English Grammar Guide for Technical Students: Учеб- ное пособие по английскому языку

МИНИСТЕРСТВО ОБРАЗОВАНИЯ И НАУКИ РОССИЙСКОЙ ФЕДЕРАЦИИ НАЦИОНАЛЬНЫЙ ИССЛЕДОВАТЕЛЬСКИЙ ЯДЕРНЫЙ УНИВЕРСИТЕТ «МИФИ»

С.Н. СМИРНОВА

ENGLISH GRAMMAR GUIDE FOR TECHNICAL STUDENTS УЧЕБНОЕ ПОСОБИЕ ПО АНГЛИЙСКОМУ ЯЗЫКУ

Рекомендовано УМО «Ядерные физика и технологии» в качестве учебного пособия для студентов высших учебных заведений

Москва 2010

УДК 802.0(075) ББК 81.2 АНГЛя7 С 50 Смирнова С.Н. English Grammar Guide for Technical Students: Учебное пособие по английскому языку. – М.: НИЯУ МИФИ, 2010. – 84 с. Данное учебное пособие включает в себя основные грамматические сведения по английскому глаголу и систему упражнений для формирования навыков чтения специальной научной и технической литературы. Разработаны упражнения двух уровней: тренировочные упражнения для отработки умений и навыков владения грамматическим материалом и упражнения различной степени сложности для практического применения полученных умений и навыков. Большое внимание уделяется изучению общенаучной лексики. Предназначено для студентов энергетических специальностей. Подготовлено в рамках Программы создания и развития НИЯУ МИФИ. Рецензенты: Н.А. Некрасова, Е.Н. Курашвили

ISBN 978-5-7262-1247-0  Национальный исследовательский ядерный университет «МИФИ», 2010

ГЛАГОЛ (THE VERB) «Глагол во главе угла! Глагол – это сила, власть, голос самой жизни. Глагол и ставит вопросы и отвечает на них, выражает чувства, подытоживает результаты, зовет, клеймит, утверждает, грозит, благодарит, превращает речь в силу, управляющую миллионами людей». Формы английского глагола делятся на личные (Finite Forms) и неличные (Verbals). К личным формам относятся формы глагола во всех временах действительного и страдательного залога в изъявительном и сослагательном наклонении. Они служат в предложении сказуемым и всегда употребляются при наличии подлежащего, с которым глагол-сказуемое согласуется в лице и числе. К личным формам относится также форма повелительного наклонения, поскольку она служит сказуемым, при котором подразумевается подлежащее во 2 лице. Неличными формами глагола являются инфинитив (the Infinitive), причастие (the Participle), герундий (the Gerund). Неличные формы глагола так или иначе называют действие, не указывая лица, числа и наклонения. Они не могут выступать в предложении в роли сказуемого. Английские глаголы имеют 3 основные формы: I. Infinitive

II. Past Simple

III. Past Participle

По способу образования Past Simple и Past Participle глаголы делятся на правильные и неправильные.

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Система времен в английском языке Tenses (Active Voice) Simple – факт to ask I ask 1) often – seldom He asks always – never P She asks usually – sometimes r e It asks s We ask 2) every day e You ask every week n They ask every month t

every year from time to time

Continuous (Progressive) – процесс в определенный момент to be в соотв. вр. + ing I am asking He is asking She is asking It is asking

now at present at the moment

We are asking You are asking They are asking

P a s t

I/he asked yesterday I/he wrote the day before yesterday last week last month last year 2 days ago the other day in 1945 «when» (did)...

I was asking He was asking She was asking It was asking We were asking You were asking They were asking 1) at 5 o’clock yesterday 2) when you came

F u t u r e

I/we shall ask tomorrow I/we will ask the day after tomorrow He will ask next week next month next year You will ask in 2 days They will ask one of these days in 2020

I/we shall be asking I/we will be asking He will be asking You will be asking They will be asking 1) at 5 o’clock tomorrow 2) when you come

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Perfect – совершение действия к определенному моменту to have в соотв. вр. +ed

Perfect Continuous – процесс в определенный период to have been в соотв. вр. + ing

I have asked 1) сигнала нет – важен результат в настоящем; He has asked 2) often – seldom; She has asked always – ever – never; It has asked We have asked already – yet , just; You have asked 3) this morning They have asked today this week this month lately-recently

I have been asking He has been asking She has been asking It has been asking

I/he had asked

I/he had been asking for an hour 1) by 5 o’clock yesterday 2) when you came

1) by 5 o’clock yesterday 2) when you came

I/we shall have asked I/we will have asked He will have asked You will have asked They will have asked

We have been asking You have been asking They have been asking 1) for an hour 2) since 10 o’clock

I/we shall have been asking I/we will have been asking He will have been asking You will have been asking They will have been asking for an hour 1) by 5 o’clock tomorrow 2) when you come

1) by 5 o’clock tomorrow 2)when you come

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Страдательный залог (The Passive Voice) English Professor: “What is the difference between an active verb and a passive verb?”

Student: “An active verb shows action and a passive verb shows passion”. Страдательный залог (The Passive Voice) – особая форма глагола, которая обозначает, что подлежащее не совершает действия, а подвергается действию другого лица или предмета. При этом лицо, совершающее действие, может не упоминаться. e.g. Popov invented the radio in 1897. The radio was invented (by Popov) in 1897. Страдательный залог образуется при помощи вспомогательного глагола to be в соответствующем времени и III формы смыслового глагола. Все времена, кроме Perfect Continuous, имеют страдательный залог. Способы перевода страдательного залога на русский язык I. The experiment was made yesterday. 1) –ся: Эксперимент проводился вчера. 2) быть + страдательное Эксперимент был проведен вчера. причастие: 3) неопределенно-личное Эксперимент провели вчера. предложение: II. This experiment was made by all the students. 4) действительный оборот Все студенты провели этот эксречи: перимент. Особенность страдательного залога в английском языке состоит в том, что не только прямое дополнение (что?), но и косвенное (кому?), и предложное дополнения в английском языке могут стать подлежащим соответствующей страдательной конструкции.

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Система времен в английском языке Tenses (Passive Voice) Simple I am asked. He is asked. She is asked. It is asked. We are asked. You are asked.

P r e s e n t They are asked.

P a s t

F u t u r e

Continuous I am being asked. He is being asked. She is being asked. It is being asked. We are being asked. You are being asked.

They are being asked. I was asked. I was being asked. He was asked. He was being asked. She was asked. She was being asked. We were asked. We were being asked. You were asked. You were being asked. They were asked. They were being asked I shall/will be asked He will be asked. She will be asked. ----We shall/will be asked. You will be asked. They will be asked.

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Perfect I have been asked. He has been asked. She has been asked. It has been asked. We have been asked. You have been asked. They have been asked. I had been asked. He had been asked.

Perfect Continuous

-----

-----

I shall/will have been asked. He will have been asked. She will have been asked. We shall/will have been asked. You will have been asked. They will have been asked.

-----

Indefinite (Simple)

Perfect (to have + ed)

Continuous (to be + ing)

Perfect Cont. To have been + ing

I shall/will ask He will ask

Active Voice

Past I had asked I shall/will have asked Future He will have asked I am asking PreHe is asking sent We are asking I was asking Past We were asking I shall/will be asking Future He will be asking Pre- I have been asking sent He has been asking Past I had been asking I shall/will have been asking Future He will have been asking

Pre- I have asked sent He has asked

Future

Past I asked

Pre- I ask sent He asks

-----------------------------------------

for some time for some time by 5 o’clock yesterday for some time by 5 tomorrow

I had been asked I shall/will have been asked He will have been asked I am being asked He is being asked We are being asked I was being asked We were being asked

I have been asked He has been asked

Passive Voice (to be + ed) I am asked He is asked I was asked They were asked I shall/will be asked He will be asked

at 5 o’clock, from 5 to 7 o’clock, when you come

at 5 o’clock, from 5 to 7 o’clock, when he came

now, at present, still

by 5 o’clock, before 5 o’clock, when he comes

Система времен в английском языке Tenses (Active and Passive) Time Signals usually, often, seldom, every day, every week, every month, from time to time, sometimes yesterday, last week, last month, last year, ago, the other day, in 1998, “when” tomorrow, next week, next month, next year, in 2 days, one of these days 1) no signal 2) today, this week, this month, this year, 3) ever, never, often, seldom, already, just, yet, since by 5 o’clock, before 5 o’clock, when he came

Exercise 1. Comment on the use of tenses. 1. Nuclear power plants provide clean and cheap energy. 2. The experiments have already provided and will provide useful information for the program. 3. Nuclear power plants have demonstrated remarkable safety and efficiency recently. 4. Experiments require skill and effort. 5. The development of the innovative reactor design has required a lot of resources. 6. The problem will require further investigation. 7. Matter absorbs radiation. 8. This process continues as long as the atom is absorbing energy. 9. We are still learning about these structures, and what we have learned so far is very exciting. 10. Engineers worldwide are studying physical and electronic properties of nanomaterials. 11. Investigators have been studying the interaction between these phenomena for a long time. 12. Nanotechnology is developing rapidly. 13. Nanotechnology has been developing at a great speed recently. 14. In the 19th century scientists discovered many secrets of nature. 15. Man’s curiosity has discovered many secrets about the world we live in. 16. Scientists have identified almost all the elements in the sun by their spectra. 17. Scientists have developed a number of theories on the structure of matter. 18. They had developed the basic ideas by the turn of the 20th century. 19. Rutherford had studied physics for more than 20 years when he proposed the idea of the nucleus. 20. When Newton started to write his great “Principia”, he had been collecting and establishing facts for many years. 21. They had worked on the project for a long time before they obtained positive results. 22. Young scientists will have developed incredible things by 2050. 23. Have you ever wondered what you will be doing in ten years’ time? 9

Exercise 2. Translate. Pay attention to the passive forms. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20.

Mathematics is used in all branches of science. This method is well known and is being widely used. You and everything around you are made of atoms. Only part of the heat generated in the reactor is transformed into electricity. Electricity is a special product, it is not stored. Electricity is converted into virtually any other form of energy. Nuclear energy is derived and will be derived from nuclear reactors. Tremendous energy is released when the nucleus is split. Light is radiated as quanta of energy, though today they are more generally called photons. Radiant energy is emitted in the form of photons. Many different types of reactors are built for special purposes, for example, for use in medicine, industry, agriculture and research. The first nuclear reactor was built in Chicago by the Italian physicist Enrico Fermi in1942. The first nuclear reactor was being built during World War II. A number of test facilities have been built recently. A high-tech research laboratory is being built to realize the project. Fossil fuels are being used up faster than they are being replaced. New generations of nuclear power plants have been developed and are being developed. This value was determined experimentally and compared with the calculated values. Numerous methods had been used for this type of measurements before the most efficient method was developed. Since the early fifties extensive research and development programs have been carried out in many countries, much progress has been achieved and the basic technical problems have been solved. Several prototype fast breeder reactors have been built and operated.

Exercise 3. Pay attention to the modal predicates. 1. The terms must be defined. 2. New power plants must be designed. 3. All conditions must be clearly stated. 10

4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14.

Special materials have to be developed. All the effects will have to be studied. Information has to be collected. The plant has to be protected against any accident. Studies are to be carried out. Problems have to be solved. The radioactivity should be measured. Particular attention should be given to this problem. Investigations can be performed. Adequate solutions can be found. Two approaches may be used.

Exercise 4. Translate. Pay attention to the tense forms. 1. The Sun attracts and is attracted by the planets. 2. Matter is constantly changing and is constantly moving. 3. In principle man is capable of making everything that Nature has already created or is creating now. 4. A number of new elements have been created artificially. 5. God created the world in seven days. It took God seven days to create the world. 6. An extensive database was created on the properties of nanomaterials. 7. Nanotechnologies will create an advanced technological society. 8. The number of questions man asks himself is increasing. 9. The efficiency of NPPs has increased significantly over the years. 10. Research effort in nanotechnology has been increased recently. 11. Scientists are developing innovative materials for fusion programs. 12. Alternative energy sources are being developed in many countries. 13. The safety of nuclear reactors has been developed to a very high level. 14. Ionizing radiation causes damage to living things. 15. Man has caused great changes in the world. 16. The fission of an atomic nucleus is caused by a neutron. 17. The nuclei of atoms contain all the energy that the world requires. 18. Extremely high temperatures are required for fusion reactions. 19. Nuclear power plants have been operating worldwide for several decades. 20. The control room is the operations centre from which the plant is operated and controlled. 11

21. Chemical changes are constantly taking place; everywhere compounds are breaking down and new compounds are being formed. 22. Since his first appearance on Earth, Man has been deriving energy from matter. 23. Nuclear energy is derived and will be derived from nuclear fission. 24. Perpetual motion has never been obtained with a machine because of friction. 25. If a certain amount of energy is put into a machine, precisely that amount will be obtained – no more and no less. 26. Approximate estimates may be obtained from previous experience. 27. Fusion devices are being studied in several configurations. 28. The phenomenon has been studied intensively since its discovery. 29. The phenomenon has been studied. 30. Every fast-neutron reactor that has been built or is being built in the world today uses liquid metal as a coolant. 31. Towards the end of the 19th century physicists thought that they had completely understood the way the physical universe worked. 32. The French scientist Henri Becquerel was working with a uranium compound when he discovered the phenomenon of radioactivity. 33. After Becquerel had made a number of experiments, he confirmed that a new phenomenon had been discovered. Exercise 5. Change from Active into Passive. 1. Columbus discovered America in 1492. 2. Mendeleyev established the Periodic Law of elements. 3. J. J. Thomson discovered the electron in 1897. 4. E. Rutherford proposed the nuclear atom model. 5. Chadwick discovered the neutron in 1932. 6. The Americans made the first landing on the moon in 1969. 7. Matter absorbs radiation. 8. The Sun emits photons of light. 9. Gravity attracts every body to the centre of the earth. 10. Experiments require skill and effort. 11. Scientists speak English at international conferences. 12. Nuclear forces hold the atoms together. 13. Scientists have created artificial elements. 14. Man’s curiosity has discovered Nature’s secrets to us. 15. Scientists have proved the hypothesis. 12

16. They are building a high-tech laboratory to realize the project. 17. Scientists are developing alternative energy sources. 18. The committee will announce the names of the Nobel Prize winners in May. 19. Charles Townes produced the first laser in 1960. 20. The problem will require further investigation. 21. Ionizing radiation can damage living things. 22. NPPs can provide clean and cheap energy. 23. They cannot store energy. 24. They should respect radiation. 25. They must improve the reactor safety. Особенности Passive Voice в английском языке Pattern 1 We were shown the new laboratory. Нам показали новую лабораторию. He was given a topic for his report. Ему дали тему для доклада. Learn the verbs to show – showed – shown – показывать to tell – told – told – рассказывать, говорить to give – gave – given – давать to promise – обещать to offer – предлагать to allow, to permit – позволять Exercise 6. Translate into Russian. 1. The students were shown a number of experiments. 2. They were shown a diagram (a new film, etc.). 3. The man was shown the way. 4. The students were told about the modern achievements in physics. 5. We have just been told the news. 6. The students were given an important task to do. 7. The positive particle in the nucleus was given the name of the proton. 8. The function is given the proper value. 9. The laboratory was given new equipment. 10. They have been given all the necessary information. 11. They were promised an interesting paper on the subject. 13

12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17.

