

"-

. .;

Tetrac l i n i s a rticulata (or Thuj a a rti ­

c ul ata)

---

Greek : t hu in o s (lite rally:

' from the c itron tree ' )

D ES C R IPTION : The c i tro n tree , a c o n i fer belonging to the c yp re s s fa m ily, i s a tree o r shrub about 9 m h i gh , w i th redd i s h - brown ba r k and spreading o r asc end ing branc hes . Its brigh t - green l eave s a re Very s m a ll and scaly. The tree h a s always been h ighly valu ed fo r its fr agrant wood wh ich ta k e s o n a fin e dark pol i s h , and i t wa s said to be wo·r th its we ight in gold. Th e wood i s durabl e , u s ual l y res i s t ­ ing a ll a tta c k s by i n s ec t s . The tree i s a na tive o f Morocc o , the Atla s mounta i ns a nd Al ge r i a . It i s not rel a te d to the C itru s o r

orange.

[ 109 ]

R E F E R E NC E :

DI F F I C U L T

Rv 1 8 . 1 2

PASSAG E :

Mo l d e n k e ( a nd Po s t ) s ee m to h a v e d i s p e l l e t l

a l l dou bt a bo u t the i dent i fic a t i o n of x u l o n thu i no n , r e nd e r i n g d a r a c tree ' . ' th y i n e wood ' .

it ' Sa n ­

R S V a n d N E B s a y ' s c ented wood ' ; AV tra n s l i t e r a te s Th e Z U r i c h B i bl e h a s ' wo h l r i e c h e n d e s H o lz ' a n d

M e n ge ' Timj a h olz ' , a s doe s Da n i s h a n d J B ( F r e n c h ) .

J B ( E n gl i s h )

h a s ' s a n da l woo d ' .

Coriander Hebrew :

Cori a n d e r (Cor£a ndrum satz:v wn) a . p l a n t. /, . f ru i t r · . fru i t in!!: lu•ad d . t"l ' n t r a l f l < >rl't r· . o u t si< i l ' f l < m · t f. le a f

Co r i a n d r u m s a t i v u m ga dh

D E S C R I PTION :

Coriander

is

m en t i o n e d on l y

i l l u s t r a te wh a t m a n n a wa s l i k e .

[ no J

tw i c e i n t h e Bi bl e , to

C o r i a nd e r i s we ll known in Pa l e s t i n e .

It i s a n a n n u a l u m bel l i ­

ter o us p l a n t l i k e t h e c a r ro t , 61 e m h i gh , w i t h div ided l e a v e s and u rn ­ bel s o f pink o r wh i te fl owe r s . Th e p l an t ha s a s trong c h a ra c te r i s tic odo ur. I t s fru i t o r s e e d s a r e grey, gl o bul a r a n d t h e s iz e o f a s ma l l pea . Th ey a r e u s e d a s a s p i c e i n c o o k i n g, a n d the a ro m a t i c o il d e r ived fro m th e s e ed s is u s ed i n pe r fum e . REF ER E NC E S : Ex 1 6 . 3 1 ; Nu 1 1 . 7

Cot ton a.

Cotton, Levant Cotton

Hebr ew·:

(Gossypiwn h crbace wn)

p l a n t IJ . m at u w �apsnle, open c . n nr i p P f ru i t, with h ra c � t M

Go s s ypium h e rbac eum

k a rpa s

DES C R I PTION : C o t t o n i s a n a nnual pl ant, growing i n to a b u s h about 1.5 rn h i gh , with yellow or pink fl o w e r s and deepl y - lobed l eave s . I ts

fr uit i s a c apsule with several seeds dens ely covered w ith long whi te fl u ffy h a i r s . Co tto n i s mentioned only in E s 1 . 6 , i n a vivid desc r iption of the s umptuou s feas t held by the Pers ian king in his winter re s idenc e in Susa. Th e author tak e s pa ins to de s c r ibe t h e magnificent decora ­ tions of th e cou rtyard in fro nt of the palac e : ' Th ere were white c otton cu rta i ns and blue hangi ngs c aught up w i th cords ' ( RSV), pro bably so that they could s erve as an awni ng. AV and R V (but not RV m g) m i s takenly translate karpa s a s ' green ' . J B ha s ' wh i te and viol et ha ngings ' , and N E B ' wh i te c u rta ins ' . C o tton ha s been culti ­ vated in Pe r s ia from anc i ent times , and tree cotton, Go s s ypium arboreum , i s m entioned in th e cuneiform i n s c r iptions of Sennach e ­ rib. .

•

.

Al th o ugh the Greek trave l l e r and writer Pa usanias (2nd c entu ry AD) d e s c ribe s Judaea n cotton , some modern botan ists do ubt that i t w a s cultivated in Pal estine in Bibl ic al tim e s . However, Pau s a ni a s ' s ta te m ent i s s upported by th e Mi shna ( th e written doc t rines of the Jewi sh rabbis from the 3rd century AD) .

The Hb word l;mr l iterally mean s ' a white m aterial ' (o f l i nen o r cotton). I t appea r s o n l y i n E s 1 . 6 a n d 8 . 1 5 . I n E s 1 . 6 i t i s natu ral to connect th e wo rd with th e following karpa s and tra n s l a te ' white cot ­ ton ' . There i s no real j u s tifi c a tion fo r th e note ' o r c otto n ' i n R V m g of Gn 41 . 4 2. R E F E R E NC E :

Cucumber

Es 1.6

C u c um i s chate (Cucum i s m el o )

Hebrew : q i sh shu ? DESC R I PTION: A fru it wh i c h wa s grown in E gyp t in Bibl ic al t i m e s and is m entioned in N u 11 . 5 . I t wa s natural th at throughout the h e a t of the d e s e rt j o u rney the c hildren o f Israel were longing fo r the refres h m en t o f the Cucum i s c h a t e , wh ic h i s l ar ge r , sweeter and m o re watery and melon - l i ke than th e o r d i n a r y E u ropean c ucumber

[ 112 J

( C u c um i s s a tivu s ) . Even today a c uc u m b e r a n d a p i ec e o ft en m ake u p a m eal i n Egypt.

of bread

There s e e m s , however, to be s o m e do ubt w h e t h e r th e q i s h s hu ?

sho ul d be identified with C u c um i s c h a te o r with Cuc um i s m elo , t h e muskme l on , a s I D says . R E F E R ENC E S :

Nu 1 1 . 5 .

A c uc umbe r o r

m e n t i o n ed i n Is

m elon fiel d , m iq s h a h , i s 1 . 8 ; ]e 10. 5.

DIF F IC U LT PASSAG E : ] e 1 0 . 5 : Ge seni u s derives m i q s h a h from ' a n d t ra n s l a t e s ' h am m ered wo rk ' , ' s ta tu e . Mo s t m o d e r n com mentato r s tra n s late ' c ucumber fie l d ' , so RSV and R V m g. ]B ' m elon p a tc h , NEB ' pl o t o f c u c u mbe r s ' . AV ' up ri gh t a s a p a l m tree' , fo llowed by RV, may be ignored.

g-sh - h

'

Cucumber

(Cucumis chafe

[melo])

fru i t and leaves b. flower (m ale) c . bud (fe male) a.

[ 11 3 ]

b Cummin u.

Cummin

(Cuminwn cyminwn)

]J i a n t w i th fruiting hem!

IJ . fruit

Cum inum c ym i num

Hebrew : kammon

G reek : kum inon

DESC R IPTION : This i s a n an nual pl ant of the c a rrot fa m il y, n a t i v e to Mediterranean countrie s , 3 0 to 60 e m h igh a nd bearing umbe l s o f s ma l l wh it"e flowe r s . It is c ul t ivated fo r i t s seed s , wh i c h a re u s ed a s a spic e , fo r i n stance i n bread . Isa iah ( 2 8 . 2 5 , 2 7 ) give s a v ivid de s c r iption of h ow c um m in i s sown a nd h arve s t e d ; when r i pe i t i s bea ten with a ro d . Dt 1 4 . 2 2 a n d M i s h n a ( ' Al l wh i c h s e rv e s a s food and grows out o f

[ 114 ]

tbe

fi e l d m u s t be tithed ' ) s t r e s s th e d u t y o f t i th i n g e v e n t h e s m a l l e s t

truirs ·

tbi s . R

Th e wo rd s o f J e s u s t o the Pha r i s e e s i n M t 2 3 . 2 3 refe r to S ee al s o DI L L .

