r ....n
TO
r....(E
FACE TO FACE
Ponraits of the Divin~ in Early Chri>t;;,nity Copyright C 200S AUg,burg !'ortre.. , All rights r...,rved. Exc~pt for brief quotation. in critiocal aniel~, or reviews, no part of this book m.ay b< reproduced in any mann~r without prior written ptrmission from the publi.hu. Writt: Pcrmi .. ion., Augsburg Fort""' .. Box 1109, Minnrapoii>, MN 55440. Scripture quotations, unlen otherwi'e noted,.re fru m the New Revised StandarJ VeT$ion lIible, copyright 0 1989 by the Divi,ion of Chri,tian Education of the N.tional Com",il of the ChurchC$ of Chri,t in the USA and used by permi»ion. Cowr and book de,ign: Zan Ceder About the ,over a n: Lef\: Det,il "f J..... emhroned, ca. 400 C.E. Church of Sant, Puden,i'n', Rome. Middle: Detail of Dome m.,.,.ie. early 6th cen. C.E., Arian ilaptistery. R,a",nna. Right: Delail of MedaUion portra it of Chris! from "",h of presbyter;um. San Vit.le. Ravenn. , All photoo; are by Robin Margaret Iblication Dat. J.., .. n, Robin Margare! F.ce to f.u;~ : portraits "fth~ d ivine in early Chrisl;;,nity I Robin Margaret [en.. n,
p. em. Includ ... bibli"Sraphic.1 referene ... and inda. ISBN 0· 8006· 367S · } {pbk. : alk. paptrJ-1SBN 0· 8006·6092·7 (alk. paj>Cr) l. Jesus Christ_ Art. 1. God _ Art. 3, Saints i n art. 4, Art, Early Chri'ti.n , 5. Purtr.tit" Roman. J. Title , N8050 ,j431004 704.9·4SS·09011-dc21 2004012360 The paper u .. d in this publ i,,"tion med, the minimum ~uirem of American Nat ional Standard fo r Information SIiU very much l>an of humanity. And in my pielu,,,,, I wan' to say s"mething ,()n,,~ing a, rno,i, doe. _ I want 10 pa int nlen and women with" touch of the "" .... nal, wh.,... .ymbol " ..IS on~ the halo, which we try to '"'-ey by the '''ry radia nc. and vibran,y of our colouring.... Ah portraiture. portraiture. with the mind. ti>c soul of tht modtl_ that i. what .-tally must come, it sential about its subject that transcends mere surface likene>s. This is achieved through the use of color, composition, technique, or style, which includes such secondary details as costume, props, or setting thaI add important identifying as well as descriptive elements. For some religious persons, Ihe idea of making a portrait of God is utterly blasphemous. God is asserted 10 be invisible and beyond human comprehension. Nevertheless, Scriptures are fiiled with anthropomorphic descriplions of God and slories of God's appearance to humans in one form or another (a burning bush, an angelic visitor, the Ancient of Days on a throne). Moses is told that he cannot see God's face, but the Apostle Paul assures his readers that one day we will see God "face to face" (1 Cor 13:12). Jesus tells his disciples that if they have Seen him they have seen th e Father (John 14:9), even though the fourth evangelist still claims that uno one has ever seen GQd" (John I: 18). The Epistle to the Colossians calls Christ the "image of the invisible God" ( 1: 15). And, even though it avoids any representation of the First Person of the Trinity, the Orthodox Church defends the importance of portrait icons on the basis that the i'Karnation of Christ gave God a "human face." These statements of faith all claim that verbal expression is not God's on ly means of self-revelation and that Christians might well claim that there is also a visual means of knowing and comprehending the Divine- having both ears to hear and eyes tos« the~glory of the Lord" in and through the testimony of nature, history, and everyday human living. Not on ly whether but how the image of God or Christ should be portrayed is a different problem, which has been deeply controversial and divisive in th e history of Christianity. The problem of representing a divine nature, or even upturing a physkal human likeness of that One who left no certain record of appearance or eyewitness description, might be insurmountable apart from an act offaith, a belief in the gift of a miraculous image, or the acceptance thaI a true likeness is nOI based on mundane historical data but can emerge out of tradition,
XI
XII
PREFACE personal religious experience, Or eVen particular visionary experiences. And, if the record shows us anything, it is that a wide variety of different representat ions does not imply that all (bu t perhaps one ) are wrong. It may be that all are right. The nearly infinite variety of portraits of Christ that have been created by Christians in all places and times may lead us \0 one almost paradoxical conclusion-that no one image can tell the whole story and that all can show us some aspect of the truth. In a se nse, more is better. The existence of four separate canonical Gospels perhaps demonstrates this. But the same might be said of any human portrait as well. No one image can capture the whole of an ind ividual's life and character. Every image leads us to the model, while at the same lime it shows only an aspect or even a tiny glimpse of the reality of the individual. Thus, the term ~portrait" here has a very ~poxific meaning-i t aim~, like van Gogh's paintings, to capture not only the external appearance but also the whole person, including the mind and soul, and to portray that ~touch of eternit y.~ Thus, the picture tell~ a ~tory far more expansil'e an d profound than it might seem on the surface. The beauty and the truth of these images have less to do with verisimilitude or even aesthetic judgments than with the way they affect their viewers. Such images lead viewers to a different kind of understanding of the subjoxt, and perhaps even to the story arousing affoxtion or devotion, and finally allow th ... observ... r both to sense th ... presenCon. Ub. 2
Front." AdM. c.""""", (To M"' ..... Aureliu.) B.,il of CKsarea, ildvm-u, IAgai"" Eunomiu.) Gt"ll"'Y of Nys.oa, IIdwr,,,, t'"""",;",,, /i"" 2 IAg>ilUt EuJ'lOmiu,'
Eo""""",,,
5«<Joo II..... "",. Ilk..
11",,,,,,,, m .
1lI:;)
Arr>l>ius, ,u",,,", "',,",,'" (Agoi",' tho Nations) Plutarm. Ah.M" Gregory of N)U>.lk an,,,,,," "'""«IWn' (On the Soul.t>d the Rosurl'Ktionl
Toe;''''' A"n.1n (Annab) 1oJo.i, n Cod
c-""''''''' w,,,,
.'.1"""""
Oris'''' Com,"""",,um ," '''''"8ition of tho hoInuJ Plot inu~ E"",.d"
~.
IwgUOlinorlOJl F. ;th) Cyprian. Ad ""rI",,"'"," (To l'a"turuotur: E.xhorution 10 MlIrI)Tdom) Euripide>, Fmg"'''''. (Fr.rsm,n") luli.n (Emprro,), mrg"",",um Epi,,,,/M (F,.gmrnt of. Lrttll
Enol"" , PI.
~.
"" ""
Ep. ",V.";'"", Ep. ~.nd", Epid.
txp. "'/4>1 IM. _ Fid. 'rmb. Fid,onh.
-."
F"'g. < aru"h ) N'«r/I<Jr"" 0,,"""'" II,,,,,",,,, (Br;lf If ist"ry) Phil""org.iu~ II~"";' mktimrir,w.) Orig"" Ho","i.,;n N"m"", (Homili on N~mb... ) Trrtullian. fX Ula/olorrio (On Idoiatry) Luc;"', Imagi"" (b>ay> on I\rn .. i,u «) IIth.n .. ' '''' Dt i_null;"", (00 tl1< I,.:omotion)
5",. ,,,,.. /ita< (MQlo. ], of ' i>< C.tooli< Churrndo.UiollJ"hu, V. "'Y'oo. (On My>,kallbn lI""",rd Thr%tuol /Ir,;"" 1",,,1 ExpJam,"," ",,,mal Jou "",f of Bibl"al L ,rna'""
,io.