I was promised immediate help. The laboratory was promised all the necessary equipment. I was offered a cup of tea. We were offered some interesting work to do. The student was offered an interesting job. They were informed of a new invention.

Pattern 2 These data are referred to. На эти данные ссылаются. This paper will be dealt with later on. С этой статьей будут иметь дело позже. Learn the verbs to refer to – ссылаться на to account for – объяснять чем-то to be referred to as – называться to speak of (about) – говорить о to deal with – иметь дело с to think of (about) – думать о to act on (upon) – действовать на to send for – посылать за to depend on (upon) – зависеть от, to look for –искать полагаться на to look after – присматривать за to rely on (upon) – полагаться на to look at – смотреть на to insist on – настаивать на to work at – работать над Exercise 7. Translate into Russian. 1. This theory (paper, book, information, source) is often referred to. 2. Newton’s laws of motion are often referred to. 3. These data will be referred to in the next paper. 4. This minute particle is referred to as an atom. 5. Motion is dealt with in kinematics. 6. Different forms of energy are dealt with in the present article. 7. This problem will not be dealt with unless more precise experimental data are obtained. 8. Safety is dealt with at many levels. 9. The charged particle is acted upon by forces. 10. The plan was insisted upon. 11. These terms will be insisted upon. 12. These terms were agreed upon. 13. This instrument is not relied upon because it is not accurate enough. 14. This student (information, data, device) can be relied upon. 14

15. My watch cannot be relied upon. It is fast (slow). 16. These data are not accounted for by the existing theory. 17. The phenomenon was accounted for by a strong emission of gamma-rays. 18. How is this phenomenon accounted for? 19. This book (paper, film, event) is much spoken about. 20. His invention was much spoken about. 21. The achievements in this field will be spoken about at the conference. 22. The equipment was sent for. 23. New ways of solving the problem must be looked for. 24. They were looked at with great interest. 25. They were listened to with great interest. 26. Galileo was laughed at by the people. Why was he laughed at? 27. Such changes are never met with. 28. Single atoms of oxygen are seldom met with. 29. Difficulties are often met with in solving scientific problems. Pattern 3 1. The report was followed by a discussion. За докладом последовало обсуждение. 2. The reaction is influenced by temperature. На реакцию влияет температура. Learn the verbs to follow – 1) следовать за; 2) придерживаться (точки зрения) to affect – влиять на, действовать на to influence – влиять на, действовать на to join – присоединяться к to answer – отвечать на to watch – следить за Exercise 8. Translate into Russian. 1. Winter is followed by spring. 2. This discussion is followed by a brief description of the device. 3. The discovery of radium was followed by many important discoveries. 4. The question was followed by an answer. The answer was followed by many other questions. 5. The experiment will be followed by data-processing. 15

6. In mechanics the study of kinematics is followed by the study of dynamics. 7. An interesting method was followed in investigating this phenomenon. 8. This method must be followed in the experiment. 9. The climate of Great Britain is affected by the sea. 10. Gold is not affected by corrosion. 11. The accuracy of the device is affected by a number of factors. 12. The operation of semiconductor devices is greatly affected by temperature. 13. The rate of a reaction is influenced by many factors. 14. The results are influenced by changes in temperature. 15. The behaviour of the proton beam is influenced by a variety of factors. 16. Everything is naturally radioactive and is affected by radiation. 17. Some people are easily influenced by other people’s opinions. 18. Our group was joined by some new students. 19. The letter will be answered immediately. 20. Scientific problems must be stated clearly and answered exactly. 21. The experiment was watched with great interest by everybody. 22. The conference was addressed by nuclear scientists. 23. The phenomenon was approached experimentally. Exercise 9. Change from Active into Passive 1. The programmer tells the computer what to do. 2. They asked me some difficult questions at the interview. 3. When he applied to the firm, they offered him a job. 4. They didn’t give us any useful advice. 5. They will give you plenty of time to decide. 6. Scientists gave the last constituent of matter the strange name of a “quark”. 7. Have they shown you the new laboratory? 8. The scientists referred to this method in their paper. 9. Designers refer to the logical organization of the computer as architecture. 10. Control room operators rely on instrumentation and control systems (I&C). 11. Programmers deal with a virus by means of a vaccine program. 12. The employers paid the men to do the work. 16

13. These days scientists pay great attention to the “man-machine” interface. 14. The scientists accounted for the phenomenon by the existing theory. 15. The new model accounts for these observations. 16. Scientists hope they will soon rely on fusion power. 17. They are looking for new sources of energy. 18. They didn’t answer the question asked. 19. Radiation affects living things. 20. Ionizing radiation can damage living cells. 21. Experience answers many questions. 22. A heated discussion followed the report. 23. The scientists followed the most accurate method in the experiment. 24. Human decision makers are not always rational. Emotion and instinct often influence them. 25. Noise affects people in different ways. 26. Noise pollution affects task performance. 27. Nuclear physicists addressed the project at the conference. 28. They approached the problem from a different standpoint. 29. The systems take advantage of man’s superior abilities to make complex decisions. Exercise 10. Translate from Russian into English using passive forms. 1. Студентам показали ряд экспериментов. 2. Им рассказали о современных достижениях в физике. 3. Им обещали интересную статью на данную тему. 4. Лаборатории предложили все необходимое оборудование. 5. На эти данные будут ссылаться в следующей статье. 6. Эта частица называется атомом. 7. В данной статье имеют дело с разными формами энергии. 8. На заряженную частицу действуют силы. 9. На этого студента нельзя полагаться. 10. За врачом послали. 11. Их слушали с большим вниманием. 12. За вопросом последовал ответ. За ответом последовало много других вопросов. 13. На климат Великобритании влияет море. 14. На результаты влияет ряд факторов. 15. На письмо ответят сразу. 17

Pattern 4 1. Computers are widely made use of. Компьютеры широко используются. 2. Reference is made to earlier studies. Ссылаются на ранние исследования. Learn the following expressions 1) to give attention to – уделять внимание 2) to pay attention to – уделять внимание 3) to make use of = to use – использовать 4) to make reference to = to refer to – ссылаться на 5) to make mention of = to mention – упоминать 6) to make provision for = to provide for – предусматривать 7) to take care of – заботиться, стараться, учитывать 8) to take account of = to take into account – принимать во внимание, учитывать 9) to take advantage of – использовать Exercise 11. Translate into Russian. 1. Special attention has been paid to the research work. 2. Attention has been called to this phenomenon. 3. This method is widely made use of in practice. 4. At present extensive use is made of chemical methods of purifying water. 5. Any other computer may be made use of in this case. 6. Today there is hardly a field in which radioactive substances are not made use of. 7. Reference has been made to this phenomenon (fact). 8. Reference will be made to Chapter 3. 9. For comparison reference is made to earlier studies by other authors. 10. In this chapter no mention is made of this law. 11. The experiment has already been made mention of. 12. Provision should be made to identify the position of the emitted beam. 13. This phenomenon is taken care of in the experiment. 14. Care is taken not to heat this substance. 15. Care must be taken in handling radioactive substances. 16. These effects were taken account of in carrying out the experiment. 17. Account should be taken of the low melting point of the substance. 18

18. In testing the device many defects were taken account of and removed. 19. Advantage is often taken of this phenomenon. The phenomenon is often taken advantage of. 20. Advantage must be taken of some special properties of this material. Exercise 12. General Revision. Translate. Pay attention to the tense forms. 1. Read the problem several times until you understand exactly what is given and what is to be found. 2. We are given protection from cosmic rays by the earth’s atmosphere. 3. The hadrons are not elementary but are made up of the more fundamental entities that have been given the name “quarks”. 4. The disposal of nuclear waste is given great attention to in this paper. 5. Our age is referred to as the age of electronics. 6. The 19th century was spoken about as the age of steam. 7. The first radio programs were listened to with the help of headphones. 8. Heat has the property of changing a liquid into gas. This change is generally referred to as evaporation. 9. Many methods for detection of uranium have been proposed for use under various conditions and only a few can be referred to here. 10. Radiation from cosmic rays is referred to as natural background radiation. 11. Analysis is naturally followed by synthesis. 12. The usual procedure is that information storage is followed by information analysis. 13. The method described above is the most accurate and it should be followed when great accuracy is required. 14. Theoretical studies for the personnel are followed by tests and training with simulators. 15. Such questions are not easily answered. 16. These properties are affected by the composition of the material. 17. In gaseous reactions the equilibrium position is largely influenced by pressure. 18. The charge of an atom is not affected by the number of neutrons present but depends on the balance between electrons and protons. 19. The design of a fusion reactor is affected by experience from small fusion devices. 19

20. Many scientific projects study how the aquatic life is influenced by heat discharges from NPPs. 21. Radiation is not affected by chemical changes, temperature or pressure. 22. The data are rather contradictory. They cannot be relied upon. 23. Experience has shown that nuclear power can be relied upon. 24. This technique, when properly applied, can be relied on. 25. The stability of the atom is accounted for by the electric attraction within the atom. 26. How can the existence of neutrons be accounted for? 27. The difference in mass was accounted for by static energy. 28. Air pollution is mostly accounted for by burning fossil fuel. 29. The design was dealt with by the professionals. 30. The process of burning, or combustion, is generally referred to chemically as oxidation. 31. The orbits in which the electrons travel around the nucleus are often referred to as “shells” by physical chemists. 32. The properties of matter can be accounted for in terms of forces. 33. For centuries, coal, oil and water had been looked upon as the main sources of energy before the new and more powerful source was discovered. 34. Particular attention is paid to the sequence of events in an accident. 35. The fixed-point theorem is made use of in the theory of games. 36. We know that the neutron is electrically neutral and use can be made of that property. 37. Reference was made to the results of the collision of fundamental particles. 38. Mention is made of the size and properties of the smaller constituents of matter. 39. Care must be taken in measuring radioactivity. 40. Care should be taken to ensure reliability of these data. 41. Advantage is often taken of the effect of temperature on solubility. 42. Attention should be called to the fact that radioactive phenomena are so completely spontaneous that they are not affected by physical or chemical changes in the elements involved. 43. The electrons were pictured as very small charged bodies which generated the field and were acted upon by forces due to the field. 44. The value of life lies not in the length of days but in the use we make of them; a man may live long and yet get little from life (Montaigne). 20

Согласование времен (Sequence of tenses) В английском языке время сказуемого в придаточном предложении (дополнительном, подлежащем и сказуемом) зависит от времени сказуемого в главном предложении и может выражать одновременность, предшествование и последующее действие. Pattern 1 1) одновременное действие he works in the field of physics he is working in the field of physics 2) предшествующее действие he worked in the field of physics He says that he has worked in the field of physics he has been working in the field of physics 3) последующее действие he will work in the field of physics Pattern 2 1) одновременное действие he worked in the field of physics he was working in the field of physics He said 2) предшествующее действие he had worked in the field of physics he had been working in the field of physics 3) последующее действие he would work in the field of physics Exercise 13. Translate. Pay attention to the sequence of tenses. 1. Scientists always believed that certain facts of the physical world were absolute, that they would never change. 2. Scientists always believed that it was impossible to stop progress in science and technology. 3. Roentgen found that radiation from a cathode-ray tube penetrated matter. 4. During his experiments the French scientist Becquerel noticed that uranium emitted radiations when it was acted upon by sunlight. 5. Marie Curie decided to learn whether any other elements gave off rays like uranium. 21

6. In 1898 Marie and Pierre Curie discovered that radium emitted rays consisting of particles smaller than the atom. 7. E. Rutherford discovered that radium emitted three different types of rays. 8. After these discoveries physicists saw that the whole traditional concept of the structure of matter had to be completely revised. 9. In 1905 Albert Einstein found that matter could be converted into energy – very little matter into very great energy. 10. E. Rutherford and N. Bohr developed their revolutionary theory and declared what the atom was really like. 11. It was evident to the scientists that the neutron was the key to splitting the atom. 12. Scientists understood there was a way to control a chain reaction and they found it. 13. Many competent scientists working in the field of nuclear physics hoped that they would never succeed in releasing nuclear power. 14. When Norbert Wiener first used the word “cybernetics”, he didn’t know that this word would become so popular in the world of science. 15. The programmer didn’t know what results he would obtain after he had finished his calculations. 16. Some people understood that the introduction of computer technology would create wonders and would cause problems. 17. The Language. When I arrived in London I thought I knew English. After I had been here an hour I realized that I did not understand one word. In the first week I picked up a working knowledge of the language and the next seven years convinced me that I would never know it really well, let alone perfectly. This is sad, my only consolation being that nobody can speak English perfectly (G.Mikes). 18. When asked what his job was, an intelligence agent answered that his mission was so secret that he didn’t know himself what he was and what he did.