E F E R E NC E S :

kam m on : Is 2 8 . 2 5 , 27 kum i non : Mt 23 . 2 3

Cypress

Cupre s s u s s e m p e rv i re n s h o r iz o n ta l i s

Hebr ew :

te '7 a s h s h ur

DE SC R IP TION : Th e re i s m uc h d i s a gr e em e n t a s to th e r e nde r i n g of te ?ash s hur . So me (e . g. B DB, Mo l d e n k e , AV , R V a n d NE B ) t r a n s ­ l a te ' th e box tree ' ( Bu x u s l o ngi fo l ia ) , fo u n d fo rm e r l y in t h e Ga l i l ea n

hill s , n o r th e r n Pa l e s t i n e a n d Leban o n .

h

c.nucss (Cu press us sempcrvirens) " u t l i rw 1 1 f t n ' < ' /, . t.w i � , . _ ripe c o n e

a.

[ 115 ]

Others i den tify it w i t h some kind o f c o nifer o r ced ar . RSV usu ­ a l l y tra n s l a tes te ? a s h s h ur a s ' pine ' and bero s h a s ' c ypre s s ' . See PINE ( A L E PPO PIN E ) . TI1ere i s great confu s i o n in a l l ver s io n s , anc ient and modern, ove r the i dentity o f eve r greens i n the Bibl e . We follow ID which identifies t e ? a s h s h u r with C u p re s su s s e mperviren s h o r i z o ntal i s , a s do e s Fah rer and a l s o R V mg. Th e c ypre s s i s native to Pal e s t i n e and i s fo und growing w il d i n Gilead a n d Edo m a t the pre s e n t day. It is an evergreen, 9 to 15 m h i gh , with s pr eadi ng branch e s , s m all scale - l i ke l eave s and round cones . Th e durabil i ty o f the wood makes i t s u i table fo r build i ng purpo s e s . AV a nd JB translate tirzah i n I s 44 . 1 4 a s c ypr e s s ; R V and R S V ' holm tre e ' (q. v . ) '

'

R E F E R E NC ES : I s 4 1 . 1 9 ; 6 0 . 1 3 ; Ez k 2 7 . 6

a.

plant

Dill ( A nethum gmveolens)

/1 . fruiting head

c.

flowers

[ 116 ]

d . m ature s p l i t f ru i t

DiD

A ne th u m gr aveo l e n s

Gr� e k :

a n e th on

D E S C R IPTIO N :

h i gh

Dill is a n a nn u a l u mb el l i fe ro u s p l an t , 30 to 5 0 e m

with yellow flower s .

I t i s q u i t e c o m m o n i n Pa l e s tine , bo th w i l d

and c ult ivated , a n d i s grown fo r i ts s ee d s wh i c h c o nta i n a ro m a t i c

oil s u s ed a s a s ea so n i n g.

AV renders a n e th o n a s ' a n i se ' , Ph i l l i p s a s ' a n i s ee d ' . The Ju bi l ee B i b l e even a d d s a n i l l u s tration o f th i s p l a n t (wh i c h h a s som e re s em bl a n c e to d i l l ) .

Mol denke howeve r d o e s n o t q u e s t i o n i t s i d e nt i ­ fic at io n a s ' d i l l ' , a n d he i s s uppo rted b y Stra c k - B i l l e rb e c k . So m e t r a n s l a t i on s , i nc lu d i ng R S V a n d N E B , render t h e Hb w o r d qets al;l in I s 2 8 . 2 5 , 2 7 as ' d ill ' . JB ha s ' fe n n el ' . Bu t ac c o r d i n g to

Po s t, Mol de n ke , Ge s e n i u s , a nd Buh l , q e t s a l;l i s to be u n d e r s to o d a s N i ge l l a s at iv a , and k am m on a s c u m m i n , Cum in um cym inum . S e e C U MM I N and NUf M E G .

black cum m in , R E F E R E NC E :

M t 23 . 23

Ebony D i o s py r o s ebenum Hebrew : hobh n i m DESC R IPTION: The t h r e e spe c ie s of D io spyro s : ebe naster , me la­ noxy lon and e benum , t h e s o - c a l l ed ' d ate - tre e s ' , a r e n a t ive s o f Ind i a and C eylo n . Th ey a r e l a r ge s low - grow i n g trees w i th a s m o o th ba r k , le av e s n e a r l y l O e m l o n g, and s m a l l bell - sh aped p i n k flowe r s . It i s th e h e a r two o d o f th i s tr e e whic h makes i t v a l u a bl e . I t is bl a c k and v ery h a r d , a nd h a s b e e n u s e d by woo d c a rver s s i nc e a n t i qu i t y . To ge t h e r wi th ivo ry, i t i s u s ed fo r i n l a y i n g a nd ornam ental tu rn e r y . R E F E R E NC E :

Ezk 27.15

DI F F IC U L T PAS S AG E :

For the rend e r ing of geo graph i c a l n a m e s i n

th i s p a s s age , s e e O TTP, p

207 .

[ 117 ]

Fig tree, Fig He brew :

G re e k :

Ficus c a rica

t e ? e n ah ( f i g a n d fig tre e ) , pag ( e a rl y f i g) , b i k k u r a h ( e a rl y fi g ) , debh e l a h ( p r e s s e d f i g c a k e )

s uk e ( f i g t re e ) , s u k o n ( fig) , o l un thos ( l a t e f i g) Th e fi g

t r e e i s a n a t i v e o f We s te rn As i a , bu t w a s a n d s ti l l i s m u c h c u l t i va te d i n Pal e s t i n e . To ge t h e r w i th t h e v i n e and t h e ol i v e tre e , i t c o n s t ituted th e m o s t i mpo r ta n t a nd u s efu l fru i t tree o f th e I s r a e l i t e s . I f th e g ro u n d i s w e l l c u l t i va ted a n d the t r e e ta k e n c a r e o f, it w i l l rewa rd i ts owne r w i t h two a b u nda n t h a rv e s t s

DES C R IPTION :

yea r . Th e e a r l y fi gs r i p e n i n J u n e , th e l a te o n e s i n Augu s t a nd S e p t e m be r . Th e l a t e fi g s a re o fte n p re s s ed i n to c a k e s a nd thu s p r e s e r v e d fo r e x po r t . eve r y

Th e f i g t r e e grow s to a h e i gh t o f 6 m a nd h a s l o n g c u rv e d

b r anc h e s , w h i c h s o m e t i m e s give i t t h e a ppea ra n c e o f a l a r g e b u s h . I t s t r u n k a n d b r a nc h e s a re s mo o th ; t h e ba r k i s s i l v e r - gr ey i n c o l ­ our . Th e l e a v e s a r e l a rge a n d s h a p ed l i ke a ha n d , a n d th e th i c k fo l i age a ffo rd s a p l e a s a n t s h a d e

( s ee

e . g. J n

1.48).

Th e fru i t i s a well - k n o w n and po p u l a r del i c a c y i n

many

pa rts

o f th e wo r l d , and is ver y no u r i s h i n g bec a u s e of i t s h i gh s u ga r c o n ­

tent.

I t i s a l s o u s ed m e d i c i n a l l y ( 2 K 2 0 . 7 ) , c h i e fl y a p p r e c i a t e d fo r the i r f i n e fl a v o u r .

Ebony

(Diospyros ebenum) [ 118 ]

E a r l y fi g s a r e

Fig R E F E R E NC E S :

(Ficus carica)

t e ? c na h : Co n s u l t a c on c o rd a n c e pag: SS 2 . 1 3 d e h h e la h : 1 S 2 5 . 1 8 ; 3 0 . 1 2 ; 2 K 2 0 . 7 ; l C h 1 2 . 4 0 ; Is 3 8 . 21

Is 2 8 4 ; Je 2 4 . 2 ; Ho 9 . 1 0 ; Mi 7 . 1 Mt 2 1 . 1 9 - 21 ; 2 4 . 3 2 ; Mk 1 1 . 1 3 , 2 0 f ; 1 3 . 2 8 ; Lk 1 3 . 6f; 2 1 . 2 9 ; J n 1 . 4 8 , 5 0 ; J a s 3 . 1 2 ; Rv 6 . 1 3 s uko n : M t 7 . 1 6 ; M k 1 1 . 1 3 ; Lk 6 . 4 4 ; J a s 3 . 1 2

b i k ku ra h :

.

s uk e :

o l u ntho s :

Flax

Rv

6.13

L i n um u s i ta t i s s i m u m

Hebr ew : Greek :

pe s h e th , p i s h ta h l i no n , bu s s o s ,

DESCRiPTION:

s i n d o n , o th o n i a

F l a x i s o n e o f th e ol d e s t c ul t i v a te d

have be e n known fo r fou r to five

So il i s u n kno w n ,

but it w a s

t h ou s a n d yea r s .

pl a n ts , a n d m a y

I t s o r i gi na l na t i v e

probably i n Me s opo tam i a .

Th e c u l t iva ­

tion o f fl a x in a nc i e n t Pa l e s ti ne i s a tte s te d by t h e Ta l m u d .