"'u"",) of Ea.lyo,,.,.,,,,"
"'U "",) of /Ir/ig;""
S,ud",
,o.
"'U "",) for s,udy of 1#0;' '" Survltmtnts to ,I>< Jou,,,,,) fo' 'he S,udy of judo;,,,, Jou"",) ofTh~kd! S,ud;" l.otb d. C ..... QmbofC r "tefoI b¥>qo.>et. Crucomb of CoIOst ... Rome (0 TO. Int=>.ltioo ..
FACE TO FACE
4
Early Christian Views orVisual Art: Historical Analyses
I
'--
.
••
•
Fog S. """" .. no, Rome (C n" IrItlion.>.l c">< e ~PnoIo; &teo Pio
en......"V.boto:Author}
whether that evolution was a good thing for the religion itself is also the subject of some disagreement. Other explanations have been offered for the lack of Christian visual art from the first and second cen turies. One argument, that the first generations were expecting an immediate end to the world as they knew it, presumes that believers saw no value in (or had no time for) making visual expressions offaith. Only when the parol/sia (Christ's return) was seen to be indefinitely del ayed was there widespread effort to establish the kind of cultural permanence that would include tombs, churches, and colle. image>,.!Orne of them painted, an d othe" formed from dif. ferent kind. of material; while Ihey maintain Ihat . liken.., of Christ ".~. madt by Pilat" at that Ii"", wh~n ~u, li,"ed . mong th~m . 11,'1' crown th...., images, and M them up along wilh Ihe image, of the philo'ophe" of the world; th.t i. I "'y, with th< im.ages "f Pyth.SO,...... and Pial", and Ar;'loli" and the resl. They al", h",'e other modes of honoring lhe .. im.ges, .fler the .lame man ner of the Gentile>."
VllVAl ART, PORTRAITI, AND IDOLATRY
9
Wh ile this short excerpt demonstrates Jrenaeus's assumption that hon oring portra it images was a reprehensible characteristic of certain heretks, he offers no general condemnation of visual art, whet her St'(u· lar or religious, narrative or iconic. What he apparently objects to is the inclusion of Jesus with the other phi losophers, and the crowning and honoring of their images.
Art and Idolatry in the EarlyThird-Century Christian Writings Because Tertullian (ca. 200 c.~. ) was deeply concerned about the prob· lem of Christians being ensnared in a polytheistic culture, his treatise 011 Idolatry extends the definition of idolatry far beyond a nything to do specifkally with pktorial ar t, For Tertullian, idolat rous practices include preoccupation with the way one dresses, the foods one eats, or the pursuit of sexual pleasures or material wealth- all things that humans mistakenly take for hal'ing intrinsic value and that they honor more than God. In regard to visual art, for example, Tertullian worries about the temptalions that artisans must face and the fact that bOlh Iheir skills and the ir lools cou ld be misused: ~ There are al>o other species of very many arts which, although they extend not to the mak· ing of idols, ye t with the same criminality, furnish the ingred ients, without which idols have no power, ... No art exists Ihat is not mother or kinswoman to some allied arl; nothing is independent of its neigh· bor,"" Tertullian even urges those in his aud ience who make their living by craft to use Iheir skills to make useful objecls that could nOI possibly serve the purpose of polytheistic worsh ip. Rather than S(;ulptors, these folks shou ld be plasterers, roof menders, Or marble masons in the building trades. However, recogniting that some fine artisans earn their living by making ostentatious and luxurious objects, he allows that it is better to gild slippers than to fashion a statue of Mercury or Serapis. TertuJlian may have had Acts 19:23-41 in mind as he wrote this, comparing the predicament of Demetrius and the other Ephesians whose income depended on making and selling images of the goddess Diana. Tertul· lian, wishing 10 support artisans in Ihei r work and nOllo reduce them to poverty, suggests that they find olher al'enues for Iheir crafl and merely avoid making images of the pagan gods. Clement of Alexandria (ca. 160--215 c.ti. ) approached the problem of figurative art from an angle more characteristically his. less concerned about Christian engagement with the habits and pleasures of Roman culture than Tertullian was, and not as fundamentally disturbed by the construction of images of the gods as a profession, Clement adapts PIa· tonic teachings to offer a more complex discussion of the inferiority of
10
FACE TO FACE
an image to its likeness, and the potential for the confusion of likeness and prototype on the part of those who view ar t. Attending to the de{eptive p<Jwer of imitation as weU 3, the allTac! ion of both material and natural objects, Clemt'nt Sth ," .. , But a. for you. wh ile you taR gr~>t pain. to disco,'u how a st>tu~ m.1y be .haped to th. highest po .. ible pitch of beauty. you never give a thought to prevent yourse"... turning out like .tatues owing to w.nt of sen<e.... Here the ho,t of philosophe" turn aside, wh~n th")' admit that human. are beautifully made for the ~ont"mplation of he,,·.n. and yet WOrShip the thin!;' which appear in he""en and are apprehended by .ight .... Lot no"" of you WOrShip the .un; ... ther 1j>OSIit lOY' I""t·"" idol in Ih.1o'OI'Id ..... Uy ..;""" ..... il< .. . h< 10m. , ..... "";"11 "th in .......... or on .. m.- in fxI ....... 0 . . m. ny sodo .nd ""'''l' lords" (I 0.- 8:4·S). ~nl1r l'ltul-.... to Iuvt c in ... t ...... (m. rom', bood on 0 humoR body). Thi> io .....Y Paul I&m.n, G,..p'," .nJ Epi"l<s ul< ,be '«m, ·h~." ..." ( h"",. "'"", ) .nd -, .... ~< . (,,;:.;" ). Fo, f ,h. m." of be, .." ( I Co, 15:49,. I" I Co, 4:4. Cluj" i, 'he imol' (';M" ) of G04 , ,n Phil 2:7. Ch,;" """ .h. f"u" (...".ph6,,) of. ,I ..,•• nd', born i" huoun lik."", (h • ...,;,;"""; ".,h,';pOn ). In C.,k" ,I.n, he " the im.g. (,;"'") of the in.i,ible God ( I : l~). M",rillDI '0 '" 3:9. human" " m" l< in the lilo ..... of God I""""';';';" ,,,,,"w). ,od in 2 Co, J: Poul "'.; ... ,h •• hu ..... n'.y "" II I>< , ... rulonocd in'o ,b. im~ (ril'ow) of 'h, of ,he 1'>Icl_,>.p'" ItO"' .h, 6 .... , .. mpl< l'lt< ",in po""itl. 'h, s< m;",,,dm1Od . nd . bwcd or into contact with imag~s of th~ traditional Gr~~k and Roman gods. Th~refor~. th~ earliest Christian writers who have been presen ted as objoxting to pktorial art were actually p of Minucius Felix, Christians offended pagans by spitting on statues of the gods. perhaps as a way of protecting them selves against inherent and ever-present danger. 1> TertuUian assures martyrs that One of the advantages to their imprisonment is the fact that they no longer have occasion to see strange gods or bump into their images and no longer can be even accidentally involved in some pagan feast or sacrifice.'" Cyprian also urges Christians to avoid looking at the idols, even declaring that Christians who did not awn their eyes from the images were guilty of a form of ap. .uch .. imag of fish, h i,d" >h< iu mod..c>., 1U,"in8 J,ji,K.>. ~, .....,.;'" rn.kn .n''P'mt i..... will n. S«n 10 ... m· moo .h .. d .. i,y, ,,,h ... ,h.n ! lewoo roovicliom .. ~_ al l(1 to $QUnd philooophi..pit< /Ilkphus'. h;'totiul m:ord ,nd Philo', phil_pIoic. 1 "S'" m«>Vf ''''' r, .... ......,." """uri« of th< Common E,. h ",,«I .0 It.... "m< «n',,"" '"SIl''' ,ho.IlI ..., >on,. I<wUh k.doTs ... '" (h" 0>'-;";'. """n, .. p>''') morr {on« rn«l wi.h ,h. p"nk" of idol.,ry ,b. n wi,b til< .... king 0( p,,,,,.,.1 It, .. '"'h. Whil< urging , .... '0 . Yid nd
Ihird.«otury Robbi 101un'D "t'I"rcnliy ".I,,,,,ed inu& p.io~ on ... 11 .... nJ R.h),i Ahu" I"',",illed Ih. ""'king of im.& in mooaie.~ Oth .. robb" cIl OT'm"'!> 01;., ... ,I.. d«q>ri.~ .. ,J d..".rn"ll q ....\i'i'" in 11 P' III Ou-i,,;'ni'y • • n ..,tll<e, .... Ur on.! ,piri .... Uy mLiah .... ed ioitlt. .od 'hmS.ibilil'" u( • ph""""",,i· ally oophi""".",!.,,,,'-< ",.pogan to m.k< .nd uo< . iIDi f".nl . nd o,oto ¥ld
R'F":.o\!Cl¢."!s ~ Y... ~ArtGa""").