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Simple Continuous Perfect Perfect Continuous

THE INFINITIVE I. Forms of the Infinitive Active Passive to be asked to ask to be asking to have been asked to have asked to have been asking

Compare:

I am glad

to ask you to be asking to have asked to have been asking to be asked to have been asked

II. Functions of the Infinitive 1. The Infinitive at the beginning of the sentence (A-Subject, BAdverbial Modifier). Patterns: A. To solve this problem is important. Решить эту проблему важно. B. To solve this problem you must know the theory. Чтобы решить эту проблему, вы должны знать теорию. Exercise 1. Translate. Pay attention to the place of the infinitive. A. Subject (подлежащее – что?) 1. To know physics well is a great pleasure. 2. To translate this text takes a lot of time. 3. To make this experiment is important. 4. To explain this phenomenon is possible.

1. 2. 3. 4.

B. Adverbial Modifier (обстоятельство – для чего?) To know physics well we must study hard. To translate this text I had to use a special dictionary. To make this experiment we must get some new equipment To explain this phenomenon you must study it. 23

5. To obtain accurate re5. To obtain accurate results the subsults is our aim. stance must be pure. 6. To prove this law experi- 6. To prove this law experimentally you mentally is very difficult. will have to make a lot of experiments. 7. To convert heat directly into electric7. To convert heat directly ity we must solve a number of probinto electricity is still a lems. problem. 8. To produce a fusion re- 8. To produce a fusion reaction a number of conditions must be satisaction will become posfied. sible. 9. Not to fail in our ex9. Not to fail in our experiment we periment is important. tested the equipment. 10. To communicate is human. 10. To communicate people and computers use languages. Exercise 2. Translate into Russian. 1. To do work is the capacity of energy. 2. To do work energy is required. 3. To give a true picture of the surrounding matter is the task of natural sciences. 4. To understand many complicated phenomena in terms of simple principles physicists have to develop theories. 5. To use computers in automatic control means to speed up the production process considerably. 6. To use today’s complex hardware efficiently you should develop equally complex software. 7. To carry out a program of such experiments is necessary. 8. To carry out a program of such experiments it is necessary to have a source of energetic particles. 9. To control thermonuclear reactions the scientists have to solve a number of problems. 10. To control thermonuclear reactions requires much effort. 11. To measure any quantity means to compare it with a similar quantity taken as the unit of measurement. 12. To measure the quantity they applied a complicated method. 13. Nowadays to control radioactive sources is of great importance. 24

14. To control radioactive sources scientists are developing advanced technologies. 15. To test the above statement is not difficult at all and quite necessary. 16. To verify the theory they had to process a lot of experimental data. 17. To process experimental data physicists have to develop sophisticated programs. 18. In order to understand the unusual world of nanotechnology, you need to get an idea of the nanoscale. 2. to be + Infinitive (A-Predicative, B-Modal Predicate) Patterns: A. Our task is to solve this problem. Наше задание состоит (заключается) в том, чтобы решить эту задачу. B. The scientist is to solve this problem. Ученый должен решить эту задачу. Learn the words which are often used in Pattern A: 1) aim, purpose, object, objective, task – цель 2) method, approach, technique, procedure – метод 3) manner, way, fashion – способ, метод 4) action, function, effect – действие Exercise 3. Translate. Compare the functions of the infinitive. A. Predicative 1. The task is to change the properties of the material. 2. His idea is to develop a new technology. 3. The object of the experiment is to improve the results. 4. The purpose of the station was to supply the necessary energy. 5. The approach was to compare the results. 6. Our aim is to study hard. 7. The aim is to protect the public from radiation. 8. The function of NPPs is to pro25

B. Part of Modal Predicate 1. The designer is to change the properties. 2. He is to develop a new technology. 3. The experiment is to improve the results. 4. This power station was to supply the necessary energy. 5. The scientist was to compare the results. 6. Every student is to study hard. 7. The plant’s safety systems are to protect the public from radiation. 8. The NPP is to provide clean

vide clean and cheap energy. and cheap energy. 9. The purpose of the nuclear reac9. Steam is to drive a steam turbine. tor is to produce steam. 10. The purpose is to use atom for 10. Atom is to serve mankind. peace. Exercise 4. Pay attention to the modal meaning of to be + Passive Infinitive. 1. It is to be noted that ... 2. It is to be expected that ... 3. It is to be pointed out that ... 4. It is to be remembered that ... 5. It is to be understood that ... 6. It is to be stressed (emphasized) that ... 7. The temperature of the substance is to be determined. 8. This ore is to be found free. 9. This phenomenon is to be described in the next chapter. 10. The article is to be referred to. 11. Mention is to be made of the high boiling point of this liquid. 12. Use is to be made of this effect. 13. Care is to be taken to prevent a failure. 14. The tests are to be followed by data processing. Exercise 5. Differentiate between the meanings of “to be”. 1. Their purpose was to determine the effect of X-rays. 2. Roentgen was to determine the effect of X-rays. 3. The aim of any research is to increase the possibilities of modern science. 4. One of the most important tasks at present is to upgrade nuclear power plants. 5. When a NPP is to be constructed the most suitable design is to be found. 6. The plant’s safety systems are to protect the public even in a serious accident. 7. To ensure safety the core is to be contained in a reactor vessel. 8. The function of the scram system is to shut down the reactor rapidly in an accident. 26

9. The very first thing you must do is to understand the statement of the problem. 10. The new apparatus was to control all the temperature changes during the experiment. 11. Close contact of the substances which are to react is always necessary. 12. It is to be expected that those elements will combine. 13. The object of the experiment was to find the connection between the secondary electrons and the primary beta-rays. 14. The difficulty will be to obtain the substance in question in its pure form. 15. The problem has been to analyze the substance under investigation. 16. This substance is to be found in nature. 17. Electronics is to be considered as an applied science. 18. One approach is to store radioactive waste in natural rocks underground. 19. Every atom is electrically neutral by instinct, that is, its tendency is to maintain its neutral balance at all times. 20. The goal for NPP operators is to reduce the risk of a serious accident. 3. Infinitive as an Attribute Patterns: The problem to be solved is of great importance. Задача, которая должна быть решена, очень важна. Задача, которая будет решаться, очень важна. He was the first (the second, the last) to solve this problem. Он первым (вторым, последним) решил эту задачу. Exercise 6. Translate. Pay attention to the infinitive as an attribute. 1. The properties of the substance to be studied are of interest. 2. The methods to be applied for our purpose are numerous. 3. The problems to be discussed at the conference are of great importance. 4. The physical processes to be described are particle scattering processes. 5. The investigation to be carried on is complicated. 6. The results to be expected from the experiment are of great importance. 7. The data to be referred to in the next chapter are quite reliable. 8. The lecture to be followed by an experiment is helpful to the students. 27

9. The method to be followed is based upon some special properties of these rays. 10. There are some other properties to be considered. 11. There is only one signal to be detected. 12. There were many problems to be solved in order to understand these phenomena. 13. There are certain advantages to be gained by using this technique. 14. Newton was the first to solve the problem of gravitation. 15. Crookes was the first to recognize the cathode rays as negatively charged particles. 16. Dalton was the first to deduce scientifically an atomic theory from experimental data. 17. Rutherford was the first to propose a general theory of radioactive transformation. 18. Niels Bohr was the first to put forward a logical theory of atomic structure. 19. Neutrons serve as particles with which to bombard nuclei. 20. There is not very much experimental data on which to base a decision between these two possibilities. 21. The average distance to be travelled by a particle is called a mean free path. 22. Safety is the principal parameter to be analyzed. Exercise 7. Compare Infinitive and Participle II as an attribute. 1. The experiment to be made ... – The experiment made ... 2. The method to be used ... – The method used ... 3. The technique to be applied ... – The technique applied ... 4. The formula to be derived ... – The formula derived ... 5. The reactor to be designed ... – The reactor designed ... 6. The type of the fuel to be used affects the design of the reactor. 7. The type of the computer used determines the character of the problem. 8. As one knows the useful work to be done by a machine is less than the total work done. 9. All the elements examined were uniform mixtures of isotopes. 10. The specimen to be examined must be placed inside the device.

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Exercise 8. Transform using the infinitive instead of the subordinate clause. 1) the theory which must be proved 2) the device which must be improved 3) the method which will be applied 4) the data which will be processed 5) the device which will be installed 6) the signal which must be detected 7) the results which will be obtained 8) the phenomenon which will be studied 9) the problem which will be referred to 10) the problem which must be dealt with 11) the problem which will be spoken about 12) the theory which must be followed by practice 13) the procedure that must be followed III. Infinitive Complexes Complex Object Patterns: We know the device to function properly. Мы знаем, что прибор работает хорошо. The engineer wanted us to see the new engine. Инженер хотел, чтобы мы посмотрели новый двигатель. We often watched him work in the lab. Мы часто наблюдали за тем, как он работает в лаборатории. Scientists make electronic machines solve complicated problems. Ученые заставляют электронные машины решать сложные задачи. Learn the following verbs 1) to assume to suppose to believe – полагать, считать to expect to consider to think – думать to know – знать to find – полагать, находить to show – показывать 29

to prove – доказывать 2) to want – хотеть I would like – мне бы хотелось 3) to feel – чувствовать These verbs require an infinitive to hear – слышать without “to”. to see – видеть to watch – наблюдать to notice – замечать 4) to permit to enable – позволять to allow 5) to make an infinitive without “to” to cause – заставлять to force Note 1. Pay attention to the perfect infinitive. We believe them to have completed the experiment. Мы полагаем, что они завершили эксперимент. Note 2. Some verbs change their meaning when used with Complex Object. e.g. 1. We consider an important problem. Мы рассматриваем важную проблему. We consider the problem to be important. Мы считаем, что проблема важна. 2. This force causes motion. Эта сила вызывает движение. This force causes the electrons to move. Эта сила заставляет электроны двигаться. Exercise 9. Compare: Object Complex Object 1. I want to help you. 1. I want you to help me. 2. I would like to take part in 2. I would like everybody to take this work. part in this work. 3. The scientist expected to ob- 3. The scientist expected his assistant tain some new data. to obtain some new data. 4. I want to explain these phe- 4. I want you to explain these phenomena. nomena. 30

5. We expect to solve this problem. 6. We would like to know the results

5. We expect the team to solve this problem. 6. We would like them to know the results.

Exercise 10. Translate paying attention to the Complex Object. 1. We know the magnetic field to be quite analogous to the electric one. 2. We know these phenomena to occur spontaneously. 3. We find these forces to be interrelated. 4. Scientists found the beta decay to transform a neutron into a proton. 5. Scientists expect fusion power to be unlimited. 6. We expect nanotechnologies to change our life radically. 7. We expect definitions to simplify the calculations. 8. They expected the phenomena to be independent of each other. 9. The public expects advanced reactors to make nuclear power safe, reliable and more economical. 10. We believe nuclear power to develop faster than other major energy sources. 11. Scientists consider this effect to be due to increasing the temperature. 12. We consider these phenomena to be of common origin. 13. Engineers consider innovative technologies to make production processes more effective. 14. We suppose this approach to the problem to be promising. 15. We may suppose the alpha-particles within the nucleus to be in motion. 16. Recent research has shown the nucleus to be a very complex structure. 17. Einstein assumed the energy of a photon to be given by the expression E=hv. 18. We know the atmosphere to absorb radiation. 19. Scientists believe radiant energy to be emitted in the form of photons. 20. We proved the protons to be emitted in a definite direction. 21. Experience has proved nuclear power to have a very small effect on the environment, life and health. 22. We want this relationship to be expressed in another form. 23. He wants them to express this relationship in terms of an equation. 24. I would like you to study this phenomenon. 25. I would like him to present regular facts rather than random ones. 26. We want this device to be tested under special conditions. 31

27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38.

We want this phenomenon to be properly understood. We watched the temperature rise. Can you see the volume decrease? Nobody observed this value decrease. We observe the volume of a given mass of a gas decrease as the temperature decreases. If one allows the air to expand, it will cool. The operators allowed the metal to cool. The pressure enables the temperature to rise. Mathematical models allow scientists to predict the results. This procedure enables us to investigate the interaction of matter with protons, deutrons and neutrons. Radio astronomy enables us to observe the state of the universe at distances very much greater than optical astronomy can reach. Control rods allow operators to regulate the rate of the chain reaction.

Exercise 11. Translate. Pay attention to the passive infinitive after the verbs “to allow”, “to permit”, “to enable”. 1. The device permits some new calculations to be made. 2. The use of this technique permits more accurate calculations to be performed. 3. The microscope enables very small objects to be examined in detail. 4. Mendeleyev’s Table enabled some unknown elements to be predicted. 5. The device allows the current to be measured accurately. 6. The battery will allow an EMF to be induced in the circuit. 7. Fission allows nuclear energy to be extracted from uranium. 8. Recycling allows natural resources to be conserved. 9. The International Thermonuclear Reactor will enable the fusion process to be controlled. Exercise 12. Pay attention to the verbs “to make”, “to cause», to force” + Infinitive. 1. To make the machine work... 2. To make charges flow... 3. What makes the motor run? 4. What makes the current flow in the circuit? 5. The difference of potential causes the current to flow in the circuit. 6. This force makes electrons move. 7. What force makes any vegetation grow? – The answer is clear: sunlight! 8. Fusion power makes the sun shine. 9. Neutrons can make uranium nuclei split. 10. The heat produced by fission makes the water boil. 11. Research and development is 32

needed to make this scheme work. 12. To make particles accelerate we apply strong magnetic fields. 13. What force causes atoms to combine to form compounds? 14. The excessive load caused the machine to fail. 15. The effect produced caused changes in the properties of this substance. 16. He made the world speak about him. 17. Globalization makes everybody learn English as “franca lingua”. 18. This example should make you wonder... 19. To make both ends meet – сводить концы с концами. 20. It makes my mouth water. – У меня текут слюнки. 21. The last drop makes the cup run over. – Последняя капля переполняет чашу терпения. 22. It would make even a cat laugh. – Курам насмех. 23. You can lead the horse to the water but you cannot make him drink. Exercise 13. Translate. Pay attention to the Complex Object. 1. Physicists consider the magnetic forces to be due to forces between currents. 2. We have thought the above law to hold only for gases which are under normal conditions. 3. We can expect acceleration to be different for different weights but this is not the case. 4. He believed this particular technique to be quite different from conventional methods and much simpler in design. 5. We expect a resonance effect to operate under certain conditions. 6. One cannot expect the complicated problem of using solar energy to be solved in a year or two. 7. In his theory of light Newton assumed light to be made up of many small particles called corpuscles moving at high speeds. 8. The story says that while Newton was sitting in the garden, he saw an apple fall from a tree. What caused the apple to fall? 9. Newton’s secretary says that he never saw Isaac Newton laugh when he worked on his “Principia”. 10. The magnetic field controls the movement of the particles and makes them travel along a single track. 11. It is quite possible to make the reactor produce more fuel than it consumes. 12. Scientists make particles accelerate by applying strong magnetic fields. 13. The statement of the problem is a list of instructions which make the system perform the appropriate manipulations of the data it has been given. 14. Delayed neutrons enable the reactor to be controlled. 17. The most attractive feature of any science is that it enables us to shape the world. 18. Artificial Intelligence is the science that studies how to make machines act intelligently. 19. To make a simple A-bomb, you need a critical mass of enriched U235 and the technology to make it work. 33

Enjoy:

You Should Know Foreign Languages Once upon a time there was a mouse in a mouse hole. One day it sat up and listened attentively and as it did so it heard someone bark. – Now, thought the mouse – that’ll be a dog. I might as well go out. I don’t think dogs eat mice. The mouse went out. However, the moment it did so, a cat jumped on it and ate it (for it was a cat that had barked). Presently the cat felt its mouth water as it thought about the delicious morsel (кусочек) and said to itself. - There is no doubt that it is worth while learning foreign languages.