[ 119 ]

It grows nea rl y o n e m h i gh , with s m all n a rrow l eave s , and its flower s have five bright bl ue p e tal s . Th e fruit i s a c ap s ul e ; the seeds conta i n an oil wh ich is u s ed a s foo d and i n th e pa i n t indus try. After the harve s t, fo rmerly c a rried out by pulling up the c rop with its root, th e stal ks were spread on the flat roofs o f the hou s e s to dry in th e s un . Then they were spl it and c om bed un til the fibres could be s epa rated and peel ed o ff. Th e s e were woven i nto l i ne n . The Hb a n d G k wo rd s s tand both fo r th e plan t, fla x , a n d for l in ­ en . Pi shtah and l i non can also mean ' w ic k ' . In the N T the fabric and the wick are m entioned , but not th e pla n t. Othon i a i s translated ' l inen c l o th e s ' , ' l inen c l o th s ' , ' strips of l inen c lo th ' by AV, RSV, J B a nd NEB. The Gk w ord is probably from '' etun of Pr 7 . 1 6 . R E F E R ENC ES :

Ex 9. 3 1 ; J os 2 . 6; Jg 15 . 14 ; Is 1 9 . 9 ; 4 2 . 3 ; Ezk 4 0 . 3 ; H o 2 . 5 , 9

pe s heth , p is htah:

Pr

a.

31 .13 ;

Flax

(Linum usitatissimum)

flowering plunt

b.

m a t u re

[ 120 ]

capsule

b c.

seed

l i no n : M t 1 2 . 20 (c f I s 4 2 . 3 ) ; R v 1 5 . 6 s in d6 n : M t 27 . 5 9 ; Mk 1 5 . 4 6 ; L k 23 . 53 . 1 4 . 5 l f it shoul d be t r a n s l ated ' tunic ' . othonia : J n 1 9 . 4 0 ; 2 0 . 5 , 7 bus so s : Lk 1 6 . 1 9

Frankincense

Bo swell i a Greek : l ibano s

He brew : l e bo nah DESC R I PTION :

I n Mk

F rankincense i s a bal s a mic gum e xu d i n g from th e

wood o f d i fferent spec i e s of s h r ubs and t r e e s belonging to th e gen u s Boswell i a . Th e ba rk i s i nc i s e d , and th e fi n es t q ua l i t y o f r e s i n i s

a.

Frankincense (Boswellia carterii) branch with leaves and flowers

[ 121 ]

'' · flower

o bta i ned i f th i s i s do n e not too earl y i n the yea r . The diffe ren t s pe ­ c ie s of Bo swel l ia a re native to Ind ia, the Soma l i coa s t and Ara b i a ; the Midianites i mpo rted fra nkinc en s e fro m Ephah a nd Sheba , Is 60. 6 ; J e 6 . 2 0 . Wh eth e r th e Bo s wellia wa s grown in Pal e s tine is rathe r dou btfu l . Th e ' hill o f fra nkinc e n s e ' m ention ed i n SS 4 . 6 a n d t h e pla c e name in Jg 2 1 . 1 9 d o n o t prove thi s . Frankinc e n s e wa s u s ed i n the offeri ngs i n the templ e and wa s a n i ngred ient o f the holy o i ntment. R E F E R ENC ES : l ebonah : Consult a c o nc o rdance l iba no s : Mt 2 . 1 1 ; Rv 1 8 . 1 3

a.

Galbanum (Perula galbaniflua)

part of fl owpri n g plant h. leaf with part of s w o l lPn s t a l k c . flower (female) d . flower (male) 1' . seeds

Galbanum

l;l el b e n a h

Heb re w :

D

F e r ul a ga lba n i fl u a

Ga l ba nu m i s a k i n d o f fra gra n t r e s i n wh i c h c o m e s

E S C R IPTI O N :

fro m the F e r u l a ga l ba n i fl u a , a n u m be l l i fe ro u s m e m b e r o f t h e c a r ­ ro t fa m i l y, a p e r e n n i a l w i th a s t ro n g t a p ro o t a n d a s t e m o ne m o r more h i gh . Its l eav e s a r e deeply c u t a nd i t s green i s h - wh i te fl o w e r s

ar e

ar ra nge d i n umbel s .

W hen r ipe the y o u n g s te m y i e l d s

a m ilky

Th e r e s i n o u s gu m j ui c e i f i t i s c u t a few i n c h e s above th e g r o u n d . d ifie s and c h a nge s to a n am be r c o l ou r . I f burnt i t give s so on s ol i off a v e r y p le a s ant od ou r . G a lb an u m i s a n a t iv e o f Pe r s ia . In Bib­ l ic a l t im e s it was im p o r t e d int o Pa le s t in e , where it w a s u s e d a s a n ingred ient o f t h e holy i n ce n s e . See a l s o M Y R R H . R E F E R ENC E :

Gopher

Ex 30.34

C u p re s s u s s e m p e r v i r e n s

(?)

Hebrew : go p h e r DESCR IPTION : Th e Hb wo r d o c c u r s o n l y o n c e i n t h e B i bl e , in c o n ­ nec tion w i th th e b u i l d i n g o f No ah ' s a r k . I t i s s t i l l a n o p e n q u e s t io n what k i nd o f m a t e r i al i s m e a n t . So m e t r a n s l a to r s a n d c o m m e n ta ­ to r s t h e r e fo r e p r e fe r s i m pl y to r e n d e r ' go ph e r w o o d ' , e v e n w i t h o u t any ex p l a na to r y n o te s ( e . g. R S V a n d ' Ou r L i v i ng Bibl e ' ) . Othe r s (e . g. NEB) d e r i v e i t f r o m a r o o t p a r a l l e l to th e Gk ku ­ c ypr e s s , w h i c h s e e m s l ik e l y a s the Ph o e n i c i a n s u s e d th i s k i n d o f wood fo r s h i pbu i l d i ng. I t h a s a l s o been po i n t e d o u t th at th e Wo rd i s s i m i l a r t o A r a m a i c a nd As s yr i a n wo r d s m e a n i n g ' b i tu m en ' . F i na ll y, s o m e c o m m e n t a to r s c o n s i d e r i t to b e a m i s s p e l l i n g o f a W o r d m e a n i n g ' b r i m s t o n e ' , o r s o m e fo r e i gn w o r d i n d i c a t i n g a k i n d

£? r i s s o s ,

of p i n e - wo o d GB ' re s i n o u s wood ' ) .

Bec au s e o f the wo rd ' e t s ( ' tr e e , wood ' ) w ith which i t i s c o n ­ nected , i t s e e m s s o m e k i n d o f pine t r e e i s i m p l i e d . RE F E R E NC E :

Gn 6 . 1 4

[ 123 ]

$,,,

b

a.

Gourd

(Citrullus colocynthis)

shoot. with fl owers and leavPS /1 . m a lrn alc inflorescences h . shoot w i t h male i n florescen ces male flower d. female f l ower e. mature fruit a.

c.

[ 144 ]

familY M or a ce re .

b rO ad c rown .

It is a d e c id u ou s fru it - t ree up t o 6 m h igh w ith a When ripe the berrie s turn black a n d co nta i n a sw ee t

re d j u i c e .

black m ulbe r r y , m oron , is m ent io ned in I M ac c a be e s 6 . 3 4 in a pe cu l iar context: t he r e d ju ice of the be r r ie s w a s shown to the elephant s t o prov oke them to fight . The

Apart fro m th i s referenc e , th ere i s no evidenc e , a c c o rdi ng to mo de r n bota n i s ts and c o m menta to r s , that the m u l b e rry tree i s m en ­ tio ned i n th e Bibl e . The rea son fo r its incl u s ion in th i s l i st i s th a t the AV a nd o ther old tra n s l a tions r e n d e r the Hb wo rd baka .., i n 2 S 5.23, 24 a n d 1 Ch 1 4 . 1 4 , 1 5 a s ' m u l b e r r y tree s ' . RSV and J B have ' ba l ­ sam tree s ' a n d N E B ' aspens ' . Lk 1 7 . 6 also m entio n s the s u k a m i no s whi c h i s u s ual l y the Gk fo r ' m u l be r ry tre e ' . S e e S YC AMOR E .

Mustard Gre ek :

Bra s s ica

nigra

s i napi

Th e s eed d e s c ribed in the pa rable of J e s u s as ' the i s c o n s idered by most tra nslato r s to be th e c o m m o n blac k m u s tard s eed, Bra s s i c a n i gra . DESC R IPTIO N :

smal l e s t o f all s ee d s '

Bra s s ic a nigra is now a n an nual garden herb, but i n fo rm er

days i t grew wild in t h e fiel d s o f Pal e s tine ; the Jews sowed it in th e i r fields a nd not i n the i r ga rd e n s (Mt 13 . 3 1 ; Stra c k - Biller bec k I, 6 69 ) .

