encyclopedia of
Careers
and
Vocational Guidance Fourteenth Edition Career Guidance and Career Fields
Encyclopedia of Careers and Vocational Guidance, Fourteenth Edition Copyright © 2008 by Infobase Publishing All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage or retrieval systems, without permission in writing from the publisher. For information contact Ferguson An imprint of Infobase Publishing 132 West 31st Street New York NY 10001 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Encyclopedia of careers and vocational guidance.—Fourteenth ed. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN-13: 978-1-4381-2982-2 (e-book) 1. Vocational guidance—Handbooks, manuals, etc. 2. Occupations—Handbooks, manuals, etc. [1. Vocational guidance—Encyclopedias. 2. Occupations—Encyclopedias.] I. J.G. Ferguson Publishing Company. HF5381.E52 2008 331.702—dc22 2006101604 Ferguson books are available at special discounts when purchased in bulk quantities for businesses, associations, institutions, or sales promotions. Please call our Special Sales Department in New York at (212) 967-8800 or (800) 322-8755. You can find Ferguson on the World Wide Web at http://www.fergpubco.com Text design by David Strelecky Cover design by Salvatore Luongo Printed in the United States of America VB MSRF 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 This book is printed on acid-free paper.
Editorial Staff Editorial Director Laurie Likoff Editor in Chief James Chambers Project Editor Sarah Fogarty Editorial Assistant Matthew Anderson Manuscript Editors Rayna Bailey Martin Fox Andy Morkes Proofreading and Indexing Tech Books
Contents Career Guidance, Career Fields, and Career Articles: A–Z ix
Acknowledgements
40
Job Fairs
xi
Introduction
41
Networking and References
43
Job Searching on the Web
45
Searching the Classified Advertisements
Career Guidance Preparing for Your Career 3
Choosing a Career
Applying for a Job
6
Starting a Career and Making Career Transitions
49
The Resume
53
Cover Letters
55
The Career Portfolio and Credentials
57
Interviewing
10
Assessment Tests
15
Soft Skills
18
Occupational Classification Systems
21
Information Interviewing
You’re Hired!
23
Training for Job Entry and Career Development
61
Salary/Wages
62
Fringe Benefits
32
The Future World of Work 63
Finding a Job
Personnel Management: Probation, Evaluation, Raises, Promotion, and Dismissal
37
Placement Offices
67
Employment Laws
39
On-Campus Recruiting
68
Your Rights as an Employee
v
vi
Contents
Career fields
185
Engineering
75
Accounting
190
Entrepreneurs
79
Advertising and Marketing
195
The Environment
84
Aerospace
203
Fashion
88
Agriculture
208
Film
92
Airlines
214
Fire Fighting
97
Alternative Health Care
218
Food Processing
102
Animal Care
223
Foreign Trade
105
Automotives
228
Government
111
Banking and Financial Services
233
Grocery Stores
118
Biology
236
Health Care
121
Book Publishing
243
Home Furnishings
124
Broadcasting
249
Hospitality
128
Business
255
Human Resources
133
Chemicals
260
Information Services
136
Computer Hardware
266
Insurance
139
Computers
270
Internet
145
Computer Software
276
Law
149
Construction
282
Letter and Package Delivery
152
Cosmetology
286
Literary Arts
155
Dance
289
Machining and Machinery
159
Defense
294
Manufacturing
163
Dental Care
296
Mathematics and Physics
167
Earth Sciences
299
Metals
170
Education
303
Military Services
175
Electronics
309
Mining
179
Energy
314
Museums and Cultural Centers
contents
319
Music
429
Sports
324
Music and Recording Industry
433
Stone, Concrete, Ceramics, and Glass
330
Newspapers and Magazines
438
Telecommunications
334
Nuclear Power
443
Television
337
Packaging
446
Textiles
341
Parks and Public Lands
450
Theater
343
Petroleum
456
Toys and Games
347
Pharmaceuticals
460
Transportation
351
Photography
460
Travel and Tourism
354
Plastics
465
Trucking
358
Printing
468
Visual Arts
363
Public Relations
472