20
FACE TO FACE
WOmen arriving at the empty tomb; three of the five wise brides carrying their lamps to the tent of the bridegroom; or virgins escorting Mary
10 the temple, an illustrat ion of a passage in the ProtQevu"ge/;,,", of James)." Based on the example from Dura, it seems likely that other early Christian buildings were similarly adorned. We do know that Christian
buildings were demolished during th .. great persecution of the early fourth century, and their walls may well have been enhanced with paintings." Despite certain di stinctions in slyle, the similarity between some of the themes found on the Dura baptistery walls and motifs from the Roman cata(Combs also suggests some common intluem'c and
perhaps {'ven some shared models. Although we have no extan t examples, it seems possible that certain influential prototypes (illuminated biblkal manusnipts, perhap~) provided patterns or cartoons contained in cir.::ulating books of artisans' motifs that could account for some level of consistency." In any case, given the certain fact of an emerging and distinctive Christian iconography, church authorities may well have tried to regulate the trend, especially if they con tinued to be concerned about the snares of the surrounding pagan religious or even secular culture. Surprisingly, however, we do not have much evidence of such reaction. The earliest known regulation of Christian visual or figurative art comes from a canon of a local ch urch council held in Elvira, Spain, about 305 C.H. Curiously, the canon's meaning is a bit ambiguous. Two different translations of a key Latin clause in that canon are possible, resulting in two rather different meanings. The Latin reads: Plaw;1 picwras itl ecdesia eJ5e non debere, lIe quod co/jwr et adorawr i" parie/iblls drpj"garur. One possible translation is: "There shall be no pictures in chur.::hes, lest what is reverenced and adored be depicted on the walls,M while a s«ond reverses the verbs and modifier~ of the second clause, that is, "lest what is depicted on the wall~ be reverenced and adored."" The first translation, which seems the more grammatically straightforward, prohibits pictures b«ause of the danger that certain sacred or holy things or persons might be inappropriately portrayed (or even exhibi ted to view). If one accepts this as a limited prohibition, then perhaps other images might be permissible (perhaps in other places than the walls of a chur.::h ), or at least not as problematic. The second translation demon ~trates a concern that viewers might confuse the image with its model and mistakenly offer the image some kind of adoration or worship, thereby falling into idolatry, in which case the prohibi tion primarily attends to the poteotial for misuse, not exactly on the images them selves. Nevertheless, both translations appear to prohibit art 00 the walls of the ch urch , albeit for so mewhat diffe rent reasons. Furthermore, the
VI!VAL
A~T.
PORTRAIT). AND (DOLATIW
....... otm-. d......"," .. bI ....*"ooKh bofot< tho: tun< rJ c-ur.'ID _,,'d olh.,wi .. 'p'nd th." 'i .... f...'ing . nd d.inkin~ .. tho 'Om" of ""'''~ •••atho. ,tun ''''''in! in ...... ,ho ,".."h.o Th .... in Ii ..... r"""'" .... w..... ~ t h.ve ben«" .. cspUy ... did>< ~, G,
oudo
rriiPv"'g, Th< im'g'" n..... '«1 ",,,,i .. ,n IlK I'UI ,Iu, on< «)\IIr!. in ....... , ,,,10,,, ,Ir,n m«l,.r"'g' living holy prt>rn« ,Iu, One rould < .... of . """",iou, titlih"n.lllI
,,1.
'"y
.8-"" '"
"tr""
'hi. _
' ' OJ!i ... Df F.mr!. Uciniu.). in whi
....... '" thor """" I>< .....
"'m
=, r.. ....... ,..,...tbot io. ..... I>< _
.. ....
of . .........' ... &.t """iDIJ' ............. to. .. """ " .......... "
Ow ......... aod .... of .... of-' """" 1>rtaI ft .... !>«oiot •• !
.
.h"
Eu>
""'It
"'"''''1· \\"h"h", 0' ""' .... ''' writing> obo ......,.., indica'e tlu •• in hio .i<w........ . ..""..,...,., ...... pratti«. and h, hi' ... d,,, (in on. c... tho ~mpofOr ThItop Iohn of Inwo ..... ) ,,, ""P tho ptocti« outrip\. 1Im>I . '''II 'he dd'rn.. of 'tnaS'" .Irndy cirnrl.ltin50 ho
"'VI
,Iu, m""
declord;
Iu.. ....",
l'
""""". "~~"" t!Uo _ _ ohaI _01,... ..... _
.... _ ........ _ ... c.,.r ..... '" _ ... "'$ '0" ...... ., """'" __ p;n-.of"""'''''' """' .... fuI, .. .... ....... b· ,~ of _of
_ _ ............................. "" .. ~ ....... po;a...""'O ' . LO ""....., ....
~~
.Iu,.
Epipiunius ""'" on to point out pOflf.i, of . n ""<Tior .ppnr_ .~ " mndy 0 I
"'0
only .... b"" 0' i.«. C-""'""pIa' ;",,, o{ co ..... '
.".. "10,, . nd ,hn>.tI "'" ~';Iy to ..".,..,'on . .... "h i. ,II< poin,.t ....ich til< po" ..i' '" <Sptci>lIy ",I_obi< t" m ",""d,u,ondi"! ur m"· o", .• r>
"hi.o< ",m. kir>m W~ ,on,id" 'bot ,ho ." of FO""'i' "I< .... , _ II .... 1>1;>11«1 in ,h. Ro",.n ...,.Id.nd woO, in f.a . .., ..... ul.l. "00"1 ,I>< Upporsinoi", to prod""" pia ..;.; .1>q ..... ""'" To "'M< ,.1y ,II< philo"'phcn. Th. im, ... of ,he: •• ,n,...... 'fIU.toty "inwn,«l" I»' lh< PU' .,r .!>cit ,"»gin" ion. Th. ,"1111" «.ouhl "'" ""n"in ,t.. ,o\.aI ,.oI ,' y.,(,.ho CIt,i" wa~ ....... in h .. hum,.
'0 ....
n..r
"nd«tion In .... ..rond. '" lIUrd.c..uu'1 Ir1Ob>blr
l''''k~l .. «>oh .... i•. ond oltor b, 1ft , , In 'N' C"~od _ moy ..11 "", oatlh/y bom0< imoll" ."d \I'" 'I, rtlnl """,", hi. ""''' r",. r." .h. fi .., tim, (.. ""U •• ft.o'1<ml by;u bo'"'rl.
