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CO ind filled streams, clogging waterways and killing fish. Animals disappeared due to these changes and overhunting. In isolated areas, hydraulic mining introduced water cannons that washed aside entire hillsides. Other Americans who moved into the Southwest initially committed to the concept of individual family farms on privately owned land. As the nineteenth century drew to a close, however, they realized that traditional solutions did not work. Private capital, personal initiative, and individual state action failed to overcome the region's aridity. Westerners asked the federal government to provide substantial waterworks while the nation's taxpayers paid the bill. Congress passed the Newlands Reclamation Act in 1902 and mandated that the Bureau of Reclamation, founded the following year, serve small family farmers
by providing irrigation water. This act, commentators suggest, was as important as the Homesteading Act in Americans' development of the Southwest. Sales of western lands by the federal government were intended to provide the money to fund reclamation construction projects. During its first thirty years, the Bureau of Reclamation built twenty-two dam projects, primarily in states and territories with greater land sales. In one of the early projects, the bureau constructed the Roosevelt Dam on the Salt River, the principal tributary of the Gila, the master stream of central Arizona and a Colorado River feeder. At present, with a series of dams, little water from the Salt reaches the Gila. Problems plagued the reclamation project during its first three decades. Conflicts over water rights, slow land sales, premature settlement, high levels of private debt incurred by small farmers, and more specific agricultural problems such as drainage and salinity limited successful farming under reclamation. When President Franklin Roosevelt made reclamation a cornerstone of his New Deal for the Southwest, however, the Bureau of Reclamation found its solutions. The construction of Hoover Dam on the Colorado River ushered in a new era of water management through mammoth multipurpose dams. In 1922 the seven states that make up the river basin signed the Colorado River Compact to distribute water equitably among themselves and to allow a small amount for Mexico. However, because the compact based its distribution amounts on a flood year, the river now ran at a deficit by human standards. With Hoover Dam and subsequent dams, the bureau sought to rectify the deficit through technology so that southwestern rivers might provide irrigation water for farmers, electrical power for cities and industries, and flood control. Booming economic development in the Southwest after World War II depended upon the control of water and the financing of these projects primarily by the general federal treasury rather than the reclamation fund.
Dams Change Natural Environment By 2000 more than thirty thousand significant dams plugged rivers across the American West. Construction of these dams has also meant a concrete and steel network of roads, railroads, cement factories, diversion tunnels, irrigation canals, quarries, and power plants that have usurped natural environments. Ten dams on the Colorado River have prompted greater urban growth and agricultural production in the nation's 1257
United States—Southwest most arid region. With such dams, salinity has destroyed farmland, downstream wetlands have disappeared, bird habitats have dried up, upstream canyons and their archaeological treasures have been lost, people have been dispossessed, and silt has filled reservoirs, diminishing their capacity and destroying aquatic life that adapted over millennia. The Central Arizona Project (CAP) carries water from the Colorado River more than 535 kilometers to Phoenix and Tucson, desert cities that boomed during the 1940s due to the federal investment in reclamation and military-industrial facilities. Environmentalists subsequently criticized CAP because 50 percent of its water is lost in evaporation and because it illustrates the bureau's abandonment of the small farmers in favor of large agribusiness. Phoenix sits in a natural bowl that captures heat and pollution. CAP and other projects that drain the Gila River made life tolerable there by powering air conditioners, filling swimming pools, and watering golf courses. Yet, at the same time, Arizonans pulled 80 percent of their water from underground aquifers, an overdraft of 8,000,000,000 square meters of water each year. Through all these changes, the Southwest remains home to a substantial Hispanic population and the largest concentration of Native Americans and Native American-controlled land in the United States. The Navajo are the largest group, whereas the Pueblo people are among the most cohesive Native American cultures. Hispanic community grants and Native American rights, increasingly given greater recognition in U.S. courts, have influenced and continue to complicate legal controversies over natural resource usage in the region. In the late nineteenth and twentieth centuries enterprising entrepreneurs concluded that the region's less tangible natural elements held economic value and set a course for twenty-first-century resource usage debates. These entrepreneurs marketed magnificent natural scenery to tourists seeking sublimity and aridity and altitude to wealthy consumptives seeking health. Colorado Springs, Santa Fe, Salt Lake City, and Denver acquired wealth from such enterprises. Las Vegas boomed after 1945 with Hoover Dam, federal military expenditures, and its exploitation of Nevada's gambling laws. At the end of the twentieth century, these and other cities centered a service economy based on outdoor recreation and high-tech industries. Their emergence prompted new arguments for the allocation of more water to urban and recreational uses over the agrarian and extractive industries that claim the lion's 1258
share. As Americans entered the twenty-first century, they moved into the Southwest in greater numbers, occupying cities that acted as oases while reaching farther into the desert and taxing its limited resources. Kathleen A. Brosnan Further Reading Alexander, T. G. (1995). Utah, the right place: The official centennial history. Layton, UT: Gibbs Smith. Gutierrez, R. (1991). Wlien /fsiis cwne, the corn mothers zoent azinn/: Marriage, sexualiti/, and power in New Mexico. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. Iverson, P. (1993). Native peoples and native histories. In C. Milner, C. A. O'Connor, & Sandweiss, M. A. (Eds.), The Oxford history of the American West. (pp. 13-44). New York: Oxford University Press. Lamar, H.R. (2000). The far Southwest, }846-19U:A territorial history (Rev. ed.). Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press. Miller, C. (Ed.). (2001). Fluid arguments: five centuries of western water conflict. Tucson: University of Arizona Press. Moehring, E. P. (2000). Resort city in the Sunbelt: Las Vegas, 1930-2000. Reno: University of Nevada Press. Rei5ner, M. (1993). Cadillac desert: The American V^est and its disappearing water (Rev. ed.). New York: Penguin. Sherow, I. E. (Ed.). (1998). A sense of the American West. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press. Weber, D. I. (1993). The Spanish-Mexican rim. In C. Milner, C. A. O'Connor, & Sandweiss, M. A. (Eds.), The Oxford history of the American West. (pp. 45-78). New York; Oxford University Press. Wescoat, J, L., Jr. (1990). Challenging the desert. In Michael P. Conzen (Ed.), The making of the American landscape, (pp. 186-203). Boston: Unwin Hyman. Worster, D. (1985). Rivers of empire: Water, aridity, and the groxvth of the American West. New York: Pantheon Books.
United States Fish and Wildiife Service The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS) is the primary agency responsible for wildlife conservation in the United States. The FWS is a hybrid of two earlier agencies that divided the natural world between aquatic and terrestrial wildlife. The first was the U.S. Commission of Fish and Fisheries, which was established on 9
United States Fish and
February 1871 under the Department of Commerce and renamed the Bureau of Fisheries on 1 July 1903. The commission's first director was Spencer Fullerton Baird (1823-1887), an important nineteenth-century American naturalist who helped create the Smithsonian Institution's scientific research program. Baird established the commission as a center for federal fisheries science and propagation, creating a network of national fish hatcheries and scientific centers, including the fisheries lab at Woods Hole, Massachusetts. The Bureau of Fisheries successfully propagated a number of sport fishes {for example, trout and salmon) in the nation's waterways. The second was the Office of Economic Ornithology and Mammalogy, which was established on 3 March 1885 imder the Department of Agriculture to oversee conservation of birds and mammals. In 1896 it was renamed the Division of Biological Survey and in 1905 renamed again the Bureau of Biological Survey. The Biological Survey's first director was Clinton Hart Merriam (1855-1942), an explorer, naturalist, and leader in bird protection who moved the new agency's mission away from studying the effects of birds on agriculture to studying the natural history and "life zones" (similar to biomes [major ecological commimity typesl) of North American wildlife. In 1939, as part of New Deal conservation efforts, the Bureau of Biological Survey and the Bureau of Fisheries were merged and transferred to the Department of Interior, and in 1940 the name of the two bureaus was officially changed to the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. One of the rising young employees of the new agency was
I
—-HI:"" I
Service
Rachel Louise Carson (1907-1964), who came to work for the Bureau of Fisheries in 1936 as a junior aquatic biologist and rose to become editor-in-chief for all FWS publications by the time she retired in 1952. In her years with the FWS Carson honed her ability to make complex scientific issues accessible to the public, a talent that served her well through her marine biology books and Silent Spring (1962). \n 1956 the FWS was again divided into two bureaus: the Bureau of Commercial Fisheries and the Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife. In 1970 the Bureau of Commercial Fisheries was moved permanently to the Department of Commerce and renamed the National Marine Fisheries Service. The Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife remained in the Department of Interior, reclaiming its U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service name in 1974. Although the agency has been managed by three diverse departments and endured many name changes, its mission has remained the protection of the nation's wildlife. In at least three areas the FWS has been a pioneer in the American conservation movement. First, the FWS has been the primary federal wildlife law enforcement agency since the Lacey Act of 1900 prohibited the interstate shipment of illegally taken game and importation of injurious species. These tasks were expanded under the Migratory Bird Treaty Act (1918), the Bald Eagle Protection Act (1940), and the Endangered Species Act (1973). Second, the FWS manages a sigruficant habitat base through the National Wildlife Refuge System. The refuge system began in 1903 when President Theodore Roosevelt set aside a 2-hectare island on Florida's coast as a federally protected bird reservation. The system subsequently grew to over 530 refuges encompassing more than 37 million hectares in all fifty states, a vast natural experiment to protect enough habitat for North America's wildlife to survive and thrive. Third, since 1973 the FWS has been the lead agency in implementing the Endangered Species Act—a revolutionary piece of legislation attempting to prevent species extinction. The FWS is responsible for listing species and implementing recovery plans for endangered wildlife such as the California condor, bald eagle, and gray wolf. Mark Madison Further Reading
.••I
Paul Kroegel at Peiican Island the first National Wildlife Refuge ( e s t . 1 9 0 3 ) . COURiESY THE UNITED STATES FISH AND WILDLIFt SERVICE.
Cameron, J. (1929). The Bureau of Biological Survey. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. Dolin, E. (1989). The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. New York: Chelsea House Publishers. 1259
United States Fish and
Service
Laycock, G. (1965). The sig}i of the flying goose. Garden City, NY: Natural History Press. Reed, N., & Drabelle, D. (1984). The United Stales fish and Wildlife Service. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.
United States Forest Service The U.S. Forest Service was one of tbe first government ser\'ice agencies to conserve and promote efficient, rational use of American natural resources. Under the popular banner of what would become known as "conservation," Congress authorized the creation of forest reservations in the 1891 General Land Revision Act. It enabled the president to "proclaim" forest reserves on public lands, most of which were in the mountainous regions of the western United States covering an area of 191 million acres. Pressures for government forestry reserves came from new professional and scientific organizations (e.g., the American Forestry Association, organized in 1882), alarming articles in the press about an impending "timber famine," and calls to protect watersheds for ixrban and agricultural water supplies.
Purpose and Philosophy In the Department of Agriculh.ire's Forestry Division, research occurred under the direction of Bernliard E. Femow linking "forest influences" to climate moderation and the storage of water. From these investigations emerged the phrase "favorable flows of water" meaning a gradual release of water from forested lands over the spring and summer seasons into streams flowing to lower elevations for agricultural and urban uses. The investigations shaped the 1897 Forest Organic Act that clarified management goals for the reserved forest lands: (1) to achieve favorable flows of water; (2) to provide a continuous supply of timber. By declaring for a use-oriented management. Congress pacified westerners who feared prohibitions on resource use and development. Another trained forester, Gifford Pinchot, succeeded Femow. Pinchot advocated conservation, which for him meant the economic use of resources or the avoidance of wasteful resource exploitation that ultimately translated into ihe more formal policies of "sustained yield." He was a skilled publicist from a wealthy family and not without influential political connections. Most of all he was a man with a cause— 1260
tbe promotion of forest conservation in the United States. Despite these advantages Pinchot faced a major problem from his position in the Department of Agriculture. He desperately wanted to apply forestry principles to the new forest reserves, but they were under the Department of Interior. When Tbeodore Roosevelt became president after the assassination of President McKinley in 1901, Pinchot's opportunity appeared. His friendship with Roosevelt and like-mindedness on conservation policies brought support for the 1905 Transfer Act that placed the management of forest reserve lands under the Department of Agriculture. A new U.S. Forest Service emerged from the Transfer Act and the Secretary of Agriculture named Pinchot as Chief Forester to direct it. Pinchot was now in a position to implement his utilitarian conservation policy: "the greatest good of the greatest number in the long run." The Forest Service issued new management rules in book form significantly called the Use Book to forest rangers in the various reserves, now renamed National Forests.
Resource Regulation Probiems Tlie Forest Service's regulation of timber, forage, water power sites, and minerals left little room for the promotion of aesthetic or recreational values until the 1920s when it designated "primitive areas" for wilderness experiences such as hiking and camping comparable to the undisturbed landscapes of the national park system. Also, it did not assert its ownersliip of water in the forests or the wildlife, preferring to defer to state laws. It did see the forests linked to the quality and quantity of water running in the streams and by the last decade in the twentieth century tried to assert "instream" water rights in opposition to diversion by water users. While the Forest Service operated primarily from a western land base, the 1911 Weeks Act expanded its presence into the eastern U.S. with the acquisition of exhausted, often abandoned agricultural lands for purposes of watershed protection. In the first two decades of the twentieth century, the Service faced challenges from the western grazing industry. In 1906, it instituted a system of grazing fees based upon animal itnit months (AUMs) or a count of animals grazing on forest ranges, The fee system came with a permit or grazing privilege granted to graziers. Most stock interests initially opposed permits and fees, but the U.S. Supreme Court in severai cases by 1911 affirmed the regulatory authority of the Service.
United States Forest Service tion. Before World War II the National Forests supplied only about 2 percent of the demand for milled lumber. Budget restrictions and new emergency duties blunted Forest Service plans to extend its rules of forest harvest and management to private forest land during Great Depression. The Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) in the 1930s played a major role in building forest roads, trails, campsites, and upgrading of winter sport areas.
Multiple Use and Environmentalism
\forld$ oi
Cut
An antipollution brochure distributed by the U.S. Forest Service.
Beyond the force of law, the Forest Service sought the authority of science. Range experts in the Forest Service advanced the estimate of "carrying capacity" to determine numbers of stock allowed each year on individual forests. The estimate required botanical investigations or an appeal to the authority of science to justify restrictions on use. Similarly, it applied forest science or silviculture to its timber-cutting decisions making "scientific conservationism" an essential element in its policy decisions. Yet there was little applica-
During World War II the Forest Service tried to avoid the mistakes of excessive use of its resources that had occurred during World War I. But in the postwar decades the exhaustion of private forest lands and an expanding economy increased demand. The 1960 Multiple Use Act made formal policy out of management of diverse resources, succeeding the vague guidelines of the 1897 Forest Management Act that only acknowledged water and timber resources. Although the Forest Service pioneered conservation and innovative administration sensitive to local needs, it fell out of step with a changing American society during the 1960s. With the decline of federal budget appropriations beginning with the Vietnam War, the Service hastened "to get out the cut" to maintain its revenue base. It resisted the formal creation of wilderness and roadless areas, cut old growth timber, and continued scientifically defensible policies of clearcutting. By the 1970s, the Forest Service strove to conform to the rules of the new National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA), but came under trenchant criticism for spawning an institutional culture that embraced a false optimism about its flawed conservation and environmental record. Criticism came from without and from within its own ranks for its failure to protect resources; also from traditional use advocates who saw it in an opposite light—the tool of envirorunentalists, especially when it sought to enforce the Endangered Species Act to protect the spotted owl in the far western forests. To counter criticisms of environmental shortcomings, the Service by the 1990s hoped to combine science and policy to achieve its historic goals of protecting resources and allowing prudent use in a newly announced "ecosystem management" policy. Wiiliam D. Rowiey Further Reading
Hirt, P. W. (1994). A conspiracy of optimism: Management of the National forests since World War IL Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press. 1261
Unite(J States Forest Setvice Rowley, W. D. (1985). U.S. Forest Service grazing and range-
lands: A history. College Station: Texas A&M Press. Steen, H. K. (1976). The U.S. Forest Service: A history. Seat-
tle: University of Washington Press.
Urbanization The term urbanization has two contrasting meanings. The first involves settlement patterns: Urbanization occurs when a population moves from a state of lesser concentration to one of greater concentration. The second involves culture and lifestyle: Urbanity and civic culture, the hallmarks of civilization, are said to originate in major cities and to diffuse from them to smaller places and to rural areas. The usual indicator of urbanization in the first meaning is the percentage of the population living in urban areas. In the second meaning, the indicators are those that chart cultural evolution.
Urban Origins The world's first cities emerged as secondary consequences of the formation of the state. There were several areas of primary urban generation: lower Mesopotamia in southwestern Asia, where Sumerian cities such as Ur, Uruk, Kish, Lagash, and Umma appeared 5,000 years ago; the Indus River valley of Asia 4,500 years ago; the northern China plain 3,000 years ago; Mesoamerica 2,500 years ago; the central Andes and Peruvian coast 2,000 years ago (although recent evidence places the age of the pyramids at Caral in Peru at 4,600 years); and the Yoruba territories in western Africa 500 years ago and beginning at the same time in Zimbabwe and the lower Congo River valley. Diffusion of institutions from already urbanized societies also stimulated the rise of cities in a number of other areas: Japan, the Indian Deccan region, southwestern Asia, the eastern Mediterranean, and the western Mediterranean and Europe. Beyond these areas, in the New World in particular, urbanization came as a consequence of colonial expansion and imposition, often with explicit planning guidelines, as in Spain's sixteenth-century Law of the Indies. The characteristic sequence of cultural evolution in each of the zones of primary urban generation began with domestication of plants and animals and the emergence of class-based societies, followed by the formation of military and religious elites who gathered 1262
clans into states and used their power to extract surpluses from village agriculturalists. In such states hierarchies of specialized institutions developed and exercised authority over territory and maintained order within their populations. At the core of these states were monumental complexes, the focal points around which capital cities evolved as concentrated settlements and the nxes mundi (the places where heaven, Eartli, and the underworld were believed to connect) at which leaders were thought to be able to maintain contact with the gods and to ensure that stability and harmony with the universe prevailed. Within the settlements resided specialists who began as temple and palace functionaries and later evolved into producers for the market. Similarly, the merchants who conducted long-distance trade evolved from the networks of tribute that had earlier been secured by military action. Astronomy was important in the regulation of the rhythms of agriculture and also in the physical plans ofthe capital cities, which included astronomical orientations and cardinal (usually north-south and eastwest) street alignments. The social geography of the cities was predominantly centripetal: The higher the status, the closer a resident lived to the center, but within often-walled "quarters" within which different ethnic groups were clustered. Most classical capital cities were small and compact. Levels of urbanization never exceeded lOpercent, including any secondary centers that developed, and these were few and small. As late as 1700 there were probably no more than fourteen cities in the world with populations exceeding 200,000 (in China, Beijing 650,000, Hangchow 300,000, and Guangzhou [Canton| 200,000; in Japan, Yedo 680,000, Osaka 380,000, and Kyoto 350,000; in the Mughal empire, Ahmedabad 380,000 and Aurangabad 200,000; in Persia, Isfahan 350,000; m the Ottoman Empire, Constantinople 700,000; and in Europe, London and Paris both over 500,000 and Amsterdam and Naples both just over 200,000). Perhaps another fifty cities exceeded 50,000. They created local environments that were both exhilarating and problematic, and they produced rings of environmental modification in surrounding regions. In her dramatic description of London in 1700, M. Waller captures the contrasts that were present in the capital cities of the time: London in 1700 was the most magnificent city in Europe. ... TTie capital dominated the kingdom to an extent that it has never done before or since. !t was home to at least 530,000 people—one in nine of
Urbanization
Self-Reliance and Citizen Involvement in the Developing World In most developing countries between one-fourth and one-half of the economically active urban population cannot find adequate, stable livelihoods. With few jobs available in established businesses or government services, people have to find or create their own sources of income. Tbese efforts have resulted in the rapid growth of what has been termed the "informal sector," which provides much of the cheap goods and services essential to city economies, business, and consumers. Thus, while many poor people may not be officially employed, most are working—in unregistered factories and construction firms, selling goods on street corners, making clothes in their homes, or as servants or guards in better-off neighbourhoods. Most of the so-called unemployed are in fact working 10-15 hours a day, six to seven days a week. Their problem is not so much underemployment as underpayment Most house building, maintenance, or upgrading in the cities of developing countries is done outside official plans and usually in illegal settlements. This process mobilizes untapped resources, contributes to capital formation, and stimulates employment. These informal-sector builders represent an important source of urban employment, in particular for low and unskilled labour. They are not capital- or technology-intensive, they are not energy-intensive, and as a rule they do not impose a drain on foreign exchange. In their way, they contribute their share to attaining some of the nation's major development objectives. Moreover, they are flexible in responding to local needs and demands, catering in particular to poorer households, which usually bave nowhere else to turn. Many governments have begun to see the wisdom of tolerating rather than quashing their work. Large-scale bulldozing of squatter communities is now rarer, although it still happens. Source: World Commission on Environment and Development (1987). Our Common Future. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, p. 248-249.
the entire population—while the second city, Norwich, had a population of 30,000. Not only did so many of William Ill's subjects live in London, but the city impinged on the lives of many more. It was a magnet to all classes. Aristocracy and gentry flocked to London to be seen at court, to attend Parliament, to settle their legal affairs, to enjoy the season and arrange marriages for their children, and to shop. London was a shopper's paradise, a great emporium of goods for its hungry consumers. The booming newspaper industry in Grub Street found a ready market in London's coffee-houses where everything was up for discussion. London was the centre of a lively publishing trade, the theater and music. Visitors absorbed its ideas and culture and disseminated them to all parts of the kingdom. But this great city could not sustain itself. The mortality rate was higher than it had been a century previously. In any year there were more burials than christenings. One in three babies died before the age of two. Only one in two of the survivors passed the
age of fifteen. Adults in their twenties and thirties, often family breadwinners, were particularly vulnerable. The streets were open sewers, the drinking water was contaminated, the stink of decaying refuse and overflowing graveyards was pervasive: houses did not have the conveniences of running water or flush lavatories^—and anyway, there was no understanding of basic hygiene. The atmosphere was thick with sulphurous coal smoke belching out of thousands of domestic and industrial fires, begriming the inhabitants and stultifying the gardens. Tuberculosis was widespread and a particularly virulent strain of smallpox cut a swathe through the densely packed population. Medicine was largely helpless in the face of disease and a broken limb could be the harbinger of infection and death. It is not surprising, therefore, that native-born Londoners were chronically sick and of poor constitution, and the metropolis needed a constant influx of more robust migrants from the provinces. About 8,000 young people from all parts of the kingdom and as far away as 1263
Urbanization Ireland poured in every year, attracted by the promise of wages 50 per cent higher than anywhere else. (Waller 2000,1-2) There also were distinct regional effects. Despite their small size, capital cities served as the focal points of distinct city-centered "world economies," economically autonomous sections of the planet able to provide for most of their own needs. Each was surrounded by an immediate core region that was called on to provide foodstuffs and migrants and within which modification of the Earth was greatest, a modestly developed middle zone exploited for transportable resources and products, and a vast and relatively untouched periphery. The core contained the concentration of everything that was most advanced and diversified, lying at the heart of the middle zone, the settled area of the state.
Break with Classical Patterns The first break with these classical patterns came in the late seventeenth and the eighteenth centuries in the Low Countries (Netherlands, Belgium, and Luxembourg). Exploiting new maritime technology—deepbellied cargo vessels that significantly changed seagoing goods-carrying capacity and costs—Amsterdam had become the warehouse of the world, and the United Provinces were its middle zone. In this zone, urbanization levels rose to more than 30 percent. The areas surrounding Amsterdam developed a high degree of market-based specialization in cash crops for both the urban consumer and the industrial market. Agriculture intensified, and ingenious new methods
of crop rotation soon transformed the English agricultural landscape. New technologies enabled the Netherlands to create cultivable polders {farmlands below sea level, protected by dikes and kept free of water by pumping) by draining swampland. Later, Dutch engineers brought their technology to England and enabled the Fens area to be settled. And a new middle-class spirit of Protestantism linked to capitalism was fostered, carrying with it associated ideas of humans' dominion over nature and the godliness of engaging in production and trade for profit. The closer to Amsterdam, the greater the degree of cash-crop specialization and the greater the extent of environmental modification. Tine farther from the United Provinces, the more likely it was that regions were still composed of selfsustaining agricultural villages lodged within feudal societies. The second break with classical patterns came in eighteenth-century Britain as that country's navy and trading companies established their ascendancy and a global empire was built. Radiating outward were waves of clearance, drainage, conversion, and extraction, with the extent of environmental modification patterned by gradients of accessibility to London, by now the largest city in Europe. Its demand for food radically changed the agricultures of the English core. Its wealthy merchants bought country estates and hired landscape gardeners who created a new kind of designed rural landscape. The wealthy merchant classes became the principal dissenters who set in motion Europeans' drive to master the North American wilderness. Britain's urbanization levels reached 30 percent by 1800, but in the rest of the world there was little change from 1700. The number of cities with greater than 500,000 population increased only from five to six, and the number of cities exceeding 100,000 increased from only thirty-five to fifty. Predominantly rural societies within the new trading empires were dominated by only a few large trading centers. In contrast to the monumentally centered capital cities of earlier states, these new centers focused on their ports, docks, and warehouses, Predominantly "walking cities," they had little separation of land uses, of workplaces and homes, or of social classes and races.
Enter Industrialization The Pudong financial district in Shanghai, China, in August 2002. A center for giobat trade, the district Is built on what were poor neignborhoods and farmland, COURTESY KAREN GHRlSTtNSEN
1264
Yet, by 1800 now forces were at work that were to radically redraw the world map of urbanization. In England urban growth was already accelerating outside London, with the main burst of expansion occurring
Urbanization OCEAN
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PACIFIC OCEAN
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Largest Urban Areas in 2000
in the last quarter of the century in such cities as Manchester, Liverpool, Birmingham, and Glasgow, and a second echelon of urban areas in the range of 20,000 to 50,000 that included Leeds, Sheffield, Newcastle, Stoke, and Wolverhampton. The English share of European urban growth had been 33 percent in the seventeenth century, but it was more than 70 percent in the second half of the eighteenth century. This increased share was concentrated outside London in the newly industrializing North. The precipitating factor was the initial wave of the Industrial Revolution, brought about by major advances in the cotton and iron industries, the first flush of factory building, and significant improvements in waterborne transportation with the building of canals and the dredging of rivers. The new urban centers that emerged were either mill towns in which the workers resided witliin walking distance of the factory, cities such as Birmingham that had at their cores specialized industrial districts, or centers of control and finance of the new economy such as Manchester. Demand for labor was fed by rural-to-urban migration or by workers displaced from such occupations as hand spinning and hand-loom weaving by the new factory production.
Nineteenth-Century Industrial Urbanization Building upon this break with the past, accelerating technological change brought a new kind of city between 1800 and 1900, built on productive power, massed population, and industrial technology. By the end of the century, this new kind of city had been credited with the creation of a system of social life fotmded on entirely new principles, not only in Britain, but also elsewhere in Europe, in the United States, and in pockets elsewhere across the globe. By 1900 the level of urbanization had reached 80 percent in Britain, exceeded 60 percent in the Netherlands and newly industrializing Germany, 50 percent in the Uruted States, and 45 percent in France. Sixteen cities in the world exceeded 1 million in population, and 287 exceeded 100,000, and the world economy was shaped around two great urban-industrial core regions in western Europe and the northeastern United States, with a third emergent in Japan. Contemporary observers recognized that something dramatic had happened. Adna Weber, a chronicler of the changes, wrote in 1899 that the most remarkable social phenomenon of the nineteenth century was 1265
Urbanizaton the concentration of population in cities. The tendency toward concentration (or agglomeration), he said, was all but universal in the Western world. The change involved a process whereby, as societies modernized, their market medianistns expanded in scope and influence. The size of production units increased, as did the number and complexity of production decisions. Increased division of labor and increased specialization, which accompany increased productivity, became forces promoting population concentration in cities. Associated with this population shift was the shift in the occupatic>nal structure of economies from agriculttire and from unskilled occupations in primary production to more skilled clerical and higher-level occupations, largely in the secondary (manitfacturing) and tertiary (service) sectors in urban concentrations. New institutions were created, and old institutions were radically altered. This was particularly true in the case of financial and market institutions, which, in turn, contributed to a massive accumulation of social and economic overhead in cities, making further highlevel productivity increases possible and the modem institutions more effective. Cities grew as dense concentrations around their central business districts, which housed the headquarters of their corporations and centers of finance, together with agglomerations of downtown business, in locations that offered maximum accessibility to the surrounding population. The new urbanism became a new way of life as the increasing size and density of cities and the increasing heterogeneity of their immigrant populations produced definable social consequences: greater individual freedoms and opportimities for social and economic advance, but also the inequality, alienation, and deviance that produced unliappiness, unrest, and revolution. The new cities also dramatically dianged their local environments through the unrestricted discharge of effluents into their air and waters and onto the land.
Twentieth-Century Urban Growth During the twentieth century the urbanization level in economically advanced nations leveled off at around 80 percent, but additional bursts of technological change brought accelerating urban growth to most other parts of the world. By 2000 no part of the globe was less than 40 percent urbanized, 440 cities exceeded 1 million population, and 1,800 exceeded 100,000. At least a dozen "megacities" exceeded 10 million.
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The new techtiologies also brought change in the spatial pattem of urban growth. The concentrated industrial metropolis had developed in the nineteenth century because centrality and proximity meant lower transportation and communication costs for those interdependent specialists who had to interact with each other frequently or intensively under horse-and-buggy conditions. But shortened distances meant higher densities and costs of congestion, high rents, loss of privacy, and the like. In contrast, virtually all the technological developments of the twentieth century had the effect of reducing the constraints of geographic space and the costs of concentration, making it possible for each generation to live farther apart and for information users to rely upon information sources that were spatially distant As a result, decentralization and declining overall densities moved to the fore as dominant spatial processes, producing far-flung metropolitan regions and emptying out the higher-density cores. As these changes unfolded, researchers began to codify the modifications of the physical environment produced by this rapid urban growth and transformation. These modifications occurred at three geographic scales: 1. Locally, by altering the nature of the surface of the Earth: the replacement of the natural surface of soil, grass, and trees by the urban surfaces of brick, concrete, glass, and metal at different levels above the ground. These artificial materials change the nature of the reflecting and radiating surfaces, the heat exchange near the surface, and the aerodynamic roughness of the surface. 2. Regionally, by generating large amounts of heat artificially and by altering the composition of the atmosphere via emission of gaseous and solid pollutants. At certain times of the year in midiatitude cities, artificial heat input into the atmosphere by combustion and metabolic processes may approach or even exceed that derived indirectly from the sun. The heat island that results serves as a trap for pollutants. 3. Globally, potentially, by making urban contributions to sulfur and carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere and thus to the greenhouse effect, to global warming, and to sea-level changes, which are likely to be of greatest consequence for major coastal cities. One of the principal local effects is via land-use changes that affect the hydrologic regitne (the system of rivers and streams and the patterns of runoff):
Urbanization TABLE 1. EFFECTS ON ENVIRONMENT Compared to Rural Environs
Element Contaminants
Radiation
Cloudiness Precipitation
Temperature
Relative Humidity Wind Speed
Condensation nuclei (particles that serve to attract condensation) Particulates {e.g., soot) Gaseous admixtures (mixtures of polluting gases) Total on horizontal surface Ultraviolet, winter Ultraviolet, summer Sunshine duration Ciouds Fog, winter Fog, summer Amounts Days with less than 5 mm Snowfall, inner city Snowfall, lee of city Thunderstorms Annual mean Winter minimums (average) Summer maximums Heating degree days Annual mean Winter Summer Annual mean Extreme gusts Calm
changes in peak-flow characteristics (the scale and speed of runoff after storms); changes in total runoff; changes in water quality; and changes in hydroiogic amenities (the desirability of water bodies for recreation). After urbanization, runoff occurs more rapidly and with a greater peak flow than under nonurban conditions. Urbanization increases the impervious land area, and the urban area may be served by storm sewers. Both increase the peak discharge: Maximum sewerage and imperviousness result in peak discharges that are more than six times greater than those in unurbanized conditions. In turn, sharper peak discharges increase flood frequencies and the ratio of overbank flows. Urbanization, then, increases the flood volume, the flood peak, and the flood frequency, and ihe flushing effect increases turbidity (the mixing of ,sediment:s in the water) and pollutant loads, although sediment loads may fall, and the channel response will therefore shift from aggradation (build-up of sediment deposits) to bank erosion. Water pollution changes the quality of downstream resources, the ecology of the riverine environment, and the amenity value of the river bank or estuary. The effects become pronounced
10 times more 50 times more 5-25 times more 0-20% less 30% less 5% less 5-15% less 5-10% more 100% more 30% more 5-15% more 10% more 5-10% more 10% more 10-15% more 0,5-3.0 °C more 1-2"C more 1-3°C more 10% less 6% less 2% less 8% less 20-30% less 10-20% less 5-20% more
downstream of larger cities, where natural flushing is incapable of preventing long-term damage. At the metropolitan scale, H. E. Landsberg has summarized the major effects of urbanization on the environment. (See table 1.) Perhaps the most dramatic effect of metropolitan growth is the creation of the urban heat island, which serves as a trap for atmospheric pollutants. Other things being equal, the temperature difference between the city core and the rural periphery, increases with city size; the difference is small and ephemeral in cities of 250,000 or less population but is substantial and longer-lasting in larger cities. The heat island expands and intensifies as the city grows, and stronger and stronger winds are needed to overcome it. Wind speeds of 5 m/sec"^ (12 mi/hr) can eliminate the heat island in a city of 250,000, but speeds of lOm/sec"^ (22 mi/hr) are required for 1 million, and 14 m/sec" ^ (32 mi/hr) for 10 million. Yet, the surface roughness of the city serves to reduce wind speeds and inhibit this ventilation: Average wind speed may be reduced as much as 30 percent by a big city. In cities over 10 million, the mean annual minimum temperature may 1267
Urbanization be as much as 2.5°C higher than tbat of tbe surrounding rural periphery. This difference is much greater in summer than in winter. The causes are twofold, both of wbicb are seasonally dependent: (1) In summer, tbe tall buildings, pavement, and concrete of the city absorb and store large amounts of solar radiation, and less of tbis energy is used for evaporation tban in tbe country because of tbe bigb runoff. Tbe stored energy is released at nigbt, warming the urban air. (2) In winter, buman-made energy used for beat and ligbt produces tbe warming, yet tbe blanket emissions reduce incoming solar radiation by as much as 20 percent (a phenomenon known as beat rejection). Wben tbe Boston-Washington megalopolis reaches a population of 50-60 million, it will be cbaracterized by beat rejection of 65 cal/cm^/d. In winter, tbis is 50 percent, and in summer 15 percent, of tbe beat received by solar radiation on a horizontal surface. In Manbattan, tbe beat produced by combustion alone in winter has been estimated to be two and one-half times tbe solar energy reacbing tbe ground. Tbis energy is trapped by tbe blanket of pollutants over tbe city, including particulates, water vapor, and carbon dioxide, and is reemitted downward to warm tbe ambient air. In addition to tbe beat island, otber climatic effects of urbanization—all increasing witb city size—include greater cloudiness, fog, dust, and precipitation, but lower humidity. And as wind dissipates the heat island, a downwind urban beat plume is detectable in tbe atmospbere. Along tbis plume, tbere are increased precipitation, tbunderstorm, and bail probabilities, often quite distant from tbe city. Beyond sucb regionalscale consequences, urban activities are a major source of carbon dioxide and of tbe fluorocarbons tbat, in combination, may affect future global climates and sea levels. All of tbese effects are intensifying as more than 50 percent of tbe world's 6 billion population bas moved into tbe cities; tbe list of cities with more tban 1 million population is expected to increase from four bundred in 2000 (in 1950 tbere were only eighty-six) to six bundred by 2020, and tbe number of megacities (urban agglomerations of 10 million or more), wbicb totaled only one in 1950 and sixteen in 2000, is expected to rise to more tban twenty by 2020.
Berry, B. J. L. (1990). Urbanization. In B. L. Turner II, W. C. Clark, R. W. Kates, J. F. Richards, J. T. Mathews, & W. B. Meyer (Eds.), The Earth as transformed by human action: Global and regional changes in the biosphere over the past 300 years (pp. 103-119). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Berry, B. J. L., & Horton, F. E. (1974). Urban environmental management: Planning for pollution control. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. Cbandler, T. (1987). Four thousand years of urban growth: An historical census. Lewiston, ME: St. David's University Press. DeVries, J. (1981). Patterns of urbanization in preindustrial Europe: 1500-1800. In H. Schmal (Ed.), Patterns of European urbanization since 1500 (pp. 77-109). London: Croom Helm. Eisenstadt, S. N., & Shachar, A. (1987). Society, culture and urbanization. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage Publishing. Hall, P. (1999). Cities in civilisation: Culture, innovation and urban order. London: Phoenix Orion. Knox, P. L. (1994). Urbanization. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. Landsberg, H. E. (1981). The urban climate. New York: Academic Press. Leopold, L. B. (1968). Hydrology for urban land planning (Geological Survey Circular No. 554). Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office. Sassen, S. (2001). The global city (2nd ed.). Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. Short, J. R., & Kim, Y.-H. (1999). Globalization and the city. London: Longman. Waller, M. (2000). 1700 scenes from London life. London: Hodder and Stoughton. Weber, A. F. (1899). The growth of cities in the nineteenth century: A study in statistics. New York: Macmiilan. Wheatley, P. (1971). The pivot of the four quarters. Chicago: Aldine. Wolman, M. G. (1967). The cycle of sedimentation and erosion in urban river channels. Geografisker annaler, 49A, 285-295, 355. Wrigley, E. A. (1987). People, cities and wealth. Oxford, UK: Basil Blackwell.
Uruguay see southern Cone
Brian J. L. Berry Further Reading Berry, B. J. L. (1982). Comparative urbanization: Divergent paths in the twentieth century. Basingstoke, UK: Macmiilan. 1268
Utopianism For as long as bumans have existed tbey bave created images of ideal societies. Utopian dreaming is tbe way
utopianism by which people conceive corrective measures for the problems in the world they have built for themselves. The process is no different for environmental problems than for social problems—Utopias are tools that people use to describe and experiment with both the logical consequences of proceeding heedlessly and the many alternative paths that people might choose from. Utopian dreaming came by its name through the writings of English statesman Sir Thomas More, whose 1516 account of a visit to a fictional country, Utopia, initiated the literary genre. In More's classless agrarian society, people work equal hours at whatever they do best and enjoy equal rights and rewards. Clothing is plain, simple, and practical, not unlike that of today's Mennonites, Amish, and the Hutterites, who began building Utopian communities in Moravia in 1528. More's Utopians exchange homes every few years (as do some traditional Mormons in Utah and Arizona) and eat in common dining halls (as do residents of kibbutzim [communal farms] in Israel and co-housing settlements [comm^unities in which multiple houses are oriented around a common open area and a common building] in North America and Scandinavia). Hereditary distinctions are unknown, and children live within the household of their choice. Consumerism is discouraged. If a surplus is produced, a holiday is declared. Utopia has most often been viewed through a social lens, but More's vision was also ecological: [River water] is carried in earthen pipes to the lower streets; and for those places of the town to which the water of that river cannot be conveyed, they have great cisterns for receiving the rainwater, which supplies the want of the other. . . . They cultivate their gardens with great care, so that they have vines, fruits, herbs, and flowers in them; and all is so well ordered, and so finely kept, that I never saw gardens anywhere that were both so fruitful and so beautiful as theirs. (More 1901, Book II) More's fictional account compares remarkably to a vision for Melbourne, Australia, that the executive director of the Australian Conservation Society sketched in 1990: an urban village surrounded by forest and wetland, its human population harmlessly integrated with native species of plants and animals. In this future Melbourne, residents generate their own energy from sunlight, and buildings are designed to heat and cool themselves passively. The Utopian tradition may have originated with the Greek philosopher Plato (427-347 BCE) and his The Republic, which provided a detailed model for an ideal
society as a way of elucidating the shortcomings of contemporary culture. After More in the sixteenth century, prominent eco-utopias (utopias with a particular focus on living in ecologically and environmentally sound ways) included those described in Italian philosopher Tommasso Campanella's Citta del Sole (City of the Sun) (1602), British philosopher Frances Bacon's New Atlantis (1627), Welsh philanthropist Robert Owen's A New View of Society (1813), French socialist Henri de Saint-Simon's Catechisme Politique de Industriels (Industrial Political Catechism) (1824), U.S. writer Henry David Thoreau's Walden (1854), British naturalist William Hudson's A Crystal Age (1877), U.S. writer Edward Bellamy's Looking Backward (1888), British poet William Morris's News from Nowhere (1891), Russian philosopher Peter Kropotkin's The Conquest of Bread (1892) and Fields, Factories and Workshops (1899), British reformer Ebenezer Howard's Garden Cities of Tomorrow (1902), U.S. psychologist B. F. Skinner's Walden Two (1948), British writer Aldous Huxley's Island (1962), U.S. writer Ernest Callenbach's Ecotopia (1975), U.S. feminist Marge Piercy's Woman on the Edge of Time (1976), and U.S. social anarchist Murray Bookchin's The Ecology of Freedom (1982) and Remaking Society (1990). There is also a genre of frightening anti-utopian or "dystopian" novels that includes works such as English writer Samuel Butler's Erewhon (1872), Russian novelist Yevgeny Zamyatin's We (1923), Aldous Huxley's Brave New World (1932), English writer George Orwell's Nineteen Eighty-Four (1949), and U.S. writer Ray Bradbury's Fahrenheit 451 (1972). If benevolent Utopias can be carried to their most paradisiacal extremes, the dangerous consequences of a Utopia turning against itself can also be imagined.
Revolutions The revolutions of the late eighteenth century introduced the possibility that Utopian thought could intervene in human affairs. Thomas Jefferson in the U.S. Declaration of Independence (1776), Niquet le Jeune in the Declaration des droits de I'homme et du citoyen (Declaration of the Rights of Man, 1786), and other revolutionaries moved Utopian idealism into national government charters. The nineteenth century brought the proliferation of Utopian communities, both religious and secular. In 1799 Robert Owen purchased the cotton spirming mills of New Lanark, Scotland, reduced the workday, and gave his employees low-rent housing, free medical care, low-cost education, reduced prices on food and 1269
Utopianism other household supplies, and free access to social and recreational facilities, gardens, and parks. Although Owen's experiment at New Lanark was a success on many levels, he did not believe that it was the ideal community in which to establish his "New Moral World." In 1824 he purchased the community of Harmony, Indiana, and nine hundred of his followers moved there to start over as New Harmony. After a failed experimental settlement in Texas, the French socialist Etienne Cabet relocated 275 of his followers to the town of Nauvoo, Illinois, in 1849 and there built the Icarian Society, which practiced a communal economy. Members of the community received free schooling from age four until adulthood. At the same time the Shakers (United Society of Believers in Christ's Second Appearing) believed that they could set an example of the perfect life and established several model settlements in the eastern United States. Their requirement of celibacy dwindled their numbers, but the perfection in their designs for furniture, buildings, villages, and music endures. In the early 1870s U.S. social reformer John Humphrey Noyes led his Oneida, New York, community to found successful enterprises in the production of steel traps, silk thread, and fruit preserves and later the manufacture of silver and stainless steel dinnerware. By 1881 disagreements over leadership and widespread criticism from the outside world over the practice of a form of free love in which all members were married to each other led to the dissolution of the community and the formation of a joint business corporation that survives today. Many of these communities believed that they had found the answer to all human ills, and they presented themselves as exemplars to the rest of the world. But far more influential were German political philosopher Karl Marx and German socialist Friedrich Engels, whose Communist Manifesto in 1848 retold history as a series of class struggles. The Paris Commune revolt in March 1871 established a worker state in Paris, with a revolutionary calendar, a ban on religion, and better working conditions. After two months, government troops attacked the barricades around Paris, killing 20,000, arresting 38,000, and deporting 7,000. However, Marx's doctrine soon found even larger followings in Russia and China. More people live in communist societies today than lived on Earth when Marx put pen to paper. In 1892 William Morris wrote News from Nowhere; or, an Epoch of Rest. Being Some Chapters from a Utopian 1270
Romance. Morris's protagonist, William Guest, awakens one morning after a troubled sleep to find himself in a place completely unlike his own Victorian London. He discovers instead a society of youthful people whose members are happy, energetic, free from want, and, most important, engaged in work for the pure pleasure of serving others and expressing their own creativity. Morris's Nowhere depicts a utopia that is devoid of class, governmental structures, money, poverty, crime, and industrial pollution. The first decade of the twentieth century brought the birth of futurism, an attempt to see the future, not as it should be, but as it likely will be. The Italian writer Filippo Marinetti, in his Manifesto tecnico della lettera-
tura Futurista (Technical Manifesto on Futurist Literature) of 1912, declared the liberation of words from traditional grammar and syntax. The word robot, derived from the Czech word robota, meaning "drudgery or forced labor," was used for the first time in 1920 in R.U.R. (Rossum's Universal Robots), a play by Czech writer Karel Capek. Set on an island where labor-emancipating robots are manufactured on assembly lines, the play provides a critical look at the use of machines to replace humans and presciently gives a warning against genetic manipulation.
A History of Extremes The history of Utopias is a history of extremes. In the twentieth century the world witnessed large-scale attempts to improve society, and when some of those attempts failed, consequences were devastating. Most such attempts were carried out in the name of progress, liberation, justice, and equality. Every aspect of human life and society—human genes, food supply, families, communications, settlement patterns, weather, exploration of outer space—was pushed to new limits in the name of social virtue. Although many benefits were in fact achieved, no aspect was entirely free of unexpected and negative results. If there is today a hotbed of Utopian experiments, it is the United States. Since the earliest experiments at Plymouth Colony, Bohemia Manor, and Ephrata Cloister, the United States has never been without communal Utopias. At times concurrent experiments have numbered more than five thousand in the United States. Many have been eco-utopian in their outlook, attempting, like More's Utopians, to balance human needs with the renewable capital that nature provides.
utopianism
Fruitlands, Fellowship Farms, Little Landers, School of Living, Camphill, Emissaries, the Farm, Tolstoy Farm, Drop City, Twin Oaks, and Arcosante were among the more notable efforts to get back to the land in an ecological way. The shared intention was to reconstruct society from a simple egalitarian social contract. Some of these experiments were strongly influenced by Utopian fiction, for example. Twin Oaks by Skinner's Walden Two, the Farm by U.S. writer Isaac Asimov's Foundation trilogy. New Harmony by Owen's A New View of Society. Others sprang from parallel wellsprings but without any explicit literary inspiration. The United States does not have a monopoly on such communities, however. The kibbutz movement that regreened the deserts of Palestine in the twentieth century was Zionist (relating to an international movement originally for the establishment of a Jewish national or religious community in Palestine and later for the support of modern Israel) in outlook at inception but developing a restorative ecology rationale at the end of the century, with the Green Kibbutz Network leading the young toward a new set of goals. In Germany the okodorf movement began in the early 1980s, finding followers among Utopian idealists after German reunification. At the same time permaculture communities (which are consciously "cultivated" to have the diversity, stability, and resilience of natural ecosystems) in Australia (e.g.. Crystal Waters, Kookaburra Park, and Jarlanbah) pioneered easy paths to more environmentally sensitive lifestyles for the middle class. In Scandinavia co-housing, which sprang from social and economic objectives, gave birth to ecovillages, which added a filter of energy and materials choices to new settlement design. The Eco-Village Network of Denmark (Landsforeningen for okosamfund, or L0S) was among the first to create a coalition of ecovillages, but it was soon followed by the Ecovillage Network of the Americas and the Global Ecovillage Network (GEN). By the end of the century GEN claimed more than fifteen thousand Utopian communities as members on six continents. Influenced by philosophers such as Ralph Borsodi, Aldo Leopold, John Muir, Helen and Scott Nearing, and J. R. Rodale of the United States, Bill MoUison and John Seed of Australia, Rudolf Steiner of Austria, and Arne Naess of Norway, ecovillagers endeavor to address the social, environmental, and economic dimensions of sustainability in an integrated way, with human communities as part of, not apart from, bal-
anced ecologies. As environmental scientist William J. Metcalf first observed, any real solutions to the global environmental crises of the present era begin with changes in lifestyle.
Environmental Consequences People have imagined ideal societies existing in the real world, in the imaginary world, and, most recently, in cyberspace. All too often, however, these societies are grandiose and impractical. Although proclaiming themselves as formulas for a better world, they often contain the seeds of their own undoing. Perhaps utopianism is best realized in small increments, with damages fully assessed before moving along to the next increment. The environmental lessons of nuclear energy, chemical farming, biotechnology, nanotechnology (the art of manipulating materials on an atomic or molecular scale), and climate-altering energy systems are still to be widely accepted, but the scale of their industrial adoption has assured that the consequences will be neither benign nor easily ignored. People are what they have dreamed they would be. Sometimes they are even a little more. The aboriginal saying is, "Ngaantatja apu wiya, ngayuku tjamu—This is not a rock, it is my grandfather. This is the place where the dreaming comes up." Modern civilization is the product of the dreams of ten thousand generations. A Nubian slave dreamed that his children would have the wealth of the pharaohs. Perhaps not all of his children yet do, but more people have greater wealth today than the pharaohs could have imagined, and more have attained pharaoh-like wealth than there were people on the Earth when the pyramids were raised. That this level of extravagant consumption is based upon, and may already have exceeded, the capacity of Earth's regenerative abilities has yet to sink in. What comes tomorrow will depend on what people dream today. Albert Bates
Further Reading Bellamy, E. (1999). Ecological Utopias: Envisioning the sustainable society. Utrecht, Netherlands: International Books. Bellamy, E. (2000). Looking backward 2000-1887. New York: Penguin Putnam. (Original work published 1888) 1271
utopianism Christensen, K., & Levinson, D. (Eds.). (2003). Encyclopedia of community. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Fogarty, R. (1990). All things new: American communes and Utopian movements 1860-1914. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Metcalf, W. J. (1977). The environmental crisis: A systems approach. St. Lucia, Australia: University of Queensland Press. Miller, T. (1998). The quest for Utopia in twentieth-century America: Vol. 1. 1900-1960. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press.
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More, T. (1901). Utopia. New York: Ideal Commonwealths. (Original work published 1516) Pitzer, D. E. (1997). America's communal Utopias. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. Ross Jackson, J. T. (2000). And we are doing it: Building an ecovillage fitture. San Francisco: Reed PubUshers. Sargent, L. T. (1988). British and American Utopian literature, 1516-1985: An annotated, chronological bibliography. New York: Garland. Toyne, P. (1991). Creating an ecologically sustainable Australia for 2001. Social Alternatives, 10, 2.
Vegetarianism
about what constitutes flesh, and some people who call themselves vegetarian consume chicken and fish. Most Vegetarianism, the term used to describe a diet that ex- vegetarians, however, believe that the term should be retained for those who avoid all forms of animal flesh. cludes the flesh of ariimals, has a long, complex and The most common types of vegetarian are: lacto-ovo often tumultuous history. Many of the world's relivegetarians, who include eggs and dairy products in gions and philosophies have praised it as the ideal diet, their diet; lacto-vegetarians, who include milk; ovobut vegetarians have also been condemned and killed vegetarians, who include eggs; vegans, who exclude for their refusal to eat meat. The choice to eat or not all animal products; natural hygienists, who eat a noneat flesh foods has typically reflected deeply ingrained processed, plant-based diet; raw fooders, who eat only philosophical and religious beliefs. Foremost among raw foods; and fruitarians, who eat only fruit. these has been the idea of human kinship with the nonhuman world. While the underlying motives for vegetarianism differ widely throughout different cultures Origins in the East and historical periods, certain themes predominate. These include: the idea of transmigration of souls, comVegetarianism has two major philosophical roots in the passion for nonhuman animals, asceticism, purificaancient world, Jainism in the East and Pythagoreanism tion of the body and soul, health benefits, the dehuin the West. Both schools of thought arose in the sixth manizing effects of meat-eating, environmental century BCE at approximately the same time, and scholconsiderations, and the unnaturalness of eating flesh ars continue to speculate on the cross-fertilization of foods. Some of the additional underlying themes inideas between the East and West. clude the association of meat with class, caste, and The Jains' notion of ahimsa refers to the desire not to gender. cause injury to other living beings and the concomitant idea of compassion for all living beings. Jains argue Definition that all life goes through a series of incarnations, with the highest incarnation belonging to humans who have Most of the world's populations have usually eaten a predominantly plant-based diet. The word vegetarian, attained enlightenment or nirvana. By eating flesh foods humans attract negative karma to their soul however, is generally reserved for the self-conscious {jiva), and impede their chances of attaining enlightendecision to abstain from flesh foods, based upon philoment. They also risk dining on their next of kin from sophical, ethical, metaphysical, scientific, or nutritional a previous life. Jains believe that one can only contact beliefs. The term first appeared in the 1840s and was derived from the root word vegetus, signifying the idea the god within by conquering the "animal passions" of "whole and vital." Although the word refers to those that lead one to acts of violence and self-indulgence, who abstain from eating flesh, there is disagreement including the eating of flesh foods. Jains also con1273
Vegetarianism demned the practice of animal sacrifice, intiniately connected to meat-eating in the ancient world. Buddhism also contains the ideas of ahimsa, transmigration of souls and compassion for animals. Buddhism helped to spread vegetarianism throughout Asia, and influenced the development of a strong vegetarian tradition in Hinduism.
Origins in the West Pythagoras is regarded as the greatest influence on vegetarian thought in the Western world. The Pythagorean sect was founded at the end of the sixth century BCE in Croton, Italy, in Magna Grecia. The basic precepts of Pythagoras's school included a refusal to eat meat or to offer blood sacrifice. Pythagoras believed that the human soul could transmigrate to humans or other animals after death but the ultimate goal was to free the soul from the earthly rounds of existence to reunite with its divine origins. This was accomplished through a series of strict, ascetic rules for purifying the body. Most of the modern arguments against meat eating can be found among Ancient Greek as well as Roman philosophers. Plutarch (c. 350-433 BCE) believed that this "barbaric vice" was unnatural for humans and engendered violence. Other ancient philosophers who advocated vegetarianism include Theophrastus (360287 BCE), Empedocles (c. 495-c. 435 BCE), and Porphyry, who made one of the first ecological defenses of vegetarianism. According to Porphyry it was not necessary to kill animals to curb the problem of animal overpopulation, since nature would find a balance by itself.
Early Jewish and Christian Vegetarians There were several early Jewish Christian sects that are believed to have adhered to a strict vegetarian diet. Among these were the Essenes, the Ebionites, and the Nazoreans, considered by many to be the first Christians. The early ascetic Jewish Christian sects were a minority tradition in the first-century ancient world. Nonetheless, scholars have argued that Jesus counted among their numbers and was himself a vegetarian. The early Church fathers believed that meat was a powerful sexual stimulant, so it was appropriate for those in holy orders to refrain from eating it in order to curb their sexual desires. However, abstaining from meat was acceptable only as part of a practical exercise in subduing the "animal passions." From the third to the thirteenth century the Church engaged in a vigorous campaign against a number of 1274
heretical Gnostic sects. Ranging from the Balkans in the Byzantine Empire to Southern France, they included the Manicheans, Cathars, Paulicians, Montanists, Masslians, Apostolics, and Bogomils. The refusal to eat meat was viewed by Church authorities as evidence of heresy.
Middle Ages to Renaissance Support for vegetarianism went into a long dormancy during the Middle Ages. In the early Renaissance, due to late-thirteenth century food shortages, the vast majority of the population, particularly the poor, ate primarily vegetarian food. It was at this time that the emphasis on meat-eating as desirable and necessary for one's health became an article of faith, particularly for men. A small number of dissidents protested against cruelty to animals and meat-eating, including Sir Thomas More (1478-1535) who blended concern over animal suffering with the first environmental critique of the large amounts of land used to produce meat. Other dissidents included Erasmus (1467-1536), Montaigne (1533-1592), and Leonardo Da Vinci (14521519), although Da Vinci was the only one of the three to become vegetarian.
Seventeenth Century: Cartesian Thought In the seventeenth century, Rene Descartes (1596-1650) developed the Christian belief that animals lacked souls or spirit with devastating consequences for nonhuman animals. He contended that since animals lacked spirit, and hence the capacity to understand, they could not feel pain. Their anguished cries were in all probability merely mechanical responses. Cartesian philosophy sanctioned the widespread practice of vivisection in the seventeenth century as well as the confinement of animals on factory farms. Despite this setback to the status of nonhuman animals, the seventeenth century simultaneously witnessed the growth of a greater sensitivity to nonhuman animals. Ironically, this was due in part to animal studies, which showed the structural similarities of their nervous systems to those of humans, suggesting the commonality in their experience of pain. In addition, as the threat from nature receded, people began to have greater empathy for nonhuman animals. Most advocates for vegetarianism, including Thomas Tryon (1634-1703), one of the foremost advocates for vegetarianism of his age, still framed their calls for compassion in religious terms. Other proponents of vegetarianism
Vegetarianism
during the seventeenth century include John Ray, John Evelyn, and Margaret Cavendish, duchess of Newcastle.
Eighteenth to Nineteenth Century Tbe eighteenth century gave rise to humanist philosophy and to the notion of natural rights, based on tbe belief in the inherent dignity of humans. Due in part to Evangelical religion's emphasis on concern for tbe oppressed, and the Lockean idea of human beings' innate capacity for benevolence, there was an increasing sensitivity to animal suffering. As the century progressed, public attention began to focus upon a wide range of social issues, including prison reform, child welfare, care for the poor, sick, and elderly as well as opposition to slavery. A growing number of people viewed concern for nonhuman animals as a logical extension of these social movements. While compassion for nonhuman animals was the foremost concern of these animal advocates, they also pointed to the harmful effects of meat-eating on human moral character. Joseph Ritson (1752-1803), John Oswald (1730-1793), Percy Bysshe Shelley (1792-1822), and Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778) all linked meat-eating with interbuman violence, including war. Tbe emphasis on the harmful effects of meat-eating on human moral and spiritual character continued into the nineteenth century. There was an increased focus, however, on the wrongfulness of animal suffering in and of itself. Acknowledging the moral significance of animal suffering was an integral part of Jeremy Bentham's (1748-1832) utilitarian theory. According to Bentham, "tbe question is not, can they reason?. Nor can tbey talk? But, can they suffer?"(Bentham, 1780). Arguments for vegetarianism were also increasingly being linked to land use practices. As a result of the enclosures, the common land was being seized by rich land owners who were using it to grow fodder crops to feed their cattle. The philosopher and priest, William Paley (1743-1805), Shelley, and Dr. William Alcott (1798-1859) all inveighed against the inefficiency of feeding fodder to animals instead of directly to human beings.
Food Reform Movement The food reform movement began in Germany in the 1820s and 1830s as a reaction to the growing ties between tbe food industry and science and technology. In tbe 1830s, vegetarians became a vocal minority
within the radical wing of the food reform movement. Many of the food reformers, including Sylvester Graham (1794-1851), Bircher-Benner (1867-1939), and John Harvey Kellogg (1852-1943), combined health and ethical arguments, focusing on tbe purifying effect, both spiritual and physical, of a vegetarian diet. Meat-eating was typically condemned for its overstimulating effect, hideed for Graham, stimulation was the root of all disease. Meat-eating was also linked to overindulgence in sex. Kellogg maintained that meateating caused undue pressure on the male organ and that vegetarianism was the cure. The success of the food reform movement and the vegetarian cause is largely attributable to tbe support of women. Some of tbese women included Catherine Harriet Beecher Stowe (1800-1878) and Harriet Beecher Stowe (1811-1896) in the U.S., and Luise OttoPeters (1819-1895) and Lina Morgenstern (1830-1909) in Germany. A number of feminists promoted vegetarianism, often connecting it with the themes of peace and nonviolence. Tbe contemporary autbor Carol Adams sees in their writings the beginnings of a feminist, vegetarian, pacifist tradition. Some of tbese women include Charlotte Despard (1844-1939), Charlotte Perkins Gilman (1860-1935) and Agnes Ryan (1878-1954), and Susan B. Anthony (1820-1906) as well as tbe tbeosopbists Annie Besant (1847-1933) and Anna Kingsford (1846-1888). Kingsford maintained, "universal peace is not possible to a carnivorous race" (Adams 1991, 124).
The Social Movement for Vegetarianism In the middle of the nineteenth century, in Germany, the Netherlands, England and the U.S., the vegetarian cause began to coalesce as a social movement. The first secular vegetarian society in England was formed in 1847 at Ramsgate, at which time the term vegetarian replaced the more common Pythagorean as the official word for someone who abstained from flesh foods. In 1850, William Metcalfe founded a similar organization in New York, Tbe American Vegetarian. Support for vegetarianism in the mid-nineteenth century was fueled, in part, by tbe findings of evolutionary science, which had begun to demonstrate tbe similarities between human and nonbuman animals. With the publication of Charles Darwin's (1809-1882) Descent of Man in 1871, the privileged position of humans was further eroded. The humane movement developed from tbe belief that if human beings were, in fact, superior it behooved 1275
Vegetarianism them to act civilized by controlling their "animal passions" and practicing benevolence to animals. Although most members of the humane movement were not vegetarian, some of the most vocal activists were, including Bernard Shaw (1856-1950), the philanthropist Lewis Gompertz, Anna Kingsford and the author and social reformer Henry S. Salt (1851-1939). Salt's writings had a wide-ranging impact, including on Mohandas Gandhi (1869-1948). Gandhi was inspired by the connections Salt made between animal rights and social justice, to move beyond his previous traditional Hindu vegetarianism to see vegetarianism as a movement for the moral and spiritual progress of the human race. Gandhi's conversion to ethical vegetarianism illustrates the cross-fertilization of ideas between East and West that characterizes much of the modern vegetarian movement. Gandhi went on to influence millions of Hindus to adopt vegetarianism. Eastern thought, in turn, has had a profound influence on vegetarianism in the West. The influence of Hinduism and Buddhism on theosophy was an important factor in theosophy's endorsement of vegetarianism. The influx of Eastern ideas that began in the 1960s also had a large influence on the adoption of vegetarianism. The Krishna cult, in particular, had a profound impact in the west through their dispensing of free vegetarian food.
The Modern Vegetarian Movement Vegetarianism was largely eclipsed by the two world wars. A number of factors contributed to its increased acceptance in the postwar years. Beginning in the 1920s, there had been a growing appreciation for the benefits of vegetables and fruits due to the discovery of vitamins. Additional studies in the 1950s, including research on the Seventh Day Adventists, confirmed the health benefits of a vegetarian diet. In the 1970s, many people also became concerned over the purity of food, and in particular meat. Concerns focused on the effects of pesticides, chemicals, and bacterial contamination, all of which are found in greater concentrations in meat. People became additionally worried about the purity of meat as a result of the outbreak of B.S.E (mad cow disease) and foot-and-mouth disease in England and Europe. The publicity surrounding these outbreaks served to educate people about the contents of the food fed to farm animals, including sludge, carcasses, and the excrement of other animals, thereby providing people with additional incentive to adopt a vegetarian diet. 1276
A number of health studies in the 1980s and 1990s also helped to fuel interest in vegetarianism, including the China Health Project directed by the Cornell professor of nutrition, Colin Campbell. Campbell's crosscultural research involving over 10,000 people in the U.S. and China concluded that human beings are not anatomically designed to eat meat, and that there is an inverse correlation between the amount of animal products that one eats and the benefits that accrue to one's health. The physician Dean Ornish's research, first published in 1983 in Stress, Diet and Your Heart,
also demonstrated that arterial sclerosis could be reversed through a vegetarian diet. The growth of the animal advocacy movement in the U.S. and England in the 1970s also helped to advance the vegetarian cause. In previous centuries, vegetarians tended to focus on the cruelty inherent in the slaughter of innocent beings. The modern animal advocacy movement, in addition, has called attention to the conditions in which animals live throughout their lives, promoting vegetarianism as a means of protesting this treatment. Significant influences on the development of vegetarianism in the animal advocacy movement include Peter Singer's utilitarian arguments for the equal consideration of the interests of both humans and nonhumans, Tom Regan's case for the "inherent worth" of animals, and the writings of Carol Adams as well as the literature of Eeminists for Animal Rights, which underline the commonalities in meat dominance and male dominance. Veganism also developed increasing support in the 1980s and 1990s. Rejection of dairy products had begun in the nineteenth century, but it was not until 1944 that the first Vegan Society was formed in Leicester, England.
Vegetarianism and the Environment Beginning in the 1970s ecological arguments also became an important motive for many people to adopt a vegetarian diet. In Diet for a Small Planet, published in 1971, Frances Moore Lappe criticized the inefficiency of a meat-based diet, arguing that only a small proportion of the nutrients that are fed to nonhuman animals return to humans as nutrients. Moore contended that in 1968 the amount of edible protein that was wasted by America's animal based diet was equivalent to the world protein shortage. Diet for a Small Planet provided a major impetus for people to either cut back on or eliminate meat from their diets.
Vegetarianism In the followirtg two decades, numerotts articles and books advanced similar environmental critiques of a meat-based diet, including Jeremy Rifkin's Beyond Beef, Howard Lyman's Mad Cowboy, and John Robbins's Diet for a New America and The Food Revolution.
These authors highlighted the link between animal agriculture and a host of environmental problems: soil and water depletion, desertification, air and water pollution, global warming, the waste of valuable grain resources, and the destruction of the tropical rain forests. Current estimates are that 90 percent of all agricultural land, more than one half the total land area of the U.S., is devoted to the production of animal products. Cattle now occupy 70 percent of rangeland in the American west and are a major contributor to both agricultural runoff and desertification. Beef production is also a major factor in the destruction of half the tropical rain foresf of southern Mexico and Central America. Animal agriculture has also been blamed as a major contributor to global warming. Greenhouse gases are produced from grain fertilizers and from the methane released from animals. American waterways are equally threatened. According to the Environmental Protection Agency, animal waste poses a greater threat to American waterways than all other industrial sources combined. In a 1999 report by the Union of Concerned Scientists, meat-eating is cited, along with driving automobiles, as one of the two most damaging lifestyle facfors contributing to environmental destruction. Not all environmentalists believe that meat-eating and animal agriculture are inherently harmful fo the environment. Advocates for mixed farming and biodynamic farming argue that some use of animals on small-scale farms is necessary, due to the usefulness of their manure for fertilizing the soil. A number of environmentalists also support meat-eating as long as the meat is "organic" and the animals are raised "humanely." While studies show that the number of people adopting vegetarianism has been slowly increasing throughout most of the Western world, vegetarianism has not followed a steadily uphill course. Meat-eating has actually increased throughout the world. Consumption of chicken has also sharply risen, in part because of concerns over the purity of beef. In the West, the rise in meat consumption has been attributed to the proliferation of fast food resfaurants, and in the East and developing world to the desire to imitate Western society's affluent lifestyle, symbolized by meat. Studies vary around the world as to the number
of people who are currenfly vegetarian, ranging from a low of 0.2 percent in Poland to a high of 4.4 percenf in fhe Nefherlands. In the U.S. estimates range from a low of 0.3 percent to a high of 7 percent of the population. The higher numbers generally represent people who claim to be vegetarian but who sometimes eat meat, including fish. Most studies suggest that women have been, cross-culturally and throughout history, about 70 percent of vegetarians. In his book Meat: A Natural Symbol Nicke Fiddes suggests that meat has functioned throughout history as a means of asserting human dominance over the natural world. By eating nonhuman animals, humans show their superiority over the "lower" animals. Both religious vegetarians as well as those motivated by health have at times demonstrated the reverse side of this phenomenon. Rather than dominating the external environment, some vegetarians (and perhaps mostly men) have sought to tame the "beast within" as a means of attaining a physical or spiritual purity. The modern vegetarian movement is part of a long continuous history. Although compassion for norihuman animals and environmenfal concerns are parts of this history, they have moved to the fore in recent years. The modern vegetarian movement deviates from the past, however, in focusing less on self-denial and ritual purity and more on the idea of embracing vegetarianism as a positive ethical choice. Marti Kheei Further Reading Adams, C. J. (1991). The sexual politics of meat: A feministvegetarian critical theory. New York: Continuum. Akers, K. (1993). A vegetarian sourcebook: The nutrition, ecology, and ethics of a natural food diet. Denver: Vegetarian Press. Barkas, J. (1975). The vegetable passion: A history ofthe vegetarian state of mind. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. Bentham, J. (1988). Introduction to the principles of morals and legislation. Buffalo, NY: Prometheus Books. (Original work published 1780) Berry, R. (1998). Food for the gods: Vegetarianism and the world's religions: Essays, conversations, recipes. New York: Pythagorean. Dombrowski, D. (1984). The philosophy of vegetarianism. Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press. Fiddes, N. (1991). Meat: A natural symbol. New York: Routledge. Fox, M. A. (1999). Deep vegetarianism. Philadelphia: Temple University Press. 1277
Vegetarianism Gandhi, M. (1999). Diet and morality. In K. Walters & L. Portmess (Eds,), Ethical vegetarianism: From Pythagoras to Peter Singer (pp, 139-144), New York: State University of New York Press. Gregerson, J, (1994). Vegetarianism: A history. Fremont, CA: Jain Pub. Co. Leneman, L, (1997). The awakened instinct: Vegetarianism and the women's suffrage movement in Britain. Women's History Review, 6(2), 271-286. Marcus, E, (1998). Vegan: The new ethics of eating. Ithaca, NY: McBooks. Maurer, D. (2002). Vegetarianism: Movement or moment? Philadelphia: Temple University Press. Meyer-Renschlausen, E., & Wirz, A. (1999). Dietetics, health reform and social order: Vegetarianism as a moral physiology: The example of Maximilian Bircher-Benner. Medical History, 43, 323-341, Ornish, D. (1983). Stress, diet and your heart. New York: Henry Holt & Co. Paley, W, (1999). The dubious right to eat flesh. In K. Walters & L. Portmess (Eds.), Ethical vegetarianism: From Pythagoras to Peter Singer (pp, 65-67). New York: State University of New York Press. Pythagoras (1999). The kinship of all life. In K. Walters & L. Portmess (Eds,), Ethical vegetarianism: From Pythagoras to Peter Singer (pp. 113-125). New York: State University of New York Press. Rifkin, J. (1992). Beyond beef: The rise and fall of the cattle culture. New York: Dutton. Robbins, J. (1987). Diet for a new America. Walpole, NH: Stillpoint, Robbins, J. (2001). The food revolution: How your diet can help save your life. Berkeley, CA.: Conari Press. Rosen, S. (1997). Diet for transcendence: Vegetarianism and the world religions. Badger, CA,: Torchlight, Shelley, P, B. (1999). A vindication of natural diet. In K, Walters & L, Portmess (Eds.), Ethical vegetarianism: From Pythagoras to Peter Singer (pp. 69-74). New York: State University of New York Press, Spencer, C. (1995). The heretic's feast: A history of vegetarianism. Hanover, NH: University Press of New England.
Venezuela (2001 est. pop. 24 million)
Venezuela is the northernmost country in continental South America. It can be divided into four main geo1278
graphical regions. The most important region is the Venezuelan highlands, an extension of the Andes Mountains that runs east-west in a gentle arc from western Venezuela along the Caribbean coast. The Venezuelan highlands have always been home to the vast majority of Venezuela's population. In the northwestern corner of the country lie the Maracaibo lowlands, which include Lake Maracaibo, the largest lake in Latin America, South of the highlands lie the vast Orinoco llanos, or plains. The fourth region is the Guiana highlands, a sparsely populated region that constitutes almost half of Venezuela's national territory. Pre-Columbian Venezuela was much less densely populated than other parts of the Caribbean basin. The densest populations lived in the cool climate of the Venezuelan highlands. These highland groups, including the Timoto-Cuica and Caquetio, had developed settled agriculture using techniques including irrigation and terracing and supplemented their diets through hunting, fishing, and trading. Groups in the lowlands, related to the Carib and Arawak groups of the Caribbean, depended heavily on fishing from the lakes and rivers. Archeological evidence suggests that many pre-Columbian Indian groups developed along strips of land running from the Caribbean coast up to the highlands so that they could consume products from the different ecological zones. Even where such formal groups did not exist, most groups supplemented their diets by exchanging food and goods with groups from other regions. The Spanish conquest in the sixteenth century produced a new environmental order, although the environmental transformation of Venezuela was slower than that in other parts of Latin America. The demographic collapse of Venezuela's native populations was the fastest and most catastrophic environmental transformation. The main cause of this complex phenomenon was the introduction of Old World epidemic diseases such as smallpox, measles, and influenza. Numbers for Venezuela are difficult to find, but in nearby regions each pandemic outbreak could carry away as much as half the indigenous population. Warfare, Spanish slaving raids, and rapidly declining birth rates also contributed to the demographic collapse. Records from late sixteenth-century Caracas suggest that the indigenous population there had declined between 50 and 75 percent. Some groups in the lowlands and along the coasts disappeared entirely. The Spanish also quickly stripped Venezuela of the few natural resources that interested them. The earliest explorers had
Venezuela discovered rich beds of pearls in eastern Venezuela, a region that came to be known as the Pearl Coast. Harvesting began in 1519, and by 1537 the pearl beds had been completely fished out. With a low indigenous population and few natural resources of interest to the Spanish, the colony languished until the early eighteenth century.
The Cacao Boom The pace of environmental change began fo accelerate in the late seventeenth century. Venezuela entered a period of economic growth based on agricultural exports that lasted until the 1920s. Venezuela's first agricultural boom was based on cacao, a New World crop that was the basic ingredient for chocolate. Demand for chocolate, both in Latin America and in Europe, grew rapidly in the 1700s, and cacao became a highly profitable crop. From the early 1700s to the early 1800s, Venezuela was the world's largest producer of cacao. The cacao boom stimulated population growth. Between 1772 and 1812 the population of Caracas alone almost doubled from 24,000 to 42,000. The boom also changed Venezuela's demographic makeup, attracting the voluntary immigration of Spaniards from Europe and the forced migration of slaves from Africa. By the late eighteenth century, Venezuela's population was roughly 20 percent European, 10 percent Indian, 20 percent African, and 50 percent mixed. The increasing dynamism of the coast produced environmental changes in other parts of the country. To feed the growing urban and agricultural populations of the highlands, ranchers introduced cattle to the llanos, where large herds—with no predators and no competition—soon ran wild. Meat from these cattle was directed to domestic consumption, and the hides were exported. Venezuela's cacao industry was destroyed during the long, violent war of independence from Spain (1811-1821). After independence, growers began cultivating coffee in the former cacao lands and opened new coffee frontiers in the Andean states of Merida, Tachira, and Trujillo. Between 1830 and 1930, Venezuela's coffee production increased tenfold, making it the world's second-largest exporter of coffee after Brazil. This growth was not, however, environmentally sustainable. In many coffee zones, poor agricultural techniques led to soil erosion, changes in rainfall, and soil exhaustion. By the 1920s coffee yields in many Venezuelan plantations were half of yields in neighboring Colombia, where coffee planters had made a more concerted effort to create a sustainable coffee ag-
riculture. Venezuela's coffee industry quickly fell info decline during the 1920s, when petroleum surpassed cash crops as Venezuela's major export.
The Oil Boom The discovery of petroleum in the Maracaibo basin during the 1910s inaugurated the most recent phase of Venezuela's environmental history. Between 1928 and 1970 Venezuela was the world's leading exporter of oil and continues to be a major exporter today. The petroleum industry has transformed the Maracaibo basin's landscapes, most significantly in the pollution of Lake Maracaibo from leaks in oil wells and underwater pipelines. On a national level, the growth of the petroleum industry coupled with the collapse of the agricultural export sector caused rapid urbanization. Whereas in 1941 only 33 percent of Venezuela's population lived in cities, by 1999, 87 percent did. During the prosperous decades from the 1930s to the 1970s, the Venezuelan state created several national parks and enacted pioneering environmental policies. In the early 1980s, however, oil prices collapsed, and the government entered a long period of economic and political crisis, during which it has been unable or unwilling to enforce these environmental policies. National and municipal social services have not been able to keep up with the rapid population growth and urbanization. Venezuela's major metropolitan centers all suffer from critical environmental problems of air pollufion, wafer shortages, and inadequafe waste disposal. The landslides that destroyed several shantytowns around Caracas in December 1999, leaving several thousand people dead or missing, are an apt symbol of Venezuela's urban environmental crisis. During the 1980s Venezuelan professionals and grassroots activists established more than forty environmental nongovernmental organizations. These organizations are often small and ideologically divided, making it difficulf for them to act in concert to effecf change. Stuart McCook Further Reading Christen, C , Herculano, S., Hochstetler, K., Prell, R., Price, M., & Roberts, J. T. (1998, summer). Latin American environmentalism: Comparative views. Studies in Comparative International Development, 33, 58-87. Cook, N. D. (1993). Born to die: Disease and the New World conquest, 1492-1650. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
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Venezuela Haggerty, R. A. (Ed.). (1990). Area handbook for Venezuela niy Novgorod, Kazan, Samara, Saratov, Volgograd, (4th ed.). Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing and Astrakhan. Among its many tributaries are the Office. Oka, Belaya, Vyatka, and Kama Rivers. Helms, M. W. (1984). The Indians of the Caribbean and Throughout the twentieth century the Volga was Circum-Caribbean at the end of the fifteenth century. manipulated and contaminated. Most notable among In L. Bethell (Ed.), Cambridge history of Latin America early diversions of the river was the Great Volga (Vol. 1, pp. 37-57). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Uniproject, which was promoted under the Soviet leader versity Press. Joseph Stalin. Because the country's leadership, beginLombardi, J. V. (1982). Venezuela: The search for order: Thening with the Russian Communist leader Vladimir dream of progress. New York: Oxford University Press. Lenin, was fond of large-scale water projects, the Volga Sanchez-Albornoz, N. (1974). The population of Latin Amer- and its tributaries were dammed under the Great ica: A history. Berkeley & Los Angeles: University of Volga project, and thirty-four hydroelectric stations were constructed. The reservoirs that were created California Press. Sauer, C. O. (1966). The early Spanish main. Berkeley & Los along the Volga are inmiense and are sometimes referred to as "inland seas." During storms the oceanAngeles: University of California Press. Yarrington, D. (1997). A coffee frontier: Land, society, andsized waves produced on these reservoirs jeopardize politics in Duaca, Venezuela, 1830-1936. Pittsburgh, PA:the fragile soils of the area's shorelines. The dams also reduce spawning grounds of fish by obstructing their University of Pittsburgh Press. natural runs. The consequence has been a dwindling fish industry.