Waste Management
368
Public Safety
479
Wood
373
Publishing
485
Appendix 1: Career Resources and Associations for Individuals with Disabilities
377
Pulp and Paper
382
Radio
490
385
Railroads
390
Real Estate
Career Articles: A–Z
394
Recreation
501
Accountants and Auditors
398
Religious Ministries
506
Acquisition Librarians
403
Restaurants and Food Services
509
408
Rubber
Active and Contemplative Religious Sisters and Brothers
411
Sales
514
Actors
415
Shipping
520
Actuaries
419
Social Sciences
524
Acupuncturists
422
Social Services
529
Adult and Vocational Education Teachers
425
Space Exploration
533
Adult Day Care Coordinators
Appendix 2: Internships, Apprenticeships, and Training Programs
vii
viii
Contents
537
Advanced Practice Nurses
645
Animal Trainers
540
Advertising Account Executives
650
Anthropologists
543
Advertising and Marketing Managers
654
Antiques and Art Dealers
546
Advertising Workers
658
Apparel Industry Workers
552
Aerobics Instructors and Fitness Trainers
663
Appliance Service Technicians
557
Aeronautical and Aerospace Technicians
667
Aquaculturists
562
Aerospace Engineers
672
Aquarists
567
Agribusiness Technicians
675
Arborists
570
Agricultural Consultants
677
Archaeologists
574
Agricultural Equipment Technicians
681
Architects
578
Agricultural Pilots
684
Archivists
582
Agricultural Scientists
689
Aromatherapists
587
Aircraft Mechanics
695
Art Directors
592
Airplane Dispatchers
701
Artist and Repertoire Workers
595
Airport Security Personnel
703
Artists
598
Airport Service Workers
711
Asbestos Abatement Technicians
603
Air Quality Engineers
714
Assessors and Appraisers
607
Air Traffic Controllers
719
Astronauts
613
Alcohol and Drug Abuse Counselors
725
Astronomers
617
Allergists/Immunologists
730
Astrophysicists
619
Ambassadors
733
Athletic Directors
623
Amusement Park Workers
736
Auctioneers
627
Anesthesiologists
740
Audio Recording Engineers
630
Animal Breeders and Technicians
745
Automatic Teller Machine Servicers
635
Animal Caretakers
748
Automobile Collision Repairers
641
Animal Handlers
753
Automobile Sales Workers
contents
758
Automobile Service Technicians
871
Book Editors
764
Automotive Industry Workers
875
Bookkeeping and Accounting Clerks
769
Aviation Safety Inspectors
879
Border Patrol Officers
774
Avionics Engineers and Technicians
883
Botanists
778
Ayurvedic Doctors and Practitioners
887
Bounty Hunters
782
Baggage Porters and Bellhops
891
Brewers
785
Bail Bondsmen
897
Bricklayers and Stonemasons
789
Bailiffs
902
Broadcast Engineers
793
Bakery Workers
907
Business Managers
797
Bank Examiners
911
Buyers
802
Barbers
915
Cable Television Technicians
806
Bartenders
920
Camera Operators
809
Bed and Breakfast Owners
923
Campaign Workers
814
Beekeepers
926
Canning and Preserving Industry Workers
820
Beverage Industry Workers
930
Cardiologists
823
Bicycle Mechanics
932
Cardiovascular Technologists
827
Billing Clerks
938
Career and Employment Counselors and Technicians
830
Bindery Workers
942
Carpenters
833
Biochemists
947
Cartographers
839
Biofeedback Therapists
950
Cartoonists and Animators
844
Biologists
953
Cashiers
850
Biomedical Engineers
956
Caterers
853
Biomedical Equipment Technicians
960
Cement Masons
858
Bodyguards
964
Ceramics Engineers
861
Boilermakers and Mechanics
969
Chemical Engineers
865
Book Conservators
974
Chemical Technicians
ix
Contents
977
Chemists
1078 Composers and Arrangers
981
Chief Information Officers
1084 Computer and Office Machine Service
985
Child Care Service Owners
990
Child Care Workers
993
Child Life Specialists
997
Children’s Librarians
1001 Chimney Sweeps 1005 Chiropractors 1010 Cinematographers and Directors of
Photography
1014 Circus Performers 1019 City Managers 1023 Civil Engineering Technicians 1026 Civil Engineers 1030 Cleaning Service Owners 1033 Clinical Nurse Specialists 1036 Clowns
Technicians