''',ical.-.......
"
f AU TO f,o,.n Nevrnhd .... 1'1< r< prob-
lem of i""If
pan""""
en
hom, A1oun"" ,h. ern' .• oJ Orp ....... 'Tht
=.,....,,'""""",'Km. , """he< idolo of tM poIyt ...... o-.nd ,bey WCI< fol .. """ im~.· ,;.., «>pi .. of ..",,,,mi,,, ,h.a, ,... a\>oo>Iutdy bt-,o>nd d"';, abilfly." r h;' JO. of thrir o:oruid., 'hroIo«i~ . .. , .... of /oto; ItoIyIHeId Coiledg=>on -"rt I..mry).
,-
-
• •
32
FACE TO FACE
r..
12 M=1Ic f\or!r.n 0( CIwist from ~V' Io ., H;"too St toto'"" o.:.-.et late W1 <en.C!..
London. ~
Museo..o"n (f>t>o\o;Au\hoeO NiIl>Of\O/e (P>I>=> Mo"'rY "" T=ne~ """"" (Photo; ....,tI>or~
34
FACE TO FACE
r"
that portraiu of the sain ts, Io.lary, Or Chris t had arrived, at leas! one provincial but famous bishop at th ... turn of Ihe fifth century was worr ied 300ul how the uistence and popularity of su.h images still might lead his congregation astray. Noting that some of the better educa ted pagans in his ci ty had turned the tables and actually were chiding Christians for being "ador.. rs of columns, and sometimes .. ven of pictures,~ Augustine grants that such things are taking place ("would to God that we didn't have them") and notes that the practice is defended by what will become the standa rd Christian 3gum... n!: ~ 'We: they say, 'don't adore images, but what is signified by the image.'~" Augustine obj&ts 10 such an argument by poin ting out that it would be wiser to pray directly to the saint rather than to the image of that saint, an argument that might seem eminently sensible if posed to a congregation that was unat tached to such visual and material aids to prayer. Whether his congregation was persuaded or not (we hal'e no surviving icons from Hi ppo) is ultimately less interesting. however, than the fact that, accord ing to Augustine. Christians are being accused of the very acts their authorities had formerly ridiculed in others.
14. San::op/1'1!U'
of;....,.
~]S7CL T~ryof
S~
P< pain'ins 0( """ ... ito. 11= I>< lamrnto "'" lo< ",,'lIIobk r.... ... tI...ymboIo """"'8 ,ho: """"rdly mobtl< .... iddle do .... of hi> 'imo. In hi> .;....••
i,..
po ..... mooI ""po"'. ' funru..n - . ' 0 fool« m<mry .n.:! 1ftP"Unge1, ho .;..,. ... ,ho douoli'y. ptrhap$ ,hrough ,I>< .. p,.,.;"n of tho t"" . nd '''' < l;.es of f.mou, mrn. Plu,uch . .... ". ,n" .n individ ... r, gltu", ..-..y b< ddin.at",. i" of now rwnrt... indivi",.i' ,ugo'" oafI$ f....., A, In.. i, wa,' ",I"" of : AIiNrililrt Rooource, NY).
r..
I6.Augustu, from Primoporta. 1+-29 CL.V-.n
"'""" """ "'"'"
~-)
FACE TO FACE
imperial limes. Although this era was known for its emphasis on real ism, there was also a continued tradition of idealized heroic represen tations based on earl ier Hellenistk models. Scholars have noled that late Republican -era realistic portraits focused more on the expression of ind ividual persona lily through certain unique facial features , depict ing their subjects Uwarts and aiL" Possibly bas...:! on the practice of making death masks for funerary purposes (se .. discussion below), this shift also seemed to capture the Republican values of practicalily, frankness, and unsentimentality. One particularly vivid example of this. now in the National Museum of Naples but originally from Pompeii, is the bust of the Augustan-era banker and businessman Luo (Palau MM", o¢ . . T""",,~ Rome ~-)
(!'hot'"
The "man of action" type disappeared again as portraits of Gallien us (253--268) returned to t he idealized types. Shown wi t h a Short beard, this ruler's smoothly modeled and almost delicately rendered portraits present him as a sensitive person, and his upturned eye~ give him the look of spiritual or in teUe< .-Uk of omain ~'''''' qp«1~ or kI'u .... Th< i.... ,WOr\J. 10 100« .. ,I>< viewe, u..,..., who ito modd .. ODd 50 Ions .. it wp. ";Morus, or tvUk lik" 'n' di'.:n,.1 po" " i'~ Th .. ,II< q ....,;g., of mol;,.", .00 vcrioim ilitutk of. JIO< pn>d ~ "ion .nd di...,minotwn ol
."riOO....
.n. . .,!;m,. . . . ,. . '"1'""''''"
'0
1">"''';' ...,'....
">
Bn"'"
~lot>don
(Phot"Autho
~~j/-i1t"'''
_
~t
t
I
&
j .,
&:
~~
i'~.
$'!i!~i
-
>
•0
Q
>
~·i
I.
I
t
I
fi.
![!f!li!llrl
•
1.
"?[
~i!~--l . .. if~ .
ittt!;
L
' .~8"
~
•
0
0
•
-
Q
• >
< >
::~I'l.Hl~'i~r jl"'. ,r.!{1,H1l t·!f· " l =-;it 1rr t P ~i~~ f E'·'" ..... 'i:"', •. , pf' l [ . • j haw 'U,,';vN. AldwotoloJi>o. dilCOY< d.. d, wh"" ramily and fr;'Dd. _uW ~II>< of.1>< meoi; ,hrir p..... g"'''"'«< "\iQ;.,,J tl>ivaI ;n wb ....·'" fonn .........t ,,, Iu", • op«:Ul .'!"ncr, si ... n ,he oxtriOO,dinuy I bun<WIC< of monument> dediutcd to ,h. p_... f ,h • • of rho, ...... """_•• The i",pom""" af funer, .,. po"'"i" for ""riol pr..,'i« .. ......,. I<WI of Homon ooci0
t fnom
Rornon~~ probobIy eorly to mod""'t~ (mid-2rd cen. C.E~ !!ntM MoJ=.m, London
{Pt>oto; ...... t/>o.-~
48
FACE TO FACE
times as part of the general composition in wh ich women, veiled, may be represt'llted as praying (hands eXlt'nded from their sides ) or seated with attendants, while the men are shown in philosophical guise, with the scroll, tunic, and mantle (and solllc>oI~ ~ &tole B<ettma"~
left behind as graYon of. god (dj,.j /II,",). (h" io. of (II< myin, lul,,, .. whol< ..... ¥,,,r&lly odnowl< gOO. dd. Rom • . h<TI "" J<prnding On ,h. 1" " < .nd ,im< Wt .... n p...,...in(or;'o.lo.o ... diop<J . ",,", ,h, ...... ,,( ' and reliv>'" .ml;'(i,," ~ 1ti1on.:..! di".n".11>< l'Ouray" of Aug"""''' lupit" or tl>< ""........Iion ofb"
".r!«l
.po!h< .... p«roush' in,,, ,I>< coun I", lhi. "Ofi of imag WlUp«! (.......... "1 on 'hi> of
"0« .. ""r110 ... thot < mon"m'.tol ,0. min;"' .... P< ..--01"''''' "'.. 011"" wHkIy 'nJ b. ........ ".; "" j I,d
"
f,o,U TO fAtE '" , ..."j in • pIoio. ..,. "' .... - ' f ~rI< ~
01\.,., ".........