Familiar Quotations: Sir Winston Churchill said, “I would make them all learn English, then I would let the clever ones learn Latin as an Honour and Greek as a Treat.” COMPLEX SUBJECT Pattern I Сказуемое в страдательном залоге This student is supposed to work hard. Полагают, что этот студент много работает. Этот студент, как полагают, много работает. Learn the verbs associated with Complex Subject to assume – находить, устанавлиto suppose – полагать to find вать to believe to expect – ожидать to show – показывать to consider – полагать, считать to estimate – оценивать, определять to prove – доказывать to say – говорить, сообщать to report to think – думать, полагать to see – видеть to know – знать to observe – наблюдать e.g. 1. When a body changes its position, it is said to be in motion. Когда тело меняет свое положение, говорят, что оно находится в движении. 34

2. These phenomena are considered to be of common origin. Считают, что эти явления имеют общее происхождение. 3. The method is believed to have given good results. Этот метод, как считают, дал хорошие результаты. Pattern II Сказуемое в действительном залоге This student seems to work hard. Этот студент, кажется, много работает. Кажется, этот студент много работает.

Learn the verbs to seem, to appear – казаться to prove, to turn out, to happen – оказываться e.g. 1. This device appears to differ from the old ones. По-видимому, этот прибор отличается от старых приборов. 2. There seems to be little doubt about the reliability of these results. Кажется, нет сомнений в надежности этих результатов. Note: Pay attention to the different meanings of the verbs “appear”, “prove”, “turn out” 1. This information appeared in the “Physical Review” in 1981. The experimenter appears to have presented very interesting data. 2. He proved that this phenomenon can occur high above the earth. The movement of the current proves to be uniform in all parts of the circuit. 3. This plant turns out high-quality machines. 4. These predictions turned out to be in good agreement with the experimental results. Pattern III Составное именное сказуемое He is sure to work hard. Он, определенно, много работает.

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Learn the following to be likely – вероятно to be unlikely – маловероятно to be sure – несомненно, конечно to be certain – несомненно, конечно e.g. 1. The temperature is likely to be the same. Температура, по-видимому, будет одинакова. 2. This aim is unlikely to be achieved. Эта цель вряд ли будет достигнута. 3. He seems to know this rule. Кажется, он знает это правило. Exercise 14. Translate. Pay attention to Complex Subject. 1. Science is known to affect the life of people. 2. All bodies are known to absorb waves from other bodies. 3. Cosmic rays are assumed to consist of photons coming from interstellar space. 4. These forces are supposed to act on the body. 5. Thousands of years ago all matter was supposed to be made up of particles called atoms. 6. The atom was thought to be indivisible. 7. Heat was thought to be a substance. 8. Every new technology was thought to be full of dangers. 9. Electrons are believed to be particles of negative electricity. 10. Neutrons are believed to be a combination of a proton and an electron. 11. The students are expected to take this phenomenon into account. 12. The atomic number is found to correspond to the charge of the atom nucleus. 13. This phenomenon was found to be due to the lowering of temperature. 14. Two balls with unlike charges will be found to attract each other. 15. We are said to live in the age of atom. 16. A hydrogen molecule is said to take part in about 10 billion collisions a second. 17. The best conducting metals are reported to be silver, copper, gold and aluminium. 18. Some factors have been reported to affect the purity of glass. 19. The difference between one element and the other was proved to be in the structure of the atom. 20. He seems to know this theory. 21. The electron seems to have no internal structure. 22. This value appears to vary. 23. This fuel appears to have great irradiation stability. 24. This method proved to be useful. 25. This substance was proved to be very valuable. 26. Nuclear power has proved to be a reliable source of energy. 27. The substance was proved to possess the property in question. 28. The main 36

difficulty turns out to be the determination of the compounds. 29. He happened to observe this phenomenon. 30. He happens to work at the same problem. 31. Inventions seem to appear at times when people need them. 32. Science seems to find a logical explanation of the existence of God. 33. This definition is likely to simplify the calculations. 34. This law is sure to hold for that case. 35. The experiment is certain to be a success. 36. The law is unlikely to account for this phenomenon. 37. A nucleus is more likely to be unstable if it is a heavy one. 38. Thermal neutrons in the reactor are more likely to cause fission than fast ones. 39. Hydrogen fuel is certain to be the fuel of the future. 40. Innovations are likely to change the energy production systems. Exercise 15. Translate. Pay attention to the form of the infinitive. 1. This scientist is supposed (to develop, to be developing, to have developed) a new method. 2. The results are known to be widely used. The results are known to have been used. 3. The properties of the elements are found to change. The properties of the elements are found to have changed. 4. These elements are believed to have been found two decades ago. 5. They are believed to derive a new formula. 6. The results are believed to have been derived from numerous experiments. 7. This method appears to have given good results. 8. This device seems to have been in operation for a long time. 9. They are certain to have studied all the properties of the element. 10. Mars is likely to have lost most of its atmosphere. 11. This method is known to have been used as far back as the 17th century. Exercise 16. Translate into Russian. Заметьте, что при переводе следующих предложений отрицание переходит на сказуемое придаточных предложений.

Example: The experiment does not seem to give the results supporting the view. Этот эксперимент, по-видимому, не дает результатов, подтверждающих эту точку зрения. 1. The student does not appear to know this formula. 2. This pattern does not appear to satisfy us. 3. This phenomenon does not appear to attract attention. 4. He does not appear to use this device. 5. The experiment did not appear to give the results desired. 6. There does not seem to be any relationship between these values. 7. There does not seem to be any difficulty in calculating these results. 8. This substance does not seem to 37

be an element. 9. The device does not seem to improve the operation considerably. 10. The temperature was unlikely to fall. 11. This method is unlikely to be of use in their experiment. 12. This reaction is not likely to start at lower temperatures. 13. The reaction does not always prove to begin at this temperature. 14. The structure did not prove to change under such conditions. 15. The method did not prove to be of help to us. 16. Nobody has been known to be killed by a nuclear power plant. Exercise 17. Translate. Compare the meanings of the verb “to prove”. A. 1. We proved this substance to be very dense. 2. This substance was proved to be very dense. 3. The substance proved to be very dense. 4. The experiment proved the particles to collide with great force. 5. The particles were proved to collide with great force. 6. The particles proved to collide with great force. 7. For years scientists could not prove this element to occur naturally. 8. For years this element was not proved to occur naturally. 9. This element did not prove to occur naturally. B. Translate into English. 1. Доказано, что водород явля- Оказалось, что водород является элементом. ется элементом. 2. Доказано, что все вещества Оказалось, что все вещества состоят из атомов. состоят из атомов. 3. Доказано, что вода состоит Оказалось, что вода состоит из из молекул Н2О. молекул Н2О. 4. Доказано, что газы менее Оказалось, что газы менее плотплотны, чем твердые вещества. ны, чем твердые вещества. 5. Доказано, что соединение со- Оказалось, что соединение состоит из одинаковых молекул. стоит из одинаковых молекул. Exercise 18. Translate paying attention to Complex Subject. 1. Resources of fossil fuels are known to be limited. 2. This model is expected to yield valuable information about the nature of matter. 3. In the liquid drop model the protons and neutrons are considered to be packed together like the molecules in a drop of water. 4. In operation nuclear plants 38

are considered to be as reliable as fossil-fuelled plants. 5. These predictions were proved to be in good agreement with the experimental results obtained. 6. The assumptions have proved to be in complete agreement with the measurements. 7. Such deviations are expected because gamma-rays are known to interact with nucleons. 8. This approximation seems to work reasonably well for calculating the scattering crosssections. 9. This general solution appears to have a simple explicit form. 10. There appears to be a great difference between the substances under investigation. 11. There does not appear to be an agreement between the results obtained in these labs. 12. The reaction occurs if a particle happens to accumulate sufficient energy. 13. The time required for a computer to solve a problem is likely to be measured in seconds. 14. They are likely to find the relationship between these forms of oscillation. 15. As far as liquids are concerned, this law is certain to hold. 16. In so far as this property is concerned, this substance is sure to be a striking exception. 17. In this case the atom may be expected to radiate energy. 18. The “accident precursor” is said to be an event leading to a nuclear accident. 19. In an open fuel cycle uranium is known to be burnt once in a reactor. 20. In contrast, a closed cycle is expected to involve recycling all the transuranics. 21. Nuclear power plants are likely to have huge decommissioning costs. 22. The complicated problem of using solar energy cannot be expected to be solved in a year or two. 23. This method is not believed to offer any advantages. 24. There does not seem to be any essential connection between these two facts. 25. This element was isolated and was found to possess the properties required. 26. This theory was discussed and found to agree with the experimental results. 27. This method was considered by the author to be inaccurate. 28. This substance may be easily demonstrated to be a compound. 29. The probability of a reactor accident was predicted by Rasmussen to be once in 1000 reactor-years of operation. 30. Until quite recently the interaction of photons with matter was believed to be entirely electromagnetic, that is, it appeared to involve only the electric charges and magnetic fields of the target particles and did not seem to involve their possible strong interactions.

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Enjoy: Singular Man Brother: Are you really going to marry that young man Jones? He is said to be kind and very clever. But isn’t he a bit strange? At any rate, he is unlike other young men. Sister: I am going to marry Jones, and I don’t find anything strange about him. And then if he is indeed unlike other young men, he is likely to make a very good husband. Exercise 19. Transform the sentences using Complex Subject. 1. Semiconductors find wide application in industry (to know). 2. They found their way into every branch of modern industry and science (to appear). 3. They form the heart of nearly all electronic computers (to be sure). 4. They make television possible (to know). 5. They detect radio signals and generate those same signals (to seem). 6. Semiconductors have one strange property (to happen). 7. A semiconductor diode is a one-way street for electric currents (to say). 8. The current flows freely in one direction and is almost blocked in the other (to consider). 9. What are semiconductors (to suppose)? 10. Some materials conduct electrons easily (to find). 11. They are conductors (to know). 12. In other materials electrons move only with great difficulty (to seem). 13. These substances are insulators (to know). 14. Semiconductors are neither good conductors nor good insulators (to assume). 15. Some semiconductors are widely used in electronics (to be certain). 16. The semiconductor diode has travelled a long way since its original discovery (to appear). 17. Semiconductors will find wide application in all fields of science and industry (to expect). Exercise 20. Инфинитив + причастие II от глаголов типа “to assume”, “to believe”, “to suppose”, а также со словами “likely, sure” переводятся определительным предложением. 40

Patterns The changes supposed to take place in this reaction are illustrated in Fig.1. Изменения, которые, как полагают, имеют место в этой реакции, показаны на рис. 1. The device likely to give the required results has been designed. Создан прибор, который, вероятно, даст необходимые результаты. Translate into Russian: 1. The device known to be used is … 2. A substance thought to possess this property was … 3. Liquids found to dissolve this substance are … 4. The changes assumed to take place are… 5. This problem reported to be solved is … 6. The phenomenon expected to be investigated is … 7. The method assumed to be applied in the experiment is … 8. The ionization expected to exist is … 9. Radar known to be used to locate different objects is … 10. A substance known to possess these properties is called an acid. 11. Here is an apparatus likely to give good results. 12. Weak lines thought to be caused by copper can be seen. 13. Substances thought to possess the property in question were investigated. 14. The changes supposed to take place in this reaction are illustrated in Fig. 1. 15. The method found to improve the results was developed by our worker. 16. The results reported to have been obtained lately are of great importance. 17. The substance thought to possess the property of radioactivity was separated with the help of this equipment. FOR- CONSTRUCTION Pattern For the reaction to take place two conditions must be met. Чтобы произошла реакция, необходимо выполнить два условия. The For-construction can have different functions in the sentence. In translating this construction into Russian a subordinate clause or an infinitive is used. 1. Subject 1. It is important for physicists to know (подлежащее) the structure of the material world. 2. Predicative 2. The tendency is for science to be(им. часть сказуемого) come more and more mathematical. 41

3. Attribute (определение) 4. Adverbial Modifier (обстоятельство)

3. The tendency for the atom to gain or lose electrons is dependent on the conditions of the experiment. 4. For an electric current to flow a number of electrons must be made to move.