1087 Computer and Video Game Designers 1093 Computer Network Administrators 1099 Computer Programmers 1103 Computer Support Service Owners 1107 Computer Systems Programmer/Analysts 1112 Computer Trainers 1115 Computer-Aided Design Drafters and
Technicians
1120 Confectionery Industry Workers 1124 Congressional Aides 1129 Conservators and Conservation Technicians 1133 Construction Inspectors 1136 Construction Laborers 1139 Cooks and Chefs
1039 Coal Miners
1144 Copy Editors
1044 Collection Workers
1150 Copywriters
1047 College Administrators
1153 Coremakers
1051 College Professors
1155 Corporate Librarians
1056 Color Analysts and Image Consultants
1159 Corrections Officers
1059 Columnists
1164 Cosmetic Surgeons
1062 Comedians
1170 Cosmeticians
1066 Comic Book Writers
1175 Cosmetics Sales Representatives
1071 Commodities Brokers
1177 Cosmetologists
1076 Community Health Nurses
1183 Cost Estimators
contents
1187 Costume Designers
1293 Detectives
1191 Counter and Retail Clerks
1297 Diagnostic Medical Sonographers
1193 Court Reporters
1302 Dialysis Technicians
1199 Creative Arts Therapists
1307 Diesel Mechanics
1205 Credit Analysts
1312 Diet and Fitness Writers
1208 Crime Analysts
1316 Dietetic Technicians
1212 Critical Care Nurses
1321 Dietitians and Nutritionists
1215 Cruise Ship Workers
1326 Digital Agents
1219 Cryptographic Technicians
1330 Disc Jockeys
1222 Cultural Advisers
1334 Dispensing Opticians
1225 Customer Service Representatives
1336 Divers and Diving Technicians
1229 Customs Officials
1342 Drafters
1234 Cytotechnologists
1347 Drug Developers
1239 Dairy Products Manufacturing Workers
1350 Dry Cleaning and Laundry Workers
1243 Dancers and Choreographers
1353 Drywall Installers and Finishers
1248 Database Specialists
1356 Ear, Nose, and Throat Specialists
1254 Data Entry Clerks
1358 Ecologists
1257 Data Processing Technicians
1362 Economists
1262 Demographers
1365 Editorial and Research Assistants
1265 Dental Assistants
1369 Editors
1268 Dental Hygienists
1375 Education Directors and Museum Teachers
1272 Dental Laboratory Technicians
1381 Elder Law Attorneys
1277 Dentists
1386 Electrical and Electronics Engineers
1281 Deputy U.S. Marshals
1392 Electricians
1284 Dermatologists
1397 Electrologists
1289 Desktop Publishing Specialists
1401 Electroneurodiagnostic Technologists
xi
xii
Contents
1405 Electronics Engineering Technicians
1508 Farm Equipment Mechanics
1410 Electronics Service Technicians
1512 Farmers
1416 Electroplating Workers
1517 Fashion Coordinators
1419 Elementary School Teachers
1521 Fashion Designers
1424 Elevator Installers and Repairers
1525 Fashion Illustrators and Photographers
1428 Emergency Medical Technicians
1529 Fashion Models’ Agents
1432 Emergency Nurses
1533 Fashion Writers and Editors
1435 Employment Firm Workers
1536 Fast Food Workers
1438 Endocrinologists
1540 FBI Agents
1440 Endodontists
1545 Federal and State Officials
1443 Energy Conservation Technicians
1549 Fiber Optics Technicians
1448 Energy Transmission and Distribution
1552 Film and Television Directors
Workers 1557 Film and Television Editors
1452 Engineers 1562 Film and Television Extras 1453 English as a Second Language (ESL) Teachers 1564 Film and Television Producers 1458 Enologists 1570 Film and Video Librarians 1461 Environmental Engineers 1573 Financial Analysts 1465 Environmental Technicians 1579 Financial Institution Officers and Managers 1470 Epidemiologists 1584 Financial Institution Tellers, Clerks, and 1473 Ergonomists
1479 Ethnoscientists
1589 Financial Planners
1485 Event Planners
1593 Financial Services Brokers
1490 Executive Recruiters
1596 Firefighters
1494 Exhibit Designers
1602 Fire Inspectors and Investigators
1497 Export-Import Specialists
1606 Fire Safety Technicians
1501 Family and Consumer Scientists
1613 Fish and Game Wardens
1504 Farm Crop Production Technicians
1616 Fishers
Related Workers
contents
1620 Fitness Directors
1732 General Practitioners
1623 Flight Attendants
1736 Genetic Counselors