0;.,. ,.,... IiU-
"""110 .. ,,, • ....dIof .<MOo....... , ...... ..t.no ,.,_ . - t . "'1''7'> wido_
"'" noWoo(",,""" "'I' Iipo io •• _
............. of 1""-'
"'..... 00 ....u or badly < pt.1 uru;lcntoo.l to fuJKIm""" ,I>< d.""", 'h< .mrI li...-· .-.....I«.. 1»', DO •• h. 1OJ"..r< (hr;'.ulU obi. '" ",,"for di.in. bono. "" ,II< ,,,;.~ of.1I< .... p< lind of honor only dut God. A~ .. alL II< IOJ". if ,II< ""p< cui, ...,.j ,,,hie im.gpll f1" ..... boO< m.kin~ '" imaJ! .. "r livinS POHAAIT IN
~OMl'lN
CVLTVM ... ND MLiGION
rd ..... h.", ft.,,,, .1>< f.try fu.-...u,.nd '" fd M, r;m',,n , I,n dy iDCO'p,,,«I tl>< "'nrn' (Of i"" m:rntly 1"") >i'LlO1",n of Chri"i,.~ who ri,,«II"Y '''8 """"'. '" Un.!~ of ,t.. ''''p_ ""'". _
of d;";'" I. R" ...,. ..
1Iio""""
to . . .umr«i
p.o'." mo...,. . . . - Hb """'oi' ....... ioII ............ plO .piift'o ,h. 1 to , ..... in """" .h, ,01. of imp< ..... of ,he..,,1'«..... " ~I« 'ckd ......... of ci< • ........ fu_ft ... _ .... . - . , .... _ _ ..... """....., ....... I, ... of I.. olo .. riotL mr-l" . - oktpuc=rJt """,." tit< Ario>"~ ..,..inN ,II< _ from II>< Goop< ;",,11" of ,I>< ""'Pf ;, .... ""'r< """ 10"" of tho ""1"'0ly Sp;'~. ~iI ,,(Cut.oreo uoa 'h
< .."pon>", 'magIv ...,..,._ 1"110 ......... roo.d ......... y _ ... • . -. "",,,, .... _ -
_ -' _."""
"''''wo'
"Of',
-"" ......
",,-nboJ l'I' .... "'" ....... bo'_.boa ....... "'-".;d ...... ....
...-,....
"
Hi, f... "I~".. ";"n -.w ,,,... day h«,;.i< f.mI"'ror him>
d""m.
,"'0, 0'
,i.,",
'h.ku.
1"'. ,.
Im~gn
of",c
God~
fAU TO fAU
sp..:n. ""'" _f><wpt<m. btu mo .. olt al$o d~ " 1«Ilh, ho.,.. "r ""'" who ",Wd 0&«1 II...... ~ 1);0 Ch,.,...,.", ..,. ~ ... "" ...'u'1' oro'''' .nd philoooph«. Ii"... art ... Ii< "",rum,.,,,,,,, ffl ,It< JOdI .. < grnleM , n"" 1m",," 10 him ),1P"" III,;, .,.Iron," .mpl< ond , .. ,i< I ni,,', 1"" ;""1., ,".".rilno • .,., 10 tho work of moIci",.n imag< of I !I"'I m"'" "",1« i, , ...... ,h.n. limpl. «>rI' 0. im it.tio" of . ... " . d.ard fig.", .. I,.. t in tit< vi .... of """" "'puncnll. Accordin! 10 his thied·, ... b~ ... pl>rr Phi!<MI,.tu .. ApQ&ni ... ofTyo .... obju1d be • ~i< for such "'tlt""'? ApoIloniu • n,~ tNIl tit< . nisl·, imagil>l'ion" a .... btk 'hins. "prepoon' wi,h wiodom.nd ,...;"..; Ind ,h.I! W< ub"lu,ty .,( ,uch i~ .~" tbat thmmonpl>< .... ,y or ' panIhe< M O, . :o: p MJteum oJ tt...
PhI'.' ?? "" F;eIdo, 1st""" u. Ilornan =on<tructJoc:
of I.... wal l 1" """'& frnm 1>00", ... KaO. ""'" on c.ro (Photo; George R. Swain, l>t perm«ion of th ~ Kelsey
and matronl y. Reclining Tellus (Earth ) holds her cornu copia, which makes her diffirult to distinguish from Ceres, Italia, or even Pax, as she appears on the Ara Pacis in Rome {fig. 38}. There were other female personifications too: Pietas, Salus, Fortuna, and Concordia each had a particular prop Or attribute to identify her. Winged Victory held out her crown. In a similar way, Roma became the personification of the state and re
os
~ 1 9 1 _I 92cLMuseo
dI=o Y< n«011 IIi", " "50 "'" _ .... ... ""'" ,hi 11< ir mod< '" 1Itoh, ohoold I call Him Iopl. . . ....u .. po .nd .udI ptlilooophm .. I'ythogoou. Anti und
>CW'.
THE INVI!l81E
Justin
'O~ AN ~
Marty~:
TfH VI\IHE IMAGE
Refutation of Idoh I.Ild O;v;neTheophan;...
in,nim ... ""..... of 1"11"" sod> .."' . ......I· W«! rk11on~ b< dei,y Chri,,; ... , w,,,,hip. h, p,,,,,I,in> .. b .. ,n id.bI •• pp.... n" and &tory, which a nn", I>< ;mi"I«1 0' f<J'T "" n«d of con .... '" co_king , nd "'l"i,.. h"""n ,h« olfd;ngo.· l.ik """l' of Ih, Ct.";"i. n and w,i'm "00 f"UW«I him 1;11( 100 ins Mio""i". I'd .. ). lu"", ..,kn ,tu, Ch ,i"i. n. ;Wtt in """"n mp«U with ,I>< It..,hinp of 1"11"" po«. and rhik>«>I>hlin <J. bo· , .. «I IItt It .. hing> of1hi' n<W «ligioo in opl""i'ion 10 1"11'" idolatry .ud by lpooiti.. l
.in"" ..
,ho,
'hoo m",,"" .poIogi>"
'h,
c..u.
.h.
>«On'
",-God ..
by''''
Lo. "
72
FACE TO FACE
Isaac (Gen 26:24), and (apparently) wrestles with Jacob al Peniel (Gen 32:24-30). God called to Moses out of a burning bush, and ~Moses hid his face for he was afraid to look at God" (fuod 3:2-6). Although the eIders of Israel are allowed 10 see God (b od 24:9-1]). when Moses asks to see God 's glory he is denied. since no one may see God's face and live. Instead, God puts Moses in a rock cleft, covers him with his "hand" while God passes by, and allows Moses to have a look at God's "back" (Exod H: 18-23 J. God has heaven as a throne and earth as a footstool (IS " ill hio Son. b< God· htod. h. ",uld nm ~ mply ~ to t: Word .......1>< Inl'isiblt: God, but on inlerio, 0.-.'0' who,..., Illilird by .""",;a.ion wi.h ,It< matnW rnlm. hu'in"' >lu,ion (,hal the Sorond hnon WOO ,be Ill,*" of'hcst: ,hcop/ronia) -."..t 01", ' 0 'hi> 0an8 THE V IIISLE IMAGE
s..:""d Ad,o",', m,kml";'" "'m'"~ in , .... f' ... , a """ of Go< P'";''''''' ion of ,I>< D;.;n. Wo,d who. .. God, is i""i>ihl • • oo t>oondldn ... ,,,J Io:.ov< fo, ""'''ion, ' " ''''''''' who h,Y< f.oi'h." Til< Word, who ""k God known '0 bWlWl> 'brough ,h. 51ft of rrorl> fo""'''' ,II< "' .... ,...,! m.n.iko",ion of God_ in Ch,is'. "isr>"'" ott-,' wOo io.i" ,"', pruph"'. a.< , Jiff.II<s6tJ 0" ,,-/to 10,,, God ;"'0 'h< I'rq .. , i y in Cbri" fo, Ih, •• k. of the "orld', ..!val ion. Thi. di.in. inilia,' .. low;" J homan. did "'" imply COO', mu"bilily. 1Iowtvcr. ,inc, Chri,,' «h ~ I'.'oohi,,~ ,ht dudpl .. ' fut . nd ffflling ,h.m .. Iitt Lu. SupPf' w>.)'> llul COO "<xmi>«l pro.idtn«- lo ... rd lboot who ... n..tly dirtd 10 bthold God. bu, in thu woy. ">« .Dd k""", Iron ...... fw No"h I\f,ian Mino,. i"l! M.~ II :27."D« no (mortal) God.nd I"" (e...)(nno~ On OIl< tt.nd. Tmullim:og=S ,ho th.ot M. rcion ...... 10 m;"8 '" God_ Bu ...... tbrir.... ". b. if GOO co" on< nfi,n!:alla .... A, ,Io< .. m< ,im< SoconI
"
"
FAU TO FA{[
.t..O'd
",,">cu", co,..:.,," to . ho.. (b. 0< ........ l"I'" io nI. Thcrdor< or misl< oth< Son.!>ow> frth ,Iv "fa« of tl>< F.. h\I1uvc TlCV< I ....""" WQ'" Is vi>ibl< by ( its hu!tW\) n"''' ....