Exercise 21. Translate into Russian paying attention to For – Construction. 1. For the molecules to react … 2. For a thermonuclear reaction to take place … 3. For ions to be formed … 4. For power to be generated … 5. For the device to operate … 6. Eight minutes are required for light to travel from the Sun to the Earth. 7. Much experimental work is required for this phenomenon to be accounted for. 8. Nowadays it is not enough for a scientist to know only one foreign language, he or she must know at least two foreign languages, English being one of them. 9. It is possible for elements to combine in different proportions, but when they do so, different substances are produced. 10. The tendency is for the molecule to become excited. 11. The tendency is for the curves of Fig. 3 to be replaced by the curves of Fig. (5). 12. The condition for Eq. (23) to hold is given by Eq. (24). 13. There is no reason for the conversion of mechanical energy into radiant energy to be continuous. 14. For two molecules to react they must be in contact. 15. In order for molecules to become vapour they have to overcome the force of attraction. 16. For a wire to be a good conductor it has to be made of lowresistance metal. 17. For the reactor to operate at a constant power level, one neutron from each fission must cause another fission. 18. For breeding to proceed more than one of the remaining neutrons must be captured by U238. 19. For the fusion process to take place the temperature should be extremely high. 20. In order for the two colliding nuclei to fuse they must be moving with a relative kinetic energy of at least 10 keV. 21. For any natural physical state to change, some change of the condition acting upon this state must occur. 22. The potential barrier is too high for electrons to go through. 23. The equipment is too complex for an average operator to control. 24. The motion took place long enough for the bodies to become heated. 25. The time taken for equilibrium conditions to be set is small. 26. The time required for a mass to come to rest can be calculated without difficulty. 27. The half-life is the time taken for the given radioactive substance to lose half its activity. 28. The half-life is the time taken for half of the nuclei to decay. 29. The time required for the amount of radiation to be 42

reduced to half the original amount is different for different materials. 30. It is impossible for a nuclear reactor to explode like an atomic bomb. 31. For an accident to occur two or more essential elements of the reactor must fail simultaneously. 32. The purpose is not to create a better world of machines, but to create a better world for man to live in. 33. The more user-friendly the operating system is, the easier it is for people to interface with the machine. Exercise 22. General Revision (Infinitive). 1. This substance is to be found in nature. 2. This substance is found to be useful. 3. The scientists found this substance to be useful. 4. The metal to be found in this ore is of great value. 5. They consider the book to be very useful. 6. This book is considered to be useful. 7. This phenomenon is to be considered. 8. The phenomena to be considered are very complicated. 9. The solution to the problem considered proves to depend on the engineer. 10. For every difference equation to be considered in this chapter there is a corresponding differential equation. 11. For the equation to be solved another method should be applied. 12. The equation to be solved seemed to be complicated. 13. Problems to be solved by a digital computer must be expressed in mathematical terms the computer can work with. 14. The operation of the circuit is very easy to understand. 15. The values are difficult to determine with accuracy. 16. We have to consider if it is possible for electrons to flow from a metal electrode into the conduction band of an insulator. 17. Under what conditions will the reaction proceed rapidly enough for the method to be practicable? 18. The half-life is the time taken for the given radioactive substance to lose half its activity. 19. Sound is found to travel in water at the speed of about a mile a second, the exact speed depending upon the temperature of water. 20. The force between parallel currents can be measured and is found experimentally to be proportional to the product of the currents and inversely proportional to the distance between them. 21. Joule and other scientists proved heat to be a form of energy. 22. Heat was proved to be a form of energy. 23. The information reported appeared to be useful. 24. The information is reported to appear in “The Physical Review”. 25. It is obvious that if the electron absorbs any form of energy, this energy can make an electron pass from one orbit to another. 26. This device permits the current to be measured accurately. 27. We might expect liquid helium to be the simplest liquid to investigate in order to discover the fundamental principles of the theory of liquid state. 28. When a component is developed for one application, it can hardly be expected to be optimum for a widely differing appli43

cation. 29. More important is the task of describing the kind of information to be dealt with, the basic operations to be carried out on it and the basic tasks to be performed on the information in order to decide what to do next. 30. The machinery to be installed in the lab is likely to be put into operation by the end of the year. 31. The properties and characteristics of the system to be controlled are always assumed to be known. 32. Here is the apparatus likely to give reliable results. 33. The purpose of a nuclear power program is to produce electricity to meet the demand. 34. One question to be answered is whether the Fast Breeder Reactor will be economically competitive. 35. In some cases the greatest difficulty is not to obtain the actual solution but to present the data in the form that makes it easy for the engineer or mathematician to evaluate them. 36. One of the objectives for research at the universities is to develop ideas that are not likely to produce useful results but which add to the sum total of human knowledge. 37. A more sophisticated theory seems to be required. 38. Feedback permits the output quantity to be compared with the input so that upon the existence of a difference a signal arises which brings the two into correspondence. THE PARTICIPLE I. Forms of the Participle

Present Participle (I)

Past Participle (II)

Perfect Participle

Active solving 1) определение: решающий решавший 2) обстоятельство: решая

----

having solved всегда обстоятельство: решив 44

Passive being solved 1) определение: решаемая которая решается 2) обстоятельство: будучи решаемой когда ее решали solved 1) определение: решенная решаемая (вообще) 2) обстоятельство: будучи решенной когда ее решили having been solved всегда обстоятельство: будучи решенной когда ее решили

Examples: 1. The scientists solving this problem applied a new method. Ученые, решающие эту задачу, применили новый метод. 2. The problem being solved is of great interest. Решаемая задача представляет большой интерес. 3. The problem solved attracted much interest. Решенная задача привлекла большой интерес. 4. (When) solving the problem the scientist came across a number of difficulties. Решая задачу, ученый столкнулся с целым рядом трудностей. 5. Having solved this problem the scientists applied the results obtained. Решив задачу, ученые применили полученные результаты. 6. Being solved this problem caused many difficulties. Будучи решаемой, задача вызывала большие затруднения. 7. Having been solved the problem found wide application. Будучи решенной, задача нашла широкое применение. 8. When solved, this problem will find wide application. Будучи решенной, эта задача найдет широкое применение. II. Functions of the Participle 1. Participle as an Attribute Exercise 1. Translate according to the model. Model: Ученые, применяющие этот метод, … The scientists using this method ... Применяемый метод… The method being used... Примененный метод... The method used... Метод, который следует применить… The method to be used... 1. Обсуждаемая проблема. Обсужденная проблема. Проблема, которую надо обсудить. Ученые, обсуждающие проблему. 2. Проверяемый прибор. Проверенный прибор. 45

Прибор, который надо проверить. Конструктор, проверяющий прибор. 3. Студенты, проверяющие результаты. Проверяемые результаты. Проверенные результаты. Результаты, которые надо проверить. 4. Величины, которые надо вычислить. Вычисленные величины. Вычисляемые величины. 5. Преобразуемая формула. Преобразованная формула. Формула, которую надо преобразовать.

1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) 8)

Exercise 2. Compare the Active and Passive forms of the participle. A. the developing countries 1) the developed countries the inducing charge 2) the induced charge the boiling water 3) the boiled water the travelling object 4) the travelled distance the changing conditions 5) the changed conditions the connecting line 6) the connected line the paper describing the properties 7) the properties described in the paper the students making the experiment 8) the experiment made in the lab B. 1. 2. 3. 4.

The induced charge is always the opposite of the inducing one. The experiments being made attract the attention of all the scientists. The experiments made showed the behaviour of the particles. The device being used for producing short electromagnetic waves is a magnetron. 5. The device used behaved properly. 6. The substance formed possessed important properties. 7. The stability of the compound being formed must be considered.

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Exercise 3. Differentiate between the Participle and the Predicate. A. 1. The charge produced is... 1. The charge is produced. 2. The material used is... 2. The material is used. 3. The phenomenon discovered 3. The phenomenon was discovby the scientists... ered by the scientists. 4. The method described used 4. The method was described. these properties. 5. The body moving in a 5. The body is moving in a straight line ... straight line. 6. The force acting on a body... 6. The force is acting on a body. 7. The experiments being done... 7. The experiments are being done... 8. The system being studied ... 8. The system was being studied. B. 1. Nuclear reactors operating worldwide have demonstrated great safety and reliability. 2. Advanced reactors are now operating in several countries. 3. A new power unit is now being built at the same site. 4. The superconducting magnets being built for the collider differ in some details. 5. Experiments currently being done are designed to test various plasma-heating methods. 6. Experiments are currently being done to test various methods. 7. Another method being tested is concerned with antiproton cooling. 8. New metal-alloy coolants are also being tested. 9. The magnets are now being developed for a new fission reactor. 10. The experience being gained with this reactor should prove useful to the designers. 11. The experience gained should be useful in the development of other fusion reactors. 12. A lot of experience was gained in this field. 13. The most promising system being studied will be described in some detail.

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Exercise 4. Transform using the proper form of the participle. A. 1) the current that flows 2) the body that moves 3) the force that acts 4) the material that conducts electric current 5) the countries that develop 6) the substances that influence the speed of the reaction 7) changes that affect the composition 8) the people that speak English 9) the molecules that consist of atoms 10) the instrument which determines pressure 11) the discussion that follows the report 12) the temperature that rises 13) the reactors that operate now B. 1) the problem which is being discussed 2) the device which is being tested 3) the results which are being analyzed 4) the materials which are being used 5) the house that is being built 6) the device that is being developed 7) the reactor that is being designed 8) the data that are being collected 9) the man that is being spoken about 10) the problem which is being dealt with 11) the paper which is being referred to 12) the experiment which is being made now C. 1) 2) 3) 4) 5)

the work which was done the experiments which were carried out the problem that was solved the device that was tested the substance which was formed 48

6) the composition which was determined 7) the methods that were used 8) the element which was discovered 9) the film which was followed by a discussion 10) the film that was spoken about 11) the data which were referred to 12) the student that was relied upon 13) the paper that was dealt with 14) the radius that was given 15) the particle that was emitted 16) the particle that was accelerated 17) the energy that was lost Exercise 5. Translate the participle in postposition. A. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19.

The work done was ... The film shown is ... The report made gave ... The results reported here are ... The method used is ... The theory discussed showed ... The new elements discovered showed ... The method spoken about ... The terms insisted upon ... The difficulties dealt with ... The data relied on ... The specialist sent for ... The report followed by ... The method followed in our laboratory ... The letter answered ... The result influenced by other conditions ... The paper referred to was ... The electron acted on by ... The subject dealt with aroused ...

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B. The following adverbs are often used with the participle: so thus so far thus far as yet otherwise

– так – таким образом – до сих пор – в противном случае, иначе

1. The wave length so determined will be ... 2. The ions thus formed will be ... 3. The data so far obtained were ... 4. The work so far performed by the group showed ... 5. The problems so far discussed do not give ... 6. The quantum number thus far introduced becomes ... 7. The phenomenon not otherwise accounted for is ... 8. Such data are not given in the papers so far published. 9. The results so far obtained compared very well with the complete analysis. 10. The formula so obtained may be of some use in our further work. Exercise 6. Learn to translate the participles “concerned” and “involved” in postposition. The properties of the substances involved are as yet not clearly understood. Свойства данных веществ еще не совсем поняты. The methods concerned are applied in this field of physics. Рассматриваемые методы применяются в этой области. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

The technique involved is ... The principle involved is ... The author concerned reports that ... The book concerned deals with ... The formulas of the compounds involved are ... The subject involved is of great interest. The phenomenon concerned is ... 50

8. 9. 10. 11. 12.

The process involved aims at ... We have to consider all the factors involved. The substance involved possesses ... The energy of neutrons involved is ... The properties of the metal concerned are ...

Exercise 7. Concentrate on translating the verb “to involve”. 1. The project involves a great number of issues. 2. There is a range of issues involved. 3. In dealing with problems involving physical energy, especially when molecules and atoms are concerned, scientists must use strictly accurate values. 4. Since the nucleus is involved in atomic disintegration, the process should properly be called nuclear disintegration. 5. The approach may be attractive because of the lower cost involved. 6. Nature simply refuses to be cheated, or to give up anything more than she receives. The rule of Nature is that if there are 100 atoms involved in a reaction to start with, every one of them must be accounted for in the products of the reaction involved. Exercise 8. Differentiate between – ed forms. 1. The solution of the problem required concentrated efforts of many scientists. 2. The data required were analyzed in our lab. 3. When required these data will be applied in our practical work. 4. The equipment tested required further improvement. 5. The results obtained varied in some respects. 6. The technique applied increased the accuracy. 7. The methods introduced received general recognition. 8. The experiment described attracted general attention. 9. The materials collected served as valuable information. 10. The apparatus installed showed good performance. 11. The progress achieved resulted in a remarkable technical improvement. 12. The amount of heat generated depended on the quality of the fuel used. 13. A computer processes the information supplied. 14. The laboratory installed modernized equipment. 51

15. The equipment installed modernized our laboratory. 16. The hypothesis proposed accounts for all the experimental observations made. 17. The hypothesis proposed agreed with the experimental observation. 18. The first amount of titanium produced when examined indicated that the metal had promising properties. Exercise 9. Translate. Pay attention to the form of the participle. 1. The new phenomenon observed by the scientists cannot be explained by the existing theories. 2. Observing natural phenomena the ancient philosophers gave rise to natural sciences. 3. Electricity generated by nuclear power plants is cheap and safe. 4. Nuclear power plants generating electricity are environmentally friendly. 5. Within the nuclear reactor atoms are split generating heat. 6. The neutrons absorbed in U238 create a new element — plutonium. 7. The absorbed neutron makes the nucleus of a uranium atom split up. 8. Fuels are substances containing some form of thermal or radiant energy. 9. The amount of energy contained in the fuel depends on the kind of the fuel. 10. The Sun is the ultimate source of all the energy stored in fuels. 11. The nucleus split in the reaction releases tremendous energy. 12. While splitting the nucleus emits a terrific amount of heat. 13. The method applied by the scientists produced the required results. 14. Applying this method the scientists obtained the results required. 15. Fossil fuels burnt in power plants pollute the atmosphere. 16. Power plants burning fossil fuels produce a lot of combustion products. 17. While burning, fossil fuels emit combustion products into the environment. 18. When burnt, natural gas produces less carbon dioxide than either oil or coal. 19. When fossil fuels are burnt, a variety of combustion products are released into the atmosphere. 52

20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26.

In the chain reaction energy stored in the nucleus is released as heat. The amount of the heat released is tremendous. The reactor designed is an innovative project. The reactor is designed to operate for about 30 years. It is true that the kinetic energy released has some mass. The steam produced in the reactor is slightly radioactive. The radiation released by nuclear power plants must be kept as low as possible. 27. Tremendous energy is released when the nucleus is split. 28. An innovative reactor technology was proposed by the scientists. 29. To realize the project, they applied the technology proposed. Exercise 10. Translate into Russian. Remember the meanings of the verb “to follow”: 1) следовать за кем-либо, за чем-либо; 2) придерживаться (метода). Compare Active and Passive forms of the Participle: The film following the report was ... The film followed by a discussion was ... Фильм, последовавший за док- Фильм, за которым последовала ладом, был … дискуссия, был … A. 1. The discussion following the report showed ... 2. The concert following the meeting was ... 3. The paper following the research presented its results. 4. The scientist following this method was ... B. 1. 2. 3. 4.

