Environmental Criminology and Crime Analysis
EDITED BY
RICHARD WORTLEY AND LORRAINE MAZEROLLE
Environmental Criminology and Crime Analysis
Crime Science Series Series editor: Gloria Laycock Published titles: Superhighway Robbery: Preventing e-commerce crime, by Graeme R. Newman and Ronald V. Clarke Crime Reduction and Problem-oriented Policing, by Karen Bullock and Nick Tilley Crime Science: New approaches to preventing and detecting crime, edited by Melissa J. Smith and Nick Tilley Problem-oriented Policing and Partnerships: Implementing an evidence-based approach to crime reduction, by Karen Bullock, Rosie Erol and Nick Tilley Preventing Child Sexual Abuse: Evidence, policy and practice, by Stephen Smallbone, William L. Marshall and Richard Wortley Raising the Bar: Preventing aggression in and around bars, pubs and clubs, by Kathryn Graham and Ross Homel Environmental Criminology and Crime Analysis, edited by Richard Wortley and Lorraine Mazerolle
Environmental Criminology and Crime Analysis
Edited by Richard Wortley and Lorraine Mazerolle
Published by Willan Publishing Culmcott House Mill Street, Uffculme Cullompton, Devon EX15 3AT, UK Tel: +44(0)1884 840337 Fax: +44(0)1884 840251 e-mail:
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[email protected] website: www.isbs.com © The editors and contributors 2008 All rights reserved; no part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise without the prior written permission of the Publishers or a licence permitting copying in the UK issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency Ltd, Saffron House, 6–10 Kirby Street, London EC1N 8TS. First published 2008 ISBN 978-1-84392-280-3 paperback 978-1-84392-281-0 hardback British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
Project managed by Deer Park Productions, Tavistock, Devon Typeset by GCS, Leighton Buzzard, Bedfordshire Printed and bound by T.J. International, Padstow, Cornwall
Contents
Figures and tables Notes on contributors Foreword Preface 1
Environmental criminology and crime analysis: situating the theory, analytic approach and application Richard Wortley and Lorraine Mazerolle Introduction Historical roots of the environmental perspective Contemporary environmental approaches The organisation of this book
ix xi xvii xix 1 1 3 8 15
Part One Understanding the Crime Event
19
2
21
3
The rational choice perspective Derek B. Cornish and Ronald V. Clarke Introduction Background and history Core concepts of the rational choice perspective The decision-making models Distinguishing characteristics of the perspective Misperceptions and criticisms Conclusion Situational precipitators of crime Richard Wortley Introduction Types of precipitators Types of offenders Types of offences Implications for crime prevention Conclusion
21 22 24 29 37 40 44 48 48 51 58 60 63 64
Environmental Criminology and Crime Analysis
4
Routine activity approach Marcus Felson Introduction Clarification and history of the theory Selection of words Evolution of the theory Conclusion
70
5
Crime pattern theory Paul Brantingham and Patricia Brantingham Introduction Pattern theory Conclusion
78
70 71 71 73 76
78 79 91
Part Two Analysing Crime Patterns
95
6
97
Crime mapping and hot spot analysis Luc Anselin, Elizabeth Griffiths and George Tita The role of technology: how do we map crime and what is GIS? What is geocoding? Creating a point-pattern map and aggregating points to rates Beyond mapping – geovisualisation Clustering and clusters Conclusion
7
Repeat victimisation Graham Farrell and Ken Pease Repeat victimisation: opportunities and obstacles Evidence, trials and tribulations Ways ahead? Repeat victimisation and the nature of suffering
8
Geographic profiling D. Kim Rossmo and Sacha Rombouts Introduction Theoretical underpinnings of geographic profiling A process model of geographic profiling Training Case study Conclusion
100 101 102 104 107 114 117 118 125 127 130 136 136 137 138 144 145 147
Part Three Preventing and Controlling Crime
151
9 Crime prevention through environmental design Paul Cozens The history of CPTED – major contributors
153
vi
153
Contents
Key concepts Popularity and development of defensible space and CPTED The application of CPTED CPTED – current status and future directions Conclusion
159 164 168 170 172
10
Situational crime prevention Ronald V. Clarke Theoretical background Principles of situational prevention The effectiveness of situational prevention Social and ethical issues Conclusion
178
11 12
Designing products against crime Paul Ekblom Introduction History ancient and modern Design fundamentals Products and crime How does it work? How product design can prevent crime The challenges of design against crime Involving designers in DAC DAC – evidence of impact Conclusion
195
Problem-oriented policing and environmental criminology Michael Scott, John Eck, Johannes Knutsson and Herman Goldstein Introduction Standard policing strategy Rethinking the ends and means of policing Defining problem-oriented policing The application of problem-oriented policing Problem-oriented policing and scientific development Implementing problem-oriented policing Conclusion
221
13
Broken windows Michael Wagers, William Sousa and George Kelling Introduction Overview of broken windows The original idea of broken windows The eight core ideas Conclusion
178 180 186 190 192
195 199 201 202 203 209 213 217 217
221 222 222 225 231 237 239 242 247 247 247 252 253 259
vii
Environmental Criminology and Crime Analysis
14
Intelligence-led policing Jerry H. Ratcliffe Introduction Origins Definition Distinctive features A conceptual model of intelligence-led policing Implementing intelligence-led policing Evaluating intelligence-led policing
Index
viii
263 263 263 267 268 272 274 278 283
Figures and tables
Figures 2.1 Initiation model (example: suburban burglary) 2.2 Habituation model (example: suburban burglary) 2.3 Desistance model (example: suburban burglary) 2.4 Event model (example: suburban burglary) 2.5 A simple crime script (example: suburban burglary) 3.1 Relationship between precipitators and opportunity 3.2 Behaviour of the offender as a function of the interaction between offender type and situational characteristics 4.1 The crime triangle 5.1 Creation of an abstract guiding template 5.2 Hypothetical relationship between three individuals 5.3 Pattern of reinforcement or change after a crime is attempted 5.4 A set of typical primary node and route choice patterns 5.5 A hypothetical pattern of offences for an individual 5.6 Knowledge and activity space exchanges that occur with the interaction of a network of friends 5.7 Examples of alternative road networks 6.1 Buffalo homicides point pattern 6.2 Choropleth map of Buffalo homicides by census tract 6.3 Buffalo homicides, normal kernel 6.4 Buffalo homicides, triangle kernel 6.5 Homicide counts by census tract (a) and homicide rates (b) 6.6 K function for Buffalo homicides 6.7 STAC ellipses for the Buffalo homicide data 6.8 Moran scatter plot for Buffalo homicide rates (p