u.
""<mrn".'
Cle m e nt of Ale xa ndria: Philo sophical Aniconi.m and the Futility of Ido ls CliU1;' ,11< ......"'" ....,,\0 nf ho""", luod~"· II, c,i ..... !,.. t lood 'hat Ch,i.· , ..... Won, til< Pytlugf·,,,,",,,, God .. ul, oi ... fo r",... ' lind h, (ollows .hi. up with I quo •• •io n from
F..,tipidom '" ,I>< rd' ' ''Y 'I"'- (':\omrn, """ doi.....,.j PllIO btli""'! .Not (ft'';" hu .... n' m;gn. odtr.~ .1>< CI.~i t y I _ tho tru.h • • nd .1>pI. hod ,n.iripa.«I both I"' .. " d«lar • •ion Ih • • -bl",sc.lI'" Ih. pur< in h<art, for 'h< mind Of oouL ~ Thi> ~nol p«f< .... of .boo< .. ho K A Nt> T HE VIU81E IM A(;( dark" ... wlI< pet,lloobl, "" ,1>. .. ",. pion. wirh ,t.< ino!'1 r",m ,b< I:><J!jnning'" "W'by Jid ,hty D«< bown i""""oflh< sod>"'~ ""oId< S,,,,,,,,,,,j~ ... 1Im: I>< d . im, Numa. ,II< r.", ki"ll of Rom ...... _ Pyth.~''' .. n, .nd 'oid", by ,II< p,«q>< ....""of I 1i>-in@ctto e.rly Ii,., • • ny poin,ed ", Nu"",', b doy. I>< """.. 1h< _"ulO< rod' for ,I>< propl< Wpon~bl< fo, the .boIition of fo., ,n Ihri, rum more n.s>,i .. ly•• in« V.m, .1>0 n!.lin!.lined .h.1 when .h. im>g fioall)- w= im~nt.< who had b<m initialed into ,I>< my""i .." .ould fut ,hoi.
The Philosophical Argument in the First Four Centuries C.E. We have s(:cn how the early Christian writers dted the "iews of ancient
poets and philosophers as being in general harmony with Christian tcaching on the invisibility of God and th{' vanity of the idols. The pre~ \'ious passage from Ckero's treatise De Narum Deor",,, partially summarizes his teaching about the gods in one of the three main philosophical s.txt.. ttl< lium.I" mind, iI ;, pu, thm: by God," lha. thi, "'lummI of ~loIin ... ', i> g< gods eouId not p""""d to _ .. in or «>mm""a" divi... ""'h
tn. •
,,,,,n
in ,~by their ""'Yaislrn« lhcydcmon .h< 5"'io ...... no' I"'''r~ in 1M, "' ...... ~'''''Y W Mcl0: po ... go H ........ .J.o
""', .mp!' proof th.o, 'he go;.b ,1;,,«1 .nd ,h.o, Ih,y ",,,,i,«I ,W>",Ud fur lhgnitudIosi>'"
'S"""
'0
.n
"""'0 """s< latt .. do not POl"'" tQ""
c."
"'" .
Pha., ili "",;cip.ot.. CIrm..." .,.J Ot~ in iM"'I'mi"8,1>< bihli< 1'.....iSU un,il h. Mitt! ·;nto tl>< thid do'kn ... ...... ' God \0Ut.... ;,. in",. «>n1"'" "W'roi"ll ,t.. Ex;""", II to til< un' l'I""'""h, t.I • ..pm ........ ,..... . " no mal<Tial foft"" ... And "ut of thi> ""... , ..... '""'"" to Mad • human i:ood)-, hut ...11d OIl ·i....• ..... «i Ind of Philo, .nod ~ inrorpo.. tft both "'P';" I< pu,i!i.:>''''n of ,lit 1«I of all: wI> -..t 10 th< gmkn '" .11< 8\1"'" of God . t>
c,.,.. .•
"",'ifl'
,1»,
0I't:'" .....,.."
TH( INVIIISL£ COD AND TH £ VIIISLE IMACE
.ok< of d,< Wo hovins ...,., God th< w",d or at .... (th. W",d mad. n... h).a And whik Tmullilm of tl>igh' or knowI«lU led Orig.. ' 0 I>< I"'niorl.ny < !;~t <Jf God difrt1l, bu, '< unbbon< in "'" '0 "'~ .1>< liihl of II>< knowl<Jl< of II>< glory of God in the f>u of Iu, C/IrU,'U Cor 4:4 , 61. I\u>iy un"'" t>< GOO. ,or,.:. . 11 thr« ""non, of tl>< T,in i'y Oil" in>;'il>loul', pu"ui' of tb. d,,,, bright ligh' of i<Jxo,,-kJg< IOPr! prn:riv< GOO. So,h 1'< ,,,,,,,,I of t1u, inn". ;n,';,il>\< imaS'" S""" '0 m<sin. to imp!.n' ,no,hn Undrr".ndinS Jyn, mie 1"'''''' of ,i.in is critical ';IK. hu,",,, ...... ,"", d< 'I>1. """ IJ. II" .....". h< point> oot . 0(1l< "1"r..-n'atin'.f< drawn ba< fooh>h «ro' of off« ioS 1',,,,,,-,, 00" ,,, ,..-,,«I th inS....ch.ng'ng tIr< .ubii"" fOf "" N>1< oftl>< WQtJUn .nd ,I>< coin ( Luk< U: ~-IO I . nd in«,·
,h.
"'Nl"''' ,Iu, ,0« .