1. The report followed by a discussion was of interest. 2. The meeting followed by a concert began ... 3. The research followed by a paper was carried on ... 4. The method followed by the scientist gave ...

The letter following the telegram was ... The letter followed by a telegram was ... The letter was followed by a telegram. Practice following theory must prove it. 53

5. Theory followed by practice is necessary. 6. Theory must be followed by practice. 7. The period following Mendeleyev’s discovery was rich in important events. 8. The experiment followed by data-processing produced accurate results. 9. The experiment was followed by data-processing. 10. Cooling following heating gave good results. 11. Cooling followed by heating showed good results. 12. His research followed by a report resulted in new discoveries in the field of nuclear physics. 13. His research was followed by a report. 14. The discovery followed by further experimental work stimulated research in this area. 15. His discovery was followed by further experimental work. 16. The scientist following this technique investigated ... 17. The method followed by the scientist is quite up-to-date. 18. The analysis followed in this work gave unexpected results. 19. An interesting approach was followed in this work. C. Translate into English: 1. Дискуссия, последовавшая за докладом, … Доклад, за которым последовала дискуссия, … За докладом последовала дискуссия. 2. Открытие, последовавшее за исследованием, … Исследование, за которым последовало открытие, … За исследованием последовало открытие. 3. Вопрос, за которым последовал ответ, … Ответ, последовавший за вопросом, … За вопросом последовал ответ. 4. За анализом следует синтез. Синтез, следующий за анализом, … Анализ, за которым следует синтез, … 5. Метод, которого придерживались ученые, … Ученые, придерживавшиеся этого метода, … Ученые придерживались этого метода. 6. Следуя инструкции, студенты … Студенты, придерживавшиеся этой инструкции, … Студенты придерживались инструкции. 54

Инструкция, которой студенты придерживались, … Exercise 11. Translate following the Pattern. Past Participle + Infinitive = Attribute Radar known to detect different objects appeared during World War II. Радар, который, как известно, обнаруживает различные объекты, появился во время второй мировой войны. 1. The device known to be used for ... 2. A substance thought to possess this property was ... 3. Liquids found to dissolve this substance are ... 4. The changes assumed to take place are ... 5. The problem reported to be solved is ... 6. The phenomenon expected to be investigated is ... 7. The method supposed to be applied in the experiment is ... 8. The ionization expected to exist is ... 9. Bodies said to be rigid are ... 10. Reactions likely to occur at this temperature are ... Exercise 12. Translate paying attention to the participle. 1. The basic circuit of the device being built is described in detail in this paper. 2. The semiconductor device being designed will be described in some detail in the section followed by a discussion of its possible applications. 3. The scientists theoretically predicted a complicated interaction between the components involved in the process. 4. The explanation of the physical phenomena involved presents some difficulties. 5. The methods of measurement that have been developed differ greatly with the energy of neutrons involved. 6. This half-life is only characteristic of the particular nucleus concerned. 7. The hypothesis concerned synthesized materials and did not apply to natural products. 8. The procedure proposed provided the required mechanism of the reaction. 9. The experiments referred to demonstrated the behaviour of the sodium coolant. 10. The substance affected by a magnetic field was a metal. 11. 108 is a number expressed by one followed by eight zeroes. 55

12. The method followed in the experiment was the most accurate. 13. The reader will find many examples followed by notes explaining why particular examples have been selected. 14. Now it is possible to include cross sections for fission neutrons so far unpublished. 15. This law takes into account forms of energy other than those discussed so far. 16. Automated information processing radically modified the method devised. 17. The changes assumed to take place are of great importance. 18. The problem reported to be solved will be discussed at the conference. 2. Participle as an Adverbial Modifier Exercise 13. Translate. Be attentive to the forms of the participle. A. 1. Experimenting scientists study nature and formulate its laws. 2. Having experimented with different substances they found the most suitable ones for their project. 3. Calculating the orbits of the satellites scientists used computers. 4. Having calculated the data the scientist applied them in his research. 5. Having been accurately calculated the data were of great importance. 6. Being expressed in terms of the international metric system, the results of the measurement are clear to everybody. 7. Being heated magnetized steel loses its magnetism. 8. Having been heated the substance changed its properties. 9. Having carried out the experiment the scientist found ... 10. Having been tested the new device showed ... 11. Having been measured with unreliable instruments the data were incorrect. 12. Defining these units you can solve the equation. 13. Having defined the model’s state you can discuss its operation. 14. Having corrected the formula you can obtain reliable data. 15. Having been corrected the formula is valid for any case. 16. Giving so much information about the planets these experiments are very useful. 17. Given two points A and B, you can draw a line connecting them. 18. Given the value of X, the velocity of a body can easily be calculated. 19. Having been given all the necessary instructions they started their experiment. 20. Given a proper sample, the chemist can determine the properties of the substance. 56

B. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

Разрабатывая теорию, ученые … Разработав теорию, ученые … Будучи разрабатываемой, теория … Будучи разработанной, теория … Разрабатываемая теория … Разработанная теория … Ученые, разрабатывающие теорию, …

C. Work according to the above models, using the following verbs: 1) to do work 2) to make an experiment 3) to describe a method 4) to test a device 5) to design a reactor 6) to study a phenomenon 7) to check the results 8) to compare the results 9) to perform an operation 10) to calculate a value 11) to detect a signal 12) to transform energy Exercise 14. Translate paying attention to the conjunctions. The following conjunctions can be used before the participle: when – когда while – когда if – если unless – если не until – пока не once – когда, как только, если though – хотя whether – ли Learn the proverb:

Do not swap horses while crossing a stream. Не меняйте лошадей на переправе.

A. 1. Be careful while crossing the street. 2. While studying light Newton invented the reflecting telescope. 3. The Curies discovered a new element while studying radioactivity. 57

4. We know that most bodies expand when heated. 5. Metals do not melt until heated to a definite temperature. 6. If heated, magnetized steel loses its magnetism. 7. Unless heated, the substance does not melt. 8. This substance does not dissolve in water, whether heated or not. 9. While using this term you should take into account its limitation. 10. When widely used, this term includes a mixture of gases. 11. Given certain information, you can construct a decision system. 12. Unless given the correct data the scientists cannot proceed with their work. 13. Translated into words, this equation states that matter is converted into energy. 14. Until translated into Russian, this paper was not known. 15. Once started, the reaction continues indefinitely. 16. Once started, the process is difficult to stop. 17. Once formed, an oxide film cannot be removed. 18. Once observed, the phenomenon was discussed. 19. Though undiscovered, the planet was predicted. 20. When calculating the weight of a body, we have to multiply its specific gravity by its volume. 21. When calculated, the values obtained proved to be important. 22. When falling, the more massive bodies have more inertia to overcome. 23. The acceleration of a body when falling is constant. 24. When dealing with gases it is common practice to consider them at a pressure of one atmosphere. 25. When striking a TV antenna the signal must be reconstructed before it becomes a picture on the screen. 26. When struck by light, the metal coating emits electrons. 27. When corrected, the formula is valid for any medium. 28. Any body, when heated to a high temperature, becomes a source of light. 29. The body at rest remains at rest unless acted upon by some external force. 30. The reaction will be of little service unless catalyzed or carried out at a high temperature. 31. Once started, this reaction cannot be stopped. 32. If exposed to ultraviolet radiation certain materials give off visible light. 58

33. When exposed to ultraviolet light, ordinary water develops biologically active compounds. 34. When widely used, the term “hardware” includes the whole computer. 35. Unless tested, the device cannot be applied. 36. When used in high-energy physics, equations of motion didn’t have any significant success. 37. This technique, when properly applied, can be relied on. Exercise 15. Translate. Pay attention to the following expressions. The following expressions are often used in technical papers: Unless otherwise stated (indicated, specified) ... Если не оговорено особо, … Except where otherwise stated (indicated, specified) ... Кроме тех случаев, которые особо оговорены, … 1. Unless otherwise stated, the pressure is atmospheric. 2. Unless otherwise specified, the condition is as follows. 3. Unless otherwise stated, we shall only consider solutions in liquids. 4. Unless otherwise stated, the values used are taken in the decimal system. 5. Except where otherwise indicated, we take an ideal gas. 6. Unless otherwise specified, the tables are given for a perfect gas. 7. Unless otherwise stated, the boiling point refers to the temperature at which the liquid boils at one atmosphere of pressure. Exercise 16. Transform using the proper form of the Participle. 1. When we experiment we study nature. 2. When we heat a substance we cause a more rapid motion of its molecules. 3. When we add heat we change the state of a substance. 4. When we raise the t0 we speed up the rate of a reaction. 5. When you work with this substance you should be careful. 6. When he worked with the substance he observed a new phenomenon. 7. When different substances burn they combine with oxygen. 8. When Mendeleyev was studying various elements he analyzed a lot of materials. 9. After they had measured the t0, the experimenters corrected the data available. 59

10. After they had tested the device, they put it into operation. 11. After they had completed the experiment they compared the results. 12. After they had discussed the problem, they proceeded to the experiment. 13. When water is heated it is transformed into steam. 14. When the first sputnik was launched it provided important information. 15. When the law was discovered it was widely used. 16. When the method was used it improved the results. 17. Air can be liquefied if it is subjected to great pressure. 18. The reaction proceeds at a greater speed if it is catalyzed. 19. If we are given more time, we can do anything. НЕЗАВИСИМЫЙ ПРИЧАСТНЫЙ ОБОРОТ NOMINATIVE ABSOLUTE PARTICIPLE CONSTRUCTION Pattern A The speed of light being extremely great, we cannot measure it by ordinary methods. Так как скорость света чрезвычайно велика, мы не можем измерить ее с помощью обычных методов. All substances consist of molecules, molecules being made up of atoms. Все вещества состоят из молекул, причем молекулы состоят из атомов. Переводится: – в начале предложения – придаточным предложением с союзами «так как; после того как; когда; если»; – в конце предложения – самостоятельным предложением с союзами «причем; а; и; но». Exercise 17. Translate paying attention to the NAPC. A. 1. Other conditions being equal, the t° remains the same. 2. Electrons flowing through a wire, electrical energy is generated. 3. The temperature rising, the bodies expand. 4. Radioactivity discovered, great progress was made in nuclear physics. 60

5. Science having made great progress, many phenomena can be explained. 6. The frequency having been changed, the signal became better. 7. The problem having been solved, the scientists made further progress. 8. The relation having been established, the charge was determined. 9. The electric field being altered, particles of a different velocity can be selected. 10. The gas being compressed, the number of molecules is the same. 11. The equation being given, the value can be determined. 12. Electricity is carried exclusively by electrons, atomic nuclei remaining stationary. 13. The sodium atom has eleven electrons, the eleventh one occupying a position ... 14. α-rays are streams of small particles, each consisting of two protons and two electrons. 15. ..., their atoms being unstable. 16. ..., the electrons moving around the nucleus. 17. ..., each neutron causing a new fission. 18. ..., this fact dealing with radioactivity. 19. ..., their energy increasing with the temperature. 20. ..., some changes having been made by that time. 21. ..., the volume increasing. Pattern B Nominative Absolute Participle Construction может быть введен словом “with”, причем “with” не переводится. With spaceships flying so far, we are able to reach some remote planets. Теперь, когда космические корабли летают так далеко, мы можем добираться до далеких планет. 1. With an object moving in a fixed direction, we call this type of motion one-dimensional motion. 2. With airplanes flying higher and faster, we ... 3. With science so much advanced, we ... 4. With almost all nations using the metric system, we are able to say ... 5. With the experiment carried out, they could improve the results. 6. With the formula given, we can find the value. 61

7. With the period of rotation being constant, the speed increased. 8. With the concept based on the laws of physics, we can be sure that... 9. With the standard meter being calibrated with the help of the wavelength of light, we are able to ... 10. With the new model having been used, we could account for these observations. 11. Acids react with oxides of all the metals, with salt and water being formed. 12. Atoms are in a state of random motion, their speed being tremendous. 13. ..., with atoms losing electrons. 14. ..., with yellow, then blue waves being emitted. 15. ..., with the vibrational frequency of atoms being constant. 16. ..., with the temperature rising. Exercise 18. Find the NAPC. Translate into Russian. 1. The electron is about as large as a nucleus, its diameter being about 10-12cm. 2. Silver being very expensive, we seldom use it as a conductor. 3. Water being denser than air, rays are refracted towards the perpendicular. 4. Other liquids being too light, the barometer uses mercury. 5. All three forms of water, solid, liquid and gas, are the same substance, one being changed into another. 6. Heavy hydrogen combining with oxygen, heavy water is formed, its chemical symbol being D20. 7. All these elements are radioactive, their atoms being unstable and undergoing spontaneous disintegration. 8. Other conditions being equal, the acceleration will be the same. 9. Work is the result of energy, energy being defined as capacity for doing work. 10. There exist various kinds of light, each corresponding to some definite colour. 11. The t° rising, the bodies expand, their volume increasing. 12. The temperature remaining the same, the volume of a gas varies inversely with the pressure. 13. The temperature increasing, the number of carriers in a semiconductor grows exponentially. 62

14. The conductivity depends on the number of ions present, the substance being more ionized in a dilute solution. 15. With a car moving at a constant velocity, the distance travelled is directly proportional to the time. 16. With further heating the waves are still shorter and colour advances along the spectrum, with yellow, then blue waves being emitted. 17. When the thermometer becomes warmer, the mercury expands, the amount of expansion measuring the temperature. 18. The phenomenon of nuclear fission occurred, the uranium nucleus being split into two parts of roughly equal mass. 19. The whole weight of a body acts as though it were concentrated at a single point, this point being called the centre of gravity. 20. The square of any number being positive, the square root of a negative number is imaginary. 21. This set of axioms having been accepted, we could predict many new properties of the system involved. 22. We say that “n” tends to infinity, or n → ∞, the latter symbol being usually used as an abbreviation for infinity. 23. The symbol ∫ is called the integral sign, it being really an elongated S standing for Sum. 24. With experimental work done, we can proceed to the theoretical foundation. 25. This difficulty has been overcome by Davis, the principle involved being illustrated by Fig.(12). 26. The Universe is now essentially composed of about 90 percent hydrogen and 9 percent helium, with the remaining one percent accounting for the more complex atoms. 27. With research involving more and more people, the profession of a scientist has become one of the most popular these days. 28. People sometimes speak of different generations of reactors, with each generation using a different technology. COMPLEX OBJECT WITH THE PARTICIPLE Pattern 1. We watched them carrying out that unusual experiment. Мы наблюдали, как они проводили этот необычный эксперимент. 2. We consider matter as being built up of atoms. Мы считаем, что материя состоит из атомов. Exercise 19. Find Complex Object. Translate into Russian. 1. We watched them carrying out that experiment. 63

2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

They observed the rocket being launched. We hear the signal given. We watched the device being tested. They didn’t hear the water running. We consider the atom as being built... We may consider this substance as consisting of ... We believe each hydrogen atom as having ... We found this effect as corresponding to ...