1628 Flight Instructors
1740 Genetic Scientists
1634 Floor Covering Installers
1745 Geographers
1637 Florists
1748 Geographic Information Systems Specialists
1641 Fluid Power Technicians
1751 Geological Technicians
1645 Food Photographers
1754 Geologists
1648 Food Service Workers
1758 Geophysicists
1652 Food Technologists
1762 Geriatric Care Managers
1656 Food Writers and Editors
1768 Geriatric Nurses
1661 Foreign Correspondents
1772 Geriatric Psychiatrists
1665 Foreign Service Officers
1778 Geriatric Social Workers
1670 Forensic Accountants and Auditors
1782 Geriatricians
1675 Forensic Experts
1787 Glass Manufacturing Workers
1680 Foresters
1791 Glaziers
1685 Forestry Technicians
1795 Grain Merchants
1692 Forge Shop Workers
1798 Grant Coordinators and Writers
1695 Franchise Owners
1802 Graphic Designers
1699 Fund-Raisers
1807 Graphics Programmers
1703 Funeral Home Workers
1811 Greeting Card Designers and Writers
1707 Furniture Designers
1816 Grief
1712 Furniture Manufacturing Workers
1819 Ground Services Workers
1717 Gaming Occupations
1822 Groundwater Professionals
1723 Gastroenterologists
1826 Guidance Counselors
1724 Genealogists
1830 Gunsmiths
1729 General Maintenance Mechanics
1834 Hardware Engineers
Therapists
xiii
xiv
Contents
1837 Hazardous Waste Management Specialists
1945 Human Services Workers
1842 Hazardous Waste Management Technicians
1949 Hypnotherapists
1847 Health Advocates
1954 Illustrators
1850 Health and Regulatory Inspectors
1958 Inbound Tour Guides
1856 Health Care Managers
1961 Indexers
1860 Health Club Owners and Managers
1962 Industrial Chemicals Workers
1863 Heat Treaters
1967 Industrial Designers
1866 Heating and Cooling Technicians
1971 Industrial Engineering Technicians
1872 Help Desk Representatives
1975 Industrial Engineers
1878 Hematologists
1979 Industrial Machinery Mechanics
1880 Herbalists
1982 Industrial Radiographers
1886 Histologic Technicians
1986 Industrial Safety and Health Technicians
1889 Historians
1990 Industrial Traffic Managers
1892 HIV/AIDS Counselors and Case Managers
1993 Information Brokers
1897 Holistic Physicians
1997 Instrumentation Technicians
1900 Home Health Care Aides
2001 Insurance Claims Representatives
1904 Home Health Care and Hospice Nurses
2005 Insurance Policy Processing Workers
1907 Homeopaths
2008 Insurance Underwriters
1914 Horticultural Technicians
2011 Intellectual Property Lawyers
1917 Horticultural Therapists
2016 Intelligence Officers
1921 Hospice Workers
2020 Interior Designers and Decorators
1923 Hotel and Motel Managers
2026 Internet Consultants
1928 Hotel Concierges
2031 Internet Developers
1931 Hotel Desk Clerks
2033 Internet Executives
1935 Hotel Executive Housekeepers
2038 Internet Quality Assurance Specialists
1938 Household Movers
2042 Internet Security Specialists
1941 Household Workers
2047 Internet Store Managers and Entrepreneurs
contents
2051 Internet Transaction Specialists
2157 Library Media Specialists
2055 Interpreters
2162 Library Technicians
2063 Janitors and Cleaners
2167 Licensed Practical Nurses
2065 Jewelers and Jewelry Repairers
2169 Life Insurance Agents and Brokers
2070 Job and Die Setters
2175 Lifeguards and Swimming Instructors
2073 Jockeys
2178 Lighting Technicians
2077 Journalism Teachers
2181 Line Installers and Cable Splicers
2084 Kinesiologists
2186 Linguists
2088 Labor Union Business Agents
2190 Literary Agents
2092 Laboratory Testing Technicians
2192 Loan Officers and Counselors
2095 Land Acquisition Professionals
2195 Lobbyists
2098 Land Trust or Preserve Managers
2199 Locksmiths
2104 Landscape Architects
2204 Locomotive Engineers
2107 Landscapers and Grounds Managers
2207 Logging Industry Workers
2111 Laser Technicians
2212 Magazine Editors
2115 Lathers 2118 Lawyers and Judges 2124 Layout Workers 2127 Leather Tanning and Finishing Workers 2129 Legal Nurse Consultants