I n o u r d a y the seeds o f m u s tar d , wh ich a re c ontained in l inear pod s , are not c ons ide red to be th e s ma l l e s t of all seeds (a d i stin c tio n hel d by the o rc h i d ) . But i n the days o f J e s us th e smallest quantity o f

wa s proverbial l y c o mpa r e d w ith ' a m u s ta rd s e ed ' (Mt The b l a c k m u s ta rd s e ed ha s a s ec tion o f 1 mm an d we igh s 1 m g. The s eed w a s u s e d a s a condim ent and for p r e s e rv in g food . It c o nta i n s a n o il and wa s u s ed medic inally. so m eth ing

1 7 . 20).

The m u s tard plant do e s not usually grow as tal l a s a tree , but

tra ve lle rs rel ate tha t th e y have pas s e d t h r o ugh m u s ta rd fi elds in Wh ich all th e plan ts exc eeded the h e i ght of a m a n , and wh e re birds

Were a c tu a l l y s h e l te r i n g i n th e ' bra nc he s ' .

[ 1 45 ]

The s t e m o f the mu stard

pl a n t m a y be a s th i c k a s a m a n ' s a r m . Th e d es c r i pt i o n o f i t a s a t r e e in the p a r a bl e i s , therefore , not m i s l e a d i ng. '

'

Som e c o m m e n ta to r s h ave s ugge s te d tha t the s e ed m e n t i o n e d in the pa rable was not th a t of th e bl a c k m us ta r d , but o f a di fferent p l a n t , Salvado r a per s ic a . But th i s i s fo und i n the va l l eys o f the Jor ­ dan r i ve r , not i n t h e fi el d s . Mo reove r , i t s s eeds a re too l ar ge to f i t the de s c r i p t i o n give n i n the Go s pel s . R E F E R E NC E S :

M t 1 3 . 31 ; 1 7 . 2 0 ; Mk 4 .3 1 ; L k 1 3 . 1 9 ; 1 7 . 6 .

'l u s t a rd (Bra ssica nigm) a . f l n w e ri n !?; shoot 1> . pori c . sc!:'d rl. lowc•r la m u m)

c.

fem a l ! • fioiH'r

m y r r ha

d. m a l em i m ) DE S C R IPTIO N: S p elt i s a me mber of t h e gra s s fam il y a l l i e d to wheat. It has loo s e ears , and i t s triangular gra i n s do not loo s e n from the chaff wh e n r ipening. It ha s been known from anc ient tim e s in Egypt,

b

a

Saffron

a.

(Crocus sativus)

flowering plant

[ 175 ]

b. stigma

,• /

I

� b

��

((

IIy !)

�

tt · · �

Spel t Triticu m spelta b. Trit1'c wn dicoccum a.

spike and spihlets

where

it i s fou nd i n the tom bs .

in l e s s ferti l e

and hum i d s o il .

Wh il e i nfe rio r to

Po s t ide nti fie s th e Hb wo rd w i th

w ild emme r , Tr itic um d ic o c c um .

R E F E R E NC E S :

Ex 9.32; Is

whea t , it will gro w

Tr i ticum spelta , a nd ID w i th

2 8 . 2 5 ; Ez k 4 . 9

[ 176 ]

Spices, Balsam, Balsam tree Heb rew :

C o m m iph o ra o po bal s a m u m

bo s e m , be s e m , ba s a m

DESC R I P TIO N :

'

Spi c e s ' i s

th e wo r d u s ed b y mo s t m o d e r n tra n s l a ­

tion s to r e n d e r t h e s e H b wo rds . S o u t h e r n Arab i a (Sh eba ) wa s o n e o f the pl a c e s fro m w h i c h th e y w e re i m po r t e d ( 2 C h 9 . 1 ) . Th e y w e r e

i n th e

us e d

a n o i nt i n g

oil ( Ex 3 0 . 23 ) .

In SS 5 . 1 3 ; 6 . 2 t h e y a r e p roba bl y

to be i d e n t i fi ed with ' ba l m o f G i l ea d ' ( s e e N E B ' ba l s a m ' i n

6.2).

Bu t

th e Hb w o r d s refer to v a r i o u s s p i c e s wh i c h a rc no t a l w a y s i clc n t i fi ­

abl e .

ID i s i nc l i ned to i d e n t i fy t h e m w i t h C o m m i p h o r a opoba l s a m u m ,

' ba lm o f Gil ea d ' : a s h r u b o r s m a l l tree wh i c h i s n o t a n a t i v e o f o f Sou th e rn A ra b i a . It gro w s to 4 . 5 m a n d h a s s t i ff bra nc h e s , tr i fo l i a te l e a v e s a n d wh ite fl owe r s . 1l1 e b ra nc h e s e x u d e a plea s a n t - s mell i ng re s i n , w h i c h s o o n ha rde n s w h e n expo s ed t o the air. Th e gu m is u s e d fo r p e r f u m e a n d fo r m ed i c i n a l p u r po s e s . In Bibl ical t i m e s i t wa s c u l tivated i n th e J o rd a n v a lley n ea r J e r i c h o , pe r h a p s a l s o in G i l e a d . th e

Gi l ead but

Balsa m ( .1 sfmgalus tragaca n lha.) a.

shoot

1> . flowpr

c.

pod

Wal k e r says th a t be s e rn was As tra ga l u s traga c a ntha , a v e r y s m al l pl a n t 60 e rn h i gh , wh i c h grows eve r ywh e r e i n Pa l e s t i ne . Th e r e s i n e x u de s fro m th e tho r n s a n d i s c o l l ec ted during th e da y by r u b ­ bi ng t h e pla n t w i th a ball o f c o tto n . S e e a l s o B A L M , M Y R RH a nd S TAC TE . R E F E R ENC ES : C o n s u l t a conc o rdanc e Stade

Corn m ipho ra o po ba l s a m u m

Heb rew : nataph ,

lot

D E SC R IPTION : Stac te i s a r e s inous , a ro ma tic gum exud ing fro m s o m e spec i e s o f Corn rn ipho ra opoba l s a mu m . Other s ugge s t i o n s i n ­ c lude Styrax o ffic ina l i s o r C i s tu s sa lvi fo l i u s , but t h i s i s rej e c ted b y ID, wh i c h adds th a t it is do ubtful wh ether th e c i stus ro s e i s gu m ­ bea r i n g. S ta c te i s a spic e wh ic h wa s u s ed fo r inc e ns e . S e e a l s o BALM, M Y R R H and S PIC ES . ( For illu s t r at ion of s t a cte , see page 14 7. ) R E F E R E NC ES : nataph : E x 3 0 . 3 4 (J B ' s to rax ' ; N E B ' gu m re s i n ' ) lot : Gn 3 7 . 2 5 ; 4 3 . ll ( RS V a nd N E B ' m yrrh ' ; JB ' r e s in ' ) Storax tree He brew:

Styrax o ffic i nal i s

l ib hne h

D E S C R IPTION : Th e H b nam e , wh ich m a y perhaps be der ived fro m l a bha n , ' wh i te ' , h a s o ften bee n iden t i fi e d w i th the wh i te popla r , Pop�­ l u s alba (by Mol denke , many c o m m e ntato rs , RSV, JB and N E B) . We follow Po s t , ID and oth e r s , who take it as Styrax o ffic inal i s . J B t ra n s l a te s nataph a s ' s to rax ' . S e e S TAC TE . Th i s i s a s mall tree o r s h rub 3 t o 6 rn h i gh , a native o f As ia M ino r , Syria a nd Ga l il e e . Its white fl ow e r s r e s embl e tho s e of th e ora nge tree . Its oval l e av e s a r e gree n above a nd wh i te and c ottony below.

[ 178 ]

Storax a.

(Styrax officinalis)

flowering shoot

b. fruit

In Ho 4 . 1 3 t h ree d i ffe rent sac red tree s a re m e n t i on e d , u n d e r th e s h a dow o f wh i c h idolatrous incens e - burning too k pla c e . LXX u nd e r ­ stands the wh ite popl a r to be me a n t h e re , wh e r e a s i t h a s th e s to ra x i n Gn 3 0 . But the re i s no r ea s on fo r m a k i n g a d i s t i nc ti o n betwee n the two refere nc e s .

R E F E R E NC E S :

Sycamore Heb rew :

Gn 3 0 . 3 7 ; Ho 4 . 1 3

Ficu s s yc o m o r u s s h iqmah

Greek :

suko m o rea

The s yc a m o r e t r e e b e l o n gs to th e Ne ttl e fa m il y , l i k e th e m u lbe rr y and f i g t r e e s . I t gro w s in m a n y plac e s i n Pa l e s t i n e , e spec i al l y in th e p l a i n , fro m Gaz a t o J a ffa a nd Ha i fa , a n d i n t h e J e r i ­ cho val l e y . DESC R I PTIO N :

I t i s a b r o ad h e a v y t ree , 7 . 50 to I S m h i gh .