Volga River At 3,700 kilometers in length, the Volga is the longest river in Europe. The Volga and its basin are located in western Russia. The Volga has been Russia's most significant waterway throughout history. As such, the river has been referred to as "the Soul of Russia," "the Mother Volga," and "Russia's Main Street." The Volga River originates northwest of Moscow at an elevation of only 225 meters above sea level in the Valdai Hills, which are situated between the cities of Moscow and Novgorod. This low elevation is sometimes cited as the reason why the river lacks the capacity to "flush" itself clean; a history of excessive diversions and extreme contamination from a variety of sources is the more probable reason why the river has problems with pollution. From its source the Volga flows northeast of Moscow to the Rybinsk Reservoir. Through the Rybinsk Reservoir and a set of canals one can travel from the Volga River all the way to the Baltic Sea by water. Indeed, most of the Volga is navigable. Yearly statistics concerning river-borne freight in Russia typically cite the Volga as carrying at least half of all such freight. From Yaroslavl' the Volga River begins to flow southward, eventually constituting a large delta of almost three hundred channels and emptying into the Caspian Sea; On its course southward it passes through or near numerous cities of significance, such as Nizh1280
Urban, agricultural, and industrial effluents pollute the river and its reservoirs. From many of the cities along the Volga's course, polluted wastewaters are discharged from inadequate sanitation facilities. In the middle Volga region in the vicinity of Samara, the Volga-Ural oil fields and former state farms also contribute to pollution. In the lower Volga region dioxin pollution from the use of herbicides and insecticides and the production of chemicals has been high for decades. Contamination by this carcinogen has been demonstrated to be harmful to humans, threatening especially their reproductive, endocrine, and immune systems. It is also a problem for the fauna of the region. In the region's agricultural sectors runoff of nitrates from fertilizers into the reservoirs of the river causes problems with algae in the summer. Because of the chemical contamination from agricultural and industrial sectors, much of the wildlife in the area has been eradicated. As a source of irrigation for crops, contaminated reservoir water returns to affect the foods grown in the wider region. An additional source of contamination is the petrochemical industries in the vicinity of Astrakhan. Runoff of industrial by-products in this region is severe, and there are frequent leaks from pipelines and refineries. Although there have been efforts to control pollution of the river, its overexploitation, and increasing rates of water consumption, such as the effort made by the 1989 Public Conmiittee to Save the Volga, environmental concerns are a low priority in Russia today. Even national reserves and wetlands that the interna-
von Humboldt, Alexander tional Ramsar Convention designated significant are in a precarious situation. Kyle Evered Further Reading Mordukhai-Boltovskoi, F. D. (1979). The river Volga and its life. The Hague, Netherlands: W. Junk. Pryde, P. R. (1991). Environmental management in the Soviet Union. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
von Humboldt, Alexander (1769-1859) German geographer
Alexander von Humboldt used modern scientific techniques to observe and analyze the environment. His fame arose from his self-financed exploration of South America, Mexico, and Cuba in 1799-1804, accompanied by the botanist Aime Bonpland (1773-1858). Humboldt negotiated Napoleon's European wars as he collaborated with French and German specialists to analyze thousands of observations and specimens. Although Prussian by birth, Humboldt moved to the scientific and political capital of Europe, Paris, to write the more than thirty volumes of topical works known collectively as Voyage du Humboldt et Bonpland. Nineteenth-century founders of evolution and ecology Charles Darwin, Alfred Russel Wallace, Louis Agassiz, and Henry Walter Bates acknowledged the importance of the Voyage to their work. Humboldt's significance for environmental history arises from his collections, measurements, collaboration, interpretations, and publications. By publishing his generalizations about the distribution of plant species and environmental conditions, Humboldt laid the foundation for the study of ecology and biogeography. In combination with Humboldt's sympathy for the peoples he encountered on his travels, these accomplishments inspire environmental historians to explain how people and the environment influence each other through time. Humboldt's expedition to South America traversed several cotmtries, including a few weeks in Philadelphia and Washington, D.C. He assisted President Jefferson in understanding the Spanish territories won by Napoleon and recently acquired as the Louisiana Purchase. Before his return to Europe, Humboldt cre-
ated interest in his expedition by sending entertaining letters to European and American newspapers. His attention to native cultures and colonialism expanded on popular works by men such as Francois-Rene de Chateaubriand. Humboldt and Bonpland tapped the knowledge of missionaries and isolated scientists, including the famous botanist Don Jose Celestino Mutis in Bogota, Colombia. Humboldt and his collaborator, Karl Sigismund Kunth, honored Mutis by featuring his portrait as the frontispiece to Plantes equinoxiales (Paris and Tubingen, 1805-1817). Humboldt and Bonpland paid great attention to taking specimens and observations and sent duplicate collections to Europe by different routes whenever possible. The thousands of pressed plants, beetles, bird skins, minerals, and pages of observations formed the raw material for the multidecade publication of Voyage. Humboldt's early training as a mining engineer enabled him to use instruments to make careful, repeated measurements of magnetism, temperature, barometric pressure, and location. In his South American wanderings over 115° of longitude and 64° of latitude, Humboldt's measurements showed that the intensity of magnetism increased with latitude, an insight which Carl F. Gauss (1777-1855) later used to develop his theory of terrestrial magnetism. Humboldt measured the temperature of the ocean on all his voyages; his data characterized the cold current along Peru and Chile that carries an abundance of marine life, a feature eventually named after him as the Humboldt Current. Humboldt used his surveying instruments to identify the longitude and latitude of river mouths and mountain passes. On his journey to Peru, he paired geographic and barometric readings, using a formula devised by Pierre-Simon Laplace (1749-1827) to translate the barometric readings into elevations and thereby create a topographic map of his route over the Andes. In his famous ascent and study of Moimt Chimborazo in Ecuador, Humboldt drew the distribution of plants on the slopes of the volcano, initiating the discipline of biogeography with his novel depiction. Humboldt financed his travels and publications by spending the fortune he received from family estates in Poland, but his books also drew on the talents of those supported by Napoleon's patronage. The emperor supported scientists who investigated basic phenomena and the larger world and artists who created printmaking techniques that reproduced beautiful scientific images. Paris savants such as Georges Cuvier wrote up the comparative anatomy and zoology of Humboldt's animal specimens, though the German 1281
von Humboldt, Alexander Karl Sigismund Kunth wrote most of the volumes on
Further Reading
botany. French artists transformed Humboldt's skins and ink sketches into hundreds of beautiful colored prints of birds, plants, and views. Publishing his findings ensured that Humboldt's knowledge would be-
Botting, D. (1973). Humboldt and the cosmos. New York: Harper & Row. Fiedler, H. & Leitner, U. (2000). Alexander von Humboldts Schriften: Bibliographie der selbstandig erschienenen
come a foundation for subsequent nineteenth-century scientists. ' Betsy Mendelsohn
V^erke. Berlin, Germany: Akademie Verlag. Kellner, L. (1963). Alexander von Humboldt. New York: Oxford University Press.
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Wallace, A. R. (1823-1913) English biogeographer
Alfred Russel Wallace was joint discoverer with Charles Darwin of the theory of evolution by natural selection, and an innovative scientific thinker, field zoologist, and biogeographer. His extensive fieldwork among the rich habitats of the Amazon and the Malay Archipelago prompted him in the direction of increasingly bold scientific theory. His writings on the evolution and distribution of animals and plants in space and time and on the complex relationship between human beings and their environment retain much of their validity. Wallace was born 8 January 1823 near Usk, Mormiouthshire. Wallace's formal education ended when he was fourteen. Apprenticed to his brother, a surveyor, he began a long process of selfeducation. At Leicester, he met Henry Walter Bates (1825-1892), who enthused him about beetles. They sailed to South America together in 1848, as selffinanced professional collectors, although they soon split up, with Wallace concentrating on the Rio Negro and its tributaries. During this expedition, to the Amazon, which lasted from May 1848 to July 1852, he collected widely, identified many new species, and explored the upper reaches of the river Vaupes. Wallace undertook a second expedition, to the Malay Archipelago, between April 1854 and February 1862. In the course of this he wrote two significant papers, "On the Law which has regulated the introduction of New Species," from Sarawak, Borneo, and "On the Tendency of Varieties to Depart Indefinitely from the Orig-
inal Type," from Ternate, which prompted a joint publication, together with extracts from Darwin's writing, at the Linnean Society's meeting of 1 July 1858 (and nudged Darwin into writing The Origin of Species). Wallace, while traveling from Bali to Lombok, deduced by observation that there was a major dividing line between the Asian and Australian biological regions, now known as the Wallace Line. Wallace specialized in birds, butterflies, and fishes, recorded vocabularies and customs of the local peoples, and forged a lifelong friendship with the botanist Richard Spruce (1817-1893). Wallace lost much of his collections and journals in a shipboard fire on the voyage home from the Amazon expedition. Undeterred, he prepared for a second expedition, with some initial support from the Royal Geographical Society. Arriving in Singapore, he traveled extensively throughout the Malay Archipelago, with several long and hazardous voyages. He made important visits to Sarawak (Borneo), where he obtained orangutan specimens, the Moluccas, the Aru Islands, and Papua New Guinea, searching in particular for birds of paradise. The impact of his Ternate paper effectively transformed him from working naturalist to scientific theorist. On his return to England, Wallace wrote extensively. He became a fellow of the Geographical, Linnean, and Zoological Societies, president of the Entomological Society, and was on friendly terms with Darwin, Joseph Hooker (1817-1911), Charles Lyell (1797-1875), and T. H. Huxley (1825-1895). Never wholly at ease in London scientific circles, he preferred the peace of domestic life after his marriage to Arme Mitten, who shared his deep love of plants. His books on biogeography were hugely influential, in particular 1283
Wallace, A, R, his two books The Geographical Distribution of Animals (1876) and Island Life (1880), in which his lucid syr\thesis of contemporary research is grounded and illuminated by first-hand knowledge. In spite of his works' influence, Wallace was regarded as something of a maverick, partly because of his interest in spiritualism. He developed a distinctly un-Darwinian view of man's consciousness, as having come about by a process additional to natural selection, though in other respects he was a partisan Darwinist. He never obtained a regular salaried post, and was especially disappointed not to be named superintendent of Epping Forest, for whicb he had ambitious plans. In 1881, he was granted a civil pension, largely through Darwin's efforts. He lectured in the United States in 1886 and 1887, at the invitation of the Lowell Institute, and was greatly struck by his visit to Yosemite, and tbe giant sequoias, wbicb increased bis awareness of environmental issues and tbe need for preservation. Wallace was a prolific writer on scientific and social issues, witb a clear engaging style tbat conveys bis enthusiasm for intellectual enquiry, and for all aspects of tbe natural world. Peter Raby
Further Reading Brooks, J. L. (1984). Just before the origin: Alfred Russei Wallace's theory of evolution. New York: Columbia University Press. Camerini, J. R. (Ed.). (2002). The Alfred Russei Wallace reader: A selection of writings from the field. Baltimore & London: Johns Hopkins University Press. Knapp, S. (1999). Footsteps in the forest: Alfred Russei Wallace in the Amazon. London: Natural History Museum McKinney, H. L. (1972). Wallace and natural selection. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. Raby, P. (2001). Alfred Russei Wallace: A life. London and Princeton, NJ: Chatto and Windus, Princeton University Press. Smith, C. H. (Ed.). (1991). Alfred Russei Wallace: An anthology of his shorter writings. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Wallace, A. R. (1869). The Malay archipelago: The land ofthe orang-utan and the bird of paradise: A narrative of travel with studies of man and nature, 2 vols. London: Macmillan and Co. Wallace, A. R. (1876). The geographical distribution of animals; with a study of the relations of living and extinct faunas as elucidating the past changes ofthe earth's surface, 2 vols. London: Macmillan and Co. 1284
Wallace, A. R. (1880). Island life: or, the phenomenon and causes of insular faunas and floras, including a revision and attempted solution ofthe problem ofgeological climates. London: Macmillan and Co.
War War is as ancient as buman settlement on tbe land and tbe invention of iron and bronze tools for farming and figbting. For example, four tbousand years ago and more in tbe Near East, in tbe Fertile Crescent (tbe area from tbe soutbeastern coast of tbe Mediterranean Sea around tbe Syrian Desert nortb of tbe Arabian Peninsula to the Persian Gulf) of tbe Tigris and Eupbrates River valleys, an elaborate system of irrigation canals watered farmers' fields. Tbese canals were vulnerable to destruction by warring armies, contributing to longterm ecological degradation from siltation and waterlogging. Environmental cbange caused by war appeared in tbe nortbern Mediterranean Sea basin twenty-five bundred years ago. Tbe Mediterranean ecosystem is naturally fragile, featuring long, bot summers and sbort, wet winters; tbe topograpby is mostly mountainous, witb soils tbat are ligbt and easily eroded after natural vegetation is removed. A slowly rising population used wood for forging or building cbariots and for making battering rams, siege machines and fortifications, and tools for farming. In a perennially warring region, tbe rulers of tbe city-states that emerged in Greece and adjacent lands raised armies and navies and consumed botb buman and natural resources to confront tbeir enemies. Defensive fortifications and siege warfare were well developed wben Babylonian king Nebucbadnezzar's army besieged tbe fortified city of Lacbisb in 588 BCE, placing great piles of wood from stripped forests against tbe wooden ramparts and burning tbem until tbe fortifications collapsed. In military campaigns as early as tbe Persian invasion of Greece in 512 BCE, armies burned tbeir enemies' forests and pillaged their farmlands. Tbese attacks on civilian populations and lands were tbe grim precursors of modern "total war." Rural people fled to safety in tbe forest abead of advancing military columns; if tbey stayed for any time, tbeir new fields and pastures damaged fragile woodlands. On coastlands downstream from forests, ports developed at tbe moutbs of rivers; tbere shipbuilders
War
In Flanders Fields Major John McCrae was a Canadian physician who fought at the Western Front In 1914, before being reassigned to a hospital in France. He died of pneumonia while on active duty in 1918. His "In Flanders Fields" is probably the most often recited poem from the war. He wrote it in May 1915, shortly after the Battle of Ypres. It was published in his collection of poetry, In Ftanders Fields and Ottier Poems, in 1919. He described the scene before him, where poppies—whose seeds lie dormant for years—bloomed in fields and meadows torn up in the fighting. Thus nature survives the violence of humans, a symbol of hope and regeneration, but at the same time a piercing reminder of war, bloodshed, and loss. The poem, helped make the red field poppy the symbol of remembrance with paper poppies worn by millions every year on Armistice Day (11 November) in Europe and on Memorial Day in the United States. In Flanders fields the poppies blow Between the crosses, row on row That mark our place; and in the sky The larks, still bravely singing, fly Scarce heard amid the guns below. We are the Dead. Short days ago We lived, felt dawn, saw sunset glow, Loved and were loved, and now we lie In Flanders fields. Take up our quarrel with the foe: To you from failing hands we throw The torch; be yours to hold it high. If ye break faith with us who die We shall not sleep, though poppies grow In Flanders fields.
built ships of all sizes for peaceable trade and the great triremes (ancient galleys) for naval warfare; woodsmen gradually cleared forested watersheds upstream to meet the shipyards' needs. As local timber supplies ran low, strategic needs demanded control of moredistant stands of timber. In the protracted Peloponnesian War (431-404 BCE), which ended the golden age of Athens, great naval battles between Sparta and its allies on one hand and the Athenian Empire on the other destroyed hundreds of triremes; the prime trees of whole forests were lost as the ships burned and sank. This was a bitter irony because one of Athens's purposes in the long Sicilian Campaign was to capture forests for shipbuilding. The Roman Empire produced the greatest environmental transformations that were yet experienced in Mediterranean and European landscapes. In coastal zones timber harvests for shipbuilding produced defo-
restation and soil loss. In North Africa, Roman armies damaged croplands and water systems in the conquest of Carthage. Also, as the Roman general Julius Caesar's forces moved northward in the conquest of Gaul and then Germany and Britain, they built a system of roads so superbly engineered that many are still in use today. On the moving northern frontiers of the empire, a string of military fortifications established garrisons of troops with ancillary communities to provide food and forest products for them. These engineering works opened wide areas of forest to settled agriculture, A long series of invasions of Italy from the north ultimately crippled Rome's empire. Urban centers declined, and rural medieval Europe slowly emerged in its aftermath. Warfare was endemic (native), interlacing with civilian life on the land. In the feudal era warriors' weapons were no more powerful than in earlier times, so the environmental impacts of organized violence re1285
War volved around fortifications and siege warfare. The lords of the land defended their headquarters by building gradually more massive, intricately designed forts surrounded by earthen ramparts with wooden palisades (fences of stakes for defense). Sieges of fortresses and fortified towns could last for years, devouring both woods and croplands. In the twilight zone between mass violence and peaceful times, brigandage (plundering hardly distinguishable from regular soldiering) festered. Peasant populations were terrorized by raids on food and livestock. Lands deserted when rural people became refugees reverted to natural woodlands and wetlands. These wars took western Europe to the beginning of the industrial, nation-state era, with its unprecedented acceleration of the scale of warfare and the scope of its environmental impacts. But European societies were by no means the only ones whose mass conflicts produced environmental change in the long centuries before modern times. In the varied landscapes and climates of Asia, China stands out, with its great river basins draining wide mountain systems, its dense lowland populations, and its long north-south distances. Cycles of stability followed by civil war revolved there for more than twenty centuries as imperial dynasties struggled to establish and maintain control over regional warlords. Within China's heartland the complex irrigation systems of the Yangtze and Yellow Rivers were repeated targets of armies disrupting their enemies' food supplies. Refugees from flood waters, like refugees from war throughout history, caused additional environmental disruptions where they wandered and settled. Also, on China's northwest frontier, facing perennial threats from nomadic warriors of the central Asian grasslands, emperors built the Great Wall and protected forest zones, to guard against invading cavalry. The Indian subcontinent has an equally long history of urban civilizations. Beginning with the Maurya Empire nearly twenty-five hundred years ago, Indian kingdoms developed the capacity to mount extended wars for control of river basins and hill forest hinterlands. Royal armies led by elephant corps slowly devoured the land on long campaigns. In the upper Ganges River basin from 997 CE onward, Muslim conquest states from farther northwest—the Delhi sultanate and then the great Mughal Empire—mounted sustained campaigns that had widespread environmental impacts. Cavalry swept the countryside, and the royal elephant corps required massive amounts of fodder. The Mughal imperial army, in its late seventeenth-
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century campaigns in south India, was a mobile city of nearly 1 million fighters, camp followers, and suppliers. Throughout the premodern world many conflicts were frontier wars, either fought as wars between two states or fought as wars of conquest. Often protracted and intermittent, these wars were precursors of modern guerrilla warfare and counterinsurgency, although they did not produce the devastation of today's counterinsurgency weapons. Many were fought in hill areas, usually forested and on slopes with easily eroded soils. They were characterized by seasonal skirmishes, fortified outposts, and capture of loot, including movable natural resources. In one of many instances, the Nepal Himalayas, the armies of the rising Gurkha state conquered peripheral hill areas of western Nepal and Kumaon in the eighteenth century. They destroyed crop terraces and irrigation systems, thus producing soil erosion that permanently reduced the productivity of the land. In other settings where depopulation occurred and human pressures receded, food crops gave way to increased populations of domestic livestock, including cattle, sheep, and goats, because less labor was needed to maintain livestock than to till soil. More dramatically, farmland often reverted to secondary woodland, \vhere wildlife flourished and local biodiversity (biological diversity as indicated by numbers of species of animals and plants) increased in the newly verdant habitat where few hunters roamed. However, these changes were usually temporary because victorious regimes soon settled a new generation of farmers to renew the agricultural landscape.
Global Empires in the iVIodern Era Except for the impacts of regional empires such as Rome and China, the ecological impacts of wars were largely local and short-lived until Europe's power began to extend globally in the sixteenth century. The emerging era of the imperial nation-state and largescale capital and industry accelerated the technological impacts associated with global trade and transport. The rise of bureaucratic administration meant increasingly efficient taxation power, the capacity to channel social and economic resources toward systematic violence against enemies. Eunding for military research and development inexorably increased in the wars between European states and in accelerating arms races, and the wars between these states ultimately engulfed every continent. Early ecological damage outside Eu-
War rope reflected these states' navies' needs for construction timber and naval stores. By the 1700s European navies began cutting the hardwood and white pine stands of northeastern North America, the coastal hardwoods of Brazil, and later the teak forests of monsoon Asia to find substitutes for the depleted English oak and Scandinavian conifers. These environmental costs of naval warfare were confined to the land; the seas themselves suffered little pollution or biological reduction from naval wars until the great wars of the twentieth century. The most fundamental ecological impacts of Europe's global conquests occurred in the Americas, where Europeans brought with them epidemic diseases that were a holocaust for Native Americans. Up to 90 percent of the Native American population died by the late sixteenth century. This depopulation led to widespread abandonment of cultivated lands and reversion to secondary forest, often for long periods. In Latin America even in the 1500s the impacts of conquest registered both on lowland coastal zones and riverine forests, the highlands of Mexico and the Andes, where sheep and goats came to rule degraded pasture lands and the wide, natural grasslands where cattle soon prevailed. In North American woodland ecosystems the impact of endemic frontier warfare was somewhat different. There Europeans were able to follow up their conquests by settling in and clearing temperate forests far more readily than they could anchor themselves in tropical rain forest zones. In contrast to Latin America, where populations did not recover to their pre-1492 levels until around 1800, the native populations of North America were fully replaced by northern European immigrants in much shorter order.
Wars of the Industrial Era The great escalation of modern warfare and its impacts began in Europe in the 1790s, when revolutionary France and its ruler. Napoleon, expanded both the intensity of warfare and its continent-wide reach. The Napoleonic wars also disrupted intercontinental transport of supplies, in one case resulting in a major longterm change in cropping pattems. The British naval blockade after 1805 cut off supplies of cane sugar to Erench ports from the Caribbean. In response new techniques of extracting sugar from beets led to an explosion of sugar beet farming in the heavy soils and cool climate of northern Europe. Meanwhile the former
slaves of Haiti turned their work from half-deserted cane plantations in the fertile lowlands to subsistence cropping in the erosive hill woodlands, and Haiti became one of the most degraded landscapes in the Americas. In this way Europe's revolutionary wars had unintended ecological consequences across the oceans. Erom the mid-nineteenth century onward western European and U.S. industry produced a leap in destructive capacity through revolutionary innovations in mass production. By the end of the 1800s highly accurate breech-loading rifles and machine guns transformed the battlefield, and more powerful explosives began to ravage both urban and rural targets. Moreover, railroads and steamships gave industrialized nations far greater mobility and international reach. In addition to their civilian uses, trains and ships moved troops and materiel rapidly, inexpensively, and far, making possible the conquest of the rest of the world. The U.S. Civil War demonstrated the ecological impacts of the new industrial warfare. When it began in 1861, no one expected the war to grind on for over four years, but its glacial momentum toward exhaustion of the South produced widespread destruction of croplands and fodder resources by Northern armies, extending to deliberate scorched earth campaigns in its final year. These strategies were nothing new in the history of warfare, but their scale and intensity were unprecedented. Ultimately the human resources, economic wealth, and industrial power of the North prevailed. Northern armies could be supplied and supported more consistently by the Northern railroad network connecting military movements back to factories and farms. Also, the Northern navy's blockade of Southern ports and rivers interdicted the South's raw cotton exports to Europe. The increasingly global impact of war was evident in immediately intensified cotton production on other continents, especially the rich black soils of central India, where small farmers switched from food crops to cotton by 1862 and tilled even some previously forested land until the war ended in 1865. In Europe in the same decade Cermany harnessed the Industrial Revolution to accelerated military mobilization. Rapid victories over the Austro-Hungarian Empire and then Erance resulted from skillful movement of Cerman armies over the new railway networks, while more powerful artillery damaged woodlands and cities. However, in terms of ecological violence, these mid-nineteenth-century European wars were merely overtures to the two world wars that fol-
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War lowed, wben tbe environmental impacts of warfare became truly global.
World War I On botb sides of World War I (tbe "Great War"), improved long-distance food transport enabled mass armies to be sustained year around. Conversely, on a scale greater tban ever before, armies deprived botb enemy units and civilians of food, fiber, and fodder by ravaging land and destroying stored crops. Tbe war also brougbt tbe first large-scale use of cbemical warfare. Germany's cbemical industry, wbicb bad recently emerged as tbe world's leader, forged close cooperation witb its military, enabling tbe German army to use massive amounts of mustard gas on Allied.troops. By tbe war's end cbemical war produced 1.3 million casualties, including ninety tbousand deatbs, and temporarily poisoned lands around tbe battlefields. Europe's forests came under unprecedented pressures during tbe war. Seemingly endless bombardments in battle zones sbattered forests tbat bad been carefully managed for centuries. In addition—and tbis was new in bistory—for bundreds of miles behind tbe lines, emergency fellings of timber were carried out in France and elsewbere around Europe. Only tbe great forest zone of Russia escaped beavy exploitation because imperial Russia's railway system was still rudimentary. Tbe Britisb, Canadians, and U.S. armies organized large timber imports into Europe from botb Nortb America and India's monsoon forests. However, tbis war began only tbe beginnings of tree cutting from tropical rain forests because logging and transport facilities were still in tbeir infancy in tbe wet tropics. Perbaps equally important for tbe longer run, government forestry agencies in many countries took greater control over forest resources during the war. The postwar recovery period brougbt reforestation programs in botb Europe and Nortb America in wbicb singlespecies tree plantations replaced tbe greater variety of species in tbe former natural forests.
World War II Further industrialization between tbe two world wars enabled militarized states from 1939 to 1945 to mobilize far greater resources from around tbe world than a quarter-century before and to inflict new levels of destruction. Tbe U.S. Army Air Corps, using a new generation of bombers, destroyed tbe Moebne and 1288
Eder dams in tbe German Rubr Valley, destroying or crippling over 125 factories and 46 bridges and inundating 3,000 bectares of cropland. Also, using incendiary bombs produced by tbe rapidly maturing U.S. cbemical industry, the same planes almost totally destroyed the German cities of Hamburg and Dresden from tbe air. In combat zones tbe forests of Europe were once again battered by fighting. Behind the lines of combat, timber was cut at tbe most urgent speed that limited human power could achieve, and wide forest regions of Norway and Poland were looted of their timber wealtb. Tbis time, even more than in the previous war, the battle zones of Europe, Nortb Africa, and tbe Middle East could call upon timber resources from otber continents. Timber-barvesting macbinery and transport networks, from forest roads to barbor facilities to oceanic sbips, were more bigbly developed tban in tbe previous war, although strikingly, the vast forest resources of Asian Russia were still largely inaccessible. British Columbia was now a leading source of military timber for Great Britain, wbile Wasbington and Oregon provided massive amounts of spruce for tbe Allied air forces. Innovations in airplane design, combined witb recently acquired knowledge of tbe tropical forests of tbe Americas, led to harvesting even balsa, one of tbe ligbtest of tropical woods. Tbe postwar impact of these timber harvests was largely the result of the roads that penetrated previously inaccessible forests, encouraging new frontier settlements after tbe fighting stopped. Once again wartime and subsequent peacetime togetber produced long-term cbanges on the land; neither can be understood witbout tbe otber. Tbe impact of tbe war on fragile islands in tbe Pacific had no previous parallel in that ocean's web of life. Small islands bave limited varieties of plant and animal species, and many bave thin or fragile soils; they are exceptionally vulnerable to tbe impacts of human conflict. On both steep volcanic islands and coral atolls throughout the Pacific, the fighting produced fundamental ecological degradation of forests, watersheds, coastal swamplands, and coral reefs. In this war, as in others, the spread of epidemic diseases accelerated longer trends in human and animal populations. Diseases of both humans and livestock had spread into the Pacific with traumatic impacts ever since the 1770s, but the Pacific war accelerated the process in some instances. Allied disease-control teams succeeded in containing the spread of malaria from the islands where it was already widespread, but tbe cattle tick reacbed New Caledonia, in-
War fecting livestock and damaging agricultural systems there. Malaria itself caused nearly ten times as many casualties as battles for the U.S. forces until 1943. However, a new chemical, DDT, largely controlled the disease among the troops before the war's end. No one at the time foresaw the massive environmental damage that DDT would produce in the following peacetime. For the marine resources of the Pacific the war had paradoxical effects. Commercial fisheries and whaling fleets were largely destroyed, docked, or transformed into military uses until 1945, leaving fish stocks and marine mammal populations to recover somewhat, although submarine warfare killed some whales, and any increase in their numbers proved to be temporary. Overall, this war initiated major environmental damage to the planet's oceans. In the home islands of lapan the war had tragic ecological as well as human impacts. The lapanese war machine had attempted to command the mineral and forest resources of southeastern Asia, to compensate for its limited resource base at home, but that effort was brief and limited by the Allied counterattacks. However, the domestic damage in lapan was appalling. For Japan's forest resources the wartime loss of import sources (especially the northwestern coast of North America) meant intensive cutting of domestic forests for charcoal, firewood, and construction, even ancient stands that had been preserved for centuries. In many locations the direct result was loss of soil and damage to water regimes (regular patterns of occurrence or action). On Japan's farms food production expanded urgently, especially on marginal lands, and even songbirds were virtually wiped out for emergency food. The U.S. Army Air Corps played a decisive role here, too. U.S. incendiary bombing almost totally destroyed Japan's urban areas, which were built of wood. Postwar rebuilding of the ravaged cities of Europe and Asia required continuing large-scale harvesting of forests from boreal (northern), temperate, and tropical forests. The ultimate environmental disaster, the impact of nuclear bombs, was also Japan's fate. The cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki were rapidly rebuilt after 1945, in part because the local flora made a surprisingly rapid recovery from radioactive pollution, but the human costs of the two bombs are still being counted. By August 1945 the United States was triumphant, having suffered relatively little long-term damage to its domestic resources and ecosystems or to its additional resource areas in Latin America. Its military
industry had grown exponentially, and militaryindustrial coordination had reached high levels. Hence, that war sowed the seeds of later disasters, which began to be evident as the Cold War deepened after 1948.
The Late Twentieth Century The global arms race after 1945 accelerated production of every tool of destruction. One of the smallest weapons, multiplied almost countless times, has been land mines. Some 100 million unexploded antipersonnel mines remain around the planet now, littering rural Vietnam, Afghanistan, and many other war-torn countries and grievously retarding the restoration of postwar farms, pastures, forests, and water regimes. Equally widespread by the time the Cold War ended in 1990 were the long-term pollution effects of military industry, which left many locations severely poisoned. Many weapons-production sites and testing grounds in the United States required massively expensive cleanups. Large areas of Soviet and eastern European land and air had become virtual wastelands, and even the Arctic Ocean north of Russia was severely polluted, in part from nuclear radiation. Chemical warfare produced a new range of destruction in the Vietnam War (1961-1975) as the U.S. Air Force applied Agent Orange and other defoliants to the forests of Indochina. In addition to 12.7 million metric tons of bombs and shells, U.S. planes dropped 49,800 metric tons of herbicides, permanently destroying or seriously damaging 1.5 million hectares of upland forest and mangrove marshes. In the post-1945 years nuclear technology, designed for both bombs and power plants, became the most ominous environmental threat in history, although its greatest impact resulted from the peacetime armament race rather than from actual war. In the United States nuclear facilities in Washington State, Colorado, and elsewhere became radioactive sewers, and entire Pacific islands and their coastal reefs became unfit for life as a result of U.S. and French nuclear weapons testing. Soviet sites of both weapons manufacturing and power plants were even more highly radioactive. The meltdown at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant in 1986 poisoned wide agricultural, forest, and urban areas for centuries to come. Finally, twentieth-century warfare has made a major contribution even to warming of the global atmosphere. Military establishments consume great amounts of fossil fuels, contributing directly to global warming. The Persian Gulf War of 1991 was the most 1289
War notorious case of atmospberic pollution in wartime, as tbe plumes of burning oil wells darkened skies for montbs far downwind. It now seems that the fires caused less regional and global air pollution than was feared in their immediate aftermath, although they dropped heavy pollution on nearby desert, farmland, and the gulf's waters.
War and Resource Conservation As war has concentrated power in the hands of the military and the state, it has also enhanced the power of governments to regulate the use of natural resources. In the twentieth century warfare has resulted in rapid strengthening of regimes for resource management that have shaped postwar years. Under the United Nations the Forestry Division of the Food and Agricultural Organization created a global network of professional foresters in the late 1940s. Within member countries in Europe and Nortb America and colonial countries, governments' forestry services extended their authority to manage forest reserves, limiting private owners' ability to sell or cut timber for short-term financial gain. However, close relations between forest departments and timber corporations bave often minimized tbis distinction. In tbe United States and Canada, as well as countries newly independent after 1945 sucb as India, Malaysia, Indonesia, and the Philippines, the enhanced power of governments over timber resources often led to more efficient clear-cutting of forests. On the other hand, wildlife conservation also received new emphasis after botb world wars. In World War I tbe trauma and disillusionment tbat people experienced at tbe devastation of entire landscapes, including tbeir wildlife, led to links between tbe postwar peace movement and tbe international wildlife conservation movement, plus tbe first efforts to survey and protect endangered species. The wildlife conservation movement was abandoned during World War II, and wild flora and fauna suffered grievously in and near war zones. Warplanes used wildlife reserves sucb as flamingo marsbes in the Caribbean for target practice or for dumping unused bombs. $T$TX>However, war sometimes reduces pressure on wildlife populations. In tbe war in Nicaragua in tbe late 1980s, Contra troops forced rural subsistence hunters to leave Caribbean lowland forests for several years. By 1990 wildlife in the rain forest flourished, but tbis was only a temporary reprieve from buman pressures, just as wbenever bumans bave been forced 1290
off land by war. Equally ironic, military reservations sucb as tbe severely polluted Rocky Mountain Arsenal Wildlife Refuge in Colorado often act as de facto wildlife reserves, in peacetime as well as war. In sum, tbe ecological consequences of war are complex and even paradoxical. They are often difficult to separate from the impacts of human population growth and industrial expansion in peacetime. However, in many ways war's environmental impacts have been distinctive and widespread, and they have been accelerating ominously over tbe past century. Richard P. Tucker Further Reading Albion, R. G. (1926). Forests and sea power: The timber problem of the Royal Navy, 1652-1862. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Austin, J. E., & Brucb, C. E. (Eds.). (2000). The environmental consequences of war. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Bamford, P. W. (1956). Forests and French sea power, 16601789. Toronto, Canada: University of Toronto Press. Bennett, J. (2001). War, emergency and the environment: Fiji, 1939-1946. Environment and History, 7(3), 255-287. Best, G. (1982). War and society in revolutionary Europe, 1770-1870. London: Fontana. Bond, B. (1984). War and society in Europe, 1870-1970. London: Fontana. Creveld, M. V. (1989). Technology and war: From 2000 B.C. to the present. New York: Free Press. Crosby, A. W. (1972). The Columbian exchange: Biological and cultural consequences of 1492. Westport, CT: Creenwood Press. Crosby, A. W. (1986). Ecological imperialism: The biological expansion of Europe, 900-1900. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Danielssohn, B., & Danielssobn, T. M. (1986). Poisoned reign: French nuclear colonialism in the Pacific. Harmondswortb, UK: Penguin. Elvin, M., & Liu, T.-J. (Eds.). (1998). Sediments of time: Environment and society in Chinese history. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Firtb, S. (1987). Nuclear playground. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. Cleick, P. W. (1994). Water, war, and peace in tbe Middle East. Environment, 36(3), 6-42. Hale, J. R. (1985). War and society in Renaissance Europe, 1450-1620. London: Fontana. Hastings, T. H. (2000). Ecology of war and peace: Counting costs of conflict. Lanham, MD: University Press of America.
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Headrick, D. R. (1981). The tools of empire: Technology and European imperialism in the nineteenth century. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. Homer-Dixon, T, F. (1998). Ecoviolence: Links among environment, population and security. Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield, Homer-Dixon, T. F. (1999). Environment, scarcity and violence. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. Hughes, J. D. (1994). Pan's travail: Environmental problems ofthe ancient Greeks and Romans. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. Kiple, K, F, (1993). The Cambridge world history of human disease. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, Lanier-Graham, S. (1993). The ecology of war: Environmental impacts of weaponry and warfare. New York: Walker and Company. McNeill, J, R, (1992), Mountains ofthe Mediterranean luorld: An environmental history. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, McNeill, J, R, (2000). Something new under the sun: An environmental history of the twentieth-century world. New York: W, W. Norton, McNeill, W. H. (1976). Plagues and peoples. Garden City, NY: Anchor Books. McNeill, W, H. (1982). The pursuit of power: Technology, armed force, and society since A.D. 1000. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Meiggs, R, (1982), Trees and timber in the ancient Mediterranean world. Oxford, UK: Clarendon Press. Melville, E, (1994), A plague of sheep. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, Miller, S, W. (2000), Fruitless trees: Portuguese conservation and Brazil's colonial timber. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, Mintz, S. (1985), Sweetness and power: The place of sugar in modern history. New York: Viking. Nietschmann, B, (1990, November), Conservation by conflict in Nicaragua, Natural History, 99(11), 42-48, Pounds, N, J. G, (1973), An historical geography of Europe, 450 B.C.-A.D. 1330. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, Richards, J. F,, & McAlpin, M. B. (1983), Cotton cultivating and land clearing in the Bombay Deccan and Karnatak: 1818-1920, In R, P, Tucker & J, F, Richards (Eds.), Global deforestation and the nineteenth-century world economy (pp. 68-94). Durham, NC: Duke University Press. Russell, E, (2001), War and nature: Fighting humans and insects with chemicals from World War I to Silent Spring. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Sauer, C. (1966). The early Spanish main. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press. Strachan, H, (1983), European armies and the conduct of war. London: George Allen and Unwin, Thirgood, J, V. (1981). Man and the Mediterranean forest: A history of resource depletion. London: Academic Press, Thomas, W, L, (1956), Man's role in changing the face ofthe Earth. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Tucker, R. P. (1987). The British empire and India's forest resources: The timberlands of Assam and Kumaon, 1914-1950. In J, F. Richards & R. P, Tucker (Eds,), World deforestation in the twentieth century (pp, 91-111). Durham, NC: Duke University Press. Tucker, R. P. (2000). Insatiable appetite: The United States and the ecological degradation ofthe tropical world. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press. Turner II, B, L,, Clark, W, C , Kates, R. W., Richards, J. F,, Mathews, J, T,, Meyer, W, B, (Eds,), (1990), The Earth as transformed by human action. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Vayda, A, P, (1974). Warfare in ecological perspective. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics, 5, 183-193, Wawro, G. (2000), Warfare and society in Europe, 1792-1914. New York: Routledge, Westing, A. (1976). Ecological consequences ofthe second Indochina war. Stockholm, Sweden: Almqvist and Wiksell International, Westing, A. (1980). Warfare in a fragile world: Military impact on the human environment. London: Taylor & Francis. Westing, A. (1984), Environmental warfare: A technical, legal and policy appraisal. London: Taylor & Francis, Westing, A, (Ed,), (1984). Herbicides in war: The long-term ecological and human consequences. Philadelphia: Taylor & Francis, Westing, A, (Ed,), (1990), Environmental hazards of war: Releasing dangerous forces in an industrialized world. London: Sage Publications. Williams, M. (1989). Americans and their forests. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Waste Management Over the years and around the world, solid waste— garbage, trash, or rubbish—has been abundant, cumbersome, and often polluting. But many factors besides waste itself combine to produce a waste problem, including perception and the conditions under which 1291
Waste Management
Dig a trench through a landfill and you will see layers of phone books like geographical strata or layers of cake. . . . During a recent landfill dig in Phoenix, I found newspapers dating from 1952 that looked so fresh you might read one over breakfast Source: Rattije, William. "Gart}age archaeologist." The Economist, September 8,1990.
people live. The greatest refuse-management problems exist in cities.
Waste Practices before the Industrial Revolution Humans began abandoning the nomadic life aroimd 10,000 I3CE. Tribes that followed game left their wastes behind. In towns and cities such habits could not be tolerated by the citizeniy, but methods of dealing effectively with refuse took time. In ancient Troy, food and human wastes were sometimes dropped on the floors of houses or dumped into the streets. When the stench became unbearable, people covered the droppings with a fresh supply of dirt or clay. In the streets, pigs, dogs, birds, and rodents ate the organic material. The debris accumulation in Troy amounted to 4.7 feet per century, and as much as 13 feet per century in other cultures. While the state of sanitation was appalling in many parts of tlie ancient world, there were some signs of progress. In Mohenjo Daro, founded in the Indus Valley about 2500 UCE, central planning led to the construction of built-in home rubbish chutes and to the institution of scavenger services. In Heracleopolis, founded in Egypt about 2100 BCK, wastes were collected in areas of the privileged, but dumped primarily in the Nile River. About the same time, the homes of the Sen Kings in Crete had bathrooms connected to trunk sewers, and by 1500 BCE the island had land set aside for disposal of garbage. Religion sometimes was important in enforcing sanitary practices. About 1600 BCK, Moses wrote a sarutary law code under which Jews were expected to bury their waste far from living quarters. The Talmud required that the streets of Jerusalem be washed daily despite the scarcity of water. In the classical period, waste plagued even the liigh culture of Athens. About 500 BCE, Greeks organized the first municipal dumps in the Western world, and the Council of Athens began enforcing an ordinance 1292
requiring scavengers to dispose of wastes no less than one mile from the city walls. Athens also issued the first known edict against throwing garbage into the streets, and established compost pits. Ancient Mayans in the New World also placed their organic waste in dumps and used broken pottery and stones as fill. Records from second-century BCE China reveal "sanitary police" who were charged with removing animal and human carcasses and "traffic police" responsible for street sweeping. Because of its size and dense population, Rome faced sanitation problems unheard of elsewhere. While garbage collection and disposal were well organized by the standards of the day, they did not meet the city's needs. General collection was restricted to statesponsored events, and property owners were responsible for cleaning abutting streets—although the laws were not always enforced. Wealthy Romans used slaves to dispose of their wastes, and some independent scavengers gathered garbage and excreta for a fee and sold the material as fertilizer. When Rome's power waned, the quality of the city's environment deteriorated. As western Europe deurbaruzed in the Middle Ages—due in great degree to widespread plagues—
A recycling bin in a subway station in Seoul, South Korea, in August 2002. I;UURTESY KARBJ CHRISTENSEN.
Waste Management
Waste Management in Early American Cities We arrived in Cincinnati in February, 1828, and I speak of the town as it was then; several small churches have been built since, whose towers agreeably relieve its uninteresting mass of buildings. At that time I think Main street, which is the principal avenue, (and runs through the whole town, answering to the High street of our old cities), was the only one entirely paved. The troittoiris of brick, tolerably well laid, but it is inundated by every shower, as Cincinnati bas no drains whatever. What makes this omission the more remarkable is, tbat tbe situation of the place is calculated both to facilitate tbeir construction and render them necessary. Cincinnati is built on the side of a hill that begins to rise at the river's edge, and were it furnished witb drains of the simplest arrangement, the heavy showers of the climate would keep them constantly clean; as it is, these showers wash the higher streets, only to deposit their filth in the first level spot; and this happens to be in the street second in importance to Main street, running at right angles to it, and containing most of the large warehouses ot the town. This deposit is a dreadful nuisance, and must be productive of miasma during the hot weather. Source: Trollope, Fanny. (1984). Domes^c Manners of ttie Americans. London: Alan Sutton Publishing, pp. 27-28. (Originally published 1832)
people were spared the massive waste problems experienced by densely populated cities. Despite the crudity of medieval dwellings and living conditions, the eventual rise of new cities was accompanied by greater attention to health practices. Cities began paving and cleaning streets at the end of the twelfth century. The migration of rural peoples to urban places also meant the migration of hogs, geese, ducks, and horses into the cities. In 1131 a law was passed prohibiting swine from running loose in Paris after young King Philip was killed in a riding accident caused by an unattended pig. But animals continued to roam the streets as scavengers. In the great Islamic cities and in China, however, public areas were better maintained than in Europe during the Middle Ages and Renaissance.
The Waste Problem in the Industrial Age With the onset of the Industrial Revolution in the 1760s, urban sanitation took a turn for the worse first in England then on the European continent. The inability to house the growing population migrating to the industrial centers led to serious overcrowding and liealth problems. As late as 1843, a major section of Manchester had only one toilet for every 212 people. English cities, however, were the first to establish city services to confront the problems. (Some research suggests that Vienna established a refuse collection system that was one of the earliest on record in the eighteenth century.) While it is easy to exaggerate the
range and quality of services provided, the largest industrial cities in England and elsewhere had rudimentary public works and public health agencies by the early nineteenth century. The rise of public health science was crucial. Cholera epidemics ravaged England in the early runeteenth century, and in the late 1820s many people accepted chronic dysentery and other endemic diseases as normal. The 1842 Poor Law Commission's Report on the Sanitary Condition of the Labouring Population of Great Britain, authored by Edwin Chadwick, came to the conclusion that communicable disease was related to filthy environmental conditions. The filth—or miasmatic— theory of disease was the most significant force for promoting environmental sanitation until the twentieth century, when the germ theory identified bacteria as the culprit in spreading communicable diseases. While Europe was in the throes of its Industrial Revolution, the United States was just emerging as a nation. Many of the European lessons about sanitation, therefore, were not applied immediately. Early America was highly decentralized, and the smaller tow^ns and cities did not face the enormous waste problems of London or Paris. Yet habits of neglect affected these communities too. Casting rubbish and garbage into the streets was done casually and regularly, despite the fact that crude sanitary regulations were common by the late seventeenth century in major towns. In 1634 Boston officials prohibited residents from throwing fish or garbage near the common landing. In 1657 the 1293
Waste Management burghers of New Amsterdam passed laws against casting waste into streets. By and large, sanitation in preindustrial America was determined by local circumstances. Some city leaders placed a high priority on city cleanliness, applying the principles of environmental sanitation. Others simply ignored the problem. Individuals or private scavengers usually collected refuse. Boards of health were slow in developing, understaffed, and limited in power. It was not until 1866 that New York City became the first American city to establish a systematic public health code. The solid waste problem became a serious issue in American cities during the Industrial Revolution. Crowded cities produced mounds of garbage. Coal mines left hills of slag. Pigs or turkeys still roamed the streets and alleys in some towns looking for scraps; horses dumped tons of manure into thoroughfares; and rivers, lakes and the oceans became sinks for tons of urban discards. Boston authorities estimated that in 1890 scavenging teams collected approximately 350,000 loads of garbage, ashes, rubbish, and street sweepings. In Chicago 225 street teams gathered approximately 2,000 cubic yards of refuse daily. In Manhattan in 1900, scavengers collected an average of 612 tons of garbage daily. Because of seasonal variations in available fruits and vegetables, that amount increased to 1,100 tons daily in July and August. One hundred years later, the United States produces more than 250 million tons of municipal solid waste each year, and possibly as much as 380 million tons per year. This represents more than 4 pounds per person per day.
The Worldwide Waste Stream Unfortimately, the United States is a leader in many categories associated with municipal solid waste generation, although the waste problem is not restricted to the United States. While the composition of solid waste varies considerably throughout Europe, organic material and paper dominate the waste stream. These two categories account for between 50 and 80 percent of residential waste materials. Glass, plastics, and metals make up as little as 10 percent to as much as 25 percent. In eastern Europe, organic materials are more plentiful than glass, plastics, and metals. Overall figures suggest substantially less use of packaging material in Europe as a whole, for example, than in the United States. 1294
Affluence is a strong dictator of waste volume and variety. For example, in higher-income economies in Israel, Saudi Arabia, and the United Arab Emirates, abandoned cars, furniture, and packaging are openly discarded. In Asia, paper and plastics waste are generally greatest in Tokyo and Singapore, while very low in Beijing and Shanghai {due in part to recovery and recycling). On the Indian subcontinent organic and inert matter dominates waste disposal, and per capita per day disposal rarely exceeds 0.8 kilograms (less than 2 pounds). Tiie same is true for African cities, where waste is high in organic material and also rarely exceeds 0.8 kilograms. Waste in Latin America generally is high in organic material, but can average 1 kilogram per day {2.2 pounds). While the discards of nineteenth-century America were largely food wastes, wood and coal ash, rubbish, and horse manure, the current waste stream includes a complex mix of hard-to-replace as well as recyclable materials, and a variety of toxic substances to a much greater extent than anywhere else in the world. Of all current discards, paper, plastics, and aluminum have increased the most. Paper makes up about 38 percent of the U.S. waste stream; plastics, 11 percent; metals and glass, 19 percent; and yard waste, 12 percent.
Waste Management: Public and Private The way solid waste is managed—or mismanaged— is crucial to the success of collection and disposal practices. Beginning in the late nineteenth century, a major concern of city government in the United States was to determine responsibility for delivering needed services such as refuse collection and disposal. For many years, the question was whether public or private service was better. Between the 1890s and the 1960s, publicly managed systems dominated. Today, the United States has a mixed system of service providers in the solid waste field, with the trend toward increased privatization. Whatever the system, local governments in North America in general retain primary responsibility for managing or overseeing solid waste management. In Canada the approach favors more decentralization than in the United States. The recent interest in "integrated waste management" systems, that is, systems that will use some or ail disposal options, requires cooperation between public and private parties. In the United States, the Environmental Protection Agency's promotion of integrated waste management also suggests a significant role for the federal government in setting a national agenda for
Waste Management solid waste, as well as having an expanded regulatory function. Since the 1960s, the U.S. federal government has played a greater role in addressing the waste problen:i, underscoring its significance as an environmental issue with national repercussions. The 1965 Solid Waste Disposal Act was the first major federal law to recognize solid waste as a national problem. Since that time new laws have been added, shifting attention among issues of recycling, resource recovery, conversion of waste to energy, hazardous wastes, and more traditional concerns over municipal solid wastes. While the United States seeks to implement an integrated solid waste management system, western Europe leads the world in such an endeavor. Governments in all Western European countries are required to design their systems around integrated models with waste prevention at the core. While the public sector has been at the center of these programs for years, private companies increasingly carry out waste management services. Even in Eastem Europe where state-run programs have been the norm, private companies are making headway. In many countries, legislation to improve solid waste management at the highest levels is insufficient, and private sector initiatives increasingly compete with governments to carry out of waste services.
Collection Practices Collection of solid wastes has been made difficult throughout the world by the growing volumes and kinds of materials discarded, the larger populations to be served, and the greater distances that sanitation workers are required to cover. There is no "best" method of collection. Before 1900, some American cities chose to collect unseparated discards, and others experimented with source separation. Historically, collections were most frequent in the business districts, less frequent in outlying areas or poorer neighborhoods. As more affluent suburbs grew, cities diverted collection teams from inner-city routes to upper- and middle-class neighborhoods. After World War il, technical advances helped to ease the problems of collection especially in the United States and Europe with the introduction of compaction vehicles and transfer stations (used as central drop-off points for collected refuse). But over the years collection remained heavily dependent on hand labor in many parts of the world. No matter the method, collection is difficult because it is costly and does not serve every citizen equally well, especially the poor. Surveys
estimate that from 70 to 90 percent of the cost of solid waste service in the United States goes for collection. Equally high or higher collection ratios can be foimd in other areas such as Africa. Collection of wastes is an imposing task throughout the world. In some cities, such as Kathmandu, Nepal, there is no formal waste collection service of any kind. In Mexico City, the national government controls collection and disposal arrangements, and does not allow private contractors to operate. Throughout Latin America collection coverage is reasonably good in the large cities such as Buenos Aires, Sao Paolo, Rio de Janeiro, Caracas, Santiago, and Havana, although it is imcertain whether squatter settlements receive adequate collection service. Privatizing collection operations, which became more popular in the United States in the 1960s, also has caught on in several large cities in Latin America. Conditions in Europe vary greatly. In western Europe and Scandinavia collection is frequent and highly mechanized; in eastem Europe, where much of the housing is multifamily apartments, quality of service is uneven. Like Europe, cities in the industrialized countries of Asia—Australia, New Zealand, Hong Kong, Japan, and Singapore—have waste collection that is mechanized and capital-intensive. In developing countries much of collection is done by hand labor, with the exception of some large cities that maintain motorized collection fleets. In the poorest countries, collection rates may not exceed 50 percent and may not extend to the poor. Privatization also is gaining a foothold in some countries. Most interestingly in East Asia and the Pacific, women often manage garbage in the household, pay for collection service, separate recyclables, and sell items to private waste collectors. In South and West Asia, for example, labor unrest and civil disturbances have affected municipal service periodically. In much of Africa the municipality, through a combination of n\otorized vehicles, animal-drawn carts, and humandrawn wheelbarrows and pushcarts, carries out collection. As in many developing regiorrs, transfer stations are uncommon and collection reliability is often low.
Disposal Options: Landfills and Incinerators Modern sanitary landfills evolved from those originating in Great Britain in the 1920s, and American attempts in the 1930s in New York City, San Francisco, and especially Eresno, California. The sanitary landfill is composed of systematically dug trenches, where lay1295
Waste Management ers of solid waste alternate with layers of dirt. The trenches are then covered with a layer of dirt so that odors could not escape and rodents and other vermin could not enter. Newer landfills utilize plastic liners to retard leaching, and monitoring devices to detect methane emissions and various other pollutants. Through the 1950s and 1960s engineers and waste managers believed that the sanitary landfill was the most economical and safest form of disposal. By the 1970s, experts began to doubt that landfills could serve the future needs of cities, not only because of the paucity of land but also because of citizen resistance and increasingly rigid environmental standards. The NIMBY syndrome—Not in My Back Yard—spread across the country as some neighborhoods refused to act as dumping grounds for the whole community. In some cases, the placing of dumps in minority neighborhoods was and is challenged as a form of environmental racism. Many times sanitary landfills did not live up to their name, becoming a haven for insects and rodents, threatening groundwater, producing methane gas Unked to ozone depletion, and containing various hazardous materials. By recent estimates, 55-70 percent of the waste generated in North America ends up in landfills. However, the total number of sites in the United States particularly declined substantially through the late 1980s and 1990s, from approximately 8,000 in 1988 to 2,300 in 1999. By 2008, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) predicts that the number of landfills will fall to about 1,200. The major reason for the decline, in addition to siting problems, is Subtitle D of the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (1976), which set and enforced rigorous national standards for municipal solid waste (MSW) landfills in the 1990s. In essence, newer, larger, but fewer landfills could meet the new standards, while smaller and older ones simply stopped operating. The lack of sites in the United States, especially in the East and parts of the Midwest, forced several states to export their garbage. New York is the top exporter with 5.6 million tons per year, followed by New Jersey (1.8 million tons), Missouri (1.79 million tons), and Maryland (1.55 million tons). The major importer of waste is Pennsylvania with 9.76 million tons per year followed at some distance by Virginia (3,89 million tons) and Michigan (3.12 million tons). There is a clear split between northern and southern/eastern Europe in the use of landfills. In some northern European countries landfill practices parallel 1296
current U.S. experience with approximately half of the waste finding its way to landfills. In Greece, Spain, Hungary, and Poland, virtually al! collected waste goes into the ground. Many of the landfills in Europe are of the small, uncontrolled municipal type, but efforts are being made to shift toward larger regional types. Unlike in the U.S., NlMBYism is unlikely to influence the siting of landfills. Land filling has been the cheapest and most typical form of disposal in East Asia and the Pacific. But in countries such as Australia, Japan, and Singapore, costs have risen sharply in recent years. In developing countries open dumping rather than sarutary landfilling has dominated disposal practices. The same is true in South and West Asia and in much of Africa. Egypt and South Africa tried to upgrade landfills, but this objective has yet to achieve success. Waste pickers—sometimes operating under municipal authority or on their own—work the open dumps to find materials to utilize or sell. Ocean dumping is still common in these regions as well, although the practice is banned or restricted in most places. The use of landfills—many of them private—in Latin America and the Caribbean is on the rise, especiaDy in large cities. However, these sites more closely resemble controlled dumps than sanitary landfills. In Mexico, for example, there are nearly 100 controlled disposal sites, but only about 10 percent (mostly in the north) can be considered sanitary landfills. Waste pickers also are common in Latin America, and while attempts have been made to prevent them from entering the dumps, such efforts normally fail. Of the available alternatives, incineration has had the strongest following. The first systematic incineration of refuse at the municipal level was tested in Nottingham, England, in 1874. Two years later in Manchester, Alfred Eryer built an improved "destructor" and subsequently the British led in the development of the technology for several decades. The British were the first to attempt to convert the heat from burrung waste into steam to produce electricity. The first American "cremators" were built in 1885. Two types of combustion facilities were developed in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. The first is a mass bum unit used to reduce the total volume of waste; the second is the waste-to-energy facility, pioneered by the British, meant to produce steam to generate electricity or to be sold directly to customers as a heating source. Waste-to-energy became popular in the United States in the 1970s in the wake
Waste Management
of the energy crisis, but did not gain widespread support, nor did incineration in general. Despite the fact that incineration drastically reduces the volume of waste, the cost of the technology and chronic problems with air pollution made it a weak competitor in contests with the sanitary landfill. In the 1990s, however, incineration rebounded, especially built on the hope of an improved competitive edge because of rising landfill fees and the promise of cleaner energy production. In 1996, 110 combustors with energy recovery were in operation in the Uruted States with a capacity to burn up to 100,000 tons of MSW per day. The number is much lower in Canada. Overall, waste-to-energy incineration handles approximately 10 to 15 percent of the solid waste stream in North America. Incineration also has a checkered history internationally. In Africa any kind of burning and waste-toenergy—except medical waste incineration^—are little used because of high costs. The same is true in Latin America. In Asia, only cities in the most industrialized countries use modern incinerator technology. Japan leads the way, with Tokyo having 13 incinerators. The increasing lack of latidfill space and the dense population has put Japan on the forefront of incineration use and development. In developing countries, many problems have arisen with imported incinerators. Some units do not operate at high enough temperatures to destroy the high moisture content in the waste, fail to destroy pathogens, and contribute substantial air pollution. Europe's commitment to incineration since the early successes in England has been mixed. Northern European countries, particularly Sweden, rely heavily on mass-burn incineration in association with energy generation. In western Europe anjrwhere from 35 to 80 percent of residential waste is incinerated. The lack of landfill space and energy needs have been powerful forces in promoting the burning of waste, but not without controversy. Emissions of acid gases, heavy metals, dioxin, and mercury have caused serious concern, and have led the European Union to enforce stringent emissions standards for incinerators. Older incinerators that do not generate energy are being phased out. European countries have been active in producing by-products from incineration residue, using fly ash, for example, in a variety of road products. Europeans also have led the way in developing refuse-derived fuels. The experiences in eastern Europe have been less successful, especially because of the older incineration
facilities in use and the inability to upgrade or replace them.
Recycling and Recovery Only in the last several years has recycling emerged as an alternative disposal strategy to landfilling and incineration, particularly in the United States. Once regarded as a grassroots method of source reduction and a protest against overconsumption in a "throw-away society," recycling arose in the 1980s as a disposal method in its own right. In 1988 about 1,000 communities in the United States had curbside collection service; in 2000 the number exceeded 7,000. The province of Ontario initiated its first curbside program in 1983, and by 1987 at least 41 communities had such programs in Canada. The EPA estimated that recycling and composting diverted 57 million tons of material away from landfills and incinerators in the United States in 1996 (up from 34 million tons in 1990), with the most typical recyclables being aluminum cans, batteries, paper and paperboard, and yard trimmings. A major goal of many commtmities and the nation in general is to increase the recycling rate, which stood at 10 percent in the late 1980s. The EPA's 1988 draft report on solid waste called for a national recycling goal of 25 percent by 1992. In the late 1990s, the EPA raised the goal to at least 35 percent of MSW by 2005, and called for reducing the generation of solid waste to 4.3 pounds per capita per day. The actual rate of recycling in the late 1990s was about 20 to 25 percent in North America. The U.S. experience with recycling, while vastly changed from years past, falls short of recycling and recovery efforts in other parts of the industrialized world. Germany and Denmark, in particular, have aggressive recycling policies. Denmark, for example, recycles about 65 percent of its waste. One of the most unique aspects of recovery of materials in western Europe is the pervasive idea of "producer responsibility" for proper disposal of packaging and other products. In some western European countries packaging reduction goals have been set at 75 percent by 2002. Recycling and recovery in southern and eastern Europe and in other parts of the world is more uneven. Throughout Latin America and the Caribbean materials recovery is extensive with recycling programs in all large cities and most moderate-sized communities. In smaller towns and rural areas, where much of the waste is organic, composting is the only form of recovery in use. However, centralized composting has not been 1297
Waste Management Carra, J. S., & Cossu, R. (Eds.). (1990). International perspectives on municipal solid wastes and sanitary landfilling. Eondon: Academic Press. Candy, M. (1993). Recycling and waste. Aidershot, England: Ashgate Publishing. Grover, V. 1., Guha, B. K., Hogland, W., & McRae, S. G, (Fds.). (2000). Solid waste management. Rotterdam, Netherlands: A. A. Balkema. Ciuiinerson, C. G. (June, 1973). Debris accumulation in ancient and modem cities. }oumal of the Environmtnital Engineering Division, ASCE. 99, 229-43. Kemper, P., & Quigley, J. M. (1976). The economics ofrefitse collection. Cambridge, MA: Ballinger. Kharbanda, O., & Stillworthy, E. A. (1990). YJaste management. New York: Auburn House. Kirov, N. Y. (Ed.). (1972). Solid waste treatment and disposal. Ann Arbor, MI: Ann Arbor Science Publishers. Informal waste picking is widespread throughout Melosi, M. V. (1981). Garbage in the cities. College Station: the world, particularly in developing countries. In sevTexas A & M University Press. eral locations, such as in South and West Asia and AfMelosi, M. V. (2000). The sanitary city. Baltimore: Johns rica, there are informal networks of pickers, buyers, Hopkins University Press. traders, and recyclers in place of formal public systems Melosi, M. V. (2001). Effluent America. Pittsburgh: Univeror private companies. Materials recovery takes on a sity of Pittsburgh Press. different form in the developing world as opposed to Neil, H. A., & Schubel, J. R. (1987). Solid xvaste management highly industrialized regions. For the former, tnaterials and Ihe environment. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Greenrecovery becomes a necessity in areas of poorly paid wood. or unemployed people and in areas where resources are scarce. In industrialized areas, materials recovery Pollock, E. (December, 1985). Wide world of refuse. Waste is an attempt to lessen the wastefulness of growing Age, 16, 89-90. economies and reduce environmental costs. Rathje, W., & Murphy, C. (1992). Rubbish! New York: Harper Perennial. The waste problem is a part of life—ancient and Rose, P. (1988). Solid waste. In N. Ball (Ed.), Building Can^ tnodern. Strides have been made throughout the world ada (pp. 245-61). Toronto, Canada: University of Toto cotifront the complex problems of waste generation, ronto Press. collection, disposal, and materials recovery. Finding a Savas, E. S. (1977). The organization and efficiency of solid way to manage solid waste in order to preserve rewaste collection. Lexington, MA: D. C. Heath and Co. sources and minim^ize pollution is a constant challenge. SmaU, W. E. (1970). Viird pollution. New York: Praeger Martin V. Melosi Publishing. Strasser, S. (1999). Waste and want. New York: Metropolitan Books. Further Reading Tillman, D. A., Rossi, A. J., & Vick, K. M. (1989). IncineraAmerican Public Works Association. (1970). Municipal retion of municipal and hazardous solid wastes. San Diego, fuse disposal. Chicago: Public Administration Service. CA: Academic Press. American Public Works Association. (1975). Solid waste United Nations Environment Programme, Division of collection practice. Chicago: American Public Works Technology, Industry, and Economics. (2002). NewsletAssociation. ter atid technical publications: Municipal solid ivaste manArmstrong, E. E., Robinson, M. C , &. Hoy, S. M. (1976). agement. Retrieved December 5, 2002, from http:// History of public works in the United States. Chicago; www.unep.or.jp/ietc/FSTdir/Pub/MSW/RO American Public Works Association. United States Environmental Protection Agency, Office Bonotrio, E., & Higginson, A. E. (Eds.). (1988). International of Solid Waste. (2002). Basic facts: Municipal solid waste. overview on solid waste managentent. Eondon: Academic Retrieved December 5, 2002, from http://www.epa. Press. gov/epaoswer/non-hw/mimcpl/facts/htm
successful in Latin America as a rule. By contrast, backyard composting is more widespread in Australia, Japan, and New Zealand. In Asia a large portion of household organic waste is fed to animals. The large composting plants that were so prevalent throughout developing countries in Asia—including those pioneered in India—are out of use and not working at full capacity. In East Asia and the Pacific, formal and informal source separation and recycling programs are practiced. The highest degree of waste reduction takes place in the thriving urban areas of Australia, New Zealand, Japan, Korea, and Hong Kong, There also are waste recovery programs and recycling efforts sponsored by cities and national ministries in the People's Republic of China and Vietnam.
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Water Zero Waste. (2002). Waste & recycling: Data, maps & graphs. Retrieved December 5, 2002, from http:// www.zerowasteamerica.org/Statistics.htm
Water Humankind's ancient, massive, and growing intervention in natural hydrological processes, including capturing and rerouting flows of water and altering water quality, has resulted in improved human health and longevity, and created opportunities for humans to live in places, numbers, and comfort that otherwise wouldn't be possible. Between 1700 and 1900, human withdrawals of freshwater from aquifers, rivers, and lakes increased five times, from 110 cubic kilometers to 580 cubic kilometers. Over the next hundred years, withdrawals increased another nine times to 5,190 cubic kilometers, which is more than 10 percent of the Earth's available flows. Although the same water can be used repeatedly, different uses require different levels of quality, quantity, and flow characteristics. Today societies are grappling with how to manage water resources to achieve multiple goals. Environmentrelated goals include protection of endangered species, provision of recreational and wilderness experiences, and allowing natural systems to provide services that humans w^ould otherwise have to provide themselves.
The Physical and Biological Context The ongoing exchange of seawater and freshwater is called the hydrologic cycle, and is powered by the sun's energy causing evaporation. As evaporated water cools in the upper atmosphere, it condenses and falls as rain or snow. Although most evaporation and precipitation occur over oceans, clouds are also carried inland by winds, bringing the water that fills rivers, recharges groundwater aquifers, and rejuvenates the Earth's terrestrial biomass. The cycle continues as the water eventually evaporates again. Key physical aspects of water enable it to play its centra! role. Substances can dissolve or be suspended in water. This enables flowing water to transport them from one place to another. Rivers carry nutrients from mountains to valleys to soils in flood plains. Poisons and pathogens also reside in water, making it a common source of disease to humans and other species.
Evaporating water leaves minerals behind. Unless replenished with a new inflow, the minerals left behind become more concentrated, rendering the remaining water less fit for use. Water can impart energy both in terms of its elevation (falling water drives hydropower turbines), and in terms of heated water molecules (the evaporation process transfers energy from liquid water to the atmosphere). But the energy in water also propels floods, one of Earth's most devastating natural disasters. Since the hydrogen side of a water molecule is more positively charged and the oxygen side more negatively charged, liquid water molecules tend to align their positive and negative poles and pull together. This property facilitates water flow from roots to leaves of plants, and enables water to serve as a solvent. Finally, water freezes from the top down, allowing fish and other species to survive the winter in unfrozen depths, which has enabled more long-lived and complex organisms and food webs to emerge. Water's origins on Earth remain a mystery. It may have been released from within the floating rocky debris that first formed the Earth, or it may have arrived little by little in the form of icy meteors striking the dry young planet. Today, twice as much of the Earth is covered by water as is covered by land. Ninety-seven percent of all of Earth's water is found in oceans, and 2 percent is located in polar and mountain ice. Of the remainder, 95 percent is located in underground aquifers, and the rest can be found in lakes, inland seas, surface soils, the atmosphere itself, living biomass, and stream channels. The ironic phrase "as predictable as weather" summarizes the variable nature of water's stocks and flows: wet and dry periods, droughts, and floods all are common occurrences, though their exact timing and magnitude cannot be predicted. Freshwater ecosystems contain a large proportion of the world's biodiversity compared to their size. While comprising just 1 percent of the Earth's surface, they serve as home to 40 percent of the world's fish species, while 12 percent of animal species reside in fresh water. As of 2000, 34 percent of fish species, primarily located in freshwater habitats, were threatened with extinction. Wetlands—regions where the prevalence of water results in saturated soils and that support life adapted to saturated soil conditions—are among the world's most biologically productive. They also provide such beneficial services to humans as filtering water, slowing and capturing flood flows, and serving as fish and wildlife habitat. Biological processes in wetlands are mimicked in today's wastewater treatment facilities. 1299
Water
A cistern at Acoma Pueblo in New Mexico in 1992. This and two other cisterns were the only sources of water for the community, located on a mesa several hundred feet above the valley floor, L'-OURTHSY
which concentrate and accelerate the natural processes that break down and remove solids and pathogens from fresh water.
water systems, terrestrial habitats are fragmented, and migratory paths of terrestrial animals are blocked. Although irrigation canals do support wildlife, the flow regime of canals is keyed toward agricultural production, not a region's natural hydrological processes, creating adaptation challenges for local water-dependent species. While irrigated agriculture may increase overall biotic productivity, especially in dry regions, it may also reduce a region's biodiversity as farmers devote fields to a few or a single food-crop species (called monocropping). In regions where salts naturally occur in the soil coltimn, intensive irrigation can lead to soil salinization. As irrigation water rises to the surface and evaporates or transpires, salts concentrate, ultimately rendering the root zone infertile. Soil salinization is blamed for the destruction of numerous early agriculturedependent civilizations of Mesopotamia and possibly South America. Today, 20 percent of irrigated acreage worldwide has elevated quantities of salts.
Hydropower Irrigation Irrigation remains the leading human use of water, accounting for 70 percent of all freshwater consumption. Forty percent of all crops produced today have been irrigated. Irrigated agriculture may have originated with the Sumerians of Mesopotamia around 4000 BCE. By 3200 net, Egyptians were digging irrigation canals off of the Nile River. As of 700 BCE, qanats^deep tunnels that deliver water from an underground aquifer to a farming region—were well established in Persia. The Sabeans living in Marib (modern-day Yemen) built a large agricultural diversion dam in roughly 300 BCE. In North America, by 200 BCE the Hohokam tribes located in current-day Arizona had established extensive irrigation canals drawing from the Gila and Salt Rivers. By 1900, roughly 40 million hectares were irrigated worldwide. This quantity grew sevenfold in the twentieth century to 270 tnillion hectares. Irrigation particularly accelerated after 1950 with the introductioti of "Green Revolution" high-yielding seed varieties that required extensive and well-regulated inputs of water. The environmental impacts of irrigation canals include reducing the amount of water available for instream ecological processes and for riparian (at or near the riverbank) wetlands, and altering riparian zones in the places where diversion works exist. Further environmental impacts occur along canal routes where dry terrestrial ecosystems are transformed into flowing 1300
Waterwheels are among humcinity's earliest machines, being utilized by the early Greek, Egyptian, and Chinese civilizations. The earliest waterwheels were used to grind grain and to lift water out of a river into another channel. Over the centuries, other applications emerged, with over 500,000 waterwheels existing in Europe by 1800. Hydropower consisted of transforming the movement of water directly into the movement of machinery until 1882 when the world's first hydroelectric plant was built on Wisconsin's Fox River, The growing demand for electricity spurred by the industrial era helped launch an era of large dam building worldwide. As of 1900, roughly 700 dams higher tlian 15 meters had been commissioned, with 220 located in England. By the end of the century, nearly 50,000 had been commissioned, though not all provided hydropower. China was the leading builder: at the time of its 1949 revolution, it had 8 large dams; by 2002, the number was roughly 22,000. There are an estimated 800,000 dams of all sizes worldwide. Reservoir volume is estimated at 10,000 cubic kilometers, or 5 times the volume of the world's rivers, covering 400,000 square kilometers, roughly the size of California. Large hydropower dams that create reservoirs dramatically alter the ecology of river systems. Above the dam, flowing water regimes become standing water regimes and riparian habitat is flooded. Shorelines of reservoirs often are barren since plant and animal life
Water
Water and the Growth of Cities I have left to last the dynamic component of the city, without which it could not have continued to increase in size and scope and productivity; this is the first efficient means of mass transport, the waterway. That the first growth of cities shouid have taken place in river valleys is no accident; and the rise of the city is contemporaneous with improvements in navigation, from the fioating hundle of rushes or togs to the boat powered by oars and sails.
Source: Mumford, Lewis. (1961). We City in History: its Origins, /te Transformations, and Its Prt)spects. New York: Haroourt, Brace & World.
are not adapted to ever-shifting reservoir elevations determined by hydropower, agricultural, urban, downstream environmental, and recreational needs. Dams block sediment flows, causing siltation above the dam, alteration or loss of habitat for bottom-dwelling species, and a reduction in the deposition of nutrients in the floodplain. Dams also block passageways for migratory fish. By retaining flood flows in reservoirs, dams de-link the main channels of rivers from nearby wetlands, reducing the contribution each makes to ecological processes occurring in the other. Water temperature increases behind dams due to prolonged exposure of standing water to sunlight, which can degrade downstreatn fish spawning habitat when the warmer water is released. There have been profound indirect environmental effects of hydropower and large dams. Hydropower provided a large proportion of the energy that fueled the Industrial Revolution. In the early 1900s, 40 percent of all U.S. electricity was generated by hydropower. By 2000, hydropower provided roughly 10 percent of U.S. electricity and 15 percent of the world's electricity. Large dam/reservoir systems enabled vast regions to transition from undeveloped wetland ecosystems to agricultural ecosystems. By 1980 California had lost 91 percent of its original wetlands largely as a result of the transformation of its great central valley from wetlands to agriculture. This substantially reduced available habitat and populatioti sizes of numerous bird, terrestrial, and aquatic species.
Transportation Rivers have served as commercial highways since ancient times. Civilizations have built dams and canals both to stabilize the elevation of waterways and to extend their reach. Rivers, including the Mississippi and
the Rhine, have been dredged and straightened to permit the passage of longer barges with deeper drafts. Obstructions such as submerged boulders, branches, and tree trunks have also been removed from river channels. Environmentai impacts include disturbing biotic activity in the benthic (river bed) zone due to dredging; curtailing annual flood events; accelerating the velocity and intensity of floods; and reducing shade and protection provided by submerged and partially submerged objects. Over the twentieth century, the number of rivers altered to improve transportation increased from roughly 9,000 to 500,000. Canals also have played crucial roles in extending the range of human habitation and increasing the intensity of economic activity on frontiers. Canals enable building materials and machinery to be transported to frontiers while also enabling crops and natural resources to be shipped cheaply and quickly back to urban centers. China's 2,500-year-old Grand Canal extends over 1,600 kilometers enabling extensive agriculture and other industry to occur far from natural rivers. Completed in 1825, North America's 580-kilometer Erie Canal helped link New York Harbor to the Great Lakes, facilitating the rapid westward expansion and industrial growth of the United States.
Fiood Control Floods arise naturally due to heavy rainfall and/or rapid snowmelt, and on rare occasions result from catastrophic dam failure. Some 10,000 floods occur each year worldwide. Modern history's worst recorded flood occurred in 1887 along China's Huang-Ho (Yellow) River. A million people died as the waters engulfed eleven large towns and hundreds of villages. As recently as 1993, flooding on the Mississippi River 1301
Water resulted in 48 deaths and physical damages estimated at $15-$20 billion. Environmental impacts of flooding include transfer of sediments and nutrients from uplands to the floodplain; creation of temporary aquatic links between rivers and nearby lakes and wetlands enabling the relocation of aquatic species; and re-routing of rivers into altemate or new channels. Floods help make soils fertile and aid forest growth. Levees (embankments that confine a flood), while protecting the immediate area from flooding, often serve to accelerate floodwaters, increasing their potential for devastation downstream. Levees also alter flood-dependent ecological processes where they are located. Restoration of upstream wetlands and forests, which serves to slow down floodwaters, became a part of flood-management planning in the 1990s.
Water for Cities The ancient Romans took immense pride in their aboveground aqueducts, which by 300 BCE were delivering more than L5 million liters of water per day to Roman citizens. Roman cities also inciuded extensive systems of pipes that delivered water from the aqueducts to houses and baths, as well as separate systems that carried sewage wastes away from homes. Today, roughly 95 percent of all urban dwellers have access to a fresh water supply, and 86 percent have access to sanitation facilities. Throughout human history, societies have utilized rivers to carry wastes away, increasing the risk of contamination downstream. Water quality impacts can be divided between biological contaminants and chemical contaminants, the importance of the latter growing since the dawn of the industrial era. Tlnough some ancient societies, such as the Chinese, adopted practices that separated human wastes from waters intended for human consumption, until the mid-nineteenth century, links between history's many plagues and the human relationship with water were only vaguely understood. Water-related diseases such as typhoid, cholera, and malaria took their toll worldwide. As recently as 1885, a cholera epidemic killed over 80,000 people in Chicago. Advances in epidemiology {the study of diseases in large populations) also occurred during this period. In 1854, Dr. John Snow linked London's cholera outbreaks to a public well that drew water from the Thames River just downstream from the city's raw sewage outfalls. His discovery launched 1302
investigations in England and elsewhere into altemative designs for wastewater treatment facilities. In the twentieth century, as growing cities in Europe and eastern North America increasingly released concentrated biological and industrial wastes into waterways, severe environmental degradation resulted. Biological impacts included a reduction in the quantity of dissolved oxygen in the rivers as living microbial matter multiplied and consumed biological wastes. Oxygen depletion led to die-offs of fish populations. Pollution generated by industrial and agricultural activities often cannot be broken down by natural processes. Trace elements (including heavy metals), pesticides, petroleum, and petroleum by-products may leach from mining or farming operations or be flushed away from metal-plating, chemical, refining, and other facilities. They can be damaging or fatal to fish and other aquatic species. Some elements, including mercury and arsenic, bio-accumulate along food chains, reaching concentrations dangerous to humans and birds who eat fish caught in polluted waters.