=
"y,."
t'"
'0(>
FA(€ TO fA«
ptd 'hot loot ""n (I.... i""'F). ,II< """""" had Iu lithl. lamp • .,.I . "'«I> ..... hn huult (Ill. "",I ). ft1'!IOVing lho ~~h ..,d rubbUh that had bmllnti~
Pi,;' ....1 . nd '''''''1''>",01 """""I ''t1'3'' "" .gr<eins wilh ,h. Gno .. '" r<J>IIdio'ion of matt ... V""ib,!i'y to. ~ of ,I« follm II". hh. """ ..... buund lu the ... r,hly bod)- .. . p....;.nmatU • ..... ,h. p!'OJ'<S'iv< ....~ of ,11>, "'.... ;,;.,., maUo hullWl> mor< ..,J """" ptl r...tly. in.i>ibIy 'piri, ... I. r.. CIrism ..t.-. to ap, in ,t...nd - bodily oa,u,,· wiU porilII. silKt ho ......u . ... bd~ thot '0 ..... wi,lH)u, .... '
bu, <
'''' -.."hly" pmon """ tht ori&inol ,mI m... t bt < po,n' wit ... ttl. lOll! i> finally obit to
.--.,hn
.tt'"
"gil...,....,.., .n"..
'0
wi,h".nd , .... fwl hril/>' ..... of d;"r.c glory. 1-10-eh;"'...!. irro""", bdi.,... .ha. ,'i,.,n oi ,II< Divine in il> IuD brillimr gIo,~ Wli· ...... tdl' ~, ..". hu ....... i"m,",".I;,I"od impl •• oou[d> by i,,,df. ,t.. wh"k m'"'' i, ""mpl;,:.,...J wh .. S«;'Uy to obou,.11< plun.ii'y .... unilyf G;..J .nd ,'" wi.h "I"""'>hip of ,t.. Word 'Q 'h, Fo,I>< Ol'l"»i' "...n. 'h< 01r1 i"",lvod in ,II< pro'I"',nli'y of Ib< inn,· ... ,ion • • • m< IMuttr ....1 1 f.". hu",",,,, '0 ........ ., to Otrioo. 'and .... Iet th< blind and tho Iamt. "'""sins w ..... to win
.,,,«.
,,,,,,,OJ
Th e Invisible God In the Four1:h Century SOOnl, befur< Ath." .. iu ..... rot< hi. " .. ti .. on the incac ... tioo. Amobiu •• , Numid;'n ron"''' .nd tta
\>"''''l''''' ...... < Empire ....."I'hin. IjQ)' from O>OOcmnl"ltxlemoi idoto'rr.nd
focuO< unjty of th< Th ... J'lh"3 in.o II", . ,roI of po/ythrum. To ill ....... hi> point. 8uiI .mpioys ." . .. mpl. well ."""," '" hi' «>nl<mpo •• ri ... po., ..i, of , .... • mPft0, tl>< Divir>< r""'3'I • • , ...."ion 11>01 will b •., i:>don3 to d", d.f..... of kuno: .1>0 • • ny honor poM! '0 ,I>< ;""6' J'Ui'" on ro .tIt prolO!yp was of the same mind, insisting that God was beyond expression and impossible even to conceive because of the udarkness of this world and the thick covering of the flesh" that serve as an obstacle to the complete understanding of the truth, not merely to the ignorant and ca reless but also to those who "are highly exalted and who love God." Gregory denies that even "higher natures n and «pure r in telligences" (he presumably means angels) are able to perceive fully, but, "bKause they are illumined wi th all his light, [they] may possibly s~, if not the whole, at any rate more perf...:tly and dist inctly than we do . .. in proportion to their rank.~ " Thus, the appearances to Abraham or the visions of Isaiah, E7.ekiel, or even Paul (when he was caught up in to the third heaven; 2 OJr 12:2·4) are partial and provisional glimpses of an indescribable mystery. !n another place, Gre gory speaks of the Son as the perfKt image of the Father, the "pure seal M
).
105
'"
FA(t TO FA(£
t"""".
.Dd hi> m",' "n Iu. _I:. pmbobly wri"~n in ,ho )91)0, GrCSOry of NY''' r"'POO«! Moon .......mpl .. of how • "'J"IiQlI ohrologion .pproadlcs tb. infin;" by "'ruistrn,~ r<mOOI'ing « who. ;, =001 _. y Clwrpm> ... """" h. gil'« dirtetoo .. , 'WIIp.....,J with ,11< ..01 ,,f "'''''' p."'icol,, oh.1p< unma(d ,I", .i'" (II< A,,,,,,,.git. (1\io.tysi", ). who .... ~ ri< "'00 .!t. ;n" .uion "fGod by fi", >«inS God in .",hly m, nif.", .."., b", fin,lIy ",.ndi"8 in'" '0< 'd",,~ of "nl:o ....;ns· on Sin,i." Th< OIX "ho ",john to kn"'" God i. _",",>«I (0 .m uJ.« .\\,,.... pt«.... by S' .du.U y "",ting all poosibi< .!rK,ip'ion~ .ffum"ion •. n,m ... 0' ""ibo«.... ign.d (0 tho Di.in, 00. 1'iion of .nd ""ion wi,b God. In . n,,(h« (,."il< (nm", Nom .. ). h< , ""'mot .... ,h. w.y ,hot. >«10:, 1'''''''''''' from th< n0I0 '" im.", ' hat hu .... n. opply to God that ... u.. fuJ at the ,,, .. of the . ..... , mu" b< finally ,bo,.Jc,ned AI ta.t, , .... "''''' .. cnm .. 10 _ _ Gphih.. of AIeoI to f... Cbrioti.w from tho ""'" of idola''}'' ""S""in, """n,«I in On< of h" >"" hood n""""h.nd .I'cod hi, portrait; and if you not on1rroortd out your heart to. pj"u" and not to a man . but dj d '" in the rr~",,,,c of the man portrayed in the pi"ur~, wouldn't he a..ume )'0\1 WeT~ making fun of him. or put you d",,·n., "02y, and in any OaK haw )'0\1 thrown out of hi. hou",?~
But, as if suddenly realizing that his arguments might be used to justify Ihe visible images of invisible things for Ihe sake of prayerful petition, Augustine adds Ihal seeing thin gs and seeing God are two different operations. He tells his listeners that God "made you one thing to sec Ihese Ihings wilh , anolher wilh which he himself mighl be seen- fo, seeing these things he gave you the eyes in your head. for seeing himself he gave rou a mind-you cannOI therefore be allowed 10 say in Ihat inane way, 'I can't see him:» In the same way, Augusline continues, one cannot see a person's soul but can know that it exists from the eviden(e of its work to move and control the body." His argument here is llilrallded in a homily on the Gospel of John in which he distinguishes between seeing the visible miracles of Christ with the external eye and perceiving the lranS(endent and invisible reality 10 which those miracles point with the mind. By analogy, he contrasts the way one superficially sees the whole of a picture in onc glance with the fa" that one must read a text through to understand its meaning." Augustine's concern for protecting the invisibility of God is also evi· dent in his responses to severa Ileflers wrinen between 408 and 414. The first, written to a widow named Italica, offers some (omfort in h,'( lnss but at the same time refutes a popular idea that, in the resurrection, God will be seen by bodily eyes. He assures her that such an idea is absurd, since God is a sp irit and cannot be s,,.,n as a body. At the same time. he also reassures her-that a vision of God is promised as a reW'Jrd of f'lith. That vision will not, however, be a bodily one, but a spiritual one." He sim ilarly admonishes a layman named Consentius, who has trouble thinking of God as disembodied, like some abstract virtue (fo r example,
'-~~"~lJ"""""""",
,
,,
' .. )'0
~
__
0..... "'''"'' Mono _
...... ,.., (L _ _ , _ ' - - \
-",,,,,,,,,-,,
",]00 • . 0 . . . . , _
--
.........,,.,..,.-.. ~,- ~
r.1_1_·'-'-'· ,_
OCoo. -... '.. .... _ 'OI-''1eo. _ .......... ,Gc.--v _
--
'."00'01 __ ........ - ,"
. ...