Th e branc h e s a re

s t rong and la rge , growing out from the trunk v e ry low down so th at th e tree i s easy to c l im b . It s ta nd s fi rmly on th e g r o u n d as t h e roo ts are very lo ng. Its wo o d wa s used fo r bu i l d ings , a nd the fac t t h a t th e Egyptia n s u s ed i t fo r th e i r m um m y c o ff i n s i s ev i d e n c e o f i t s durab i l i ty.

[ 1 79 ]

Th e l ea ve a r e e v e rgre e n a n d h e a r t - s h a p e d , a n d th e fru i t l o o k s l i k e fi gs , b u t i t s ta s te i s u n pl e a s a n t . Howev e r , i t w a s e a t e n h y po o r p eo pl e , a n d Am o s ( 7 . 1 4 ) w a s a ga th e r e r o f s yc a m o re fru i t . Th e H b ve r b m a y i n d i c a te th e wa y t h e s yc a m o r e f r u i t s w e r e e a te n ,

so

tha t

t h e p rope r t ra n s l a t i o n m a y n o t be ' ga th e r e r o f s yc a m o r e fr u i t ' , o r

' c u l t i v a to r ' , bu t

' o n e who

to m a k e th e m e d i b l e ' .

a.

n ip s

(with a

Sycamore

n a i l o r w i th i ro n ) t h e fr u i ts

(Fiws sycomrrus)

part of young stem with leaf-bearing twig b. d warf shoots w i th fruit

[ 1 80 ]

Sycamo re wood , though u sed in bu ild ing , was poorly thought of in comp aris o n w ith cedar ( I s 9. 10). In the NT the tree i s ment ioned in the sto ry of Zacchaeu s ( Lk

19.4) who climbed it in o rder to s ee Je su s .

R E FE RE NC ES: shiqm ah: 1 K 10. 2 7; 1 C h 2 7. 2 8; 2 Ch 1 . 1 5 ; 9. 2 7; Ps 78. 4 7; I s 9. 10; Am 7. 14 sukom ore a: Lk 1 9.4

1'1 11, I1-

';\ .

'\'�{,\,· :;;. v,/; \'-i .,

,�,.�.

d

b

(} \\ · 1\�' .

. .

Tamarisk

a.

(Tamarix aphylla)

flowering shoot c . flower

b. tip of branch d. fruit

[ 181 ]

D I F F IC UL T PASSAG E : N E B i s probabl y righ t in tran slating Lk 1 7 . 6 : you c o u l d say to th i s s yc amore - tree , Be rooted u p and r eplanted i n the sea ' , eve n though th e G k i s s ukam i no s , wh i c h i s gene ra ll y tra n s ­ l a ted ' mu l b e r ry tree . Lt5w sugge s ts tha t Luke did not diffe rentiate between t he s yc a more and the m ul b e r ry . The heigh t and weigh t o f th e s yc am o re m ake i t a m o r e adequate i l l u s tra tion o f wha t i s s a i d h ere about th e fo r c e o f fa i th . Th i s i s a l so s uppo r te d b y the fa c t tha t LXX tra n s l a te s s h i q m ah a s s u k am ino s . Bu t m o s t m odern trans l at i o n s have ' m u lberry tre e ' (q . v . ) . '

'

Tamarisk

H e br ew :

Tama r i x a ph yl l a ,

T. ga l l ica

? eshel

DESC R IPTIO N : The tam a ri s k i s a s m a l l , fa s t - growing tree w ith du rable wood, to be found abunda ntl y i n des erts , dun es a nd salt m a r s he s .

Tamarix ap h ylla i s leafles s a nd h a s green bra n c h e s a nd a wide c rown . It has s m a l l wh i t e flowe r s , and i ts frui t is a c a p s u l e with fea t h e r y s ee d s . NE B tran slate s Gn R E F E R E NC ES :

Terebinth Hebr ew :

Gn

21.33

21. 33;

'

l S 22.6;

Tu rpentine tr ee ,

?elah,

as ' Abraham p lan t ed a s trip of gro u nd .

31.13

Pi s ta c i a terebinthus

? a l l ah

DESC R I PTION : ID m a i n ta i n s t hat the ' nuts ' m entioned i n Gn 4 3 . 1 1 a re the fru i ts o f Pi s ta c i a te r e b i n th u s pal � stina ( s ee PIS TAC H IO NUTS) . Po s t and Mol denke , howeve r , ide ntify them w ith th e Pis ta c ia vera , and they rende r th e Hb '>elah a s te re b i n th , of wh i c h the above - m entioned P . T . pal � s tina i s a va riety. '

The terebinth m a y reach

a.

'

height of 7 . 5 to 9 m, and its broad

[ 182 ]

c ro w n , h eavy b ra nc h e s an d th i c k tru n k give i t a n i m p re s s ive a p ­ pea r a nc e l ik e that o f t h e oak tree . Th e tree , w h i c h us ua l l y s ta n d s alone , a ffo rd s plea s ant shade . It i s na tive to t h e Med i t e r ra nean countries . It i s no t a n ever g reen , and i t s fl o we r s a r e s m a l l a nd inconspic u o u s . The s te m co nta i n s aromatic t u r pe nt i n e , a r es i no u s j u ic e , w h i c h flows o u t when t h e ba rk i s c ut. Mo s t dic tiona r i e s s i m pl y tra n s l a te ? e l ah as ' b i g t r e e ' , as w i th � ( s e e O A K ) . It is p r a c t i c a l l y i m po s s ibl e to d i s t i n gu i s h b e tw e e n the s e two . R E F E R ENC ES : Co n s u l t a c o nc o rdanc e .

·���I

f . b

c

j

a.

Terebinth (Pistacia terebinthus) branch with fruit b. female flower c. male flower

[ 1 83 ]

i

I .

"l

(

1 1.i

·�

/,

b

· 1/p

0

,, .

.

'

'

Thorn

(Poterium spinosum)

young floweri ng plan t

a.

Thorn, Thistle, Brier, Bramble

H e h rew :

i? e n e h ,

') a t adh ,

n a ' a ts u ts ,

Lyc ium e uropaeum , Pote rium

s p i n o s u m , S o l anum in c anum (he ­ d heq ) , Cent aurc a , S c olymus

barq a nim ,

� i rpa dh ,

shayith , t s en ,

f:l o a l) ,

�. �·

sekh ,

b. fruit

m e s u kka h

darda r,

h e dh e q ,

qo t s , q i m m o s h , s h a m i r ,

Gree k : ak ant h a ( t h o rn s ) , ak ant h in o s (m ade of thorn s ) , tr ibolos (thistle ) , bat o s (thorn bus h ) D ES C R I PTIO N : A d r y c o u ntry l i ke P a l e s t i n e p ro d uc e s a r i c h va r i e ty o f tho rns a nd th i s tl e s , a nd it i s n o t a l w a y s po s s i b l e to dete r m i n e

w h ich pa rtic ul a r p l a n ts a re r e fe r re d to . Th e y a r e c ha r a c te r i s t i c o f a n a r ea w h i c h i s u n c u l t i v a t e d o r n e gl e c t e d . ' Th o r n s a n d th i s t l e s ' ma y th us be a s y m b o l o f th e pu n i s h m e n t a n d j ud gm e n t o f th e L o r d ( Gn 3 . 1 8 ; Is 7 . 23 - 2 5 ) , o r o f th e w o r k o f fa l s e p ro ph e t s ( M t 7 . 1 6 ) . I t i s t r u e th at m a n y th o rn bu s h e s b e a r b ea u t i fu l fl o we r s , b u t o n e c a n Th e tho r n bu s h i s , h owe v e r , nev e r ga t h e r gr a p e s o r f i g s fro m t h e m . s u itable fo r h e dge s . B i bl e r e a d e r s a n d c o m m en ta to rs h av e na tu r a l l y a l w a y s b e e n

e a ge r t o i d e n t i fy t h e p l a n t from w h i c h th e c ro w n o f th o r n s wa s pla ited by the sol di ers . Z i z yph u s h a s b e e n s ugge s te d fr o m t h e t i m e o f Li n ­ n a e u s , w h o a d d e d th e n a m e ' s p i na Ch r i s t i ' to i t . Th e d i ffi c u l ty, how eve r , pl a c e .

is t h a t th i s d o e s not gro w in the r e g i o n wh e re the e v e n t too k

M o d e r n b o ta n i s t s s o m e t i m e s s u gge s t Po te r i u m s p i n o s u m ,

w h i c h fo r m s a m a s s o f v e ge t a t i o n a l l o v e r the c o un t r y . I t g r o w s leaves tw i c e a yea r , a nd h a s s m a l l r e el fl owe r s . Th e t h o r n s a r c nu ­ m e ro u s a n d c ov e r t h e bu s h c o m p l e t e l y . M a c Kay w r ite s (p 1 70 ) , " Old R o m an c o in s s h ow

s ome of the E m ­

pe r o r s we a r ing spi ked c r own s , s o the t horns may h ave be e n c h o s e n to r e s e m b l e a r o ya l d i a d e m ,

and

n o t to c a u s e

pa i n .