Water for the Environment A galvanizing event in U.S. public demand for river clean-up occurred in 1969 when Ohio's Cuyahoga River, saturated with petroleum wastes, igr\ited. Since the 1970s, industrialized nations have taken significant steps to reduce the loading of industrial pollution into rivers and lakes, including in the United States' passage of the Clean Water Act of 1972. The environmental health of European and North American waterways has improved, symbolized by the capture of an Atlantic salmon in a Rhine River tributary in 1990, twentytwo years after the previous catch occurred. Developing-world waterways ren^ain under environmental pressure from untreated industrial and urban effluents, both of which continue to grow in quantity. Another environmental risk to rivers involves industrial accidents that cause massive pulses of pollutants to enter a waterway. In 1986 a fire at a chemical plant near Basel, Switzerland, sent a plume of poisons down the Rliine River, killing nearly all plant and animal life for 180 kilometers. In January of 2000, the holding pond of a mine-metal recovery facility based in Baia Mare, Hungary, breached its dam during a heavy storm, releasing lethal cyanide and other metals into the Tiza River, a tributary of the Danube. Near the site of the breach, plankton and moUusk species were wiped out. Over a thousand tons of fish were de-
Water Energy stroyed in Hungarian rivers, with additional impacts in downstream nations. Few water-management regulations focus exclusively on environmental benefits. The free-flowing characteristics of some U.S. rivers have been protected through the Wild and Scenic Rivers Act of 1968. The U.S. Endangered Species Act of 1973 can require farreaching restrictions on the quality, quantity, and timing of flows that serve as habitat for endangered and threatened species. Since the 1990s, legislation has emerged to fight the growing costs imposed by such invasive species as the zebra mussel, a native of Eastern Europe, which now clogs North American freshwater intake pipes. Tort law (allowing lawsuits when damage has been done) and application of the Public Trust Doctrine have also served to protect environmental uses of water in the United States. Internationally, The Convention on Wetlands of International Importance Especially as Waterfowl Habitat, or "Ramsar Convention," of 1971, maintains a list of Wetlands of International Importance that by 2001 included over 1,070 sites covering 81 million hectares. A growing number of national park systems worldwide also provide protection to aquatic ecosystems located within their boundaries. Of the many uses of water described in this selection, some are complementary to each other and to environmental protection while others are not. Sorting out water rights—what they are, who has them, and how they are transferred—will be a prime challenge for years to come for citizens and water managers alike. Brent M. Haddad
United Nations Environment Programme (2000). Report of the International Task Force for Assessing the Baia Mare Accident. World Com^mission of Dams (2000). Dams and development. London: Earthscan Publications Ltd. Wolf, A. T., Natharius, J. A., Danielson, J. J., Ward, B. S., & Pender, J. K. (1999). International river basins of the world. International Journal of Water Resources Development 15(4), 387-427. World Conservation Union (IUCN) (1996). 1996IUCN Red List of Threatened Animals. Gland, Switzerland: IUCN. World Resources Institute (1998). World Resources 19981999. Washington, DC: World Resources Institute.
Water Energy
Mechanical (kinetic) energy of flowing or falling water was traditionally converted to rotary motion by a variety of waterwheels, and, starting in the early nineteenth century, by water turbines that have been used since the 1880s to turn generators. Unlike the combustion of fossil fuels, this form of electricity generation does not produce directly any air pollution, but its other environmental impacts have become a matter of considerable controversy. It is not known by how many generations or centuries do the origins of waterwheels predate the first reference to their existence by Antipater of Thessalonica, who wrote during the first century BCE about their use in grain milling. A millennium later such simple See also Aral Sea; Dams, Reservoirs, and Artificial devices were common in parts of Europe: In 1086 the Lakes; Droughts; Floods Domesday Book listed 5,624 mills in southern and eastern England, one for every 350 people. The usual arrangement was to channel flowing water through a Further Reading sloping wooden trough onto wooden paddles, often Cech, T. V. (2003). Principles of water resources: History, fitted to a sturdy shaft that was directly attached to a development, management, and policy. New York: John millstone above. Vertical waterwheels, first mentioned Wiley & Sons. by Vitruvius in 27 BCE, were much more efficient. All Dahl, T. E. (1990). Wetlands losses in the United States 178O's of them turned the millstones by right-angle gears but to 1980's. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of the In- they were propelled in three distinct ways. terior, Fish and Wildlife Service. Retrieved July 16, 1997, from http://www.npwrc.usgs.gov/resource/ Wheels and Turbines othrdata/wetloss/wetloss.htm McCully, P. (1996). Silenced rivers: The ecology and politics Undershot wheels were driven by kinetic energy of moving water. As doubling the speed boosts the capacof large dams. London: Zed Books. ity eightfold, they were preferably located on swiftMcNeill, J. R. (2000). Something new under the sun: An environmental history of the 20th century. New York: W. W. flowing streams. The best designs could eventually convert 35-45 percent of water's kinetic energy into Norton. 1303
Water Energy useful rotary motion. Breast wheels were powered by a combinatiori of flowing and falling water and operated with heads between 2 to 5 meters. Overshot wheels were driven primarily by the weight of descending water and hence could be located on streams with placid water flows. With heads over 3 meters their conversion efficiencies were commonly in excess of 60 percent with peaks of up to 85 percent. Wheels, as well as shafts and gears, were almost completely wooden until the beginning of the eighteenth century; hubs and shafts were the first iron parts and the first all-iron wheel was built early in the nineteenth century. Besides the wheels fixed in streams there were also floating wheels on barges and tidal mills and common uses of waterwheels eventually expanded far beyond grain milling to power machines ranging from wood saws and oil presses to furnace bellows and forge hammers, and to mechanize manufacturing processes ranging from wire pulling to tile glazing. Even as their uses widened, capacities of waterwheels remained limited, averaging less than 4 kilowatts in Europe of the early 1700s. Post-1750 innovations led to a rapid increase of individual capacities as arrays of waterwheels, sometimes rating in excess of 1 megawatt, became the leading prime movers of expanded mass manufacturing in Europe and North America. In 1832 Benoit Fourneyron's invention of the reaction turbine ushered in the era of much more powerful water-driven machines. James B. Francis designed an inward-flow turbine in 1847, A. Pelton patented his jet-driven turbine in 1889, and V. Kaplan introduced his axial flow turbines in 1920.
Hydroelectricity The first water turbines were used merely to replace waterwheels as the prime movers in many industries but by the late 1880s the machine began to be coupled with generators to produce electricity. The first American hydroelectric plant was built in 1882 in Wisconsin. More than a century later, water turns turbines that supply almost 20 percent of the world's electricity. In dozens of tropical countries, water power is the dominant means of electricity production. Most of the world's hydro energy remains to be tapped. Worldwide total of economically feasible hydro generation is over 8 petawatthours (PWh, that is 1015 watthours) or roughly three times the currently exploited total. Europe has the highest share of exploited capacity (more than 45 percent), Africa the lowest (below 4 percent). The greatest boom in construc1304
tion of large dams took place during the 1960s and 1970s, with about 5,000 new structures built per decade.
Advantages and Drawbacks The air pollution advantage of hydropower is the most obvious one: If coal-fired power plants were to generate electricity that is currently produced worldwide by running water, the global emissions of CO2 and SO2 would be, respectively, 15 percent and 35 percent higher. Hydrogeneration also has low operating costs and its spinning reserve (zero load synchronized to the system) in particular is an excellent way to cover peak loads created by sudden increases in demand. Moreover, many reservoirs built primarily for hydrogeneration have multiple uses—serving as sources of irrigation and drinking water, as protection against flooding, and as resources for aquaculture and recreation. But during the closing years of the twentieth century, large dams came to be widely seen as economically dubious, socially disruptive, and environmentally harmful. Displacement of a large number of usually poor people has been the most contentious matter. Construction of large dams dislocated at least 40 million people during the twentieth century (some estimates go as high as 80 million), and during the early 1990s, when the work began on 300 new large dams every year, the annual total reached 4 million people. China and India, the two countries that have built nearly 60 percent of the world's large dams, had to relocate most people: more than 10 million in China and at least 16 million in India. Large hydro projects also have a multitude of undesirable environmental impacts, and recent studies of these previously ignored changes have helped to weaken the case for hydrogeneration as a clean source of renewable energy and a highly acceptable substitute for fossil fuels. Perhaps the most surprising finding is that large reservoirs in warm climates are significant sources of greenhouse gases emitted by decaying vegetation. Water storage behind large dams has increased the average age of river runoff and lowered the temperature of downstream flows. Several of the world's largest rivers have reservoir-induced ageing of runoff exceeding six months or even one year (Colorado, Rio Grande del Norte, Nile, Volta). Many tropical reservoirs create excellent breeding sites for malaria mosquitoes and for the schistosomiasis-carrying snails, and most dams
Water Pollution present insurmountable obstacles to the movement of migratory fish. Multiple dams have caused river channel fragmentation that now affects more than three quarters of the world's largest streams. Other environmental impacts caused by large dams now include massive reduction of aquatic biodiversity both upstream and downstream, increased evaporative losses from large reservoirs in arid climates, invasion of tropical reservoirs by aquatic weeds, reduced dissolved oxygen and H2S toxicity in reservoir waters, and excessive silting. The last problem is particularly noticeable in tropical and monsoonal climates. China's Huang River, flowing through the world's most erodible area, and India's Himalayan rivers carry enormous silt loads. Silt deposition in reservoirs has effects far downstream as it cuts the global sediment flow in rivers by more than 25 percent, and reduces the amount of material, organic matter, and nutrients available for alluvial plains and coastal wetlands downstream, and hence increases coastal erosion. . The ultimate life span of large dams remains unknown. Many have already served well past their designed economic life of fifty years but silting and structural degradation will shorten the useful life of many others. As a significant share of the Western public sentiment has turned against new hydro projects, some governments took action. Sweden has banned further hydrostations on most of its rivers and Norway has postponed all construction plans. Since 1998, the decommissioning rate for large U.S. dams has overtaken the construction rate. Major hydro projects of the twenty-first century thus will be built only in Asia, Latin America, and Africa. Vaclav Smil
Shiklomanov, I. A. (1999). World water resources and water use. St. Petersburg: State Hydrological Institute. Smil, V. (1994). Energy in world history. Boulder, CO: Westview. Smil, V. (2003). Energy at the crossroads. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press. World Commission on Dams. (2000). Dams and Development. London: Earthscan Publisher.
Water Pollution Large-scale pollution of the hydrosphere (the aqueous envelope of the Earth including bodies of water and vapor in the atmosphere), including contamination of major rivers, lakes, seas, oceans, and groundwater, is largely a product of four forces: natural resource exploitation, industrialization, urbanization, and agriculture, primarily dating from the nineteenth century. Pollution of local drinking water sources from human and other wastes, however, has probably existed since humans first created cities, and waterborne disease has historically been responsible for countless urban epidemics. Records of contamination of the Thames River in England—for instance, by wastes from tanneries, slaughterhouses, and textile mills, as well as by human sewage^date back to the fourteenth century. However, in these cases the waters involved were finite and the pollution more temporary. During the last two centuries pollution has occurred on a scale not previously experienced.
Further Reading
Nineteenth-Century Industrial and Municipal Water Pollution
Devine, R. S. (1995). The trouble with dams. The Atlantic Monthly, 276(2), 64-74. Gutman, P. S. (1994). Involuntary resettlement in hydropower projects. Annual Review of Energy and the Environment, 19,189-210. International Hydropower Association. (2000). Hydropower and the world's energy future. Sutton: IHA. Leyland, B. (1990). Large dams: Implications of immortality. International Water Power & Dam Construction, 42(2), 34-37. Moxon, S. (2000). Fighting for recognition. International Water Power & Dam Construction 52(6), 44-45. Reynolds, J. (1970). Windmills and watermills. London: Hugh Evelyn.
Water pollution, like that of air and land, was initially most severe in those nations that industrialized and urbanized first, such as Great Britain, Germany, and the United States, but these nations were also often the first to attempt extensive control and reduction strategies. During the nineteenth century, wherever industrialization and urbanization developed, water pollution was a major consequence. Many industries were large water users, but they also required a "sink" in which to dispose of their wastes. The preferred site for a sink was usually the river on which the industries were located. The major industrializing nations in the nineteenth century—Great Britain, Germany, the United States, and Japan—all experienced severe river 1305
Water Pollution present insurmountable obstacles to the movement of migratory fish. Multiple dams have caused river channel fragmentation that now affects more than three quarters of the world's largest streams. Other environmental impacts caused by large dams now include massive reduction of aquatic biodiversity both upstream and downstream, increased evaporative losses from large reservoirs in arid climates, invasion of tropical reservoirs by aquatic weeds, reduced dissolved oxygen and H2S toxicity in reservoir waters, and excessive silting. The last problem is particularly noticeable in tropical and monsoonal climates. China's Huang River, flowing through the world's most erodible area, and India's Himalayan rivers carry enormous silt loads. Silt deposition in reservoirs has effects far downstream as it cuts the global sediment flow in rivers by more than 25 percent, and reduces the amount of material, organic matter, and nutrients available for alluvial plains and coastal wetlands downstream, and hence increases coastal erosion. The ultimate life span of large dams remains unknown. Many have already served well past their designed economic life of fifty years but silting and structural degradation will shorten the useful life of many others. As a significant share of the Western public sentiment has turned against new hydro projects, some governments took action. Sweden has banned further hydrostations on most of its rivers and Norway has postponed all construction plans. Since 1998, the decommissioning rate for large U.S. dams has overtaken the construction rate. Major hydro projects of the twenty-first century thus will be built only in Asia, Latin America, and Africa. Vaclav Smil
Shiklomanov, 1. A. (1999). World water resources and water use. St. Petersburg: State Hydrological Institute. Smil, V. (1994). Energy in world history. Boulder, CO: Westview. Smil, V. (2003). Energy at the erossroads. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press. World Commission on Dams. (2000). Dams and Development. London: Earthscan Publisher.
Water Pollution Large-scale pollution of the hydrosphere (the aqueous envelope of the Earth including bodies of water and vapor in the atmosphere), including contamination of major rivers, lakes, seas, oceans, and groimdwater, is largely a product of four forces: natural resource exploitation, industrialization, urbanization, and agriculture, primarily dating from the nineteenth century. Pollution of local drinking water sources from human and other wastes, however, has probably existeci since humans first created cities, and waterborne disease has historically been responsible for countless urban epidemics. Records of contamination of the Thames River in England—for instance, by wastes from tanneries, slaughterhouses, and textile mills, as well as by human sewage—date back to the fourteenth century. However, in these cases the waters involved were finite and the pollution more temporary. During the last two centuries pollution has occurred on a scale not previously experienced.
Further Reading
Nineteenth-Century Industrial and Municipal Water Pollution
Devine, R. S. (1995). The trouble with dams. The Atlantic Montlily, 276(2), 64-74. Gutman, P. S. (1994). Involuntary resettlement in hydropower projects. Annual Review of Energy and the Environment, 19. 189-210. International Hydropower Association. (2000). Hydropower and Ihe world's energy fit ture. Sutton: IHA. Leyland, B. (1990). Large dams: Implications of immortality. International Water Power & Dam Construction, 42(2), 34-37. Moxon, S. (2000). Fighting for recognition. International Water Power & Dam Construetion 52(6), 44-45. Reynolds, 1. (1970). Windmills and watermills. London: Hugh Evelyn.
Water pollution, like that of air and land, was initially most severe in those nations that industrialized and urbanized first, such as Great Britain, Germany, and the United States, but these nations were also often the first to attempt extensive control and reduction strategies. During the nineteenth century, wherever industrialization and urbanization developed, water pollution was a major consequence. Many industries were large water users, but they also required a "sink" in which to dispose of their wastes. The preferred site for a sink was usually the river on which the industries were located. The major industrializing nations in the nineteenth century—Great Britain, Germany, the United States, and Japan—all experienced severe river 1305
Water Pollution
This stream in Iowa lacks conservation buffers, which would help protect against erosion and contamination, and would support wildlife. aiumEsv LYNN BEns, USDA NATURE RESUUICES SERVICE,
stance, by 1905 thirty-six states had enacted legislation protecting drinking water, with enforcement by state boards of health. In 1912 concern over pollution and health led the U.S. Congress to create the Public Health Service (PHS) and to provide it with the function of investigating "the diseases of man and conditions influencing the propagation and spread thereof, including sanitation and sewage and the pollution, either directly or indirectly, of the navigable streams and lakes of the United States" (Mullan 1989, 58). In 1914 the PHS established the first water-quality standards for interstate commerce, based upon bacterial methods of water analysis, and these were copied by many states. However, few stringent laws limiting water pollution were actually enacted, and municipal pollution of waterways continued largely unabated through the 1920s except in cases of severe nuisance. Western Euro-
pean nations had a pattern similar to that of the United States, with little statutory protection for water bodies from municipal and industrial pollution. But while the discharge of raw sewage into streams continued largely unabated, drinking water quality greatly improved in the United States and western European nations such as Great Britain and Germany. The technologies of water filtration and chlorination, rather than regulation, were responsible for reducing the incidence of waterborne disease. German cities such as Altona and Bremen pioneered in the application of water filtration techniques, and at the turn of the century London, Liverpool, and Birmingham in Great Britain and Berlin, Hamburg, and Bresslau in Germany all used sand filters for water protection. U.S. cities eventually followed this lead as American sanitary engineers teamed with biologists and chemists to perfect 1307
Water Pollution the techniques of slow sand and mechanical filtration. Tlie use of chlorination (1908) to disinfect water was also developed in the United States and advanced rapidly among U.S. cities. By approximately 1940 most urbanites in the United States and western Europe were drinking potable (suitable for drinking) water that was either filtered or came from protected sources, and a steep decline in morbidity and mortality from typhoid fever as well as other waterbome diseases had occurred. Although advances were also made in sewage treatment methods, such as the trickling filter and activated sludge, implementation proceeded at a much slower rate. Sewage treatment was not viewed as necessary to protect drinking water quality but rather as a means to prevent nuisances; it primarily benefited downstream cities but was paid for by the upstream cities. As a result, many waterways in Europe and the United States, as well iis other areas of the world where urbanization had advanced, became badly polluted with sewage.
Old and New Sources of Industrial Pollution Although fishers, farmers, operators of water filtration plants, and people requiring clean water in manufacturing processes objected to pollution from industrial wastes, such pollution received only limited attention from state authorities and sanitarians. The political power of industry and the belief in industrial nations such as Germany, Japan, and the United States that rivers in industrial areas are Intended to serve as sewers prevented the passage of strong legislation. In some cases litigation led to damages being paid to those who sued, but seldom were conditions improved. The two world wars greatly exacerbated the pollution of water bodies because of the wartime emphasis on production and the resultant weakening of environmental controls. The destructive nature of war itself, of course, greatly injured many aspects of the environment. During Worid War I industries such as metals, chemicals, food processing, petroleum refining, and coal mining and processing greatly expanded without attention to pollution controls. Sharp declines in the water quality of many waterways resulted. In the period between the wars, the growth in the number of motor vehicles led to major increases in petroleum use, with increased waterway contamination from petroleum spills and the dumping of waste oil. In reaction to the oil contamination of waterways and beadies, the U.S. Congress in 1924 passed the Oil Pollution Control 1308
Act, the first national environmental regulatory legislation passed in the United States, The opposition of the petroleum industry, however, limited the act to offshore spills and did not include onshore refineries. During the 1930s, in spite ofthe worldwide depression, some advances were made in the United States and western European nations in improving drinking water quality and in sewage treatment through state programs, but the coming of World War II brought a halt to environmental improvements. Like World War I, World War I! had a devastating effect on waterways and for many of the same reasons—industrial production greatly increased, environmental controls were not enforced, and war's devastation drastically harmed environmental quality. For instance, the sinking of ships substantially increased oil pollution in oceans. During the war, industries in the combatant nations, especially the United States and Germany, produced a range of new chemical substances as part of their war efforts. Some were new products, such as rayon, artificial rubber, and synthetic detergents. Effluents from chemical manufacturers, in addition to discharges of the chemicals themselves, not only increased water pollution but also produced longlasting environmental damage. Most significant were the pesticides and herbicides based on the chlorinated hydrocarbons (DDT, chlordane, endrin, etc.), which had long-lasting effects on plant and animal ecology in and out of water bodies. Indiscriminate spraying of these chemicals sharply harmed bird and insect life in many areas. Tlirough bioaccumulation, these chemicals moved higher and higher up the food chain with devastating effects on birds and fish. Agricultural runoff containing toxic pesticides and herbicides became major sources of river and estuary contamination. Runoff containing artificial fertilizers led to increased nitrogen and phosphorous loads with consequent eutrophication (the process by which a body of water becomes enriched in dissolved nutrients) and hypoxic (deficient in oxygen) conditions. In addition, the development of the nuclear industry resulted in nuclear power plant wastes and other radioactive materials becoming a source of water pollution, as did polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), widely used in electrical transformers.
Water Quality Improvements through Regulation During the postwar period, although a number of pollution-control measures were submitted to legislative bodies, war recovery and an increase in production
Water Pollution were the prime national goals of the former combatants. In the United States, for example, although some progress was made in controlling municipal pollution because of increases in sewage treatment (in 1948,1956, and 1961 Congress approved versions ofthe Water Pollution Control Act, providing limited subsidies for research and sewage treatment), industrial pollution from both old and new industries continued. The same was true in other industrialized nations. Many industrial rivers, such as the Monongahela and the Cuyahoga in the United States and the Emscher and the Rhine in Germany, remained open sewers. However, during the 1960s and 1970s the development of a heightened environmental consciousness in the United States, Canada, western Europe, and Japan resulted in much stronger pollution-control legislation and major improvements in water quality.
Although most western European nations also adopted drinking water regulations designed to protect the public health, they varied in terms of the degree of state enforcement. Today water quality concerns in the United States and western Europe focus largely on issues of nonpoint source pollution from pesticides and herbicides from agricultural areas, on industrial residues such as PCBs and heavy metals in sediments, on contamination from mining sources such as mine acid, on groundwater pollution by toxic chemicals such as trichloroethylene, on the parasites Ctyptosporidiuni and Gianiin, and on raw sewage inputs into waterways during wet weather. The latter problems are common in urban areas that have older combined sewer systenris or overloaded sanitary sewers.
The United States provides a good example of the manner in which water-quality standards were strengthened, shifting from the state level to the national level as a means to secure improved control of pollution. Driving these changes was a heightened concern with environmental quality and its relationship to human health. The most significant change in regard to water pollution came in 1972, when Congress enacted the Federal Water Pollution Control Act Amendments, moving control over environmental pollution from the states to the federal government. This act, which was passed over President Richard M. Nixon's veto, aimed at the far-reaching goal of complete elimination of pollutant discharges into the nation's waters by the mid-1980s. The act called for industrial implementation of the "best practicable" waterpollution control technology by mid-1977 and the "best available" technology by mid-1983. Municipalities had to implement secondary treatment (biological treatment that goes beyond primary treatment, which removes suspended matter only) or better by mid-1977 and "best practicable" treatment by mid-1983. In order to pay for these technology improvements, the construction grants program provided massive federal subsidies to pay for the costs of construction of publicly owned wastewater treatment plants. This spending enabled the Clean Water Act, enacted in 1972, to produce major reductions in waterborne pollution from urban and industrial sources. Following the Clean Water Act, in 1974 Congress approved the Safe Drinking Water Act, which authorized the Environmental Protection Agency to set national health-based drinking water standards.
Water Quality Problems in the Former Soviet Union Whatever the problems of the United States and western Europe in regard to water pollution, they were far less than those of Russia, East Germany, Poland, and Romania. These central and eastern European nations, all of which had lagged behind the nations of westem Europe before World War II in regard to environmental and sanitary measures, experienced increases in urbanization and forced industrialization after World War II. Most of these nations lacked even the minimal environmental controls present in western Europe. Many of the rivers, lakes, and bays in Russia and the rest of the Soviet Uruon were subjected to exter\sive municipal and industrial pollution as the Soviet Union focused on natural resource development and industrial production. Because of the discharge of raw sewage, Russian rivers still carry waterborne diseases that have long ago disappeared from the United States and western Europe. In addition, industries dumped large amounts of heavy metals, phenols, and toxic chemicals into waterways, destroying stream ecology and damaging water quality. Massive agricultural runoff has contributed to eutrophication of rivers such as the Volga and Dnepr. The Black Sea and the Caspian Sea have lost many of their indigenous fish species due to pollution, and Lake Baikal, the world's oldest, deepest, and most voluminous lake, suffered for decades from pollution from pulp and paper plants on its shores. Recently a cooperative environmental policy among several nations has reduced the flow of effluents into this critical body of water. 1309
Water Pollution
Water Problems in the Developing World The regions of the world where water pollution is growing most rapidly today are those where rapid urbanization, industrialization, and intensive agricultural development are occurring. That is, most at risk are the newly developing nations in Asia (the world's largest water user) and Africa as well as some parts of South America. In many of these regions of the world, freshwater supplies are inadequate because of growing populations and economies. Those supplies that do exist are frequently polluted. Cities in these regions have often suffered for centuries from inadequate and polluted water supplies and poor sanitation, although there were some improvements under colonialism. In cities such as Kampala (Uganda), Hong Kong, Manila, and Calcutta, for instance, colonial administrators often installed European-type sanitation and water supply systems, but these systems seldom provided full services for native populations. Population growth soon overwhelmed these systems, with reversion to more rudimentary methods. Studies today report that over 2 billion people worldwide suffer from waterborne and water-based diseases such as diarrhea and schistosomiasis. In some African nations, such as Mali, Zaire, and Niger, cholera outbreaks have occuiTed. Thirty-five percent of the population of sub-Saharan Africa does not have access to potable water, and it is estimated that 10-12 percent of the region's morbidity and mortality is related to water-based diseases. In many cases large cities in the developing world—megacities such as Tianjin (China), Jakarta (Indonesia), Calcutta, and Bombay—lack the clean water resources acquired by most Western cities before World War U through the use of filtration and chiorination. Many draw upon shrinking groundwater supplies, frequently polluted with nitrates, mercury, and even arseruc. The situation, however, varies from country to country, with rural populations usually worse off than urban. Only 60 percent of the population in Indonesia has access to safe drinking water, as compared to over 90 percent in Korea and the Philippines. In southeastern Asia only approximately half of its 1 billion people have access to safe drinking water. Most developing nations lack adequate sewage treatment facilities. In India during the 1990s only about 10 percent of the urban population had their sewage treated, with raw sewage and garbage often discharged into rivers from which the water supply was drawn. In China substantial sections of the Huike, Chang (Yangtze), and Huang (Yellow) Rivers as well 1310
as other rivers were heavily polluted by human and industrial wastes and not potable. Many large cities in Asia, such as Manila, Karachi, and Calcutta, lack sewage facilities for large fractions of their population, in Africa, with the fastest-growing urban population of any of the continents, large and growing cities such as Accra (Ghana), Addis Ababa (Ethiopia), and Dar es Salaam (Tanzania) suffer from similar deficiencies in regard to potable water. In Zaire only 50 percent of the urban population has access to safe drinking water, with much smaller percentages in the rural areas. South American cities, such as La Paz (Bolivia) and Santiago (Chile), which have experienced rapid growth of squatter settlements, also have serious water supply problems. Nations with the highest disease rates caused by the water supply are also among the world's poorest, reducing the resources that can be spent for environmental improvement. Groups such as the United Nations Environmental Programme (UNEP), Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OHCD), and the World Health Organization have attempted to improve water supply and sanitary conditions in these nations with some success, although surging urban populations continually strain resources. And, even though water supply has been improved in some locations, sanitation and waste removal continue to lag behind, providing a repetition of the experience in the United States and westem Europe.
Oceans Although the oceans historically have been largely free of pollution, this situation has begun to change Ln the last several decades. There are numerous signs of ocean degradation. These include the reduction and disappearance of supplies of fish and shellfish, the dying of sea grass beds, and increased sedimentation. Some fish, whale, and dolphin meat, designated for human consumption, contains dangerous levels of toxins such as PCBs and heavy metals. Although it is not clear whether anthropogenic (human-caused) pollution is the cause, coral reefs are dying in many coastal areas. Seas such as the Baltic, the Black, and the Mediterranean, as well as the Gulf of Mexico, have increased pollution from nutrient loads from agricultural fertilizer runoff and deposits of heavy metals such as mercury. The Gulf of Mexico contains a large oxygendepleted area or "dead zone" formed by excessive nitrogen inputs from agricultural areas. Many thousands of square kilometers of seas around China are
Water Pollution
no longer suitable for marine life because of nonpoint source runoff containing excess nitrogen and phosphates from chemical fertilizers as well as because of supertanker oil leaks. One of the commonest humanmade elements found in the oceans today is plastic, which can be extremely damaging to seabirds, turtles, and mammals such as seals. Large oil spills have devastating effects on sea animals and birds as well as on coastal beaches. And sedimentation from agricultural development and settlement in low-lying coastal areas has badly polluted coastal waters. Even the formerly most untainted areas, such as the Arctic and Antarctic seas, are beginning to show signs of human pollution. The history of water pollution reveals several patterns relating to human uses of water bodies. The basis of any discussion of water and its pollution is that humans cannot survive on Earth without clean water. Today people are putting increased pressure on this precious resource. Historically humans have used waterways for two main purposes—as sources of water for a variety of social purposes and as a sink or disposal place for human, manufacturing, and agricultural wastes and for other types of debris. Frequently these two purposes have clashed as wastes of various sorts have polluted water sources of clean water. As history has shown, however, human society has followed definite patterns in regard to the generation of water pollution and its remediation. That is, although there were many isolated incidents of humancaused water pollution before the nineteenth century, their scale was relatively small and damages temporary. Urbanism and industrialization in western European nations and the United States altered this pattem. As cities grew, increasingly they constructed sewage systems to remove human wastes to neighboring waterways. Industries also discharged directly into both waterways and sewer systems. The result was the increasing contamination of rivers, lakes, and bays, reducing their ability to assimilate wastes and damaging their ecology. Most serious, however, was sewage contamination of waterways from which cities drew their water supply, with resulting epidemics of waterborne diseases such as cholera and typhoid. By the twentieth century, however, technologies such as water filtration and chlorination had controlled waterborne diseases. Pollution, however, continued, with waterways becoming increasingly degraded. In 1950, for instance, American cities still discharged half of their raw sewage untreated into waterways. Most European nations had similar patterns. New chemical constituents further damaged water quality. During
the last quarter of the century, however, stricter regulation and control of wastewater discharges were imposed as a result of the environmental movements in wealthier nations such as the United States, Great Britain, Germany, France, and Japan. Consequently, water quality in many formerly polluted water bodies improved. In contrast, the nations of central and eastem Europe continued to pollute their water bodies. In addition, the developing world experienced the greatest increases in water contamination and degradahon, producing severe health effects among its population. The poverty of many of these nations helps explain their failure to develop means to reduce their pollution. Finally, ocean pollution grew in scale and in previously pristine locations. Thus, as the world enters the twentyfirst century, it continues to face severe problems of water pollution that threaten the health both of populations and of the environment. Joe! A. Tarr
Further Reading Anderson, D., & Grove, R. (Eds.). (1987). Conservation in Africa: Peoples, policies and practice. New York: Cambridge. Bernhardt, C , & Massard-Guillbaud, G. (Eds.). (2002). The modern demon: Pollution in urban and industrial European societies. Clermont-Ferrand, France: Presses Universitaires Blaise-Pascal. Bernhardt, C. (Ed.). (2000). Environmental problems in European eities in the 19th and 20th century. New York: Waxmann Verlag. Breeze, L. E. (1993). The British experience with river pollution, 1865-1876. New York: Peter Lang. Brimblecombe, P., & Pfister, C. (Eds.). (1990). The silent countdoiun: Essays in European environmental history. Berlin: Springer-Verlag. Burger, J. (1997). Oil spills. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press. Carter, F. W., & Turnock, D. (Eds.). (1993). Environmental prohlems in eastern Europe. London: Routledge. Chioc, M. (2002). The Rhine: An eco-hiography 1815-2000. Seattle: University of Washington Press. De Walle, F. B., Nikolopoulou-Tamvakli, M., & Hinen, W. J. (Eds.). (1993). Environmental condition ofthe Mediterranean Sea. Dordrecht, Netherlands: Kluwer Academic. Evans, R. J. (1987). Death in Hamburg: Society and politics in the cholera years 1830-1910. New York: Oxford University Press. 1311
Water Pollution Feshbach, M. (1995). Ecological disaster: Cleaning up the hidden legacy of the Soviet regime. New York: Twentieth Century Fund Press. Ghose, N. C , & Sharma, C. B. (1989). Pollution of Ganga River: Ecology of mid-Ganga Basin. New Delhi, India: Ashish Publishing House. Gleicik, P. (Fd.). (1993). Water in crisis. New York: Oxford University Press. Gorman, M. (1993). Environmental hazards: Marine pollution. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-Clio Press. Goubert, J. (1989). The conquest of water: The advent of health in the industrial age. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. Grove, R. H. (1998). Ecology, climate and empire: Studies in colonial environmental history. London: White Horse Press. Hamlin, C. (1997). A science of impurity: Water analysis in nineteenth-century Britain. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press. Hanley, S. (1997). Everyday things in premodern Japan: The hidden legacy of material cidture. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press. Kobori, L, & Glantz, M. H. (Eds.). (1998). Gentral Eurasian water crisis. Tokyo: U.N. University Press. Luckin, B. (1986). Pollution and control: A social history of the Thames in the nineteenth century. Boston: Adam Hilger. McMichael, T. (2001). Human frontiers, environments and disease: Past patterns, uncertain futures. New York: Cambridge University Press. Melosi, M. V. (2000). The sanitary city: Urban infrastructure in America from colonial times to the present. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. Micklin, P., & Williams, W. D. (Fds.). (1995). The Aral Sea basin. Berlin: Springer-Verlag. Mishima, A. (1992). Bitter sea: The human cost of minamata disease. Tokyo: Josei. Mullan, F. (1989). Plagues and politics: The story of the United States Public Health Service. New York: Basic Books. Outwater, A. (1996). Water: A natural history. New York: Basic Books. Pointing, C. (1991). A green history of the world. New York: Penguin Books. Rogers, P., & Lydon, P. (Fds.). (1994). Water in the Arab world. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Said, R. (1993). The river Nile: Geology, hydrology and utilization. Oxford, UK: Pergamon Press. Smil, V. (1993). China's environmental crisis: An inquiry in the limits of national development. Armonk, NY: M. F. Sharpe. Tarr, J. A. (1996). The search for the ultimate sink: Urban pollution in historical perspective. Akron, OH: University of Akron Press. 1312
Turner, B. L., II, Clark, W. C , Kates, R. W., Richard, J. F., Mathews, J. T., & Meyer, W. B. (Fds.). (1990). The Earth as transformed by human action: Global and regional changes in the biosphere over the past 300 years. New York: Cambridge University Press. Ui, J. (1992). Industrial pollution in Japan. Tokyo: U.N. University Press.
Weather Events, Extreme Weather consists of the temperature, humidity, precipitation, air pressure, and wind in a region at a particular time. Climate is the composite of weather conditions over a long period, usually taken as thirty years. Extreme weather events involve enormous forces of nature; for example, the energy released per day in a hurricane is the equivalent of 500,000 atomic bombs of the size that were dropped on Nagasaki. Extreme weather is nevertheless part of the rhythm of nature: Drought-provoked wildfires and ice storms, for example, are not disasters for nature (although they may be for humans); on the contrary, they rejuvenate the forest.
Extreme Weather Events That Became Disasters On 5 January 1998 freezing rain started falling on northeastern North America. This occurs about a dozen times each winter, so residents treated it as a minor inconvenience, as did power companies and governments. It left a clear, thick coating of ice on every tree and shrub, which recast them into marvelous crystalline figures. Even meteorologists did not expect the intensity, persistence, and scope of the freezing rain: wave after wave kept falling on a huge territory for five days. The ice loading brought trees, power lines, and even transmission towers crashing to the ground. More people were directly affected by this extreme weather event than any other in North America: 4.7 million were deprived of electricity in Canada and 1.5 million in the United States. For most, that meant they were deprived of heat, light, often water, and other essential services—some for three weeks—in a dark, frigid winter climate. It was the most costly disaster in Canadian history. The 19 January issue of Time magazine described it as a "grim fairyland . . . in a glittering
Weather Events, Extreme
Tikopia After the Hurricane of 1952 Tikopia is a small island in the Solomon Islands in the South Pacific. The following is the first impression of British anthropologist Raymond Firth, upon arriving on the island in early 1952. When the expedition arrived at Tikopia on March 13,1952, it was quite obvious that the island had suffered terribly. The Tikopia young men aboard were greatly disturbed at its ravaged appearance. They said "The land has been destroyed." The deep green of the vegetation was interspersed by odd large patches of brown and red, indicating bare soil showing through in a most unusual way. Leafless trees along the strand indicated the destruction wrought by the wind. The crests of the island looked ragged. Many trees had disappeared altogether and coconut palms, formerly abundant on the hill slopes, stood, sparsely, with a few gaunt fronds at curious angles. When we later walked round the island we saw that the beaches of Faea were strewn with wreckage which had not yet been fully cleared away since the people had only just finished dealing with the debris in their orchards. Some houses had been broken down and even the solid walls of coral stones of a church had been torn apart. Practically all the canoes were intact, though rumours in the Solomons had said that they were all destroyed. But sand lay thick all through the villages of Faea, covering the bases of the trees. No coconuts or bananas were to be seen; many large breadfruit trees were in ruins. Some of the low-lying areas were still flooded. Food shortage had already set in, and it was quite apparent to both Tikopia and Europeans that difficult times were ahead. The major question was, how difficult? Source: Firth, Raymond. Social Change in Tikopia. (1959). New York: Macmillan, pp. 47-48.
state of emergency" (Purvis 1998, 12). Since problems only began with the collapse of the electric system upon which people had become dependent, this was not a natural disaster but rather an extreme weather event that precipitated a technological disaster. Centralized, electrically based heating and lighting had increased vulnerability to freezing rain. The ice storm paradoxically resulted from warming: Unusually warm, moisture-laden winds blowing across the continent from the El Nifio Southern Oscillation (a warmsurface-water effect) in the Pacific Ocean collided with the usual stagnant cold air mass in the valleys of the St. Lawrence River and Lake Champlain. The ocean and the atmosphere interacted on one side of the continent to produce extreme weather on the other. Unlike the ice storm, most extreme weather events are ugly, even though some have temporary appeal. On the morning of 8 September 1900, the residents of Calveston, Texas, went to the beach to watch the pounding breaker waves. By early afternoon the storm had become a hurricane, and it was too late to evacuate the barrier reef, which became completely flooded by more than three meters of water. Between six and eight thousand of its thirty-eight thousand residents drowned, a record that persists as the worst loss of life in an American natural disaster. The hurricane was so
strong that it was still a storm after it had crossed the Atlantic Ocean, Europe, and entered Siberia. The disaster was not entirely natural, because it resulted from the decision to construct a city on a hurricane-prone barrier reef and from decisions not to build adequate defenses because they were judged too expensive. After the disaster the residents reconstructed the reef, bringing in an enormous amount of fill to raise the city by 3.4 meters and constructing a huge concrete seawall around it. This was a major engineering accomplishment of the early twentieth century and succeeded in protecting Galveston against subsequent hurricanes. However, it was enormously expensive, and the very reason for living on a barrier reef—the spectacular beach—had to be sacrificed. No other barrier reef has been defended in this way. Extreme weather is usually thought to be of short duration, but that is not always the case. The year 1816 was known as the one without a summer. In northeastern United States there was snowfall in June and cropdestroying frosts in June, July, and August. Eood shortages occurred in Germany, France, the Netherlands, and Switzerland. Grain prices tripled leading to food riots. Ireland suffered a horrible famine and subsequent disease that killed 65,000 people. Scientists only recently found the cause of this extreme weather and 1313
Weather Events, Extreme human misery on the opposite side of the planet a year earlier. On 13 April 1815, Mt. Tambora in Indonesia erupted in a cataclysmic volcanic explosion that ejected 160 cubic kilometers of ash into the upper atmosphere, where it was dispersed by the jet stream around the planet, blocking out sunlight. The ash did not descend for a year. In this case, then, what occurred on the surface of the Earth and beneath it (the eruption) affected the atmosphere and weather globally. Drought is another form of long-lasting extreme weather. It is a slow-onset event that results in famines and many fatalities. In 1991 and 2000, for example, 42 percent of disaster-related deaths were attributable to drought. Earthquakes can unleash extreme weather, as when an earthquake, tsunami ocean waves, and high winds that spread devastating fires struck Lisbon, Portugal, in 1755. The city took centuries to be constructed but was destroyed in hours. Bangladesh is the world's most densely populated country and one of the poorest. About 80 percent of Bangladesh is a flat plain barely above sea level. It is crisscrossed by rivers and has one of the rainiest climates in the world. Floods during the monsoon season are common, and if they coincide with a tropical storm that raises tides to extreme heights, then wind-driven waves push violently inland along backed-up rivers. This conjuncture of social dynamics and those of nature renders its population particularly vulnerable to extreme weather. In one twenty-eight-year period during the twentieth century, Bangladesh suffered seven major floods that killed 22,000 (1963), 17,000 (1965), 30,000 (1965), 10,000 (1965), 300,000 (1970), 10,000 (1985), and 131,000 (1991). Although tornadoes hit many countries, they are most frequent and strongest in the United States. Southwestern Oklahoma has the greatest number, but because of its small population it has a much lower casualty potential than Chicago, which has half as many tornadoes. In the United States the worst killer tornadoes were in 1884 (800 deaths), 1925 (792 deaths), and 1936 (658 deaths).
Preventing Extreme Weather Events from Becoming Disastrous The heaviest rainfall ever recorded in a 24-hour period was caused by a cyclone that poured 1.58 meters of water on a mountain slope of Reunion Island in 1958. It was not a populated area so this was not a disaster. The disastrousness of extreme weather for humans de1314
pends not only the power of the weather event, but also on the size of the human population, the value of its constructions, its willingness to acknowledge risk, and capacity to defend itself. Death tolls remain highest in densely populated, poor countries: Hurricane Mitch killed 10,000 people in 1998 in Central America, and cyclones in India killed 10,000 in 1998 and 50,000 in 1999. The geologist Edward Tenner remarked in his 1996 book Why Things Bite Back: Technology and the Revenge of Unintended Consequences that while the wealthy nation of Japan lost an average of 63 people in forty-three disasters, the much poorer nation of Peru lost an average of 2,900 in thirty-one. The Netherlands is a low-lying country like Bangladesh, but differs in that it is prosperous and has protected itself with an expensive array of dikes and sea gates. In wealthy, modern societies lives are being saved from extreme weather by costly defenses. These usually involve attempts at mitigation, evacuation, and other forms of emergency preparedness. In the last quarter of the twentieth century, no set of tornadoes (they come in sets) in the United States has killed more than a hundred people. It has been estimated that every dollar spent on mitigation saves seven spent on damage recovery costs. Property damage is nevertheless escalating. Tenner remarks, "Since 1900, deaths from tropical cyclones in the United States have declined from six thousand per year to only a few dozen; yet property damage has soared to over $1.5 billion in recent decades because of the amount of new construction in hurricane-prone areas" (Tenner 1996, 74). Hurricane Andrew of 1992 in Florida killed only 43 people but resulted in property damage of $25 billion and bankrupted six insurance companies. One reason for the increase in property damage involves people's reactions to defenses and disaster. As Doppler radar systems give more accurate evacuation information for storms and as people have come to feel entitled to goverrvment compensation after a disaster, no matter where their homes happen to have been located, people have come to believe they can live safely in harm's way. Disaster researchers call the result "disaster by design," a phenomenon that leads to repeat disasters and unnatural disasters. Decisions about the location and type of development determine the damage from extreme weather. More than 25 percent of the damage from Hurricane Andrew could have been avoided if Florida's building codes had been enforced. What is called a natural disaster is actually a hybrid of the forces of nature and the characteristics of society. Many defenses depend on prediction, which is particu-
Weather Events, Extreme
larly difficult because extreme weather events in any locality are rare and forecasts are often based on inadequate data. The hundred-year flood or ice storm is a probabilistic abstraction that does not inform planners whether they should be ready in a century or tomorrow. The United Nations declared the 1990s the decade of natural disaster reduction, but disasters and their costs have instead increased. In many cases good fortune rather than the defenses of modern society has protected it from extreme weather. Tenner notes that Florida was fortunate that Hurricane Andrew didn't strike Miami directly; if it had, its cost could have tripled. South Carolina was spared when Hurricane Hugo came ashore in a park rather than in the nearby city of Charleston.
The Causes of Extreme Weather Our planet is speeding through space at variable distances from its huge source of energy, the sun. Its present equilibrium is maintained because the energy it receives equals the energy it irradiates into space. Earth is spinning on its axis, dragging the oceans and the atmosphere as it rotates. The amount of solar energy that is received by any one region on Earth changes as Earth rotates. The energy emitted from the sun varies according to solar activity. The warming of certain parts of the atmosphere more than others sets in motion currents of hot air rising and cool air falling. Water currents are set up in the ocean for similar reasons and because of the wind. In the hot areas of the planet a great deal of evaporation occurs over the oceans, and these masses of hot, humid air travel long distances before cooling and releasing their moisture in one form of precipitation or another. Floods in one region and droughts in another are the consequence. The motion of the air masses results in cyclones (called hurricanes over the Atlantic, typhoons over the Pacific) and tornadoes. The El Nifio Southern Oscillation also produces extreme weather over a wide area in some years, as in 1982-1983, when it caused droughts in Australia, flooding along the western coast of South America, and record summer temperatures in western Europe. Only a relatively thin crust of the surface of the Earth is solid, and this is divided into plates that float on a molten core and grind against one another. The hot, molten material from the interior explodes periodically in the form of a volcano, which can produce extreme weather. When earthquakes or volcanoes occur in the ocean, the sudden release of enormous energy displaces a huge quantity of water, resulting in a gigan-
tic wave referred to as a tsunami. Societies exist in this vortex of autonomous dynamics and flux of energy transformations that we call nature. The effects of any of these depend on the geophysical and built structures lying in their path. Fortunately extreme weather is rare in most regions in the time span of a human life. There seem to be selfregulating mechanisms in nature that keep climate in a steady state and usually make change gradual over the periods of time that are pertinent to humans. Most of nature's fluctuations, such as the seasons, day and night, and so forth, are regular. The tides, for example, are based on such astronomical regularity that they can be calculated two years in advance. The present steady state could however be tipped into one with characteristics that may not be as supportive of human society. Human activities may inadvertently produce a positive-feedback loop that disrupts nature's balance. Climatologists do not have definitive evidence that human-induced global climate change will result in more frequent and intense extreme weather, but they argue the hypothesis is plausible. The fact that nature itself produces extreme weather has been used imprudently as an excuse to avoid rectifying human activity that could unleash more of it. Raymond Murphy
See also Droughts; Earthquakes; Floods
Further Reading Abley, M. (1998). The ice storm. Toronto, Canada: McClelland and Stewart. Larson, E. (2000). Isaac's storm. New York: Vintage. Mileti, D. (1999). Disasters by design. Washington, DC: Joseph Henry Press. Murphy, R. (2001). Nature's temporalities and the manufacture of vulnerability. Time and Society, 102/3), 329348. Platt, R. (1999). Disasters and democracy: The politics of extreme natural events. Washington, DC: Island Press. Purvis, A. (1998, January 19). Grim Fairytale. Time (Canadian edition), 151(2), 12-15. Quarantelli, E. L. (1998). What is disaster? New York: Routledge. Tenner, E. (1996). Why things bite back: Technology and the revenge of unintended consequences. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. Worster, D. (1994). Nature's economy (2nd ed.). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. 1315
Weather Events, Extreme Zebrowski, E., Jr. (1997). Perils of a restless planet: Scientific rapid colonization of bare ground, fast breeding, wide perspectives on natural disasters. Cambridge, UK: Cam- dispersal, domination of an environment, and a tolerance of close human settlement. As well, northern bridge University Press. swidden agriculture, beginning between 7,000 and 5,000 years ago, involved repeated cycles of clearing and planting followed by long fallow periods, which imitated the ecology of glacial retreat. Thus Neolithic agriculture, with its monocultures and open places, Weeds gave the late-glacial survivors a new lease on life. Other plants, introduced from the Near Eastern homeIn the Western world weeds have been defined and lands of agriculture, became closely associated with redefined according to the cultural ideas and outlooks farming. of peoples who have tried to compete with them for open places, over many millennia. The word itself has no intrinsic meaning. Its origins are obscure. Etymological evidence suggests that the ninth-century Old English noun weod and the verb weodian, which refer to fern-like plants growing on waste places and the clearing of them for agricultural purposes, are the most likely source. The botanical evidence points to the proto-German weyt (c. 1150) or the later Belgian weedt (c. 1576) and Dutch iveet, each of which refers to the dye-plant woad, once widespread in Europe, North Africa, and Asia. In modern times, Ralph Waldo Emerson thought weeds were plants whose virtues had not yet been discovered. The American agriculturist L. H. Bailey held that Nature knows no plants as weeds. Sir Edward Salisbury, sometime director of the Botanical Gardens at Kew, England, characterized a weed as a plant growing where we do not want it. To Oliver Rackham, the historian of the British countryside, weeds were specialized plants, intimately linked to farming. The Erench naturalist Jean Rostand believed that in naming a plant a weed "man gives proof of his personal arrogance."
Glacial Retreat, Neolithic Agriculture, and Early Civilizations Weeds have been competing with us for something like ten thousand years. Paleobotanists believe that the plants we now call weeds had long inhabited the interglacial and post-glacial landscapes. But the great cultural changes of the early Neolithic period, around 10,000 years ago, fundamentally altered the peopleNature relationship. Agriculture, rippling outwards from the Fertile Crescent in the Near East, replaced hunting and gathering just at the time when the rapidly retreating European glaciers of the last Ice Age uncovered new lands for settlement. Young, rich post-glacial soils favored plant species that already had many of the characteristics of weeds: 1316
Egyptian, Sumerian, and Assyrian civilizations had no collective term for weeds. All plants were equally valued. The classical Greeks, however, had a word. Theophrastus, in one of his treatises on plants used the term botdne as noxious herb, thus weed. Roman writers such as Pliny, Virgil, and Golumella used weeding concepts, but the modern term has no apparent direct Latin counterpart. "Runcinate," a word now used to describe the lobed or toothed leaf-edge of some plants, is derived from Latin runcina, a weeding hook, and Runcina the rural goddess of weeding.
Conceptual Transitions Relative "certainties" about which plants are weeds and which are not is comparatively modern. ToUund Man, a bog-preserved corpse from the Danish Iron Age, ate goosefoot in his measure of porridge. Roman introductions into northern Europe, like ground elder, remained garden plants until quite recently. The land of Virgil's Georgics (30 BCE), which needed no farming is, however, a far cry from our weeds and the hard labor they demand. In the Judeo-Christian tradition, the transition from Arcadia to "a battle with weeds . . . a hard life of seat and toil" came with the Old Testament Fall (Genesis 1: 4). Thenceforth, the Other had always to be contended with: "And on the hill that shall be digged with the mattock, there shall not come thither the fear of briars and thorns" (Isaiah 7:25). The New Testament parable of the sower carries a similar message, couched in the language of grim competition. "And Isome] seed fell among thorns; and the thorns sprang up; and choked them" (Matthew 13: 7). The same imagery is explicit in the "Parable of the Weeds Explained" (Matthew 13:33): "The one who sowed the good seed is the Son of M a n . . . . The weeds are the sons of the evil one and the enemy who sows them is the devil."
Weeds
Weeds and the Balance of Nature Such well known weeds as the sorrels, docks, fat-hens and thistles would in the original primeval worid each have its proper place in the primitive piant-association to which it might belong, and would be present in no extraordinary numbers. It was the changes brought about by cultivation in its various forms, fires, and close grazing of domestic animals which upset the balance of nature.... Thus, through the many centuries of cultivation in Europe, aided by ever expanding intercourse with other lands, the great army of now almost cosmopolitan weeds has been gathered together—the very pick of the vegetabie world in temperate ciimes for thriving under the artificial conditions imposed by man. It is the old story that when one interferes with nature she exacts remorseiessly her tribute. Source: Cockayne, Leonard. (1919). New Zealand Plants and Their Story.
Medieval and Early Modern Notions The Middle Ages saw a degree of ambivalence towards weedy plants. For Medieval herbalists, each plant had its "virtues" and "signatures." The virtues of the bramble were that it could heal sore ears or ease menstruation. The red juice of St. John's wort signified its power to heal wounds. But other scholars, like the early thirteenth-century prelate Alexander of Neckham, believed that after the Fall the Earth was governed by moral rather than biological causes. The Fall reminded mankind of the world as it once was. Poisonous plants were a constant reminder of humanity's pride and deceit. The English playwright-poet William Shakespeare used weeds as a malevolent metaphor in several of his plays. Dark forces emanated from Elsinore as Hamlet pondered on his father's death. Fie on't! O fie! tis an unweeded garden. That grows to seed; things rank and gross in nature Possess it merely. That it should come to this! (Hamlet, I:ii)
had deteriorated after the Fall. While thorns and thistles grew up where once there were fruits and flowers, and mankind had to accept the consequences, there was also the injunction, in Psalm 8:3: "Thou has given him dominion over the works of thy hands; thou hast put all things under his feet." The herbalist William Cole in his Art of Simples (1656) thought that weeds and poisonous plants had a definite purpose. It required "the industry of men to weed them out. . . . Had he nothing to struggle with, the fire of his spirit would be half extinguished." The English jurist Sir Matthew Hale, in The Primitive Organization of Mankind (1667) advanced the notion of "improvement" a step further. He believed, from his reading of Genesis, that "Man was invested with the power, authority, right, dominion, trust and care . . . to preserve the Species of divers Vegetables, to improve them and others, to correct the redundancies of unprofitable Vegetables [weeds], to preserve the face of the Earth in beauty, usefulness and fruitfulness." By the seventeenth century agricultural improvers like Walter Blith, in The English Improver Improved
Antony FitzHerbert's Boke of Husbandry (1523) reflected Elizabethan attitudes to weeds. The month of May heralded the "tyme to wede thy corn." The sixteenth century farmer had to deal with "divers manner of wedes." Nettles and dodder "doe moche harme." Thistles, docks and kedlokes (charlock), darnolde (darnel) and gouldes (corn marigold) were bad enough. Dog fennel (stinking mayweed) "is the worst weed that is except terre" (hairy vetch).
(1649), drew a harder line between crops and weeds. The latter had become "an obscenity, the vegetable equivalent of vermin." Gorse, ferns, bracken, and broom were "such filth." But for some the line remained fuzzy. Seventeenth-century London gardeners grew foxglove, willow herb, and poppies, the bane of wheat growers, as decorative plants. Others, wrote the herbalist William Gerard, were wont to "feast themselves [aesthetically] even with varieties of those things the vulgar call weeds."
Post-Reformation "Improvement"
Eighteenth-Century Enlightenment
Protestant reinterpretations of the biblical basis for the human condition developed the notion that the Earth
Throughout the eighteenth century many naturalists, philosophers, and agricultural writers continued to di1317
Weeds
verge from the hard-line improvers. The gardener William Hanbury thought heather "very elegant" and "looked kindly" on meadow sweet and thistles. The agriculttiral writer William Marshall considered blackberry flowers "beautiful beyond expression." The herbalist William Turner worried that "precious herbs" were dismissed as "weeds or grass" by the ignorant. "Botanists," Samuel Pegge wrote in his Curialia Miscellanea (1796), "allow nothing to be weeds." There is even a tradition that the great Swedish naturalist Carolus Linnaeaus fell on his knees at the sight of English gorse "the enemy of every improver . . . and gave thanks for so beautiful a plant." The German poet-philosopher Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, in An Attempt to Evolve a General Compara-
tive Theory wrote that he could understand the farmer who attributed the existence of weeds to "the curse of an enraged benevolent spirit, or the malice of a sinister one." But he placed himself among those who saw weeds as "children of tiniversal Nature, cherished as much by her as the wheat [the farmer] carefully cultivates and values so highly."
The North American New World Across the Atlantic a similar ambivalence prevailed. European weeds arrived with the pilgrims or even earlier, with European fisher-folk. Weeds came in their foodstuffs and that of their livestock, in their straw bedding, their chests of clothing, and in their bags and packets of seeds. Weeds came, too, from the bilges of their ships, in unwanted ballast thrown ashore to make room for cargoes for Europe. Worn out ships, left to rot on the shores of coves and bays, contributed foreign seeds from the crevices of their timbers. Weeds followed the colonists inland, on their shoes and the feet of their animals, m wool, hair, and fur, spilling off wagons and carts and sprouting up wherever a coarse sack or bag was cast aside. Plantain became, for indigenous peoples, symbolic of the white man's footstep. The pilgrims and their successors encountered indigenous plants that did not conform with, or yield to, a "perfect system of economy." For the Philadelphia physician Benjamin Rush, the cultivation of a new land rendered it healthy by "draining swamps, destroying [indigenous] weeds, burning brush and exhaling the unwholesome or superfluous moisture of the air." The clergyman-physician Jared Eliot, ever the theologian-improver, in Essays upon Field Husbandry in New England and Other Papers, 1748-62, regarded the work
of draining swamps, clearing out brambles, thickets 1318
and poisonous weeds, replacing them with pasture and crops, as "a Resemblance to Greation." But the botanist John Bartram, with the better eye for natural processes, begged to differ. Glearing out swamp "weeds" prevented the deposition of flood debris and contributed to soil erosion. In the New World, however, as in the Old, the improvers took the moral high ground. The transformation from savage to civilized was "the planting of a garden, not the fall from one; any change in the New England environment was divinely ordained and wholly positive." That, unfortunately, included the introduction of Old World weeds like barberry, which carried wheat blast disease. Divinely ordained or not, the eighteenth-century governments of Gonnecticut, Massachusetts, and Rhode Island attempted to control it by introducing the first-ever noxious weeds laws. The late-eighteenth-century American agricultural writer John Lorain stood apart^ however, from this form of debate. Lorain anticipated the nineteenth- and early-twentieth-century ecological sciences. He indicated, in Nature and Reason Harmonized in the Practice
of Husbandry (1825), that he recognized the interdependence of plant species, including weeds, and their role in maintaining soil fertility, "notwithstanding [that] slovenly farmers complain more loudly of the injury done by them." Lorain was ahead of his time in believing that neither weeds nor biblical curses were the causes of soil impoverishment.
Nineteenth- and Twentieth-Century Science The English botanist Sir Joseph Hooker, the evolutionist Gharles Darwin, and the American diplomatgeographer George Perkins Marsh profoundly influenced much of the nineteenth-century scientific and popular discourse about weeds and weediness as a global phenomenon. Both Hooker and Darwin witnessed the spread of European and North American flora into the Pacific, the Americas, and British colonies. Both commented on the often-rampant, weedy habit some hitherto innocuous plants assumed in new locations and sought explanations. Marsh stood the existing Man-Nature paradigm on its head. {Man is used here in the same sense Marsh used the term.) The evidence he collected during long foreign sojourns pointed to Man as the modifier of Nature, the antithesis of the world of the natural theologians, in which God displayed himself in his natural works. Marsh found weeds that were equally at home in Upper Egypt wheat fields, Bosphorus gardens, or New England cul-
Weeds tivations. Man transplanted them. Nature merely propagated them. Darwin's work on natural selection led him to the view that Old World plants had a competitive edge over their New World counterparts, derived from the "longer period they have been engaged in strife, and consequent vigor they have acquired." Linking Darwin's "struggle for existence" with philosopher Herbert Spencer's earlier "survival of the fittest" theories. Hooker developed and disseminated a DisplacementReplacement model to explain the ascendant and often weedy nature of exotic plants in such widely separated places as Madeira, St. Helena, Mauritius, Argentina, India, Oceania, Polynesia, and Australasia. Although Hooker, Director of the Royal Botanical Gardens at Kew, was very influential, his model was not universally accepted. In the South Pacific islands of New Zealand, a small group of naturalists was uniquely placed to observe and record, for the first time, the introduction of exotic plants and their effects on the indigenous biota, from initial European contact in the late eighteenth century. Some of them subscribed to Hooker's model. Two of them, L. Cockayne and G. T. Thomson, began to question it and in the early 1900s arrived at a quite different explanation for weediness, based on ecological principles. Both noticed, like Marsh, that human agency, particularly aspects of agriculture and horticulture, determined whether many exotic plants, including weeds, survived or not. Both came to understand that as long as New World farmers perpetuated the practices that mimic post-glacial European landscapes, European weeds thrived. The same principle applied to any exotic plant: re-create preferred habitats and in the absence of other checks such as predation, they thrive; allow farmland or a garden to revert to its native plant cover and in the end the exotic plant may well lose the struggle for existence.
Weed Control Today, the application of ecological principles to agricultural practice is one use of science and technology in weed control. Others, including biological control using plant predators, usually viral or bacterial plant pathogens and insects, and the use of herbicidal sprays, are of relatively recent origin. For most of the past ten millennia only primitive, labor-intensive means of control were available. Hand weeding, using simple technologies like the mattock, weed hook and hand hoe, prevailed from
classical and biblical times well into the nineteenth century. In some situations, cattle, both small and large, were used to reduce perennial weeds by grazing fallow ground. In others, domesticated free-ranging fowl helped to control barnyard, vineyard, and garden weeds, both annual and perennial. Some weed seeds could be separated from cereals by winnowing or using sieves and corn screens. Efficient seed cleaning machinery, capable of eliminating most weed seeds, was not developed until the late nineteenth century. Annual weeds could be removed from crops while they were growing, at some risk to the crop. The use of fallow periods—resting the land between crops— helped to control perermial weeds, particularly if stock was used to graze the fallow. Alternatively, it was repeatedly plowed, cross-plowed, and harrowed. During the eighteenth century, systematic crop rotation over several years was found to reduce weeds, particularly if fodder crops with heavy foliage, like turnips, were used to smother weeds. During the nineteenth century many legislatures in North America and parts of the British colonies introduced legislation in a futile effort to force landholders to control what came to be called noxious weeds, on their properties and roadsides. "Californian" or "Canadian" thistle, originally from Europe, was a typical target. Once established in a pasture, its underground rhizome defeated limited farming technology and the weed laws. Legislation continues, however, to be used as a coercive tool, requiring land users to attempt to control nuisance weeds.
Looking Ahead In the twenty-first century, the discourse about weeds, at least in the Western world, centers principally on economics and biodiversity. The means available to control them continue to be limited. Often, as with herbicide effects on humans, they are controversial. Genetic engineering has provided herbicide resistant crops but is also controversial. Debate continues about the effectiveness of intemational border controls and biosecurity systems. Jean Rostand accused humanity of arrogance in naming a plant a weed. To control them remains difficult. To eliminate them has so far proved impossible. Perhaps it is a symptom of our arrogance as a species that we aspire to do either. Neil Clayton 1319
Weeds Further Reading Cockayne, L. (1928). The vegetation of New Zealand. Leipzig, Germany: W. Engelmann. Crosby, A. (1986). Ecological imperialism: The biological expansion of Europe, 900-1900. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Glacken, C. J. (1990). Traces on the Rhodian shore—nature and culture in western thought from ancient times to the end of the eighteenth century. Berkeley: University of California. Grove, R. H. (1996). Green imperialism: Colonial expansion, tropical island Edens and the origins of environmentalism, 1600-1860. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Holzner, W., & Numata, M. (Eds.). (1982). Biology and ecology of weeds. The Hague, Netherlands: Junk. Hooker, J. (1864). Note on the replacement of species in the colonies and elsewhere. Natural History Review, 12, 123-127. Jones, P. (1991). Just weeds—history, myths and uses. New York: Prentice Hall. King, L. J. (1966). Weeds of the world: Biology and control. London: Hill. Knobloch, F. (1996). The culture of wilderness: Agriculture as colonization in the American West. Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press. Marsh, G. P. (1965) Man and nature, or physical geography as modified by human action. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. PoUan, M. (1991). Second nature: A gardener's education. New York: Dell. Price, A. G. (1963). The western invasion of the Pacific and its continents: A study of moving frontiers and changing landscapes, 1513-1958. Oxford, UK: Clarendon Press. Rackham, O. (1986). The history of the countryside—The full fascinating story of Britain's landscape. London: Dent. Salisbury, E. (1961). Weeds and aliens. London: Collins. Shewell-Cooper, W. E. (1962). Plants and fruit of the Bible. London: Darton, Longman and Todd. Thomas, K. (1983). Man and the natural world: Changing attitudes in England 1500-1800. London: Allen Lane. Williams, R. (1973). The country and the city. New York: Oxford University Press. Worster, D. (Ed.). (1994) The ends of the earth: Perspectives on modern environmental history. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Zohary, M. (1982). Plants of the Bible. New York: Cambridge University Press.
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Wetlands The term wetlands refers to a broad collection of waterbased ecosystems. It includes salt marshes and cypress swamps, mangrove thickets and bogs; all wetlands are places where water floods or saturates the soil most of the time so that only plants specially adapted to wet, anaerobic conditions can thrive. Found in estuaries at the mouths of rivers, in protected embayments of the sea, along rivers, and in other topographic low spots where water tends to collect, wetlands vary widely in size and character owing to differences in climate, vegetation, soils, and hydrological conditions. In northern latitudes, bogs with highly acidic soils often support unusual plant life, including insectivorous pitcher plants and shrubby heath vegetation, which forms peat and, in some places, a distinctive floating mat of decaying plant life. Marshes, which form in interior plains or in coastal zones, are broad expanses of water-tolerant sedges, rushes, or grasses. Usually associated with the flood plains of rivers, swamps are vegetated with trees and shrubs that can endure standing water. In tropical latitudes, dense stands of mangroves with their characteristic prop roots form coastal wetlands flooded daily by tides. Though they differ, all wetlands are places where water and land intermingle, providing invaluable services to people. By retarding runoff and allowing water to seep back into the ground, many wetlands play a critical role in recharging the aquifers that people rely on for agricultural and domestic water supplies. With their sponge-like soils, wetlands absorb and store water, providing natural flood control along many rivers. It is estimated that an acre of wetland can store up to 1.6 million gallons of floodwater. Coastal wetlands also buffer the shoreline from storms and floods. Many wetlands preserve water quality by filtering out excess nutrients and pollutants; an acre of wetland can filter up to an estimated 7.3 million gallons of polluted runoff per year. Finally, wetlands provide critical habitat, offering nursery grounds for shrimp and fish, and food and shelter for wildlife and migratory waterfowl. More than one-third of all endangered species in the United States depend on wetlands during some phase of their life. Quietly and freely, wetlands have long offered their services to society, but it is only recently, in the wake of centuries of drainage and destruction, that scientists and citizens have come to recognize these valuable contributions.
Wetlands
Early Attitudes Toward Wetlands Eor n:\uch of history, wetlands were regarded as wastelands. Standing water and thick muck often made wetlands buggy and difficult to travel through. Many believed that miasma, or moist air emanating from swamps, caused malaria and other debilitating diseases. (Scientists came to realize that mosquitoes carried the malarial parasites only in the late nineteenth century.) Worse still, wetlands were impossible to farm. All these traits made wetlands seem frightening and useless. The epic eighth-century Anglo-Saxon poem Beozmdfofiers early evidence of such fearful attitudes; its hero fought two terrifying monsters that dwelled in the "moors" (an English variety of marsh). Wetlands were regarded as places to avoid or, increasingly, as places to transform. As early as the days of the Roman Empire, engineers experimented with draining wetlands. In England, Romans oversaw the construction of raised banks that kept the sea from the marshes on the Medway estuary in Kent and of Car Dyke, a catchment that encircled the western edge of the Eens (a marshy region in southeastern England). Through the Middle Ages, attempts at drainage continued in Europe. In Holland, the Dutch excluded tides from the extensive marshes of the Low Country with dikes. When the dikes alone proved inadequate for keeping the sea-level wetlands dry, they pioneered the use of windmill-powered pumps hi the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries to flush excess water out. Eventually steam pumps and later diesel and electric pumps would make it possible to drain increasingly larger wetland areas of northern Europe for agriculture.
Wetlands in Columbia County, New York, in 2003. Despite the name, land does not have to be wet to be a wetland, COURTESY WARCY ROSS.
Despite the prevalent negative associations that encouraged wetland drainage, some people made their livelihoods in those shunned landscapes. On the moors of England, commoners cut peat for fuel, grazed livestock, fished for eels, and hunted waterfowl until enclosure acts consolidated landholdings and permitted extensive drainage in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. In North America, many indigenous tribes used moist soil at the edges of swamps to grow com, and hunted and fished in wetland areas. When European settlers traveled to the New World, they carried Old World attitudes (and malaria) with them, regarding wetlands with a mixture of favor and disdain. Coastal and riverside marshes with their rich grasses provided essential fodder for their livestock, which in turn provided manure for upland farms. Yet forested interior swamps seemed mysterious and wicked. In the earliest conflicts between Native Americans and Puritan settlers, natives hid in swamps, reinforcing the settlers' perceptions of the wetlands as dangerous places. Meanwhile in England, the 1678 book The Pilgrim's Progress depicted swamps as miry, sinful places, where lost souls could get stuck. Nearly a thousand years after Beowulf, wetlands were still regarded as a useless and dangerous.
Wetland Drainage and Development in America In North America, fearful attitudes were gradually overcome when the draw of wetland resources attracted colonists' attention. In the South, valuable wood from cypress swamp forests was cut and sold for barrels and shingles. In cutover areas, planters began to experiment with rice cultivation in tidewater wetlands. Eventually, slaves cleared swamp forests and built levees around the rice fields aiong most rivers on the southeast coast. As settlers pressed westward, they encountered enormous freshwater marshes in the Midwest and impenetrable swamps in the lower Mississippi valley. In 1849 and 1850, the U.S. Congress passed the Swamp Land Acts, which granted more than 24 million hectares of so-called swamplands to the states, to be sold into private ownership to promote drainage and farn:iing. As settlers tried to ditch and drain the water from wetlands, they encountered difficulties. When one landowner built a ditch to shunt water off his swampland property, the water simply flooded neighbors' farms. After decades of haphazard, piecemeal at1321
Wetlands tempts, engineers and farmers realized that successful drainage would require planning and cooperation among landowners. Between 1870 and 1900, twelve states adopted laws to establish drainage districts that taxed landowners within their jurisdiction to pay for ditches and levees to transform wetlands into farmlands. During the same period, technological innovations, such as development of steam-operated dredges, made the building of levees and the drainage of wetlands along large rivers more feasible. In the poorly drained areas of the Midwest, the mass production of drainage tiles and ditch diggers made drainage of large areas possible. The U-shaped clay tiles could be buried in long lines to create underground conduits that carried water away from fields like gutters, ln the sixteen years between 1906 and 1922, nearly 3.6 million hectares of swampland were drained in just seven Midwestern states. By 1955, 41.2 million hectares had been organized into drainage districts, converting more wetlands to farmlands than to any other purpose. In a short period, extensive inland marshes were entirely replaced with corn crops. After World War II, brisk demand for housing raised another threat, as roadways and suburban developments began to encroach on formerly avoided wetlands. Between 1954 and 1959, the spread of the New York City urban area alone swallowed up 12.5 percent of Long Island's wetlands. All in all, between the mid 1950s and the mid 1970s, 4.4 million wetland hectares were converted to shopping centers, airports, suburbs, farms, and other uses. Pesticides sprayed for insect control made wetlands more habitable for people, but they killed off fish and birds and devastated whole ecosystems. For centuries, the conviction that swamps and marshes were worthless and troublesome went hand in hand witli people's actions and government policies: citizens drained swamps, and govenrment land grants and subsidies encouraged even more drainage, ln 1982, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service reported that the United States had lost 54 percent of its wetlands.
New Attitudes toward U.S. Wetlands With the striking transformation of these landscapes came a new attitude toward wetlands. By the midnineteenth century, influential Romantic thinkers and artists had begun to recognize that the unique beauty of America lay in its disappearing natural features, wetlands included. As early as 1862, Henry David Tho1322
reau had recognized wild swamps as "sacred places" (Vileisis 1997,96). In the 1870s and 1880s, painter Martin Johnson Heade captured the quiet beauty of many marshes with brush and canvas. In the first decade of the twentieth century, novelist Gene Stratton Porter lamented the demise of the Limberlost Swamp in northwestern Indiana in her best-selling novels. As consequences of drainage became evident, others too began to reevaluate wetlands. Sport hunters directed crucial attention to swamps and marshes after they noticed that waterfowl populations—dependent on wetlands for nesting and breeding—were declining. To cope with the decline, in the first decades of the twentieth century Congress passed a series of laws that regulated hunting and created wildlife refuges, but it failed to authorize sufficient funding. When continuing loss of wetland habitat was exacerbated by the great drought of the 1930s, the continental waterfowl population dropped to an all-time low. Not until the New Deal, when the Bureau of Biological Survey head Jay Norwood "Ding" Darling spearheaded efforts to gamer funding through the Duck Stamp program, did the federal government begin to purchase and protect significant wetlands as national wildlife refuges. By the 1950s, scientists had begun to realize that the value of wetlands went far beyond waterfowl habitat. Coastal wetlands provided a rich source of nutrients for ocean-dwelling organisms and offered critical nursery grounds for young fish and marine invertebrates. As such, their destruction could have severe consequences for ocean fisheries. For example, one study near Palm Beach, Florida found a direct correlation between drastic declines in fish populations and the widespread filling of mangrove wetlands for vacation home development. Reflecting a broadening awareness of the values of marshes and swamps, ecologists coined the word "wetland" in the 1950s. Wlien citizens recognized the consequences of extensive drainage and development of wetlands in their own commimities, they began to organize to restore and protect these landscapes. In 1947, the unique marshes of south Florida were protected as Everglades National Park. In 1963, Massachusetts passed the nation's first wetland protection law, which required developers to obtain a permit from the state before they could fill and build in n wetland. Many other states passed similar legislation to maintain open space, fish and wildlife habitat, water quality, and flood absorption capacity. Citizen concern for environmental quality also spread to Congress,
Wetlands which enacted the federal Clean Water Act and other laws that benefited wetlands in the 1970s.
Contemporary U.S. Wetland Conflicts and Politics Though their reputation has markedly improved, wetlands have recently landed at the center of a new conflict. From an ecological perspective, wetlands offer innumerable public services (water quality, flood control, habitat), but from a legal and social perspective, wetlands are seen primarily as private property. The Clean Water Act requires developers to obtain Section 404 permits from the Army Corps of Engineers before they fill in wetlands. Agencies charged with protecting the pubiic value of fish, wildhfe, and water quality then make recommendations, which may lead to project modifications that minimize wetland destruction. Since its enactment, bitter conflict about enforcement of the Clean Water Act has grown. Those who oppose the regulations dislike the delays inherent in the permit process and argue that private landowners have the right to do what they want with their land. They claim wetland regulations that limit how landowners can use their land are tantamount to the unconstitutional taking of property by the government. However, those who favor stronger wetland protection contend that the Corps only rarely denies permit requests. A report by the General Accounting Office in 1988 backed this claim, revealing that the Corps far more frequently provided than blocked permits for activities that destroyed wetlands. IVloreover, wetland advocates deny that Clean Water Act regulations "take" property. They argue that the rules are intended to protect the public from the harm that results from wetland loss, such as poor water quality and flooding. For example, the regulations that may prevent a housing development in a wetland on a bay also protect fishermen whose livelihoods depend on healthy wetland nursery grounds and nearby communities that depend on wetlands to absorb floodwater. Despite ongoing conflicts, changes in agricultural policies and economic circumstances have recently slowed the rate of wetland destruction in the United States from 200,000 hectares per year in 1985 to an estimated 23,400 hectares per year in 2002. However, with development pressures mounting and so many public services at stake, how we protect our diminishing wetlands promises to be the source of continuing debate.
World Wetlands in Crisis Despite growing attention to conservation, wetlands worldwide continue to be threatened by pollution, drainage for agriculture, and overextraction of fresh water. Some wetlands are endangered by dams that would block Iheir source of water, while thousands of hectares of mangrove swamps are threatened by the expanding shrimp aquaculture industry. Few national governments have been able to regulate development and industry adequately to protect or provide conservation, restoration, and mitigation measures for nearby wetlands. It is now estimated that more than 50 percent of the world's wetlands have been destroyed, with some countries having already lost up to 80 percent of their wetlands. The degradation and loss of wetlands puts countless communities at risk. Worldwide, polluted water is estimated to affect the health of 120 million people, and freshwater shortages are predicted to worsen in at least 60 countries by 2050. Moreover, with climate change, some predict that flood-related disasters will become more frequent. As the world's population grows, threats to wetlands will undoubtedly increase even as these scarce ecosystems become ever more valuable to society. Ann Vileisis Further Reading Blake, N. M. (1980). Land into water—water into land: A history of water management in Florida. Tallahassee: University Presses of Florida. Kelly, R. (1989). Battling the inland sea: American political culture, public policy, and the Sacramento Valley, 18501986. Berkeley: University of California Press. Miller, D. C. (1989). Dark eden: The swamp in nineteenth century American culture. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Mitsch, W., & Gosselink, J. (1993) Wetlands (2nd ed.). New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold Co. Preston, W. C. (1981). Vanishing landscapes: Land and life in the Tulare Lake basin. Berkeley: University of California Press. Prince, H. C. (1997). Wetlands of the American Midwest: A historical geography of changing attitudes. University of Chicago Geography Research Papers, No 241. Purseglove, J. (1988). Taming the flood: A history and natural history of rivers and wetlands. Oxford,UK: Oxford University Press. Siry, J. V. (1984). Marshes ofthe ocean shore: Development of an ecological ethic. College Station: Texas A&M Press.
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Wetlands Tiner, R. W., Jr. (1984). Wetlands ofthe U.S.: Current status and recent trends. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service. United States Environmental Protection Agency. (2002). Wetlands. Retrieved May 30, 2002, from: http:// www.epa.gov/owow/wetlands/ Vileisis, A. (1997). Discovering the unknown landscape: A history of America's wetlands. Washington, DC: Island Press.
Whale Whales are a group of marine mammals tbat includes seventy-eight species in the order Cetacea, which traces its evolutionary path back 40 to 50 million years to forebears tbat lived on land. Biologists classify whales in two general groups: toothed whales and baleen whales. The former range from sperm whales to the smaller dolphins and porpoises, and the latter, named for the large fibrous plates that they use to strain food from the ocean, range from minkes to tbe blue whale, the largest organism ever. Cetaceans are distributed over all of the world's seas and a few of the rivers. It is, perhaps, ironic that tbe largest whales eat tbe smallest food. The Antarctic baleen wbales, wbich have adult weights of from 10 to 100 tons, subsist largely on krill, a crustacean only a few centimeters long, with tbe occasional small fish thrown in. The smaller toothed whales generally feed on larger sea creatures, from midsized fish to giant squid and other mammals. The baleen whales tend to migrate from tbe equator toward the poles, where they spend the summer feasting on tbe rich aquatic resources and building up a layer of fat, whereas the toothed whales have a more general distribution. Just as whales can be classified in two groups, so, too, can whalers. For untold years, people around the world have used small boats to catch whales close to shore, dragging them onto land for processing; for at least one thousand years, since tbe Basque wbalers first began bunting right wbales in the Bay of Biscay, others have pursued whales on the high seas. Those wbo operate shore stations have to choose tbeir locations carefully and take what comes by, but the pelagic whalers can be much more effective and selective as they seek out specific species. Pelagic whalers need to be more effective because they bave to take elaborate equip1324
ment with them to process their catch, a very capitalintensive process.