' .. ,!C' _....... _ 10' 0' piny). Aug"!!in . .dmi!> Ih. , it i. difl'KuJt M- hu ..... n' 10 ron«i,~ of . being "';lho.l • body. bta .... of l!>tif f.mili>rity "';lh vi, i"'< m.n'oJ 'm ..V' thor "",uki giv< God It.. li~...... of.
.ho.
,ho,
""'. .1."",
lol..... Aug."i"" , ...... up ,h...m< them. in hi, ""'1">">< to fm'" • "",nun n.m«! " .. uli ..... App.o ..... tly. " .. uli ... hod . d« ~_. Augu"in. wroo
Aug"""'"
,...".t"
< ,11uw> K>m. "su. ,lui tho Son woo ,h. _ who '»p W&lk." ANI .,."" Ch. i$t .. .., Ioogor ..... in 'ht fItoh. bu, only in ...."...of ,bt Spiri'.~ in • ..-iified full;"". ~; ....""'" ontO tu", 01 ,I>< Fot"" i> invioibl. bot ,hot 01 ,I>< Son i> vioibihall r< . .. ;n(l...!ins ,11< [),nil. ' " ... Ind«l (mrn .""h ,""~ " .. i' hou',
.ht;, ...
,h.
-~-
'im wily ,h. So:rip,u' d tdtifr th,,, "no on. un ... ,he flO< of God , tid I.iv< •• On«!"""*1" f,un> .nr """"y k ""~. his • oon 01 "",·ol·body np«o..a " milor '" dootb. which may hop-
,1>< I",ftt.ion 01 .....Io' ion. li .. tho, d...:. ib< Ilk< ,ho, of the . nsrl&. oro. w< dWl thm bt "1",1 10 tb<m" ,nd I>< obit to ... ,hinl!' tl\l, ...,. in 'hi> lift i"";";b!< , nd io "",,",ib!t. A" d In ian5""sr _old .... Lly tuv., upot! ,h. 'n,h""",morphi>' qyption monb. A...... tin .... ,to: "And
wm
,ba,
lEEINCTH E: DIVINE: 00, un. who < m.oy .n,hropomolphitd.rkt",ns of God ,n Ih. Bibl
ond < , ... .,... of , .... pu", h< ..... "od ,hi, i, n '.... ''''' of inw'""'on. Onl y lhoot who annot "&I"'" ,I>< i"",ibl< >crip'" ral ". p"..ctnioUi'y of ,I>< I)i.;in •• I>< r< i"",n>1,on-o .i.w ,hoi «v 0"' of. pokrroi< wilh COO" ... 01"< Tri"iry >pi"" • ~. [i.1n ~. .. mu 'h, Wo...:l (. od not (;oJ ) "'00 . pp.. ~ 10 "'braham. I..", I.. ob, Mo ...... nd E""id. fOrlh« 001;"! 'hot , .. ~ of ,1>lin$\00"$. V..
Rome
(ClThe~"
C01 ~ :on-t>
Est, wIIik Abr.h.m I<J'Vt> 'hem. oIk-ring. pa"., ... ilb ,I>< ",,,,«I coif In fmoo I ,I>< ,obi colo, .pp.... '" b< wIIit eim, .p«ioU y 0 onl. on, .mong ' ... bok pro· gram o( rno .. i« in Son .. Mar .. M'Mi""" ""hkh ",.. n, .h .. in",· pming ,h. mn,ng o( .h" ~ ough' 10 mol""" ,,,wid«•• ion I ,h .... COn',,' .nd C)~1< of iron"!!,,phic pro~ .. m. MOl< ,h.n ' .... n'y )"C... ago, Suz.:onn< Sl",n . rgued ,hal ,I>< rno ..i" o( ""h .h. n.-.-c .nd'he "'''"'rh,1 ,,'h hhc ' p$< c ,jn,ry«!" 'hc ,,,d of 'h, ,hi,I,~ wi, h r.. u. on h": ")"0'" wif. S. rah "ill h .... a ..,n." Th. ""m.n holding the Ch,i!t cbild in ,,,. m.,..ih.m finolly l Fig. 0\6. t-1o>e< rec ~ tho ia'w ...., Abr...... m oIIeh ;ng foun tain. flow, Ih. evangelim, Ihe living ,tream. of Chris.. "
F~
'f7. ()orn" me ....
~
"'" hand of God ~ • wr,,.\h i-om "'" ith C
Muse Pio cn.w..." V>1.On Gtr (PhoI",~),
instance, on a sarcophagus now in the Vatkan Museo Pio Cristiano, a bearded male wearing a tunic and pallium and seated on a rock receives an offering from the two brothers; onc has a basket of fruit, the other holds a lamb (fig. 50). Tne ~arded figure makes a gesture of blessing over Cain's offering of fruit and grain- the same gesture made by the figures in the hospitality of Abraham mosaic descr ibed above (two fin gers extended, the other three curled back to the palm ). Behind his head are cut (in low relief) two other faces that might be interpreted either as onlookers (two angels!) or the other two Persons of the Trinity. If this was intended as a representation of the Holy Trini ty, then the Father's older (bearded) visage, as well as the distinctions among all thre profi les, may be signi fi cant, perhaps implyi ng a subordi nationist or Arian Trinity. Or, if this is an image of God blessing the offering of Cain, then
IEEING TH E DIVINE
125 Fis- 51, 'itt. cen. u. ~ go» '" do rN1e5
t"" "'""'""
Amique (l'hoo, Vaticon City (PI>oto;
"""'"
126 F~
53. DeuitAtlos ...-eopi'>. vo. "'" TriNry v.,.,,"i Adwn ..-.d ~ (PhotcxAuthor).
r" 5•. Deuit the T...".y ~Adwn.ndE~ ,
V>tian ~IK s.ro~ ~,
(PhotAuthof).
FACE TO FACE
IEEING TH E DIVINE Father (fig. 53). On the Vatican sarcophagus, the Son and Spiri t bear more resemblance to the Father (fig. 54). Before this group are two diminutive nude figures, Adam and Eve at their creation. The Son puts his right hand on the head of Eve in each of the scenes (in one case Adam is still lying on the ground ), and the Father makes the nOW familiar gesture of blessing." On the Arles sarcophagus, the apostle Paul also appears in the scene, as if presenting the kold Adam» to the " new Adam.~ The images of the Trinity are presented in some CaSeS as identical and in others as having different facial types---either older and bearded or younger and beardless. The fact that the central figure is seated while the others stand suggests that these latter two a re the ones engaged with the world as agents or messengers of the Father (his «right and left hands" }." Given the date of the images (m id-fourth century ), the explanation for their age or facial distinction s may depend on whether the prevalent theology emphasized the identity and coeternity of the Persons of the Trinity Or tended to subordinate the Son and Spirit to the FMher. A Nicaean version of this iconography arguably would show the three faces as identical, while a pre- Nicene version would present the Son and Spirit as younger than the Father. The Son Or Logos figure may also be shown as identical with or old er than the figure of Christ elsewhere in the composition, arti stically capturing another theological idea. On one hand, the flesh taken in the in carnation must be
127
FI&- 55.Adorn ..-.d ~ WIth a..ist./l.ogo5 Or> 41/1 cen. CE Owi5ti&n ~ vpI , agu> in the t-'Meo Pio Crioto:AoJthoo")
128
F,&- 56. Det.;o;( Ador.uoo 0(
the
""Ii 0 gf idolot'1 U>d tl>< dr.'i., injul>"" ~ .. 'iolU of lb. fi .... Po....., 01 the lfizlity _ It.< a.riJ,"'~ ..."!' of rtpodL..,ing ,I>< lin of idol ..ry. Ch,i"".. do noo mai:< i""F' of God 1>«>01< lb0)'>. r 131
FA([ TO FA