L a u rel l ea v e s

made up the tra d i t ion a l c h a p l e t o f th e c o nq u e ro r , a nd a t h o rn y p l a n t

re s e mbl i ng l a urel m a y h a ve been u s e d . ' '

Mo l d e n k e quotes S m i th ' s s ugge s t i o n that th e bu rning bush ( Ex 3 . 2 ) m a y h ave b e e n th e c r im s on - flowe r e d m i s t l e to e Lo ra nthu s ac a c iae , wh ich i s q u i te c o m m o n i n Pa l e s t i n e w h e r e i t g ro w s on t h o r n y

s h r u b s a nd t ree s .

R E F E R E NC E S :

� e n eh : "

E x 3 . 2 , 3 , 4 ; Dt 3 3 . 1 6

a t a cl h :

G n 5 0 . 10 , 1 1 ;

J g 9. 14 , 15 ; P s 5 8. 9

ba rqa n i m :

Jg 8 . 7 , 1 6 hoa h : 1 S 1 3 . 6 ; 2 K 1 4 . 9 ; 2 C h 2 5 . 1 8 ; 3 3 . 1 1 ; � 2 ; Pr 2 6 . 9 ; SS 2 . 2 ; Is 3 4 . 1 3 ; Ho 9 . 6 darda r :

Jo b 3 1 . 4 0 ;

Gn 3 . 1 8 ; Ho 1 0 . 8

J:leclh eq : Pr 1 5 . 1 9 ; Mi 7 . 4 na ' a ts uts : Is 7 . 1 9 ; 5 5 . 1 3 � i rpa dh :

�ir:

Is

55.13

E c 7 . 6 ; Is 3 4 . 1 3 ; H o 2 . 6 ; A m 4 . 2 ; N a 1 . 1 0 Ez k 2 . 6 ; 2 8 . 24

!? ilio n :

[ 185 ]

qot s : Gn 3 . 1 8 ; Ex 2 2 . 6 ; Jg 8 . 7 , 1 6 ; 2 S 2 3 . 6 ; P s ll 8 . ! 2 '· -- I s 3 2 . 1 3 ; 3 3 . 1 2 ; J e 4 . 3 ; 1 2 . 1 3 ; E z k 2 8 . 2 4 ; Ho l0 . 8 q i m m o s h : Pr 2 4 . 3 1 ; Is 3 4 . 1 3 ; Ho 9 . 6 s h am i r : I s 5 . 6 ; 7 . 2 3 - 2 5 ; 9 . 1 8 ; 1 0 . 1 7 ; 2 7 . 4 ; 3 2 . 1 3 ; fe 1 7 . 1 ; Ezk 3 . 9 ; Zech 7 . 1 2

s h a y i th : I s 5 . 6 ; 7 . 2 3 - 2 5 ; 9 . 1 8 ; 1 0 . 1 7 ; 2 7 . 4 t s e n : J o b 5 . 5 ; Pr 2 2 . 5 s e k h : Nu 3 3 . .5 5 m e sukk ah , m e �u k ah , m e s u k ah : Pr 1 5 . 1 9; I s 5 . 5 ; Mi 7. 4 akant h a : Mt 7 . 1 6 ; 13 . 7 , 2 2 ; 2 7 . 2 9; M k 4 . 7 , 1 8 · Lk 6 . 4 4 ; 8 . 7 , 1 4 ; Jn 1 9. 2; He 6 . 8 ak anth in o s : Mk 1 5 . 1 7; Jn 1 9 . 5 t r i bo l o s :

b a to s :

Mt 7 . 1 6 ;

He 6 . 8

Mk 1 2 . 2 6 ; Lk 6 . 4 4 ; 2 0 . 3 7 ;

Ac 7.30, 35

In Jg 8 . 7 , 1 6 b a r q a n i m i s t r a n s l at e d by s o m e c om m e n t a t o r s a s ' th r e s h ing s l edge s ' ra th e r th an ' b r i e r s ' . D I F F I C U L T PA S S A G ES :

� e neh i s id ent ified

obovat a .

hy Low a s R u b u s sanc tu s , by

? at adh i s Ly c ium europ aeum .

Po s t

a s Ca s s i a

In 1 S 1 3 . 6 l) o a l) i s th ic kets a s h i d i n g plac e s . So m e rea d J:!ol i m , ' ho l e s ' ( s o R S V ) . l)oal) i n J o b 4 1 . 2 a n d 2 C h 3 3 . 1 1 s ho ul d b e rende red ' h o o k ' o r ' ri n g ' . � ir in Am 4 . 2 is a l s o to be rend e red ' h o ok ' o r ' ring' . In E z k 2 . 6 i n s tea d o f � a l l o n i m , the pl u ral o f $ i l i o n , s o m e rea d � o l i m wh i c h m e a n s ' re s i s t i ng ' . i n J e 1 7 . l ; E z k 3 . 9 ; Z ech 7 . 1 2 i s n o t to b e tra n s l ated ' tho r n ' but ' a d a m a n t ' . sham i r

t s e n i n Job 5 . 5 m a y perhaps be d el eted ( a s s u g ge s ted by Che yn e ) a s a do uble t o f tsa m m i m . 2

fl e s h ' .

Co 1 2 . 7 ha s th e well - k n ow n pa s s a ge abou t th e ' tho rn i n the The Gk wo rd ( s kolops ) l i tera l l y m ea n s ' a po i n t e d s ta k e ' .

r 186 1

Tumble weed Whi rling Dus t , A

Hebrew :

R o l l in g

Thing

Gu nd e l i a t ourne for t i i

ga l gal

The c o m m e nta to rs d i s a gree on the identific a t io n o f �lga l . Li te ral l y the wo rd means ' a wheel ' . N E B h a s ' th i s tl edown ' ; RS V tran s l a te s ' wh i r l i n g d u s t ' , bu t s e e ma r g i n fo r ' tu m bl ewe e d ' . Bo ta n i s t s have d i s c overed a t l e a s t thirty s p e c i e s o f t u m b l e we e d s i n Pa l e s t i n e . When r ipen i n g , the se plants c u rve in and fo r m a globe w h ich breaks off j u s t abo v e the gro und and is c a r r ied along th e ground by the wind l ike a r o l l i n g ball o r ' wh i r l i ng du s t ' . Th i s i s The dried c a l yx o f th i s tru e , for i n s t a n c e , of Gu ndel ia tou rnefo rtii . thi s tl e i s wh eel - shaped , and wh en i t i s bl o wn a l o n g b y the wind i t may c a u s e h o rs e s to shy. DES C R I PTI O N :

Moldenke a nd s everal oth e r s sugge s t the ' ro s e o f J e richo ' , but th i s pla nt is v e r y ra re i n Pal e s tine, and al s o it s tic k s to the ground fo r y e a r s a nd never rol l s o v er the surfac e, a c c o rd i ng to ID . Th i s s ta tes th e m o s t c o m mo n tumbl eweeds

An a s ta t i c a h i e r o c h untic a ,

Tumbleweed a.

(Anastatica hierochuntica)

part of plant with leaves and flowers b. plant knotted around ri pe seeds

[ 187 ]

i n Pa l e s ti n e to he : Gun d e l i a tou rn e fo r t i i , C ac h rys go n io c a rpa , A c l ­ l e n i a au t ra n i , a n d Sa l so l a k a l i . R E F E R E NC E S :

Ps 8 3 . 1 .'3 ; I s 1 7 . 1 3

Vine (vin eyard , vinegar, wine, grape) Heb rew :

v i t i s v i n ifera

geph c n , z e m o rah , s a r i gh , s ore q a h kerem : v i n eya rd � l) e m e r , m a s h qeh , � o bh e 'J , s he kh a r , she m e r , t i ro s h , m e z eg, s o r e q : w i n e ?e shkol h agephen , ?e s h k o l ' anahim , ' enabh : grape

Gre e k : a mpelo s a m pel o n : v i ne ya rd o i no s : wine gl euko s : sweet, n ew w i n e � (from Aram . s ik e ra H b sheka r ) : a s tro ng d r i n k d i f ­ fe rent from w i n e s ta phul e : bunch o f grapes botru s : c l u s te r o f grape s =

D E S C R IPTIO N : Th e grape v i ne has been known fro m a n c i e n t t i m e s a n d i t wa s c o m m o n a m o n g th e Canaa n i te s . I t s hom e i s s a i d to b e th e h i l l s o f Arm e n i a a n d a ro u n d th e C a s p i a n Sea , a nd a r e fe r e nc e to th i s m a y be fo und i n the s to ry o f No ah ( Gn 9 ) who pl an ted a v i n eya rd o n h i s retu rn fro m m o un t Ara r a t ( i n Arm e n ia ) , wh e re the a r k r e s t e d . Wine i s s el d o m m en t i o n ed i n th e pa t r i a rc h a l s to r i e s . Ab ra h a m d i e ! n o t o ffe r w i n e to h i s gu e s ts ( G n 1 8 ), bu t h e a c c epted i t fro m Mel c h i ­ z edek (Gn 1 4 ) . At tha t t i m e th e u s e of w i n e w a s charac te r i s t i c o f th e C a n a an i te s in c o ntra s t to t h e s tr i c t a n d s i m p l e m o ra l l i fe o f th e no ­ m a d s . B u t the d i s tinc tio n s d i s a ppea r e d a fte r the I s ra el ites h a d s et ­

tl ed i n the c o un try. Th e Naz i r i te s a n d th e Rec hab i te s ab s ta i ned from wi n e fo r rel i gi o u s rea s on s . But Joth a m ' s fa bl e (Jg 9) and the p a r a bl e s o f J e s u s prove th a t w i n e w a s a c o m m o n d r i n k a m ong t h e J ew s .