A Source of Meat and Oil Whales have supplied two main products for people: meat and oil, although a host of other products has evolved from the whaling industry, such as ambergris (a waxy substance used in perfumery), scrimsbaw, bone meal, and liver oil. Wbale meat has long been a source of food for people and tbeir animals, and in the last forty years it has been the main product of the whaling industry. Whale oil was a very desirable commodity from the middle of the nineteenth century until the 1960s. Oil from the head cases of sperm whales has been used as a high-quality industrial lubricant. Oil from the blubber and flesh of baleen and sperm wbales served into tbe twentieth century as a fuel until the rise of the petroleum industry made it uneconomical. Then, in the 1920s, scientists invented a way to refine baleen whale oil into margarine. This refining technique was one of several breakthroughs that revived the whaling industry. It was perhaps the most important because it created a new market for the whalers, but without new technology in hunting and processing of whales, whaling would have continued its decline. The wbalers of previous centuries had been so efficient that the only major pocket of whales left was in the Antarctic seas, wbere bundreds of thousands of huge blue and fin whales lived. Given their size and speed, these species could not be caught by men in small boats throwing harpoons. Instead, catching and killing them required an exploding harpoon mounted on a small steam-powered ship that could travel at at least fifteen knots. Flensing (stripping blubber) and processing such huge animals presented new challenges that were solved by the invention of the floating factory: a huge vessel with a stern slipway for dragging the behemoths on board and an array of equipment for rendering tbem into oil.
Conservation Efforts Begin In the 1930s the industry boomed, leading to a series of efforts to conserve wbale stocks and culminating in creation of the International Whaling Commission (IWC) in 1946. Whaling on the high seas proved to be difficult to regulate, and despite efforts by conservationists tbe catch of whales grew until, in the 19631964 season, whalers took more than sixty-six thousand whales. The industry declined after that because
Whale
Supplies and Equipment for the Sixteenth-Century English Whaler The following is essentially a shopping list for a whaling ship in 1575: A proportion for the setting forth of a ship of 200 tons, for the killing of the whale. There must be 55 men who departing for Wardhouse in the month of Aprii, must be furnished with 4 quintals and a half of bread for every man. 250 hogsheads fo put the bread in. 150 hogsheads of cider. 6 quintals of oii. 8 quintais of bacon. 6 hogsheads of beef. 10 quarters of salf. 150 pound of candies. 8 quarters of beans and peas. Saltfish and herring, a quantify convenient. 4 tuns of wines. Half a quarter of mustard seed, and a quern. A grindsfone. 800 empty shaken hogsheads. 350 bundles of hoops. 800 pair of heads for the hogsheads. 10 estachas for harpoon irons. 3 pieces of baibens for fhe javeiins smaii. 2 fackies fo furn fbe whales. A hawser of 27 fafboms long fo furn fhe wbales. 15 great javeiins. 18 smaii javeiins. 50 harpoon irons. 6 machicos fo cuf fhe wbaie wifhall. 2 dozen of machetos fo mince fhe wbale. , 2 greaf books fo furn fbe wbaie. Continues
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Whale
Cotititiued 3 pair of canbooks. 6 books for staves. 3 dozen of staves for fhe harpoon irons. 6 pulleys fo furn fhe whaie wifb. 10 greaf baskets. 10 iamps of iron fo carry ligbf. 5 keffles of 150 lbs fbe piece, and 6 iadles. 1000 of naiis for fhe pinnaces. 500 of nails for fbe houses, and fhe wharf. 18 axes and bafchefs fo cleave wood. 12 pieces of lines, and 6 dozen of hooks. 2 beefles of rosemary. 4 dozen of oars for fbe pinnaces. 6 lanterns. Ifem, gunpowder and mafcbes for arquebuses as sbaii be needful, ifem, fbere musf be carried from hence 5 pinnaces, five men fo sfrike wifh barpoon irons, fwo cuffers of whaie, 5 coopers, and a purser or fwo.
Source: Hakluyt, Richard. (1972). Voyages and Discoveries: Tiie Principat Navigations, Voyages, Traffiques and Discoveries of tiie Engiistt Nation. New York: Penguin Books, pp. 159-161.
blue, fin, and humpback whales had all been driven to the edge of extinction, with the Sei and Bryde's whales following shortly thereafter. Most striking was the decline of the blue whale, from perhaps 200,000 before whaling began to about 3,000 today. Likewise, there may have been as many as 125,000 humpback whales before widespread commercial hunting, but there are only about 20,000 left in 2002. Today, only the minke whale exists in numbers that might make commercial whaling feasible, but those numbers are a matter of some debate. In 1982 the IWC voted to ban all commercial wbaling, but Japanese wbalers in particular continue to catch minkes in the name of scientific research, a highly controversial practice because the meat ends up on the market in Japan. Until the 1970s most people saw whales as commodities to be exploited rapidly or slowly, depending 1326
both on how many were left and the demand for their products. Since then, though, whales have become a symbol of environmentalism, species with special qualities that deserve protection under most circumstances. This change in attitude was in part also a product of technology as people in 1967 heard for the first time recordings of humpback whale songs and soon became exposed to many television shows about whales, all of which suggested that whales are more than just really large slabs of meat or tubs of margarine. The clearest sign of this new attitude toward whales has been seen in the rise of w^hale-watching, which draws millions of participants each year. But even as environmentalists have celebrated the growth of whale-watching, they have been struggling to reconcile tbe wbales' new status as icons with the continued desire to hunt whales among some Native
White, Gilbert Starbuck, A. (1989). History of the American whale fishery. Secaucus, NJ: Castle Books. Tonnessen, J. N., & Johnsen, A. O. (1982). The history of modern whaling. Berkeley & Los Angeles: University of California Press.
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British naturalist Gilbert White was the author of the classic The Natural History of Selborne (1789). Bom in Selborne, Hampshire, fifty miles southwest of London, An Inuit grave in Aiaska marked by a whaie shoulder biade. White at age nineteen entered Oriel College, Oxford. COURTESY JOHN AND KAREN HOLLINGSWORTH/U, S, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE, After completing his degree in 1743, he became a Fellow at Oriel, beginning an occasionally troubled but lifelong professional association. In 1747, White began peoples in North America. The Inuit in Alaska won a a career in the Church of England, the other affiliation bruising battle with the IWC, environmentalists, and that would define his working life. Although White the U.S. government in the 1970s and 1980s to allow traveled widely in southern Britain, his main interest continued harvesting of bowhead whales, and in the remained his eastern corner of Hampshire, where he 1990s the Makah tribe of Washington won a similar lived most of his last five decades. fight to take one gray whale per year. EnvironmentalWhite's early writings show a predilection for natuists frequently argue that whales are sentient beings ral observation. He began keeping the Garden Kalendar and that even one killed is too many, but the native in 1751, which was succeeded by his Naturalist's Journal peoples contend that whaling is an integral part of their in 1767. His masterwork. The Natural History of Selborne, culture. Because Japanese and Norwegians often make began as a series of letters to noted fellow naturalists similar claims, the victories of the Makah and Inuit Thomas Pennant (1726-1798) and Daines Barrington have compromised the argument of the United States (1727-1800). In its original form, the Natural History government that Japan and Norway should cease was paired with the Antiquities of Selborne, observations whaling. This problem was quite clear at the 2002 IWC about the local human inhabitants and culture. Howmeeting in Shimonoseki, Japan, when the Japanese delever, it was in the minute examination and description egates made a strong case that aboriginal w^haling in of nature that White excelled. He was the first to identhe United States should face similar levels of scrutiny tify the British harvest mouse and the noctule bat, and to Japanese whaling. to observe that earthworms are hermaphroditic. He Kurk Dorsey was especially interested in birds, differentiating three species of "willow wren" and observing how swifts See also International Whaling Commission copulate in flight. Species interaction also fascinated White, as when he detailed the symbiotic relationship Further Reading of cows, insects, and fish at the edge of local ponds: Connor, R. C, & Peterson, D. M. (1994). The lives of whales "During this great proportion of the day, they [the cows] drop much dung, in which insects nestle; and and dolphins. New York: Henry Holt. so supply food for the fish, which would be poorly Ellis, R. (1991). Men and whales. New York: Knopf. Evans, P. G. H. (1987). The natural history of whales and subsisted but from this contingency" (White 1997, 27). White's Natural History influenced generations of dolphins. New York: Facts on File. Scheffer, V. (1969). The year ofthe whale. New York: Scrib- naturalists. Charles Darwin (1809-1882) read it while in school and recalled, "From reading White's 'Selners. 1327
White, Gilbert borne,' I took much pleasure in watching the habits of birds, and even made notes on tbe subject. In my simplicity I remember wondering why every gentleman did not become an ornithologist" (Darwin 1958, 7). Darwin also cited White in four chapters of The Descent of Man (1871). For W. H. Hudson (1841-1922), best known for the novel Green Mansions (1904) but also an accomplished naturalist, reading Selborne sparked "an overmastering urge to see with his own eyes the England that it depicted" (Allen 1994, 206). Because White so successfully conveyed passion through his precise descriptions, he found avid readership among Romantic poets William Wordsworth (1770-1850) and Samuel Taylor Coleridge (1772-1834), and painter John Constable (1776-1837). More recent writers have continued to admire White's prose. Virginia Woolf saw the Natural History as "one of those ambiguous books that seem to tell a plain story . . . and yet by some apparently unconscious device of the author's has left a door open, through which we hear distant sounds" (in Mabey 1999, 6). However, it was probably American poet James Russell Lowell (18191891) who best described the book's enduring appeal (Lowell 1871, 5): "Open the book where you will," he wrote, "it takes you out of doors."
dent Theodore Roosevelt and the U.S. Forest Service chief Gifford Pinchot. But it would not have been successful without the support of a broad-based national constituency concerned about the efficient use of natural resources. In the forefront of this constituency were members of women's clubs throughout the country. And foremost among women's club leaders who saw conservation as a crucial issue was Laura Lyon White, a San Francisco socialite. She led the long battle to stop the logging of ancient sequoia trees in the Calaveras area of the Sierra Nevada Mountains of California, and she was actively engaged in the forestry and irrigation issues that would come to be tbe core of the conservation movement, the forerunner of today's environmental movement.
White, the wife of banker Lovell White, who was an associate of financier William Ralston, held important positions in both the state and national Federation of Women's Clubs. The national group backed state and federal efforts to save Niagara Falls in New York, an island in the Florida Everglades, Mount Rainier in Washington, the White Mountains in New Hampshire, the southern Appalachian Mountains, the Chippewa forest reserve in Minnesota, and the big trees of Calaveras County, California. White was one of only two women in attendance at the 1908 Governors Conference Michael R. Hutcheson on the Conservation of Natural Resources hosted by Teddy Roosevelt in Washington. Not long after, she was Further Reading a delegate to the Women's National Rivers and Harbors Allen, D. E. (1994). The naturalist in Britain: A soeial history. Congress (of which she was state president). In 1914 she Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. was even rumored as a possible candidate for lieutenant Barber, L. (1980). The heyday of natural history 1820-1870. governor of California on the Republican ticket. Garden City, NY: Doubleday. Born in Indiana, Laura Lyon attended Oberlin ColDarwin, C. (1958). The autobiography of Charles Darwin and lege, where she wrote a sketch, "Children's Rights," selected letters. New York: Dover. which was later adapted into a children's play. After Lowell, J. R. (1871) My garden acquaintance. Boston: college she settled in Des Moines and was active in the Hougbton Mifflin. successful campaign to make that city the capital of Mabey, R. (1999). Gilbert White: A biography ofthe naturalist Iowa. Following her marriage to White, the couple imand author of The natural bistory of Selborne. London: migrated via Panama to California, where for five Pimlico. years they operated a general merchandising store in White, G. (1997). The natural history of Selborne. New York the gold country. There Lovell White met Ralston, who and London: Penguin Books. offered him a job with the Bank of California in San Francisco. In the city both Laura and Lovell White wrote articles for Bret Harte's literary magazine, the Overland Monthly. Laura White was an ardent supWhite, Laura Lyon porter of women's suffrage and fought in both the 1896 (1839-1916) and 1911 elections for the right of women to vote. After U.S. conservationist the unsuccessful first campaign she founded the California Club, one of the first civics clubs for women, In the early twentieth century the U.S. conservation and worked to improve conditions for working movement was directed from Washington by Presiwomen and to expand educational and recreational 1328
White, Lynn, Jr,
opportunities for children. She also led the City Beautiful movement by founding branches of the Outdoor Art Club in San Francisco and Mill Valley. From 1900 until her death, Laura White campaigned, with the support of her club associations, to preserve the Calaveras big trees in a public park, personally carrying petitions signed by hundreds of thousands of women to several presidents in Washington. She also corresponded with a succession of California governors, but the purchase of land for a park was not made until 1926, and Calaveras did not become a state park until 1931. Laura White and her army of women conservationists were given credit for the victory. William Yaryan
Further Reading
Barker, P. (1994). The domestication of politics: Women and American political society, 1780-1920. In V. Ruiz & E. C. DuBois (Eds.), Unequal sisters: A multicultural reader in U.S. women's history (pp. 66-91). New York: Routledge. Blair, K. J. (1989). The clubwornan as feminist: True womanhood redefined, 1868-1914. Boston: G. K. Hall. Davis, R. (1967). California women: A guide to their politics, 1885-1911. San Erancisco: California Scene. Engbeck, J. H., Jr. (1973). The enduring giants: The giant sequoias, their place in evolution and in the Sierra Nevada forest community; history of the Calaveras big trees; the story of Calaveras Big Trees State Park. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California, tJniversity Extension. Hoy, S. M. (1980). Municipal housekeeping: The role of women in improving urban sanitation practices, 18801917. In M. V. Melosi (Ed.), Pollution and reform in American cities, 1870-1930 (pp. 173-198). Austin: University of Texas Press. Kaufman, P. W. (1996). National parks and the woman's voice: A history. Albuquerque: New Mexico University Press. Matthews, G. (1992). The rise of public woman: Woman's power and woman's place in the United States, 1630-1970. New York: Oxford University Press. Riley, G. (1999). Women and nature: Saving the "wild" West. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press. Smith, M. L. (1987). Pacific visions: California scientists and the environment, 1850-1915. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. Starr, K. (1973). Americans and the California dream, 18501915. New York: Oxford University Press.
Yaryan, W., Verardo, J., & Verardo, D. (2000). The Sempervirens story. Los Altos, CA: Sempervirens Eund.
White, Lynn, Jr. (1907-1987) Historian of medieval
technology
Lynn White Jr.'s major contribution to environmental history was a lecture that he gave in 1966 to the American Association for the Advancement of Science, entitled "The Historical Roots of the Ecologic Crisis." This lecture was published as an article in the journal Science and became one of the most influential articles on the environment published in the twentieth century. It not only influenced biologists and environmental activists but also invited response from theologians and historians, many of whom were eager to prove him wrong. White's central argument was that the attitudes that allow the exploitation of nature originated out of Judeo-Christian beliefs that became predominant in the Middle Ages. "Christianity has a lot to answer for" in the ecological disaster that followed the Industrial Revolution, he said, because Latin (Western) Christianity facilitated the rise of environmentally destructive technology and science. Those who appropriate White to argue for the abandonment of Christianity have failed to read on and see that he was instead suggesting that there are other strands in Christianity, represented by Eastern Orthodoxy and by St. Francis of Assisi, that have a less human-oriented view of nature. White was a lifelong Presbyterian, son of a Presbyterian minister, and earned a master's degree at Union Theological Seminary in New York before he did further graduate work in history at Harvard. He was not really suggesting that Christians become Zen Buddhists or secularists. Instead, he was on the leading edge of a significant group of ecotheologians and environmental ethicists who began writing in the 1970s and of a great expansion of religiously based environmental organizations in the 1990s. The influence of White's article must have surprised and amused him. It does not represent the kind of carefully documented research that he did in his major work on the history of technology. The Science article reads more like a witty, lighthearted attempt to 1329
White, Lynn, Jr.
The victory of Christianity over paganism was the greatest psychic revolution in the history of our culture. By destroying pagan animism, Christianity made it possihie to exploit nature in a mood of indifference to the feelings of natural objects. Lynn I. White Jr., Science, March 10,1967.
show a group of scientists, "See, the obscure work of a medievalist can have some relevance for the modern world." White took a similar approach when he gave his Presidential Address to the American Historical Association in 1973, referring to the newly formed Office of Technology Assessment of the U.S. government. He said that it could improve its cost-benefit assessments of nuclear weapons and transportation systems by paying attention to the history of technological innovations in the Middle Ages. White was bom in San Francisco and died in Los Angeles. Before becoming a professor of history at the University of Califorrua in Los Angeles, he was president of Mills College in Oakland, California, from 1943 to 1958. Earlier in his career he had taught at Princeton and Stanford. Patricia Townsend
White-Tailed Deer
White-tailed deer evolved in North America 4 million years ago. East of the Rocky Mountains, deer adapted to a wide variety of habitats, including grasslands, oak forests, and the brushy edge areas near savarmas and swamps. White-tailed deer were especially important to Native Americans of the Southeast, who relied on deer much like Great Plains Native Americans relied on buffalo. Venison provided sustenance, and deerskins furnished leather for clothing and moccasins. To kill deer in quantity. Native Americans used fire to drive them into confined areas, where they could be quickly killed. The natives also set seasonal ground fires in forested regions to create new vegetation and the edge habitats that deer favored. Deer had an exalted place in Native American cosmology and ritual. Young men rarely ate the first deer they killed for fear that other deer might never allow themselves to be killed. That belief system and the practice of killing Further Reading deer primarily for food and necessities helped preserve Barbour, I. G. (Ed.). (1973). Western man and environmental the herds. Perhaps 40 million white-tailed deer inhabethics: Attitudes toward nature and technology. Reading, ited North America in 1492. MA: Addison-Wesley. Those numbers diminished sharply as European Barrett, G. W., & Mabry, K. E. (2002). Twentieth-century colonists sought deerskins for the Atlantic market. In classic books and benchmark publications in biology. European tanneries, American deerskins became BioScience, 52(3), 282-286. gloves, bookbindings, harnesses, and buckskin Glick, T. (1999). White, Lynn, Jr. Encyclopedia of historians breeches favored by English aristocrats as casual attire. and historical writing (pp. 1295-1296). Chicago: Eitzroy In exchange for the skins, colonial traders offered NaDearborn. tive Americans guns, cloth, knives, metal utensils, and Nelson, M. P. (2001). Lynn White, Jr. 1907-1987. In Joy A. rum. As Native Americans became dependent on EuPalmer (Ed.), Pifty key thinkers on the environment (pp. ropean trade goods during the eighteenth century, 200-205). London: Routledge. they hunted primarily for the European market. By the White, L., Jr. (1967). The historical roots of our ecologic 1750s over half a million deerskins were shipped from crisis. Science, 155(3767), 1203-1207. southern ports each year. Colonial governments tried White, L., Jr. (1973). Technology assessment from the to protect diminishing deer herds by establishing stance of a medieval historian. Retrieved July 6, 2002, closed seasons on commercial hunting, but enforcefrom http://www.theaha.org/info/AHA_History/ ment was lax, and deer numbers declined 35 to 50 perlwhite.htm cent by 1800. During the nineteenth century, market Whitney, E. (1993). Lynn White, ecotheology, and history. hunting by midwestern settlers and improved railway transport made venison and deerskins important comEnvironmental Ethics, 15(2), 151-169. 1330
Wild Turkey modities in eastern cities. By 1870 venison sold for less than beef and pork in urban hotels and eateries. That market took a heavy toll. In 1890 government agencies estimated that only 300,000 white-tailed deer remained in America. They were all but extinct in several states. The Lacy Act, a federal law passed in 1900 to prohibit interstate shipment of any animals not taken in accord with state regulations, curtailed market hunting and set white-tailed deer on the path to a dramatic recovery. Sportsmen and wilderness advocates lobbied for the restocking of deer on public lands. Until the 1930s, wildlife managers also promoted systematic killing of wolves, coyotes, mountain lions, and other predators of deer. An abundance of abandoned farmland in the South .and Northeast provided deer with new and favorable habitat. As a result, white-tailed deer numbers have risen dramatically since the 1940s to a current estimated population of 25 million. In the East deer routinely encounter food shortages, disease, and other problems of overpopulation. Expanding human populations have also infringed on the natural habitat of deer. Many suburbanites now regard white-tailed deer as nuisance animals that devour shrubbery, carry deadly ticks, and create hazards for motorists. Despite lenient hunting regulations, culling of large herds, and sterilization of wild deer, the trend shows no sign of abatement. Timothy Silver Further Reading Halls, L. K. (Ed.). (1984). White-tailed deer: Ecology and management. Harrisburg, PA: Stackpole Books. Krech, S., III. (1999). The ecological Indian: Myth and history. New York: W. W. Norton. Nelson, R. (1997). Heart and blood: Living with deer in America. New York: Random House. Silver, T. (1990). A new face on the countryside: Indians, colonists, and slaves in South Atlantic forests, 1500-1800. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Wild Turkey The wild turkey (Meleagris gallopavo) is a bird species unique to North America. Scientists recognize six subspecies of wild turkey, which is a member of the pheasant (Phasianini) family. The eastern wild turkey is found over most of eastern and central United States
from southern Maine to northern Florida, westward through southern New England, New York, and southern Ontario to southeastern South Dakota. Eastern wild turkeys range southward through the eastern portions of Nebraska, Kansas, Oklahoma, and Texas. The Florida wild turkey is found in central and southern Florida. The Rio Grande wild turkey is found in central and western Texas, western Oklahoma, and southwestern Kansas. The Merriam's wild turkey is found in northeastern Mexico, Arizona, New Mexico, Colorado, and the western tip of Oklahoma. The Gould's wild turkey is found in north-central Mexico, southeastern Arizona, and southwestern New Mexico. The Mexican wild turkey is native to central Mexico. A separate species, the ocellated turkey (Meleagris ocellata), is native to the Yucatan Peninsula of Mexico and adjacent portions of Guatemala and Belize. The eastern, Rio Grande, and Merriam's subspecies have been widely introduced into many areas of North America, some of which are outside of the original range occupied by the subspecies. Throughout human occupation of North America the wild turkey has held cultural significance. From prehistoric to modern times Native Americans used wild turkeys for food and for ceremonial purposes. It is believed that the Anasazi people in Colorado, Utah, and New Mexico domesticated turkeys and that Aztecs in Mexico domesticated Mexican wild turkeys prior to the arrival of the Spanish in the 1500s. Domesticated turkeys were taken to Europe by Spaniards by 1520. Later English colonists returned "domestic" turkeys to North America. When Europeans began settling North America, they found the wild turkey in abundance in many areas, particularly the eastern United States. The value of the wild turkey to U.S. colonial settlement is exemplified by the symbolism of the turkey at Thanksgiving. Benjamin Franklin (1706-1790), one of the founding fathers of the United States, wanted the wild turkey adopted as the national symbol. However, Franklin was outvoted, and the national symbol became the bald eagle. Throughout settlement of the United States the wild turkey was an important source of food. Wild turkeys were hunted first as subsistence food and later commercially to feed an ever-urbanizing United States. Slowly the combination of unrestricted hunting and loss of habitat led to the demise of the wild turkey. Wild turkeys were completely eliminated in many areas and were reduced to small numbers in other areas. By the early twentieth century wild turkeys no longer were found in eighteen of the thirty-nine states where they originally had occurred. 1331
Turkey Schorger, A. W. (1966). The wild turkey—its history and domestication. Stillwater: Oklahoma State University Press. Taylor, C. I., Quigley, H. B., & Gonzalez, M. J. (n.d.). Ocellated turkey (Meleagris ocellata) (Wildlife Bulletin No. 6). Edgefield, SC: National Wild Turkey Federation. Williams, L. E., Ir. (1991). Wild turkey country, Minocqua, WI: Northword Press,
Wilderness A male Eastern Wild Turkey in Louisiana,
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In the 1930s the U.S. forester Aldo Leopold {18871948) emerged as a philosophical and scientific leader in a new field that became known as "wildlife management." In 1937 the U.S. Congress passed the Federal Aid in Fish and Wildlife Restoration Act, which established an excise tax on certain guns and ammunition used for hunting. The taxes collected by the U.S. government were then apportioned back to individual states to fund wildlife restoration and research. Thus at! era of modern wildlife conservation began. Because of their scarcity, wild turkeys became one of the subjects of restoration and scientific research. From the 1950s to 1999 wild turkeys were restored to the entire historical range and beyond. During the winter of 2001-2002, 5,500 wild turkeys were captured in eleven states and released into new habitats in eight states and one Canadian province. Legal hunting harvests of wild turkeys now exceed 700,000 annually. Roger D. Applegate
People have had and continue to have differing ideas of wilderness. The etymology of the word defies easy characterization, and definition is complicated by the interweaving of the word with the semantic history of other terms. For example, wild nature connotes a habitat without human-introduced plants and animals, as distinct from a habitat that contains species introduced by humans. One of the closest antecedents of "wilderness" is the Anglo-Saxon wilddeoren, meaning the place or habitat of wild deer. The Oxford English Dictionary provides a comprehensive liistory of English usage of "wilderness" dating from approximately 1200 CE. Linguistic convention defines "wilderness" as natural landscapes, free of human modification, and devoid of settlement; they are landscapes in which humans are only visitors.
Wilderness Themes As with all ideas, the notion of wilderness is understood in a variety of ways, with differing emphases. The following contemporary interpretations of wilderness are noteworthy. Wilderness and the Conservation of Biodiversity
Further Reading
Dickson, J. C. (1992). The wild turkey—biology and management. Harrisburg, PA: Stackpole Books. Hewitt, O. H. (1967). The wild turkey and its management, Washington, DC: Wildlife Society. Kallman, H. (1987). Restoring America's wildlife 1937-2987. Washington, DC: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. Pedersen, J. L. (2002). A successfitl Making Tracks trappijig season. Turkei/ Call. 29(4), 20-21. Porter, W. F., & Fleming, K. K. (2001). Proceedings of the eighth National Wild Turkey Symposium. Edgefield, SC: National Wild Turkey Federation. 1332
This theme is articulated especially by conservation biologists. The scientific consensus is that extinctions are increasing in frequency on all scales (local to global) and for all types {genetic to ecosystemic). As the human population grows, the habitats that are home to myriad other species are subject to development and fragmentation. In order to conserve biodiversity, there must exist wild lands that are not subject to development. Proposed solutions for the biodiversity crisis range from the short-term and regional {for example, the outright purchase of critical habitat for endangered species), to the long-term and continental, such as the
Wilderness Y2Y (Yellowstone to Yukon) Re-Wilding and the Wild Lands Project. These projects aim to designate and restore core habitats capable of sustaining the predisturbance suite of species and natural processes. Whether on a regional or a continental scale, the biodiversity view of wilderness entails a core commitment to the protection and management of wilderness as habitat for indigenous plant and animal species.
of ecological restoration. Freeman House, an articulate reinhabitant and member of the Mattole River Watershed Group, writes, "Patterns of mutuality flow out of the wild center to empower a community engaged in envisioning a sustainable future" (House 1999,211). Ethical Themes
Ethical considerations of the wilderness idea are diverse, yet typically converge on questions involving Wilderness and the Human Condition humankind's place within and relation to the naturally evolved world. As distinct from scientific assessments, This theme is reflected in such ancient textual sources as the Mesopotamian Epic ofGilgamesh and the Hebrew ethical considerations are invariably qualitative, such as Thoreau's arguments that wiidness is a necessary Scripture, in the works of the nineteenth-century Rocondition for the preservation of the world, and John mantic poets and Henry David Thoreau, in the twenMuir's notions that going into the mountains is going tieth-century writings of Aldo Leopold, and in discihome, as well as contemporary iterations such as evoplines such as environmental history and ecological lutionary arguments, posthistoric primitivism, and psychology. Whether the writings are secular or sadeep ecology. Evolutionists such as Edward O. Wilson cred, a central question is the place of humans in the argue that the natural history of humankind forces recnatural scheme. h\ one interpretation of Judeoognition of the continuing importance of wild places. Christian texts, while Adam and Eve were expelled Posthistoric primitivism, associated with the work of from the Garden of Eden, humans have nevertheless Paul Shepard and others, combines evolutionary biolbeen placed in the role of stewards of creation. Certain ogy with anthropological, paleontological, psychologinaturalistic accounts argue that wild places and creacal, and other human sciences to argue that humans tures are essential to the psychological well-being of remain social primates who are deformed by cultural humans. A variation on this theme is that wilderness systems, By "coming home to the Pleistocene," we can is a necessary condition for human self-understanding, reintegrate ourselves with the evolved wiidness that for what we have become as cultural beings can only surrounds us and also exists within human nature. be gauged against the wiidness of nature. Ecologists Deep ecology, associated with the work of Ame Naess, argue that human ecology cannot be separated from George Sessions, and others, argues that the intrinsic biological ecology; therefore, if we perturb wild nature, value of native species obligates the preservation and we risk perturbing ourselves in ways that are hard to restoration of wild habitats, and that such obligations predict. Ethicists such as Charles Taylor argue that the are fully consonant with an ecological understanding natural world makes moral claims on humans because of human nature. of its intrinsic value and because its destruction diminishes the human estate. In combination, such notions challenge anthropocentrism, which views nature as Issues and Controversies law material for economic exploitation. Countervailing discourses to either the received or to contemporary ideas of wilderness exist, including the Bioregionaiism and Reinhabitation following. Sometimes termed "the practice of the wild," bioregionaiism attempts to reestablish humans as dwellers The Social Critique within the wild, and thus demurs from the convenThe received idea of wilderness has been attacked as tional definition of wilderness. The basic premise is harboring classist, sexist, and racist dogma. That is, the that cultures that are cormected to natural processes wilderness idea reflects the interests of white, Euroand places are qualitatively richer and probably more American males. According to this argument, the idea sustainable than the dominant cultural forms of indusserved first to legitimate colonization, since wild lands trial-consumerism, which disconnect people from were presumed to be devoid of humans and therefore place. Differences exist across bioregional narratives, open for the taking, and later to displace indigenous reflecting the commitment to the importance of place. people from lands that became national parks, forests. Characteristically, bioregionalists engage in the work 1333
Wilderness and designated wilderness areas. Further, critics charge, the wilderness idea serves the interests of an economically privileged and politically powerful leisure class that converts wild nah.ire into a recreational playground, engaging in activities {skiing, hunting, fishing, snowmobiling) that ultimately degrade nature. Third World Criticism
Third World critics argue that the received idea of wilderness, and its variation as habitat for the conservation of biodiversity, harbors remnants of colonialism and Imperialism. Indian intellectuals offer several criticisms. Madhav Gadgii and Ramachandra Guha confront wilderness preservationists with arguments that the First World, having exploited its own ecologies, now wants the Third World to become the refuge of biodiversity. Vandana Shiva challenges the policies and philosophies of Third World elites who advocate technological modernization and industrialization as the keys to economic and social progress, and the creation of nature reserves for the preservation and conservation of indigenous species. She argues that those policies displace subsistence farmers from their native landscapes, with disastrous social and ecological consequences. Revisionist Arguments
These include arguments that the so-called New World first encountered by European explorers, and later the colonists, was not pristine wilderness, but a landscape shaped for thousands of years by humans. Environmental historians argue variations on this theme. For example, William Cronon states that colonial New England was not a savage, howling wilderness but a domesticated landscape. Shepard Krech III argues that indigenous people transformed the American landscape from coast to coast through fire. Amazonia itself has come under scrutiny, with persuasive arguments being advanced for significant human modification of the tropical rain forest over millennia. Dissenters from revisionism, such as E. O. Wilson, concede that humans have found niches in virtually all terrestrial environments. "But to claim that the surviving wildernesses are less than the name implies, and have in some sense become part of the human domain, is false" {Wilson 2002, 145). Ecological Restoration
Ecological restoration of degraded landscapes, especially in the public lands of the American West, raises 1334
a variety of wilderness issues. A restored landscape, critics charge, is an artifice. Critics believe that ecological restoration has been co-opted by land management agencies. Guided by the idea of sustainable development, ecosystem health rather than a return to the predisturbance state, becomes the goal of restoration. Thus ecological restoration becomes a legitimating rationale for remaking nature according to criteria of sustainability rather than criteria that move degraded landscape off trajectories of decline onto trajectories of recovery. Critics argue that only those landscapes allowed to heal themselves qualify as wilderness. ln contrast advocates of ecological restoration argue that rather than imposing artificial schemes, restoration actually mimics naturai processes, reestablishes indigenous flora and fauna, and deflects damaged ecosystems onto trajectories of recovery. "Strong restoration" is a term used to describe this kind of activity, implying that tiie restoration of prodisturbance composition, structure, and function of wild lands Is the goal, that invasive means are to be limited, that natural processes are to be mimicked, and that ultimately humans should be causally uncoupled from the restored wilderness ecosystem.
The Idea of Wilderness and Environmental History Environmental history and associated disciplines, such as historical ecology, landscape history, and cultural geography, all address the human influence on and place within natural systems. Different ideas of wilderness influence environmental historians in a variety of ways, including how they select and interpret relevant materials. At least three different ideas of wilderness can be discerned in environmental history. One is the theory of inevitable decline; that is, the interpretation of human impacts on the wild earth as leading toward (often inadvertent) ruination. Revolutionary changes, such as were occasioned by the agricultural and industrial revolutions, are subject to reinterpretation according to that theory. Variations on this theme range across spatial and temporal scales, whether it is the extinction of megafauna being caused by Paleolithic hunters, the collapse of the ancient Egyptian civilization {beginning w^ith deforestation and culminating in desertification), or the present-day impact of the chemical industry on people of color. The second idea of wilderness discernible in environmental history is revisionism, discussed earlier. The third idea of wilderness in environmental history is framed by ecological
Wilderness
science. Environmental histories of forest and fishery management, agriculture, and water resource development are being written using interpretive principles rooted in the ecosystem concept.
The Twenty-First Century Ongoing reinterpretations of the wilderness idea promise a more scientifically robust, historically articulated, and ethically leavened wilderness idea. Given the complexity of the idea of wilderness, no foundational discourse that resolves all questions can be anticipated. However, several salient themes are apparent in the early years of the twenty-first century. One is the recognition that pristine natural systems {free of human control) are an endangered, indeed, almost nonexistent, species. Simon Levin argues that human domination of natural systems offers a fragile dominion at best. A variety of responses to environmental dysfunctions, such as adaptive management and ecosystem management, have been articulated, emphasizing the ongoing importance of conserving and restoring the biodiversity without which any notion of wilderness is an empty concept. The work of conserving and restoring biodiversity envisions replacing degraded ecosystems and landscapes on evolutionary trajectories from which humans are causally disconnected and natural subsidy (as distinct from inputs of cultural resources, such as chemicals) is optimized. A second theme is the deconstruction of exceptionalism, that is, the notion that the human species has escaped natural selection. The cultural schemes that mediate human behavior are now clearly understood as subject to natural selection. It is now recogruzed that cultures are only viable if they are sustainable; that is, a viable culture can only be achieved through adaptive engagement with nature. The future of human society is arguably dependent upon restoring and sustaining ecosystem health, and therefore the conservation of biodiversity, including wild ecosystems. A third theme is woven from stands of evolutionary biology and natural history. The human and chimpanzee genomes are more than 99 percent the same, yet the little bit of difference makes all the difference. Humankind has become a symbol-using species^, timebinders who accrete and interpret experience through language. Many wilderness discourses are thus appropriately seen as contemporary versions of perennial philosophical and religious questions concerning the meaning of life. We now know that, whatever the pretense, humankind remains profoundly dependent
upon the naturally evolved world. The redefinition of humanity that follows from historical ecology, human ecology, and evolutionary biology indicates that regardless of culturally evolved features of life, such as the domestication of animals and the creation of built environments, the continuing practice of the wild— living in ways that harmonize with the naturally evolved world—is fundamental. While the natural, social, and human sciences articulate diverse wilderness themes, there is also convergence on a common center. Humankind remains embedded within and profoundly dependent upon the wild Earth. Pulitzer Prize-winning poet Gary Snyder writes that "a culture that alienates itself from the very ground of its own being—^from the wilderness outside . . . and from that other wilderness, the wilderness within—is doomed to a very destructive behavior, ultimately perhaps self-destructive behavior" {Snyder 1974,106). Given the ever-increasing pressures humanity places upon the wild Earth, conserving and restoritig biodiversity has become even more crucial to humanity's long-term prospects. In context, then, the twenty-first-century idea of wilderness might be understood as a part of the process of cultural adaptation to environmental exigencies. Which is to say that the forces of natural selection still operate on humankind, and that Thoreau's intuition that in wildness is the preservation of the world has been bome out in fact. Max Oelschlaeger
Further Reading Bickerton, D. (1990). Language and species. Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press. Bratton, S. P. {1993). Christianity, ivilderness, and wildlife: The original desert solitaire. Scranton, PA: University of Scranton Press. Callicott, J. B., & Nelson, M. P. {Eds.). {1998). The great new wilderness debate. Athens & London: University of Georgia Press. Cavalli-Sforza, L. L. {2000). Genes, peoples, and language {M. Seielstad, Trans.). New York: North Point Press. Cronon, W. {1983). Changes in the land: Indians, colonists, and the ecology of Nezu England. New York: Hill & Wang. Diamond, J. (1992). The third chimpanzee: The evolution and future of the human animal. New York: HarperCollins. Ehrlich, P. {2000). Human natures: Genes, cultures, and the human prospect. Washington, DC: Island Press. 1335
Wilderness Eisenberg, E. (1998). The ecology of Eden. New York: Alfred Wilson, E. O. (1992). The diversity of life. Cambridge, MA: A. Knopf. The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. Fisher, A. (2002). Radical ecopsychology: Psychology in the Wilson, E. O. (2002). The future of life. New York: Alfred service of life. Albany: State University of New York A. Knopf. Press. Wright, W. (1992). Wild knowledge: Science, language, and Foreman, D., & Wouk, H. (1992). The big outside: A descripsocial life in a fragile environment. Minneapolis: Univertive inventory of the big wilderness areas of the United sity of Minnesota Press. States. New York: Harmony Books. Gadgil, M., & Guha, R. (1993). This fissured land: An ecological history of India. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press. Crumbine, R. E. (1992). Ghost bears: Exploring the biodiver- Wilderness Society sity crisis. Washington, DC: Island Press. House, F. (1999). Totem salmon: Life lessons from another The Wilderness Society is a conservation group that species. Boston: Beacon Press. works through public education, scientific analysis, Krech, S., III. (1999). The ecological Indian: Myth and history. and advocacy to protect U.S. wilderness areas and pass New York: W. W. Norton. them on to future generations. Focusing on the 623 Lentz, D. L. (Ed.). (2000). Imperfect balance: Landscape trans- million acres of public land in the country, the Wilderformations in the precolumbian Americas. New York: Co- ness Society protects clean air and water, wildlife, lumbia University Press. beauty, and opportunities for recreation. Leopold, A. (1970). A Sand County almanac: With essays During the 1930s a growing number of wilderness on conservation from Round River. San Francisco: Sierra enthusiasts were becoming disillusioned with roadClub Books. building projects of the National Park Service, particuLevin, S. (1991). Fragile dominion: Complexity and the comlarly the highways through Shenandoah National Park mons. Reading, MA: Perseus Books. of Virginia and Great Smoky Mountains National Park Merchant, C. (1989). Ecological revolutions: Nature, gender of Tennessee and North Carolina. In 1935 the Wilderand science in New England. Chapel Hill: University of ness Society was formed by a group of men who, acNorth Carolina Press. cording to its mission statement, wanted to "save from Nash, R. (1982). Wilderness and the American mind (3rd ed.). invasion" the "minor fraction of outdoor America New Haven & London: Yale University Press. which yet remains free from mechanical sights and Oelschlaeger, M. (1991). The idea of wilderness: From prehissounds and smells" (Wilderness Society n.d.). Foundtory to the age of ecology. New Haven & London: Yale ing members included Robert Sterling Yard (1861University Press. 1945), publicist of the National Park Service; Benton Oelschlaeger, M. (Ed.). (1992). The wilderness condition: EsMacKaye (1879-1975), the "father of the Appalachian says on environment and civilization. San Francisco: Trail"; Robert Marshall (1901-1939), chief of recreation Sierra Club Books. Rudzitis, G. (1996). Wilderness and the changing American and lands for the U.S. Forest Service; and Aldo Leopold (1887-1948), wildlife ecologist at the Uruversity of WisWest. New York: Wiley & Sons. Sessions, G. (Ed.). (1995). Deep ecology for the 21st Century: consm. In 1936 Marshall spoke on behalf of the Wilderness Readings on the philosophy and practice ofthe new environSociety in favor of establishing Olympic National Park mentalism. Boston: Shambhala. Shepard, P. (1998). Coming home to the Pleistocene. Wash- in the state of Washington. Within a year, the organization had grown to 576 members. It was supported by ington, DC: Island Press. Shiva, V. (1989). Staying alive: Women, ecology, and develop- donations—mainly from Marshall, in the early years— and membership dues. ment. London: Zed Books. The Wilderness Act, signed by President Lyndon Snyder, G. (1974). Turtle Island. New York: New DirecB. Johnson in 1964, was instrumental to the Wilderness tions Publishing. Society in its quest to save America's vanishing wild Snyder, G. (1990). The practice of the wild. San Francisco: lands. The act enabled Congress to set aside portions of North Point Press. Soule, M. E. (Ed.). (1986). Conservation biology: The science national forests, national parks, and national wildlife refuges as units to be kept free from the influence of of scarcity and diversity. Sunderland, MA: Sinauer Associates. humans—without roads, structures, or vehicles. The 1336
Wind Energy Wilderness Society has helped pass legislation that has increased the acreage protected in the National Wilderness Preservation System. In 1980 the Alaska National Interest Land Conservation Act protected 56 million acres; and in 1994 the California Desert Protection Act saved 8 million acres of fragile desert lands. The Wilderness Society continues to take action on controversial issues, such as the Roadless Area Conservation Rule, which was adopted by the federal government in 2001 but remains unimplemented. This rule protects 58.5 million acres of national forests and national grasslands from road construction, commercial logging, new oil and gas leases, and mineral development. The Wilderness Society supports the protection of roadless areas (representing less than 2 percent of America's landscape), which provide refuge for vanishing wildlife and fish species and sources of clean drinking water for millions of Americans. Boise Cascade, a major logging corporation, has been vocal in its opposition to the roadless rule and continues to seek timber industry rights in old-growth forests. Another opponent of the Wilderness Society's efforts is the Society of American Foresters, which maintains that roadless areas are not in the best interest of forest management. In other recent campaigns, the Wilderness Society has fought a proposed U.S. Air Force bombing range in the Owyhee Canyonlands, located in Idaho, Oregon, and Nevada; has asked Congress to protect Baca Ranch in New Mexico, an important elk habitat; and has been working on a long-term management plan for wilderness and parks in the Sierra Nevada Range. The Wilderness Society headquarters is in Washington, D.C, and there are eight regional offices across the country. The society has 200,000 members and publishes the annual Wilderness magazine. Robin O'Suliivan
Further Reading Glover, J. M. (1986). A wilderness original: The life of Bob Marshall. Seattle, WA: The Mountaineers. Leopold, A. (1987). A Sand County almanac. New York: Oxford University Press. Reruiicke, J. (1998, June 1). The geography of hope. Backpacker, 38-40. Roberts, A. (1995). The Endangered Species Act: A commitment worth keeping. Animal Guardian, 8(3), 5-8, 15. Retrieved January 7, 2003, from http://www. a wionline .org/wildlife/ag-esa.htm
Rupp, D. (1998, August). Playing in the zones. Sports Afield, 76-80. The Wilderness Society, (n.d.). The Wilderness Society's Roots. Retrieved May 13, 2002, from http:// http:// www.wilderness.org/abouttws/history.htm
Wind Energy Only a small portion of incoming solar radiation (less than 2 percent) powers the atmospheric motion. The combination of diurnal and seasonal changes of insolation (exposure to sun's rays) and of differential heating of surfaces (vegetated vs. barren, land vs. water) mean that wind frequencies and velocities range from prolonged spells of calm to episodes of violent cyclonic (rainstorms, tornadoes, hurricanes) flows. Sail ships, used by the earliest civilizations of the Old World, were undoubtedly the first converters of wind energy into useful motion. And before tbe end of the twentieth century, one of the world's oldest energy sources has become one of the most promising modern providers of renewable energy as wind-generated electricity has been the fastest growing segment of modern renewable energetics. The first written record of windmills comes a millennium after the first mention of waterwheels: al-Masudi's report of 947 CE notes the use of simple verticalshaft windmills in Seistan (in today's eastern Iran) to raise water for irrigating gardens. The first European record comes only from the closing decades of the twelfth century. Subsequent development of windmills was uneven in both time and space.
Windmills and Their Uses The earliest vertical designs were used basically unchanged for many centuries in the Near East, as were the horizontal European machines. These mills pivoted on a massive central post that was supported usually by four diagonal quarterbars and the whole enginehouse had to be turned to face the wind. Post mills were unstable in high winds, vulnerable to storm damage, and their low height limited their efficiency. Still, unlike in China and India where wind power made historically little difference, post mills became a major source of rotary motion in Atlantic Europe. As witb watermills, grain milling and water pumping (the Dutch drainage mills being the most promi1337
Wind Energy nent examples of this application) were the most common applications of wind power. Other common uses included grinding and crushing, papermaking, sawing, and metalworking. Post mills were gradually replaced by tower mills and smock mills. Only the top cap of these machines had to be turned into the wind, and after 1745 the English introduction of the fantail made it possible to turn the sails automatically. The fantail catches the wind bearing away from the sails and it turns the cog ring at the top of the tower imtil the sails are returned square on to the wind. More than a century before this innovation the Dutch millers introduced the first relatively efficient blade designs that provided more lift while reducing drag. But true airfoils, aerodynamically contoured blades with thick leading edges, were introduced in England only by the end of the nineteenth century. America's westward expansion on the windy Great Plains created demand for smaller machines to pump water for steam locomotives, households, and cattle. These windmills were made of a large number of fairly narrow blades or slats that were fastened to solid or sectional wheels and they were usually equipped either with the centrifugal or the side-vane governor and with independent rudders. Windmills reached the peak of their importance during the latter half of the nineteenth century: in 1900 about 30,000 machines with a total capacity of some 100 megawatts worked in countries around the North Sea, and the U.S. sales of smaller brands of American windmills amounted to millions of units during the second half of the nineteenth century.
Wind Electricity Many machines that continued operating in the twentieth century were connected to generators to produce electricity for immediate household use and for storage in lead-acid batteries. Gradual extension of electricity networks ended this brief era of wind-generated electricity and little research and even less field testing on converting wind into useful energy was done until the early 1970s, when the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries suddenly quintupled the price of crude oil, reigniting the interest in renewable energies.
Modern Wind-Driven Electricity Generation The first modern boom in wind energy was launched by the U.S. tax credits during the early 1980s. By 1985 1338
the country's wind turbines had installed capacity of just over 1 gigawatt and the world's largest wind facility (637 megawatts) was at Altamont Pass in California. Low load factors, poor turbine designs, and the expiration of tax credits in 1985 ended this first wind wave. Better turbine designs, with blades optimized for low speeds, and larger turbine sizes have led the expansion that began around 1990. The average size of new machines rose from mere 40-50 kilowatts in the early 1980s to over 200 kilowatts a decade later. Today's commercial market is dominated by turbines rated at 500-750 kilowatts. The first machines with power of more than 1 megawatt have entered service, and 4-5 megawatt turbines, with rotor diameters of 110-112 meters, are in design stage. Germany, Denmark, and Spain have been the leaders of this expansion. New laws that guarantee higher fixed price for wind-generated electricity have been essential, and the Danish government has been particularly active in promoting wind power: The country now has the highest per capita installed capacity and it dominates the world export market in efficient wind turbines. Germany is the world leader in absolute terms, with more than 9,000 machines and about 6.1 gigawatts of installed capacity at the end of 2000. United States' wind-generating capacity rose from 1 gigawatt in 1985 to 2.5 gigawatts by the end of 2000, with half of it in California. Spain, India, the Netherlands, Italy, and the U.K. are next in line. Global capacity of wind turbines reached 1 gigawatt in 1985, 10 gigawatts in 1998 (equal to nuclear plants in 1968), and 17.3 gigawatts in 2000. As a result wind-driven electricity generation is seen as the most promising of all new renewable conversions, far ahead of other solar-based techniques both in terms of operational reliability and unit cost. Some experts argue that at the best windy sites, even unsubsidized wind electricity is already competitive with fossil-fueled generation, or even cheaper than coal or gas-fired production, and hence we should go for a more aggressive maximization of wind's potential. Some plans foresee 10 percent of the world's electricity supply generated by wind by the year 2020. That is not a modest goal considering that in the year 2000 wind generated less than 0.5 percent of the world's electricity. Available resource is no obstacle to even the boldest dreams. Only about 2 percent of all solar energy received by the Earth is needed to drive the atmospheric motion, and if a mere 1 percent of this flux could be converted to electricity, the global capacity would be
Wise-Use Movement some 35 terawatts, or more thari 10 times the 2000 total installed in all fossil, nuclear, and hydro stations. A much more restrictive estimate that considers only wind speeds above 5 meters per second up to 10 meters above ground puts the global wind power potential at about 6 terawatts, or about 350 times larger than the total installed in 2000. The main problems associated with tapping this potential result from the fact that wind is unevenly distributed in both space and time. Many windy sites are far away from centers of electricity consumption, and many densely populated areas with high electricity demand experience long seasonal periods of calm or low wind speeds and hence are utterly unsuitable, or only marginally suited, for harnessing wind's energy. Virtually the entire southeastern United States, northern Italy, and Sichuan, China's most populous province, are in the latter category. Wind's intermittence means that it cannot be used for base-load generation. Its fluctuations are only imperfectly predictable, and peak wind flows only rarely coincide with the time of the highest demand. Inevitably, these realities complicate efficient commercial utilization. The visual aspect of siting large turbines and building connection and transmission lines is another concern. Offshore siting of wind turbines should help to minimize or eliminate these impacts.
Stockhuyzen, F. (1963). The Dutch windmill. New York: Universe Books. Wolff, A. R. (1900). The windmill as prime mover. New York: John Wiley.
Wise-Use Movement
The term wise use originally appeared in the biography of the U.S. forester Gifford Pinchot, Breaking New Ground, in 1947. Pinchot (1865-1946), who was the first chief of the U.S. Forest Service in 1905, used the term synonymously with conservation. At the turn of the twentieth century conservation referred to using, rather than preserving, natural resources. Pinchot's view was in contrast to that of the U.S. naturalist John Muir (1838-1914), who believed in protecting wild areas and their resources from development forever. Today, those who believe in the wise use of natural resources are remnants of a social movement that has its roots in the Sagebrush Rebellions of the late 1800s, when public land issues and concerns about natural resources were only beginning to be identified, and similar debate over resource extraction and grazing in Vaclav Smil the late 1940s. Between 1978 and 1981, activists in the West opposed the federal government's land-use policies under federal acts such as the 1976 Federal Land Further Reading Policy and Management Act and the 1964 Wilderness Braun, G. W., & Smith, D. R. (1992). Commercial wind Act. Although loosely organized, opponents of the two power: Recent experience in the United States. Annual acts argued that the government was "locking up" Review of Energy and the Environment, 17, 97-121. public lands that were originally designed for recreaDanish Wind Industry Association. (2002). Read about tional use and resource extraction. They sought to use wind energy. Retrieved December 3, 2002, from constitutional language to have forest reserves and http://www.windpower.dk/core.htm other land in the public domain transferred from fedMcGowan, J. G., & Connors, S. R. (2000). Windpower: A eral control to the states. This became a legal issue turn of the century review. Annual Review of Energy based on the idea of states' rights and state soverand the Environment, 25, 147-197. eignty—giving states the power to control the land for Pasqualetti, M. J., Gipe, P., & Righter, R. W. (2002). Wind their own citizens. But the Sagebrush rebels were unpower in view: Energy landscapes in a crowded world. San successful in their efforts, and the "rebellion" appeared Diego, CA: Academic Press. to end. Reynolds, J. (1970). Windmills and watermills, London: Hugh Evelyn. Contemporary Wise-Use Movement Smil, V. (1994). Energy in world history. Boulder, CO: Westview. The ideas that formed the philosophical and legal basis Smil, V. (2003). Energy at the crossroads. Cambridge, MA: for the Sagebrush Rebellions began to resurface in the The MIT Press. late 1980s, and a social movement began to rebuild Sorensen, B.. (1995). History of, and recent progress in, itself. Although many of the Sagebrush rebels were no wind-energy utilization. Annual Review of Energy and longer politically active, they were replaced or supthe Environment, 20, 387-424. ported by advocates who believed in the same ideas. 1339
Wise-Use Movement The wise-use movement, as it has come to be called, was motivated hy the political ideals of President Roriald Reagan, whose values were grounded in western culture. He and members of his administration, including Secretary of the Interior James Watt, were sympathetic to the appeals of angry timber workers as logging operations diminished, to snowmobilers and four-wheel-drive club members who were barred from using trails on public lands, and to ranchers caught up in the contentious debate over grazing livestock on public lands. They were joined in their opposition by individuals who owned property located within the boundaries of national parks—called "inholders"— who had begun organizing in the mid-1970s. That opposition began to coalesce around 1988 near the end of the Reagan administration. In August 1988 nearly three hundred people gathered in Reno, Nevada, at a national conference sponsored by the Center for the Defense of Free Enterprise. The center brought together representatives from various extractive resource industries, trade group and government officials, and public interest membership organizations that dealt with environmental or resource issues. The participants produced the Wise Use Agenda—a list of twenty-five goals that would become the basis for the movement. The conference also brought together allied groups that were unaware that they shared many common perspectives about the environment. The Wise Use Agenda was printed and distributed nationally, and a copy was transmitted to President George H. W. Bush as a blueprint of recommendations for his new administration's resource policies. The agenda included broad policy goals that promoted the use of the environment for social and economic wellbeing; the identification and wise use of technologies that work in productive harmony with nature; public awareness; the discouraging of extremist attitudes toward resource use and protection; and sensitivity toward natural and human values. Specifically, movement leaders sought to have control and management of public lands turned over to state or coimty officials rather than being retained by the federal government. They believed that local citizens know more about the "wise use" of land and resources than does a distant Washington bureaucracy. This is especially true in the West, where wise-use advocates believed the "public" has the right to use "public lands" as it sees fit.
The Wise-Use Controversy After the agenda was issued environmental orgaruzations began to criticize the wise-use movement and its 1340
leaders. They argued that the umbrella organizations that served as the connections among wise-use advocates were actually front groups funded by extractive industries, thinly disguised as grassroots organizations, or connected to Eastern religious sects. The wiseuse movement's leaders, such as Alan Gottlieb and Ron Arnold of the Center for the Defense of Free Enterprise, were both charismatic and controversial as they traveled around the United States seeking support for the movement's goals. Criticism was also directed at individual organizations such as the Blue Ribbon Coalition and the Alliance for America, whose names, environmental groups believed, were not indicative of their true purpose of resource development. Others tried to connect wise-use advocates to militia organizations. Bill Clinton's presidential election in 1992 virtually ended their hope for legislative success as the new president embarked upon a more moderate environmental agenda than those of his predecessors. What little momentum wise-use leaders had under Reagan and Bush has never returned.
Movement Strategies The wise-use movement may have become so controversial because of the success it once had in mobilizing its membership. Those who supported the Wise Use Agenda were well connected through the Internet and through the organizations to which they belonged. They could be quickly informed about pending legislation that affected their interests and kept abreast of key issues through facsimile machines and direct mail campaigns. The Wise Use Agenda had also expanded to include groups previously working outside the movement, such as fish processors, shrimpers along the Gulf Coast, motorcycle clubs (including the radical Sahara Club), and those opposed to gun control or supportive of private property rights. Although the wiseuse groups could never point to any major legislative successes, some note that they were, at least for a short time, effective in gaining a seat at the policy table as part of the natural resources debate. They achieved legitimacy in some sectors of government, although at best, they may be said to have stalled, rather than rolled back, environmental legislation. Groups such as People for the West, for instance, played a key role in influencing the development of the comprehensive planning document, Yellowstone Vision for the Future in 1990-1991 and developed a persuasive message on public lands use that brought support from western ranchers, mining interests, and recreationists. But the
Women and Conservation group, which changed its name to "People for the USA," folded in 2001 when it ran out of funds. Ofher groups closed fheir doors as the momentum of fhe early 1990s began fo wane. A number of changes occurred during the administrations of Bill Clinton and George W. Bush. Several watchdog organizations were established or expanded to monitor wise-use groups and their activities, such as the Clearinghouse on Environmental Advocacy and Research (CLEAR) and Polifical Research Associates. Wise-use advocates began to characterize their membership as richly diverse, although the groups were still more active in fhe West than in ofher regions of fhe counfry, especially when fhe interesfs of rural residenfs collided with urban and suburban values. The concepf of wise use is now offen referred fo as "environmenfal backlash" fo encompass a broader specfrum of issues and advocates. Under President George W. Bush those advocates have found supporf in the administration's appointments to the Deparfment of Interior, the Deparfmenf of Agriculfure, and ofher key natural resource agencies and corrunissions. Erom the perspective of grassroots activism, fhe wise-use movement has certainly not kepf pace with Americans' enduring values of environmental protection and wilderness preservation, and one Sierra Club article noted fhaf few "foof soldiers" are left. If remains a movemenf thaf shadows the ups and downs of parfisan politics, gaining momenfum during fimes of conservative political power and subsiding periodically, as if did affer fhe Sagebrush Rebellions and fhe Clinfon adminisfrafion. Jacqueline Vaughn
Switzer, J. V. (1997). Green backlash: The history and politics of environmental opposition in the U.S. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner.
Women and Conservation
Women who are active in conserving natural resources live on every continent. At the turn of the twentieth century, during the conservation movement of fhe Progressive Era, fhe goals of members of women's clubs in fhe Unifed Sfafes were fo protecf forests and wafersheds and fo guarantee fhe preservation of fhe counfry's unique landscapes. By mid-fwenfieth century women in fhe Unifed Sfafes advocafed fhe creafion and monitoring of public lands as a means fo supporf conservafion. Women in ofher developed counfries supporfed efforts to create sustainable agricultural and forestry pracfices. By fhe end of fhe century women in developing counfries were joining in such indigenous efforfs as fhe greenbelf movemenf in Kenya to planf trees to reverse the desertification of their land. In the Unifed States the General Federation of Women's Clubs (GEWC) organized its Eorestry Division in 1902 and for a time reported fo fhe maledominafed American Eoresfry Associafion and Conservafion Congress abouf women's work in conserving foresfs and profecfing wafersheds. The GEWC supported fhe Minnesota Federation of Women's Clubs in saving fhe sfafe's Chippewa Eoresf Reserve, fhe California Federation in establishing Big Basin State Park to protecf a grove of redwoods, and fhe passage of fhe Further Reading federal Weeks Bill in 1911 fo esfablish national foresfs Arnold, R., & Gottlieb, A. (1994). Trashing the economy: in fhe East. The Louisiana Eederafion led in the development of the Waterways Committee that spawned How runaway environmentalism is wrecking America water conservation projects in fhirfy-nine sfafes wifh (2nd ed.). Bellevue, WA: Free Enterprise Press. goals of profecfing pure drinking wafer and clean Brick, P. D., & McGreggor Cawley, R. (Eds.). (1996). A waferfronfs. wolf in the garden: The lands rights movement and the Inspired by fhe California Eederafion, members of new environmental debate. Lanham, MD: Rowman and fhe GEWC—by fhen numbering 800,000 w o m e n Littlefield. broke wifh the American Eoresfry Associafion over fhe Echeverria, J., & Booth Ely, R. B. (Eds.). (1995). Let the issue of fhe preservafion of Hefch Hefchy Valley in people judge: Wise use and the private property rights Yosemife Nafional Park. The women joined nafuralisf movement. Washington, DC: Island Press. Gottlieb, A. (Ed.). (1989). The wise use agenda: A task force John Muir in unsuccessfully opposing a plan fo creafe report sponsored by the wise use movement. Bellevue, WA: a reservoir for the cify of San Erancisco in fhaf valley. GEWC members responded fo fhe loss by puffing fheir Eree Enterprise Press. Helvarg. D. (1994). The war against the Greens: The "wise efforfs behind whaf fhey called "fhe conservation of use" movement, the new right, and anti-environmental vio- nafural scenery" and fhe developmenf of nafional lence. San Francisco: Sierra Club Books. parks. Under fhe direction of GEWC presidenf Mary 1341
Women and Conservation Belle King Sherman, they lobbied Congress to pass the bill that established the National Park Service in 1916.
Preservation of Species American women of the early twentieth century also led in the preservation of bird and plant species. Women of the Audubon societies faced an issue with women's fashionable hats. The use of bird feathers as decoration, in particular the "aigrette" feathers from snowy egrets and great white herons, threatened those birds with extinction. Mabel Osgood Wright, president of the Connecticut Audubon Society and editor of Bird Lore, organized the secretaries of the initial nineteen state Audubon societies, who were all women but one, to campaign against the practice and to support protective legislation. In the 1930s and 1940s Rosalie Edge broke with the National Audubon Society to form the Emergency Conservation Committee (ECC) to publish pamphlets condemning actions that threatened conservation. She believed that the National Audubon Society's alliance with hunters made the Society oppose a federal bag limit on migratory birds and accept the practice of baiting ducks. The ECC's efforts stopped park rangers from controlling the white pelican population in Yellowstone National Park, protected a grove of sugar pines in Yosemite National Park, and rescued oldgrowth forests by helping to develop a constituency to create Olympic National Park. The women-run Garden Club of America, organized nationally in 1913, supported the work of state and local garden clubs to protect native plants and birds. Minerva Fiamilton Hoyt, conservation chair of the California Garden Club, protected desert plants by her drive to establish Joshua Tree National Monument in 1936. In the 1940s the Garden Club of America organized its eight thousand members to oppose mining in Organ Pipe Cactus National Monument in Arizona and the lumbering of virgin timber in Olympic National Park. Later they joined the successful protest against building Echo Park Dam in Dinosaur National Monument in Utah and Colorado. By midcentury one of the ways by which U.S. women preserved species and landscapes was to seek federal and state protection of public lands in addition to monitoring existing public lands. Marjory Stoneman Douglas became a spokesperson for the importance of the Florida Everglades as a habitat for vanishing species. Bettie Willard and Estella Leopold helped establish Florissant fossil beds in Colorado to save a deposit 1342
of fossils that are 38 million years old. Among women who organized to protect the shorelines of the Great Lakes by working to establish state and national parks were Genevieve Gillette in Michigan and Dorothy Buell, president of the Save the Dunes Council in Indiana. Biologist Liane Russell organized the Termessee Citizens for Wilderness Planning to keep dams out of wild rivers in Tennessee. Members of the Ohio League of Women Voters, shocked by the fires that erupted from the oil and debris in the Cuyahoga River, put their membership behind establishing a national park in the Cuyahoga Valley. Himdreds of women worked to protect the Alaskan wilderness by lobbying for the Alaska Lands Bill passed in 1980. They included the long-time environmentalist Margaret E. Murie and the Alaskan Celia Hunter, the first woman president of the Wilderness Society.
Developing Countries By the late twentieth century the conservation ethic was also well established in developing countries. Women's concerns stemmed from their need to provide food, fuel, and water for their families and communities in a sustainable way. In Kenya, Wangari Maathai founded the greenbelt movement in 1977 to transform women from "tree killers" into "tree planters" (Vollers 1988,11). Within ten years more than five hundred communities had developed tree nurseries, and twenty-five thousand households had established wood lots. Women in Ghana in Africa conserved wood by developing a device for smoking fish that uses onetenth as much wood as before, and women of the Chipko ("hug a tree") movement in the Himalayan region of India filed a successful suit to shut down limestone mines that were denuding hillsides. In 2001 the World Wildlife Fund (WWF) instituted its Women and Conservation Initiative to offer grants, training, and technical assistance to women in conservation in addition to giving annual awards for accomplishments. For the first awards, WWF selected Meidi Kasmidi from Sulawesi, Indonesia, who worked to establish Bunaken Marine Park and introduce concepts of marine conservation to fishers outside the park, and Mauricia Gonzalez Garcia from Chiapas, Mexico, whose organization, Linea Biosfera, has trained a network of advocates in agro-ecology, human rights, and health in ten Central American communities. Polly Welts Kaufman See also Chipko; Douglas, Marjorie Stone; Wright, Mabel Osgood
Wood Further Reading
ubiquitous warmth of their original equatorial habitat in Africa to lands throughout the Old World, where Englehardt, N. (2001) World Wildlife Fund acknowledges heat from fire made these colder climates habitable. women's contribution to conservation. Retrieved June 20, Fire released Homo erectus from restraints of climate, 2001, from http://www.worldwildlife.org allowing the species to create its own indoors. IncreasKaufman, P. W. (1996). National parks and the woman's ing the range of habitat gave the genus better odds for voice: A history. Albuquerque: University of New Mexsurvival. Light from wood fires permitted Homo erectus ico Press. to continue working after nightfall. Hence, the discovMaathai, W. (1988). The green belt movement: Sharing the ery liberated humanity from the confines of night. approach and the experience. Nairobi, Kenya: EnvironWood fires also diversified the diet of Homo erectus. ment Liaison Centre International. Armed with torches. Homo erectus hunted at night with Merchant, C. (1996). Earthcare: Women and the environment.more effective fire-hardened wooden spears. Nor did New York: Routledge. these ancestors have to live by the vagaries of game Norwood, V. (1993). Made from this Earth: American women because vegetable matter like tubers, when cooked and nature. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina over fire, became eatable as well. Hence, fire gave huPress. manity an enhanced degree of stability. Fire also proShiva, V. (1988). Staying alive: Women, ecology, and developvided humans with greater security because they could ment. London: Zed Books. sleep at night knowing that its flames warded off predVoUers, M. (1988). Healing the ravaged land. International ators and lessened the danger of stepping on venomWildlife, 18(1), 4-9. ous snakes or tripping over rocks by improving vision at night. The availability of wood fuel changed not only the social evolution of the human genus but also its physical development. Cooking-softened food led to smaller molars. Although many animals like the chimWood panzee and otter have used tools to aid in their pursuit of food, no other animal except for those in the genus Ancient writers observed that forests always recede as from Homo erectus to Homo sapiens has ever built fires. civilizations grow. The Roman poet Ovid wrote, for example, that during the "Golden Age," before civilization began, "even the pine tree stood on its own hills" but that when the Iron Age began, "the mountain oak, the pine were felled" (Ovid 1976,1.94-1.95). This change occurred because wood has been the principal fuel and building material for almost every society for over five thousand years, from the Copper Age until the middle of the nineteenth century. Without access to vast supplies of wood, the great civilizations of Sumer, Assyria, Egypt, China, Knossos (in ancient Crete), ancient Greece and Rome, western Europe, and the Western Hemisphere after European settlement would have never emerged. Wood, in fact, is the unsung hero of the technological revolution that has brought civilization from a stone-and-bone culture to the present age.
The Uses of Wood
Wood, as humanity's principal fuel for fire, has allowed the human species to reshape the Earth for its use. With heat from wood fires, humanity has settled throughout the globe, making even very cold regions habitable. Grains became edible when cooked over wood fires. Agriculture could then spread, resulting in settlements that grew from isolated rural houses to great cities. In charcoal-fueled kilns where temperatures rose above 900° C, potters could change earth into durable ceramics to store and ship goods. Metallurgists stoked charcoal fires to extract metal from stone. They revolutionized tools and weaponry to such a degree that historians categorize the various ages of civilization according to the dominant metal in use at the time. Wood before Civilization Transportation—and, by extension, trade—the accumulation of wealth, exploration, and colonization As important as wood has been in the development of would have been unthinkable without wood. From the civilization, it played an even more important role in Bronze Age until the two ironclad ships clashed by human evolution. Wood provided some of the first humans. Homo erectus, with fuel for fire. The discovery Hampton Roads, Virginia, in 1862, almost every ship, of how to make fire from wood allowed Homo erectus, whether involved in commerce or war, was built with from which Homo sapiens evolved, to migrate from the timber. Carts, chariots, and wagons were also built pri1343
Wood marily of wood. Early steamboats and railroad locomotives in the United States ran on wood fuel. Wooden ships tied up to wooden piers and wharves. Wooden carts, chariots, and wagons crossed wooden bridges and, in the United States during the nineteenth century, traveled on wooden roads. Railroad ties, of course, were wooden. Wood was also used for the beams that propped up mine shafts and supported almost every type of building. Waterwheels and windmills—the major means of mechanical power hefore steam was harnessed—were usually built of wood. The peasant could not farm without wooden tool handles or wood plows; the soldier could not throw his spear or shoot his arrows without their wooden shafts; he could not hold his gun without its wooden stock. What would archers have done lacking wood for hows; the brewer and vintner, lacking wood for their barrels and casks; or the woolen industry, lacking wood for its looms?
Recognizing the Importance of Wood Great thinkers in times past recognized their society's debt to wood as its principal building block. The Greek
philosopher Plato, according to Diogenes Laertius, wrote that all technology was derived from mining and forestry. Lucretius, one of the foremost Roman philosophers, argued that wood made mining, and as a result, civilization, possible. Great fires, according to Lucretius, "devoured the high forests and thoroughly heated the earth," melting metal from ore. When people came to observe the burned-down forest and saw the solidified metal lying on the ground, "the thought came to them," Lucretius continued, "that these pieces could be made liquid again by fire and cast into the form and shape of anything, and then hy hammering, could he drawn into the form of blades as sharp and thin as one pleased so they might equip themselves with tools...." Tools, in turn, Lucretius concluded, made forestry and carpentry possible, enahling humans "to cut forests, hew timber, smooth, and even fashion it with auger, chisel and gouge" (Lucretius 1997, 5.12551268). In this way, Lucretius surmised, civilization emerged. Pliny, the great Roman natural historian, concurred with Lucretius's judgment that wood was "indispensahle for carrying on life" (Pliny 1938-1963, 12.5). The Roman statesman Cicero explained the importance of
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Wood wood to Roman civilization when he wrote, "We cut up trees to cook our food . . . for huilding . . . to keep out heat and cold . . . and also to huild ships, which sail in all directions to hring us all the needs of life" (Cicero 1997, 2.150-151). Respected commentators of life in later times also talked about the importance of wood for their societies. Arab philosopher Ihn Khaldun, writing in the fourteenth century CE, discussed the crucial role wood played in the medieval Muslim world. "God made all created things useful for humanity," Khaldun wrote in his major work, the Muqaddimah,"so as to supply all their necessities and needs. Trees helong among these things. They have innumerable uses for everyone. Wood gives people fuel to make fires," which, in Khaldun's estimation, they "need to survive. Bedouins use wood for tent poles and pegs, for came litters for their women, and for the lances, hows, and arrows they use for weapons," while "sedentary people use wood for the roofs of their houses, for the locks for their doors, and the chairs on which they sit." Therefore, the carpenter "is necessary to civilization" (Ihn Khaldun 1958, 2.363-364). The government of the Venetian Republic, once the world's major maritime power, acknowledged its deht to wood for the development and hegemony of the Venetian state. As.a nation whose wealth was hased on sea power, Venice regarded its forests as "the very sinews of the Republic" (Perlin 1991, 152). The English of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries also recognized the crucial role of wood in their lives. Gahriel Plattes, who wrote on technological matters in the seventeenth century, ohserved that all "tools and instruments" used in Europe at that time "are made of wood and iron." But of the two materials, Plattes deemed wood as more crucial because without wood fuel, "no iron," the principal metal of that time, "can be provided" (Plattes 1639, 9). Likewise, the English of that age realized their dependence on wood for trade and navigation that gave the nation preeminence both commercially and economically. As one naval official declared, "As the Navy hath no being without ships, so no ships without timber" (Perlin 1991, 30). Leading officials of the new American nation quickly realized the importance of forests to the development of the country. Alexander Hamilton, in his Report on Manufactures, informed the American people of their good fortune to have both iron "in great abundance" and cheap and plentiful supplies of charcoal, "the chief instrument in manufacturing it" (Hamilton 1961-1987, 10.314). Tench Coxe, a close friend of Thomas Jefferson and James Madison as well as an
economic writer in his own right, made a similar observation in the 1790s that the new nation's great forests would provide the young country with an "immense and imequalled" store of "wooden raw materials and fuel for invaluable and numerous manufactures" (Coxe 1794, 450-451). James Hall's seminal work on pioneer society in the Ohio River valley showed how those settling in lands west of the Allegheny Mountains relied almost entirely on indigenous timber for all their needs. Not only did these pioneers use wood for building houses, hridges, and fencing and for fuel, but also they substituted, according to Hall, wooden pins for iron nails, curbed wells with hollow logs, had their doors "swinging on wooden hinges" as well as fastened with a wooden latch." Because pioneers so often used wood in place of "stone, iron and even leather," the American frontier, according to Hall, could indeed be called "a wooden country" (Hall 1836, 101).
Wood and Language Language through the ages also demonstrates the important role that wood played in the lives of human ancestors. The Sumerians, who established the first written language more than four thousand years ago, used the cuneiform sign "gis" as the root for huilding words relating to wood. These words included plan, model, and archetype. Architectron, which in classical
Greece came to mean "chief builder" and is the word from which architect comes, originally meant "leading wood worker." The Romans used the expression "carrying a load of timber to the forest" to signify a redundant act, similar to the English expression "carrying coals to Newcastle"—which came into being when coal replaced wood as England's principal fuel and Newcastle was the regional center where most of England's coal was found. For the ancient Greeks and Romans the words meaning "wood"—hulae and materia—came to mean "primary matter." The merging of these two meanings suggests that people living in classical times regarded wood as the hasic material from which everything else was derived. The word /egno,"wood" in Italian, could also be used for "ship" in the days when timher was used for shipbuilding. Trees were so important to life in ancient Ireland that the old names of the letters in the Irish alphahet were names of trees, hegirming with alim (elm), beith (birch), coll (hazel), dair (oak), and so on. John Evelyn, a leading figure in seventeenthcentury England, sununed up the significance of wood 1345
Wood to past societies with the observation that "all arts ar\d artisans"—technology—"must fail and cease if there were no timber and wood. ..." Evelyn did not resort to hyperbole when he stated that the England of his day would be better off "without gold than without timber" (Evelyn 1786, 2.216). By the beginning of the nineteenth century wood started to lose its crucial role in the evolution of civilization. Beginning in England in the late eighteenth century, the transition from charcoal to coal in iron smelting allowed Western society to begin freeing itself from the fetters of wood. No longer dependent on scarce wood for fuel, iron production in Great Britain mushroomed, and Great Britain soon became the leading industrial power of the nineteenth-century world. Other European nations soon followed England's lead. The availability of iron to build all sorts of machinery and the availability of seemingly unlimited coal to power them ushered in a new era qualitatively separating those people living since the middle of the nineteenth century from the rest of history. This new age of unprecedented growth is called the "Industrial Revolution." The naval clash in 1862 between the first two ironclad warships off the eastern American coast put an end to an era—dating back to ancient Egypt—of society's reliance on wooden ships for commerce and war. Hence, with wooden ships made obsolete by that one clash, wood lost its geopolitical importance. Ironically, the force that relegated wood to just another commodity—the rise in importance of fossil fuels and iron— increased qualitatively society's demand for wood and its ability to meet this demand. The Industrial Revolution greatly erUarged the consumer base for paper products ranging from books and newspapers to toilet paper. It also greatly increased population and its wealth, resulting in increased house construction and therefore stimulating a growing need for lumber products. Machinery made from iron and powered by fossil fuels has provided these wood products in evergreater amounts by revolutionizing access to the forest, transport of wood to points of manufacture, and delivery of finished products to consumers. John Perlin Further Reading Cicero. (1997). The Nature of the gods (H. Rackham, Trans.). New York: Garland. Coxe, T. (1794). A view of the United States ofAmerica. Philadelphia: William Hall. 1346
Drushka, K., & Konttinen, H. (1997). Tracks in the forest. Helsinki, Finland: Harbour Publishing Company. Evelyn, J. (1786). Silva. York, UK: A. Ward for J. Dodsey. Hall, J. (1836). Statistics of the West at the close of the year 1836. Cincirmati, OH: J. A. James. Hamilton, A. (1961-1987). Papers (H. Syrett, Ed.). New York: Columbia University Press. Khaldun, I. (1958). Muqaddimah [An introduction to history]. New York: Pantheon. Lucretius. (1997). On the nature of the universe (R. Melville, Trans.). New York: Oxford University Press. Nef, J. (1923). The rise of the British coal industry. London: Cass. Ovid. (1976). Metamorphoses (G. Sandys, Trans.). New York: Garland. Perlin, J. (1991). A forest journey: The role of wood in the development of civilization. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Plattes, G. (1639). A discovery of infinite treasure hidden since the world's beginning. Amsterdam: Theatrum Orbis Terrarum. Pliny the Elder. (1938-1963). Natural history (H. Rackham, Trans.). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Tucker, R. P., & Richards, J. F. (Eds.). (1983). Global deforestation and the nineteenth-century world economy. Durham, NC: Duke University Press.