COMPLEX SUBJECT WITH THE PARTICIPLE Pattern 1. Protons were observed leaving various elements. Наблюдали, как протоны вылетают из различных элементов. 2. Substances are defined as having a definite invariant composition. Определено, что вещества имеют определенный неизменный состав. Exercise 20. Translate into Russian paying attention to Complex Subject. A. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

These particles can be observed emanating from a substance… This substance was shown as consisting of ... This matter is considered as being built up ... Each hydrogen atom is believed as having ... All matter should be regarded as built up of atoms ... These particles could be observed being emitted ... The value is shown as being large for ... The phenomenon was reported as taking place ... The element was reported as having been discovered ... The Curies should be regarded as having discovered ...

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B. 1. Several rays of light are shown passing from medium 2 to medium 1 in which their velocity is greater. 2. From the northern station Venus is seen projected upon the sun’s surface. 3. These particles can be observed emanating from a substance illuminated by certain rays. 4. We may treat the corpuscle as consisting of a group of waves having nearly identical frequencies. 5. We consider each atom as having a unit positive charge. 6. Similar phenomena have not been reported as existing elsewhere. 7. Mendeleyev is regarded as having discovered the law of periodicity of the chemical elements. 8. This new insulating material is reported as being used for covering electric wires. Exercise 21. Participle. General Revision. 1. The tests performed provided complete satisfaction. 2. The approach followed in the breeder design has been much the same in all the countries involved. 3. The latter method is used in the machine being discussed. 4. The advantages of each method depend on the problem being studied. 5. The method concerned was the most accurate. 6. The main problem encountered in the reactor design concerned the cover of the main vessel. 7. The data obtained are considered as not being adequately represented by Equation 1. 8. The results thus far obtained do suggest that the new approach may lead to definite advantages. 9. The equipment as described above was used for experimental tests designed to prove the system as a whole. 10. All materials, whether solid, liquid or gaseous, normally expand when heated and contract when cooled. 11. Having thus established relations of interdependence among physical facts, modern physics tries to interpret these relations. 12. Having been obtained with unreliable instruments, the data proved inaccurate. 65

13. Given the volume and the specific gravity, it is easy to calculate the weight of a body. 14. One electron volt is the energy acquired by an electron when accelerated through a potential difference of one volt. 15. If exposed to ultraviolet radiation certain materials give off visible light, such substances being called fluorescent. 16. When examined under a high-power microscope, small particles in a fluid are seen as moving rapidly in a random direction. 17. Bodies which do not suffer strain when acted on by forces are rigid bodies. 18. It will be noticed in the above formula that, given any two of the factors, the third may be found directly. 19. In most cases when the law is used, the force is a given function of the position of an object, and this position can always be found, given the acceleration of the object. 20. The length of the electron wave being of the same order as that of Xrays, we may expect to obtain scattering of this wave by crystals. 21. With the model’s state defined, its operation may be discussed. 22. We regard “x” as being much greater than “y”. 23. At a very early stage radioactive phenomena were recognized as being atomic. 24. Other factors being equal, maximum stability is found for nuclei with equal numbers of protons and neutrons. 25. The name ”electronics” is known to be derived from the word “electrons”, the electron itself being the basic unit of negative electricity and all electric currents consisting of electrons in motion. 26. Having discussed the algebra of complex numbers, we may now consider the differential calculus of complex variables. 27. No number exists which has a negative value when multiplied by itself. 28. The speaker discussed many problems assumed to be extremely important for designing, constructing and handling new types of machines. 29. These series of tests were followed by others, no satisfactory results being obtained. 30. When treated, the wastes can be conditioned into a passive form and stored safely before final disposal.

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THE GERUND I. FORMS OF THE GERUND Indefinite Perfect

Active asking having asked

Passive being asked having been asked

e.g. Students like asking questions but they don’t like being asked. Студенты любят задавать вопросы, но не любят, когда их спрашивают. I remember having asked him, but I don’t remember having been answered. Я помню, что спрашивала его, но не помню, чтобы мне ответили. II. FUNCTIONS OF THE GERUND 1. Subject

Solving this problem is important. Важно решить эту задачу. 2. Part of a) Our aim was solving this problem. Predicate Наша цель заключалась в том, чтобы решить эту задачу. b) He began solving this problem. Он начал решать… Compare: He is solving a complicated problem. Он решает сложную задачу. 3. Object I don’t remember solving such problems before. a) direct Я не помню, чтобы я решал такие задачи прежде. b) prepositional He insisted on solving this problem. Он настаивал на решении этой задачи 4. Attribute I like the method of solving this problem. Мне нравится метод решения этой задачи.

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5. Adverbial Modifier

In solving this problem we came across a number of difficulties. При решении задачи мы столкнулись с рядом трудностей. On (upon) solving the problem we ... Решив задачу, мы … After solving the problem we ... Решив задачу, мы … Before solving the problem we ... Прежде чем решать задачу, мы … By solving problems we ... Решая задачи, мы … Without solving the problem we ... Не решив задачи, мы …

WAYS OF TRANSLATING GERUNDIAL FORMS Герундиальные формы можно переводить: Heating the gas increases the speed of the molecules. 1. Существительным Нагревание газа увеличивает скорость молекул. 2. Инфинитивом

3. Придаточным предложением

4. Деепричастием

Heating the gas is increasing the speed of the molecules. Нагреть газ значит увеличить скорость молекул. Before heating these parts you should carefully clean them. Прежде чем нагревать эти детали, мы должны тщательно прочистить их. Heat may be produced by burning coal, gas or any other fuel. Тепло можно получить, сжигая уголь, газ или любое другое топливо.

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Exercise 1. Translate. Pay attention to the functions of the gerund. A. Subject 1. Studying a foreign language is necessary for a future specialist. 2. Reading books enlarges one’s horizon. 3. Choosing a profession is not easy. 4. Working must be as natural as eating and drinking. 5. Experimenting is a scientific method. 6. Falling is a case of motion at constant acceleration. 7. Conducting heat and electricity is the property of most metals. 8. Using radioactive isotopes opens up new possibilities. 9. Establishing the relationship between the phenomena of the Universe is a major task of theory. B. Part of Predicate 1. Seeing is believing. 2. Education is not just learning. 3. Their aim is improving the results. 4. He began translating the paper. He continued translating the paper. He stopped translating the paper. 5. His idea is developing a new technique. (He is developing a new technique.) 6. Our purpose is mastering the atom’s secrets. (Man is mastering the atom’s secrets). 7. The task is completing the experiment. (The scientist is completing a series of experiments).

8. The system’s job is controlling the chain reaction. C. Object 1. Most students like learning English. 2. We enjoy reading English books. 3. Speaking reflects thinking. 4. We are interested in experimenting. 5. I am fond of skiing. D. Attribute 1. Which is the best method of (for) learning words? 2. There was no hope for completing the work. 3. Most students understand the importance of mastering English. 69

E. Adverbial Modifier 1. Think before acting. 2. Learn to read by reading, learn to speak by speaking. 3. Can you learn a foreign language without reading books? 4. In using a symbol we must be sure that we know what it stands for. 5. In dealing with atomic particles, it is convenient to use a unit of energy called the electron-volt. 6. Robots can replace man in performing difficult and dangerous tasks. 7. Heat may be produced by burning fuels. 8. Nuclei can be made to release energy by splitting. 9. On carrying out his experiments Faraday discovered electromagnetic induction. 10. Upon being heated to a high temperature, many metallic compounds are decomposed. 11. They won’t determine the value without using this equation. 12. All the transformations change energy from one form into another without affecting the total amount. LEXICAL NOTES I. The following verbs are followed by a gerund: to aim at – стремиться к … to account for – объяснять что-то to insist on (upon) – настаивать на … to rely on (upon) – полагаться на … to depend on (upon) – зависеть от … to succeed in – преуспевать в (удаваться) to prevent from – препятствовать, мешать чему-либо to result in – приводить к … to result from – проистекать из … to object to – возражать против … to mind – возражать to avoid – избегать to give up – отказываться, бросать to be interested in – интересоваться чем-либо to be fond of – любить, нравиться to be capable of – быть способным to be responsible for – быть ответственным за … 70

II. The following phrases are followed by a gerund only. Не могу не спросить. 1. I cannot help asking. 2. It is worth asking. Стоит спросить. It is worth while asking. 3. It is no good asking. Бесполезно спрашивать. 4. It is no use asking. Бесполезно спрашивать. III. Prepositions followed by a gerund. aside from apart from кроме, помимо besides in addition to – кроме, в добавление except – кроме, за исключением on account of из-за, вследствие because of due to owing to благодаря thanks to through – посредством instead of – вместо in spite of – несмотря на Learn the proverbs: 1. If a thing is worth doing at all, it’s worth doing well. 2. It's no use crying over the spilt milk. Exercise 2. Translate concentrating on the verbs and expressions given in our Lexical Notes. 1. You must aim at obtaining accurate results. 2. Can you account for your doing this? 3. The scientist insisted on verifying the data. 4. Can we rely upon your completing the work? 5. The success of any research depends on precisely defining its objective. 6. Did you succeed in carrying out the experiment? 71

7. The impurity of the sample prevented the scientist from obtaining accurate results. 8. His research resulted in establishing a new principle. 9. The success of the space research program resulted from combining the achievements of science and technology. 10. They objected to carrying out this useless experiment. 11. Do you mind changing this? 12. Avoid mixing these substances. 13. Give up smoking. 14. Scientists are interested in studying this phenomenon. 15. He is fond of reading. 16. Conductors are materials capable of conducting electricity. 17. This group of engineers is responsible for modernizing the lab equipment. 18. I can’t help regretting it. 19. It is always worth while asking a question though it is not always worth while answering one. (Oscar Wilde) 20. The fact is worth mentioning. 21. It is no use crying over the spilt milk. 22. It is no good speaking to him. Exercise 3. Translate according to the pattern. It is worth while thinking. Стоит подумать. 1. Стоит упомянуть факт. 2. Стоит провести эксперимент. 3. Стоит поговорить с ним. 4. Стоит обсудить эту проблему. The film is worth seeing. Фильм стоит посмотреть. 1. Статью стоит прочитать. 2. План стоит изменить. 3. Данные стоит проанализировать. 4. Жизнь стоит прожить. 5. Знания стоит приобретать. 72

It is no use crying over the spilt milk. Бесполезно плакать над разлитым молоком. 1. Бесполезно обсуждать это. 2. Бесполезно спрашивать его. 3. Бесполезно проверять результаты. 4. Бесполезно применять этот метод. It is no good repeating the experiment. Бесполезно повторять эксперимент. 1. Бесполезно увеличивать температуру. 2. Бесполезно проверять этот прибор. 3. Бесполезно писать ему. 4. Бесполезно работать над этой проблемой. I cannot help regretting it. = I can’t help regretting it. Не могу не сожалеть об этом. 1. Не могу не думать об этом. 2. Не могу не читать английские книги. 3. Не могу не поговорить с вами. 4. Я не мог не улыбнуться. Compare: 1. Не могу не прийти. 2. Не мог прийти. VI. He succeeded in discovering a new phenomenon. Ему удалось открыть новое явление. 1. Нам удалось решить задачу. 2. Нам удалось достать книгу. 3. Ему удалось получить точные данные. 4. Ученому удалось подтвердить гипотезу. 5. Им не удалось провести эксперимент. 6. Им не удалось завершить работу. Exercise 4. Translate into Russian using Lexical Notes. 1. Ученые стремятся использовать атомную энергию для мира. 2. Мы интересуемся экспериментированием. 3. Физикам удалось достичь замечательных результатов. 4. Их работа привела к созданию полезного устройства. 5. Эта реакция привела к образованию нового вещества. 73

6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13.

Я настаиваю на том, чтобы вы проверили результаты. Я полагаюсь на то, что вы сделаете работу вовремя. Статью стоит прочитать. Бесполезно обсуждать это. Бесполезно плакать над разлитым молоком. Я не могу не думать об этом. Я не могу не сожалеть об этом. Само собой разумеется.