A v i n eya rd wa s often pu t ' o n a very fe r t i l e h i l l ' ( I s 5 ) , no t o n l y a h i l l w i th fe r t i l e groun d , but a l s o a plac e which c o ul d b e reac hed by th e s u n fro m a l l s id e s . But th e r e w e re v ineya r d s a l s o i n t h e val l eys , e . g. t h e v a l l e y o f Sh a r on , a nd even i n t h e dry So uth ( Ncgc b ) , to

[ 188 ]

@) d

a.

tip of sh oot c.

V i ne

(Vilis vinifcra)

b . part of s t l'm wi t.h ( ' l uster of grapes flowpr d. �

5 9 , 60, 6 1

otlls

s c op s 4 , 6 5 Ov i s l a t i c audata 7 5 ; 0. t r age laph u s 7 6

ow l

4 , 1 5 , 1 6 , 1 8 , 1 9 , 24 , 5 1 -

5 2 , 5 9 , 6 0 , 6 1 , 6 2 , 65 , 7 1

Muridae 5 7

O X 6 , 6 2 - 63

m u s k m e lon 1 1 3

pa lm 1 60 - 1 6 2

M u sca v ic in a .3 0

pum p k in 1 0 6

Palm a C h r i s t i 1 0 7

Pand ion h a l iaet u s 83 , 84

1 4 9 , 1 50

My rtu s c om m un i i; 1 4 9 ,

P.

1 .'i 0

Naj a c oc c u s s e r pe nt inu s

Naj a h a j e 7 2

140

nar c i s s u s 1 5 0 - 1 5 1 Nar c i s s u s

t a zett a 1 5 0

nard 1 5 1 - 1 5 2

Nard ost a c h y s j a t a m a n s i 1 5 1 , 152

1 .'i 2 , 1 5 .'3 Nigclla :oat iv a 1 1 7 , 1 5 3 , 1 5 4

net t le

n ight h a g 5 9 , 6 2

n ight hawk 5 9 , 6 0 , 6 1

night

jar

pyga rg 2 qua i l 6 6 - 6 7 Que r c u s aegi lop s 1 5 4 , 1 5 5 ;

154, 155; i lex 1 2 8 , 1 2 9

Q . c o c c i fe ra

m y rrh 1 04 , 1 05 , 1 3 5 , 1 4 7 , 1 4 9 , myrtle

pu r s l ane 1 70 - 1 7 1

Q.

m u s t a rd 1 4 5 - 1 4 6

178

Pu n ic a granatum 1 6 8 purple he r on 4 1

5 9 , 62

n ight ow l 6 1

Nostoc 1 40 nut m e g 1 S .1 - 1 .'i -l

nut s 1 6 S , 1 92 , 1 93 Nym p h a c a alba 1 3 4 , 13 5 ;

l\ . lotu s 1 3 5

oak 2 0 , 1 2 8 , 1 5 4 - 1 5 5 , 1 6 2

Ocd ip o d a m igr a t o r i a 5 3 oil tn'e 1 5 6 - 1 5 8

m i l i a c eum 1 4 1 , 1 4 2

P a n t h c r a le o SO

Papiobabu in 4 p apyru s 1 2 5 , 1 7 1 , 1 7 2 part r id ge 5 , 64

P a s s e r d om e s t i c u s

pe a c o c k 4

77

Ped icu l u s h u m a n u s .3 6

pe l i c a n 1 9 , 6 1 , 65

on o c r ot a l u s 65 P h a l a c r o c o r ax 1 8 P h oe n i c i a n j un ipe r 1 6 2 Pe l i c a n u s

P h oe n ix d acty l i fe r a 1 60 , 1 6 1

pig 8 0 - 1 H p ige on 23

pine 9 9 , 1 1 6 , 1 23 , 1 3 4 , 1 6 2 -

1 64

P in u s brutia 164; P . h a le pcn s i s 1 2 9 , 1 6 2 , 1 63 p i s c i s 2 7- 2 9

p i s t a c h i o 1 6 4 , 1 65

P i s t a c ia lent i s c u s 93 , 94 , 95 ;

P.

palae stina

1 65 , 1 82 ;

P . terebin t h u s 1 8 2 , 1 8.'3 ; P. v e r a 1 64 , 1 65 , 1 8 2

p lane t r e e 1 6 5 , 1 66- 1 6 7

r a bb it 3 9 , 7 0

ram 20 , 75 R a n a pun c t a t a rat

57

1·ave n

.1 2 , .3 .3

2 4 , 6 7- 6 9

re d d e e r 2 0 r e d l i ly 1 3 5

r e d t u l ip 1 5 0 reed

1 2 5 , 1 3 0 , 1 7 1 - 1 74

101 R i t.: in u s c o m m un i s 1 0 6 , 1 0 7 Ret a m a r a e t a m 1 0 0 ,

rod : badge r 6 9

roc k goat 3 8 , 7 6

r o c k p a rt r id ge 6 4 rock rabbit 7 0 rock r o se 60 roc d e e r 2 0 , 2 6 rooster 16, 1 7

rose 1 5 0 , 1 5 1 , 1 7 8 , 1 8 7

rose of

jer icho

1 87

r o s e of S h a r o n 1 5 0

Rubu s s a nctu s 1 8 6 rue 1 73 , 1 74

R u m e x a ce t o c e l l a 89 r u s h 1 2 5 , 1 7 1 , 1 74

Rut a c h a lc pc n s i s 1 74 ;

R . grave o l e n s 1 73 , 1 74

Ole a e u r opaea 1 5 6 , 1 5 7

P la t a n u s o r ie nt a l i s 1 6 6 , 1 6 7 p o i s on 1 6 7 - 1 6 8

S a bina p h oe n i c i a 1 0 8

ol ive tree 1 5 6 - 1 5 8

pomegran a t e 1 6 8- 1 70

S a c c h a ru m

on ion 2 4 , 1 5 8 , 1 5 9 - 1 60

p op l a r

s a ffron 1 7 4 - 1 7:1

on y c h a

Pop u l u s a l ba 1 7 8;

ole a st e r 1 5 8

60 , 1 4 9

Origanum m a ru 1 2 9 , 1 3 0

Orn irhoga lu m u m be l l a t u m 2 -1 orris l O S Orthoptera

oryx 3 , -1 7

53

Oryx leu coryx 2 , 3 o sprey 83 ,

8-1

o s s i f ra ge 84

1 6 9 , 1 70 , 1 7 8

P . e uphrat i c a 1 6 9 , 1 70 p o r c u p in e 66

offi c inarum 1 73

S a l ix a l ba 1 70 Salsola

kali 1 88

s a l tw o r t 1 0 1 , 1 3 6

porpoi s e 2 2

S a lv a d o r a pe r s ic a

P r o c av ia s y r i a c u s 6 9

sandarac 1 0 9- 1 1 0

Pot e r i u m s p in o s u m 1 84 , 1 85

Prunus armen iaca

92 Pte rocarpu s s a n r a 1 in u s 88 Pu lex irrit an s 29

[ 206 ]

s a n d a lwood H 8 , 1 1 0

l-I b

!-"t.' Cko 3 :1 �and l iz ard S 2 s a nd part r idge 5 , 6 4 :; and

sand v ip e r 72 S an t a l u m a lbu m 8 8 s atyr 3 8

Sau s surea lappa 104 , 1 0 5

S c inc iclae 5 2 S c i rpu s 1 7 1

Sc o l y m u s 1 84

owl 6 1 , 65

s c op s

s c orp ion 70- 7 1

s c reech ow l 24 , 5 9 , 6 1 se a c ow 2 2 se agu ll 6 1 , 7 1 seal 2 2

serpent 4 , 2 H , 2 9, 7 2 - 74 shark 2 9

3 8 , 63 , 75 s h itta h , shittim 8 7 short - e a red owl 5 9 , 6 1 sheep 2 0 , 2 2 ,

short - toed eagle 83 , 84

Simiae 4 skink 5 2 s lug 76

snail 76- 7 7 s nake 4 , 2 8 , 2 9 , 7 2 - 74

Solanum in c anum 1 84 S o rgh u m vu lgare 1 3 0 , 1 4 1 , 14 2

sor re l 9 8

S p a l ax e h r e n bcrgi 5 4 , 5 5 s p ar r ow 7 7 , 8 0 sparrow hawk 4 0

spe lt 1 7 5 - 1 7 6

spice s 1 77 - 1 7 8

s p icie r 5 6 , 73 , 7 8

spikenard 1 5 1 - 1 5 2

spina C h r i s t i 1 85

Squ a l u a c a r c h a r i a s 2 7; S.