World Bank The World Bank is a group of multilateral lending organizations that forms the major source of financial assistance to more than one hundred developing countries. The World Bank was established at an international conference held in Bretton Woods, New Hampshire, in 1944, with the goal of supporting recovery of nations affected by World War II. Within a few years the goal had broadened to one of financing economic development of poor countries. The International Monetary Fund (IMF), established at the same time, works to stabilize currency exchange throughout the world. The main organizations that make up the World Bank, based in Washington, D.G., are the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD), and the International Development Association (IDA). The IDA makes loans on favorable terms to the poorest countries, allowing long repayment and low interest. The IDA was founded in 1960 and is supported by
World Wildlife Fund
funds from donor cotmtries, whereas the IBRD charges market interest rates and is expected to pay its own way. Together the IBRD and IDA made new loans totaling over $17 billion in 2001. That amount understates the true influence of the World Bank because the willingness of the World Bank to make loans to a project reassures individuals and private banks that invest additional money. Another member of the World Bank group, the Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency (MIGA), insures multinational corporations against political risks when they invest in developing countries. Through MIGA the bank attempts to exert some leverage to protect the environment, for example, by putting pressure on a mine in Indonesia that dumps its wastes into the river. The first environmental advisor at the World Bank was appointed in 1971 but had relatively little influence over projects supported by the bank. It was only in 1989 that all projects were required to undergo an environmental assessment and that substantial time was devoted to environmental concerns. The pressure to improve the bank's environmental record came from environmental organizations that publicized the damage to tropical forests and indigenous people caused by large projects such as Polonoroeste in Brazil, which opened roads into Amazonia. Another project that was subjected to criticism was the huge Sardar Sarovar dam in the Narmada Valley of India. As a result, its World Bank funding was withdrawn in 1993 while it was still under construction. Ironically, just as the environmental assessment of World Bank projects was becoming well accepted, less bank money was going to specific projects and more to structural adjustment loans (loans given only if the government of the recipient country is willing to undertake reforms of its economy along free market principles). These loans went into countries' general budgets and were not subject to environmental assessment. The stringent conditions of structural adjustment affected the environment in many ways, such as encouraging indebted countries to export their natural capital of forests and minerals. Environmental economists, anthropologists, and ecologists on the bank staff, notably Herman Daly, Michael Cernea, and Robert Goodland, attempted to "green" their colleague economists, but the basic purpose of the bank, to promote economic growth, seemed to many environmentalists to be at odds with the long-term survival of life on the planet. Popular resistance to the effects of economic globalization led to protests against global financial institu-
tions, including the Jubilee 2000 movement that proposed forgiving the debts of the most heavily indebted nations. Although the World Bank has been at the environmental cutting edge among the various agencies that provide development funding, because it is the biggest and most visible, it has also been at the center of protest. Patricia K, Townsend Further Reading Cobb, J. B. (1999). The earthist challenge to economism: A theological critique ofthe World Bank. New York: St. Martin's. George, S., & Sabelli, F. (1994). Faith and credit: The World Bank's secular empire. Boulder, CO: Westview. Goodland, R. (2000). Social and environmental assessment to promote sustainability: An informal view from the World Bank (Environment Department paper No. 74). Retrieved June 28, 2002, from http://www.wds.worldbank.org Rich, B. (1994). Mortgaging the earth: The World Bank, environmental impoverishment, and the crisis of development. Boston: Beacon Press. Wade, R. (1997). Greening the bank: The struggle over the environment, 1970-1995. In D. Kapur (Ed.). The World Bank: Its first half-century: Vol. 2. Perspectives (pp. 611-734). Washington, DC: Brookings Institution.
World Wildlife Fund Founded as a charity in 1961 in Switzerland by scientists and conservationists who were alarmed at the rate at which wild animal species were disappearing, especially in Africa, the World Wildlife Fund (WWF) has become one of the world's largest independent organizations dedicated to the conservation of nature. The mission of the World Wildlife Fund (WWF) is to build a future in which humans live in greater harmony with nature. In particular, the WWF works to promote activities that help to conserve the world's biological diversity, ensure that the use of renewable natural resources is sustainable, and reduce waste and pollution. The WWF now operates in around a hundred countries, and its panda logo is one of the most widely known logos in the world. Since 1961, the WWF's work has broadened from the conservation of specific ani1347
World Wildlife Fund mals and plar\ts threatened with extinction to general environmental protection. The WWF claims to have around 5 million supporters spread across all continents. It has over twentyeight national organizations. Since its inception the WWF has invested in more than 13,000 projects in 157 countries. All these play a part in the campaign to stop the accelerating degradation of Earth's natural environment. In partnership with the International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) and the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), the WWF pro-
Wright, Mabel Osgood (1859-1934) Nature writer and conservationist
Mabel Osgood Wright was not only one of the most popular woman nature writers of the Progressive Era, but also one of its most influential woman conservationists. The author of more than twenty-five works of fiction and nonfiction, Wright founded the Connecticut Audubon Society, served as associate editor of BirdLore magazine (now Audubon), helped to organize one of the first privately owned bird sanctuaries in the duced The World Conservation Strategy in 1980, one of United States, and educated thousands of children in the firsf major statements of how social development the art and science of nature study. and environmental protection might harmonize. Since Born in New York City to Samuel Osgood (1812then, some fiffy countries have formulated and initi1880), a Unitarian minister, and Ellen Haswell Murated their own national conservation strategies, based dock, Wright was raised in the family's Greenwich Vilon its recommendations. By the mid-1980s, the WWF lage home and educated at Miss Lucy Green's school felt that it needed to change its name from World Wildfor girls at 1 Fifth Avenue. Her father, the influential life Fund to the World Wide Fund for Nature in order pastor of fhe Church of the Messiah, introduced to reflect its broadened range of concerns; now it is Wright to William Cullen Bryant, Oliver Wendell known simply as WWF. The United States and Canada, Holmes, and other prominent literary figures, and he however, retained the old name. also encouraged her interest in nature, which she deThe WWF has tended to take a less critical view of veloped during regular visits to the family's summer business and government than many environmental home in Fairfield, Connecticut. After her 1884 marriage organizations. This stance, the WWF would argue, ento James Osborne Wright (1852-1920), a rare book ables it to maintain a dialogue with business and politidealer, Wright began living much of the year in Faircal leaders. The WWF has tried to build links with relifield, where she watched the small, coastal New Enggious organizations as well. land town gradually become a suburb of New York The WWF played a significant role in building an Cify. international consensus to protect whales and has Wright's nature writing included natural history fought hard against the destruction of elephant popuessays, field guides, children's books, and garden lations by ivory poachers. It has also played a major books. Her first major publication. The Friendship of Napart in the promotion of so-called debt-for-nafure ture (1894), collected her essays on the birds and flowswaps, under which a portion of a country's foreign ers surrounding her Fairfield home. It was hailed by debt is converted into funds for conservation. readers and critics alike as a sensitive and accurate porIn 1991, the WWF, IUCN, and UNEP joined forces trayal of the Connecticut landscape. Equal acclaim was again to publish Caring for the Earth: A Strategy for Sus- accorded to Wright's two field guides: Birdcraft (1895), tainable Living. It lists 132 actions people at all social which became the leading guide to bird identification and political levels can take to enhance their environuntil the publication of Roger Tory Peterson's Field ment while simultaneously increasing the quality of Guide to the Birds (1934), and Flowers and Ferns in Their their life. In the later 1990s, the WWF began to focus Haunts (1901), a companion guide to plant life. Her its activities on three key areas: forests, freshwater ecowriting for children included works of nature fiction, systems, and oceans and coasts. The organization such as Tommy-Anne and the Three Hearts (1896), and seems set to play a major role in future conservation introductions to bird and animal life, such as Citizen efforts. Bird (1897), written with the naturalist Elliott Coues. Sandy Irvine Of Wright's fictional works for adults, the most popular were her semiautobiographical books—written Further Reading under the pseudonym "Barbara"—which contained WWF. (2002). WWF Global Network. Retrieved May 29, various nature observations and gardening tips. The 2002, from http://www.panda.org
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best of these is The Garden of a Commuter's Wife (1901).
Wright, Mabel Osgood
A Selection from Mabel Osgood Wright's The Friendship of Nature A morning in winter; can there be morning in the dead season? Tiiere is no dead season. iVIen say that it is summer, or autumn, or winter, but Nature has set no fixed bounds to her actions, and does not perish when she casts off her apparei, but, gathering her forces to herseif, prepares for new effort. Nature knows but two changes, putting forth and withdrawing, and between these there is a constant transition. We caii the first of them birth, the iast, death, and choose to surround them with mystery. Nature, ieft to herself, has gentle gradations, blending aii from the first breath to the last, as she mingies the prismatic colours, with no gap to measure where youth ends or age begins. We fasten attributes to things, and hold them there by mere persistency. There is no reaily dead season; there are no snows so deep but somewhere in the firs the crossbiil holds his sign of the sacred legend, no ice so thick but under it the warm current stirs, no age so dreary that love may not quicken it until eternal spring.
Source: Wright, M. 0. (1999). The friendship of nature: A New Engiand chronicle ot hirds and flowers (D. J. Philippon, Ed.). Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. (Original work published 1894)
As a conservationist, Wright sought to protect endangered songbirds, educate children about suburban nature, and encourage other women to do the same. In 1898 she founded the Audubon Society of the State of Connecticut (now the Connecticut Audubon Society) and served as its firsf president until 1925. She also served on the board of directors of the National Association of Audubon Societies (now the National Audubon Society) from its organization in 1905 until 1928; worked as associate editor of BirdLore from 1899 to 1911; and in 1914 helped create Fairfield's Birdcraft Sanctuary, a wildlife refuge that is still an active facility of the Connecticut Audubon Society. Wright died at home and was buried with her husband at Oaklawn Cemetery in Fairfield. She had no children. Daniel J. Philippon
Further Reading Barrow, M. V. (1998). A passion for birds: American ornithology after Audubon. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. Doughty, R. W. (1975). Feather fashions and bird preservation: A study in nature protection. Berkeley: University of California Press. Gibbons, F., & Strom, D. (1998). Neighbors to the bird: A history of birdwatching in America. New York: W. W. Norton. Norwood, V. (1993). Made from this earth: American women and nature. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. Wright, M. O. (1999). The friendship of nature: A New England chronicle of birds and flowers (D. J. Philippon, Ed.). Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. (Original work published 1894)
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Yam
are grown in sub-Saharan Africa. In parts of Nigeria and Ghana, villagers celebrate the annual yam festival The yam, Dioscorea batatas, is a member of the Dioscore- of Iri-ji ("new yam eating") to thank their ancestral gods for a new harvest. The yam is also a powerful aceae family of tropical and subtropical herbs and marriage symbol in parts of African culture. shrubs with starchy rhizomes, which has been cultivated for food since prehistoric times. Yam plants have The yam is commonly mistaken for the sweet poclimbing stems, leaves, flowers, and fleshy tubers that tato, a member of the morning glory family that origican grow up to 2.1 meters in length and weigh up to nated in Peru and Ecuador in prehistoric times. The yam and sweet potato, however, are not even distantly 54 kilograms. The yam tuber, the edible part of the related. The existence of the yam was mistakenly plant, has a dark brown or black scaly skin that resemrecorded in North America in 1676 by African slaves, bles the bark of a tree and off-white, golden, red, or who called the American sweet potato by its African purple flesh, depending on the variety. Yams thrive in names. Indeed, the African presence in the American the warm, frost-free, tropical climates of South AmerSouth made the sweet potato—which reminded blacks ica, Africa, and the Caribbean and are rarely found in American markets. Only one species, Dioscorea rotun- of the African yam—a crucial food in southern cuisine. data, is grown around the world. Yams are often identi- Yams, however, contain more natural sugar than sweet fied by their Spanish names, boniato and mme, and by potatoes, have higher moisture contents, take much their Japanese name, daisho. Although more than six longer to mature, and can be stored much longer—up to six months. hundred species of yams exist, only six are edible. Besides culinary, economic, and cultural value, the Civilizations have long cultivated the yam. More yam has many medicinal uses. Since 1850, species in than fifty thousand years ago, the yam was domestithe Dioscorea genus, including some edible yams, have cated simultaneously in different places, including been used to treat abdominal pain, rheumatoid arthriparts of Africa, South America, and tropical Asia, tis, and muscular rheumatism. In 1942 American Ruswhere it became a staple of subsistence agriculture. sell Macherane extracted diosgenin, a female hormone West African artifacts depict the yam on pottery. In precursor, from one yam species and converted it into east Africa during the first centuries of the common progesterone, facilitating the development of the birth era, Bantu peoples practiced forest agriculture based control pill. The yam has many experimental medical on the yam. The word yam, in fact, derives from the African verbs njam, nyami, or djambi, which all mean uses as well. Jessica Teisch "to eat." Today the yam still holds tremendous economic and symbolic importance in African culture. Further Reading Western Africa (Cameroon, Nigeria, Benin, Togo, Ghana, and Ivory Coast), for example, produces 90 perDegras, L. (1993). The yam: A tropical root crop. London: cent of the world's yams, and 95 percent of all yams Macmillan. 1351
Yam
Marking Out the Yam Field The yam is a major crop for many farming peopie in Africa, sucii as the Tiv described beiow, who each year carefuiiy mari( out their fieids. In the Kparev lineages, the compound head first of all himself erects one large yam heap on which he will then erect an akombo, or magical emblem. This mound, with the akombo set either on it or just in front of it, is the centre point of the top (ityougti) side of the field of the senior woman of the compound, usually the mother or wife of the compound head. He then takes 58 (more or less) paces in a straight iine to the hottom (ityo) of the field and marks the spot. Most Tiv say that yam mounds should be one pace (32-33 inches) apart, and that there should be 58 mounds in a row (itia); hence the compound head should take 58 steps. There is some variation in the number of mounds said to compose a row; though the most common number is 58, the range is from 50 to 80. There is, of course, even greater variation in the number of heaps actually found in rows. Source: Bohannan, Paul. (1954). Tiv Farm and Settlement London: Her Majesty's Stationery Office, p. 16.
Dounias, E. (2001, March). The management of wild yam tubers by the Baka pygmies in southern Cameroon. African Study Monographs, Suppl. 26, 135-156. Gebremeskel, T. (1987). Yam in Africa. Ibadan, Nigeria: Socioeconomic Unit, International Institute of Tropical Agriculture. Headland, T. N. (1987). The wild yam question: How well could independent hunter-gatherers live in a tropical rain forest ecosystem? Human Ecology, 15 [4]463-491. Onwueme, I. C. (1978). The tropical tuber crops: Yam, cassava, sweet potato, and cocoyams. New York: Wiley.
Yellow Sea The Yellow Sea is a semi-enclosed sea bounded by China to the north and west. North and South Korea to the east, and the East China Sea to the south. It covers approximately 39 million hectares. The Yellow Sea is relatively shallow, with an average depth of 45 meters. The western coastal waters along China are marked by the two large delta systems of the Huang (Yellow) and Chang (Yangtze) Rivers, separated by the Shangdung Peninsula. Along the coast of North and South Korea, the Yellow Sea has long stretches of tidal flats punctuated by numerous rocky islands and small river mouths. The seabed is mostly flat, featureless, and covered by large layers of sand and mud sediments from 1352
the Huang and Chang Rivers, which together deposit over 1.3 billion metric tons of sediment each year into the Yellow Sea. The Yellow Sea has a rich variety of marine life, and more than one hundred species of commercially exploited fish live in its waters. Although fishing vessels have operated in the Yellow Sea for hundreds of years, large-scale commercial fishing increased significantly during the last decades of the twentieth century. By the mid-1980s almost 5 million metric tons of fish were taken each year from the Yellow Sea by boats operating out of China, North and South Korea, and Japan. The Yellow Sea also has large suspected offshore reserves of oil and gas, and all of its bordering countries have invested heavily in efforts to develop and exploit these reserves. In recent years parts of the Chinese and South Korean coastline have also grown into important centers for recreational tourism. During the past two decades parts of the Yellow Sea have become heavily contaminated with a variety of pollutants. Although pollution levels in midocean are still relatively low, the coastal waters have experienced significant increases in heavy metals and chemical contamination as wastewater discharges from developing industrial centers in China and South Korea have risen sharply. The rapid expansion of urban areas in the region has also led to much higher quantities of untreated domestic sewage being funneled into the river systems that flow into the Yellow Sea. And rising
Yellow Sea levels of oil pollution, stemming from offshore drilling, increased marine transportation, and a series of accidents involving oil tankers, have begun to create problems for the area's fishing industry. Efforts to encourage regional cooperation in addressing these problems have been hampered by political and economic disputes among the Yellow Sea's bordering countries. All of the Yellow Sea falls v^^ithin the territorial claims of China, North Korea, and Soutb Korea. However, in some cases these claims overlap, with disputes over contested areas of potential oil and gas reserves being the most contentious. Although the bordering countries bave signed several bilateral agreements, efforts to develop a more cohesive, regional approach toward exploitation and preservation of Yellow Sea's natural resources have had only limited success. James H. Lide
Further Reading Cannon, T., & Jenkins, A. (Eds.). (1990). The geography of contemporary Ghina: The impact of Deng Xioping's decade. New York: Routledge. Chao, S. (1994). Geography of China: Environment, resources, population, and development. New York: John Wiley. Edmonds, R. L. (1994). Patterns of Ghina's lost harmony: A survey of the country's environmental degradation and protection. New York: Routledge. Geping, Q., & Jinchang, L. (1994). Population and the environment in Ghina. Boulder, CO: Lyrme Rienner. Leeming, F. (1993). The changing geography of Ghina. Cambridge, MA: Blackwell. Park, C, Kim, D., & Lee, S. (Eds.). (1990). The regime of the Yellow Sea: Issues and policy options for cooperation in the changing environment. Seoul, South Korea: Institute for East and West Studies, Yonsei University.
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Zebra Mussel The most notorious "stowaway"to enter North America in a cargo ship's ballast w^ater is the zebra mussel. More than any other species, this thumbnail-sized, black-and-white-striped freshwater mollusk has brought the growing economic and ecological problems stemming from invasive nonindigenous (exotic) species to American public and governmental attention, precipitating passage of the Nonindigenous Aquatic Species Nuisance Prevention and Control Act (1990). The mussel was largely confined to the Black, Aral, and Caspian Seas until canal construction and growing commerce in timber between Russia and western Europe facilitated expansion of its range as far as London by 1824. On the city's outskirts in 1912, 81 metric tons of the mussels were removed from a .4kilometer stretch of unfiltered water main, which mussel encrustations had reduced from 1 meter to less than .3 meter in diameter. The first observers remarked on the mussel's ability to survive for weeks out of water, clinging to logs in the damp holds of timber ships. Elsewhere in Britain, a mollusk described by the first British observers as "tenacious and exceedingly prolific" completely plastered the walls of docks where timber was bonded and was transferred inland by barges to "pave and line" most British rivers and canals by the early 1840s. The mussel's North American history replicated its European history. In 1988 specimens were detected in western Lake Erie and Lake St. Clair. (Because it was already so abundant, however, the mussel probably arrived in the larval stage in mid-decade, although the "culprit" ship was never traced.) Larvae were trans-
ported beyond these lakes by being carried in bait buckets and bilge water and by clinging to weeds entangled in boat propellers and boat trailers. By 1990 it was present throughout the Great Lakes, spreading to the Hudson, Mohawk, Ohio, and Mississippi River drainages at an expansion rate generally considered to be the fastest on record for an invasive exotic. Possessing filaments with a remarkable ability to attach themselves to solid surfaces, the mollusk can reach a density of 627,000 per square meter, a density unprecedented among native freshwater invertebrates such as clams. This filter feeder also removes plankton from the aquatic food web, thus altering basic energy flows and clarifying water. It has crowded out—and, in some cases, virtually wiped out—native bivalves. Moreover, the water intake systems of power plants designed to withstand earthquakes, fires, and floods are disabled by its "biofouling" impact. Attempted methods of control, including physical removal, high-pressure hosing with hot water, ultraviolet radiation, and chlorine dousing, have proved largely ineffectual. In the mussel's defense, some biologists have stressed its water-purifying role, which has assisted in the reappearance of native plants in Lake Erie, and accumulations of its fecal matter have indirectly encouraged the revival of native fishes by providing a rich food source for the invertebrates they feed on. Although the mussel is presently foimd from Ouebec to Louisiana, European lessons may be worth heeding. In Europe the mussel has been mostly confined to lakes, rivers, and other waterways directly cormected to infested waters. Expansion beyond has been slow. Because this pattern has been replicated in North America and because the belief that it takes only two 1355
Zebra Mussel specimens to create a viable population has been undermined (the "Noah fallacy"), biologists now debate whether birds' feet or boats' bottoms will be the most powerful mechanism of further dispersal. If studies indicate the predominance of natural mechanisms of dispersal, then the controversial regulation of boating and boat movements may be seen as redundant. Peter Coates
China, ruling elites collected and displayed wild animals as symbols of their power and prestige, their domination of both humans and nature. Similar menageries later appeared in Greco-Roman cities, in the courts of medieval Europe, and in the imperial centers of the Aztecs in Mexico and the Moguls in India. In most cases these collections were not open to the public but rather served to entertain a select audience of nobles or to impress visiting dignitaries. Further Reading By the eighteenth century, though, a different organizing model had begun to take hold. The EnlightenD'ltri, F. M. (Ed.). (1997). Zebra mussels and aquatic nuisance ment fostered an obsession with reason, order, and scispecies. Chelsea, MI: Ann Arbor Press. entific inquiry. At the same time the rise of substantial Johnson, L. E., & Carlton, J. T. (1996, September). Postmiddle classes in many Western nations created establishment spread in large-scale invasions: Dispersal mechanisms of the zebra mussel Dreissena poly- greater demands for public cultural institutions. Einally, the Industrial Revolution separated many urbanmorpha. Ecology, 77 (6), 1686-1690. ites from the natural landscape and prompted calls to Johnson, L. E., & Padilla, D. K. (1996). Geographic spread establish outposts of "nature" within the modern city. of exotic species: Ecological lessons and opportunities from the invasion of the zebra mussel Dreissena poly- These trends all came together in the "zoological garden" (soon nicknamed the "zoo"), a neatly organized, morpha. Biological Conservation, 78, 23-33. pleasantly landscaped collection of exotic animals, Nalepa, T. F., & Schloesser, D. W. (Eds.). (1993). Zebra managed by scientific "experts" and dedicated to popmussels: Biology, impacts, and control. Boca Raton, FL: ular instruction and rational amusement. By the early Lewis. nineteenth century public zoological gardens had O'Neill C. R., & Pohl, S. E. (Eds.). (1996). Zebra mussel: opened in London (1828), Amsterdam (1838), and BerImpacts and control. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Colin (1844); within a generation, the concept had crossed operative. the Atlantic to the United States, with Philadelphia (1874) and Cincinnati (1875) leading the way. Yet, despite their founders' claims of enlightened management and zoological expertise, these modern gardens Zoos often remained places of pure entertainment for their visitors, who were more concerned with feeding the Although their collections, designs, and operations have changed over time, zoos have been found wheranimals than with learning their Latin names. In this ever humans have displayed captive animals in permaway modern zoos were little different from the menagnent exhibits for the purposes of entertainment and eries of centuries past. enlightenment. Throughout their history these instituMoreover, just as ancient menageries had detions have sparked both enormous popularity and pended on military and political power to obtain their heated controversy. To some observers zoos perform specimens, modern zoos relied upon the imperial valuable work in natural-history education, wildlife reach of Western powers to secure their exotic creaconservation, and scientific research; to others zoos tures. Capitalizing on the "new imperialism" that represent the worst kind of "speciesism"—an arrogant spread across Asia and Africa during the late nineassertion of human dominion over the natural world. teenth and early twentieth centuries, animal dealers Whatever one's opinion, though, it is clear that zoos established international trade networks in order to reveal much about the complicated history of the capture, transport, buy, and sell the charismatic creahuman relationship with the nonhuman environment. tures that zoos most desired—big cats and pachyderms, giraffes and camels, apes and monkeys. From Ancient Menageries to Zoological Strangely enough, imperial authorities also founded Gardens zoological gardens in many colonial cities, presenting native fauna as if they were exotic attractions (which, In some respects zoos are as old as human civilizations. In ancient societies from Mesopotamia to Egypt to of course, they were back in the West). Whether in 1356
Zoos Egypt or England, though, zoo animals were presented out of their natural environmental context, packaged for popular consumption in a pastoral urban park.
lion's (or tiger's or panda's) share of attention and funding.
The "New Zoo"? From Zoological Parks to Conservation Centers One of the most prominent animal dealers, Carl Hagenbeck (1844-1913) of Germany, helped to usher in a revolution in zoo design in the early twentieth century. At his Tierpark (1907) in Stellingen, Germany, Hagenbeck developed striking panoramas, outdoor exhibits that used hidden moats and artificial rockwork to simulate the animals' native landscapes. Yet, Hagenbeck's designs succeeded less because they provided a more "natural" environment for the animals and more because they provided a spectacular stage upon which zoogoers could view the inhabitants. Similarly, although the U.S. movement to establish more expansive "zoological parks"—most notably in Washington (1891) and the Bronx, New York (1899)— began as a conservationist project to preserve endangered native species, public demand soon turned these facilities into more traditional collections of more popular animals. Through the middle of the twentieth century, then, zoos continued to emphasize entertainment over education. The global connections that bound together zoological parks and natural environments became evident once again in the decades after World War II. As independence movements swept across Africa and Asia, Western zoo leaders worried that precious wildlife habitat would be sacrificed to economic development under the new postcolonial governments. Yet, these conservationist concerns tended to focus primarily on preserving a steady supply of those charismatic species that zoo audiences had come to expect. To be sure, over the next several decades many zoos worked to save these endangered creatures both by promoting field research in the wild and by inaugurating captivereproduction programs. Multinational agreements, such as the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) and the International Species Information System (ISIS), both instituted in 1973, allowed zoo officials from across the globe to monitor and coordinate their captive-breeding efforts. Again, however, popular Western attitudes often dictated which animals received the
By the dawn of the twenty-first century many zoos around the world had become big business. In the United States alone, zoos spent well over $1 billion during the 1990s on increasingly sophisticated exhibits, most notably so-called landscape immersion displays that seem to place both visitors and animals within realistic replicas of the animals' native habitats. Yet, such increased expenses have often led to increased commercialization, as zoos turn to merchandising and corporate sponsorship to balance their budgets. Competition from for-profit rivals, such as Sea World and Disney's Animal Kingdom, has made these financial challenges even greater, creating potential conflicts between environmental ideals and economic imperatives. Still, many zoo professionals would argue that the twenty-first-century zoo is truly a "new zoo"—a conservation center far removed from the menageries and zoological gardens of the past. In some respects, such as veterinary expertise and educational programs, this assertion does ring true. Yet, the zoogoing experience itself remains much the same as it has been for centuries. The World Zoo Organization claims that its 550 member zoos attract a collective annual attendance of 600 million visitors. Eor most of those millions, the zoo is less a place to learn about the envirorunent than a place to satisfy their curiosity about the animal world, to enjoy the thrill of staring across the species barrier and having a "wild" creature stare back. Jeffrey Hyson Further Reading Bell, C. E. (Ed.). (2001). Encyclopedia of the world's zoos. Chicago: Eitzroy Dearborn. Croke, V. (1997). The modern ark: The story of zoos, past, present, and future. New York: Scribner. Hancocks, D. (2001). A different nature: The paradoxical world of zoos and their uncertain future. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press. Hanson, E. (2002). Animal attractions: Nature on display at American zoos. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. Hoage, R. J., & Deiss, W. A. (Eds.). (1996). New worlds, new animals: From menagerie to zoological park in the nineteenth century. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. 1357
Zoos Hyson, J. (2000). Jungles of Eden: The design of American Mullan, B., & Marvin, G. (1999). Zoo culture (2nd ed.). zoos. In M. Conan (Ed.), Environmentalism in landscape Urbana: University of Illinois Press. architecture. Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks. Norton, B. G., Hutchins, M., Stevens, E. F., & Maple, Kisling, V. N., Jr. (Ed.). (2001). Zoo and aquarium history: T. L. (Eds.). (1995). Ethics on the ark: Zoos, animal welfare, Ancient animal collections to zoological gardens. Boca and wildlife conservation. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Raton, FL: CRC Press. Institution Press. Koebner, L. (1994). Zoo book: The evolution of wildlife conser- Rothfels, N. (2002). Savages and beasts: The birth ofthe modvation centers. New York: Forge. ern zoo. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.
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n
^
u[fl](o A Luoi Valley, 23 AAEC. See Association of African Earthkeeping Churches abatis (barriers of cut trees), 1074 Abbey, Edward, 888 Abercrombie, Patrick, 621 Aberdeen & Rockfish R. Co. v. Students Challenging Agency Procedures, 341 A-Birding on a Bronco (Bailey), 112
Aborigines, 525-526 Abram, David, 887 acaricides, 998-999 ACF. See Australian Conservation Foundation Achaemenid Dynasty, 76 acid peat, 662 acid rain, 39-40, 290 analysis/observations on, 1-2 geography/regions of, 3, 43 industrial smoke and, 2-4 silver as cause of, 1121 acid rock drainage (ARD), 853-854 Ackland, L., 817 Acoma Pueblo, New Mexico, 1300 Aconcagua Mountains, 1143 Ad Hoc Working Group of Experts on Biological Diversity, 131 Adams, Ansel, 886 Adams, Carol, 1275, 1276 Adams, John, 874 Adamson, Joni> 888 Addams, Jane, 632 Addison, Joseph, 1105 Adenauer, Konrad, 586 Adinath, 721 Adirondack Mountains, 653, 1244 Adirondack State Park, 651, 768,1103 Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer (AVHRR), 346 AEC. See U.S. Atomic Energy ConMiission aerosols, 301-302 Aeschylus, 878 afforestation, 1036 Afghanistan, 348-349, 613 landmines in, 1289 Soviets in, 943-944 Africa, 337, 644 AIDS/HIV in, 8-10, 314
biological exchanges in, 133-138 climate/geomorphology of, 4-5, 236 crops in, 6-7, 9, 603, 1051, 1069-1071, 1174 droughts in, 17, 297-298, 345 fish in, 900-901 floral/fauna domestication and endemism in, 6-7 forests of, 11, 20-21, 550-556 gold in, 11, 20 grains and, 603 iiuman adaptation/population of, 5-8 hydroelectricity in, 1304 migration and, 846 Portugal and, 19 property rights in, 772 rainfall in, 5, 302 religions of, 721 resettlement in, 1048 sacred places in, 1083 Sahara and, 1085 salinization in, 1088-1089, 1091 slavery in, 1233, 1351 smog in, 964 soil in, 1132 technology in, 8 terracing in, 1198 Tiv people of, 1352 in twenty-first century, 8-9 urbanization of, 8 waste management in, 1294, 1295-1297, 1296-1298 water pollution in, 1309-1310, 1310 water resources of, 9, 19 yams and, 15, 1351-1352 zoos in, 1356-1357 Africa, Central, 9 biodiversity/history of, 11-12 colonial/twentieth century rule in, 12-13 environment/resources of, 13 forests of, 11,17 global connections/environmental change in, 12 postcolonial dilemmas of, 13 Africa, East climate/geography of, 4,14-15 colonialism and, 17 farming in, 15-16 Fulani of, 7 globalization and coast of, 16-17, 846 1359
Index Africa, East (Continued) Masai of, 7 pastoralism in, 15 Africa, North, 302 Africa, Southem, 302 colonialism/environmentalism in, 19 forests of, 550-551 Nguni of, 7 population of, 19 Portugal, 19 pre-colonial settlement of, 18-19 Africa, Western ancient, 20-21 climate/geography of, 4 desertification in, 298-302 environmental problems of, 21-22 forests of, 4-5, 20-21 Fulani of, 7 geological history of, 20 Upper Guinea in, 5 yams and, 1351 African Initiated Churches (AICs), 85, 214 African National Congress, 143 Agassiz, Louis, 1281 Age of Chivalry, 648 Age of Enlightenment, 359-360, 1232, 1317-1318, 1356 Age of Exploration, 881, 959 Age of Gunpowder, 648 Age of Steam, 99 Agent Orange, 22-23, 153, 289-290, 1289 The Age of Man in the Rio de la Plata (Ameghino), 63 Aggtelek National Park, 653 Agip (oil company), 899 An Agricultural Testament (Howard), 35 agribusiness, 23 in Asia, 24 elite, 24-25 farmer-based, 24 globalization and environment, 26-27 Green Revolution and, 26 industrial, 24-25 in Japan, 24 in Latin America, 24 trends in, 25-26 in U.S., 24, 25 Agricultural Degradation: Changing Community Systems in Rural Taiwan (Huang), 217 Agricultural Labor Relations Board (ALRB), 210 Agricultural Revolution, 1032 Agricultural Workers Organizing Committee (AWOC), 210 agriculture, 29, 30, 1285-1286. See also cultivation animal, 28, 1277 in Asia, 32 in Balkans, 114 biodynamic, 1164 in California, 353, 523,1095-1097,1301 in China, 220-221 climates and, 32-33 damage from, 948 desertification and, 1277 dry lands and, 31, 353 early, 32 ecosystems and, 1300 fires and, 292, 526-527, 1252 from foraging to, 28-30 Himalayan, 639-640 1360
human populations and, 30 intensification, 30 in Ireland/United Kingdom, 1230-1232 irrigation and, 1300 in Japan, 724-726, 729 Mediterranean Basin, 823 Mesolithic cultures and, 292 Mesopotamian, 830-832 neolithic, 1316 in North America, 32 peasant, 555-556 plantation, 952-953 pollution and, 28, 1098, 1277, 1302 preindustriaUindustrial, 27-28, 33-34 regional/zonal comparisons of, 30-31 runoff in, 1308, 1309, 1311 settlements, 75 slash-and-burn, 5, 18, 662 technology and, 615, 1190-1191 tropics and, 31-32 in U.S., 1247, 1251-1252 in U.S. Southwest, 934-936 villages and, 1238 weeds and, 1316-1317, 1319 agrochemicals, 1053 agroecology, 34-36 agroforestry, 34-36 agronomy, 1089, 1129 aguardiente (cane brandy), 1170 Ahmedabad, 1262 AICs. See African Initiated Churches AIDS/HIV, 8-10, 314, 1142 Ainu people, 1082, 1092 air conditioning, 1253 Air Pollution Control Act, 970 Air, Water and Food (Richards), 1053 airplanes, 1288 Akkadians, 965 Alabama, 1250 Alaska, 958, 1327 acquisition of, 804 bears of, 288 gulls of, 638 land, 816 oil pipeline, 903-904 Russians in, 1075 salmon in, 1092 Alaska Lands Bill, 1342 Alaska National Interest Land Conservation Act (1980), 1337 Alaskan Game Act (1902), 646 Alaskan Pipeline, 588 Albany, 1243 Albedo Effect, 44-45, 301 Albert Lake, 900 Alberta-Northwest Territories, 152 Albright, Horace M., 870 Aldrin, Edwin E., 1147 Alexander of Macedon, 76 Alexander of Neckham, 1317 Alexander the Great, 64, 801, 965, 1169 Alexandria, 826 alfalfa, 542-543 alfisols, 1131 algae, 959 blooms, 901
Index eutrophication from, 749, 1057 red tide, 1098 Algeria, 550, 840-842, 943 algicides, 1115 Algonquian Indians, 1042 Alice's Adventures in Wonderland (Carroll), 330 Alkali Act (1863), 2, 42 All-American Canal, 248 Allegheny Mountains, 1345 Allegheny River, 1242 Allen, D.E., 1328 Allende, Salvador, 213 Alliance for a Paving Moratorium, 104 Alliance for America, 1339-1340 alligators, 1045 All-Russian Society for the Promotion and Protection of Urban Green Plantings, 1078 All-Union Conference for the Preservation of Clean Air, 1077 Almagest of Ptolemy, 274 Almeria, 307 Alphand, J.C.A., 753 "Alpine Scenery," 862 Alps, 518, 559, 860-861,1157, 1175, 1176 Alpujarra region, Spain, 1149 al-Qaeda, 143 ALRB. See Agricultural Labor Relations Board Altamont Pass, 1338 altithermal period, 930, 933 Altshuler, Igor, 1079 aluminum, 1123, 1294 Amazon, 1283 Amazon River, 45-46, 968, 1055 basin, 292, 1094 rubber boom and, 47 Amazonia, 552 land tenure in, 751 rubber from, 1072 Amazonia, Ancient agriculture/diet of, 50 as counterfeit paradise, 48-49 early settlements of, 49 questions about, 50-51 soil, 49-50 Amboseli National Park, Kenya, 1091 AMC Outdoors, 59 AMC. See Appalachian Mountain Club Amchitka Island, 943 Ameghino, Florentino, 63 American Association for the Advancement of Science, 1329-1330 American Baptist churches, 944 American Bison Society, 645-646 American Chemical Society, 845 American Civil War, 952 American Forestry Association, 1260, 1341 American Forestry Association and Conservation Congress, 1341 American Came Policy, 790 American Historical Association, 1330 American Indian Literature, Environmental Justice, and Ecocriticism (Adamson), 888 American Land Grant Universities, 618 American Red Cross, 1173 American Revolutionary War, 651
American Society of Landscape Architects (ASLA), 753 American Society of Naturalists, 128 American Space (Jackson), 1253 American University, 738 An American Childhood (Dillard), 889 The American Vegetarian (organization), 1275 Amigos de la Gran Sabana, 968 Amish communities, 1269 ammonia, 521-522, 631-632, 845 Amnesty International, 905 Amnok River, 739 Amoco Cadiz, 965, 967 Among the Birds in the Grand Canyon (Bailey), 113 Amos, 322 Amsterdam, 1262, 1264 Amsterdam Declaration of 2001, 570 Amu-Dar'ya River, 61-63, 71, 74-76, 1095 Amundsen, Roald, 57 Amur River, 1055, 1075 The Analects, 260 Anasazi people, 344, 589, 1254, 1255, 1331 Ancylus Sea, 117 Andaman Sea, 82, 958 Anders, William A., 1147 Anderson, David, 254 Anderson, Warren, 125 Andes, 352, 991-992, 1287 geography of, 156, 863 history of, 51-53, 52 land tenure in, 751 Peruvian, 352, 991-992 terracing in, 1197 Andisols, 1131 Andreae, Meinrat, 570 Angara River, 745, 746, 747 Angaur, 953 Angola, 7 Angostura, 968 The Anguish of Tibet (Kelly), 738 animal(s). See also diseases, animal; game agriculture, 28,1277 in Balkans, 114 in Brazil, 164-168 in California, 53, 316, 911 classification of, 791 diseases, 314-316 domestication/breeding/cloning of, 948, 1109-1110 droughts' effect on, 930 endangered and captive-breeding of, 1357 extinction of, 1031 farming and, 1110, 1277 grazing, 32, 292, 298 irrigation's affect on, 1300 kraaling/fencing, 1141 laws for harvesting of, 766, 768 maltreatment of, 1137 migration of, 1293 oil spills and, 967 pathogens and, 839 populations, 633 predator, 1031-1032 rights, 53-55 of Rocky Mountains, 1059 slaughtering/rendering, 780 tundra, 1230 1361
Index animal(s) (Continued) vegetarianism and, 1273-1277 for weed control, 1319 writings on, 1283 in zoos, 1356-1357 animal unit months (AUM), 1260 Animals' Rights Considered in Relation to Social Progress (Salt), 54 animism, 55-56 Annan, Kofi, 906 Antarctic Ocean, 957, 1311 Antarctic Treaty, 58 Antarctica, 56, 228, 972-973 climate of, 57 geology/glaciology of, 57 government/population of, 57-58 history of, 57 life forms in, 57 ozone of, 858-859 Antarctic-Environmental Protocol and the Law of the Sea, 742 antelopes, 656, 929, 1074, 1141 pronghorn, 337 Anthony, D., 648 Anthony, Susan B., 1275 anthroposophy, 1163-1164 anthrosols, 1129, 1134 antibiotics, 1034, 1115 anticontagion, 1306 Antipater of Thessalonica, 1303 Antiqua, 191 Antiquities of Selborne (White), 1327-1328 Anton, T., 816 Anubis, 331 Apaches, 936, 1040, 1255 apartheid, 1140, 1142 Apennines, 518, 538 apiculture, 644 apocalypticism, 850 Appalachian Mountain Club (AMC), 58-59 Appalachian Mountains, 916, 1328 history of, 60-61 states of, 1242, 1244, 1250-1251 aquaculture, 530, 952-953 Asian, 533-534 fertilizers in, 1115 pesticides in, 1115 salmon, 1093 shrimp, 1115 Aqua-Piano culture, 1239 aqueducts, 912, 920, 1056,1302 aquifers, 1320 Ogallala, 929-932 water in, 1055, 1089, 1299 Arabian Sea, 958 Aral Sea, 71-72, 958,1355 dustbowling of, 1095 issues/problems, 61-62 shrinkage of, 1046 solutions for, 62-63 sturgeon in, 1165 zebra mussels in, 1355 Arapahos, 1255 Arava Institute of Environmental Studies, 734-735 Arawak tribe, 968 Arbenz, Jacobo, 207 1362
Archaic cultural period in East, 915-916, 917 in Southwest, 933-934 Arctic, 228-230, 229 Arctic National Wildlife Refuge, 815 Arctic Ocean, 229, 957, 1311 Arctic Village (Marshall), 810 ARD. See acid rock drainage Argentina, 63-64, 352, 961 forests of, 548 ranching in, 1034 as Southern Cone country, 1142-1143 soybeans in, 1144 Argus, 331 argyria, 1121 Aridisols, 1131 Aridjis, Betty, 835 Aridjis, Homero, 835, 888 Aristotle, 64-65, 823-824 geocentric worldview of, 1145 on nature, 877, 1061 Arizona, 353, 1254, 1300 crops, 523 mining in, 1257 Arjuna, 641 Arkansas, 1250 Armbruster, Karla, 889 armies, 1284-1286 Armistice Day (Europe), 1285 arms race, 1286, 1289 Armstron, Neil, 1147 Army Corps of Engineers, 65-67 Arno River, 538-539 Arnold, D., 170 Arnold, Ron, 1339-1340 "Arousing Biophilia," 144 Arrhenius, Steve, 590 Arrhenius, Svante, 44 arrowroot, 1068 arroyo, 934, 1055 arsenic, 1123 as heavy metal, 634-636, 637 art Christian, 760 photography and, 885 Roman, 759-760 Art of Simples (Cole), 1317 Aru Islands, 1283 Arimachel Pradesh, 638, 640 The Arunta: A Study of a Stone Age People (Cillen & Spencer), 94 Asante people, 20 asbestos, 775, 783-784, 1142 controversy, 68-69 geology of, 67-68 producers/users of, 68 ASEAN. See Association of Southeast Asian Nation Ashcan school, 755 Ashio mine, 1182-1183 Ashurbanipal (King), 833 Ashworth, William, 1239, 1241-1242 Asia, 32, 336 agribusiness in, 24 aquaculture in, 533-534 crops in, 1069-1071 extreme weather in, 1313-1315
Index forests of, 549-556, 1287 horses in, 648 land tenure in, 751 migrations in, 846 nature in, 876, 878 regions in, 1283 resettlement in, 1046, 1048 rice in, 1051 soil in, 1133 wars and, 7, 1286-1287 waste management in, 1294-1298, 1295-1298 water pollution in, 1309-130, 1310 women in, 1295 yams and, 1351 zoos in, 1356-1357 Asia, Central, 69, 348-349 Caspian Sea mining, 71-72 dessication consequences for, 72 export cotton and, 72 protected land in, 72-7Z Steppe migration and, 70-71 Asia, Central-Ancient, 73 as Eurasia hub, 75-76 geography/history of, 74 human settlements of, 74-75 Asia, Eastern, 335 forests of, 548 sweet potato in, 1174 waste management in, 1296, 1298 Asia, South, 337, 1296, 1298 Asia, Southeast-Ancient monuments/religion of, 78 people of, 77 polity of, 77-78 Asia, Southeast-Insular, 78-81. See also Indonesia; Malaysia; Philippines; Singapore Asia, Southeast-Mainland, 81-82. See also China future of, 84 Greater Mekong subregion of, 83-84 Asia, West, 1296, 1298 Asian Development, 1048 Asian Development Bank, 618 Asian Perceptions of Nature (Bruun/Kalland), 876, 878 Asian Tigers, 562, 564 Asimov, Issac, 1271 Askania-Nova Nature Reserve, 1228 ASLA. See American Society of Landscape Architects Asociation Espafiola para la Ordenacion y el Medio Ambiente (AEORMA; Spanish Association for Planning and Environment), 1151 Asociation para la Defensa de la Naturaleza (ADENA; Association for the Defense of Natiare), 1151 The Aspects of Religion in the United States of America (Bird), 148 asphalt, 965 Association for the Study of Literature and Environment (ASLE), 887 Association of African Earthkeeping Churches (AAEC), 85, 214 Association of Southeast Asian Nation (ASEAN), 742 Association of Southeastern Asia Nations, 84 Association of Zimbabwean Traditional Ecologists (AZTREC), 85, 214-215 Assyria, 831-833 astronauts, 1147-1148 Aswan Dam, 843, 1058, 1090,1236
Atacama Desert, 211, 1143 Atahualpa (Emperor), 598 Atchafalaya Basin, 538 Athabasca Lake, 795 Athabaskan peoples, 936 Athenian Empire, 1285 Athens, 966,1285, 1292 Atlantic Ocean, 957-959, 1313 atmosphere, 1130 atomic programs, 938, 941-943, 1077 atomic theories, 1104 An Attempt to Evolve a General Comparative Theory (von
Goethe), 1318 Audubon (magazine), 86, 1348 Audubon, Anne Moynet, 87 Audubon, Jean, 87 Audubon, John James, 87 Audubon Society, 86,150, 1342, 1348 The Auk, 112
AUM. See animal unit months Aurangabad, 1262 Auschwitz concentration camp, 519 Austen, Jane, 1061 Australia, 295, 345 cities in, 92 conservation/restoration in, 90-91 desertification in, 300 dingos in, 135 environmentalism in, 91-92 European perceptions of, 88 forests of, 550-552 history of, 959 hunting/gathering in, 660 irrigation in, 89 land settlements in, 88-90, 169 National Parks and Wildlife Conservation Act, 91 natural/pre-historian features of, 88 Oceania and, 951-953 political parties in, 92 rabbits in, 1032 ranching in, 1034 regions in, 1283 relocations to, 170 rivers of, 867-868 salinization in, 1088-1090 sea turtles in, 1107 silver in, 1121 sugar in, 1171 trade with, 952 waste management in, 1296-1298 Australia, Aboriginal, 88,1081-1082, 1084. See also Tasmania arrival, 93-95 demography/religion/society of, 93 resource management in, 93 Australian Conservation Foundation (ACF), 91, 95-96, 1269 Australian Forest League, 91 Australian-American llwood Mead, 89 Austria, 96, 653 conservation in, 97-98 dams/rivers in, 283-285 events in, 97 NGOs in, 97-98 on nuclear power, 1122 Austro-Hungarian Empire, 99, 1287 1363
Index automobiles, 963-964 for China market, 103-104 electric cars and, 101-103 emissions/smog, 40, 784, 970 environmental problems of, 104-105 in national parks, 871 pollution and gasoline-powered, 103 rubber use by, 1072 sports utility vehicles (SUV) as, 104 sprawl and, 1157-1161 steam age and, 98-101 suburbanization and, 1166-1167 technological revolution in, 105-106 avalanches, 107 controlling, 108 deadliest, 108-109 ice, 588-589 people and, 106-108 recreation and, 106-108 AVHRR. See Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer avifauna, 1074 Avvakum, Archpriest, 746, 1075 axes, stone, 292 Aylwin, Patricio, 213 Aymaras, 156 Ayres, Richard, 875 Azon, Azaria, 734 Azov Sea, 1227 Aztecs, 751, 1331, 1356 AZTREC. See Association of Zimbabwean Traditional Ecologists Ba, M.B., 300 Babbitt, Bruce, 789 Babeuf, Francois Noel, 1125 baby boom, 1158, 1167 Babylonians, 965 Bacon, Sir Francis, 575, 576, 1269 on nature, 877, 878, 1104 Bacon's Essays (Wright), 575
bacteria, 1130 in river basins, 1058 Baden-Powell, Robert, 1109 Baekje kingdom (Korea), 740 Bahamas, 191 Bahrain, 840-843 Bahro, Rudolf, 111-112 Bailey, Florence Merriam, 112-113 Bailey, Liberty Hyde, 35,1316 Bailey, Vernon, 112 Baird, Spencer FuUerton, 1093, 1259 Baker, Howard, 1124 Bakewell, Lucy, 87 Bald Eagle Protection Act (1918), 1259 Balfour, Lady Eve, 1137 Bali, 618-619, 1283 Balkans, 113 agriculture/industry/natural resources of, 114 environmental issues of, 114-115 Balmat, Jacques, 860 Baltic Ice Lake, 117 Baltic Region climate/landscape of, 115 countries, 115 definition of, 115 1364
economy/history of, 115-116 environmental situation in, 116 Baltic Sea, 116, 957, 958, 961, 1310 characteristics of, 117 eutrophication of, 117-118 evolution of, 117 humans' impact on, 117-118 lampreys in, 750 pollution of, 1098, 1310 Baltic-White Sea Canal ("Belomor"), 1077, 1162 Baltimore Gun Club, 1145 bamboo, 118-119 Banff National Park, 185, 1059 Bangladesh, 524 rice in, 1051 weather events in, 1314 Bank of California, 1328 Banks, Sir Joseph, 325 Bannister, Edward, 755 Barbados, 191 Barberry Law of Massachusetts (1755), 325 Barbizon school, 762 Barbour, Michael G., 912 barley, 28, 831-832 Barrington, Daines, 1327-1328 Bartlett, Jennifer, 756 Bartram, John, 881, 1318 Bartram, William, 292 Barwick, Sir Garfield, 96 Basel Convention on the Control of Trans-Boundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and Their Disposal, 775-777 BASF, 631-632 Bass, Rick, 890 Bastian, Gert, 738 Bate, Jonathan, 1062, 1065 Bates, Henry Waiter, 1281, 1283 Bath, England, 1229 Batoka Dam, 9 bats, 1327 Battle of Ypres, 1285 Bawden, 328 Bay of Bengal, 639 Bay of Naples, 826 Bayne Law (1911), 646 bays, 1305, 1311 Bear Lodge, 1041 Bear Mountain State Park, 651 Bear River, 918 bears, 120, 911 of Alaska, 288 evolving attitudes about, 120-121 polar, 119, 288 roles of, 119-120 species of, 119 Beaufort Sea, 795 Beauregard, Pierre G., 65 Beaver mine, 1240 beavers, 183, 315, 925, 1075, 1240-1242, 1248 Becquer, Gustavo Adolfo, 1062 Becquerel, Edmund, 1138 beef, 814-815 beer, 337-338 bees, 165. See also honeybees Beethoven, Ludwig von, 1062 beetles, 1283
Index Beeton's All About Everything: Being a Dictionary of Practical Recipes and Every-Day Information, 243, 647
beets, sugar, 1068-1069,1070, 1071 Behnke, Roy H., Jr., 305 Beijernick, 327 Beijing, 1262, 1294 Belau, 951 Belgium, 940, 1264 Belgium Congo (Zaire), 1072 Belgorod line, 1074 Belize, 204 Bellamy, Edward, 1217, 1269 Bellini, Giovanni, 760 Bemba tribe, 134, 553 Bencao gangmu (Classified Medical Material), 821 Benedick, Richard, 973 Benedictus. See Spinoza, Baruch Benidorm Manifesto, 1151 Benin, 20, 1351 Bennett, Hugh Hammond, 1135 Benoit Fourneyron, 1304 Bentham, Jeremy, 53, 54 Bento. See Spinoza, Baruch Benton, Thomas Hart, 756 Benz, Carl, 101 Beowolf 1321
Berg, 62 Berger, Thomas, 795 Bering Sea, 958-959 Bering, Vitus, 924 Berkeley, Miles, 325 Berlin, 1356 Bermejo River, 1054, 1143 Berne Accord, 776-777 Berry, Due de, 760 Berry, Thomas, 201 Berry, Wendell, 888, 890 Bert the Turtle, 942-943 Besant, Annie, 1275 Bessey, Charles, 233 Bethlehem Steel, 875 bethnic (river bed) zone, 1301 Bettinger, Robert L., 30 Beyond Beef (Rifkin), 1277 Beyond Nature Writing: Expanding the Boundaries of
Ecocritism (Armbruster/Wallace), 889 Bhagavad Gita, 641, 941
Vedas and, 1061 Bhargava, D.S., 572 Bhatt, Chandi Prasad, 227 Bhopal disaster, 41, 124-125, 625, 774 Bible, 734
Pentateuch in, 1153 sheep in, 1109-1110 on weeds, 1316,1317 bicycles, 1072 Bierstadt, Albert, 651-652, 755, 886 Biffen, Roland, 326 Big Basin State Park, 1341 Big Burn, 527 Big Cypress Swamp, 340 Big Thompson Canyon, 539 Bikini Atoll, 942 Bikini Island, 954 Biltmore Forest School, 1252 bin Laden, Osama, 143
Bingham, Hiram, 860 bioaccumulation of elements along food chains, water pollution and, 1302, 1308 of POPs, 777 biodiversity, 556 avian, 1095-1096 in Brazil, 167-168 in Central Africa, 11-12 conservation and, 127-129, 130, 1332-1333 dams' impact on, 1305 of forests, 1036, 1038,1039 in freshwater ecosystems, 1299 future of, 131 of habitats, 129 in Hawaii, 129 humans' impact on, 129-130 importance of, 126-127 irrigation's effect on, 1300 legislation/policy/research, 130-131 Leopold on, 128 loss of, 1058, 1143 maintenance of, 766, 770 marine, 786, 958-959 mass extinction and, 129 measuring, 125-126 migration and, 848 national/regional, 126 on Northwest Coast, 927 rabbits' role in, 1032-1033 of soil, 1134, 1135 of species, 125,127 taxonomy and, 127 wilderness, 1332-1333 Biodiversity, 128
Biodiversity Conservation Center, 1078 Bio-Ecology (Clements & Shelford), 127-128 biogeochemical cycles, 1088, 1130 biogeography, 1281,1283-1284 Biological and Toxin Weapons Convention (BWC), 140-141 biological corridors controversies, 133 environment/biological reserves and, 132 function/structure/types of, 131-132 human uses of, 132 biological exchanges globalization and, 137-138 intercontinental, 135-137 intracontinental, 133-135 outlook of, 138-139 biological warfare (BW), 138-142 biological weapons convention, 142 countries with, 139 delivery effects/systems of, 139-142 history of, 142 late twentieth century, 142-143 twenty-first century and, 143 biomass. Earth's, 1299 biomes, 163, 918 biophilia, 143-145 Biophilia: The Human Bond with Other Species (Wilson), 144 The Biophilia Hypothesis, \AA
biopiracy, 26 bioregionalism, 146 1365
Index bioregionalism (Continued) action and, 147 definition of, 145 goals of, 145-147 history of, 147 Biosfera, Linea, 1342 biosphere, 1128, 1130, 1152 biotas, 525 Birch Browsings (Burroughs), 888 Bircher-Benner, 1275 bird(s), 149/, 150n, 1327. See also guano; specific birds adaptability of, 149 conservation of, 150 dodo, 330-331 families, 149 of Florida, 1259 game, 656 iiouse sparrow, 649 human and, 149-150 moa, 895 preservation of, 1342 reptiles and, 1043-1044 reservations, 1259 salinization's effect on, 1095-1097 sanctuaries, 897,1152 sea, 1311 Bird, Isabella Lucy, 148 Bird Lore (magazine), 86, 112, 1342, 1348 Birdcraft (Wright), 1348 Birds of America (Audubon), 87 Birds of New Mexico (Bailey), 113 Birds of Village and Field (Bailey), 112 Birds Through an Opera Glass (Bailey), 112
birth control pills, 1351 Bisa peoples, 134 Bishop, Jacqueline, 756 bison, 150, 315, 656, 769, 1033,1074 in Canada, 151-152 hunting of, 151 near-extinction of, 151 preservation, 151-152 in Southwest, 933 in U.S., 151-152 on U.S. Plains, 929-931 at Yellowstone National Park, 152 at Yosemite National Park, 288 Black Aral Sea, 1355 Black Death, 33, 135, 530 Black Elk, 153 Black Elk: Holy Man of the Oglala (Black Elk), 153 Black Elk Speaks (Black Elk), 153 Black Forest, 284 Black River, 1309 Black Sea, 154-155, 958, 1310 Danube River and, 284 pollution of, 1309, 1310 Ukraine and, 1227 zebra mussels in, 1355 blackflies, 153-154 Blackfoot peoples, 1059 blacks, 1351 Blackstone River, 1306 Blake, Peter, 1160 Blake, William, 55 Blith, Walter, 1317 Bloom, Irene, 225 1366
Bloshenko, Evdokiia Grigor'evna, 1076 Blue Ribbon Coalition, 1339-1340 Blue Ridge Mountains, 60, 731, 1251 Blue-Ochoco Mountains, 919 The Blue Lion and Other (Lynd), 150
boats and boating, 1355-1356 Bob Marshall Wilderness Area, 811 Bock, Jerome, 324 Bodhidharma, 176 Bodmer, Karl, 855 Boer (South Africans of Dutch/Huguenot descent), 1140-1141 Boise Cascade, 1337 Boke of Husbandry (FitzHerbert), 1317 Bolivia, 155, 352, 628 history of, 156-158 regions of, 51, 156 as Southern Cone country, 1142-1143 Spain and, 157 boll weevil, 276 Bombay, 1310 Bonaparte, Napoleon, 1281 Bonnet Carre Spillway, 66 Bonneville Dam and Powerhouse, 66 Bonneville Flood, 536 Bonneville Salt Flats, 536 Bonpland, Aime, 1281 Book of Deuteronomy, 733-734
Bookchin, Murray, 615, 734, 1269 Booker, Wayne, 103 The The The The The The
Book of Ceremonial Rites, 260 Book of Changes, 260 Book of Documents, 260 Book of Mencius, 260 Book of Odes, 260 Book of Spring and Autumn Annals, 260
Boone and Crockett Club, 158-160, 626, 1067 Boone, Daniel, 158 Boreal Archaic culture, 1239 boreholes (wells), 1141 Borlaug, Norman, 616 Borman, Frank, 1147 Borneo, 77, 645, 1283 Borodin, Ivan Parfen'evich, 1076 Borst, Arno, 97 Bosch, Carl, 631-632 Boserup, Ester, 160-161 Bosnia, 284 Boston, 1243, 1245, 1293-1294 Boston Globe, 819 Botkin, Daniel, 880 Botswana, 18-19 Boundary Waters Treaty of 1909, 611 Bove, Jose, 558 Bovill, 297 bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE), 316 Bowman, Chris, 818 Boy Scouts of America sacred places and, 1081 Seton's involvement with, 1109 summer camps for, 1172 Boyd, Robert, 30 Bradbury, Ray, 1269 Brahe, Tycho, 274, 1145 Brahmans, 641-642 Brandt, Willy, 586
Index Bratsk Datn, 745 Braudel, Fernand, 959 Braun, Armin C, 328 Brave New World (Huxley), 1269 Brazdil, R., 235 Brazil, 162, 562 animals/plants in, 164-168 biodiversity in, 167-168 coffee and, 166 crops in, 162n, 166, 295 domestication in, 165-166 droughts in, 345-346 environmental history and, 163 environmental laws/management in, 168 forests of, 552-556 gold/precious stones in, 167-168 history of, 166 military dictatorship of, 829 name of, 164 National Environmental Council, 168 population of, 161 Portugal and, 162 rubber in, 1072-1073 Secretariat for the Environment, 168 shrimp in, 1115 as Southern Cone country, 1142-1143 soybeans in, 1144 sugar in, 1170, 1171 tropical forests of, 167 twenty-first century and, 167 urban environmental issues of, 168 wild bounty of, 165 woodlands of, 1287, 1347 Breaking New Ground (Pinchot), 1339
Breslau University, 631-632 Bretton Woods, New Hampshire, 1346 Breytenbach, Breyten, 888 Brezhnev, Leonid Il'ich, 1078 Brian, P.W., 322 bridges, 1054 British Association, 287 British Columbia, 1288 Protected Areas Strategy by, 927-928 British Empire, 169-170, 1228-1229 British Ordinance Survey, 809 British Sewage Commission (1861), 1306 Broad Spectrum Revolution, 656, 947-948 Brodskii, Abram L'vovich, 72 Brogger, Waldemar, 1 Bronte, Emily, 1233 Brontosaurus Movement, 280 Bronx, New York, 1357 Bronx Zoo. See New York Zoological Park Bronze Age, 292, 557, 756 Brooks, Paul, 818 Brower, David R., 171, 566, 648, 788-789, 1116-1117 Brown, Bob, 91 Brown, Jerry, 210 Brown, John Croumbie, 851 Brown, John Ednie, 90 Brown, Joseph Renshaw, 100 Brown, M., 623 Brown-Ferris Industries (BFI), 1073 Bruchac, Joseph, 890 Brueghel the Elder, Pieter, 760 Brule, Etienne, 1240
Brundtland, Gro Harlem, 172 Bruntland Commission, 172-173 Bruun, Ole, 876, 878 Bryant, William Cullen, 651, 652,1348 BSE. See bovine spongiform encephalopathy BTF. See U.N. Centre for Human Settlements (Habitat), Balkans Task Force bubonic plague, 314, 317 Budapest, 653 Buddha, 765 Buddhism, 53, 721, 740-741, 765 Buddha's life and, 173-175 Chan, 176 environment and, 176 Four Noble Truths of, 175-176 from India to China, 1119 Noble Eightfold Path in, 175-176 Shinto and, 1110-1113 teachings of, 175-176 vegetarianism and, 1274, 1276 Zen, 176 "Buddhist Economics" (Schumacher), 1102 Budiansky, Stephen, 848 Buell, Dorothy, 1342 Buell, Lawrence, 1064 Buena Vista Lake, 911 Buenos Aires, 1054 buffalo, 656, 1033,1248. See also bison American, 337 dung, 351-352 water, 337 Buffalo Commons, 152 "The Buffalo Hunt" (Mountain Horse), 946 Buffon, Comte de, 881 Bukharin, Nikolai Ivanovich, 1128 Bukro, Casey, 818 Bulgaria, 284, 940 Bulom people, 20 Bunaken Marine Park, 1342 Bundestag, 738 Burbank, Luther, 877 Burdon, J.J., 327 Burke, Edmund, 761, 1062-1063 Burkina Faso, 20 Burma. See Myanmar Burrill, 328 Burroughs, John, 56,112, 626, 887, 888 Burton, Richard F., 277 Burundi, 14 Bush, Ceorge W., 530 Bush, George H.W., 530, 789, 815, 944-945, 1339-1340 appointments of, 279 on Kyoto Protocol, 44 bush meat, 176-178 bustard, 1074 Butler, Samuel, 1269 BW. See biological warfare (BW) Byrd, Richard E., 57 Byron, Lord, 862, 877 Byzantines, 966 Cabet, Etienne, 1270 Cable News Network (CNN), 819 Cabora Bassa Dam, 9 Cabot, John (Giacomo), 530 Cabrillo, Juan Rodriguez, 38 1367
Index cacao, 179, 180, 968, 1279 cadmium, 635, 636, 637 Caesar, Julius, 1285 Cahokia, 917 Cahora Bassa, 19 Cairo Guidelines, 177 Calaveras State Park, 1328-1329 calcium, 1123 Calcutta, 1310 Calder River, 1306 Caldicott, Helen, 944 Caledonians, 1232 California, 906-913 agriculture in, 353, 523, 1095-1097, 1301 animals in, 53, 316, 911 coasts, 957 forests, 550-551 Mexicans in, 910 mountains, 1328 Native Americans in, 909-910, 911 oil and, 963 Russians in, 1075 solar energy in, 1138 Spanish conquest of, 910 wind energy in, 1338 California Aqueduct, 248, 912 California Club, 1328-1329 California Desert Protection Act (1994), 1337 California Environmental Quality Act, 912 California Federation of Women's Clubs, 1341 California Garden Club, 1342 California Park Commission, 1116 California State Division of Parks and Recreation, 1035-1036 Callenbach, Ernest, 1269 Calvinism, 653 Cambodia (Kampuchea), 23, 77, 1236 Cambodia Environmental Management Program, 83 Cambridge University, 286 camels, 181-182, 304, 305 Bactrian, 305 domestication of, 182, 337 ranching and, 1033 in Sahara, 1085, 1087 camera obscura, 885 Cameroon, 20, 1351 Camp Fire Girls, 1172, 1173 Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament (CND), 944 Campanella, Tommasso, 1269 Campbell, Colin, 1276 CAMPFIRE. See Communal Areas Management Programme for Indigenous Resources Canada, 295, 345, 354 air pollution and, 973-974 bison in, 151-152 colonialism/settlement/resources of, 183-185 drugs and, 348 environmental policy of, 185 fishing in, 1243 forests of, 184, 548-549 gulls of, 638 NAFTA in, 775-776 national parks in, 1059 resource conservation in, 1290 Rocky Mountains in, 919 salmon in, 1092, 1093 1368
Sierra Club in, 1117 U.S. and, 185-186 wars and, 1288 waste management in, 1294, 1297-1298 water pollution in, 1309 weather events in, 1312-1313 wood production of, 1234 Canadian Conference, 185 canals, 1056, 1301 irrigation, 1300 Mesopotamian, 830-832 Rhone River, 1050 in Southwest, 934 in Soviet Union, 1077 for transportation, 1301 Canary Islands, 297, 961, 1169-1170 cancer, 1206 Canton, 217, 221, 1262 CAP. See Central Arizona Project Cape Canaveral, 66 Cape Cod, 1244, 1247 Cape Cod National Seashore, 59, 1243 Cape Verde Islands, 1169 Capek, Karel, 1270 Capital (Marx), 187 capitalism, 562 contradiction for, 188-189 envrionmental/social manifestations of, 189 growth and, 189 as mode of production, 187-188 rise of, 188 during Scientific Revolution, 1103-1104, 1106 socialism/communism v., 1126-1128 today, 189-190 carbon dioxide (CO2), 590-591, 1130, 1132 Cardamon Mountains, 83 Cardenas, Lazaro, 837 Carib tribe, 968 Caribbean, 190-191 coastlands, 195-196 crops, 295 ecological effects of conquests in, 192-193 environmental issues of, 194 human environments of, 192 recycling in, 1297 sea turtles in, 1107 sugar beets and, 1287 sugar ir\, 193-194, 1170 as target practice, 1290 yams and, 1351 caribou, 196-198, 315, 658, 815 Caring for the Earth: A Strategy for Sustainable Living, 1348
Carnivore Conservation Conference, 288 Caroline Islands, 953, 955 Caroni River, 968 Carpathian Basin, 653-654 Carpathian Mountains, 1227 Carpenter, S., 545 Carribean Sea, 958 Carroll, Lewis Henry, 330 carrots, 1068-1069, 1071-1072 Carson National Forest, 790 Carson, Rachel Louise, 90, 818, 903, 941, 943, 1259 career of, 198-199 influence of, 128 Carter, Jimmy, 972, 1101, 1125
Index Cartesians, 1274-1275 Carthage, conquest of, 1285 The Car Soiution (Levine), 103
Cartier, Jacques, 609 Cartwright, George, 609 Carver Foundation/Museum, 200 Carver, George Washington, 199-200, 877 Cascadia Bioregion, 145 Caspian Sea, 958, 1355 pollution in, 1309 sturgeon from, 1165 water pollution and, 1309 zebra mussels in, 1058, 1355 cassava, 12, 134, 1068 Castillo de Bellver oil spill, 967 Catal Huyuk, 336 Catastrophe or Cornucopia (Cotgrove), 850 Catechisme Politique de Industriels (de Saint-Simon), 1269
catena, or soil topo-sequence, 1130-1131 caterpillars, 289 Cathay. See China Catholic summer camps, 1172 Catholicism, 156, 200, 653 beliefs of, 201 ecology/sacramentality and, 201-202 faith/environment and, 202-203 Pueblo Indians' use of, 1040 Romanticism and, 1061 Catlin, George, 203-204 Cato, Marcus Porcius, 521 Catskill Mountains, 651-653, 1244 cattle, 336, 953 animal agriculture and, 1277 hormones for, 1034 manure, 521 ranching and, 1033-1034 in South Africa, 1141 tick, 953, 1288-1289 in Venezuela, 1279 water for, 932 wild, 656 Zebu, 337 cave dwellings, 521 Cavendish, Margaret, 1275 Caventou, Joseph Bienaime, 822 caviar, 1165 Cayman Islands, 1106 CBNRM. See community-based natural resource management CCC. See Civilian Conservation Corps CEC. See Commission on Environmental Cooperation Ceide Fields, Ireland Celebrezze, Anthony J., 1242 Celts, 557 Center for Applied Biodiversity Science, 79 Center for the Defense of Free Enterprise, 1339 Center for Tikkun Olam, 734 Central America, 204, 1314 deforestation of, 292, 296 Europeans and colonialism in, 205-206 forests of, 554 independence/nineteenth century, 206-207 Mesoamerica and, 205 soil in, 1132 twentieth century, 207 twenty-first century, 207-208