Enjoy:

- What do you call a person who speaks 3 languages? - Trilingual. - Two languages? - Bilingual. - One language? - American. The point is that Americans have a reputation for being global illiterates; only one in ten can speak another language. This doesn’t prevent millions of American tourists, businessmen, diplomats and journalists from visiting and working in nearly every country in the world. Americans simply expect everyone else to know their language. It may be interesting to know: 1. Alchemists aimed at transmuting other substances into gold. In our age the alchemists’ old dream of making gold out of other metals has been proved possible. In 1941 gold was made by disintegrating mercury. The gold, however, was found to be unstable, as so much ill-gotten wealth is! 2. Thomas Edison “failed” over 10,000 times before producing a working light bulb. When asked how he could persist after 9,999 failures, he replied simply: “I did not fail 9,999 times. I succeeded 9,999 times in learning how not to make a light bulb”. Exercise 5. Translate. Concentrate on the gerund. 1. Combining heating plants and electricity plants is an attractive approach. 2. Pure science aims at understanding the laws of the material world. 3. Safety systems in an NPP are aimed at preventing accidents. 74

4. A chemist is interested in constructing adequate models of atomic and molecular structures. 5. The scientist insisted on using a new approach to interpret the results. 6. They insisted on developing an adequate model. 7. Rutherford succeeded in transmuting the elements, that is, in achieving the alchemists' dream. 8. Fermi succeeded in creating the artificial isotope of U239 by bombarding U238 with neutrons. 9. At the beginning of the century scientists succeeded in breaking up the nucleus of the atom. 10. The flow of electrons in one direction results in producing an electric current. 11. The burning of fossil fuels results in polluting the environment. 12. The efficiency of the process resulted in increasing the yield. 13. His research resulted in establishing a new mechanism of the process. 14. These data resulted from comparing the experiments. 15. You cannot avoid being exposed to background radiation. 16. An adequate theory prevents many useless experiments from being made. 17. In the PWR the high pressure is necessary to prevent the coolant from boiling. 18. Although the atmosphere is very important to us, it also prevents us from finding out many things about the Universe. 19. Every effort was made to prevent the thermal neutrons from being absorbed. 20. Unstable nuclei aim at achieving stability by emitting some form of radiation. 21. The advent of robots aids in freeing man from monotonous and dangerous work. 22. Nanotechnologies are capable of changing the world radically. 23. Only time is capable of reducing the radioactivity of the wastes. 24. Fast reactors are capable of burning actinides, that is, high-level wastes. 25. Fertile materials are capable of becoming fissile by capturing a neutron. 75

26. This team is responsible for providing information on the subject. 27. In addition to depending upon the acceleration the force also depends on the mass of the object. 28. Besides destroying the fuel these reactions also use up neutrons necessary for maintaining the chain reaction. 29. Today, besides providing electricity, some special nuclear reactors produce nuclear isotopes for medical and industrial use. СЛОЖНЫЙ ГЕРУНДИАЛЬНЫЙ ОБОРОТ GERUNDIAL COMPLEX Everybody knows of Popov’s having invented the radio. Все знают (тот факт), что Попов изобрел радио. Everybody knows of his having made an important invention. Все знают (тот факт), что он сделал важное изобретение. Everybody knows of the scientist having made an important invention. Все знают (тот факт), что ученый сделал важное изобретение. Exercise 6. Translate concentrating on Gerundial Complex. A. 1. Mme Curie’s having discovered radium enabled her to isolate other radioactive elements. 2. Her having made this discovery interested everyone. 3. Lodygin’s having produced the first incandescent lamp is a generally recognized fact. 4. Mendeleyev’s having established the Periodic Law has made his name world-known. 5. Einstein’s being awarded the Nobel Prize in physics soon became widely known. 6. Plank’s having formulated the quantum theory is a well-known fact. 7. His working in this field of science was mentioned at the conference. 8. Their having revealed three different kinds of rays proved to be an important step in the field of nuclear physics. 9. Transistors being very sensitive to light is a well-known fact. 10. Neutrons being absorbed reduces the reactor’s ability to breed. 76

11. Science having made considerable progress during the past years has greatly changed our ideas about the world. 12. In a nuclear reactor the last thing you want is all your atoms splitting at once. B. 1. Before the Revolution few people knew of Tsiolkovsky’s working at the problem of space flights. 2. Everybody knows of Roentgen’s having discovered X-rays. 3. We know of his having made the discovery quite by chance. 4. We know of copper and silver being good conductors of electricity. 5. We know of objects being electrified by friction. 6. We heard of the physicists having identified these particles as helium nuclei. 7. I heard of such radiations having been observed in cloud chambers. 8. We know of the atomic reactor being fuelled with Uranium235. 9. They spoke of their testing these particular materials. 10. The engineer insisted on these devices being installed. 11. They are responsible for the work being completed on time. 12. Mankind is interested in nuclear energy being used only for peace. 13. I object to your taking part in the work. 14. The results of the experiment depended upon his applying the proper technique. 15. The safety of a NPP depends on its various safety systems becoming operative on time. 16. The reaction will result in a new substance being formed. 17. This process will result in a reaction taking place between the substances. 18. The efficiency of the process results in the surface atoms being in a high-energy state. 19. Events of unknown nature within the nucleus of radium often result in the nucleus being decomposed. 20. Most safety systems in a NPP are aimed at preventing radiation from escaping into the environment. 21. The difference between the two values probably accounts for the measured sensitivity being higher than that predicted by theory C. 1. The possibility of there being life on Mars is very doubtful. 2. It is believed that there is hardly any chance of there being a mistake in these calculations. 3. The scientist obtained new evidence of his hypothesis being correct. 77

4. According to Newton’s second law the motion of a body is changed as a result of its being acted upon by a force. 5. The process of isotopes emitting rays or particles to become more stable is called radioactive decay. 6. There should be no risk of a reactor getting out of control. 7. The probability of a U235 atom capturing a neutron, as it passes by, is high. D. 1. The story of radioactivity begins with Henry Becquerel’s having reported his discovery of rays of unknown nature. 2. It is believed that every research begins with a scientist stating the problem. 3. Some problems can be solved only by the world scientists joining their efforts. 4. Besides its being a common word the word “work” is also a scientific term when used in mechanics. 5. Besides its releasing tremendous amounts of energy the phenomenon termed fission produces 2 or 3 fresh neutrons. 6. Because of its being applied in different branches of modern industry electronics is growing in importance from day to day. 7. After complicated calculations having been made, Russian scientists succeeded in creating space satellites. 8. In spite of their having been compressed, gases return to their original volume, as soon as the applied force has stopped acting. 9. Can matter change from one state into another without the temperature or pressure changing? ING-FORMS Compare the Gerund and the Participle as Adverbial Modifiers Pattern: Gerund Participle 1) решая задачу 1) решая задачу in solving the problem (while) solving the problem 2) решив задачу 2) решив задачу on (upon) solving the problem having solved the problem

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Exercise 6. Replace the gerund by the corresponding form of the participle. 1. In studying the process On studying the process 2. In developing the theory Upon developing the theory 3. In analyzing the data On analyzing the data 4. In discussing the results Upon discussing the results 5. In calculating the values Upon calculating the values Exercise 7. Compare the gerund as a subject and the participle as an adverbial modifier: GERUND PARTICIPLE A. 1. Solving the problem helps 1. Solving the problem he discovus... ered... 2. Heating increases the speed 2. Heating this substance we inmotion. crease ... 3. Bombarding atoms often re3. Bombarding atoms we obtain... sults in... 4. Accelerating can be done by 4. Accelerating the particles we dimeans of... rect them along... 5. Applying the method will 5. Applying the method they obgive the results desired. tained the results desired. 6. Splitting uranium may re6. Splitting the atom scientists lease tremendous energy. learnt to release tremendous energy. 7. Using nuclear energy opens 7. Using nuclear energy we inup new possibilities. crease our energy potential. B. 1. Multiplying the average speed by the time gives the distance travelled. Multiplying the average speed by the time we find the distance travelled. 2. Launching artificial satellites we obtain important information. Launching the first spaceship was a great victory of man over nature. 79

3. Calculating the orbit of the satellite is performed by computers. Calculating the orbit of the satellite one must use computers. 4. Using nuclear fuel for the production of electricity is highly promising. Using nuclear fuel for the production of electricity we save a lot of valuable minerals. 5. Burning uranium takes place slowly under these conditions. Burning uranium we obtain tremendous energy. The burning uranium produces a tremendous amount of heat. 6. Increasing pressure we decrease the gas volume. Increasing pressure leads to the decrease of gas volume. The increasing pressure was measured with great precision. 7. Recognizing a problem the scientist makes the first step to its solution. Recognizing a problem is the first step to its solution. 8. Learning a foreign language is, in fact, learning another way of thinking as well. Learning a foreign language you learn another way of thinking as well. 9. Testing the device should be done under normal conditions. While testing the device they found some serious defects. 10. Smashing two objects together is merely a means of breaking them into their component parts. Smashing two objects together we break them into their component parts. 11. Having separated deuterium scientists found out that it was the only isotope that could be separated. Having been separated, deuterium, the stable isotope of hydrogen, was collected in limited quantities. 12. Having calculated the size of the earth Newton established the true distance to the moon. Newton’s having calculated the true distance to the moon proved the validity of his theory. 13. Solving the problem means answering all the questions connected with the problem. 14. Subtracting the vapour pressure at the existing temperature gives the initial gas pressure. 15. Substituting this value in our equation, we get the following formula. 16. Interpreting the results of a physics experiment requires a statistically significant sample of events. 17. Revolving around its axis the Earth also revolves around the Sun. Revolving around the nucleus are electrons sufficient in number so that their total negative charge is equal to the positive charge on the nucleus. 80

Exercise 8. Compare ing-forms following the noun. The problem being solved requires a lot of effort. Решаемая задача требует много усилий. The problem having been solved is common knowledge. То, что эта задача решена, общеизвестно. The problem being solved, we shall be able to proceed with our research. Когда проблема будет решена, мы сможем продолжить исследование. 1. The electric current passing through a wire heats that wire. 2. The electric current passing through a wire, the heat developed will depend upon the amount of the current. 3. The process will result in the electric current passing through a wire. 4. The substance being heated is an alloy. 5. The substance being heated will result in increasing its molecular motion. 6. The substance being heated, the motion of the molecules increases. 7. Polymers possessing very important properties, technical progress is impossible without them. 8. Polymers possessing very important properties makes them essential for engineers. 9. New types of electronic tools being developed at present make a great contribution to industrial technology. 10. The most promising system being studied will be described in the paper to follow. 11. Friction is the cause of a large proportion of energy being lost as heat. 12. The energy being lost is released as heat. 13. The efficiency of a power plant is rather low, energy being lost into the environment. 14. The region being investigated is the near-earth region called the magnetosphere. 15. Any object being acted upon by some external force changes its state of rest or uniform motion. 16. Any object being acted upon by some external force, its state is changed. 81

17. The actual number of electrons depends on the atom being considered. 18. Energy converters being able to produce huge amounts of electric energy makes them important devices for the direct generation of electricity. 19. Energy converters being able to produce huge amounts of electric energy, we can assume they will find wide application. 20. Ultrasonic waves being able to reach inaccessible places is common knowledge. 21. Ultrasonic waves being able to reach inaccessible places, we use them to perform different operations. Exercise 9. Analyze all the ing-forms used. 1. In solving the problem we have to deal with the laws of motion. 2. While solving the problem we have to deal with the laws of motion. 3. Solving the problem they met with difficulties. 4. Solving the problem is of great importance. 5. His solving the problem was reported at the conference. 6. His having solved the problem enabled him to obtain important data. 7. Having solved the problem the students discussed the results. 8. Having been solved the problem found a practical application. 9. On solving the problem the scientists published the results. 10. The solving of the problem was shared by many scientists. 11. The student solving this problem carries on research in our lab. 12. The student carrying on research in our laboratory is solving this problem. 13. Your aim is solving the problem in different ways. 14. The problem being solved and discussed is important for the reactor design. 15. The problem having been solved, the scientists discussed the results at the conference. 16. We heard of the problem having been solved. 17. We know of the problem being solved by scientists all over the world. 18. I don’t remember having solved such problems before. 19. The scientist succeeded in solving the problem. 82

20. He insisted on the problem being solved. 21. The problem being solved includes calculus methods. 22. He objects to such problems being solved. 23. Gaps in knowledge prevented some students from solving the problem. 24. Is there any other way of solving the problem? 25. The students gain a lot of experience by solving such problems. 26. You won’t obtain the necessary data without solving this problem. 27. She gave up solving the problem as the approach was wrong. 28. The problem is worth solving. 29. It is no use solving the problem. 30. I cannot help solving this problem.

Список литературы 1. Михельсон Т.Н. Сборник упражнений по основным разделам грамматики английского языка. – М.: Наука, 1995. 2. Турук И.Ф. Пособие по переводу научно-технических тестов с английского языка на русский. – М.: Высшая школа, 1985. 3. Пумпянский А.Л. Грамматические трудности при переводе английской научной литературы. – М.: Наука, 1989. 4. Nero A.V. A Guidebook to Nuclear Reactors. – Berkley, 1986. 5. Статьи из английских и американских периодических изданий «Scientific American», «Nuclear Science and Engineering», «Nuclear Europe Worldscan» и др., 1995-2009.

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СОДЕРЖАНИЕ Глагол (The Verb) ............................................................................ 3 Система времен в английском языке (Tenses in Active Voice)....... 4 Времена в действительном и страдательном залоге (Tenses in Active and Passive) .......................................................... 8 Особенности страдательного залога в английском языке (Peculiarities of Passive) ................................................................... 13 Согласование времен (Sequences of Tenses) ................................... 21 Инфинитив (The Infinitive).............................................................. 23 Функции инфинитива (Functions of the Infinitive) .......................... 23 Инфинитив в роли определения (Infinitive as an Attribute) ............ 27 Сложное дополнение с инфинитивом (Complex Object)................ 29 Сложное подлежащее с инфинитивом (Complex Subject).............. 34 Инфинитивный оборот с «for» (For-Construction).......................... 41 Причастие (The Participle) ............................................................... 44 Функции причастия (Function of the Participle) .............................. 45 Независимый причастный оборот (Nominative Absolute Participle Construction) .................................................................................... 60 Сложное дополнение с причастием (Complex Object) ................... 63 Сложное подлежащее с причастием (Complex Subject)................. 64 Герундий (The Gerund).................................................................... 67 Сложный герундиальный оборот (Gerundial Complex).................. 76 Ing-формы (ing-forms) ..................................................................... 78 Список литературы ......................................................................... 83

Редактор Е.Е. Шумакова Оригинал-макет подготовлен Е.Е. Шумаковой Подписано в печать 10.12. 2009. Формат 60х84 1/16. Печ. л. 5,25. Уч.-изд. л. 5,25. Тираж 200 экз. Изд. № 2/4/29 Заказ № 28 Национальный исследовательский ядерный университет «МИФИ». 115409, Москва, Каширское ш., д. 31. ООО «Полиграфический комплекс «Курчатовский». 144000, Московская область, г. Электросталь, ул. Красная, д. 42