c.

st acte

stag 20

glau c u s 2 9

1 47, 178

Be t h le hem 2 4 S te rn a fluv i a t i l i s 7 1 St . Jolm ' s bread Hl4 storax 1 70- 1 7 9

S t a r of

stork 7 8 - 7 9

5 1; S . flam m e a 24 , 5 9 Strom bu s 60 St rut h io c a m c lu s bO Styrax o ffi c in a li s 1 7 8 , 1 7 9 Suac·da a sph a l t i c a ! 70

St r ix a l u c o

Sus scrofa

80 , 8 1

U. p i l u l i fe ra 1 .5 2 ; U . u re n s 1 5 2

swallow 2 0 , 80

1 6, 3 9 sweet bay 1 3 3 - 1 3 4

,;w an

sw i ft SO

swine 80-

Varanidae

Verm is 8 6

�r ie n t a l i s

81

s y c a m or e 1 7 9- 1 8 2

Ve s p id ae 4 3

fig 1 8 1

s y c a m ore

S y r i a n be a r 8 , 9 S yr i a n c o ne y

69- 70

tama risk 1 3 9, 1 8 1 , 1 8 2

Tamarix aph y l l a 1 8 1 , 1 8 2 ; T . ga l l i c a 1 8 2 ;

T . m an n ife r a 1 3 9

T a r ax a c u m o ffi c in a le 98 ;

T . v u lga re 9 9

t a re s 1 95

tawny ow l 5 1 , 6 1

t c rc binth 2 0 , 1 .5 4 , 1 5 5 , 1 6 2 , 1 8 2 - 1 83

tern

71

Tet r a c l in u s art icu lata 1 0 9

t h i s t le 1 5 2 , 1 8 4 , 1 8 7

T h uj a a rt i cu lata 1 0 9 t h y ine 1 10

S .'i T ine o l a p e llion e l l a 5 5 , 5 6 Trad u t ina m a !Ul ipara 1 4 0 Tine id ae

T r it icum ae s t ivum 1 95 , 1 96 ;

T . compositum 1 95 ; T . cl ioc o c c u m 1 75 , 1 76 ; T. spc lt a 1 75 , 1 76

Tul ipa s h a r onen s i s

1 50

t um bleweed 1 8 7- 1 8 8

t u rp e n t ine 1 8 2 , 1 83

truncatu s 2 2 t urtledove 2 4

T u r s io p s

Turtur c om m un i s

23 Typh a angustata 1 7 1 T yr o a l ba 1 5 , 1 6 L:lm u s

campe s t r i s 1 6 5

u n i c orn 6.1

llpupa epop s 4 2 U r s u s syriacus 8 , 9 U rt i c a ca u d a t a 1 5 2 ; U . cl io i c a 1 5. 2 , 1 5 .3 ;

[ 207 )

V i c i a faba 9 7 v ine 1 8 R- 1 92 v inegar 1 9 2 v iney ard 1 8 8 vipe r 5 , 6 2 , 7 2 , 7.3 , 7 8 V it i s v in i fe r a 1 8 8 , 1 S 9 vole S 7 V u lpe s fla v e s c e n s 3 1 ; V. n i l o t i c a 3 1 vu ltu re 1 9 , 4 1 , 6 5 , 82- 85 Vu ltu r pe r c n o p t c r u s 8.3 w a l l ge cko

.35, 52

wa lnut 1 6 .5 , 1 9 2 - 1 9.3

w a s p 4 .3

water h e n 1 6 , 6 1

wate rme lon 1 4 1 wea s e l .5 5

weed s 1 5 2 , 1 7 1 , 1 94 - 1 %

49

rulip 1 5 0

1 0 , 43

wate r l i ly 1 3 5

thorn 1 5 2 , 1 8 4 - 1 8 6

t i ge r

52

whale 2 9 ,

5 1 , 74

w he a t 96 , 1 94 , 1 % - 1 9 7

w h ir l ing d u :;t 1 8 7

ib i s 4 1 wh ite l i l y 1.3 5

w h itc

w h ite popl a r 1 7 8 , 1 79

white - l· umped dcl' r .3

w h ite sand a l 8 8

vu ltu re il 4 5, 6 , 7 w i ld c a t 4 6 w i ld goat 2 0 , :l 6 , 4 n w i l d o l iv e t r e e 1 5 11 , 1 5 7 , 1 5 8 w i ld ox 4 7 , 63 wh ite

wild

ass

w i l low 1 70

w in e 1 8 8 , 1 90 wolf

74 , 85 - 8 6

w o r m 3 6 , 5 6 , 86

wor mwood 1 3 7 , 1 9 7 , 1 98 wryne c k 20 zebra 7 Z iz yphu s 1 85 Z on u r id ae 5 2

Index of Greek Terms ena l ia 2 7 , 2 8

libanos 1 2 1 , 1 2 2

e r i p h ion 3 6 , 38

linon 1 1 9 , 1 2 0 , 1 2 1

e r i ph o s 3 6 , 38

lukos

85 , 86

g l e ukos 1 8 8 , 1 9 1

manna

1 3 9 , 14 1

gups 8 3

mo r on 1 4 5

heduo smo n 1 4 3

alektor 1 6 , 1 7

mo s ch o s 6 2 , 6 3

herp e t on 7 2 , 7 3

na r d o s 1 5 1 , 1 5 2

a l�uron 1 9 5 , 19 7

h i p po s 4 3 , 4 5

no s s i a 1 6 , 1 7

a l oe 9 0

h up o z u g i o n 5 , 7

no s s i o n

ae t o s 8 2 , 8 4 , 8 5 156

agr i � l a i o s a ige io s

36 , 38

akantha 1 8 4 , 1 8 6

184 , 186

akant h i n o s

ak r i s

5 3 , 54

a lo pex

31 , 32

hus

16 , 17

o in o s 1 8 8 , 1 9 1

80 , 8 1

o l un t h o s 1 1 8 , 1 1 9

amno s 7 5 , 7 6

hus sopo s 1 2 9 , 1 30

amp e lo n 1 8 8

i c h thud ion 2 7 , 2 8

ona r i o n 5 , 7

ich t hus 2 7 , 2 8

onos 5 , 7

k a l ame 1 7 1 , 1 7 2

o ph i s 7 2 , 7 3

ka l am o s 1 7 1 , 1 7 2

o p s a r io n 2 7 , 2 8

k a mel o s 1 3 , 1 4

ornis 16

arkos 8 , 9

ker a t ion 1 0 3

o t ho n i a 1 1 9 , 1 2 0 , 1 2 1

a r n i on 7 5 , 7 6

ke t o s 2 7 , 2 8 , 2 9

o xo s 1 9 2

aspis 72 , 7 3

k inn amo mo n 1 0 8 , 1 0 9

p a rd a l i s 4 8 , 4 9

ko no p s 3 5 , 3 6

pas cha 7 5 , 7 6

amp e l o s

188

a ne t h o n 1 1 7 a p s in t h o s a ren

198

75, 76

batos 184 , 186 b a t ra c h o s

33

b o t a ne 1 2 5 , 1 2 6

b o t rus 1 88 , 1 9 1 bous

62 , 6 3

b us s o s

119 , 121

korax 6 7 , 68

pe ganon 1 7 4

kr inon 1 3 4 , 1 3 5 , 1 3 6

p e r i s t er a 2 3 , 2 4

k r i the 9 5 , 9 6

pho i n i x 1 6 0 , 1 6 2

kr i t h i n o s 9 6

pa l o s 5 , 7

k teno s 6 2 , 6 3

p r o b a t ion 7 5 , 7 6

cho i r o s 80 , 8 1

kuminon

cho l'e 1 9 8

kuna r i on 2 1 , 2 2

114 , 115

ch o r t o s

125 , 126

k uo n

d a ma l i s

62 ,63

kupa r i s s o s

proba ton 7 5 , 7 6 p ro s p h a g ion 2 7 , 2 8 s em i d a l i s

21 , 22

e c h i d na 7 2 , 7 3 , 7 4

la c h a n o n

e la ia 1 5 6 , 1 5 7

leon

ses 5 5 , 5 6

123

125 , 126

r

sikera 188 , 1 9 1

s ina p i

50 , 5 1