Central Arizona Project (CAP), 248, 1258 Central Bureau for the Study of Local Regions, 1076 Central Lowlands, 1251 Central Park, 753 Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB), 572 central solar power (CSP), 1138 CEQ. See U.S. Council on Environmental Quality CERCLA. See Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act Ceremony (Silko), 888 Cernea, Michael, 1047, 1347 Cervantes, Miguel de, 1110 Cesalpino, Andrea, 127 Ceylon. See Sri Lanka Cezanne, Paul, 762 CFCs. See Chlorofluorocarbons CH4. See methane Chabata, Lydia, 214 Chad, 20 Chadwick, Edwin, 780, 1293, 1306 Chaffee, Roger, 1147 Chaffey, George, 89 Chaffey, William B., 89 Chaldeans, 965 Chamberlain, Josephine, 645 Champa kingdom, 77 Chandler, Robert, 617 Chang River. See Yangtze River Changan (now Xian), China, 1119 Changes in the Land (Cronon), 881
charmels, river, 1057-1058 Chao Phraya River, 78, 81 Chaplin, Charlie, 598 charcoal, 292, 525, 935 Charles II, King, 1105 Charles Kettering Laboratories, 844 Charles V (Emperor), 966 Charles V at Muhlberg (Titian), 760
Charlson, Robert, 570 Charney, Jule, 296, 301 Chartist movement, 1125 Chase, William Merritt, 755 Chassean civilization, 557 Chateaubriand, Frangois-Rene, 1281 Chavez, Cesar, 209 Delano Grape Strike and, 210 pesticide threats and, 210 significance of, 210 Checago Creek, 1241 Chelyabinsk. See Mayak chemical(s). See also DDT Agent Orange, 22-23, 153, 289-290, 1289 fires, 1050 poisoning, 727 pollution from, 1280 toxic, 1309 in TSCA inventory, 775 vegetarianism and, 1276 warfare, 1288-1289, 1308 water pollution from, 1308, 1309 chemical industry silver in, 1120 in Soviet Union, 1078 wars' impact on, 1288-1289 The Chemistry of Cooking and Cleaning (Richards, E.S.), 1053
Chernobyl nuclear power plant, 566, 819, 1227, 1289 accident at, 41, 939, 944, 1077-1078, 1079 1369
Index Chesapeake and Ohio Canal, 341 Chesapeake Bay, 210-211, 1134 Chevron-Texaco, 899 Cheyennes, 1040-1041,1255 Chicago, 814 epidemics, 1302, 1306 pollution by, 782 population of, 1241 waste management in, 1294 Chicago River, 1241 Chicago Sanitary and Ship Canal, 1241 Chicester, Guy, 232 Chichamecs, 835 Chihuahua Desert, 1254 children American Indian, 1041 nature and, 1172-1173 Chile, 628, 957 Coalition of Parties for Democracy, 213 colonial, 213 environmental problems of, 213 forests of, 548, 550 geography/history of, 211-212 modern, 212-213 National Commission on the Environment, 213 nuclear materials in, 1148 post-1973, 213 salmon in, 1093 as Southern Cone country, 1142-1143 chimpanzees, 1147 Chimurenga, 214 divinity appeals of, 215 religious inspiration of, 215 China, 345, 1240, 1353 agriculture/industries in, 220-221 automobiles for, 103-104 birth control/population of, 219-220 canals in, 1300 changes in, 216-218 climate in, 236 crops of, 335, 523-524 dams in, 283, 1300, 1304-1305 drugs and, 348-349 farming in, 216 fishing and, 533 forests/vegetation in, 219 Grand Canal of, 1301 horses in, 648 industrial pollution/measures in, 221-222 international cooperation and, 223 landscape of, 216 leaders, 806 logging in, 791-792 during Middle Ages, 293-294 natural disasters in, 223 natural gas in, 872 as nuclear power, 944 Oceania and, 951 oil and, 964 provinces in, 650 rice in, 1051 rivers in, 649, 1286, 1352 rules' enforcement in, 222 rural misery in, 218-219 salinization in, 1088, 1090 salt in, 1094-1095 1370
seas around, 1310-1311 sericulture in, 1119 sericulture (silk production) in, 1119 Shangdung Peninsula of, 1352 shrimp in, 1115 as socialist/communist, 1127 soil in, 1131-1133 soybeans in, 1144 sugar in, 1171 sweet potato in, 1174 Total Fertility Rates of, 219-220 tourism in, 1352 U.N. and, 1236 vegetarianism in, 1276 wars and, 1286 wars' impact on, 1286 waste management in, 1292-1293, 1298,1302 water pollution in, 1310-1311 wind energy in, 1339 Yellow Sea and, 1352-1353 zoos in, 1356 China, Ancient, 225 deforestation in, 225-226 farming in, 226 regional interdependence in, 226-227 water issues of, 224-225 China Health Project, 1276 Chincha Islands, 628 Chinese Communist Party (CCP), 806 Chipko, 227-228 Chippewa Forest Reserve, 1328, 1341 Chippewa Indians, 1040, 1042, 1043 Chiquita, 563 Chixoy Dam, 283 chlorination on golf courses, 1156 of water, 1156, 1307-1308, 1310, 1311 water pollution and, 1306-1308, 1310-1311 chloroflurocarbons (CFCs), 43-44, 590, 775, 845 MP and, 858-859 cholera, 317, 338, 1293 epidemics, 780 water and, 1302, 1306-1307, 1310-1311 Cholmun tribe, 739 Christian Democratic Union/Christian Social Union (CDU/CSU), 585 Christian Science Monitor, 852
Christianity, 1329-1330 following outlawing of Nestorian sect, 1119 in Great Britain, 1231 in Korea, 741 medieval, 1229 in Mediterranean, 825 on nature, 878 Oceania and, 953 in Spain, 1149 Christmas Island, 943 Chromista, 322 chromium, 634-635, 636, 637 Chrysler, 103 Church, Frederic E., 651, 653, 755 Church of England, 1327-1328 churches, 760 Chuuk (Truk), 952 Chyisso Hiryp Company, 636 CI. See Conservation International
Index Ciba Geigy, 625 extreme weather and, 1312, 1315 Cicero, 293, 878, 1344-1345 during last millennium, 235 Cicerone, Ralph, 972 of Latin America, 236 Cincirmati, 814, 1356 of Mediterranean, 236 Cincinnati Zoo, 330,1356 of Russia, 236 circumpolar regions, 228 Clinton, Bill, 210, 789, 945, 1339-1340 humans' influence on, 230 The Closing Circle (Commoner), 734 oceans and, 229-230 clothing. See also silk cistern, 1299-1300 rabbits for, 1031-1032 CITES. See Convention on International Trade in sea turtles for jewelry and, 1107 Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora Clovis culture, 914,1238-1239 cities Club of Rome, 238 in developing countries, 1263 CND. See Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament European green, 1158 CNN. See Cable News Network landscape architecture for, 752-753 CO2. See carbon dioxide medieval, 38 coal, 19,184, 726 mega, 1310 air pollution with, 1105 during Scientific Revolution, 1103-1104 anthracite, 1246 sewers in, 781 atmospheric impact of, 239-240 waste management in, 1292-1296 burning, 635 water and, 1301-1302, 1302 to coke, 782 water pollution and, 1306-1308, 1310 gas manufacturing plants, 774 world's first, 1262 gasification of, 873 Citizen Bird (Coues & Wright), 1348 mining, 1232-1233, 1241 Citizens Within the Ten Mile Radius, 232 uses of, 239 Cittd dei Soie (Campanella), 1269 Coalition on the Environment and Jewish Life, 734 City Beautiful movement, 1329 Coastal Plains, 1250-1251 City of Salem v. Eastern RR Co., 780 coastal zones, 1152 The City in History: Its Origins, Its Transformations, and Its coasts, 801, 957, 959-961 Prospects (Lewis), 1301 Cobb, 329 Ciudad Guayana, 968 coca plant, 348 Civil War, 1253 cocaine, 348 Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC), 1249, 1260 Cockayne, L., 1319 history of, 230-231 Cockayne, Leonard, 1317, 1319 as New Deal agency, 1066 coconut, 951-952, 956 civilizations cod, 241/, 1243n, 1245-1246 Assyrian, 1316 abundance/distribution of, 240 Egyptian, 1316 fishing for, 530-532 Sumerian, 1316 as food source, 183, 241, 530 civil-service reform, 1103 coevolutionary theory, 1127-1129 clams, 138, 1355 coffee, 206, 243 Clamshell Alliance, 231-232 Brazil and, 166 Clark, Andrew, 895 history of, 242-243 Clark, William, 1059 plantations, 1037 Clarke, Harold, 647 poor/rich nations and, 243-244 Clark-McNary Act of 1924, 1253 technification and, 243-244 Clayoquot Sound, 926 in Venezuela, 1279 CLEiAR. See Clearinghouse on Environmental Advocacy Cohen, J., 543 and Research Colbert, Jean Baptiste, 1037, 1105 clearcutting, 1252 Colby, William, 1116 clearing, 292, 295 Cold War, 1236, 1289 Clearinghouse on Environmental Advocacy and Research global arms race and, 1289 (CLEAR), 1341 nuclear power during, 939, 941-945, 944 Clements, Edith Schwartz, 233 space exploration during, 1145, 1146 Clements, Frederic, 127, 232-233, 607, 880, 882,1168 submarines during, 787 Cleveland, 1242 Cole, Thomas, 651-652, 755, 1062 Cleveland, H. W. S., 753 Cole, Wiiiiam, 1317 climate, 233, 235,1312 Coleridge, Samuel Taylor, 1328 Africa's, 4-5, 236 collectivism, 1076-1077, 1162 Collingwood, R.G., 876 before 1000 CE, 234-235 colonialism Central Europe's, 235-236 change, 237 disease and, 247 change in, 770, 1034, 1091 geopolitical/juridical foundations of, 246-247 China's, 236 research and, 247 desertification and, 301-302 science/natural world and, 247 ENSO/Pacific's, 236-237 Colorado, 1254, 1257,1289-1290 1371
Index Colorado Desert, 907 Colorado Plateau, 344, 933, 935-936 Colorado River, 248, 1254 dams, 871-872, 911 dams on, 1257-1258 Salton Sea and use of, 1095-1097 Colorado River Compact, 1257 Colorado-Big Thompson Project, 248 Columbia, 48, 196, 244-246 Columbia Plateau, 918-920 Columbia River, 249-250, 281-283, 918-919 salmon in, 927, 1058, 1092 Columbia River Irrigation District, 282 Columbia River Treaty, 186 Columbia University, 43, 938 Columbus, Christopher, 191, 297, 314, 958 food brought by, 1170, 1174 on rubber, 1072 voyages of, 137, 205-206 Columeila, 293, 1316 Comaipasa salt flats, 156 comanagement assumptions/policies and, 251-252 future prospects of, 253 in practice, 252-253 state-centered conservation and, 250-251 Comanches, 1255 Commission on Environmental Cooperation (CEC), 776 components of, 254-255 mission of, 253-254 Committee for a Sane Nuclear Policy (SANE), 944 commodification, 256 controversies/trends in, 258 market-based environmental policy and, 256-258 of nature, 255-256 Common Agricultural Policy, 558 Commoner, Barry, 734, 941, 942 Commonwealth Forestry School, 91 Commonwealth of Independent States, 1227 Communal Areas Management Programme for Indigenous Resources (CAMPFIRE), 259-260 communism, 219 camps for, 1173 Reagan on, 943 socialism and, 1125-1129 under Stalin, 1162 Communist Manifesto (Marx/Engels), 1126,1270 Communist Party. See Socialist Unity Party Community Service Organization (CSO), 209-210 community-based natural resource management (CBNRM), 773 Compagnie Nationale du Rhone (CNR), 1050 Company of New France, 1240 composting, 1164 as waste management, 1297-1298 Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA), 775 Comprehensive Everglades Restoration Plan, 340 Comprehensive Nuclear Test Ban Treaty, 625, 944 CONAM. See National Environmental Council concentration camps, 519 concept of contradiction, 188-189 condor, California, 180-181 Condorcet, M., 799 The Condor, 112
Conemaugh Valley, 540 1372
coney culture, 1031-1032 Confederacy, 1250 Confederation Paysanne, 558 Conference on the Human Environment (Stockholm), 1237 Confucianism, 260-261, 764,1061-1062, 1183 neo-, 740 Confucius, 765, 828 Congo, 9, 12 Congo (Zaire) River, 11, 261-262, 900, 1055, 1262 Congress of Vienna, 1049 Connecticut, 325, 1242, 1306 Connecticut Audubon Society, 1348-1349 Connecticut River, 1306 The Conquest of Bread (Kropotkin), 1269
Conrad, Pete, 1147 conservation, 263, 264 after WW 1,1290 after WW II, 1290 centers, 1357 environmentalism and, 267-268 Hetch Hetchy and, 266-267 origins of, 262-265 Progressive Era and, 265-266 resource, 1290 as term, 1339 of whales, 1324-1327 wilderness and biodiversity, 1332-1333 women and, 1341-1342 zoos and, 1357 Conservation Congress, 1260, 1341 Conservation International (CI), 79, 82-83 Conservation Reserve Program (CRP), 932, 1135 Conserving Life on Earth (Ehrenfeld), 128
Consolidated Edison, 651 Constable, John, 761, 1328 Constantinople, 962, 966, 1262 consumer movement, 268 choice and, 270 dreams and, 269 growth of, 269 Consumer Product Safety Commission, 972 Consumers International, 269 contagion, 1306 Continental Divide, 1059 Contribution to the Knowledge of Argentina's Fossil Mammals
(Ameghino), 63 Convention on Biological Diversity, 84, 131, 1237 Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES), 288, 1106 passage of, 130-131 zoos and, 1357 Convention on the Prohibition of the Development, Production and Stockpiling of Bacteriological (Biological) and Toxin Weapons and on Their Destruction, 140«-141M The Convention on Wetlands of International Importance Especially as Waterfowl Habitat, 1303 Conversation International, 798 Conwentz, Hugo, 586 Cook Islands, 953, 955 Cook, James, 137, 247, 596, 895, 924, 951 Cook, O.F., 555 Cooper, Anthony Ashley, 1105 Cooper, Gordon, 1147 Cooper, James Fenimore, 651
Index Copeland Report, 811 Copernicus, Nicolas, 274, 1103 copper, 1123 effect of mining, 271 future of, 271-272 as heavy metal, 634-635, 636, 637 in Industrial Age, 270-271 mining, 1150, 1241-1242 ore to refined, 271 silver as by-product of mining, 1121 copra, 952 coral, 272-273, 959 reefs, 962 Cordillera Occidental Mountains, 156 corn, 521-522, 578, 599, 931, 949, 1034. See also maize GM, 578-579, 625 HYV, 605 meal, 333 Corn Law, 562 Cornell University College of Agriculture and Life Sciences, 35 Corner, Eldred, 556 Coronado, Francisco Vasquez de, 1059 Corot, Camille, 762 Corporate Conservation Council, 872 Cortes, Hernan, 315, 836, 861 cosmology, 273 astrology/geocentric universe and, 274 heliocentric universe and, 274 old universe and, 274 stars/chemical elements' origins and, 274-275 today, 275 Costa Rica, 204-205, 1107 Cotgrove, Stephen, 850-851 cotton, 276, 277, 1251-1252 Deep South and, 278, 555 farmers, 289 in history, 275-278 mills, 1269-1270 producers, 523 seeds, 523 Cotton Belt, 1252 Coues, Elliott, 1349 Council of the Baltic States, 116 countries, developing, 1263 economics of, 1101-1102 resettlement in, 1048 shrimp in, 1115 toxic waste in, 774 water pollution of, 1310
Critias (Plato), 1133 Critique of Judgment (Kant), 1063
Croatia, 284, 653-654 Crockett, Davy, 158 crocodiles, 968,1043, 1045 Cronon, William, 881, 882, 895, 1334 crops, 353, 956 Brazilian, 162, 166, 295 export, 195 forage, 542-543 GM, 580-581 Himalayan, 639-640 HYV, 605, 616-618 intercontinental exchange of, 135-137 intracontinental exchange of, 133-135 Old World, 295 plantation, 295 root, 15, 134, 1069-1071 rotation of, 1319 rotation/ weed control, 1319 transference of, 136 U.S. Midwest, 1240 U.S. Northeast, 1245 U.S. South, 1251-1252 crops, fiber bark(soft)/stem, 523-524 leaf (hard), 524 seed-borne, 523 Crosby, Alfred W., 137, 206, 247, 895, 896 Crow people, 1059 Crown Blue Diamond, 311 CRP. See Conservation Reserve Program The Crusades, 1169 crustaceans, 959 Crutzen, Paul, 973 Cryptosporidium, 1309 A Crystal Age (Hudson), 1269 CSO. See Community Service Organization Cuba, 194 as socialist/communist, 1127 sugar in, 1170-1171 The Cubeo: Indians of the Northwest Amazon (Goldman), 46
The Covenant of the Wild: Why Animals Chose Domestication
Cugnot, Nicholas, 98 cultivation, 226, 298 clearing of, 193 permanent, 32 rice, 1051-1052 slash-and-burn, 31-32, 917, 947, 1051-1052 Cumberland, Kenneth, 895 Cumbler, John T., 1243 cummings, e.e., 877
(Budiansky), 848 cowbirds, brown-headed, 171-172 Cowles, Henry C, 232-233 cows, 336, 521,1327 Coxe, Tench, 1345 Crabb, A.R., 102 cranes, 1074 Crater Lake, 909, 927 Credo Series (Milkweed Editions), 889-890 creeks, 1055 cremators, 1296 Creutzfeldt-Jakob syndrome, 316 Crick, Francis, 328 cricket, 1154,1155, 1156 Crimea Mountains, 1227
currency, 1120 Curtis, Edward S., 626 Cuvier, Georges, 1281 Cuyahoga River, 1302-1303 burning of, 1242 fire on, 783, 1302 ignition of petroleum wastes on, 1302 pollution of, 1309 Cuyahoga Valley, 1342 cyanide spill, 285, 1121 cyclones, 1314-1315 extreme weather and, 1314-1315 Cyprus mines, 293 Cyrus II (King), 76
Curialia Miscellanea (Pegge), 1318
1373
Index Czech Union of Nature Conservation, 280 Czechia, 279-280 Czechoslovakia, 285, 654 Clean Air Act, 42 Slovakia and, 1121-1122 Da Silva, Darli Alves, 829 da Vinci, Leonardo, 538, 760,1274 Dachau concentration camp, 519 Dagens Nyheter (newspaper), 2 Daguerre, Louis Jacques Mande, 885 Dahl, BCnut, 1 Dai Jin, 758 DaimlerChrysler, 105 Daimlier, Gottlieb, 101, 963 dairying, 897 Daisyworld, 569 Dalton people, 915 Daly, Herman, 1347 dams, 1300-1301, 1304-1305. See also specific dams effects of hydropower and, 1087, 1300-1301, 1304-1305 fish obstruction with, 1165, 1166, 1280 floods and, 539-541 hydroelectric, 1054 impacts of reservoirs/large, 282-283 resettlement due to, 1046, 1047 resistance to reservoirs and, 283-284 Sierra Club on, 1116-1117 in Slovakia, 1122 in Southern Cone, 1143 in U.S. Southwest, 1257-1258 uses of, 281, 537 war and destruction of German, 1288 water temperature and, 1091,1301, 1304 weirs and, 1057, 1058 Danckers, Adrian, 754 Daneel, M.L., 85, 214 Daniel, John, 890 Danish Council of Research Planning, 160 Danish Iron Age, 1316 Danish Sound, 530, 961 Danube Circle, 654 Danube Commission, 285 Danube Convention (1856), 285 Danube Delta, 284-285 Danube Delta Biosphere Reserve, 285 Danube River, 653, 1302-1303 damming of, 283, 654-655 development of, 1122 geography of, 284 history of, 284-285, 294 issues/institutions of, 284 problems, 114 Danube-Drava nature preserve, 285 Danube-lpel nature preserve, 285 Daode jing (Laozi), 764-765 Darling, Jay Norwood, 1322 Darre, Richard Walter, 519-520, 586 Darwin, Charles, 247, 543, 1283-1284, 1318-1319 debates on, 287 evolution theory of, 127, 286-287 on nature, 879-880 vegetarianism and, 1275 on von Humboldt, 1281 Wallace, Alfred Russel, and, 1283-1284 1374
on weeds, 1318-1319 on White, 1327-1328 Darwin, Robert, 286 Darwin, Susannah Wedgwood, 286 Dauerwald model of forest management, 1038 Davenport-Hines, Richard, 349 Davies, Stuart, 334-335 Davis Dam, 248 Davis Island Dam, 66 Davis, Stuart, 755 Dawkins, Richard, 569 The Day After (film), 944
DDT (dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane), 545 banning of, 1117 war and, 1289 as water pollutant, 1057 water pollution from, 826, 1308 de Assis, Francisco, 829 de Balboa, Vasco Nufiez, 206 de Bary, Anton, 325 De Bary, W. Theodore, 225 de Champlain, Samuel, 1240 de Chardin, Teilhard, 203 de Heaulme, Henri, 798 de Heaulme, Jean, 798 de Klerk, Frederik W., 143 de Lamarck, Jean-Baptiste de Monet, 287 de las Casas, Fray Bartolome, 192 De Materia medica (Dioscorides), 821,1070, 1071 de Plank, Van, 327 de Quevedo, Miguel Angel, 837 de Saint-Simon, Henri, 1269 de Santa Anna, Antonio Lopez, 836 de Soto, Hernando, 60, 538 de Tournefort, J.P., 323 De Wet, J.M.J., 334 Deakin, Alfred, 88-89 Dearborn Independent, 547
Death Valley, 907, 918 The Death of Nature (Merchant), 878 The Death and Life of Great American Cities (Jacobs), 100
debris, in space, 1147-1148 Decius (Emperor), 331 Declaration de droits de I'homme et du citoyen [Declaration of
the Rights of Man] (le Jeune), 1269 "Declaration on the Long-Term Consequences of War in Cambodia, Laos and Vietnam," 23 deer(s), 315 hunting, 656 ranching and, 1033 skins, 1330-1331 white-tailed, 1248, 1330-1331 Defenders (magazine), 288 Defenders of Wildlife, 287-288 deflation (erosion of soil by wind), 1077 defoliation, 1289 as environmental signal, 290 human-caused, 289-290 insect-caused, 289 deforestation in Ancient Japan, 730 classical world and, 293 deserts and, 1087 early modern times and, 294-296 floods from, 1175
Index greenhouse gases and, 591 history of, 291 during Middle Ages, 293-294 of Midwest, 1241 prehistoric clearing of, 292 in Southern Cone, 1143 in Spain, 1149 from sugar production, 1171 technology and, 1190-1191 tropical, 793 of tropical forests, 554 twentieth century and, 296 Del Norte Redwoods State Park, 1035 Delacroix, Eugene, 1062 Delaware, 1250 Delaware River, 1244-1245 delta, 1055 Demeter, 1164 Demilitarized Zone (DMZ), 741 Deming, Alison Hawthorne, 890 Democratic People's Republic of Korea. See North Korea Democritus, 55, 794, 1104 Dempo volcano, 555 dendrochronology, 344 Denmark, 530, 961, 1097-1098 geography of, 115 organic farming in, 1137 recycling in, 1297 wind energy in, 1338 Dennis, John, 1105 Denovian period, 322 Derham, William, 1105 Des Moines Register, 818 Descartes, Rene, 55 on experimental science, 1104 on nature, 878 on vegetarianism, 1274 The Descent of Man (Darwin), 1328 desertification, 51 agriculture as cause of, 1277 atlas, 299 controversy over, 300-301 definition/history of, 297-298 by farming and overgrazing, 596, 1143 forms/manifestations/processes of, 298-299 meteorological consequences of, 301-303 outlook, 303 problems of, 299-300 soil degradation by, 1132, 1133, 1135 deserts, 303, 306 hunter-gatherer societies and, 303 nomadic pastoralists and, 304-307 trading oases/routes, 307 Design with Nature (McHarg), 1160 Desmann, Raymond, 251 Despard, Charlotte, 1275 detergents, 783 Deti Zeme (Children of the Earth) organization, 280 Detjen, Jim, 819-820 detritivores, 1115 Detroit Electrics, 102 Detroit Motor Company, 547 development narratives, 308 Devi, Gaura, 227 Devil's postpile, 1117
Devil's Tower National Monument, 266, 1041 Dewey, John, 309 Dewey School, 309 Diamond, Jared, 7, 128 diamonds, 11, 19 environmental implications of, 310-311 mining/production of, 310 origins of, 310 renowned, 311 diarrhea, 338 Diaz de Solis, Juan, 1054 Diaz, Porfirio, 836-837 Dickenson, Emily, 876, 1062 Die Aiternative (Bahro), 111 Die Philosophie der Freiheit (Steiner), 1163 Diesel, Rudolf, 963 Diet for a New America (Robbins), 1277 Diet for a Small Planet (Lappe), 1276 diet, nutrition and, 945-950 Dillard, Armie, 888, 889 Dimbleby, G.W., 662 dingos, 135 Dinosaur National Monument, 171, 283, 1116, 1342 Diocletian's Edict on Occupations, 823 Diocletian's Edict on Prices, 823 Dioscorides, Pedaruus, 821, 1070, 1071 Diosgenin, 1351 dioxins, 635, 775, 777 environmental behavior/fate of, 311-312 human exposure to, 312 regulation of, 312-313 disasters extreme weather and, 1312-1315 natural, 1289, 1299 resettlement due to, 1046 weather, 1312-1315 disasters, environmental. See also Bhopal Disaster nuclear bombs as, 1289 nuclear power as, 939, 1289 Discordant Harmonies (Botkin), 880 Discourse on Inequality (Rousseau), 1062 Discourse on Method (Descartes), 1104 diseases. See also infections; specific diseases in Ancient Japan, 730 continental, 952 dietary, 948-949 environmental degradation and, 780 minamata, 783 Native Americans and, 1287 from radioactive isotopes, 943 root crop, 1069-1072 from smelting, 1124 soybeans for, 1144 in Venezuela, 1278 war and, 1287, 1288-1289 water as source of, 1299,1302, 1305, 1306-1311 water-related, 1302, 1306-1307, 1310 weeds and plant, 1318 WW II and, 1288-1289 diseases, animal, 313 Mad Cow Disease as, 316 Old/New Worlds and, 314-315 perspectives on, 315-316 diseases, human, 316, 318. See also specific diseases in Ancient Japan, 730 contagious, 314 1375
Index diseases, human (Continued) continental, 952 dams and, 282 environment and, 319-320 epidemic, 314 immunity and, 319 in Ireland/United Kingdom, 1231 microbial, 351 Minamata, 636 mosquitos and, 317-318 Native Americans and, 1287 war and, 1287, 1288-1289 water as source of, 1299,1302, 1305, 1306-1311 water-related, 1302, 1306-1307, 1310 weeds and plant, 1318 WW II and, 1288-1289 diseases, plant, 321 bacteria/mollicutes and, 328-329 causes of, 319-320, 322, 323, 327 conservation/ecosystems of, 327, 329 genes and, 326-327 nematodes and, 329 research on, 322 viruses/viroids and, 327-329 Disneyland's Animal Kingdom, 1357 Displacement-Replacement Model, 1319 Diwali (The Festival of Lights), 642 DMZ. See Demilitarized Zone Dnepr River, 1076, 1309 Dnestr regions, 656 Dniepr Hydroelectric Power Station, 1077, 1162 Dniester River, 1227 Dnipro River, 1227 doctrine of negligence, 779 Doctrine of Signatures, 821 The Doctrine of the Mean, 260 A Documentary History of Primitivism (Lovejoy), 878 Documents Relating to American Foreign Policy, Pre-1898,
803-804 Dodge, Joseph B., 59 Dodgson, Charles L. See Carroll, Lewis Henry dodo, 330-331 dogs, 331-332, 336-337,1146 Dokuchaev, Vasilii Vasil'evich, 1076, 1131 dolphins, 1310 Domesday Book, on waterwheels, 1303 Domesday Book, 1303
domestication, animal, 314, 334 dogs and, 331-332 history of, 332-334, 336-337 human environmental destruction and, 338-339 silent, 337 domestication, plant, 334-336 history of, 332-334 human environmental destruction and, 338-339 silent, 337 weeds and, 338 Dominican Republic, 194 Don Quixote (Cervantes), 1110 Dofiana National Park, 1152 Donau-Auen Park, 97 Donets River, 1057 Dong Qichang, 758 donkeys, 7, 337 Donora, Pennsylvania, 970 Donovan, Josephine, 54 1376
Doolittle, W. Ford, 569 The Doomsday Syndrome, 851
"doomtowns," 942 Doppler radar systems, 1314 Dorogostaiskii, Vitalli Cheslavovich, 746 d'Orta, Garcia, 247 Douglas, Kenneth, 340 Douglas, Marjorie Stoneman, 340, 1342 Douglas, William O., 341-342 Dove, Arthur, 755 doves, house, 649 Dow Chemical, 26 Downing, Andrew Jackson, 1166 drainage Dutch, 1337-1338 in Finland, 1098 of wetlands, 1321-1322 Drake, E.L., 963 Drava River, 284 Dresden, Germany, 1288 Drought Polygon, 345 droughts, 1312, 1314-1315. See also Altithermal period in Africa, 17, 297-298, 345 causes of, 343-344 complex/natural, 346-347 definitions of, 342-343 as extreme weather, 1312,1314, 1315 history of, 344-345 impact on Lake Chad, 748 indicators of, 345-346 planning for, 345 in Sahel, 1087 Droughts and Floods in the Province of Buenos Aires
(Ameghino), 63 Drown, Thomas M., 1053 drug, production and trade, 347, 817 agricultural techniques and, 348-349 eradication of, 350 opium, 349 prohibition consequences of, 349 psychoactive, 347-348 Dryden, John, 877 Du Jiang Dam, 224 Dubos Point Wetland Park, 353 Dubos, Rene Jules, 350-351, 877 Dubow, J., 129 Duck Stamp Program, 1322 ducks, 337, 768 Dufour, Franqois, 558 Dugway Proving Grounds, 920 Duha (Rainbow) organization, 280 Dukakis, Michael, 789 Dumanoski, Diane, 819 Dumoga National Park, 79 Duncan, David James, 890 Duncan, John, 1125 dung, 351-352 Dunlap, Thomas, 895 Dunphy, Miles, 91 Dupont Corporation, 26, 973 Durand, Asher B., 651-652 Durant, William, 101 Durer, Albrecht, 98, 760 Durkheim, Emile, 811 Duryea, Charles, 98 Duryea, Frank, 98
Index dust, 300, 302,1249 Dust Bowl, 300, 344, 1249 affect on Plains, 930, 931 federal aid during, 353-354 on health/income, 353 of Oklahoma, 604 soil conservation during, 1066 soil erosion and, 1135, 1137 terminology, 352 dust bowls, in South Africa, 1141 Dutch, 19, 331 Dutch elm disease, 322, 327, 354 Dutch Royal Shell, 625 dysentery, 282, 317 eagles, bald, 768 Early Spring (Guo), 757
Earth after Fall, 1317 weather and, 1315 Earth Day, 355-356, 737-738, 789, 866, 904 Earth Eirst!, 356 conflict/culture and, 356 impact of, 356-357 new environmentalism and, 356 role in saving redwoods, 1036 Earth in the Balance (Gore), 615
Earth Island Institute, 171, 566, 1117 Earth Summits, 130, 1237 in Rio de Janeiro (1992), 131, 168, 844, 865 earthquakes, 1312, 1314-1315 effect on Aswan Dam, 902 effect on Baikal factories, 747 catastrophes, 363 causes of, 361-362 civilizations affected by, 1090 classical antiquity and, 358 early explanations of, 358 Enlightment and, 359-360 extreme weather and, 1314, 1315 Middle Ages and, 358-359 scales and, 362 seismographs and, 362 strategies against, 363 as waves, 360-361 earthworms, 1327 East Asia, 1197 East China Sea, 957, 958 East Germany, 585-587, 738 water pollution in, 1309 East India Company, 276 East Lyn River, 539 East Timor, 77 Easter Island (Rapa Nui), 129, 951, 955-956 Eastem Agricultural complex, 915 Eastem Orthodox, 1329-1330 Eastman, Charles, 364 Eastwood, Alice, 112 Ebionites, 1274 ECC. See Emergency Conservation Committee Echo Park Dam, 871, 1342 Eclogues (Virgil), 35 ecocide, 1127 ecoefficiency, field of, 1121 ecofeminism action/data/theory on, 367
concerns about, 367 contributions of, 368 material associations and, 366 origins of, 365-366 ecological imperialism, 368 animals/crops/diseases of, 369-370 examples of, 369 failure of, 370 Ecological Imperialism (Crosby), 895, 896 Ecological Literary Criticism (Kroeber), 1064
ecological restoration basic assumptions about, 371-373 co-workers on, 373-374 natural landscapes and, 374-375 preservation and, 376-378 undesirable elements of, 375-376 Ecological Revolutions (Merchant), 881
ecological simplicity history/transcendentalism and, 378 modern environmental, 379-380 progressive, 378-379 The Ecological Indian (Krech), 881
ecologists, 753, 1333 ecology deep, 1127 fire, 871 human v. scientific, 1053 romantic, 1064-1065 soil and, 1129 succession and, 1168-1169 ecology, Christian, 380 sacramental approach to, 381-382 tradition-centered approach to, 381 ecology, cultural, 382 adaptation and, 386 criticism of, 385-386 early works of, 383-384 ecosystem approach to, 384-385 ecology, deep, 811, 1333 approach, 388-390 articulation on, 390-391 critiques of, 391 deep ecology, 1127 developments in, 391 Naess/ecosophy and, 388, 390 terminology, 387 ecology, history of, 392 humans' impact on, 395-396 neutral stance of, 394-395 program, 393-394 two cultures and, 393 Ecology Party. See Green Parties ecology, social, 396 economic/material growths and, 397-398 energetics/society and, 396 research on, 398-399 resource overexploitation and, 397 resume on, 399 social metabolism and, 396-397 ecology, spiritual indigenous peoples and, 400 kinship model and, 401-402 philosophy of, 400-401 practical, 401-402 The Ecologist, 633 The Ecology of Freedom (Bookchin), 1269
1377
Index The Ecology of Invasions of Plants and Animals (Elton), 128
economics, ecological, 1102 economies, 1294 The Economist, 1292
ecopsychology, 402 definition of, 404-405 future of, 406 origins of, 403-404 related fields to, 405-406 ecoregions, 147 ecosystems of Ancient Japan, 729-730 biomes/communities and, 409 Cape Cod, 1243 cycles of, 410-411 dams and, 282-283 development/succession of, 408 eutrophication of, 411-412 food chains/webs of, 409 freshwater, 1299 Great Lakes, 1241 heavy metals and, 634 irrigation's affect on, 1300 management of, 412 scale/size/scope of, 407-408 structure of, 410 succession of plants and, 1168-1169 wetland as water-based, 1320 ecotheologians, 1329 Ecotopia (Callenbach), 1269 ecotourism protests about, 414-415 revenues and, 413-414 U.N. and, 415 Eco-Village Network of Denmark (Landsforeningen for okosamfund), 1271 Ecuador, 48, 1351 economy of, 416 environment of, 417-418 environmental diversity in, 416 shrimp in, 1115 Eden, 418-420 modern, 421-422 search for, 420-421 Eder Dam, 1288 Edey, Marion, 788 Edge, Rosalie, 1342 Edinburgh University, 286 Edison, Thomas Alva, 101-102, 422-423, 963 EDM. See electronic distance measurernent Edo people, 21, 764 education, 1356-1357 EEZ. See exclusive economic zone effluents, 1309 industrial, 1306 urban, 726-727 Egner, Hans, 2 Egypt, 840, 1236,1356-1357 irrigation in, 1300 logging in, 791 oil and, 965 salinization in, 1089-1091 waste practices in, 1292, 1296 Egypt, Ancient environment of, 423-424 landscape changes in, 424-425 1378
Ehrenfeld, David, 128 Ehrlich, Anne, 128 Ehrlich, Paul, 618, 799, 848, 943, 944 EIAs. See environmental-impact assessments Einstein, Albert, 817, 877, 938 EIS. See environmental impact statements Eiseley, Loren, 888 Eisenhower, Dwight D., 939, 1146 Eisenstadt, S. N., 878 El Dorado, 968 el Grupo de los Cien Mexico, 835 El Nino, 343-344, 532 conditions, 427, 628 definition of, 426-427 impacts of, 935, 1054 information on, 427-428 La Niiia and, 88, 426 non, 426 El Nifio Southern Oscillation (ENSO), 4-5, 797, 1312-1313, 1315 in Africa, 4-5 temperatures and, 235-236 El Salvador, 204 Elamites, 965 Elbe River, 294 Elder, John, 887, 890 Eldredge, Miles, 847-848 electricity as geothermal energy, 583 from natural gas, 874 from nuclear power, 939-940 from solar energy, 1138-1140 water for, 932 wind energy and, 1338-1339 electronic distance measurement (EDM), 808 Elements (Euclid), 1154 elephants, 429-430, 656 hunting, 1141 populations, 12 Elf (oil company), 899 Eliot, Jared, 1318 ELISA. See enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay elk, 769 EUice Island, 953 elms, 322, 329 Elsholz, J.S., 323 Elton, Charles, 128, 543 El'tsin, Boris Nikolaevich, 1078 EMEP. See U.N. Co-opperative Program for Monitoring and Evaluation of the Long-Range Transmission of Air Pollutants in Europe, 970-971 Emergency Conservation Committee (ECC), 1342 Emerson, Peter Henry, 886 Emerson, Ralph Waldo, 128, 734, 1316 on nature, 877 on Romanticism, 1063-1064 on weeds, 1316 Emery, E., 816 emissions automobile, 40, 784, 970 heavy metals, 635-636 Empedocles, 1274 empiricism, 1061, 1063 Emscher River, 1309 emus, 1033
Index endangered species, 430. See also U.S. Endangered Species Act of 1973 history of, 431-433 IUCN and, 433 laws for, 768-769 lists, 433 most at risk, 433-434 poaching of, 431 in Scandinavia, 1098 shrimp as, 1115 snail darter as, 1124-1125 spotted owl as, 937 water and, 1299 wetlands and, 1320 zoos and, 1357 Endangered Species Committee. See God Committee energy. See also natural gas from incinerators, 1297 levy on nonrenewable, 1176 from nuclear power, 938-940 from water, 1299 energy generation with incinerators, 1297 with water, 1299 Engels, Eriedrich, 187-190, 1125-1128, 1270 engines, diesel, 960, 963 England, 1245, 1357 air pollution in, 1105 Alkali Act (1863) of, 2, 42 animal diseases in, 316 Clean Air Act of, 42 dams in, 1300 Eorestry Commission, 1233 Lake District, 1233-1234 medieval, 960 National Nature Reserve, 1232 northern, 662 Parliamentary Act of 1949, 662 population of, 1232-1233 raw materials of, 129 Romanticism in, 1061-1064 urbanization in, 1264-1265 vegetarianism in, 1275-1276 waste management in, 1293, 1302 wastewater treatment in, 1302 English Civil War, 1125 English Corn Laws, 1245 English Pilot, 608 The English Improver Improved (Blith), 1317 The English Woman in America (Bird), 148
ENSO. See El Nifio Southern Oscillation Entisols, 1131 entropy, 794 environment activism for, 1098 urbanization and, 1266-1268 water for, 1302-1303 Environmental Defense, 439-440, 633, 852 Environmental Defense Eund. See Environmental Defense environmental education emergence of, 444 international, 444 leaders of, 440-441 nature study and, 441-443 organizations/publications of, 443
environmental ethics anthropocentrism and, 447 biocentrism and, 447 crisis and, 445-446 eco-feminism/ecojustice and, 448 ethical holism and, 448 origins of, 446-447 theories on, 447 universal considerations of, 447-448 zoocentrism and, 447 environmental fund, 633 environmental impact statement NEPA and, 449-450 non-U.S., 449-450 environmental justice background of, 451 issues, 453-454 local focus/worldwide issues of, 451-452 U.S. activism for, 452-453 environmental narratives expeditionary/travel, 456 local, 457 meaning of, 454-455 natural history/poeticism and, 455-456 popular tales as, 456-457 texts as, 455 environmental philosophy, 458 during 1970s, 460 in the 1990s, 461 land ethic and, 459-460 rival schools of, 460-461 environmental politics ecology of, 462-463 environmental movement and, 463-464 environment/inequalities and, 464-465 future of, 465-466 globalization and, 465 policies and, 464 environmental regulation assessments/requirements of, 472-473 court decisions/proliferation of, 474 development/history of, 472 jurisdictions and, 474 substantive, 473-474 variations on, 471-472 environmental-impact assessments (EIAs), 278, 1047-1048 environmentalism, 475-476, 732-734 emergence of, 477-479 issues/institutionsof, 479-480 many, 480-481 The Environmental Imagination (Buell), 1064
enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), 328 Eocene Era, 646 Ephesus, 1133 Epic of Gigamesh, 1333
Epicurus, 794, 1104 epidemics, 135 responses to, 780-781 water-related, 1302, 1306-1307, 1310 epidemiology, 780, 1302 Epping Forest, 1284 Epupa Ealls Dam, 9 Equus. See horses Erasmus, 1274 Erewhon (Butler), 1269 ergotism, 601 Erie Canal, 651,1242-43,1301 1379
Index Erikkson, Erik, 2 Eritrea, 7-8 Erosion: A National Menace (Bennett), 1135 Erwin, Terry, 129 ESA. See U.S. Endangered Species Act of 1973 esceptionalism, 1335 An Essay on the Principle of Population (Malthus), 286 An Essay on the Principle of Population, as It Affects the Future Improvement of Society with Remarks on the Speculations of Mr. Godwin, M. Condorcet, and Other Writers (Malthus), 799 Essays upon Field Husbandry in New England and Other Papers (Eliot), 1318 Essenes, 1274 Estonia, 115 estuaries biology of, 483 disturbence/mitigation of, 483 land/water and, 482-483 salinization of, 1089 shrimp in, 1115 etalons (baseline references), 1076 ethicists, 1329, 1333 Ethics (Spinoza), 1154 Ethiopia, 7-8,15, 518, 563 ethnobotanists, 292, 821 ethnobotany, 483 anthropogenic ecosystems and, 484 domesticate v. wild plants in, 484-485 of environmental history, 485 plant species and, 484 Ethyl Corp., 776 Etnier, David, 1124 eucalyptus, 485-486 Euclid, 1154 Euphrates River, 281, 536, 1284 salinization of, 1089 Eurasia, 337, 646, 648-649 biological exchanges in, 133-138 forests of, 549 migration and, 846 Sahara and, 1085 eurhythmy, 1163 Euripides, 878 Europe, 12-13. See also specific countries acid rain and, 3 air pollution in, 970-971 Braudel's, 959 CSP projects in, 1138 diseases and, 316-320 drugs and, 348 extreme weather in, 1313-1314 forests of, 548-551,1288-1290 glaciers of, 1230 green movement in, 1161 hydroelectricity in, 1304 impact on New Zealand, 895-897 logging in, 792-793 medieval, 1283 during Middle Ages, 293-294 natural gas in, 873 navies of, 1287 Oceania and, 951-953, 956 root crops in, 1069-1071 terracing in, 1198 U.S. Midwest and, 1240-1241 1380
U.S. Northeast and, 1245 waste management in, 1294-1298, 1295-1297, 1302 water pollution in, 1305-1311 waterways in, 1302, 1311 weather events in, 1313-1315 wind energy in, 1337-1338 zebra mussel in, 1355 Europe, Ancient Bronze Age in, 491 cultural developments in, 489 environmental change in, 487-489 Greek civilization of, 492 Iron Age in, 491-492 Mesolithic Period in, 490 Neolithic Period in, 490-491 Palaeolithic in, 489-490 Roman Empire in, 492-493 Europe, Medieval climate of, 493-494 sea-levels during, 494-495 vegetation during, 495-496 Europe, western, 1355 industrialization/urbanism in, 1311 wars and, 1285-1289 waste management in, 1292-1298 European Air Chemistry Network, 2 European Community (EC), 533, 858, 1152 member-states of, 116 European Court, 655 European Economic Commission (EEC), 776 European Green Party, 1151 European starling, 497-498 European Union, 561, 1297 Baia Mare Task Eorce, 655 on Basel treaty, 777 Common Agricultural Policy of, 1137, 1151 guidelines, 826 Hungary and, 655 Spain and Portugal in, 1149, 1151-1152 sugar from, 1171 European Union Environmental Acqus, 280 Euthenics, the Science of Controllable Environment (Richards), 1053 eutrophication, 826-827, 1078, 1096, 1306 of Baltic Sea, 117-118 effects of, 749 Evans, Oliver, 99-100 evaporation, 1299 Evelyn, John, 1, 1037, 1105, 1345-1346 on pollution, 38, 39-40 on vegetarianism, 1275 Evenks people, of Siberia, 1092 Everglades National Park, 768, 870, 1322, 1328 women and, 1342 The Everglades: River of Grass (Douglas), 340 "Everything that lives is holy," 55 evolution, human, 497-498 australopithecines and, 499-500 early hominids and, 498-499 first humans in, 500 human differences in, 501-502 latest, 502-503 Old World's colonization and, 500-501 Pleistocene and, 502 evolutionists, 1333 exclusive economic zone (EEZ), 787
Index experimental science, 1104, 1106 "Exploitation Ecosystem Hypothesis," 545 exploration other, 508-509 primary, 505-506, 509-510 secondary, 506-507 Exploration of the Colorado River of the West (Powell), 1017 Exploring Space with Reactive Devices (Tsiolkovsky), 1145
Farther Afield in the Study of Nature-Oriented Literature
(Murphy), 888 fascism, 517 classical, 518 ecological politics and, 519-520 German National Socialism and, 518-519 Italian, 518 "Fascism and the Land," 518
Extended Economic Zone (EEZ), 533, 961
The Fate of the Earth (Schell), 944
The Extermination of the American Bison (Hornaday), 645
F.B.I. See Federal Bureau of Investigation FCCC. See Framework Convention on Climate Change FDA. See Food and Drug Administration FDP. See Free Democratic Party Fechner, Robert, 231 Federacion de Amigos de la Tierra de los Pueblos de Espafia (FAT; Federation of Friends of the Earth of the Peoples of Spain), 1151 Federal Bureau of Investigation (F.B.I.), under Ruckelshaus, 1073 > Federal Bureau of Labor. See U.S. Department of Labor Federal Housing Administration (FHA), 1158 Federal Republic Housing Agency, 623 Federal Republic of Germany. See Germany; West Germany Federal Sierra Nevada Ecosystem Project, 1118 Federal Water Pollution Control Act (FWPCA), 783, 1309 Federated States of Micronesia, 952 Federation of Women's Clubs, 1328-1329 feminists, 1275, 1276 Feminists for Animal Rights, 54 feng shui, 261 fens, 1104 Fenton, Roger, 885 Fergana Valley oil spill, 967 Feriss, S., 209-210 fermentation, 337-338 Fermi, Enrico, 938 Fernow, Bernhard E., 265, 1037, 1260 Ferreil, J.S., 200 Fertile Crescent, 1284, 1316 fertilizers, 348, 631-632, 780 in aquaculture, 1115 artificial, 2 chemical, 903, 948 commercial, 522 manures as, 892, 1134 nitrogen conservation and, 521 organic v. chemical, 1060 for rice, 1053 superphosphate, 897 use of, 32 Fiddes, Nicke, 1277
extinction historical, 512 island species and, 513-514 mass, 510-511 rates, 514-516 Extinction (Ehrlich & Ehrlich), 128 extraction ore, 853-854 surface/underground, 852-853 types of, 852 Exxon Valdez, 965, 967 Eysfarth, C.S., 323 Fabela, Helen, 209-210 Fabricus, Johann, 323-324 factories, 747 Fahrenheit (Bradbury), 1269 Eairfield's Birdcraft Sanctuary, 1349 Eairhead, James, 1168-1169 Falkland Islands, 864 Fallon, George, 789 fallow/crop ratio, 947-948 fallowing, 557 famine, 949, 1313-1314 Fan Kuan, 757 FAO. See U.N. Food and Agricultural Organization Farewell to Texas: A Vanishing Wilderness (Douglas), 341
Farm Workers Association (FWA), 209-210 Farman, Joseph, 972-973 farmers. See also fertilizers cotton/soybean, 289 Native Americans, 1238 New World, 1319 on Plains, 931-932 subsidizing, 1135 U.S., 1245 water pollution and, 1306, 1308 farming, 7, 30, 353, 1286. See also organic farming effect on diet/nutrition, 947-949 animals and, 1110, 1277 biodynamic, 1176 books on, 1104 communities, 1238 cutover, 1037-1038 dry, 31 fires and, 525-526, 1252 firestick, 525 industrial, 527 in Mediterranean Basin, 823 in Northeast, 1246-1247 in Rocky Mountains, 1059 in Sahel, 1087 in Southwest, 1254 sugar beet, 1287 water pollution and, 1306 The Farm, 1271
Field Guide to the Birds (Peterson), 1348 Fields, Factories and Workshops (Kropotkin), 1269 The Fight for Conservation (Pinchot), 266
Fiji, 319, 955-956 exploitation of, 951, 954 trade with, 952-954 Filho, Francisco Alves Mendes. See Mendes, Chico filtration, 1306-1308, 1310-1311 Finch, Robert, 887 Finland, 115, 559, 973, 1078, 1097-1098 Finlay River, 795 Fire in America (Pyne), 1252
fires, 1312, 1314. See also cultivation Aborigines and, 525-526 1381
Index fires (Continued) agricultural, 292, 526-527,1252 anthropogenic, 525 chemical, 777, 1050, 1176 for clearing vegetation, 923, 946, 948 contemporary, 528 for cooking, 1343 on Cuyahoga River, 783,1302 as detrimental disturbance, 1168 ecology, 871 Greek, 966 hunting, gathering and, 659-660 natural, 525, 526 suppression of, 1059 First Five-Year Plan, 1076, 1077 First International Conference for the Protection of Nature, Switzerland, 1076 First Nations, 923-924, 927 First World, 1334 Firth, Raymond, 29, 1313 Fischer, John L,, 952 Fischer, Joschka, 586, 613 fish. See also speeifiefish
by-catch of, 1115 cichlid, 749-750 Cisco, 750 culture, 1093 dams' effects on, 1301, 1305 haplochromine, 901 hatcheries, 1093, 1165 as health food, 534 heavy metals and, 636 migration, 1305 in Northeast, 1245-1246 in Oceania, 956 pesticides' effect on, 783 pollution and, 1302-1303, 1310 pollution's affect on, 1302-1303 relationships, 1327 sardine, 903 species, 959 transportation of, 534 war's impact on, 1289 water and, 1299, 1301 fisheries, 1289 Baltic Sea, 118 distant-water, 531, 534-535 European, 530 herring, 530 in Japan, 726-727 lamprey's effect on, 750 laws/powers/treaties and, 961 mangroves and, 801 marine, 786-788 North American, 534 trawling, 531-532 water pollution and, 1306, 1308 fishhook fleas, 138 fishing, 529 during 500 CE-1850 CE, 530-531 between 1850-1950, 531-532 during 6000 BCE-500 CE, 529-530 after 1950, 532-534 in Canada, 1243 in Cape Cod, 1243 challenges, 535 1382
hunting and, 655-657, 662 in Mesopotamia, 833 with nets, 901 in New England, 1243, 1245-1246 on Northwest Coast, 926-928 oil spills and, 967 operations, 959 for salmon, 1092-1093 in Yellow Sea, 1352-1353 FitzHerbert, Antony, 1317 Fitzroy, Robert, 286 Five Million Hectare Forest Reforestation Program, 83 Flanders Moss bogs, 1232 Flannery, Tim, 895 flatworms, 746 flax, 523 floodplains role of, 1058 soil in, 1131 floods, 535-537,1299, 1301 control/impacts of, 1301-1302 dams and, 539-541 from deforestation, 1175 as disasters, 536, 1313-1315 in Egypt, 1089 extreme weather and, 1313-1315 flash, 537 forests' role in preventing, 1036, 1037 impact of refugees from wars and, 1286 insurance, 541 nonstructural solutions to, 541 refugees from wars and, 1286 of Rhine River, 1050 of Rhone River, 1050 river dredging and, 1301 rivers and, 537-539, 1055,1301 water energy and, 1299 Flor, H,H,, 326 Florence, 539 Florida, 1250, 1314 birds, 1259 New Urbanism in, 1161 wetlands of, 1322 Florida State University, 300 Florida, the Long Frontier (Douglas), 340
flowers, 643 Flowers and Ferns in Their Haunts (Peterson), 1348
Floyd, D, W,, 36 Flying Fox and Drifting Sand (Ratcliffe), 89
FMD, See foot and mouth disease FoE International, 567 FoE, See Friends of the Earth Fon Yoruba people, 20 Fontana, Felice, 325 food. See also speeificfood
animals for, 1109 genetic engineering of, 1069, 1071, 1144 rabbits as, 1031-1033 reform movement, 1275 salmon as, 1092 salt and, 1094 , sea turtles as, 1107 shortages, 618 shrimp as, 1115 from soybeans, 1144-1145 from tropical forests, 793
Index food chains complexity of, 544 definition of, 543-544 environmental science's applications for, 545-546 food-web theory and, 544-545 keystone species and, 545 trophic pyramids and, 545 water pollution and bioaccumulation of elements along, 1057, 1302, 1308, foods, genetically modified (GMF), 577 allergenicity and, 579-580 benefits/risks of, 578 corn as, 578-579, 625 creation of, 577-578 genetic changes in, 579 global perception of, 580-581 regulations/safety in, 578-579 The Food Revolution (Robbins), 1277
foot and mouth disease (FMD), 662 football, 1154 Forbes, Henry, 555 Ford, Edsel, 547 Ford Foundation, 617-618, 874 Ford, Henry, 99, 101-102, 546-547, 963 Ford Model T, 102, 547, 963 Ford Motor Company, 102-105, 547 Fordism, 1176 Forest Act of 1912, 926 Forest and Stream, 159-160, 626
Forest Organic Act of 1897, 1260 Forest Reserve Act, 1033, 1067 Forestry Division of the Food and Agricultural Organization, under United Nations, 1290 forests. See also afforestation; deforestation; reforestation; taiga burning of, 796 clear-cutting of, 793, 793, 1290 clearing of, 193 closed, 552 coniferous boreal, 1131 conservation of, 1105 defoliation of, 290 equatorial, 552 in, Europe, 971 . floods and, 1302 of France, 294 of Germany, 294 in Ireland/United Kingdom, 1230-1231,1234 in Japan, 727-728 jurisdictions, 768 mangroves and, 801 model sustainable, 1078 monsoon, 552 national, 769, 772, 1059, 1117 Oceania, 953-954 old-growth, 926, 937 pristine myth and, 1023-1024 rain, 11, 168, 1024 in Russia, 295, 1075-1076 Shinto and worship of, 1113 smelter smoke's denuding of, 1123 in Spain, 1110 tropical, 793 tropical hardwood, 296
in U.S., 1103, 1247-1248 wars and, 1285-1290 forests, temperate, 548 cold-temperate zones/broad-leaved deciduous, 547-549 cold-temperate zones/evergreen, 549 hot-temperate zones, 550 Mediterranean-climate, 550-551 forests, tropical, 553, 554 before 1945, 554-556. after 1950, 556 Brazil's, 167 characteristics of, 552-554 outlook for, 556 The Forest Resources of the World (Sparhawk & Zon), 556
Formozov, Aleksandr Nikolaevich, 1076 Fort on a River (Van Goyen), 761 fossil fuels, 635, 847, 965 Foundation (Asimov), 1271 Fourier, Frangois-Marie-Charles, 1125 Fourier, Jean Baptiste Joseph, 590 Fourney, Benoit, 1304 Fourth Principle of the Dublin Declaration, 257 Fourth World Conference on Women (Beijing, China), 905 fox, 1113 Fox, Matthew, 201 Fox River, 1300 Framework Convention on Climate Change (FCCC), 587, 593, 1237 France, 325 coal in, 560-561 Forest Ordinance of 1669, 559 forestry in, 1037, 1038 forests in, 559-560, 1037, 1038 land in, 557 laws in, 294 Ministry of the Environment, 561 NGOs in, 904 as nuclear power, 944 nuclear tests by, 943 Public Hygiene Act of 1902, 558 rabbits in, 1031-1032 Romanticism in, 1061-1062 U.N. and, 1236 urbanization in, 1265 wars and, 1241, 1287-1289 water in, 558 water pollution in, 1311 weather events in, 1313 Francis, James B., 1304 Franco, Francisco, 1149, 1151 Franklin, Benjamin, 1331 Franklin River, 96 Fraser Island, 96 Fraser River, 927, 1092 Frau im Mond (Oberth), 1145 Free Democratic Party (FDP), 585 Free Trade Agreement (FTA), 186 Free Trade Agreement of the Americas, 563 "Freedom, 309 Freedom River Florida (Douglas), 340
Freeman, Derek, 80M French and Indian Wars, 651 French Forest Ordinance, 1105 French Guinea, 48 French isthmus, 558 1383
Index French Renault Dauphine, 102 French Revolution, 53,1062, 1125 Rural Code of 1791, 557-558 freon (dichlorofluoromethane), 845 Fresh Air Fund, 565-566 freshwater ecosystems, 1299 Fresno, California, 1295-1297 Fretwell, 545 Fridman, Susanna Nikolaevna, 1076 Friedman, Sharon, 819 Friedrich, Caspar David, 761 Friendly Town program, 566 Friends of the Earth (FoE), 171, 566-567, 905, 944, 1117 Brower and, 789 Friends of the Everglades, 340
surveys, 790 in U,S,, 1245-1247 Game Management (Leopold), 790
gammarids, 746 Gandhi, Mohandas K,, 228, 571, 641, 721, 1276 Ganges Action Plan (GAP), 572-573 Ganges River, 572-573, 1057, 1286 Ganges-Brahmaputra River, 1055 GAO, See U,S, General Accounting Office GAP. See Ganges Action Plan (GAP) garage, 1167 garbage. See waste management Garcia, Mauricia Gonzalez, 1342 Garden Cities of Tomorrow (Howard), 1269
Garden Club of America, 1342
The Friendship of Nature (Wright), 1348-1349
Garden Kalendar (White), 1327
Frisco Bay Mussel Group, 147 Fritzell, Peter, 887-888 From, Erich, 144
gardens, 573, 574 history/origins of, 573-576 informal, 576 Japanese landscape art for, 763-764 landscape architecture in, 752 of Mesopotamia, 833 New York homeless people's, 1081-1082, 1084
From the Earth to the Moon (Verne), 1145
Frome, Michael, 820 fruitarians, 1273 Fryer, Alfred, 1296 Fuji-Hakone-Izu national park, 861 Fulani people, 21 Fuller, Orator, 555 Fumifugium, or. The Inconvenience of the Aer and Smoak of
London Dissipated (Evelyn), 1, 38, 39-40, 1105 fungi. See also rusts bread, 601 plant, 322-327 poppy-killer, 350 saprophytic, 326 soil, 1058, 1132 fungicides, 997-998 Funk Island, 608-610 fur from Northwest Coast, 925 rabbits for, 1031-1032 Russian quest for, 1075 trade, 184, 1240-1241 FWA, See Farm Workers Association FWS, See U.S, Fish and Wildlife Service Gabcikovo-Nagymaros dam, 285, 654-655 GAC, See Governmental Advisory Committee Gadgil, Madhav, 1334 Gagarin, Yuri, 1147 Gaia Theory, 56 criticism/refinement of, 569-570 development of, 569 heart of, 570 Gainsborough, Thomas, 761 Galaal, Muusa-Haaji-Ismaa'iil, 343 Galapagos Islands, 286 Darwin in, 879 Galilei, Galileo, 274 on heliocentric world view, 1145 on sun, 1139 Galtung, Johann, 1154 Galveston, Texas, 1313 Gambia, 20 game in Northeast, 1245-1246 ranching, 1033 1384
The Garden of a Commuter's Wife (Wright), 1348
"Of Gardens," 575 garigue, 550 Garrett, Peter, 96 Garrett, S, D,, 325 gas(es). See also natural gas lighting, 963 in soil, 1130 gasoline additives, 776 Gassendi, Pierre, 1104 gatherers-hunters. See hunting, and gathering Gauguin, Paul, 762 Gaul, 1285 Gauss, Carl F,, 1281 Gaza, 840-843 GCMs, See global climate models GEF, See "Global Environment Facility" Gelisols, 1131 GEN. See Global Ecovillage Network General Federation of Women's Clubs (GFWC), 1341-1342 General Motors, 101, 103-105 General Motors Research Corporation, 844 genetic modification (GM), 327, 329, 605 Geographic Information System software, 809 Geographical, Linnean, and Zoological Societies, 1283 Geographical Society of the USSR, 1078 The Geographical Distribution of Animals (Wallace), 1284
geomorphic processes, 1130 Georgana, N., 99 Georgia, 1250 Georgics (Virgil), 1316 geosciences, 1129 geothermal energy electricity as, 583 heat flows/potential of, 582-583 Geptner, Vladimir Goergievich, 1076 Geralda cyclone, 798 Gerard, William, 1317 germ theory, 1306 German Democratic Republic. See East Germany; Germany German National Socialism, 518-519 Germany, 284, 332, 562, 1357 air pollution in, 974
Index cities/regions in, 584 economy/history/politics of, 584-585 environment/geography of, 115, 585-586 fascism in, 518 food reform movement in, 1275 forests of, 294, 585-586 gas warfare of, 631-632 gray water in, 754 Nazi, 518 NGOs in, 904 nuclear power in, 938, 940 oil and, 964 postwar economic policies of, 586-587 recycling in, 1297 roads in, 1285 Romanticism in, 1061-1063 Ruhr Valley in, 1288 urbanization in, 265 wars and, 1287-1288 wars' impact on, 1287-1288 water pollution in, 1305-1311 weather events in, 1313 wind energy in, 1338 germicides, 1156 Gessner, Abraham, 962 Ghana, 20-21,1351 Giampietro, M., 522 Giants of the Earth; A Saga of the Prairie (Rolvaag), 607
Giardia, 1309 Gidroenergoproekt (Hydropower Construction Agency), 747 Gifford, Sanford, 653, 755 Gila River, 1254-1255, 1258, 1300 Gila Wilderness, 790 Gilbert Island, 953 Gilgamesh, 536, 832
Gill, Tom, 556 Gillen, Francis James, 94 Gillette, Genevieve, 1342 Gilman, Charlotte Perkins, 1275 Gilpin, William, 761, 1063 ginger, 1068 Girardet, Herbert, 620 Girl Scouts of the U.S.A., 1172, 1173 glacier(s), 587 climate change and, 589 epochs, 1239, 1244 hazards of, 588-589 as natural resources, 588 people and, 588 in Sierra Nevada Mountains, 1117 Glacier National Park, 160, 1116 Glacken, Clarence, 878, 880-881 Glaser, R., 235 glass solar energy and, 1138 in waste stream, 1294 Glen Canyon, 589-590 Glen Canyon Dam, 248-249, 871, 1116 Glen Canyon National Recreation Area, 590 Glen Canyon: The Place No One Knew (Brower), 171
Giiessman, S. R., 34 Glinka, K. D., 1131 Global 2000 Report to the President ofthe United States,
128-129, 279 Global Anti-Golf Movement, 1156
"Global Climate Change: A Plea for Dialogue, Prudence and the Common Good," 202 global climate models (GCMs), 592 Global Ecovillage Network (GEN), 1271 "Global Environment Facility" (GEF), 777 Global Environmental Outlook, 1237
global positioning systems (GPS), 808 Global Resource Information Database (GRID), 1237 global warming, 344, 1087,1237 agriculture as cause of, 1277 carbon dioxide's role in, 1130 causes/history of, 590-591 ecosystems/extreme events and, 592-593 forests' mitigation of, 1036 impacts of, 1054 models/predictions, 591-592 salt lakes and, 1095 solutions, 593-594, 793 wars' impact on, 1289-1290 GM. See genetic modification GMF. See foods, genetically modified GMOs (genetically modified organisms), 578, 619 GMS. See Greater Mekong Subregion gnats. See blackflies Gnostic sects, heretical, 1274 Go East Young Man (Douglas), 341
goats, 336, 953 domestication/geographical diffusion of, 595-596 future of, 596 ranching and, 1033 in South Africa, 1141 God, 878-879, 1153-1154 God Committee, 1124-1125 "God, Gaia, and Biophilia," 144 A God Within (Dubos), 351 Goddard Institute for Space Studies, 590 Goddard, Robert H., 1145-1146 gods, 1083-1084 God's Own Junkyard (Blake), 1160
Godwin, William, 799. Goguryeo kingdom (Korea), 740 gold, 166, 184, 597-598 in Africa, 11, 20 prospectors, 589-590 in Sierra Nevada Mountains, 911, 1118 silver as by-product of mining, 1121 Gold Coast, 21 Gold Rush, 910-911 Golding, William, 569 Goldman, Irving, 46 The Gold Rush, 598
golf, 1154, 1155, 1156, 1157 Golubchikov, Yuri, 1079 Gompertz, Lewis, 1276 Gong Xian, 759 Goodland, Robert, 1347 Goodloe, C, 25 Gorbachev, Mikhail, 62, 944, 1078 Gordon, Dick, 1147 Gore, Al, 615, 789, 1161 Gorham, Eville, 2 Goring, Hermann, 586 Gorsuch, Anne, 973 GottUeb, Alan, 1339-1340 Gottlieb, Robert, 874 Gould, John, 91 1385
Index Gould League of Bird Lovers, 91 Governmental Advisory Committee (GAC), 254 Governors Conference on the Conservation of Natural Resources, 1328 Goya, Francisco de, 1062 GPS, See global positioning systems Grace Kelly Foundation, 738 Graetz, R,D,, 298 Graham, A, C, 765 Graham, Sylvester, 1275 grains, 334-335, 599, See also speeific grains
Africa and, 603 Americas and, 602-603 Easter Asia and, 602 Europe/Middle East and, 601-602 grasses and, 600 humans and, 598-600 imperial, 603-604 issues, 604-605 North America and, 524, 604 overproduction of, 1034 sacred, 1144 world's production of, 600 Grand Banks, 530-531, 534 Grand Canal (China), 602, 650 Grand Canyon automobiles in, 871 dams at, 871, 1116 as sacred place, 1082 Grand Canyon National Park, 171 Grand Coulee dam, 282 Grand Inga Dam, 9 Grant, Ulysses S,, 1103 grant-in-aid program, 783 grapes, 605-606 The Grapes of Wrath (Steinbeck), 344
grasses, 334-335, 542 antiherbivory toxins in, 929 bamboo and, 118-119 native, 604 small-seeded, 947 grasslands, 607 definition of, 606 human cultures and, 607 territorial, 606 grazing, 1260 animals, 292, 298 Great Auk, 608 as easy prey, 609-610 overkill of, 609 Great Barrier Reef Marine Park, 91 Great Basin Desert, 1254 Great Basin Region, 918-920 Great Bear Lake, 795 Great Britain, 354 animal rights in, 53 armies, 1288 biological conservation law in, 766, 768 dams in, 281 incinerators and, 1296-1297 industrialization of, 1346 industries, 523 mandates/protectorates of, 953 mapping of, 809 naval blockades of, 1287 as nuclear power, 944 1386
nuclear tests by, 943 rabbits in, 1031-1032 roads in, 1285 sports stadiums in, 1155, 1157 urbanization in, 1264-1265 wars and, 1241, 1287-1288 waste management in, 1295-1297 water pollution in, 1305-1306, 1305-1307, 1311 zebra mussels in, 1355 Great Depression, 353, 1167 artists during, 756 forestry during, 1037-1038 national parks during, 870 Temporary State Emergency Relief Administration during, 1066 Great Fergana Canal, 70 Great Fire of London, 1 Great Lakes, 610-611, 1342, See also speeific lakes early history of, 1239-1240 ecosystems, 545, 1241 forestry in, 1037 lampreys in, 750 logging, 1252 states of, 1237-1238 sturgeon in, 1166 water level of, 782 zebra mussels in, 1355-1356 Great Lakes Water Quality Agreements (1972), 611 Great Leap Forward, 219, 282, 806 Great Plague, 291 Great Plains, 344 as bread basket, 604 desertification and, 300, 302 early history of, 1238-1240 states of, 352-353, 1237-1238 Great Salt Lake, 536, 918 Great Slave Lake, 795 Great Smoky Mountains National Park, 60, 160, 1336 Great Society programs, 732 Great Wall of China, 1286 Great War, 563 Great Wood of Caledon, 1232 Greater Antilles, 190-192, 195 Greater London Plan, 621-622 Greater Mekong Subregion (GMS), 83 The Great Learning, 260 The Great Chain of Being (Lovejoy), 879
Greece, 336 city-states, 1284 droughts in, 344-345 logging in, 791-792 soil in, 1133 war's impact on, 1284-1285 waste management in, 1292 waste practices in, 1292, 1296 Greeks, 1345 ancient, 285 on nature, 878-879 sacred places for, 1081,1083 on vegetarianism, 1274 green building issues addressed by, 611-612 relevance of, 612 Green Committees of Correspondence, 613 Green Imperialism (Grove), 247
Green Kibbutz Network, 1271
Index Green Korea Project, 742 Green Mansions (Hudson), 1328 Green Mountains, 1244 Green Parties, 105, 111, 280, 612, 613 emergence/influence of, 613 in Germany, 585-586, 613 principles, 613-615, 614 green politics, in Scandinavia, 1098 Green Revolution, 9, 24, 244, 605, 631,1300 adoption/spread of, 617-618 agribusiness and, 26 agricultural technologies and, 615 core technology of, 616 HYV and, 616-618 irrigated lowland cultivation and, 1052 present/future of, 619 results, 616, 618-619 "Green Revolution" high-yielding seed varieties, 1300 Green Revolution Rice, 618 Green River, 283 Green urbanism, 619 challenges/obstacles of, 621-622 circular metabolism in, 620-621 cities/environments in, 620 ecological economies/governance in, 621 self-suffiency and, 621 sustainable mobility in, 621 Green v. Ashland Water Co., 781
Green World model, 545 greenbelt movement, 622-623 Greenham Common Air Force Base, 944 greenhouse gases (GHG), 590-594, 793, 1304 The Greening of Literary Scholarship: Literature, Theory, and
the Environment (Rosendale), 889 Greenland, 228, 824 Greenpeace, 280, 566, 905,1078 accomplishments of, 624-625 actions of, 623-624 changes sought by, 624 criticisms of, 625 environmental/social challenges and, 625-626 on nuclear power, 926, 939, 943 role of, 625 green washing, 147 GRID. See Global Resource Information Database Grinnell, George Bird, 86, 159-160, 627 Grissom, Gus, 1147 Grotius, Hugo, 770, 787, 961 groundwater runoff's effect on, 932 use of, 1152 waste management and, 1296 "Group of Ten," 875 Grove, Richard, 170, 247, 851 Groves, Leslie, 938, 941 Grupo de Cien (Group of One Hundred), 837 GRWG, See General Federation of Women's Clubs Guadacanal, 953 Guadalquivir River, 1152 Guam, 804, 953, 955 Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region, 225 Guangzhou, See Canton guano, 150, 521 fertilizer, 627-628 islands, 953
Peruvian, 628 producing areas, 628 Guard Fox Watch, 147 Guatemala, 204, 283 guava, 953 Guest, William, 1270 Guggenheim, David, 1146 Guha, Ramachandra, 170, 1334 Guiana Highlands, 968, 1278 Guila Naquitz, 335 Guillerme, A,E,, 558 Guinea, 20-21 Guinea Bissau, 20 Guinefort, 331 Gujarat, India, 869-870 Gulf of Lions, 827 Gulf of Mexico, 957, 958, 1310 pollution of, 1310 sturgeon in, 1166 Gulf of Paria, 968 gulls, herring, 637-638 gum arabic, 1087 Gumilla, Jose, 968 Guo Xi, 757 guohua painters, 759 Guri dam, 968 Gurkhas of Nepal, 864 Gurney, Goldsworthy, 99 Guthrie-Smith, Herbert, 895-896 Guyana, 48 gypsies (Roma), 653 Haagen-Smit, Arie, 38 Haas, Robert, 889 Haber, Fritz, 631-632 habitats biodiversity and, 129 change of, 1092 loss of, 1057-1058, 1097,1118 marine, 958-959 terrestrial, 1300 wetlands as, 1320-1323 Habsburg dynasty, 97, 584 Hachiko, 331 haddock, 531 Hadley Circulation, 4 Haeckel, Ernst, 816, 880, 1053 Hagenbeck, Carl, 1357 Hague Conference, 349 The Hague, 632 Hair, James, 872 Hairston, N,, 545 Haiti, 194,1287 Hakluyt, Richard, 1325-1326 Hale, Sir Matthew, 1317 Half Dome, 1117 Hall, James, 1345 Hall, Minna, 86 Hallgenbeck, Carl, 1357 halocarbons, 971-972 Hamburg, Germany, 1288 Hamilton, Alexander, 1345 Hamilton, Alice, 632-633 Han Dynasty, 32, 537, 757, 764 Hanbury, William, 1318 Hancock, Walter, 99-100 1387
Index Handbook for Preparing a Resettlement Aetion Plan (IFC), 1048 Handbook of Birds ofthe WesternHjnited States (Bailey), 112 Handbook of South American Indians (Stewart), 48
Hanford Engineer Works, 920 Hanford National Laboratory, 920 Hanford Reach Historical and Ecological National Monument, 945 Hanford, WA, 938, 941 Hangang River, 739 Hangchov^r, 1262 Hanging Gardens, 833 Hanseatic League, 115, 241, 960 hanta virus, 316 HAPEX (Hydrological-Atmospheric Pilot Experiment)—Sahel experiment, 302 Hapsburg Dynasty, 311 Harappan society, 1133 Haraway, Donna, 850-851 Hardin, Garrett, 257, 633-634, 771-773, 799 Harding, Stephan, 570 Hardwar dam, 572 hares, 656 rabbits v,, 1031 Hargreaves, James, 1110 Harlan, J, R,, 334 Harmid, Abdul, 311 Harper, Frartk, 108 Harrar, George, 616 Harriman, Edward H,, 651 Harrison, Benjamin, 160 Harte, Bret, 1328 Hartman, Geoffrey, 1063 Harvard Medical School, 632 Harvard University Museum of Comparative Zoology, 609 Harvey, Graham, 56 Hasidism, 734 Hassam, Childe, 755 Hatfield Consultants, 23 Hausa people, 21 Haushofer, Karl, 1095 Haussmann, Baron, 753 Haut Mountains, 551 Havell, Robert, Jr,, 87 Haverbeck, Werner Georg, 520 Hawaii, 955 biodiversity on, 129 colonization of, 956 crops, 952-953 diseases in, 318-319 exploitation of, 951 sugar in, 952 Hawaiian Islands, 951 The Hawaiian Archipelago (Bird), 148
Hawkins, Benjamin, 292 Hawkins, Sir John, 1069 Hay, John, 889 Hay, Peter, 888 Hayes, Rutherford, 1103 Hayes v. Waldron, 779
HBC, See Hudson Bay Company HCFCs, See hydrochlorofluorocarbons Heade, Martin Johnson, 1321 Headgate Rock Dam, 248 Health Effect Institute, 69 Hearst, William Randolph, 523 1388
hearths, 333 Heartland Bioregion Communicator, 146
Hebrew Scripture, 1333 Hedges, C, 125 Heian period, 763-764 HELCOM, See Helsinki Commission heliocentric worldview, 1145 HeUand, Armund, 1 Hellden, Ulf, 300 Helsinki Commission (HELCOM), 116 Helsinki Convention, 116 Hemenway, Augustus, 86 hemp, 523, 893 Henan Province, 282 henequen, 524 Hengdaun Mountains, 82, 863 Henry A, Ward's Natural Science Establishment, 645 Henry, Don, 96 hepatitis, 282 Heracleopolis, 1292 herbicides, 348, 350, 1289 defoliation and, 289 on golf courses, 1156 tolerance, 1144 during Vietnam War, 1289 water pollution from, 1308-1309 for weed control, 1319 herbs, 1351 herders agriculturalists v,, 1109-1110 in Russia, 1074 herding, 306, 662 Herodotus, 331 The Herders of Cyrenaica: Ecology, Economy and Kinship among the Bedouirt of Eastern Libya (Behnke), 305
Herero of Angola, 7 Heriot, Thomas, 1069 Herlong Army Depot, 920 Herman, Otto, 654 Herodotus, 76, 878, 1056 heroin, 348-349 Herzegovina, 284 Hesiod, 823,1110 Heske, E,, 519 Hessing, M,, 185 Hetch Hetchy Valley, 911, 1341 Hetch-Hetchy Canyon, 1116, 1117 heteroecism, 325 Heyerdahl, Thor, 256 HFCs, See hydrofluorocarbons High Desert, 918 High Lava Plains, 918, 919 higher criticism, 1154 Hillary, Sir Edmund, 588, 860 Hillman, Gordon, 334-335 Himachal Pradesh, 638, 640 Himalayas, 638, 1286 climbing, 860-861 cultures of, 639-640 development/poverty of, 640 ecologies of, 639 Great, 639 lesser, 639 orogeny/topography of, 639 Himmler, Heinrich, 519 Hindu Kush, 61
Index Hinduism, 53, 721 caste system in, 641 consciousness/truth in, 642 Romanticism and, 1062 sacred texts in, 640-641 spirituality and, 641-642 trimurti (gods) of, 642 vegetarianism and, 1274, 1276 Hipparion. See horses hippopotamus, 656 Hiroshima, 817, 938, 939, 941,1289 Hiroshima Peace Park, 945 Hispaniola, 1170 Historic Lands Legacy Conservation Initiative, 288 "The Historical Roots of the Ecologic Crisis," 1329-1330 "History of Standard Oil," 816 Histosols, 1131 Hitler, Adolf, 519, 584, 654 HIV/AIDS, 8-10, 314,1142 Hiwassee River, 1125 H.M.S. Beagle, 286 Ho Chi Minh City, 23, 83 Hofmann, Albert, 349 Hogan, Linda, 890 hogs, 932 Hogue, Alexandre, 756 Hohe Tauern National Park, 98 Hohokam peoples, 1254 Hohokam society salinization's affect on, 1133 Hokkaido, Japan, 725 Holdaway, R. N., 857 Holland draining wetlands in, 1321 rabbits in, 1031 Holmes, Oliver Wendell, 1348 Holocene epoch, 28, 909 Holocene period, 660-661 The Holy Earth (Bailey), 35
"Homage to Santa Rosalia or Why Are There So Many Animals?", 128 Home Sanitation (Richards, E. S.), 1053 Homer, 759, 878 Homer, Winslow, 755 Homestead Act of 1862, 751, 802, 1033 homesteading, 768 Homesteading Act (1902), 1257 hominids, 1099-1100 Honda, 104-105 Honduras, 204 honeybees drone/queen, 644-645 production, 645 waggle dance of, 643-644 Hong Kong, 754, 1310 Hong-Ji, Liao, 888 Hongren, 759 Honshu, Japan, 725 hoof-and-mouth disease, 315 Hooker, Sir Joseph, 286, 1283, 1318-1319 hookworms, 319-320, 948 Hoover Dam, 267, 1257 Hope Diamond, 311 Hope, Henry Thomas, 311 Hopewell culture, 916 Hopewell-Adenas mount builders, 1240
Hopi Blue Corn Meal, 333 Hopi Cookery (Kavena), 333 Hopi Indians, 1042 Hopkins, Gerard Manley, 202 Hopper, Edward, 756 Horace (poet), 1061 horizons, or soil zones, 1130 horizontal gene transfer, 579 Hornaday, William T., 645-646 "Horror of Nuclear War," 942 horses, 647, 656. See also tarpan (wild horse) American Indians and, 151, 1255 Apaches and, 1255 domestication of, 305, 337, 647, 648 evolution of, 646 Indians and, 1255 modern, 646-648 modern equids and, 646-648 as transport systems, 1220-1222 war, 648 wild, 1034 The Horse-Hoing Husbandry (TuU), 324
horticulture, 753, 952-953 in Mesopotamia, 833 House, Freeman, 1333 Houseman, A. E., 338 houses solar, 1138, 1139,1139 sprawl and design of, 1158, 1160 suburbanization and design of, 1166-1167 housing developments, shopping malls and, 1160-1161 "How Green Were the Romantics?" (Pite), 1065 Howard, Ebenezer, 621, 1269 Howard, Sir Albert, 35, 1060 Howlett, M., 185 Hoyt, Minerva Hamilton, 1342 Hsi Ling-Shi, 1119 Hsia Dynasty, 650 Huai River, 281 Huang Gongwang, 758 Huang (Yellow) River, 222, 1055-1056, 1286,1305, 1310 area, 649-650 flooding of, 537, 1301 floods and, 1301 pollution of, 1305, 1310 silt loads of, 1305 war's impact on, 1286 Yellow Sea and, 1352 Huang, Shu-min, 217 Huaninanzi, 1183
Hubble, Edwin, 274 Hudson Bay, 957, 958 Hudson Bay Company (HBC), 122, 184, 661, 925, 926,1240 Hudson, Henry, 650 Hudson River, 1244-1245, 1355 area, 650-651 as industrial-chemical river, 1057 soil, 1245 Hudson River School, 651-653, 755 Hudson, William H., 1269, 1328 Huerta, Dolores, 209 Hughes, Howard, 964 Hugo, Victor, 1062 Huike River, 1310 Hull House, 632 human(s), 1343 1389
Index human(s) (Continued) fires and, 525, 659 health, 593 heavy metals and, 634 oceans and, 959 as species, 721 Human Adjustment to Floods (White), 541 Human Rights Watch, 283 humans, 1343 diet/nutrition of, 945-949 droughts' effect on, 930 ecosystems affected by, 1168-1169 manipulation of rivers, 1055-1058 nature and, 794, 875-876, 880-883,1061 in North America, 913 Promethean approach to, 1127 scavenging by, 1099-1100 in space, 1147-1148 as species, 721, 791 Humboldt Current, 1281 Humboldt Redwoods State Park, 1035 Hunan Province, 295, 555 Hundley, Norris, 282 Hungarian Communist Party, 653-654 Hungarian Ornithological and Nature Protection Society, 654 Hungary, 284-285, 654-655 environmental issues of, 654-655 landscape, 653-654 landscape/population of, 653-654 nuclear power in, 940 rivers in, 1303 Slovakia and, 1122 under socialism, 654 waste practices in, 1296 Hunter, CeUa, 1342 Hunter Mountain, Twilight (Gifford), 755 Hunter River Valley, 92 hunters, 1238-1239 hunting, 330, 655 bush meat, 177-178 fishing and, 655-657 gathering and, 657-663, 915, 917, 918, 934, 946-948,1085 large game, 656, 933, 946-947, 1141 in Mesopotamia, 833 preserves, 766 scavenging v., 1099-1100 small game, 656, 915, 947 sport, 766, 768 technology, 656-657 hunting, and gathering, 657 adaptation/disappearance of, 658-659 in Africa, 12 appraisals on, 661-662 basic ideas of, 658 environmental policies and, 662-663 fire/impact/technology and, 659-661 impact's processes on, 660-661 societies, 304 times/types of, 660 Huron Cement Co. v. Detroit, 782 Hurricane (Douglas), 340 Hurricane Andrew, 1314-1315 Hurricane Hugo, 1315 Hurricane Lothar, 559-560 Hurricane Mitch, 1314 1390
hurricanes, 1313-1315. See also cyclones, typhoons, specific hurricanes Hutchinson, G. Evelyn, 128, 543, 569 Hutchinson, Harry William, 162 Hutterites, 1269 Hutton, James, 569 Huxley, Aldous, 1269 Huxley, Thomas Henry, 287, 569,1283 Hwang, Roland, 104 hydraulic engineering, 1056-1058 hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCECs), 590, 859 hydroelectricity, 1304-1305 on Angara River, 747 Rhine River and, 1049 in Southern Cone, 1143 Volga River and, 1280 hydrofluorocarbons (HECs), 590 hydrologic cycle, 957, 1299 soil's role in, 1130 urbanization and, 1266-1268, 1267 hydrology, 1088 hydropower, 1300-1301,1304-1305 effects of dams and, 968, 1087,1300-1301, 1304-1305 in Switzerland, 1176 hydrosphere, 1130 HYV (high-yield varieties), 605, 616-618 Ihan Agriculture: A Report on the Shifting Cultivation of Hill Rice (Ereeman), 80 Iban of Sarawak, 80 Iberian Peninsula. See also Portugal; Spain ranching on, 1033 IBE. See Iowa Beef Packers Ibo people, 21 IBRD. See International Bank for Reconstruction and Development Icarian Society, 1270 Ice Ages, 909,1239,1316. See also Pleistocene Epoch causal theories on, 665-666 eastern North America during, 916 evidence, 665 ice storms, 1312-1313 Iceland, 530, 583, 1097-1098 Ickes, Harold LeClair, 667,1067 ICPDR. See International Commission for the Protection of the Danube River ICZM. See integrated coastal zone management (ICZM) IDA. See International Development Association Idaho, 288 Idaho National Engineering and Environmental Laboratory, 920 idealism, 1061 German, 1163-1164 romantic, 1063-1064 The Idea of Nature (CoUingwood), 876 IEC. See International Einance Corporation IFLA. See International Eederation of Landscape Architects Iguazu River, 1054 IGY. See International Geophysical Year (IGY) IJC. See International Joint Commission Ikonos satellite, 808 Iliffe, John, 18 Illinoian Epoch, 1239 Illinois, 1237 Illinois Michigan Canal, 1241 Illinois River, 782 IME. See International Monetary Eund
Index Immerwahr, Clara, 631-632 IMO, See International Maritime Organization Imperial Dam, 248 Imperial Diet, 1182 Imperial Forestry Conferences, 91 Imperial Russian Geographical Society Permanent Nature Protection Commission under, 1076 Imperial Valley, California, 282 imperialism, 1356 impoverishment risks and reconstruction (IRR) model, 1047, 1048 Impression: Sunrise (Monet), 762
Impressionism, 755, 762 "In Flanders Field" (McCrae), 1285 In Flanders Fields and Other Poems (McCrae), 1285
Inca Empire, 51 Incas, 314 incense burners, 757 Inceptisols, 1131 incinerators, 1295-1297 India, 1356 climate/geography of, 344, 668 crops of, 295 dams in, 283, 1304-1305 demographic/economic growth of, 669 development/independence of, 670 droughts in, 345 ecological diversity in, 668-669 environmental movements in, 670-671 forests of, 169, 552, 555 imperialism and, 669-670 nuclear testing by, 944-945 precolonial legacies of, 669 religions of, 721 resettlement in, 1047 on resource conservation, 1290 resource conservation on, 1290 rice in, 1051 salinization in, 1088, 1090 shrimp in, 1115 silk in, 1119 soil in, 1131-1132 soybeans in, 1144 sugar in, 1169, 1171 wars and, 1286, 1288 wars' impact on, 1286, 1287 waste management in, 1294, 1310 water pollution in, 1310 weather events in, 1314 wind energy in, 1338 India, Ancient (Indus Valley) animals/plants in, 673 cities, 675 civilization domains of, 673-675 climate/geography of, 672-673 trade and, 672 Indian National Congress, 571 Indian Ocean, 18, 957-958 Indiana, 1237 indigo, 1251 Indochina, 1289 Indonesia, 77, 79, 533, 554 crops of, 295 irrigation in, 1090 resettlement in, 1048 resource conservation on, 1290
rice in, 1051 rubber in, 1072 weather events in, 1314 "Indore Process" Indus River, 680,1055 civilization and, 640, 682 course/source of, 681 data, 681 flooding and, 681-682 irrigation and, 1090 Indus Valley, 345,1262,1292, See also India, Ancient industrial health, 682 ancient concerns and, 683 early observations of, 684-685 factory disasters and, 685-686 factory inspections and, 686-687 mine safety and, 685 mining and, 683 occupational diseases and, 686 occupational medicine and, 683-684 worker safety and, 685-687 worker's compensation and, 686 Industrial Poisons in the United States (Hamilton), 632
Industrial Revolution, 687, 1356 coal industry/steam engine and, 688-690 dams and, 1301 developing world and, 691 hydropower and, 1301 iron industry and, 690 preconditions of, 688 smelting during, 1123 social consequences of, 691 soil degradation after, 1136 Swiss tourism during, 1175 technology and, 1191-1192 textile industry and, 690, 1110 transportation and, 690-691 wars and, 1287-1288 waste management and, 1292-1294 waste practices before/during, 1292-1294 wood use during, 1036, 1346 zoos and, 1356 industrial safety, 682 Industrial Toxicology (Hamilton), 632
industrialism, 1305 as cause of pollution, 778 in Japan, 726-728 in Netherlands, 892-894 under Stalin, 1077-1078, 1162 water pollution and, 1308, 1311 industrialization, 1305 heavy metal pollution and, 635-637 in Ireland/United Kingdom, 1232 in Japan, 726-728 in U,S, South, 1253-1254 industry potato's role in, 1069 salt's role in, 1094-1095 Scientific Revolution and pollution by, 1104-1106 water pollution by, 1098, 1305-1306,1308-1309,1311 infections, 949 influenza, 314, 317, 319, 1278 Ingram, D,, 324 Inland Waterways Commission, 266 Inn River, 284 Inness, George, 755 1391
Index Innis, Harold, 183 insecticides, 997-998 insects, 691, 1327 beneficiat, 695 defotiation and, 289 as disease vectors, 694-695 future of, 695-696 pesticides, pollution and, 692-694 pests, plagues and, 692 Institut de Recherche pour de Developpement of the Mekong (Research Institute for the Development of the Mekong, IRDDM), 83 Institute for Physical Chemistry and Electrochemistry, 631 integrated coastal zone management (ICZM), 962 intergenerational justice, 1128-1129 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), 592 Intermediate Range Nuclear Forces (INF) treaty, 944 Intermediate Technology Development Group (ITDG), 1102 International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD), 1346-1347 International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT), 617 International Commission for the Protection of the Danube River (ICPDR), 285 International Committee of the Red Cross, 904 International Convention on Biological Diversity, 788 International Cooperative Programme on the Assessment and Monitoring of Air Pollution Effects on Forests, 290 International Court of Justice, 788,1122 International Crane Foundation, 1078 International Development Association (IDA), 1346-1347 International Earthcare Conference in New York (1975), 1117 International Environment in Stockholm (1972), conference on, 1117 International Federation of Environmental Journalists, 819 International Federation of Landscape Architects (IFLA), 753 International Finance Corporation (IFC), 1048 International Fund for Ardmal Welfare, 1078 International Geophysical Year (IGY), 57-58,1146 International Institute for Tropical Agriculture (IITA), 617 International Joint Commission (IJC), 185-186 International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (El Centro Intemacional de Mejoramiento de Mafz y Trigo or CIMMYT), 617 International Maritime Organization (IMO), 788 International Monetary Fund (IMF), 1236-1237, 1346 measures, 798 SAPs of, 749 International Opium Commission, 349 International Opium Convention, 349 International Organization of Consumer Unions (IOCU), 269 International Register of Potentially Toxic Chemicals (IRPTC), 1237 International Rice Research Institiite (IRRI), 617-618,1001 International Species Information System (ISIS), 1357 International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea, 788 International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN), 700-701, 1237, 1348 International Whaling Commission (IWC), 701-702, 788, 1324-1327 Intertropical Convergence zone (ITCZ), 4-5,14 equator and, 702-703 scientific interest in, 703 1392
Inuits, 348, 1327 Inupiat people, 662 The Invasion of New Zealand by People, Plants and Animals
(Clark), 895 Inyo Craters, 909 IOCU, See International Organization of Consumer Unions Iowa, 1237 Iowa Beef Packers (IBF), 814-815 IPCC, See Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Iran, 348-349, 840, 963-964, See also Persia (Iran) Iraq, 210, 840, 963 irrigation in, 1090 nuclear weapons in, 945 weapons of, 142 IRDDM, See Institut de Recherche pour de Developpement of the Mekong (Research Institute for the Development of the Mekong, IRDDM) Ireland, 1228, 1245 church irmovation in, 1231-1232 environment of, 1232-1233 farming/tundra in, 1230-1231 improvement goals of, 1232 industrialization in, 1232-1233 land in, 1232 plantations of, 169 raw materials of, 1229 salmon in, 1092 weather events in, 1313 Irish potato famine, 323 Irkutsk Geophysical Observatory, 746 iron as by-product of smelting, 1123 deficiencies, 948-949 disulfide, mining, 1150 history of, 704 mining of, 1241 uses of, 704-705 Iron Age, 20-21, 557, 739, 1343 Iroquoi Indians, 1040 "Iroquois Foods and Food Preparation," 599 IRPTC, See International Register of Potentially Toxic Chemicals IRR model. See impoverishment risks and reconstruction (IRR) model Irrawaddy River, 81, 295 IRRI, See International Rice Research Institute irrigation, 317, 705 agriculture and, 1300 ancient, 706-708 in Australia, 89 canals, 1284 dams and, 281, 283-284 in Himalayas, 639 Mesopotamian, 830-832 modern, 708-709 on Plains, 931-932 rivers affected by, 1095 in Sahel, 1087 soil salinization and, 1088-1091, 1300 in Southwest, 934-935 in Spain, 1149-1151 systems, 1286 in Venezuela, 1278 Irving, Washington, 651 Isaiah, 733 Isfahan, 1262
Index Ishimure, Michiko, 888 isinglass (type of gelatin), 1165 ISIS. See International Species Information System (ISIS) Islam, 307, 721 beliefs on environment, 711-712 challenges for, 713 development of, 710-711 environmental practices of, 712-713 human-environment relationships and, 713 Island (Huxley), 1269 Island Life (Wallace), 1284 Isles of Sicily, 1229 Israel, 734-735, 840, 843,1294 irrigation in, 1090 solar energy in, 1138 Israel Union for Environmental Defense, 734 Itaipu Dam, 1054, 1143 Italy, 714,1285 Biblioteca Nazionale Centrale, 539 city-states, 960 fascism in, 518 floods in, 538-540 foresty codes in, 715-716 landscape art in, 760-761 Romanticism in, 1061 Sanitary Law of, 1306 urban, 716-717 watersheds in, 715 wind energy in, 1338-1339 ITCZ. See Intertropical Convergence Zone ITDG. See Intermediate Technology Development Group IUCN. See International Union for the Conservation of Nature, 1348 Ivan IV, 1075 Ivan the Terrible, 1165 Ivanowski, 327 Iversen, Johannes, 661-662 Ivory Coast, 20-21, 1351 IWC. See International Whaling Commission Ixtoc-1 oil spill, 967 IYG. See International Geophysical Year IYM. See U.N. "International Year of Mountains, 2000" Izaak Walton League of America, 718-719, 783 lzembek National Wildlife Refuge, 958 Izquierda Unida, 1151
golf in, 1156 industrial pollution in, 727 industrialism in, 726-728 intensified agriculture in, 724-726 Micronesia and, 953 in nineteenth century, 725-726 Oceania and, 953-954 oil and, 964 population of, 726-727 salmon in, 1092-1093 in seventeenth century, 725 shrimp in, 1115 silk in, 1119-1120 solar energy in, 1138, 1140 soybeans in, 1144 sweet potato in, 1174 trade and, 562-563 war's impact on, 1289 waste management in, 1296-1298 water pollution in, 1305-1306, 1308-1311 whaling and, 788, 1325-1327 WW II and, 1289 Japan, Ancient agriculture in, 729 diseases in, 730 ecosystem/polity of, 729-730 as forager society, 728-729 hegemons (emperors), 730 population of, 730-731 Japan Fisheries Association, 533 Japanese Aum Shinrikyo cult, 143 Japanese Jomon culture, 529 jarrah die-back, 329 Jasper National Park, 1059 Jedediah Smith Redwoods State Park, 1035-1036 Jefferson, Thomas, 731-732, 1259, 1345 on democracy, 816 as farmer, 138 von Humboldt and, 1281 Jeitun culture, 75 Jenney, Neil, 756 Jentoft, S., 771 Jesus, 1274 jewelry sea turtles for clothing and, 1107 silver for, 1120
Jackson, John Brinckerhoff, 1253 Jackson, William Henry, 885-886 Jacobs, Jane, 100, 1160 Jainism, 53, 126 Great Liberators in, 721 language and, 722 living species and, 721 religion, 721 soul liberation and, 721-724 vegetarianism and, 1273-1274 Jaiswal, Rakesh, 572 Jakarta, 1310 Janzen, Daniel, 129 Japan, 518,1352. See also Hiroshima; Nagasaki; Shinto agribusiness in, 24 agriculture in, 724-726 crops, 524 eighteenth century, 725 fishing in, 128, 532 forests of, 549-550, 727-728
Jewish Mishnah, 37 The Jewish Cemetery (Van Ruisdael), 761 Jews, 519, 733-734, 1171-1173 Job, A.M., 104 John Barleycorn (London), 2
John Hopkins University, 632 "John L. O'Sullivan on Manifest Destiny, 1839," 803-804 John Paul H, Pope, 202, 204 Johnson, Lady Bird, 733 Johnson, Lyndon B., 732-733, 1336 Johnson, Robert Underwood, 1116 Johnston, Pennsylvania flood, 281, 540 Joint Public Advisory Committee QPAC), 254 Jola people, 20 Jolof empire, 137 Jones, Bill, 818 Jones, Holway R., 1116 Jones, Rhys, 525 Jordan, 840-844, 1090 Jordan, David Starr, 112, 1091 1393
Index Joshua Tree National Monument, 1342 Journal of Researches into the Natural History and Geology of the Countries Visited during the Voyage of H.M.S. Beagle round the World (Darwin), 286 Journals and Other Documents on the Life and Voyages of Christopher Columbus, 191
JPAC. See Joint Public Advisory Committee Juarez, Benito, 836 Jubilee 2000 Campaign, 906 Judaism, 733-735 Judeo-Christians, 1329-1330, 1333 Junge, Christian, 2 The Jungle (Sinclair), 814, 816 Jurassic Sea, 745 jute, 523 Kabbalah, 734 Kafue Dam, 9 Kainji Dam, 899 Kalahari, 5, 18, 297, 300 Kalahari San people, 659 Kali Gandaki River, 639 Kalland, Ame, 876, 878 Kalm, Peter, 881 kami (Shinto deities), 1110-1114 Kampala (Uganda), 1310 Kansan Epoch, 1239 Kansas, 1237 Kansas Area Watershed Bioregion of North America, 145 Kansas River, 1238 Kant, Immanuel, 1063 Kanto Plain, Japan, 729-730 Kaplan, V., 1304 Kaplanov, Lev Grigor'evich, 1076 Kaprun power plant, 97 Kara Kum Desert, 61, 74 Karachi, 1310 Karakalpak Autonomous Republic, 72 Karakoram, 639 Kariba Dam, 9, 13 Karoo, 18 Kashkarov, Daniil Nikolaevich, 72, 1076 Kashmir, 638-639 Kasmidi, Meidi, 1342 Kathmandu, Nepal, 1295 Katz, Alex, 756 Kautsky, Karl, 1128 Kavena, Juanita Tiger, 333 Kay, Marvin, 1238 Kazakhstan, 62, 69-73 Keats, John, 877 Keep America Beautiful (KAB), 153, 737-738 Kellert, Stephen R., 144-145 Kellogg, John Harvey, 1275 Kelly, Petra, 738 Kelman, Arthur, 327 kenaf, 523 Kennebec River, 1244 Kennedy, John F., 199, 733,1147 Kent, William, 574 Kentucky, 1250 Kenya, 14-15, 1236 Kenzo, Ogata, 764 Kepler, Johannes, 274, 1145 kerosene, 962 Keywords (Williams), 878 1394
Khaldun, Ibn, 1345 Khan, Batu, 1165 Khan, Genghis, 70, 966 Khartoum, 299 Khashm al-Qirbah Dam, 902 Khmer Rouge, 83 Khoikhoi, 18 Khoisan people, 19 Khortitsa Society of Defenders of Nature, 1076 Khrushchev, Nikita, 70, 1078,1147 Kiev, Ukraine, 1227 Kija, 739 Kilimanjaro volcano, 14 Kilowatt, Henney, 102 Kim Dae Jung, 741 Kim II Song, 741 Kim Jong 11, 742 Kimball, Thomas, 872 Kinai Basin, Japan, 729-730 King's Canyon National Park, 870, 1116 Kings of the Road (Purdy), 100
Kingsford, Anna, 1275-1276 Kiowas, 1040,1042, 1255 Kiribati Island, 954 Kissimee River, 340 Kiswahili, 16 Kitchell, J., 545 kitchen middens, 529 Kittredge, William, 890 Klamath Mountains, 907-908 Knight, Richard Payne, 1063 Knight, Thomas Andrew, 325 Knights of St. John, 966 Knudson, Tom, 819 Koch, Robert, 328, 1306 Kodiak National Wildlife refuge, 120 Kohl, Helmut, 587 kohlrabi, 1068 Komsomol'skaia Pravda, 7A7
Korea, 1236. See also North Korea; South Korea early, 739 environmental issues of, 742 Forest Law of, 741 forests of, 550 golf in, 1156 Goryeo dynasty of, 740 Japanese occupation of, 740-741 kingdoms of, 739-740 National Forest Basic Plan of, 741 recycling in, 1297 soybeans in, 1144 Yi Qoseon) dynasty of, 740-741 Korean War, 741 Kosygin, Aleksei Nikolaevich, 1078 Kovach, Bill, 816, 820 Kovarik, William, 816-817 Kozhevnikov, Grigorii Aleksandrovich, 1076 Krech, Shepard, III, 881, 1334 Krishnas, 1276 Kroeber, Karl, 1064 Kroegel, Paul, 1259 Kropotkin, Peter, 1269 Kru people, 20 Kruger National Park, 1141 Kshatriyas, 641 Kumar, Satish, 723
Index Kunstler, Jim, 1160 Kunth, Karl Sigismund, 1281, 1282 Kursk Magnetic Anomaly, 1079 kuru, 316 Kusana Empire, 76 Kutenai peoples, 1059 Kuwait, 843, 1236 kwashiorkor (malnutrition), 948, 949 Kyoga Lake, 900 Kyoto, Japan, 729-730, 763-764, 1262 Kyoto Protocol, 44, 564, 587, 593, 742 Kyrgyzstan, 62, 69-73 Kyushi, Japan, 725, 729 Kyzyl Kum Desert, 61, 74 La Nifia, 935 Laboratory School, 309 Lacey Act of 1900, 86, 768, 1259,1331 Lachish, 1284 A Lady's Life in the Rock Mountains (Bird), 148
Laertius, Diogenes, 1344 Lahonton Lake, 918 Lake Baikal, 745-748, 1309 institutes at, 746-747 pollution of, 1078, 1309 sturgeon in, 1165 Lake Balaton, 653 Lake Bonneville, 536, 918 Lake Chad, 748-749, 900 Lake Champlain, 1244, 1313 Lake Erie, 610-611, 1238, 1355 Lake Huron, 610-611, 929,1239-1240 Lake Karachay, 813 Lake Khubsugul, 745 Lake Kyzyltash, 813 Lake Maracaibo, 1278, 1279 Lake Michigan, 610-611, 782, 1239, 1241 Lake Mungo, 94 Lake Okeechobee, 340 Lake Ontario, 610-611, 1239 Lake Pedder, 96 Lake Pontchartrain, 66 Lake Powell, 590 Lake Sarykamysh, 71 Lake St. Clair, 1355 Lake Superior, 610-611, 784, 1239 Isle Royale of, 1240 Lake Tahoe, 918 Lake Tatysh, 813 Lake Titicaca, 156, 157, 1134 Lake Victoria, 15, 749-750, 900-901 Lake Winnipeg, 1165 lakes, 1055,1239, 1305,1311. See also specific lakes The Lake Regions of Central Africa (Burton), 277
Laki volcano, 1 Lakota Indians, 1040, 1041, 1042, 1043 Lakshmi, 641 Lamartine, Alphonse, 1062 lamb, 1034 Lamphrey, Hugh, 299-300 lamprey, 750-751 Lamu archipelago, 16 Land and Water Conservation Fund (LWCF), 59 land development sprawl and, 1157-1161 suburbanization and, 1166-1167
Land, Labour, and Diet in Northern Rhodesia: An Economic Study of The Bemba Tribe (Richards), 134, 553
land mines, 1289 NGOs on, 906 land tenure, 751-752, 772 landfills, 1295-1297 landmines, 1289 lands, private, 1034 lands, public, 1340-1341 Landsberg, H.E., 1267-1268 landscape architecture, 752-754 Landscape Architecture as Applied to the Wants of the West
(Cleveland), 753 landscape art American, 754-756 Chinese, 756-759 European, 754-755, 759-763 Japanese, 763-764 Landscape with the Burial ofPhocion (Poussin), 761
Langstroth, L.L., 645 language Jainism and, 722 wood and, 1345-1346 Lansing, J. Stephen, 618 Lao Dan, 764-765 Laos, 23, 77, 348-349 Laozi, 764-765,1183 Laplace, Pierre-Simon, 1281 Lappe, Frances Moore, 1276 Las Vegas, 1258 Lassie, 331 The Last of the Buffalo (Bierstadt), 653
Later Han Dynasty, 1183 latex, 1072 Latin America agribusiness in, 24 deforestation of, 296 forests of, 551, 554 land tenure in, 751 resettlement in, 1048 Romanticisnn in, 1061 smog in, 964 wars and, 1287, 1289 waste management in, 1294-1298 Latrobe Valley, 92 Latvia, 115 Lauarion mines, 293 Launius, Roger D., 1146, 1147 law biological conservation, 765-770 land use and property rights, 770-774 riparian, 779 of the sea, 786-788 tort, 779, 1303 toxic waste, 77i-778 water and air pollution, 778-786 law, international agreements, 699-700 characteristics of environmental, 697-698 history of environmental, 696-697 principles of environmental, 698-699 Laysan, 953 LCA. See life-cycle assessment LCV. See League of Conservation Voters Le Blanc process, for salt, 1095 Le Conte, Joseph Nisbet, 1116 1395
Index le Jeune, Niquet, 1269 Leach, Melissa, 1168-1169 leaching, 351-352 lead as by-product of smelting, 1123 as heavy metal, 634-635, 636 in Mexico, 775, 776 pollution, 635-636, 637 silver as by-product of mining, 1121 League of Conservation Voters (LCV), 788-789 League of Nations, 563,1236 Health Committee, 631 Lear, William, 103 Lebanon, 551, 840 LebensGut Pommritz community, 112 Leclerc, George Louis. See Buffon, Comte de Lee, Robert E., 65 legal pluralism, 771-772 "Legal Principles for Environmental Protection" (WCED), 767 The Legend of Adapa, 833
Lehmann, Petra Karin. See Kelly, Petra Lemur Conservation Eoundation, 798 Lena River, 1055 Lenin, Vladimir on socialism/communism, 1126, 1128 on Volga River, 1280 Lenton, Tim, 570 Lentz, Jim, 102 Leonel, Mauro, 829 Leopold, Aldo, 789-790, 790, 1248, 1332-1333, 1336 on biodiversity, 128 on ecology, 1271 as inventor of restoration ecology, 1038 on nature, 875-876, 882, 883 Wilderness Society and, 1336 as writer, 888, 1333 Leopold, Estella, 1342 Leopold II (King), 12 Leopold, Starker, 871 leprosy, 317 Lerida, Spain, 660 Les Tres Riches Heures du Due de Berry (Limbourg), 760
Lesotho, 9, 18 Lesotho Highlands Project, 9 Lesser Antilles, 190-192, 195 levees, 1302 Levin, Simon, 1335 Levine, Carl, 103 Levittown, New York, 1158, 1167 Levy, ]., 210 Lewis and Clark Expedition, 732, 855 Lewis, C. S., 878 Lewis, James G., 276 Lewis, Joan M., 182 Lewis, Meriwether Lewis, 1059 Li Cheng, 757 Li Er, 764-765 Li Zhaodao, 757 Liberal Republicans, 1103 Liberia, 9, 20 Libya, 550, 563, 840 Libyan Desert, 305 Lichtenger, Victor, 254 Liechtenstein, principality of, 97 1396
life-cycle assessment (LCA), 612 Liga Antihumos de la Provincia de Huelga (Antismoke League of Huelva Province), 1151 Ligorio, Pirro, 753 Limberlost Swamp, 1321 Limits to Growth, 238
Limnea Sea, 117 Lincoln, Abraham, 1102 Lindeman, Raymond, 128, 543 line corridors, 132 "Lines Composed a Eew Miles above Tintern Abbey" (Wordsworth), 1063 Lines, William, 888 Linnaeaus, Carolus, 127, 791, 879, 1318 Linnean Society of London, 287 Liszt, Eranz, 285 literati painting, 757 Literature and Nature: Four Centuries of Nature Writing, 889 Literature and the Environment: A Reader on Nature and Culture, 889
literature, environmental, 886-890 "A Literature of Place" (Lopez), 888 Literaturnaia gazeta, Oktiabr', 747
lithosphere, 1130 Lithuania, 115, 940 litter, 737 Little Ice Age, 588-589,1238 Little Pond House (Dlirer), 760
Little Tennessee River, 1124-1125 Lives of Game Animals (Seton), 1108
livestock, 1033-1034 Living by Fiction (Dillard), 889 The Living Soil (Balfour), 1137 lizards, 1043-1045 llamas, 334, 337, 1033 Llanos de Moxos, 156-157 Llewellyn Park, 1166 Lloyd, T.O., 170 Lloyd's of London, 242 Local Eood Link schemes, 1137 Locke, John empiricism of, 1061, 1063 on property, 770, 771, 1105 Lofoten Islands, 862 Lofty Mt. Lu (Shen), 758 logging, 59, 768, 791-794. See also timber commercial, 1252-1253 of old-growth trees, 1035-1036, 1038 salmon and, 1092 Logik der Rettung [Avoiding Social and Ecological Disaster: The Politics of World Transformation: An Inquiry into the Eoundations of Spiritual and Ecological Politics] (Bahro), 111 Lohner Electric Car, 101 Loire River, 294, 558 London, 1355 cholera in, 1302 history of, 1262-1264 smog in, 39-40, 41, 42 waste management in, 1293 zoos in, 1356 London Dumping Convention of 1973, 788 London, Jack, 2 London Zoo, 169 Long Island, 1244, 1247 Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution (LRTAP), 2, 587
Index Looking Backward (Bellamy), 1217, 1269 Lopez, Barry, 888, 890 Lorain, John, 881, 1318 Lord Krishna, 641 Lorraine, Claude, 760-761, 762, 1063 Los Alamos, New Mexico, 938, 941 Los Angeles, 907, 908, 911 smog, 969-970 Los Angeles Air Control District, 970 Los Angeles Aqueduct, 920 Los Angeles Times, 104, 530, 818 Losos, E., 129 The Lost Universe; With a Closing Chapter on "The Universe Regained" (Weltfich), 856 Lotka, Alfred, 569 Loudon, John Claudius, 753 Louis XIV (King), 311, 1105 Louisiana, 538, 1250 Louisiana Federation of Women's Clubs, 1341 Louisiana Purchase, 731-732, 1281 Louisville Courier-Journal, 818 Love Canal, 775, 818 Lovejoy, Arthur O., 878, 879 Lovejoy, Thomas, 128-129 Lovell, Jim, 1147 Lovelock, James, 569-570 Low Countries, 1264 Low Desert, 918 Lowell Institute, 1284 Lowell, James Russell, 1328 Lowie, Robert, 48 LRTAP. See Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution Lucania, 847 Lucas, Frederic, 609 Luckert, Karl, 144 Lucky Dragon (Japanese trawler), 942, 943 Lucretius, 794, 1104,1344 Luks, George, 755 lumber, 1245,1247-1248 lumbering, 1059 luminism, 652 Lunacharskii, Anatolii Vasil'evich, 1076 Lundberg, Jan, 104 Luther, Martin, 584 Luxembourg, 1264 LWCF. See L,and and Water Conservation Fund Lyceum, 64 Lyell, Charles, 286, 879, 1283 Lyman, F., 819 Lyman, Howard, 1277 Lynd, Robert, 150 Lyon, Thomas J., 889 Maathai, Wangari, 1342 Mabey, R., 1328 MacArthur, Robert, 126 Macherane, Russell, 1351 Machu Picchu, 52 MacKaye, Benton, 1336 Mackenzie, Alexander, 795 Mackenzie, John, 851 Mackenzie River, 795-796,1055 Mackenzie, Sir Alexander, 1059 Mackinder, Halford, 1095 MacLean, Evelyn, 311 MacMillan-Bloedel, 926
Mad Cow Disease, 316 Mad Cowboy (Lyman), 1277 Madagascar, 14, 136 central highlands of, 797 east coast of, 797 endangered species of, 797 environmental protection on, 798 environment/poverty on, 798 man's arrival/impact on, 796-797 southern, 797-798 western, 797 Madagascar Fauna group, 798 Made Beaver, 122 Madeira, 1169-1170 Madhya Pradesh, India, 869-870 Madison, James, 1345 Magellan, Ferdinand, 137, 951 magnesium, 1132 Magnitogorsk Steel Mill, 1162 Mahabharata, 331, 641 Mahavir, 721-722 Main Currents in Western Environmental Thought (Hay), 888 Maine, 1242 Mainguet, M., 298 maize, 27, 137, 335 Africa and, 9 Americas and, 50, 602-603 in East, 916-917 HYV, 605 in Southwest, 934-935 Makah tribe, 924 Makarov, Vasilii Nikitich, 1076 Makatea, 953 Makenzie Valley Pipeline Inquiry, 795 malaria, 282 mosquitos (Anopheles), 317-318, 954, 1304-1305,1321 on Northwest Coast, 925 swamps and, 1321 war and, 1288-1289 water and, 1087, 1302, 1304 during WW II, 1288-1289 Malawi, 18 Malay Archipelago habitats, 1283 Wallace, Alfred Russel in, 1283 Malaysia, 77, 80, 554 crops of, 295 resource conservation on, 1290 rubber in, 1072 Mali, 20-21, 137 Malina, Frank J., 1146 Malinke people, 21 Malpighi, Marcello, 127 Malthus, Thomas, 220, 286, 799, 1127 Malthusian vision of world, 949 Mamberamo Lake Basin Region, 79 mammals extinction of large, 929, 1238 marine, 786 sea, 1310-1311 Mammoth Mountain, 1117 Man and Nature: or. Physical Geography as Modified by Human Actions (Marsh), 90, 262, 810, 882, 897 manatee. West Indian, 968 Manchester, England, 1296 Manchu (Qing) Dynasty, 758-759 1397
Index Manchuria, 548 Manchus, 741 Mandans, 315 mangroves adaptations of, 800 aerial roots of, 800 dispersal of, 800 fisheries/forests/coasts and, 801 importance of, 801 in Niger Delta, 898, 899 salt exclusion/extrusion of, 800 species of, 800-801 swamp, 1115 thicket, 1320, 1322, 1323 Manhattan Project, 66, 941 manifest destiny American imperialism and, 804 as American mission, 802 resources' exploitation and, 802-804 U.S. western expansion and, 802 Manifesto tecnico della letteratura Futurista [Technical
Manifesto on Futurist Literature] (Marinetti), 1270 Manila, 1310 manioc, 50, 805, 1068-1069 Manitoba River, 1166 Mannheim Acts of 1868, 1049 manufacturing, 1303-1304 manure, 892, 1134 livestock, 521-522 Mao Tse-tung. See Mao Zedong Mao Zedong, 220, 759, 806 Maori, 529, 856 Maori people, 895-897 MAP. See Mediterranean Action Plan MAP3S. (Multistate Atmospheric Power Productions Pollution Study) Acidid Deposition: State of Science and Technology, 3
mapping, 806. See also surveying control, 807-808 detail, 808 spatial data and, 808-809 systems, 807 technology's effects on, 808 The Map of Africa by Treaty, 246
maquis, 550 Maracaibo lowlands, of Venezuela, 1278, 1279 Marajoara culture, 47 Marambatemwa, Zarira, 214 marasmus (chronic undernourishment), 948, 949 Marbut, C. F., 1131 Mare Liberum [The Free Sea] (Grotius), 961 Margalef, Ramon, 126, 128 Margraf, Robert, 1071 Margulis, Lynn, 144, 569 Maria Theresa (Empress), 98 Marib, 1300. See also Yemen Marie Antoinette, 1110 Marine Biological Laboratory, 1053 Marine Mammal Protection Act (1994), 288 marine protected areas (MPA), 962 Mariner 9 mission to Mars, 944 Marinetti, Filippo, 1270 Marjorie Stoneman Douglas Wilderness Area, 340 Markgraf, O. V., 747 Marquesas Islands, 951, 956 Marsh, George Perkins, 809-810, 882, 897, 1249,1318 1398
influence of, 90, 623 on weeds, 1318-1319 Marshall Islands, 942, 955-956 Marshall, James, 598 Marshall, Robert, 810-811, 816, 1336 Marshall, William, 1318 marshes, 1320-1322 marsupials, 656 Martha's Vineyard, 1244, 1247 Martinez, N., 543, 545 Marx, Karl Heinrich, 187-190, 811-812, 1270 on commodities, 255 on socialism/communism, 1125-1128 Mary (Queen), 311 Maryland, 1250,1252 gulls in, 638 waste management in, 1296 mashua, 1068 Mason, 1. L., 596 mass transit, 789 Massachusetts, 1242,1244 laws, 1322 solar house in, 1139 Massachusetts Act to Protect the Purity of Inland Water (1886), 1306 Massachusetts Board of Health, 1306 Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy (Newton),
1103, 1105 Mather, Stephen T., 870 Matterhorn, 860, 1175 Matthew, Elaine, 291 Matthiessen, Peter, 890 Mattole River Watershed Group, 1333 Mauritania, 20, 283, 346 Mauritius, 330-331 Maurya Empire, 1286 May, J., 623 May, R., 543 Mayak nuclear waste dumping/storage and, 812-813 storage tank explosion and, 813 working conditions at, 812 Mayan, 291, 314, 1292 of Chiapas/Yucatan, 835 cosmology, 205 soil management by, 1134 Mayer, K., 327 MaYuan, 757 Mbuti of Central Afica, 644 McCay, B. J., 771 McClellan, George B., 65 McClellan-Kerr Waterway, 66 McClure's, 816
McCourt, R., 816 McCrae, John, 1285 McCulloch, Robert Paxton, 103 McDonalds, 973 McDonough, William, 620 McEntee, James J., 231 McHarg, Ian, 1160 McKee, russell, 1240 McKibben, Bill, 890 McKim, Fred, 180 McKusick, James, 1064 McMichael, Jessie, 91 McMurry, L. O., 200
Index McNeill, John R., 882-883, 895 Meade, George G., 65 Meadowcroft Rock Shelter, 1239 measles, 314, 317,1278 Meat: A Natural Symbol (Fiddes), 1277
meat eating disease and, 949 salt and, 1094 vegetarianism v., 1273-1277 meat processing, 813 environment and, 815 history of, 814 trends, 814 mechanical philosophy, 879, 880 mechanism, 1061 media, 815 environment and, 817-818 environmental journalism and, 816-817, 819-820 journalists in, 818-819 Medici family, 311 medicines nuclear power for, 939, 940 salt as, 1094 silver in, 1120 from snake venom/turtles, 1045 from tropical forests, 793 yam's role in, 1351 Medieval Warm Interval, 235, 909 Mediterranean countries, 826-828 crops, 136-137 as enclosed society, 959 forests, 550-551 soil in, 1133 sugar/sugarcane in, 1169 terracing in, 1198 Mediterranean Action Plan (MAP), 827 Mediterranean Basin Christianity and, 825 cities of, 822 climate/geography of, 823 pollution around, 824-825 war/taxes and, 823-824 Mediterranean Sea, 957, 958, 1284 fish/marine resources of, 827 pollution of, 826-827, 1310 Medland, Vicki, 543, 544 Medvedey, Zhores Aleksandrovich, 1077 megafauna, 656, 913, 929 Meggars, B., 49 Mehta, M.C., 572-573 Mekong Delta, 22 Mekong River, 78, 81, 649, 1055 Melanesia, 951, 954-955 Melville, E. G. K., 836 Memorial Day (U.S.), 1285 menageries, ancient, 1356-1357 Mencius, 828, 1061 Mende people, 20 Mendes, Ghico, 828,1072-1073 Meng Ke. See Confucius Menge, B., 543 Mengzi (Mencius), 828 Mennonites, 1269 Merchant, Carolyn, 878, 881, 1061 mercury, 1142
as heavy metal, 634-636 minamata disease from, 783 Merk, F., 802 Merlin, M. D., 349 Merriam, Caroline Hart, 112 Merriam, Clinton Hart, 112, 626, 1259 Merriam, Clinton Levi, 112 Merrimack River, 1244 Mersenne, Marin, 1104 Mersey River, 1057 Mesa Verde, 344 Mesoamerica, 335, 1262 Mesolithic cultures, 292, 656, 661 Mesopotamia, 834, 1356 agriculture/irrigation in, 830-832 ancient, 965 attitudes of, 830 deforestation/war damage in, 832-833 history of, 830 horticulture/gardens of, 833 logging in, 791 population of, 601 rivers in, 1056 royal hunts in, 833 smelting in, 1123 soil in, 1133-1134 terracing in, 1196-1197 Messershmidt, Daniil G., 746 Metalclad, 776 Metales y Derivados, 776 metallurgy, 634 rrietals. See also specific metals
of antiquity, 635 from incinerators, 1297 smelting, 293 in waste stream, 1294 water pollution and, 1302, 1308, 1309, 1310 water pollution from, 1057, 1302,1308, 1309, 1310 metals, heavy cycles/sources of, 634 industrialization and, 635-637 preindustrial societies and, 634-635 trends, 636, 637 Metcalf, William J., 1271, 1275 methane (CH4), 590, 873-874 Methanex Corp., 776 methyl isocyanate (MIC), 124 Meuller, Ferdinand, 90 Mexicans, 910 Mexico, 337,1356 colonial era of, 836 Constitution of 1917, 837-838 crops, 28, 524 droughts in, 345 dumps/landfills in, 1296 forests of, 550 history of, 834-835 HYV crops and, 616-617 independence, 836-837 indigenous, 835-836 maize and, 603 NAFTA and, 775-776, 837-838 oil and, 963-964 population of, 315 shrimp in, 1115 silver in, 1121 1399
Index Mexico (Continued) sugar in, 1171 trade and, 562, 564 twentieth century, 837 twenty-first-century outlook for, 837-838 urban areas of, 835 U.S. and, 802 U.S. Southwest and, 1254-1257 wars and, 1284 Mexico City, 38, 387, 971, 1295 Miami Herald, 340
miasmas contamination and, 1306 theory of disease, 780, 1293, 2339 MIC. See methyl isocyanate mice, deer, 316 Michigan, 611 history of, 1237 waste management in, 1296 microfauna, 768 Micronesia, 951. See also Federated States of Micronesia Japan and, 953 region, 955-956 microorganisms, 838 higher plants and, 839-840 pathogen control and, 840 Middle Ages, 285 China during, 293-294 deforestation during, 293-294 Europe during, 293-294 rabbits during, 1031 vegetarianism during, 1274 waste practices during, 1292-1293 Middle East, 345 countries of, 840 crops, 136 CSP projects in, 1138 geography of, 840-841 land degradation in, 841-842 natural gas in, 872-873 oil in, 962-964, 966 overview of, 841 present state of, 844 salinization in, 1088 terracing in, 1197-1198 wars and, 1288 water resources of, 842-843 Middleton, Nick, 299 Midgley, Thomas, 40, 102, 844-845 Midrash, 733-735 Midway Islands, 804 MIGA. See Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency migration of animals, 1293 Bantu, 136 biodiversity/biological packages and, 848 consequences of human, 847-848 diseases and, 849 fish, 1305 followed by fossil fuels, 847 human, 845-847 interplanetary human, 849 Polynesian, 529, 958 self-powered, 846 water/wind-powered, 847 Migratory Bird Act (1913), 646 1400
Migratory Bird Treaty Act (1918), 86, 768, 1259 Military Ski Manual (Harper), 108 Millardet, P.M.A., 325 millennialism apocalypticism and, 850 cornucopian post, 850 sacred, 850-851 secular significance of, 849-850 twentieth century, 850 Miller, Joseph, 12 Miller, Olive Thome, 112 Millet, Francois, 762 millets, 7, 9, 335, 603 mills. See also timber cotton, 1269-1270 graining, 1303, 1337-1338 pollution from, 778-779 saw, 1241 steel, 1241-1242 sugar, 1171 Mills V. Hall, 780
Milne, Anthony, 1147-1148 Milne Bay Province, 78 Milwaukee Journal, 818
Minamata disease, 636 Mineral Policy Institute, 81 minerals ocean, 959 from Sahara, 1086 from seabed, 787-788 smelting and, 1123 in water, 1299 mines, sealing, 783 Ming Dynasty, 650, 740-741, 758 mining, 725. See also extraction in Africa, 19 ARD and, 853-855 in Great Basin, 919 of heavy metals, 634-635 hydraulic, 1135 in Japan, 725, 727 legacy of, 854-855 of metals/minerals, 851-852 open-pit, 920 ore extraction and, 853-854 pollution from, 778, 794 in Rocky Mountains, 1059 in Russia, 1075 salt, 1094-1095 silver, 1120-1121 in South Africa, 1142 in Spain, 1150 surface/underground extraction and, 852-853 in U.S. Midwest, 1241-1242 in U.S. Southwest, 1257 water pollution from, 1302, 1306, 1309 Minnesota Federation of Women's Clubs, 1341 Miocene Era, 646, 928 Mirei, Shigemori, 764 Mishelyak River, 813 Miskito Indians, 1107 Mississippi, 1250 Mississippi River, 66, 1240, 1355 alteration/flooding of, 1301-1302 flooding on, 1301-1302 floods, 538,1301-1302
Index history of, 855-856 sewage into, 782 in transportation, 1301 valley, 1134-1135 Mississippi River Commission, 538 Mississippian cultural period, 916-917 Mississippi-Missouri River, 1055 Missouri, 1237, 1250, 1296 Missouri Botanical Garden, 798 Missouri River, 1238, 1251 floods, 538 history of, 855-856 Mitten, Anne, 1283 Mnatsakanyan, Ruben, 1079 moas fossils of, 857 habitat of, 856-857 species of, 857 Mobil Oil, 899 "Mock On," 55 Modernism, 1158, 1161 Moehne Dam, 1288 Moguls, 1356 Mohawk River, 1242-1244, 1355 Mohenjo Daro, 1292 MOIP. See Moscow Society of Naturalists Mojave Desert, 907, 1138, 1254 Moldova, 284 Molina, Mario J., 43, 858, 972-974 Molina-Rowland hypothesis, 43, 858 moUisols, 1131, 1135 MoUison, Bill, 1271 moUuscicides, 999 Moluccas, 1283 Mona Lisa (Da Vinci), 760 Monet, Claude, 762 Mongolia, 76, 548, 649 Mongols, 740, 746, 758, 966 The Monk by the Sea (Friedrich), 761 Mono Craters, 909 monocropping, 1300 monocultures, 1077 of potatoes, 1069 of trees, 1038-1039 Monongahela River, 1242, 1309 Monroe Doctrine of 1904 Roosevelt Corollary, 804 Monsanto, 26-27, 578 Montagne, J.F.L., 325 Montaigne, Michel de, 877, 1274 Montana, 288, 353 Montana Livestock Department, 288 Montana Stockgrowers Association, 288 Montreal Protocol (MP), 564, 775 amendments, 859 international negotiations of, 858 road to, 858-859 Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer and, 973-974 moon, missions to, 1147 moose, 315,1033 Mora, Pat, 888 morains, 1239 Moran, Thomas, 653 Morava River, 284 Moravia, 656, 1269 More, Henry, 55
More, Sir Thomas, 1269-1270, 1274 Morelos Dam, 248 Morgenstern, Lina, 1275 Morgun, Fedor, 1079 Morison, Samuel Eliot, 191 Mormon Church, 1257 Morocco, 297, 550, 840-843 morphine, 349, 822 Morris, William, 1269 Moscow River, 1079 Moscow Society of Naturalists (MOIP), 1078 Moses, 1292 Mosley, Geoff, 96 moths, 289, 1118 mouflon, 1109 Mound Builders, 314, 1239 Mount Ausangate, 861 Mount Baker, 921 Mount Cameroon, 863 Mount Chimborazo, Ecuador, 1281 Mount Coropuna, 860 Mount Elgon, 14 Mount Everest, 860, 864 Mount Fuji, 861 Mount Goverla, 1227 Mount Kenya, 14 Mount Lassen, 907, 909 Mount Lu, 758 Mount Marcy, 650 Mount Mazama, 909 Mount McKinley National Park, 160 Mount Meru, 14 Mount Paekdusan, 739, 742 Mount Palomar, 274 Mount Pelee, 191 Mount Rainier, 921, 927, 1328 Sierra Club's involvement with, 1116 Mount Shasta, 907 Mount St. Helens, 944 Moimt Tambora, Indonesia, 1314 Mount Toe, 540 Mount Whitney, 907, 1117 Mountain Air Fund, 565 Mountain Horse, Mike, 946 Mountain Resources Defense Council, 1118 Mountain Transition Zone, 933, 935-936 mountain worship, 1112, 1113 mountaineering environment/local people and, 861 origins of, 859-860 phrases, 860 mountains, 757 attitudes toward, 864-865 communities, 864 definition of, 861-862 future of, 865-866 geological distribution of, 863-864 problems facing, 865 mouse, 1237 Moyen Atlas Mountains, 551 Mozambique, 9, 18 Mozambique Channel, 796 MP. See Montreal Protocol Mpa (Megapascals), 631-632 MPA. See marine protected areas MSW. See municipal solid waste 1401
Index Mughal Empire, 1286 Muhlenberg, William, 565 Muir, John, 734, 866, 877, 1333,1351 on ecology, 126,1271 Hetch Hetchy Valley and, 266-267, 911 influence of, 626 on nature, 768 Sierra Club and, 1116, 1118 writings of, 867 mulberry tree (Morus alba), 1119 Mulder, J. G., 893-894 MulhoUand, William, 540 MuUan, F., 1307 multicropping, 948 Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency (MIGA), 1347 Multilateral Ozone Layer Fund, 974 Mumford, Lewis, 1056,1301 mummies, 305 Mumun tribe, 739 Mundey, Jack, 96 municipal solid waste (MSW), 1296-1297 Muqaddimah (Khaldun), 1345 Murie, Margaret E., 1342 Murphy, Patrick D., 888 Murray, John A., 889 Murray River, 867-868 Murray, Sir George, 868 Murray-Darling River basin, 88, 1055, 1090 Mururoa, 954 Muslims, 135, 711, 966 mussels. Zebra beneficial role of, 1355 density of, 1355-1356 in Europe, 1355 in Great Britain, 1355 in North America, 1355-1356 Mussolini Act of 1928, 518 Mussolini, Benito, 518 mustard gas, 1288 Mutis, Don Jose Celestino, 1281 My My My My
First Summer in the Sierra (Muir), 867 Summer in a Mormon Village (Bailey), 112 Wilderness: East to Katahdin (Douglas), 341 Wilderness: The Pacific West (Douglas), 341
Mya Sea, 117 Myanmar (Burma), 77, 295, 348-349, 638, 1051 economic growth in, 1101-1102 Mycenae, 344-345 mycorrhiza, 1132 Myers, Norman, 129, 556 mysticism, 734 N2O. See nitrous oxide NAAEG. See North American Agreement for Environmental Cooperation, 253 Nabhan, Gary Paul, 890 Nabugabo Lake, 900 NAC. See National Advisory Committee Nader, Ralph, 269, 613-615,1129 Naess, Arne, 1271,1333 NAFTA. See North American Free Trade Agreement Nagasaki, 817, 938-939, 941, 1289, 1312 Nairobi conference, 297-298 Namibia, 9,18, 957 Nantucket, 1244, 1247 NAO. See North Atlantic Oscillation 1402
NAPAP. See U.S. National Acid Precipitation Assessment Program Naples, 1262 Napoleon, 1287 Napoleonic wars, 1071,1287 Nara, Japan, 730 Nara period, 763 Narmada Dam Project, 283, 869-870 Narmada Valley (India), 869-870, 1347 Narrative of the Surveying Voyages of the Adventure and Beagle (Fitzroy), 286 NAS. See National Academy of Sciences NASA and the Exploration of Space (Launius), 1146
NASA. See National Aeronautics and Space Administration Nasser, Gamal Abdel, 901-902 Nasser Lake, 901-902 Natchez society, 1040 Nathan, O., 817 National Academy of Design, 653 National Academy of Sciences (NAS), 790, 943, 970, 972 National Advisory Committee (NAC), 254 National Aeronautics and Space Act, 1146 National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), 569,1146-1148 National Audubon Society, 87,160,1342, 1349 National Automobile Show, 101 national conservation estate, 897 National Democratic Party, 519 National Drought Mitigation Center, 345-346 National Drought Policy Commission, 345 National Environmental Council (CONAM), 992 National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA), 341, 818, 903, 912, 1242,1260 National Fifth Reader: Containing A Complete and Practical Treatise on Elocution; Select and Classified Exercises in Reading and Declamation; With Biographical Sketches, and Copious Notes: Adapted to the Use of Students in
Literature (Parker & Watson), 862 National Fish and Wildlife Federation, 875 National Forest Basic Plan, 741 National Forum of BioDiversity (1986), 128, 131 National Institute of Agronomy, 350 National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), 904, 973 National Park Service, 870-871. See also U.S. National Park Service National Parks Portfolio (Yard), 870 National Plan for American Forestry, 810
National Public Radio, 819 National Reactor Testing Station, 920 National Wilderness Preservation System, 1337 National WildUfe Federation (NWF), 66,160, 871-872 National Wildlife Refuge System, 769, 1259 National Zoological Park, 645 Native Americans, 335. See also First Nations; religions, American Indian Algonquin, 650 in California, 909-910, 911 cultures, 1255 Dark Ages, 1240 deer and, 1330-1331 diseases and, 1287 in eastern North America, 915-916 farmers, 1238 fur trading and, 1240-1241
Index land tenure and, 751 lifestyles of, 1238-1239 motifs for summer camps, 1172 nature and, 1109 in New England, 1243-1244 in Northwest Coast, 923-925, 927 on nuclear waste, 943 oil spills and, 967 on Plains, 930-931 in Rocky Mountains, 1059 sacred places and, 1081-1084 salmon ceremony by, 1092 sheep and, 1109 in Sierra Nevada Mountains, 1117-1118 turkeys and, 1331 in U.S. Southwest, 935-936,1254-1255 wars, 1241 Native Land Tenure in the Truk District (Fischer), 952 NATO. See North Atlantic Treaty Organization natural gas, 872-874 natural hygienists, 1273 Natural Resource Defense Council, 972, 974 Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS), 1135 Natural Resources Defense Council (NRDC), 874-875 Naturalistic Photography (Emerson), 886 Naturalist's Journal (White), 1327 The Natural History and Antiquities of Selborne (White), 887 nature, 875-883 children and, 1172-1173 dominance over, 1154-1156 humans and, 794, 875-876, 880-883, 1061 mecharucal view of, 1104-1105 photography, 885-886 poets, philosophers, and others on, 877 Seton on, 1108-1109 Spinoza on God and, 1153-1154 Stalin on, 1162 weeds and, 1317,1318-1319 wild, 1332 writing, 886-891 Nature, 851 "Nature" (Emerson), 1063-1064 Nature and Man's Fate (Hardin), 633 Nature and Reason Harmonized in the Practice of Husbandry (Lorain), 1318 Nature Protection Brigades, 1078 Nature Writing and America: Essays upon a Cultural Type (Fritzell), 887-888 Nature's Economy (Worster), 879,1064-1065 The Nature Conservancy (TNC), 79, 769, 884-886,1118 The Natural History of Selborne (White), 1327-1328 Nauru, 953 Nautilus Institute for Security and Sustainability, 81 Navajo people, 936, 1040, 1041-1042,1254 The Naval Warjfare ofthe War of 1812 (Roosevelt, T.), 1067 navies, 1284-1285,1287 Nazism, 518-519, 584-586 Nazoreans, 1274 NDVI. See Normalized Difference Vegetation Index Neanderthals, 74 Near East, 1284 Nearchus, 801 Nearing, Edna, 1271 Nearing, Scott, 1271 Nebraskan epoch, 1239 Nebuchadnezzar (King), 832, 1284
Nechaeva, Nina Trofimovna, 72 Nechako River, 185 Needham, 329 Nehru, Jawaharlal, 282 Nelson, Richard K., 144, 890 Nelson River, 1055,1166 nematicides, 999 Nenni River, 221 Neoclassical artists, 1061 neo-Europes, 137 Neolithic Danubian culture, 284-285 Neolithic Era, 225, 557, 658, 661, 756,1074 Neot Kedumim Preserve, 734 Neozoic geological era, 548 NEPA. See U.S. National Environmental Policy Act Nepal, 524, 639, 1286 nerpa (Pusa sibirica Gmelin), 746, 747 Nestorian sect, 1119 net primary production (NPP), 301 Netherlands, 354, 891-895, 960 gray water in, 754 industries, 1231 urbanization in, 1264-1265 weather events in, 1313-1314 wind energy in, 1338 Neusiedler See-Seewinkel National Park, 98 Neuzil, Mark, 816-817 Nevada, 1254 Comstock Lode, 1257 Nevada Atomic Test Site (NTS), 920, 941-942, 943 New Americans, 1241 New Amsterdam, 814, 1294 The New Atlantis (Bacon), 1104 New Atlantis (Bacon), 1269 New Caledonia, 955, 1288-1289 alien biota on, 953 exploitation of, 951, 954 New Deal, 732, 1322 of F. D. Roosevelt, 1066 natural parks during, 870 on summer camps, 1173 New England, 1242-1243 fish/game/mills, 661, 1245-1246 lands in, 296 pollution, 1246-1247 New Guinea, 77, 953, 955 salt in, 1094 sugar in, 1169 sweet potato in, 1174 New Guinea Tropical Wilderness Area, 79 New Hampshire, 1242, 1346 New Harmony, 1271 New Hebrides, 951-952 New Institutional Economics, 257 New Jersey, 1242, 1245, 1296 New Mexico, 1254, 1255 New Testament, 1316 New Urbanism, 1161 New World animal diseases and, 314-315 farmers in, 1319 weeds and, 1318, 1321 New York, 1242, 1296 New York Bay, 782-783 New York City, 1242, 1245, 1294-1296 New York Evening Post, 565 1403
Index New York Herald Tribune, 565 New York Journal, 523
New York State Senate Conunittee on Forests, Fish and Game, 1066 New York Stock Exchange, 242 New York Times, 565
New York Zoological Park, 645-646,1067 New Zealand, 252, 295, 345, 895-898, 955 diseases in, 318-319 exploitation of, 951, 954 forests of, 169, 551 health camps in, 1173 moas of, 856-857 plants of, 953,1319 ranching in, 1033, 1034 recycling in, 1297 New Zealand Forests Act of 1874, 897 New Zealand Plants and Their Story (Cockayne), 1317 A New View of Society (Owen), 1269,1271
Newark, 1242-1243 Newark Evening News, 340
Newfoundland, 530-531, 959,1229 Newlands Reclamation Act (1902), 1257 News & Observer, 820 News frotn Nowhere; or, an Epoch of Rest. Being Some Chapters from a Utopian Romance (Norris), 1269-1270 The New Heloise (Rousseau), 1062 The New Zealand Historical Atlas (McKinnon), 896
Newton, Isaac, 1103, 1105, 1145 Newton, Sir Issac, 274 Nez Perce peoples, 1059 NGOs. See nongovernment organizations Ni Zan, 758, 759 Niagara Falls, 1328 Nicaragua, 204, 1290 Niche Model, 545 Nichols, Jesse Clyde, 1160 Nichols, John, 890 Nicholson, Sharon E., 300 nickel, 634, 637 nickerl metal hydride (NiMH) packs, 105 Nicobar Islands, 330 Nicolet, Jean, 1240 Niepce, Joseph Nicephore, 885 Nietzsche, Friedrich, 1164 Niger, 20 Niger delta, 898-900 Niger River, 21, 900, 1055, 1085 Nigeria, 20-21, 964, 1115,1351 Nike, 563 Nile perch, 750, 900-901 Nile River, 283, 900, 1055, 1292 irrigation and, 1300 salinization and, 1089, 1134 schistosomes on, 1058 source of, 749 Nile Valley, 901-903. See also Aswan Dam Nuer of, 7 Nile Waters Agreement, 902 Nimbus satellite, 973 NIMBY (Not in My Back Yard) syndrome, 14, 905, 1296 Nineteen Eighty-Four (Orwell), 1269
nitrates, 522 nitrogen, 521-522 nitrogen cycle, 1130 nitrogen fixation, 34 1404
nitrogen oxides (NOJ, 591, 969 nitrous oxide (N2O), 590 Nixon, Richard, 349, 903-904, 1309 "kitchen debate" of, 1167 Ruckelshaus and, 1073 NOAA. See U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Noah Project, 734 Nobel Prize in Chemistry, 973 Peace, 741 Noble, John W., 160 nomadic peoples, 1085 nomadism, 304-307. See also pastoralism Nomads of Tibet, 862 nongovernment organizations (NGOs), 252, 594, 904-906, 977-978 in Asia, 79 in Austria, 97-98 in Slovakia, 1122 in Spain, 1151 Nonindigenous Aquatic Species Nuisance Prevention and Control Act (1990), 1355 noospheres (sphere of human consciousness/mental activity), 1094 Nootka tribe, 924 Norden, H., 817 Norgay, Tenzing, 860 Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI), 299 Norodom Sihanouk (King), 83 Norris, William, 1270 Norte, Huascaran, 860 North Africa, 1285 North America, 28, 354,1351 acid rain and, 3 floods in, 538 forests of, 549-551, 1287-1288, 1290 grasslands/plains in, 606-608 horses in, 646-648 hunting/gathering in, 660 irrigation in, 1300 logging in, 792-793 Oceania and, 951-953 populations of, 1287 salinization in, 1089 summer camps in, 1171-1173 turkeys in, 1331-1332 wars' impact on, 1287, 1290 waste management in, 1294-1298, 1302 waterways in, 1302,1311 weather events in, 1312-1313 weeds in, 1318-1319 Zebra mussel in, 1355-1356 North America-East, 913-917 North America-California, 906-913 North America-Great Basin and Columbia Plateau, 918-921 North American Agreement for Environmental Cooperation (NAAEC), 253 North American Bioregional Congress (1984), 146, 147 North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), 186, 253, 563-564, 775-776, 905 Mexico and, 837-838 North American Fund for Environmental Cooperation, 254 North America-Northwest Coast, 921-928 North America-Plains, 928-933
Index North America-Southwest, 933-936 North Atlantic Energy Service Corporation, 232 North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO), 235 North Atlantic Treaty Orgaruzation (NATO), 279, 586, 738 North Bay Gap, 1240 North Carolina, 1250,1336 crops, 1252 gulls of, 638 hog industry of, 820 North Dakota, 1237 North Korea, 1352-1353 nuclear weapons in, 945 republic, 739-742 Yellow Sea and, 1352-1353 North Pacific Fur Seal Convention (1912), 646 North Sea, 531, 873, 957, 958, 961, 964 Northern Hemisphere, 959 Northern Sierra Madre Natural Park, 80 Northern Sung Dynasty, 294 Northwest Passage, 1240 Northwestern University, 632 Norton, Gayle, 815 The Norton Book of Nature Writing (Finch/Elder), 887
Norway, 530, 973-974, 1097-1098 forests of, 1288 hydro projects in, 1305 salmon in, 1093 whaling and, 788, 1327 Norwruz Field oil spill, 967 Notch, Franconia, 59 Notes on the State of Virginia Qefferson), 731
Nottingham, England, 1296 Novartis, 26 Novaya Zemlya test site, 941 NOx. See nitrogen oxides Noyes, John Humphrey, 1270 NRCS. See Natural Resources Conservation Service NRDC. See Natural Resources Defense Council NTS. See Nevada Atomic Test Site Nubia Lake, 901-902 nuclear industry in Slovakia, 1122 in Soviet Union, 1077-1078, 1079 water pollution from, 1308 Nuclear Madness: What You Can Do! (Caldicott), 944
nuclear materials in seas, 788 in space, 1148 nuclear power/technology, 520, 937-941, 1289 Oceania and, 954 Nuclear Test Ban Treaty (1963), 43 nuclear weapons, 817, 1289 impacts of, 939, 1289 testing of, 70, 941-945, 1077, 1086 nuclear winter, 943-944 nutraceuticals, 1144-1145 nutrition, diet and, 945-950 NWF. See National Wildlife Federation (NWF) Oak Ridge, Tennessee, 941 oases, 307 Oberth, Herman, 1145 Ob'-Irtysh River, 1055 oca, 1068 OCAW. See Oil, Chemical, and Atomic Workers Union Ocean (Banaba) Island, 953
Oceania colonization of, 955-956 ecological shadowlands of, 951-953 exploitation of, 951 Japan and, 953-954 terracing in, 1197 trade and, 951 Oceania, Ancient colonization of, 955-956 sustenance systems in, 956 oceans. See also seas harvesting of, 959 management/protection of, 962 marine resources of, 957-961 pollution of, 1305, 1310-1311 salt in, 1094 sewage/waste dumping into, 959, 1296 shrimp in, 1115 waste dumping in, 1296 water in, 1299 of world, 957, 958 Oden, Svante, 2, 43 ODS (;Ozone Depleting Substances), 971-972 Odum, H.T., 543 Odyssey (Homer), 332, 759 OECD. See U.N. Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development oecologie, as term, 880 "The Oeconomy of Nature" (Linnaeaus), 879 Oegonian, 819
oekology (science of the environment), 1053 "Of Gardens," 575 Ogallala Aquifer, 28, 353 Ogoni people, 900 Ohio, 1237, 1302-1303 Ohio Erie Canal, 1241 Ohio League of Women Voters, 1342 Ohio River, 66, 538,1345, 1355 as industrial-chemical river, 1057 phenols in, 782 oil. See also fossil fuels; petroleum air pollution from burning, 1289-1290 demands/technology, 963-964 drilling, water for, 932 fields, 963 and gas reserves, 966, 1352-1353 laws/powers/treaties and, 961 leaks, 788, 1279,1280 military use of, 966 natural gas and, 872-873 NGOs and, 906 in Niger Delta, 898-900 offshore, 787 pollution, 826 resources/environmental impacts of, 964 routes, 966 spills, 786, 899-900, 965-967,1098 tankers, 966 use, 962-963 water pollution from, 1308, 1311 Oil, Chemical, and Atomic Workers Union (OCAW), 625 oil pipeline, Alaskan, 903-904 Oil Pollution Control Act, 783, 1308 Oil Rivers Protectorate, 899 oil spills effects of, 967 1405
Index oil spills (Continued) major, 966-967 modern, 966 small, 965-966 Oing Dynasty, 650 O'Keeffe, Georgia, 755 Okhotsk Sea, 957, 958 Oklahoma, 604 Panhandle, 352 Old Chippewa Stanley Outlet, 1240 Old Copper culture, 1239 Old River Control Structure, 538 Old Testament, 1316 Old World, 1321 animal diseases and, 314-315 civilizations, 23, 61,1337 ecosystems, 163-164 Olds, Ransom, 101 Oligocene Era, 646 Oliver, Mary, 890 Olkhon Island, 746 Olmsted, Frederick Law, 621, 753,1166 Olympic Games, sport events in, 1156,1157 Olympic National Park, 341, 870, 927, 1336, 1342 Oman, 840-844 omul (Coregonus autumnalis migratorius Georgy), 746, 747
"On a Monument to the Passenger Pigeon," 1248 On Germany (Stael), 1061 On Naive and Sentimental Poetry (Schiller), 1063
"On Picturesque Beauty" (Gilpin), 761 "On the law which has regulated the introduction of New Species," 1283 On the Revolutions of the Celestial Orbs (Copernicus), 274 On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres (Copernicus), 1103 "On the Tendencies of Varieties to Depart Indefirutely from the Original Type," 286, 1283 "On the Worldwide Effects of Multiple Nuclear Weapon Detonations" (National Academy of Sciences), 943 onchocerciasis (river blindness), 1048 OPEC. See Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries Operation Ranch Hand, 22-23, 289-290 Operation Upshot/Knothole testing, 943 opium, 348-349 Oppenheimer, J. Robert, 938, 941 Opticks (Newton), 1103,1105 optimal foraging theory (OFT), 947 Orange (Gariep) River Scheme, 19 ore, 1123 Oregon, 793, 793, 1288 Organ Pipe Cactus National Monument, 1342 Organic Aid Scheme, 1137 organic farming, 1102, 1137 Rodale on, 1060 in Spain, 1151 Organic Gardening and Farming magazine, 1060
organic matter, 1130 organicism, 1061 Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) on air pollution, 970 on resettlement, 1048 on water pollution, 1310 Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC), 964, 1338 free trade and, 563 1406
Nigeria as, 898 oil reserves of, 966 orienteering, 1155 The Origin of Species (Darwin), 127, 286, 818, 879,1283 Orinoco Illustrado (GunuUa), 968
Orinoco llanos, Venezuela, 1278,1279 Orinoco Oil Watch, 968 Orinoco River, 968 Omish, Dean, 1276 Orr, David, 145 Ortiz, Simon ]., 888 Orukter Amphibolos, 99 Orwell, Geroge, 1269 Osaka, Japan, 729 Oscar II, 547 Osgood, Ellen H. Murdock, 1348 Osgood, Samuel, 1348 OSHA. See U.S. Occupational Safety and Health Administration Oskonan, L., 543 Ostia (Italy), 826 ostriches, 1033 Ostrom, Elinor, 773 O'Sullivan, John L., 802, 803-804 O'SuUivan, Timothy, 885-886 Oswald, John on vegetarianism, 1275 Oto Indians, 1040 OttomonTurks, 654 Otto-Peters, Luise, 1275 Our Common Future, 172,1263 Our National Parks (Muir), 866
Outdoor Art Club, 1329 overgrazing desertification by farming and, 1143 impacts of, 1033-1034 Overland Monthly, 1328
ovicarprines, 336 Ovid, 1343 Owen, Robert, 1125, 1269-1270 Owens Lake, 920 owl, northern spotted, 926, 936-937 Oxfam, 905 Oxford English Dictionary, 1332
Oxisols, 1132 Ozark Area Community Congress, 147 ozone, 969, 974 NGOs' measures to protect, 906 oil and, 964 plants and, 970 radioactive isotopes' effect on, 943 in Spain, 1152 ozone depletion diplomacy, 973 finding, 972-973 humans' influence on, 971-972 lessons, 974 model case, 973-974 waste management and, 1296 Ozone Secretariat, 974 ozone, tropospheric as air pollution, 969-970 unsolved problem of, 970-971 ozone-depleting substances (ODs), 858 Paccard, Michel-Gabriel, 860 Pacific Forum, 954
Index Pacific Islanders, 951-952 Pacific Islands, 1288-1289 diseases on, 952 exploitation of, 951 trade with, 951-953 Pacific Ocean, 745, 957,1313 explorers and, 1240 fishing, 532 nuclear testing in, 942 Pacific Railroad Acts of 1862, 802 Pacific Rim "ring of fire," 921 Pacific Salmon Convention, 186 Pacific Salmon Treaty, 927 packaging, 1294,1297 Packard, James, 101 Packard, Vance, 269 Padilla, Gilbert, 209 Paine, R., 543 Pakistan, 345, 348-349, 1088, 1090 Palau Islands, 955 Palawan Province, 78-79 Paleo-Indian cultural period in East, 913-915, 917 in Southwest, 933, 934 Paleo-Indians, 1238-1239 Paleolithic Era, 656, 958 paleopathology, 948 Paleozoic Era, 965 Palestine, 551, 1271 palisades, 917, 1074 Pallas, Peter Simon, 746 Palmer Drought Severity Index, 345-346 Palmyra, 307 Pamir Mountains, 61 Pan Am Flight 103, 563 Panama, 204 Isthmus of, 206, 804 Panama Canal, 66, 207 paper, 1294 Papua New Guinea (PNG), 954, 977-978, 1283 Paracelsus, 821 Paradis, Marie, 860 Paraguay, 1142-1143 Paraguay River, 1054, 1143 Parahippus. See horses Parana River, 1054,1055, 1143 parasites, 338, 1309 effect on nutrition, 948 salt's role against, 1094 on sturgeon, 1077 tsetse fly as carrier of, 1087 Parbery, D.G., 322 Paris, 1262, 1293 Park Chung-hee, 741 Park, Geoff, 897 Parker, Barry, 621 Parker Dam, 248 Parker, Richard Greene, 862 parks, 978 British public, 979-980 common land and, 979 future of, 981 landscape architecture in, 752-754 landscape art for, 764 national, 980-981 North American public, 980
social control and, 981 suburbanization and design of, 1166 parks, national, 772, 980-981 in Rocky Mountains, 1059 Sierra Club's role in, 1116-1117 in South Africa, 1141 in Switzerland, 1175-1176 in Venezuela, 1279 Parque Natural da Serra da Estrela, 1152 Parshwanath, 721, 723 Parsons, Willard, 565 Partial (Limited) Nuclear Test Ban Treaty, 943 Party of Democratic Socialism (PDS), 585 A Pastoral Democracy; a Study of Pastoralism and Politics among the Northern Somali ofthe Horn of Africa (Lewis), 182 Pasteur, Louis, 327-328,1306 A Pastoral Land (Poussin), 761 pastoralism, 984 changes with, 987-988 degradation/desertification and, 986 dryland environments and, 985 effects of, 987 land and rehabilitated, 986-987 modem world and, 988 nomadic, 304-307 origins of, 985-986 in Sahara, 1085-1086 in Sahel, 1087 in South Africa, 1141 Patagonia, 1143 pathogens, 839-840, 1299-1300 Pathway Hypothesis, 988-990 Paulsson, Valfrid, 2 Pawnee Hero Stories and Folk-Tales, with Notes on the Origin, Customs and Character of the Pawnee People (Grinnell), 627 Pawnee Indians, 1040 Pawtucket River, 779 Pax Mongolica, 135
Payne, Daniel G., 888 PCBs (^polychlorinated biphenyls), 775 water pollution from, 1057, 1308, 1309, 1310 PCDDs. See polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins PCDFs. See polychlorinated dibenzofurans PDS. See Party of Democratic Socialism Peacock, C, 596 peanuts, 1087 pear, prickly, 1019-1020 Pearl, Raymond, 198 pearls, 959, 1279 pearlshell, 953 peat (Histosol), 1130 peat bogs as fuel source, 990-991 and land, 990 in Netherlands, 891-892 Peck, Annie Smith, 860 pedosphere, 1130 Pegge, Samuel, 1318 Pelican Island, 769 pelicans, white, 1342 at Salton Sea, 1096 Pelletier, Pierre Joseph, 822 Peloponnesian War, 1285 Pelt, Jean-Marie, 349 1407
Index Pelton, A., 1304 PEM. See proton-exchange membrane (PEM) cell The Pencil of Nature (Talbot), 885
Pennant, Thomas, 1327-1328 Pennsylvania, 970,1242, 1245 dams in, 281 oil and, 963 waste management in, 1296 Pennsylvania Station, 38 People for the USA, 1340-1341 People for the West. See People for the USA peoples, indigenous, 675-676 food/land/self-determination of, 679 nations of, 677-678 theory, 679-680 People's Republic, 759 The People's Forests (Marshall), 810
Pepel people, 20 Perez, Juan, 924 Perez-Brignoli, H., 205 Pergamon, 1133 Perlin, J., 1345 Permanent Wildlife Protection Fund, 646 Peron, Juan, 518 Perrin, George, 91 Persia (Iran) irrigation and, 1300 silk in, 1119 Persian Empire, 1284 Persian Gulf, 958, 964, 966 Persian Gulf War, 965,1289-1290 pollution from, 1289-1290 weapons used during, 142 persistent organic pollutants (POPs), 777 Peru, 11, 48, 337, 1314,1351 Andes of, 352, 991-992 coastal, 957, 993 diseases in, 319-320 environmental threats in, 992 pyramids in, 1262 silver in, 1121 pesticides, 199, 348. See also specific pesticides
effect on fish, 783 in aquaculture, 1115 on golf courses, 1156 herbicides and, 994-1000 laws for, 774-777 plant growth and, 1000 uses of, 994 vegetarianism and, 1276 water pollution from, 610, 1308-1309 petawatthours (PWh), 1304 Peter I, Czar, 746 Peter the Great, 966 Peterson, Roger Tory, 1348 Petra, 307 Petrach, 861 Petrified Forest National Monument, 266 Petroleos Mexicanos (PEMEX), 837 petroleum, 963, 965 Pettifer, J., 101 Pfister, C, 235 pheromones, 644 Philadelphia, 1242, 1245,1356 Philadelphia Inquirer, 819
Philip (King), 1293 1408
Philippine Sea, 958 Philippines, 77, 804, 955, 1001 crops in, 524 Department of Environment and Natural Resources, 79-80 resource conservation on, 1290 sugar in, 1169, 1171 Phillip, Prince, 96 Phillips, A., 129 A Philosophical Enquiry into Our Ideas of the Sublime and
Beautiful (Burke), 761, 1062-1063 Phiolophus. See horses Phoenix, 1258 phosphates, 953 phosphoric acid fuel cells, 874 phosphorous cycle, 1130, 1132 phosphorus, 521-522 photography, 885-886, 1120-1121 photovoltaics, 1138-1140 PHS. See U.S. Public Health Service phylloxera, 1002 Phylogeny (Ameghino), 63 Physico-Theology (Derham), 1105
phytoplankton, 1057 "The Phytogeography of Nebraska," 233 Piedmont Plateau, 1134, 1251-1252 Piercy, Marge, 1269 pigeons, passenger abundance of, 982 decline of, 983-984 humans and, 983 Pigou, Arthur Cecil, 257 pigs, 336, 337,1002-1003. See also hogs in Netherlands, 892 nuclear testing on, 942 sweet potato fed to, 1174 Pilcomayo River, 1054,1143 Pilgrim at Tinker Creek (Dillard), 889 The Pilgrim's Progress, 1321
Pilot Program to Conserve the Brazilian Rain Forests, 168 Pima peoples, 1254 Pimental, D., 522 Pimental, M., 522 Pimm, S., 543 Pinchot, Gifford, 1003-1004, 1328-1329, 1339 on conservation, 60, 160 as founder of American forestry, 265-266, 1037 on Hetch-Hetchy Canyon dam, 266-2671116 U.S. Forest Service and, 1260 Pinheiro, Wilson, 829 Pioneer, 26 Piper, J. K., 34 Piraeus (Greece), 826 Piraeus River, 1156 PIRGs. See Public Interest Research Groups Pirie, 328 Pite, Ralph, 1064 Pittsburgh, 1242 Pivdenny Bug River, 1227 Pizarro, Francisco, 315, 598 plagues, 291, 314, 1302 bubonic, 1103 Plains Archaic, 1238 Planet Drum Foundation, 147 Plant Indicators: The Relation of Plant Communities to Process and Practice (Clements), 233
Index Plant Succession: An Analysis of the Development of Vegetation
(Clements), 233 plantains, 136 plantations, 555 rubber, 1072 sugar, 952-953, 1169-1170 tree, 1038 plants. See also defoliation; diseases, plant in Brazil, 164-168 breeding, 605 classification of, 791 drug, 349 invasive, 910 medicinal, 821-822 microorganisms and, 839-840 native, 753, 915, 947 oil spills and, 967 ozone and, 970 pathogens and, 839 preservation of, 1342 salinization's effect on, 1088-1091 soil macronutrients for, 1132, 1135 in Southwest, 935-936 succession of ecosystems and, 1168-1169 writings on, 1283 plastics natural gas for, 874 in oceans, 1311 to replace grass, 1155 solar energy and, 1138 as waste, 1294 in waste stream, 1294 Plato, 1004-1005, 1269, 1344 on nature, 878 on soil, 1133 Platte River, 1238 Plattes, Gabriel, 1345 Pleasures of the Imagination (Addison), 1105
plein air painting, 761 Pleistocene Epoch, 46 California during, 908-909 Great Basin/Columbia Plateau during, 918-919 Lake Victoria during, 749 overkiU, 1006 Plains during, 929 Russia during, 1074 Southwest during, 933 Pleistocene Era, 646 fishing/hunting during, 655-656, 660 Midwest during, 1238-1239 overkill, 1006 Pliny, 1316, 1344 on weeds, 1316 Pliocene Era, 647 Plotinus, 878 plows, 292 Plutarch, 965,1274 PNG. See Papua New Guinea Po River, 1057 Pocono Mountains, 1244 Podgorny, Nikolai, 902 poetry, painting and, 757 poisons, 1299 Pokharan Test Site, 944 Poland, 631 changes in, 1008-1009
environmental policy of, 1009 forests, 1288 geography of, 115 pollution in, 1007-1008 Romanticism in, 1061 State Environmental Policy of, 42 waste practices in, 1296 water pollution in, 1309 Polanyi, Karl, 771 Polar Domain, 228-229 Polis, G., 543 political ecology, 1127 Political Research Associates, 1341 politicians, LCV ratings for, 789 pollution, 230 from agriculture, 28, 1098, 1277, 1302 of Baltic Sea, 1098,1310 by industry during Scientific Revolution, 1104-1106 in Middle East, 843-844 by military industry/war, 1289-1290 salmon ecology and, 1092 from tourism, 1151 in Venezuela, 1279 of Volga River, 1280-1281 wetlands and, 1320,1323 of Yellow Sea, 1352-1353 pollution, air, 38, 1297 common law, water and, 778-780 control of, 42 in England, 1105 fatalities, 42 global, 43-44 hydropower and, 1304-1305 by incinerators, 1297 as industrial problem, 40-42 natural gas and, 874 in Netherlands, 893-894 from oil companies, 899 by power plants, 1304 regional, 42 in Switzerland, 1176 as urban problem, 37-40 pollution, industrial, 1302 in Japan, 727 sources of, 1308 in water, 610 pollution, water, 1305-1312 in developing countries, 1310 developing countries and, 1310 drinking water and, 1306-1308 impacts of, 1302 industrial/municipal, 1305-1306, 1308 oceans and, 1305, 1310-1311 regulations and, 1308-1309 from smelting, 1123-1124 Soviet Union and, 1309 urbanization and, 1267-1268 Polonoroeste peoples, 1347 polychlorinated biphenyis (PCBs), 545, 826, 1308-1310 polychlorinated dibenzofurans (PCDFs), 311-312 polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins (PCDDs), 311-312 polymerase chain reaction (PCR), 840 Polynesia, 951, 955-956 migrations, 529, 958 nuclear tests in, 943 polyviayl chloride (PVC), 312 1409
Index Pompilius, Numa Ponca Indians, 1040 ponds, 1244 Pontic-Sarmatian sea, 745 Pontine Marshes, 518 Ponting, C, 851 Poor Law Commission of 1842 Report on the Sanitary Condition of the Labouring Population of Great Britain, n
Poore, M.E.D., 553 Pope, Alexander, 1061 Pope, Andrew Jackson, 925 Popocatepetl volcano, 861 poppy, red field, 1285 POPs. See persistent organic pollutants The Population Bomb (Ehrlich), 799
populations of Ancient Japan, 730-731 of Japan, 726-727 resettlement of, 1046-1049 populations, human, 633, 1009 agriculture and, 30 of Ancient Japan, 730-731 cities, coasts and, 959 environment and, 1012-1014 growth, 1011 history of, 293, 1010-1011 of Japan, 726-727, 730-731 policy, 1011-1012 urban, 1263 Populonia mines, 293 The Population Bomb (Erhlich), 618, 735, 943 Porphyry, on vegetarianism, 1274 Porritt, Jonathan, 566 Porsche, Ferdinand, 101 port, 960 Porter, Gene Stratton, 1321 Portugal, 330-331, 562 Africa and, 19 Brazil and, 162 forests of, 550 Spain and, 1149-1153 water management in, 1150-1152 Portuguese Green Party, 1151 Post-Impressionism, 762 potassium, 521-522, 1130 potato blight disease, 325 potatoes, 137, 1068-1069 diseases and, 325, 327 as food resource, 1016-1017 sweet, 1351 of Virginia, 1015-1016 Pound, Roscoe, 233 Poussin, Nicolas, 760-761 Poverty Point, Louisiana, 915 Powell, John Wesley, 589,1017-1018 Power, M., 545 power saws, 291 Pownall, Thomas, 754 Prairie Creek State Park, 1035 Preah Sihanouk National Park, 83 Preah Suramarit National Park, 83 The Prelude (Wordsworth), 1062, 1064 Preparing for Drought in the 21st Century, 345
Presbyterians, 1329-1330 preservationism, 1018-1019 1410
Prevost, Benedict, 324 Pribaikal'skii National Park, 747 Price, Uvedale, 1063 Primate Conservation Inc., 798 primates branches/distribution of, 1020 disease transmission of, 1023 as entertainment source, 1021-1022 as family/food, 1021 in folklore/religion, 1020-1021 future of, 1023 human economics and, 1022 human/nonhuman, 1022 The Primitive Organization of Mankind (Hale), 1317
pristine myth forest perception and, 1023-1024 rain forest foraging and, 1024 "The Problem of Wilderness," 810 Problems in Materialism and Culture (Williams), 880
progesterone, 1351 progradation, delta and coastal, 1133 Project Coast, 143 Project Plowshares, 939, 942 Project Trinity, 938, 941, 945 property. See also land tenure broad-scale regulation of, 769-770 Locke's concept of, 1105 rights law, 770-774, 779-780 TNC's involvement with, 884 property, private communism on, 1128 societies structured around, 949,1158 Spain and, 1149 tree cutting on, 1066 Property Rights Theory, 257 Protest and Survive (Thompson), 944
Protestantism, 631,1024 Arminian tradition and, 1027-1028 liberal activism and, 1027 natural sciences' influence on, 1026-1027 natural theology and, 1025-1026 Romanticism and, 1061 summer camps and, 1172 Protohippus. See horses proton-exchange membrane (PEM) cell, 105 protozoa, 338,1058 Providence, 1245 Prussia, 631, 1037 Prut River, 284 Pryor, Frederic, 333-334 Ptolemy, 1105 Public Choice Theory, 257 public health boards of, 780-781 rise of, 1293-1294 waste management and, 1293-1294 Public Health Service (PHS), 1307 Division of Air Pollution, 784 Public Interest Research Groups (PIRGs), 1028 Canadian, 1029-1030 public lands, 151, 1066, 1103 public nuisance suits, 780-781, 783 Public Trust Doctrine, 1303 Pueblo Indians, 1040, 1041, 1042 Pueblos, 1254-1255 Puerto Rico, 804
Index Puget Sound, 921 Puigdefabregas, J., 298 Purdy, Ken, 100 Purvis, A., 1312 Putin, Vladimir, 944 PVC. polyvinyl chloride, 312 PWh. See petawatthours Pyle, Robert Michael, 889, 890 Pyne, Stephen J., 659, 895, 1252 Pyramid Lake, 918 Pyrenees, 559 Pythagoreanism, 1273-1274 Pyu kingdom, 78 qanats, 1300 Qatar, 840-843 Qian Songyan, 759 Qing, Dai, 283 Qing Dynasty. See Manchu (Qing) Dynasty Qinghai Lake, 220 Qinghai Province, 649 Quai D'Orsay Terminal, 38 QUANGOS (quasi-autonomous nongovernmental organizations), 904-905 Quaternary geological era, 548 Quaternary period^, 746, 913 Quebec Hydro, 186 Queen Charlotte Islands, 924, 927 Queensland, Australia, 952, 954 Quick Bird satellite, 808 rabbits, 656, 953, 1031-1033 Rabobank, 581 Racine, Jean, 1061 Rackham, Oliver, 1316 radiation UV, 971 UV-B, 845, 858, 971 radioactive debris, 941, 942 radish, 1068 railroads, 926 rain extreme weather as, 1314 on Northwest Coast, 921-922 radioactive, 942 saliruzation and, 1088, 1091 rain forests, 1024,1132 animal agriculture and, 1277 soil in, 1134 rainfall, 552, 1314 in Africa, 5, 302 rain-use efficiency (RUE), 299 Rajputana Desert, 345 Raleigh, Sir Walter, 754, 968, 1069 ramie, 523 Ramsar Convention on Wetlands of International Importance (1971), 120, 285, 1303 Ramses II, King, 902 ranching, 1033-1035,1059 Rancho La Brea tar pits, 908 Ranomafana National Park, 798 rat kangaroo, 1032 Ratcliffe, Francis, 89, 96 Rathje, William, 1292 rats European, 953 tuataras and, 1044
Rautmann, Allison, 935 Raven, Peter, 129 raw fooders, 1273 Ray, John, 55, 127 on God's design of nature, 879, 1105 on vegetarianism, 1275 Raymo, Chet, 889 rBGH. See recombinant bovine growth hormone RCA Laboratories, 1138 Read, Richard, 819 Reagan, Ronald, 210, 279, 789, 972,1339 on communism, 943 on environment, 43 NWF and, 872 recombinant bovine growth hormone (rBGH), 577 Reconquista, 1255 Reconstruction Finance Corporation, 24 recycling KAB and, 737 lead batteries, 775 of organic elements, 1128 and recovery of solid wastes, 1297-1298 in Scandinavia, 1098 silver, 1120-1121 in waste management, 1297-1298 wastewater, 1077 Red Books (Repton), 753 Red Flag Act, 100 Red River, 66, 81 Red Sea, 957, 958 Redfield, Alfred, 569 redwoods, 937, 1035-1036 ' Sequoia, 871, 1117 Reed, Charles, 336 reefs, 1310, 1313 reforestation, 1036-1039 in New Zealand, 897 post-war recovery and, 1288 programs, 1288 Reformation, 530 refugees, 1048,1286 Refuse Act of 1899, 783, 784 refuse-derived fuels, 1297 Regan, Tom, 1276 Regional Planning Association of America (RPAA), 623 Reich Agency for Nature Protection, 519 Reich Conservation Law of 1935, 586 Reich Law for the Protection of Nature, 519 reindeer, 197, 1033 Reisner, Marc, 283 religions, 1292. See also specific religions
American Indian, 1039-1043 sacred places and, 1081-1084 summer camps and, 1172-1173 vegetarianism and, 1273-1276 waste management and, 1292 Remaking Society (Bookchin), 1269 Rembrandt, 761 Renaissance, 285,1293 art, 760 nature during, 881 vegetarianism during, 1274 Renewing the Earth, 202 Report on Manufactures (Hamilton), 1345 Report on the Arid Lands of the United States (Powell), 1017 1411
Index Report on the Sanitary Condition of the Labouring Population
of Great Britain (Chadwick), 1293 reptiles, 1043-1046 Repton, Humphrey, 753 Republic of Korea. See South Korea Republican River, 1238 The Republic (Plato), 1269 Rerum Natura (Lucretius), 794 Research Methods in Ecology (Clements), 233
research, scientific, 1356-1357 Reserva Natural do Paul de Arzila, 1152 reserve(s). See also zapovedniki (nature reserves) biosphere, 1152 game, in South Africa, 1141-1142 nature, 1074, 1076-1077 scenic, in New Zealand, 897 Yellow Sea's oil and gas, 1352-1353 Reserve Mining Company, 783-784 reservoirs. See also dams along Volga River, 1280 impacts/uses of, 282-283,1304-1305 resistance to, 283-284 uses for/impacts of water, 1304-1305 resettlement action plan (RAP), 1047-1048 of populations, 1046-1049 Resettlement Administration, 623 resource conservation, 1290 Resource Conservation and Recovery Act, 1296 Resource, Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA), 775, 1296 Resource Management Act of 1991, 897 The Return of the Hunters (Brueghel the Elder), 760 Reunion Island, 1314 Reykjavik, Iceland, 583 Reynolds, David, 1145 Rhine River, 1049-1050 alteration of, 1301 contamination of, 1176,1306, 1309 as industrial-chemical river, 1057 pollution of, 776-777, 1049-1050,1302, 1306 salmon in, 1058 as waterway, 1301-1302 Rhine villagers, 1092 rhinoceros, 656 Rhode Island, 325, 1242, 1244 Rhone River, 558, 1050-1051,1057 ribonucleic acid (RNA), 328 Ricardo, David, 255, 1127 rice, 28, 138, 335,1051-1053 African, 7, 9, 603 basmati, 26 cultivation, 1050-1051 domesticated, 602 in Eastern Asia, 602 HYV, 605 Texmati, 26 Richards, Audrey I., 134, 553 Richards, Ellen Swallow, 1053-1054 Richards, Paul, 556 Richards, Robert, 1053 Richerson, Peter, 30 Rifkin, Jeremy, 1277 rifles, 151 Rift Valley, 15 Great Lakes of, 4, 16 1412
Rindos, David, 28 Rio Conference on Environment and Development (1992), 587 Rio de la Plata River, 1054-1055, 1143 Rio Declaration on Environment and Development, 1237 Rio Grande River, 1254 Rio Grande Valley, 1255 Rio Tinto mines, 293 riparian zones, 1300 Risser, James, 818 Rist, Gilbert, 850 Ritson, Joseph, 1275 river(s), 1055-1059. See also specific rivers alteration/dredging of, 1301 basins, 1058 dams' effects on, 1300-1301,1305 dams and, 282, 1300-1301, 1304-1305 environmental risks to, 1302-1303 floods and, 537-539, 1055, 1301 industrial accidents' affect on, 1302-1303 pollution of, 1057, 1305-1307, 1309-1311 roles of, 1299, 1301, 1302 sediments/silt in, 899, 1055,1305, 1352 thermal pollution of, 1057 tidal, 1054 in transportation, 1301 River Alto, 1056 River in the Catskills (Cole), 755
River Murray Waters Agreement, 868 river pollution, 1305-1307, 1309-1311 types of, 1057 River Seine, 1156 rivulets, 1055 RNA. See ribonucleic acid road deglaciation, 1094, 1095 Road to the Sun (Douglas), 340 Roadless Area Conservation Rule, 1337 Robbins, John, 1277 Robertson, N., 324 Rockefeller Foundation, 616-617 Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research, 351 rocket technology, 1145-1148 The Rocket into Interplanetary Space (Oberth), 1145
Rockman, Alexis, 756 Rocky Mountain Arsenal Wildlife Refuge, 1290 Rocky Mountain Park. See Banff National Park Rocky Moimtains, 1059, 1254 effect on Plains, 928 of Canada, 919 sheep in, 1109 Rodale Institute, 1060 Rodale, Jerome Irving, 1060 Rodale, J.R., 1271 rodenticides, 999-1000 Rodriguez Island, 330 Rogers, Pattiann, 890 Rolvaag, O.E., 607 Roma (gypsies), 653 Roman Catholicism. See Catholicism Roman Empire, 1285-1286, 1321, 1345 Romania, 284, 653-654, 1309 Romans, 1345 forest management by, 1036 on vegetarianism, 1274 Romantic Ecology {Bate), 1062
Romanticism, 651, 1060-1065
Index landscape art and, 76\-762 nature and, 881-882 sacred places and, 1081-1082,1084 spatial preference and, 1158, 1166 Transcendentalism and, 768,1060-1064 Rome aqueducts of, 1302 soil in, 1133-1134 waste management in, 1292 waste practices in, 1292 water/sanitation in, 1302 Roosevelt Dam (1902), 1257 Roosevelt, Franklin Delano, 732-733,1066-1067, 1249 on grant-in-aid program, 783 New Deal, 129, 266-267, 1253, 1257 on nuclear power, 938 Roosevelt, Theodore, 267, 733, 1067-1068,1328-1329 and 1908 Conference of Governors, 1067, 1135 on conservation, 769, 1328-1329 conservation and, 249, 816, 1260 on drugs, 349 Grinnell and, 159-160 Muir and, 866 Rosen, Walter, 125 Rosendale, Steven, 889 Rosenstiel, Tom, 816, 820 Rossignol, Robert Le, 631-632 Rostand, Jean, 1316,1319 Roster of the Gods; An Ethnography of the Supernatural in a
Thai Village (Textor), 318 Rothstein, D., 129 Rotterdam convention, 777 Rough Riders, 1067 Roundup Ready brand, 589 Rousseau, Jean-Jacques influence of, 55, 1062 on sacred places, 1084 on vegetarianism, 1275 Rousseau, Theodore, 762 Rouvroy, Claude-Henri de, 1125 Rowland, F. Sherwood, 43, 858-859, 972-974 Royal Botanical Gardens at Kew, 138, 169, 798 Royal Dutch/Shell, 899-900 Royal Geographical Society, 148, 1283 rubber boom, 47 tappers, 829 ti-ees, 165-166 rubber tree, 1072-1073 Rubin, Reuven, 734 Ruckelshaus, William D., 1073-1074 RUE. See rain-use efficiency (RUE) rum, 1170 runoff, agricultural, 932 water pollution from, 1037, 1057, 1156, 1308-1309,1311 R.U.R. [Rossum's Universal Robots] (Capek), 1270
Rural Electrification Administration, 24 Rural Workers Union, 829 Rush, Benjamin, 1318 Russell, Liane, 1342 Russia, 305, 345, 1355. See also Soviet Union drugs and, 348 forests of, 295, 551 geography of, 115 natural gas in, 873 as nuclear power, 944
oil in, 964-965 pollution in, 1280 Romanticism in, 1061 saliruzation in, 1088, 1090 Soviet Union and, 1074-1080 U.N. and, 1236 Volga River in, 1280-1281 wars and, 1288 Russian Ministry of Atomic Energy (Minatom), 941 Russian Plains, 656 Russian Revolution, 1126 Russian Society for the Conservation of Nature, 1162 Russo-Japanese War of 1904, 741 rusts, 322-323, 325-326, 604 Rwanda, 9, 14 Ryan, Agnes, 1275 Ryder, Richard, 53 Ryoan-ji garden, 753 Ryzhkov, Nikolai, 1078 S. D. Meyers, Inc., 776 S Kumars company, 870 Saami peoples, 661 Sabeans of Marib, 1300 sable (Martes zibellina L), Sacco River, 1244 Sacramento Bee, 819
747,1075,1076
Sacramento River, 909,1092 Sacramento-San Joaquin river system, 88 sacred clowns, of American Indians, 1042-1043 Sacred Earth Network, 1078 sacred places, 1081-1084 The Sacred Pipe (Black Elk), 153 Sadat, Anwar, 902 Sa6ne River, 558 Saemangum wetland reclamation project, 742 Safe Drinking Water Act, 1309 Sagan, Dorion, 144 Sagan, Karl, 877, 944 Sagarmatha national park Sagebrush Rebellions, 1339-1341 Saginaw River, 1241 Saguenay River, 185 Sahara Desert, 304, 337, 1085-1086 cHmate in, 5 droughts in, 344 Sahel and, 1087 Sahel, 344, 346 climate in, 5 crops of, 603 of West Africa, 296, 299, 302 Sahel (shore or border), 1086-1088 Saigon, 22 sail, age of, 137-138 sailing, 1154 Saint-Simon, Comte de, 1125 Salazar, Antonio de Oliveira, 1149, 1151 Sales of Crown lands, 88 Saline River, 1238 salinization, 823, 1088-1091, 1095 birds affected by, 1095-1097 as problem, 601, 1056 soil degradation by, 903,1132-1135 Salisbury, Sir Edward, 1316 salmon, 532, 534, 658, 1091-1094 Adopt a, 1093 1413
Index salmon {Continued) Atlantic, 1091-1903, 1302 Kokanee, 1092 on Northwest Coast, 924, 926-928 Pacific, 1091-1093 in Rhine River, 1050, 1058 Tlingit ceremony for, 922 salt, 530, 959, 1094-1095, 1232 digging of, 892 human need for, 945 tax, 1094 trade, 1085,1087, 1094 Salt, Henry S., 54, 1276 Salt Lake Bioregion, 147 salt lakes, 1090, 1095 Salt River, 1300 Salton Sea, 149, 1095-1097 Samarqand, 307 Samoan Islands, 954-956 San Andreas Fault, 907 "San Bias: An Account of the Cima Indians of Panama," 180 San Francisco, 1295-1297,1341 San Francisco Bay, 147, 909 San Joaquin River, 909 sanctuaries bird, 897, 1152 nuclear installations as wildlife, 945 A Sand County Almanac, 128,1248 A Sand County Almanac (Leopold), 789-790, 875 Sanders, Scott Russell, 890 Sandoval, R., 209-210 Sandoz cherriical plant, 777 SANE. See Committee for a Sane Nuclear Policy Sangre de Cristo Mountains, 1059 sanitary chemistry, 1053 sanitary surveys, 780 sanitation, 1292-1294. See also waste management Sanitation in Daily Life (Richards, E. S.), 1053
Santa Cruz River, 934-935 Santiago, Chile, 38, 213 Sao Paolo State, 295 Sao Paulo, 1054 Sao Tome, 1169-1170 SAPs. See structural adjustment programs SARA. See Superfund Authorization and Recovery Act SARA Title III: The Emergency Planning and Community Right-To-Know Act (1986), 125 Saracens, 966 Sarbanes, Paul, 789 Sardar Sarovar Dam, 1347 Sardar Sarovar Project (SSP), 869 Sargent, Charles S., 1249 Sarmiento, Domingo Faustino, 1062 Saro-Wiwa, Ken, 900 Saskatchewan, 647 satellites, 808 solar-powered, 1138 for space exploration, 1146 Saudi Arabia, 963, 1294 oil and, 963-964, 966 overview of, 840-843 Sauk tribe, 924 Sava River, 284 Save Our Streams, 875 Save the Dunes Council, 1342 1414
Savery, Roelandt, 330 Save-the-Redwoods League, 1035-1036 Scandinavia, 1097-1099, 1295. See also specific countries wood production of, 1234 scavenging, 1099-1101 A Scene on the Banks of the Hudson, 652
Scenic River Preservation Conference V. Federal Power Commission, 341 Scheese, Don, 887 Schell, Jonathan, 944 Schelling, Friedrich W., 734 Schenck, Carl Alwin, 60 Schenk, Carl, 265 Schiller, Friedrich, 1063 schistosomes (parasitic worms), 1058 schistosomiasis, 282 -carrying snails, 1304 as water-based disease, 317, 1087, 1310 Schoenbein, Christian, 968 Schoenichen, Walter, 519 Scholar, Niels Pederson, 325 Schubert, Franz, 1062 Schultes, Richard E., 349 Schumacher, Ernst Fritz, 1101-1102 Schurz, Carl, 1102-1103, 1249 Schutzstaffel (SS), 519 Schuylkill River, 1245 Schweitzer, Albert, 721 Science (magazine), 633, 1329 Scientific Revolution, 878-879, 1103-1106 SCOPE. See Strategy for Coca and Opium Poppy Elimination, 350 Scotland, 1229-1230 farming/tundra in, 1231-1232 golf in, 1156 mills in, 1269-1270 Scott, Robert F., 57 scrapie, 316 SCS. See U.S. Soil Conservation Service sea(s), 1305 law/powers, 786-788, 961 pollution of, 1310-1311 of world, 957, 958 sea cow, Steller's, 1075 Sea Empress, 965 Sea Kings of Crete, 1292 Sea of Japan, 739, 957, 958 sea otters, 911, 924-925, 1075 sea turtles, 1106-1108,1115 Sea World, 1357 seabed, ownership of, 787 seal(s). See also nerpa (Pusa sibirica Gmelin)
baby harp, 625 endangered, 1098 furs, 951 hunting, 959 Sears, Paul, 880 The Sea Around Us (Carson), 199
Seattle, Chief, 877 Seattle Times, 819
seaweeds, 959 Second Empire, 558 Second International, 1126 Second International Women's Congress, 632 Second Northern (Kamchatka) Expedition, 746 Second Reich, 584
Index Second Vatican Council, 203 Secondary Products Revolution, 75 sedentism, 317, 947, 948 Sedgwick, William T., 1306 sediments rivers, silt and, 899, 1055,1305,1352 in U.S. rivers, 1134-1135 water pollution and, 1305, 1309,1310, 1311 Seed, John, 1271 Seed, Patricia, 169 seeds, 334-336, 1135 Seifert, Alwin, 519 Seine River, 294, 558 Selenga River, 745, 747 selenium, 634-635, 637 Semenov-tian-shanskii, Andrei Petrovich, 1076 Semipalatinsk test site, 941 Semper, Karl, 543 Sempervirens Club, 1035 Seneca Indians, 1041, 1042 Seneca, Lucius Annaeus, 37 Senegal, 20-21 Senegal River, 1087 senescence, 794 Sengal Valley, 282 Sennacherib (King), 833 Sense of Wonder (Carson), 199
Seoul, South Korea, 1292 Sequoia National Park, 1117 Serbia, 654 Serer people, 20 sericulture (silk production), 1119 serpentinization, 68 Serpieri, Arrigo, 518 Sertumer, Friedrich, 822 Sessions, George, 1333 Seton, Ernest T., 887, 1108-1109 "The Setting in Motion of the Wheel of the Law," 174-175 Sevastopol, Ukraine, 1227 Seventh Day Adventists, 1276 Sevier Lake, 536 sewage, 783 in cities, 781 discharge/facilities, 1306-1308,1310-1311 oceans and, 959,1296 pollution from, 778 treatment plants, 782-783 water pollution from, 1057, 1302, 1305-1311 into Yellow Sea, 1352 sex, 1274, 1275 Shackleton, Ernest, 57 Shakers (United Society of Believers in Christ's Second Appearing), 1270 Shakespeare, William, 877, 1317 Shaka, 641 Shalmaneser III (King), 832 shamanism, 740 "Shame of the Cities," 816 Shanghai, 217, 218, 221, 1264, 1294 Shanghai Automotive Industry Corporation, 103 Shantung region, 294 Shapley, Harlow, 274 Sharpe, Dallas Lore, 887 Shasta Bioregion, 145 Shaw, Bernard, 1276 Shaw, Gaylord, 818
Sheeler, Charles, 755 sheep, 336, 1109-1110,1231. See also wool cricket fields and, 1156 grazing, 662 in New Zealand^ 896-897 ranching and, 1033-1034 in South Africa, 1141 Shelford, Victor, 127, 543, 880 Shelley, Percy Bysshe, 1275 shelterbelts, 1067,1077 Shen Zhou, 758 Shenandoah National Park, 1336 Shennong (Emperor), 821 Shennong bencaojing (Shennong's Classic of Medical Material), 821 Shepard, Alan, 1147 Shepard, Paul, 1333 Shephard, M., 227 Sherboro people, 20 Sherman, D.M., 595-596 Sherman, Mary Belle King, 1341-1342 Sherpas, 864 Sherratt, Andrew, 75 Shetland Island, 1229 Shillinger, Frants Frantsovich, 747, 1076 Shinto Buddhism and, 1110-1113 history/origins of, 1111 and Japan's imperium, 1111-1112 myths, 1111-1112 shrines, 1082, 1111-1114 shipbuilding, 832, 1285 ships container, 961 forests and, 1284-1285, 1287 nuclear powered, 940 sailing, 958 steamer/tanker, 958, 960-961, 966 weeds on, 1318 wood for, 791-792, 1037 zebra mussel on, 1355 Shiva, Vandana, 1334 Shizhen, Li, 821 Shomrei Adamah organization, 734 Shona, 215 shopping malls, housing developments and, 1160-1161 Shoumatoff, A., 829 shrimp, 1114, 1116 trawling, sea turtles and, 1107, 1115 wetlands and, 1320, 1323 shrubs, 1351 Shugendo (mountain asceticism), 1112-1113 SIAs. See social-impact assessments Siberian megafauna, 1074 Sicilian Campaign, 1285 Siddhartha Gautama, 173-174 Siderius nuncius (Galileo), 1145
Sierra Business Council, 1118 Sierra Club, 283, 1116-1117, 1249, 1341 on ecoregions, 147 founding of, 866 Muir and, 1116, 1118 on nuclear war, 944 roles of, 926,1035 use of photography, 886 Sierra Club Bulletin, 171 1415
Index Sierra Club v. Morton, 341 Sierra Madre mountains, 834 Sierra Nevada Mountains, 907, 1117-1118, 1328-1329 Sierra-Leone, 9, 20 Silent Spring (Carson), 199, 267, 545, 818, 903, 943,1259 silicon, 1123 crystals and photovoltaics, 1138-1140 Silk Roads, 76, 1119 silk, silkworm and, 138, 1118-1120 Silko, Leslie Marmon, 888 Sill, Melanie, 819-820 Silla kingdom (Korea), 740 siltation as problem, 1056 rivers/reservoirs and, 1305, 1352 in salmon spawning beds, 1091, 1092 Silva, a Discourse of Forest Trees and the Propagation of Timber in His Majesty's Dominions (Evelyn), 1037,1105
Silva, Marina, 1072-1073 silver, 1120-1121 silviculture, 1037,1038 Sima Qian, 76, 764 Simonian, L., 835 Simpson, Thatcher, and Bartlett law firm, 874 Sinclair, John, 96 Sinclair, Upton, 814 Sindhu River. See Indus River Singapore, 77, 80-81,1294, 1296 waste practices in, 1294, 1296 Singapore Botanical Gardens, 556 Singer, Peter, 53,1276 sinks for biogeochemical cycles and soil, 1130 Carson and Humboldt, 918 for wastes, 1054, 1124, 1294, 1305,1311 Sino-Japanese War of 1894, 741 Sirikwa people, 15 Siva, 641 The Sixth Grandfather (Black Elk), 153
skeps, 645 ski resorts, 1059 skiing, 1154, 1155,1156-1157 Skinner, B.F., 1269 Sky Static: the Space Debris Crisis (Milne), 1147-1148
Skykomish tribe, 924 slag, 1123 slaughterhouses, 316 Slave Coast, 21 slavery, 12,193, 278 slaves, 523,1351 African, 1233, 1351 Native American, 924 in Niger delta, 899 Sahara and, 1085, 1087 for sugar production, 1169-1171 The Slave Ship (Turner), 761 Slavs, 519 sleeping sickness, 282 Sloan, John, 755 Slobodkin, S., 545 Slovakia, 284, 653, 940, 1121-1122 Slovenia, 284, 653, 940 Small Is Beautiful (Schumacher), 1101 smallpox, 314, 317, 319, 925, 1278 smelters, 1123-1124, 1132 pollution by, 784, 794 1416
Smibert, John, 754 SMIC Report, 296 Smith, Adam, 255, 561-562,1037 Smith, Erwin, 328 Smith, G., 103 Smith, M.C., 595-596 Smith, Robert Angus, 1-2, 43 Smith, S., 545 Smithsonian Institute, 645,1067 Smithsonian Museum, 311 smog, 784, 964 in cities, 38-41 in London, 39-40, 41, 42 in Los Angeles, 38, 969-970 in Mexico City, 837 photochemical, 38-40 smoke, 782 as by-product of smelting, 1123-1124 Smoky Hill River, 1238 smut, 323-324 snail(s) darter, 768, 1124-1125 Great African (Achatina), 953 schistosomiasis-carrying, 1058, 1304 Snake River, 283, 919 snakes, 953, 1043-1045 snow, 1313 Snow, John, 780,1302 Snow V. Parsons, 779
Snowy Mountains Authority, 91 Snyder, Gary, 890,1335 So Human an Animal (Dubos) Social change in Tikopia (Firth), 1313
social movement, 1275-1276 social research, 1047-1048 social-impact assessments (SIAs), 1047-1048 socialism, communism and, 1125-1129 Socialist Unity Party (Communist Party), 585 Society for Conservation Biology, 130-131 Society for Sustainable Living, 280 Society for the Preservation of Nature in Israel, 734 Society of American Taxidermists, 645 Society of Environmental Journalists, 815, 819-820 socio-ecological metabolism, 1128 Socio-Ecological Union, 1078 sociological theory, 1127 sodic soils, 1088-1089 soil classification/taxonomies, 1131 "dead storage" and, 902 definitions/formation, 1130-1131 degredation, 1132 depletion, 1277 floods' impact on, 1302 fungi, 1058, 1132 hydromorphic, 898 moisture, 301-302 in Netherlands, 891-892 role of, 1130 salinization, 1088-1091, 1300 science, branches of, 1129 water in, 1299 Soil Association, 1137-1138 Soil Conservation Act (1964), 1141 soil erosion in Ancient Japan, 730
Index in Cotton Belt, 523, 1252 in Egypt, 1090 human impact on, 1130, 1133-1135 in South Africa, 1141 in Southern Cone, 1143 from sugar production, 1171 wars' impact on, 1286 soil fertility, 1128, 1132, 1133-1134 Steiner on, 1164 sweet potato's effect on, 1174 solar energy, 611, 620, 1138-1140 solid wastes collection/disposal of, 1295-1297 recycling/recovery of, 1297-1298 Solnit, Rebecca, 890 Solomon Islands, 954-955, 1313 Solomon River, 1238 Solomon, Susan, 973 Solvay process, for salt, 1095 Somali, 182, 343 Something New under the Sun (McNeill), 882-883
sonar, 532 Song period, 757, 758 songbird, 1299 Songhai, 20-21, 137 Soninke people, 21 Sonora Desert, 835, 1254 Sonoran Desert Bioregion, 145 sorghum, 7, 9 Soule, J.D., 34 Soule, Michael, 128-129 Sources of Chinese Tradition, 225
South Africa, 18-19, 295, 1140-1142 South African Defense Force, 143 South African Truth and Reconciliation Commission, 142-143 South America, 968, 1283 forests of, 550 maize in, 335 ranching in, 1034 root crops in, 1069-1070 salinization in, 1089 von Humboldt in, 1281 water pollution in, 1310 yams and, 1351 South Carolina, 1250, 1315 South Chad Irrigation Project (SCIP), 748-749 South China Sea, 957, 958 South Dakota, 1237 South Island, New Zealand, 951 South Korea, 1353 nuclear power in, 940 republic, 739-741 tourism in, 1352 Yellow Sea and, 1352-1353 South Pacific, 1313,1319 South Sea. See Pacific Ocean South Star Diamond, 311 South Vietnam, 22 Southern Common Market (SCM), 1054, 1142-1143 Southern Cone, 1142-1144 Southern Hemisphere, 959 Southern Ocean, 229 Southern Sea. See Antarctic Ocean Soviet Union. See also Russia Aral Sea and, 61-63
biological/toxic weapons of, 142 fishing and, 532 Great Break in, 1162 nuclear power and, 941, 943-945, 1289 nuclear power of, 817,1289 projects in, 1075, 1079 Russia and, 1074-1080 salmon in, 1092 socialism/communism and policy in, 1126-1129 space exploration by, 1146-1147 wars and, 1289 water pollution and, 1309 soybeans, 289, 1144-1145 Sozialdemokratische Partei Duetschlands (Social Democratic Party), 585 space exploration, 1145-1149 spacecraft, 1146-1148 Spain, 245, 660, 827 Bolivia and, 157 dams in, 281 forests in, 1110 forests of, 550 Law of the Indies, 1262 Mexico and, 836 Portugal and, 1149-1153 rabbits in, 1031 Romanticism in, 1061 U.S. Southwest and, 1254-1255 waste practices in, 1296 water management in, 1150-1152 wind energy in, 1338 Spanish conquest of California, 910 of Southwest, 933, 936 of Venezuela, 1278-1279 Spanish-American War (1898), 804 Sparhawk, W.N., 556 sparrow, house, 649 Sparta, 1285 species exotic, 503-505 humans as, 721 Jainism and living, 721 native, 745-746, 751 Rancholabrean, 908-909 threatened, 768, 937 speciesism, 53,1356 Spencer, Herbert, 1319 Spencer, Walter Baldwin, 94 Speth, Gus, 875 spinning jenny, 1110 Spinoza, Baruch, 54, 1153-1154 spiritual power, American Indians and, 1040, 1042 spodosols, 1131 sports, 1154-1157. See also specific sports
sports stadiums, 1155,1157 sports utility vehicles (SUV), 104 sportsman industry, 871-872 sprawl, 928, 1157-1162 springs, 1055 Spruce, Richard, 1283 squamates, 1044 Sri Lanka, 295, 554, 645 Sri-Wijaya kingdom, 78 SS. See Schutzstaffel St. Anthony's Fire, 601 1417
Index St. Francis Dam, 540 St. Francis in Ecstasy (Bellini), 760 St. Francis of Assisi, 1084, 1329-1330 St. John's Guild, 565 St. Lawrence River, 610-611, 1313 St. Lawrence Seaway, 66, 610 St. Lawrence-Great Lakes, 184 St. Louis Committee for Nuclear Information, 942 St. Louis, Missouri, 782 St. Nicholas (magazine), 112, 198 Stael, Madame de, 1061 Stalin, John, 70 Stalin, Joseph, 1162-1163 on socialism/communism, 1126 Soviet Union policies under, 1077-1078 on Volga River, 1162, 1280 Stalker (Tarkovsky), 1082, 1084 Stanchinskii, Vladimir Vladmirovich, 1076 Standard Oil, 562 Standardized Precipitation Index, 346 Stanford University, 633 Stanley, W.M., 328 Star Trek (TV program), 1145 starling, 649 State Committee for the Protection of the Envirorunent, 1079 State Natural Heritage Programs, 884 steamers. See ships Stebbing, 297 steel manufacturing, 782, 1077 mining, 1241-1242 uses of, 704-705 Stefansson, Vilhjalmur, 229 Steffens, Lincoln, 816 The Stefansson-Anderson Arctic Expedition of the American Museum: Preliminary Ethnological Report (Stefansson), 229 Stegner, Wallace, 888 Steinbeck, John Steiner, Rudolf, 1163-1165,1271 Stellar's sea cow, 959 Stellingen, Germany, 1357 Stemler, A., 334 steppes, 1074, 1076 Stewart, J. H., 48 Stockholm Conference on Acidification, 3 Stockholm Conference on the Human Environment (1972), 587 Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants, 775-777 Stolarski, Richard, 972 Stone Age, 644, 656, 658 Stone, Livingston, 1093 Stoneman, Frank B., 340 stones, precious, 166 Storer, Frank, 1053 storms dust, 931 ice, 1312-1313,1315 Stowe, Catherine Harriet Beecher, 1275 Stowe, Harriet Beecher, 1275 Strabo, 293, 824 Straits of Torres Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty (START I), 944 1418
Strategy for Coca and Opium Poppy Elimination (SCOPE), 350 streams, 1055,1307 Stress, Diet and Your Heart (Omish), 1276 strip corridors, 132 strontium 90, 43-44 The Structure and Distribution of Goral Reefs (Darwin), 286 structural adjustment programs (SAPs), 749, 842 Studebaker, Clement, 101 Studies in Words (Lewis), 878 sturgeon, 1165-1166 Atlantic, 1165 Baikal, 746 Caspian Starred, 1077 Sturt, Charles, 868 Stuwitz, Peter, 609 subdivision, handbill for, 1159 submarines, 787 nuclear, 940, 944, 1077 suburbanization, 1166-1168 sprawl and, 1158-1160 transportation and, 1158, 1160-1161, 1166-1167, 1176 succession, of plants and ecosystems, 1168-1169 Sudan, 15, 21, 299-300 sudestada (meteorological phenomenon), 1054 sugar, 194. See also beets, sugar cane, 193,1251,1287 plantations, 162, 166, 952-953,1169-1170 sugarcane and, 1169-1171 Sulawesi, 79 Sulawesi Moist Forests, 78 Suleimenov, Olzhas, 70 sulfur dioxide, 784, 1123 Sumatra, 77-78, 555 Sumerian "Farmer's Almanac," 831 Sumerians, 965, 1300, 1345 Sumerians of Mesopotamia, 1300, 1345 salinization's effect on, 1133 summer camps, 1171-1174 Sungari River, 221 Sunrise in Yan'an (Qian), 759 Superfund Act. See U.S. Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation and Liability Act Superfund Authorization and Recovery Act (SARA), 775 Superior Syncline, 1239 Surface Water Supply Index, 346 surveying, 806 control/methods, 807-808 reference systems and, 807 technology's effects on, 807-808 Susquehanna River, 1244 sustainability communists on, 1128-1129 of soil, 1133 of urban plans, 1167 Sustainable Cities Program (SCP), 1161 Sutherland, P., 543 Sutter, James, 598 SUV. See sports utility vehicles Sverdlovsk anthrax outbreak, 142 Swahili, 16 swamps, 1104, 1320-1323 swarming, 644 Swaziland, 18 Sweden, 559, 973, 1097-1098, 1297 geography of, 115
Index hydro projects in, 1305 nuclear power in, 940 Right Livelihood Award, 654 Swedish Environmental Protection Agency, 2 Swift, Ernest, 871 swimming, 1155-1156 Switzerland, 284, 973, 1175-1177 nuclear power in, 940 weather events in, 1313 Sydney Green Bans movement, 96
Tassinari, G., 518 Taurus Mountains, 281, 830 Taxpayers for Common Sense, 66 Taylor, Charles, 1333 Taylor Grazing Act (1934), 267,1033,1066 TCDD. See tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin TCI. See Temperature Condition Index tea domestication of, 1186-1187 gardens, 764
Sylvicultura Oeconomica (Von Carlowitz), 1037
Teaching a Stone to Talk (Dillard), 889
Syr-Dar'ya River, 61, 71, 74-76, 1095 irrigation's affect on, 1095 Syria, 840-843 Syrian Desert, 1284 Systema Naturae (Linnaeaus), 791 Szechenyi, Count Istvan, 285, 654 Szilard, Leo, 938
Teal, J., 543 Techa River, 812-813,1077 technology in Africa, 8 deforestation and agricultural, 615, 1190-1191 early people, fire, and 1188-1190 energy, 1191-1192 environment and, 1193 extinction and, 1190 gathering/hunting and, 659-661 genetic modification (GM), 327, 329 GMOs, 578, 619 history of, 1187-1188 Industrial Revolution and, 1191-1192 London and, 1192-1193 medieval, 1329 twentieth-century urbanization and, 1266-1268 Ted Turner Better World Society Prize, 829 TEDs. See Turtle excluder devices Tejada-Flores, Rick, 209 Telles, Ray, 209 Tellico Dam, 1124-1125 Temperature Condition Index (TCI), 346
Taconic Range, 1244 Taft, William Howard, 266, 866 Tahiti, 319, 951 exploitation of, 952, 954 trade with, 952 taiga, 549 climate/geography of, 1179 fauna/flora, 1180 human influences on, 1180 soils, 1179-1180 Taihu Lake, 221 tailings, 1123, 1181-1182 Taino, 192,195 Taitao Peninsula, 550 Taiwan Air Pollution Control Act (1975), 42 Tajikistan, 62, 69-73 Takacs, David, 125 Taklimakan Desert, 305,1119 Tal, Alon, 734 Talbot, F. C, 925 Talbot, William Henry Fox, 885 Taliban, 63 Taliev, Valerii Ivanovich, 1076 Talmud, 733, 1292 Tanaka Shozo, 1182-1183 Tang dynasty, 134-135, 138, 740, 757, 765 Tangshan earthquake, 223 Tan'gun, 739 Tansley, Arthur George, 880 Tanzania, 5, 14-15, 16 Taoism, 53 ecology and, 1184 history of, 1183-1184 Laozi and, 764-765 Shinto and, 1111-1112 tapeworms, 948 Tarbell, Ida, 816 Targioru-Tozzetti, Giovanni, 325 Tarkovsky, Andrey, 1082,1084 taro, 1051, 1068, 1185 tarpan (wild horse), 1074 Tasmania exploitation of, 951 Hydroelectric Commission, 91 Wilderness Society, 91 Tasmanian Wilderness Society, 96 TassiU, 337
Ten Key Values ofthe Green Party, 613, 614
10-80 Consultants, 23 Tenner, Edward, 1314 Tennessee, 1250 Tennessee Citizens for Wilderness Planning, 1342 Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA), 24, 1249,1253 as New Deal agency, 1066 snail darter and, 1124-1125 Tenniel, John, 330 tennis, 1154 Tennyson, Alfred, 877 Tenochtitlan, 314-315, 835 . Teotihuacan, 753 The Terminology and Practice of Somali Weather Lore, Astronomy, and Astrology (Galaal), 343
Temate, 1283 terracing in Africa, 1198 in Andes, 1197 in East Asia/Oceania, 1197 in Europe/Mediterranean, 1198 field ridging and, 1196 fvmctions/types of, 1194-1196 in Himalayas, 639 in Mesopotamia, 1196-1197 in Middle East, 1197-1198 in Rome, 1133 in Spain, 1149 studies, 1194 in U.S., 1198-1199 in Venezuela, 1278 terrestrial magnetism, theory of, 1281 1419
Index Tertiary period, 548, 746 Teton Dam, 540 tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD), 312 tetrahydracannibinol (THC), 523 "tetrapods" (erosion-prevention devices), 1114 Teva (Earth) Learning Center, 734
Texas, 1250,1313 crops, 523 oil and, 963 shrimp in, 1115 Texas Panhandle, 352 textiles, 1233 Textor, Robert B., 318 Thailand, 77, 82, 318, 335 drugs and, 348-349 fishing and, 533 rice in, 1051 shrinip in, 1115 sugar in, 1171 Thames River, 294,1302 contamination of, 1305-1306.|. pollution of, 1302,1305,1306; THC. See tetrahydracannibinol,/ Theml (film), 943 Theophrastus, 293, 323,1199-1200, 1274,1316 theosophy, 1163 therapeutic pedagogy, 1163 thermal pollution, of rivers, 1057 thermodynamic physics, 880 Third International, 1126 Third Reich, 584-585 "Third Way," 111 Third World, 535, 948,1236, 1334 This Incomparable hand: A Book of American Nature Writing
(Lyon), 889 Thomas, David, 299 Thompson, Edward, 944 Thomson, G.T., 1319 Thomson, Meldrim, 232 Thoreau, Henry David, 55-56, 816, 1269, 1321, 1333 biography of, 1200-1202 influence of, 128, 623 on nature, 881-882 thoughts of, 877, 1061,1243, 1335 as writer, 768, 887, 888 Threads (film), 944 Three Gorges Dam, 282-283, 1058 Three Mile Island (TMI) nuclear power plant, 819, 939, 944 Tianjin (China), 217,1310 Tibet, 738 Tibetan Plateau, 352 Ticho, Anna, 734 ticks, cattle (Boophilus microplus), 953, 1288-1289 tides, 1315 Tierpark Zoo, 1357 Tierra del Euego, 548 Tiete River, 1054 tigers conservation of, 1203 evolution/history of, 1202-1203 extinction of, 1203 Tigris River, 281, 1089,1284 Tigris-Euphrates River, 1055, 1056 Tijuca Eorest, 1037 Tikopia, Solomon Islands, 1313 Tilapia, 1204 1420
Tillet, Mathieu, 324 Timaeus (Plato), 878 timber, 348 conservation in U.S. South, 1251-1252 construction, 296 harvests, 1285-1289 in Japan, 727 naval, 169 from Northwest Coast, 925-926 regulations, 1260 in Southern Cone, 1143 in U.S. Northeast, 1246 in U.S. Southwest, 1257 uses, 296 for wars, 1284-1287, 1288 Time (magazine), 1312-1313 Times Beach, Missouri, 775 Times-Picayune, 819
Timur (Tamerlane), 70 tin, 1232 Tisza River, 284-285, 653-655, 1302-1303 Titian, 760 Tivoli gardens, 753 Tiwanakus, 156 TMI. See Three Mile Island (TMI) nuclear power plant TNC. See The Nature Conservancy tobacco, 1204,1251-1252 in American South, 1205 cancer and, 1206 history of, 1205 Togean-Banggai Corridor, 78-79 Togo, 20, 1351 Tokyo landscape architects in, 754 waste management in, 1294,1297 water in, 1306 Tolba, Mostafa, 973 ToUund Man (bog-preserved corpse), 1316 Tombouctou (Timbukti), 307 Tommy-Anne and the Three Hearts (Wright), 1348 To-morrow: A Peaceful Path to Real Reform (Howard), 621
Tonga Islands, 954-955 Tongariro National Park, 897 Tooele Ordinance Depot, 920 Torah, 733-735 Torgersen, Haakon, 1 tornadoes, 1312, 1314 Toronto Group, 973 tort law, 1303 tortoises, 656 tourism, 1206, 1258 antecedents to, 1207 Claude glass and, 1063 forms of, 1208 in France, 559 growth of, 1207-1208 impacts of, 1054, 1208-1211 mountains and, 864 pollution from, 1151 in Rocky Mountains, 1059 in Switzerland during Industrial Revolution, 1175 Town and Country Planning Act, 621 Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA), 775 toxic waste dumps, 1117 toxic waste law, 774-778 toxicity, 635, 1212-1213
Index
Toyota, 105 Traces on the Rhodian Shore (Glacken), 878, 880-881 Tractatus Theologico-Politicus (Spinoza), 1153-1154 tradables, 564 trade, free, 561 environment and, 564-565 new debate over, 562 politics of, 563-564 rise of, 562 traders, 12 "The Tragedy of the Commons," 633, 772-773, 799 capitalism and, 1217 metaphor critiques of, 1216-1217 Trail Smelter conflict, 43 Train, Russell, 279 Trans-Alaska Pipeline, 1218 Transcendentalism Romanticism and, 768, 1060-1064 sacred places and, 1081 transgenes, 577 transhumance, 1033, 1141 translocation, of soil, 1130 transport systems land, 1220-1222 motor vehicles as, 1222-1224 water's role as, 1219-1220 transportation. See also mass transit oceans, seas and, 957-960 suburbanization and, 1158, 1160-1161, 1166-1167, 1176 water and, 1301 Trans-Siberian railroad, 1075 Transverse Ranges, 907 Traveling amid Mountains and Gorges (Fan), 757 Travels into North America (Kalm), 914 Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, 1255-1257 Treaty of Trianon, 654 Treaty of Versailles, 560 Treaty of Waitangi, 895-897 trees. See also redwoods; shelterbelts logging of, 1118 monoculture of, 1038-1039 on Northwest Coast, 922-923 ring research, 936 Trefethen, Florence Lillian, 340 trekking, 1141 Trenton, New Jersey, 1243 Trevithick, Richard, 99 Trinidad, 191, 196, 963, 968 Tripolye culture, 648 Trittin, Jlirgen, 586 Troll, Carl, 863 trophic dynamics, 1076 Tropical Forests of the Caribbean (Gill), 556
trout, 750,1092 Troy, 1292 Truckee River, 918 Truk. See Chuuk Truman, Harry, 961 Trust for Public Lands, 875 Tryon, Thomas, 1274 TSCA. See Toxic Substances Control Act Tsiolkovsky, Konstantin E., 1145 tsunamis, 1314, 1315 "TTAPS Report," 944 tuataras, 1043-1044 tuberculosis, 314, 317, 319, 726, 948
tubers. See crops Tucker, Compton }., 300 Tugwell, Rexford, 623 Tukulor people, 21 Tulare Lake, 911 Tulasne, C, 324 Tulasne, E.L.R., 324 Tull, Jethro, 324 Tuman River, 739, 742 tundra, 1224 climate/geography of, 1225 fauna/flora in, 1226 human influences on, 1226 soils, 1225 Tungwa Hsiang, 537 Tunisia, 550, 840-843 turbines, 1303-1304,1338 Turco, Richard, 944 turf grass, 1167 turf science, 1154 Turkana Lake, 900 Turkestan, 648 Turkey, 348, 521, 840 dams in, 283 forests of, 551 Golden Horn, 826 silk in, 1119 smelting in Anatolia region of, 1123 turkeys, 1331-1332 Turkic peoples, 746 Turkmenistan, 61-62, 69-73 TumbuU, Colin M., 644 Turner, J. M. W., 761, 1062 Turner, N., 101 Turner, V^illiam, 1318 turtle, arrau river, 968 Turtle excluder devices (TEDs), 1107-1108,1115 hirtles, 1043-1045, 1311 Tutira (Guthrie-Smith), 895-896 TVA. See Tennessee Valley Authority Twain, Mark, 855 Twin Oaks, 1271 Tyler v. Wilkinson, 779 typhoid, 338, 781 water and, 1306-1307 as water-related disease, 1302,1306,1308, 1311 typhoons, 1315 typhus, 317, 319 Tzinzerling, 62 U Thant, 38 Udall, Stewart L., 733 Udall V. Federal Power Commission, 341 UFW. See United Farm Workers Uganda, 14-15 Ukraine, 284, 648, 940, 1227-1228 Ukrainian Ecological Association (Green Light), 1227 Ukrainian Green Party, 1227 uUucu, 1068 Ultisols, 1131 Um Hoffnug kampfen [Fighting for Hope] (Kelly), 738 U.N. Centre for Human Settlements (Habitat), 1161 Balkans Task Force (BTF), 114-115 U.N. Committee of Development Planning, 160 U.N. Conference of the Human Environment, 2, 130, 1237 U.N. Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED), 564. See also Earth Summits 1421
Index U.N. Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) (Continued)
Agenda 21, 865 U.N. Conference on the Law of the Seas (1982), 84 U.N. Conference on Water and the Environment, 257 U.N. Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), 787-788 U.N. Convention to Combat Desertification, 1132 U.N. Co-operative Program for Monitoring and Evaluation of the Long-Range Transmission of Air Pollutants in Europe (EMEP), 637, 970-971 U.N. Development Programme (UNDP), 974 U.N. Economic Commission for Europe (UN-ECE), 290 Convention on the Long-Range Transport for Air Pollution, 970 U.N. Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), 654, 1236-1237 Convention for the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage Sites, 130 on Danube River, 285 on Dofiana, 1152 on Lake Baikal, 748 Man and Biosphere Program, 130 Nubian Salvage Scheme and, 902 U.N. Enviroriment Network, 1237 U.N. Environmental Programme (UNEP), 1310, 1348 challenges of, 1236-1237 Coordinating Committee on the Ozone Layer (1976), 973-974 on desertification, 297-300 establishment of, 1235-1237 on ozone, 858 reports by, 1143 on toxic waste, 777 on water pollution, 1310 U.N. Fish Stocks Agreement, 788 U.N. Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO), 533-535, 1236 claims, 865 disputes of, 805 Forestry Division, 1290 on rice, 1051 on shrimp, 1115 on soil, 1131 on toxic waste, 774 U.N. Global 500 Environmental Prize, 829 U.N. International Conference on the Law of the Sea, 961 U.N. International Drug Control Programme, 350 U.N. "International Year of Mountains, 2000" (IYM), 863, 865-866 U.N. Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), 2, 1310 U.N. Security Council, 1237 U.N. See United Nations U.N. Special Commission (UNSCdM), 142 U.N. Stockholm Conference on the Environment, 865 UNCED. See U.N. Conference on Environment and Development UNCLOS. See United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea Under the Sea-Wind (Carson), 198
UNDP. See U.N. Development Programme (UNDP) UN-ECE. See U.N. Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE) unemployment, 1263 UNEP. See U.N. Environmental Programme 1422
UNESCO. See U.N. Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization ungulates, 656 Union Carbide Corporation, 124-125, 625, 774 Union Carbide India, Ltd. (UCIL), 41, 124-125 Union of Concerned Scientists, 104, 1036, 1277 United Arab Emirates (UAE), 840-844,1294 United Farm Workers (UFW), 209-210 United Fruit, 25, 207 United Kingdom, 1228 church innovation in, 1231-1232 envirorunent of, 1232-1233 farming/tundra in, 1230-1231 improvement goals of, 1232 industrialization in, 1232-1233 land in, 1232 National Parks Act of 1949, 1233 NGOs in, 904-905 organic farming in, 1137 population of, 1232-1233 raw materials of, 1229 religions of, 721 salmon in, 1092 Town and Country Planning Act of 1947, 1233 U.N. and, 1236 wind energy in, 1338-1339 United Nations (U.N.), 1290 Agenda 21, 1132 declarations of, 1315 decolonization and, 954 Earth Summit, 905 on extreme weather, 1315 Forestry Division of the Food and Agricultural Organization under, 1290 founding of, 1236 international meetings of, 297 on NGOs, 905 on nuclear weapons, 944 Sustainable Cities Program (SCP), 1161 on toxic waste, 776 United Provinces, 1264 United States (U.S.) Agent Orange use by, 22-23,153, 289-290,1289 agribusiness in, 24, 25 agriculture in, 25-26, 295 animal diseases in, 316 animal rights in, 53 armies of, 1360 biological conservation law in, 766, 768-770 biological/toxic weapons of, 142-143 bison in, 151-152 canals in, 1301 conservation movement in, 1248-1249 corn/maize in, 603 dams in, 281, 284 desertification in, 300 droughts in, 344-345 envirorunental history of, 1247-1248 environmentalism/wildemess preservation in, 1248-1249 extreme weather in, 1312-1315 fertilizers in, 521, 522 floods in, 538-541 food allergies in, 580 forests, 548-551, 555, 1103 golf in, 1156
Index
heartland, 1237-1238 hydroelectricity in, 1304 industrialization/urbanism in, 1311 Mexico and, 802 military, 1289 on multi-use corridors, 132 natural gas in, 872-873 nuclear power and, 817, 938-940, 944 nuclear testing by, 941-945,1289 oil and, 963-964 ozone and, 970-971, 974 Pacific Islands and, 952 plant diseases in, 323, 354 religions of, 721 resource conservation in, 1290 resource exploitation in, 1248 rivers, 1134-1135,1303 root crops in, 1071 salinization in, 1088, 1090 sea laws/powers and, 961 sea turtles in, 1107 shrimp in, 1115 silver in, 1121 soil in, 1131-1132, 1134-1135 soybeans in, 1144 space exploration by, 1146-1148 sugar in, 1171 terracing in, 1198-1199 territorial acquisitions of, 804 toxic waste law in, 775-776 transportation in, 1300 turkeys in, 1331-1332 U.N. and,1236-1237 urbanization in, 1265 Utopian experiments in, 1270-1271 wars' impact on, 1287, 1289-1290 waste management in, 1293-1298 water pollution in, 1305-1311 water/air pollution law in, 778-784 weather events in, 1312-1314 western expansion of, 802 wetlands, 1321-1323 wind energy in, 1337-1339 women, 1341-1342 wood in, 1344 WW II and, 1289 zoos in, 1356-1357 United States (U.S.), Midwest, 344. See also Great Lakes; Great Plains early envirorunental history of, 1238-1239 European exploration/settlement of, 1240 fur trading in, 1240-1241 mining in, 1241-1242 Mount Builders of, 1240 Old Copper culture of, 1239-1240 population booms in, 1241 states, 1237-1238 United States (U.S.), Northeast altered environment of, 1244-1245 cities/regions, 1242-1244 pollution in, 1246-1247 regions, 1242 United States (U.S.), South, 523 agriculture/economics/environment of, 1251-1252 Civil War, 1253 geography, 1250-1251
industrialization/urbanization in, 1253-1254 timber conservation in, 1251-1252 United States (U.S.), Southwest, 1256 American habitation of, 1255-1257 dams and, 1257-1258 Mexican/Spanish habitation of, 1255 Native American habitation of, 1254-1255 population in, 1258 United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) Rodale Institute's work with, 1060 soil and, 1067,1131 United States Radium Corporation, 817 United States v. Bishop Processing Co., 784
University of Arizona Laboratory of Tree Ring Research, 936 University of California at Santa Barbara, 633 University of Chicago, 309, 633, 938 University of Lund, 300 University of Michigan, 632 University of Nebraska-Lincoln, 345 University of New Guinea, 977 Unsafe At Any Speed (Nader), 269
Unwin, Raymond, 621 Upanishads Upper Orinoco-Casiquare Biosphere Reserve, 969 Upper Skagit tribe, 924 Ural Mountains, 68, 548 Urartu, 831 urbanheat island, 1267-1268 urbanism as cause of pollution, 778 soil degredation by, 1132-1135 water poUuhon and, 1305, 1311 urbanization cities and, 1262-1264, 1265 classical patterns and, 1264 human diseases and, 317 industrialization and, 1264-1265 nineteenth century, 1265-1266 origins of, 1262-1264 twentieth century, 1266-1268 in U.S. South, 1253-1254 water pollution and, 1305, 1311 Uruguay, 1142-1143 Uruguay River, 1054, 1143 U.S. See United States U.S. Agency for International Development, 244, 618 U.S. Air Quality Act (1967), 732 U.S. American Antiquities Act, 266 U.S. Army Air Corps, 1288-1289 bombing by, 920, 941, 1288, 1289 U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, 538,1323 permits from, 783 projects by, 1066 U.S. Atomic Energy Commission (AEC), 938, 939, 941-942 U.S. Bureau of Biological Survey, 1259, 1322 U.S. Bureau of Fisheries, 198, 1259 U.S. Bureau of Land Management, 1033-1034 U.S. Bureau of Mines, 2 U.S. Bureau of Reclamation, 540,1257 projects of, 871-872,1066 U.S. Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife. See U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service U.S. Centers for Disease Control, 316 U.S. Civil War, 1037, 1287 U.S. Clean Air Act 1423
Index U.S (Continued)
on automobile emissions, 784 DRDC's role in, 874-875 Nixon's role in, 903-904 U.S. Clean Air Act (1963), 970, 974 U.S. Clean Air Act (1970), 42 U.S. Clean Air Act (1977), 858 U.S. Clean Air Act Amendments (1990), 3, 42-43 U.S. Clean Water Act of 1972, 874, 1302, 1309, 1323 establishment of, 784 roles of, 769, 770, 1309 U.S. Commission of Fish and Fisheries. See U.S. Bureau of Fisheries U.S. Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation and Liability Act, 818 U.S. Congress, 818,1307-1309 on national parks, 768-769, 1116-1117 on pollution, 775, 783-784 U.S. Conservation Corps Act of June 1937, 231 U.S. Council on Environmental Quality (CEQ), 278-279 U.S. Declaration of Independence, 731 U.S. Department of Agriculture, 579,1259 on droughts, 345-346 Forestry Division, 1260 U.S. Department of Energy, 1140 U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 68 U.S. Department of Interior, 151,1259 U.S. Department of Labor, 632 Bulletins, 633 U.S. Department of the Interior as Department of Conservation, 1067 National Park Service in, 870,1036 U.S. Endangered Species Act, 434-435 CITIES and, 436-437 habitat protection and, 436-437 policies of, 438-439 sea turtles under, 1106-1107 U.S. Endangered Species Act of 1967, 732 U.S. Endangered Species Act (ESA) of 1973, 732, 818,1259, 1303 biodiversity and, 130 biological conservation law regarding, 768-770 under Nixon, 903-904 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency on air pollution, 970, 972, 974 CWA and, 769 on plants, 579 waste management and, 1294-1297 water standards of, 1309 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), 466 authority of, 469 Clean Air Act under, 784 current issues of, 469-470 history of, 467 under Nixon, 903-904 programs/structure and, 467-468 on radioactive pollutants, 1117 under Reagan, 1073 regulations for developers, 1160 under Ruckelshaus, 1073 on toxic waste law, 775 on waste management, 1294-1295,1296,1297 U.S. Federal Aid in Fish and Wildlife Restoration Act (1937), 1332 U.S. Federal Land Ordinance (1785), 731 U.S. Federal Land Policy and Management Act, 1339 1424
U.S. Federal Water Pollution Control Act Amendments (1972), 1309 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS), 180, 1258-1259,1321 U.S. Flood Control Act (1936), 541 U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA), 578-579 U.S. Forest Management Act (1897), 1249 U.S. Forest Service, 810-811, 1253,1328, 1339 creation of, 265, 1067, 1103 environmentalism/multiple use and, 1261 as landowner, 60 philosophy/purpose of, 1260 planning regulations for, 770 ranching and, 1033-1034 regulation problems of, 1260-1261 U.S. General Accounting Office (GAO), 104-105, 1323 U.S. General Land Revision Act, 1260 U.S. General Survey Act of 1824, 65 U.S. Geological survey, 636, 885-886 U.S. Homestead Act of 1862, 263 U.S. Magazine & Democratic Review, 802
U.S. Marijuana Tax Act (1937), 523 U.S. Multiple Use Act, 1260 U.S. National Acid Precipitation Assessment Program (NAPAP), 3 U.S. National Conference of Catholic Bishops, 202 U.S. National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA), 278 U.S. National Forest Service, 526 U.S. National Museum, 645 U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), 346 U.S. National Park Service, 341, 1336, 1342 U.S. National Reclamation Act, 265 U.S. National Research Council, 125 U.S. National Transportation Board, 104 U.S. National Weather Service, 541 U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Cominission, 232 U.S. Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA), 68 U.S. Office of Economic Ornithology and Mammalogy. See U.S. Bureau of Biological Survey U.S. Office of Technology Assessment, 1330 U.S. Oil Pollution Control Act, 1308 U.S. Peace Corps, 798 U.S. Postal Service, 1249 U.S. Public Health Service (PHS), 783,1307 U.S. Public Trust Doctrine, 1303 U.S. Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (1976), 818, 1296 U.S. River and Harbors Act U.S. Safe Drinking Water Act (1974), 1309 U.S. Soil Conservation Service (SCS), 352, 1135 U.S. Solid Waste Disposal Act of 1965,1295 U.S. Supreme Court, 782, 784, 1124, 1260 U.S. Swamp Land Acts, 1321 U.S. Transfer Act (1905), 1260 U.S. Unemployment Relief Act of March 1933, 230-231 U.S. Veterans Administration (VA), 23 U.S. Water Pollution Control Act, 1309 U.S. Water Quality Act (1967), 732 U.S. Wild and Scenic Rivers Act of 1968,1303 U.S. Wilderness Act (1964), 732, 1336,1339 USAID (US Agency for International Development), 259 Usambara Mountains, 4 USDA. See United States Department of Agriculture Use Book, 1260
Index USSR Academy of Sciences, 746, 747 Utah, 1254, 1257 Utah Lake, 536 Ute people, 1059 utilitarian theory, 1275, 1276 Utopia (More), 1269 Utopian socialists, 1125-1126 utopianism dreaming and, 1268-1269 environmental consequences of, 1271 extremes' history of, 1270-1271 revolution and, 1269-1270 Uttar Pradesh Foresh Department, 572 Uyuni salt flats, 156 Uzbekistan, 61-62, 69-73, 350, 967 V-2 rocket, 1146 VA. See U.S. Veterans Administration "Vail Agenda," 871 Vaiont Dam, 540 Valders Advance, 1239 Valdez, 965 Valley of Mexico, 835 Valley of the Kings, 842 Van Gogh, Vincent, 762 Van Goyen, Jan, 761 Van Ruisdael, Jacob, 761 Vancouver Island, 922, 924-925 Varanasi, 174 Vardhamana, 721 Vargha, Janos, 654 Varnas, 641 Varro, 293 Vasarhelyi, Judit, 654 Vasarhelyi, Par, 654 Vaupes River, 1283 Vaux, Calvert, 753 VCI. See Vegetation Condition Index Veblen, Thorstein, 190 Vedas, 641 Vega, 623 veganism, 1273,1276 vegetarianism, 721, 1277 food reform movement and, 1275 religion and, 1273-1276 social movement for, 1275-1276 in U.S. and China, 1276 women/feminists and, 1275 Vegetation Condition Index (VCI), 346 veld (natural pastures), 1141 Velvet Revolution, 280 Venetian Republic, 1345 Venezuela, 196, 963, 966, 968,1278-1280 venison, 1330-1331 Venturi, Robert, 1160 Vermont, 1242 Vemardsky, Vladimir Ivanovich, 569, 1128 Verne, Jules, 1145 vertisols, 1132 Veterans Administration (VA), 1158 Victoria (Queen), 311 Victorian State Rivers and Water Supply Commission, 89 Vienna, 1293 Vienna Convention on Protection of the Ozone Layer, 858, 973-974 Vietnam, 22-23, 77, 1236
landmines in, 1289 recycling in, 1297 sweet potato in, 1174 Vietnam War, 733, 1289 chemical warfare during, 22-23, 289-290,1289 View on the Catskill, Early Autumn (Cole), 755 Vikings, 958 Vileisis, A., 1321 Village and Plantation Life in Northeastern Brazil (Hutchinson), 162 Virgil, 35, 293, 823, 1316 Virginia, 1242, 1250, 1336 crops, 1252 gulls in, 638 Natural Bridge of, 732 Vishnu, 641-642 vitamins, 945, 948-949 Vitruvius, 1303 VOCs. See volatile organic compounds Voices in the Wilderness: American Nature Writing and Environmental Politics (Payne), 888 volatile organic compounds (VOCs), 969-971 volcanism, 1117 volcanoes, 1314-1315 Volga River, 966, 1280-1281,1309,10551162 Volkswagen, 102,104 Voltaire, 55 Volvo, 970 von Bismarck, Otto, 562 Von Braun, Wemher, 1146 Von Carlowitz, Hans Carl, 1037 von Goethe, Johann Wolfgang, 574, 1062, 1318 Steiner and, 1163 von Humboldt, Alexander, 879, 968, 1281-1282 von Leibig, Justus, 1 von Linne (Linnaeus), Carl, 41, 323-324, 330 Vorontsov, Nikolai Nikolaevich, 1079 Voyage du Humboldt et Bonpland (von Humboldt), 1281 Voyages and Discoveries: The Principal Navigations, Voyages, Traffiques and Discoveries of the English Nation (Hakluyt), 1325-1326 Voznesenskii, A. V., 746 Wachau Valley, 284 Wagner, Richard, 1062 Walden (Thoreau), 887, 1201-1202,1269 Walden Two (Skinner), 1269, 1271 Waldorf schools, 1163-1164 Waldron, Jeremy, 771 "Waldsterben" (forest death, forest decline), 1176 Wales, 662, 1229, 1231 Walker Lake, 918 "Walking" (Thoreau), 1061 WaUace, Alfred Russel, 247, 286-287,1283-1284 on von Humboldt, 1281 Wallace, Kathleen, 889 Wallace Line, 1283 Waller, M., 1264 Wang Meng, 758 war(s), 343n. See also World War I; World War II ancient, 1284-1286 empires, modern era and, 1286-1287 of industrial era, 1287-1288 Napoleonic, 1287 resource conservation and, 1290 twentieth century and, 1236,1289-1290 1425
Index war(s) (Continued) vegetarianism and, 1275 War of 1812, 1241 War of the Pacific, 212 Warao tribe, 968 warfare, 1287 chemical, 1288-1289 gas, 631-632 weapons, 1289-1290 Warren, A., 298 Warren, Stephen, 570 wars, 1284-1291. See also specific wars environmental impact of refugees from floods and, 1286 of industrial era, 1287-1289 refugees from floods and, 1286 resource conservation and, 1290 Wasatch Mountains, 918, 919 Washington (state), 1288-1289,1357 dams/rivers in, 283 Indian tribes of, 1327 Washington, Booker T., 200 Washington (N.C.) Daily News, 819 Washington Post, 341, 815 waste(s) domestic/industrial, 635 fecal, 338 heavy metals in, 635-637 Mediterranean Basin, 824 nuclear, 249, 813 radioactive, 625 stream, 1294 waste management, 1291-1298 in cities, 1292-1296 collection practices in, 1295 disposal options in, 1295-1297 during industrial age, 1293-1294 Industrial Revolution and, 1292-1294 nuclear, 940, 943 private/public, 1294-1295 public V. private, 1294-1295 recycling/recovery in, 1297-1298 in Venezuela, 1279 worldwide, 1294 wastewater treatments in England, 1302 process of, 1299-1300 Watarase River, 1306 water, 1299-1303. See also aquifers; groundwater; irrigation ARD and, 854-855 ballast, 958-959 biological/physical context of, 1299-1300 chlorination of, 781, 1156,1307-1308, 1310-1311 cities and, 1301-1302, 1302 depletion, 1277 drinking, 1306-1308 for environment, 1302-1303 filtration, 1135,1307-1308, 1310, 1320 filtration/chlorination of, 1246,1307-1308, 1310,1320 floods and, 1301-1302 fresh, 957 gray, 754 human need for, 945 hydropower and, 1300-1301 irrigation and, 1300 legislation for, 1306-1309, 1311 as metaphor for dao of nature, 756-757 1426
oxygen in, 783, 893, 1057,1299, 1302, 1305, 1308, 1310 regulations, 1260 rights, 1303 salt, 957 in soil, 1130 solar energy for pumping, 1140 temperature and dams, 1091, 1301,1304 transportation and, 1301 treatment methods, 781 urban, 558 wheels, 1300, 1303 water energy, 1303-1305 hydroelectricity as, 1304-1305 Northeast, 1246-1247 wheels, turbines and, 1303-1304 water hyacinth, 749-750 water logging, of soil, 1132, 1133, 1135 water pollution, 1305-1312 from agricultural runoff, 1037, 1057, 1156, 1308-1309, 1311 common law, air and, 778-780 impacts of, 1302 from metals, 1057, 1302, 1308,1309, 1310 in Netherlands, 892-894 Water Pollution Control Act, 783, 904,1309 water purity tables and quality standards, 1053 zebra mussel's role in, 1355 water quality sanitation plants' affect on, 1057 water purity tables and, 1053 waterfowl, 1320, 1322 water-management regulations, 1302-1303 watershed management in Spain, 1152 Waterton Lakes National Park, 1059 waterways, 1302, 1306, 1308, 1311 Waterways Committee, 1341 waterwheels, 1300,1301-1304 Watkins, Carleton Eugene, 885-886 Watson, J. Madison, 328, 862 Watt, James, 99, 239, 279, 872,1339 Wau Ecology Institute, 977 Waugh, E.W., 599 Wayward Servants; The Two Worlds of the African P^m/es(Turnbull), 644 WCED. See World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED) WCU. See World Conservation Union (WCU) We (Zamyatin), 1269 The Wealth of Nations (Smith), 561 The Wealth of Nature (Worster), 876 weather extreme, 1312-1316 predictability of, 1299, 1314-1315 weathering, of soil, 1130, 1132 Weber, Adna, 1265-1266 Weber, Max, 190, 811 Weber River, 918 weeds agriculture and, 1316-1317, 1319 civilizations and, 1316-1317 conceptual transitions of, 1316 control of, 1319 definition of, 1316 Enlightment and, 1317-1318
Index medieval/early modem notions of, 1317 in New World, 1318,1321 nineteenth-/twentieth-century science and, 1318-1319 post-reformation of, 1317 Weeks Bill (1911), 1252-1253, 1260, 1341 Weinberg, B., 207 "Welcome Home," 147 Welliver, Neil, 756 Welsbach, Carl, 963 Weltfish, Gene, 856 Wen, D., 522 West Africa, 1351 West Bank, 840-843 West Bengal, 863 West, David, 1145 West German Green Party (die Grunen), 738 West Germany, 585-587 West Lyn River, 539 West Virginia, 125,1250 Western, David, 251 Western Egyptian Desert, 902 Western Front, 1285 wetlands, 66, 1299-1301,1320-1324 attitudes toward, 1321 clearing of, 1115 crisis, 1323 definition of, 1320 drainage of, 1175 drainage/development of, 1321-1322 ecosystems, 1300 flood-management through restoration of, 1302 of International Importance, 1303 irrigation's effect on riparian, 1300 laws for, 769-770 restoration, 753, 1302 role of, 1299-1300 shrimp in, 1115 Wetlands of International Importance, 1303 Weyerhaeuser, Frederick, 926 Whalen v. Union Bag and Paper Co., 779
whales, 1289 Cetacean, 1324 classifications of, 1324,1325-1326 conservation of, 1098, 1324-1327 hunting, 924 hunting of, 656 New England, 1245-1246 oil of, 951 as oil/meat source, 951, 959, 1324 pollution and, 1310-1311 toxins in, 1310 war's impact on, 1289 wheat, 28, 603, 931 HYV, 605 North American, 604 planting of, 604 YJhich? (magazine), 269 Whitbourne, Sir Richard, 608 White, Edward H., II, 1147 White, Gilbert F., 55, 541, 887-888, 1327-1328 White, John, 754 White, Laura Lyon, 1328-1329 White, Lovell, 1328-1329 White, Lynn, Jr., 293-294, 1329-1330 White Mountains, 59, 1244, 1328 White, Richard, 882
White Sea, 957 Whitlam, Gough, 92 Whitman, Christine Todd, 254, 815 whooping cough, 319 ]Nhy Things Bite Back: Technology and the Revenge of Unintended Consequences (Termer), 1314-1315
Whymper, Edward, 860 Wilberforce, Samuel, 287 Wilcove, D.S., 129 Wild and Scenic Rivers Act of 1968, 1303 Ylild Animals I Have Known (Seton), 1108
Wild Bird Conservation Act (1992), 288 Wild Lands Project, 1333 A Wilderness Bill of Rights (Douglas), 341
wilderness, 652 areas, 769 biodiversity conservation and, 1332-1333 bioregionalism/rehabitation of, 1333 criticism of, 1334 definition of, 1332 environmental history and, 1334-1335 ethical themes of, 1333 human condition and, 1333 preservation of, 1116-1117 restoration of, 1334 revisionism and, 1334 social critique of, 1333-1334 twenty-first century and, 1335 Wilderness (magazine), 1337 Wilderness Act of 1964, 790, 871 Wilderness Society, 1249, 1336-1337, 1342 dams and, 283 foimding of, 810 wildfires, 1312 "Wildlands and Human Needs," 252 wildlife conservation through law, 766 zoos and, 1356-1357 Wildlife ConservationSociety, 798 "Wildlife Management in National Parks," 871 wildlife protection, 1140-1141 wildlife refuges, 1067 Cape Meares National, 923, 923 Wildlife Trust, 798 Willard, Bettie, 1342 William III (King), 1263 Williams, M., 1247-1248 Williams, Raymond, 878-879, 880, 882 Williams, R. J., 545 Williams, Terry Tempest, 887, 887, 888 Willughby, Francis, 127 Wilmot, Samuel, 1093 Wilson Dam and Powerhouse, 66 Wilson, Edward O., 128-129, 131, 889, 1333-1334 on biophilia, 144-145 Wilson, Woodrow, 266, 1116 wind energy electricity and, 1338-1339 windmills as, 1337-1338 wind-blown loess, 1135 Windscale, Britain, 944 Windt, L.G., 325 wine, 337-338 Winogradsky, Sergei, 351 Wisconsin, 1237, 1300, 1304 Wisconsin Epoch, 1239 1427
Index Wisconsinan continental glaciahon, 913 The Wisdom of God Manifested in the Works of the Creation
(Ray), 879, 1105 Wise-Use Agenda, 1350 Wise-Use Movement contemporary, 1339-1340 controversy, 1340 strategies, 1340-1341 witchcraft, 1042 WMO. See World Metereological Office Wolof people, 21 wolves, 331 messenger of Shinto, 1113-1114 reintroduction of, 871,1059 Woman on the Edge of Time (Piercy), 1269
Woman's Laboratory at MIT, 1053 women in Asia/Pacific, 1295 conservation and, 1341-1342 in developing countries, 1342 V. men and property, 771, 772 against nuclear weapons, 944 vegetarianism and, 1275 Women's Education Association, 1053 Women's National Rivers and Harbors Congress, 1328 Women's National Science Club, 112 wood before civilization, 1343 importance of, 1344 language and, 1345-1346 uses of, 1343-1344 wars and, 1284-1287 Wood Buffalo National Park, 152 Wood, Grant, 756 Wood, S. K., 327 Wood, W. R., 1238 Woodcraft League, 1109, 1172 Woodland cultural period, 916, 917 woodlands, 1149-1150 woodpecker, ivory-billed, 717-718 woods, 555 Woods Hole Marine Biological Laboratory, 198 Woods Interurban hybrid, 105 wool, 1034, 1109-1110 Woolf, Virginia, 1328 Wordsworth, William, 734, 1233,1328 on Romanticism, 1062-1064 on sacred places, 1082, 1084 The Wordsworth Circle (McKusick), 1064
Workman, Fanny Bullock, 860 The Work of the Gods in Tikopia, 29
World Bank, 62, 954, 1346-1347 measures, 798 on Narmada Dam Project, 869-870 NGOs on, 905 on resettlement, 1048 SAPs of, 749 on shrimp aquaculture, 1115 World Commission on Dams, 870 World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED), 767,1263 World Conservation Union (WCU), 129 World Health Organization, 1236, 1310 on air pollution, 42 on nitrogen dioxide, 1152 on water pollution, 1310 1428
World League for the Protection of Life, 519-520 World Metereological Office (WMO), 570 World of Audubon, 86
World Plan of Action, 858 World Summit on Sustainable Development, 850 World Trade Center (New York), 613 World Trade Organization (WTO), 564,1115 World War I (WW I), 1287 conservation after, 1290 impacts of, 1288, 1290, 1308 water pollution and, 1308 wheat after, 931 World War II (WW II), 523, 1357, 1360-1361 American mountain troop training during, 1116 artists after, 756 communism after, 1127, 1129 impacts of, 1288-1290, 1308 national parks during, 870 nuclear power during, 937-938 ocean law since, 787 rocket technology during, 1146 soil erosion after, 1133 sprawl/suburbanization after, 911-912, 1158,1167 timber harvests during, 926, 1288-1289 water pollution and, 1308,1310 wetlands after, 1321 wildlife conservation after, 1290 World Wide Fund for Nature. See World Wildlife Fund World Wildlife Fund (WWF), 566 history of, 1347-1348 Madagascar and, 798 on POPS, 777 on shrimp aquaculture, 1115 Spanish groups associated with, 1151 in USSR, 1078 Women and Conservation Initiative, 1342 World Zoo Organization, 1357 "The World after Nuclear War" (conference), 944 The World Conservation Strategy (1980), 1348
worms, 338. See also schistosomes (parasitic worms) blackfly, 154 in river basins, 1058 Worster, Donald, 56, 282, 816-817, 1064-1065 on nature, 876, 879, 880 Worthy, T. H., 857 W.R. Grace Company, 26 The Wrath of Grapes, 210
Wright, James Osborne, 1348 Wright, Judith, 96 Wright, Mabel Osgood, 1342, 1348-1349 Wright, Pat, 798 Wright, W. Aldiss, 575 WTO. See World Trade Organization Wu Chen, 758 Wu school, 758 Wuthering Heights (Bronte), 1233 WW I. See World War I WW 11. See World War II WWF. See World Wildlife Fund Wyoming, 353 Xenophon, 824 xerophytes (plants adapted to little water), 909 Xia Gui, 757 Xinjiang region, 305 Xiongnu people, 76
Index Yacireta Dam, 1054, 1143 yaks, 352, 1033 Yale Law School, 874-875 Yamamoto Yukitaka, 1114 Yampa River, 283 yams, 15, 1068-1071, 1351-1352 as Discoreaceae family, 1351 festivals, 1351 medicinal uses of, 1351 names for, 1351 Yangtze (Chang) River, 28, 208-209, 218,1055,1058,1286, 1352 basin, 219 dam disaster at, 282 floods, 537-538 pollution of, 1310 sturgeon in, 1165 war's impact on, 1286 Yellow Sea and, 1352 Yangtze! Yangtze! (Qing), 283 Yanomamo tribe, 968 Yard, Robert Sterling, 870,1336 yautia, 1068 yeast, 337-338 Yedo, Japar\, 1262 Yellow River. See Huang (Yellow) River Yellow Sea, 1352-1353 area, 1352 fishing/marine life, 1352-1353 gas/oil reserves of, 1352 pollution of, 1352-1353 Yellowstone National Park, 250, 315, 870-871, 1059, 1342 bisons at, 152 creation of, 768 Roosevelt's, Theodore, role in, 1067 Sierra Club's involvement with, 1116 Yellowstone Vision for the Future, 1340-1341 Yeltsin, Boris, 142 Yemen, 242, 840-843, 1300 Yenisey River, 1055 Yi Dynasty, 260 Yi-Fu Tuan, 1154 Yin Xi, 765 yin/yang, 756 YMCA (Young Men's Christian Association), 1172-1173 Yorozo, 331 Yorubas, 1262 Yosemite National Park, 250, 660, 1284, 1341-1342 automobiles in, 871 bison at, 288 creation of, 768, 866 photos of, 885-886 Sierra Club's involvement with, 1116
Young, A.R.M., 169 Young, John, 1147 Y2Y (Yellowstone to Yukon) Re-Wilding Project, 1333 Yuan Dynasty, 650 Yuan period, 758, 759 Yucatan Peninsula, 524 Yucca Mountain Nuclear Waste Facility, 920, 940 Yugoslavia, 284, 653, 1236 civil war in, 285 conflicts/wars in, 114, 285 Zabaikal'skii National Park, 747 Zabelin, Sviatoslav, 1078 Zagros Mountains, 281, 595, 830 Zahniser, Howard, 171, 871 Zaire, 552 Zaire River. See Congo River Zambezi, 11 Zambezi River, 1055 Zambia, 9, 18, 134 Zamyatin, Yevgeny, 1269 Zapatista Army for National Liberation, 838 zapovedniki (nature reserves), 747,1074, 1076-1077 Zebra mussels, 1058, 1303, 1355-1356 zebras, 16 Zero-Level Emission Vehicle (ZLEV), 104 Zhang Daoling, 765 Zhe school, 758 Zhenzong (Emperor), 602 Zhitkov, Boris Mikhailovich, 1076 Zhuang Zhou, 1183 Zhuangzi, 765 Zhuk, S. la., 747 Zimbabwe, 9, 19, 169, 553, 1262. See also chimurenga Great, 18 Zimbabwean Institute of Religious Research and Ecological Conservation (ZIRRCON), 85, 214 zinc, 634, 636, 637 zinc mining, 1121, 1151 Zionists, 1172 ZIRRCON. See Zimbabwean Institute of Religious Research and Ecological Conservation Zon, Raphael, 556, 1247-1248 zoological gardens, 1356-1357 zoological parks, 1357 zooplankton, 746 zoos, 1356-1358 animals, 1356-1357 as conservation centers/parks, 1357 history of, 1356 new, 1357 Zulu, 18 Zwinger, Ann, 889, 890
1429