2215 Magicians 2219 Mail Carriers 2224 Makeup Artists 2229 Management Analysts and Consultants 2233 Manufacturing Supervisors 2235 Marble Setters, Tile Setters, and Terrazzo
2132 Legal Secretaries
2136 Lexicographers
2239 Marine Biologists
2138 Librarians
2244 Marine Services Technicians
2145 Library and Information Science Instructors
2248 Marketing Research Analysts
2149 Library Assistants
2253 Massage Therapists
2153 Library Directors
2258 Mathematicians
Workers
xv
xvi
Contents
2261 Mathematics Teachers
2370 Millwrights
2266 Meatcutters and Meat Packers
2373 Mining Engineers
2272 Mechanical Engineering Technicians
2377 Models
2276 Mechanical Engineers
2383 Molders
2280 Media Planners and Buyers
2387 Mortuary Cosmetologists
2285 Media Relations Specialists
2392 Motivational Speakers
2288 Medical Assistants
2395 Multimedia Artists and Animators
2292 Medical Billing Service Owners
2401 Multimedia Sound Workers
2295 Medical Ethicists
2407 Museum Attendants
2300 Medical Illustrators and Photographers
2410 Museum Directors and Curators
2304 Medical Laboratory Technicians
2416 Museum Technicians
2308 Medical Librarians
2419 Music Agents and Scouts
2312 Medical Record Technicians
2422 Music Conductors and Directors
2317 Medical Secretaries
2428 Music Journalists
2319 Medical Technologists
2431 Music Librarians
2323 Medical Transcriptionists
2436 Music Producers
2328 Merchandise Displayers
2441 Music Teachers
2331 Merchant Mariners
2447 Music Therapists
2336 Metallurgical Engineers
2450 Music Venue Owners and Managers
2341 Metallurgical Technicians
2454 Music Video Directors and Producers
2345 Meteorologists
2459 Music Video Editors
2349 Meter Readers, Utilities
2463 Musical Instrument Repairers and Tuners
2352 Microbiologists
2469 Musicians
2356 Microelectronics Technicians
2476 Myotherapists
2360 Military Pilots
2480 Nail Technicians
2365 Military Workers
2485 Nannies
contents
2490 National Park Service Employees
2594 Oncological Nurses
2495 Naturalists
2598 Oncologists
2501 Naturopaths
2601 Online Journalists
2506 Neonatal Nurses
2605 Online Producers
2509 Neurologists
2609 Operating Engineers
2512 News Anchors
2612 Ophthalmic Laboratory Technicians
2516 Newspaper Editors
2616 Ophthalmologists
2520 Nonprofit Social Service Directors
2619 Optical Engineers
2525 Nuclear Engineers
2623 Optics Technicians
2529 Nuclear Medicine Technologists
2627 Optometrists
2532 Nuclear Reactor Operators and Technicians
2630 Oriental Medicine Practitioners
2537 Numerical Control Tool Programmers
2637 Orientation and Mobility Specialists
2540 Nurse Anesthetists
2641 Orthodontists
2543 Nurse Assistants
2646 Orthotic and Prosthetic Technicians
2546 Nurse Managers
2651 Orthotists and Prosthetists
2549 Nurse-Midwives
2654 Osteopaths
2555 Nurse Practitioners
2659 Packaging Engineers
2558 Nursing Home Administrators
2664 Packaging Machinery Technicians
2563 Nurse Instructors
2668 Painters and Paperhangers
2567 Obstetricians/Gynecologists
2672 Paleontologists
2570 Occupational Health Nurses
2676 Paper Processing Workers
2573 Occupational Safety and Health Workers
2681 Paralegals
2579 Occupational Therapists
2685 Park Rangers
2583 Occupational Therapy Assistants and Aides
2689 Parole Officers
2586 Oceanographers
2692 Pathologists
2591 Office Administrators
2695 Pediatricians
xvii
xviii
Contents
2698 Pedorthists
2800 Physician Assistants
2702 Perfusionists
2803 Physicians
2705 Periodontists
2809 Physicists
2708 Personal Chefs
2813 Pilots
2712 Personal Shoppers
2818 Plasterers
2715 Personal Trainers
2821 Plastics Engineers and Technicians
2719 Personnel and Labor Relations Specialists
2827 Plastics Products Manufacturing Workers
2725 Pest Control Workers
2831 Plumbers and Pipefitters
2728 Pet Shop Workers
2834 Podiatrists
2732 Pet Sitters
2837 Police Officers
2736 Petroleum Engineers
2842 Political Columnists and Writers
2741 Petroleum Technicians
2847 Political Reporters
2746 Pharmaceutical Industry Workers
2852 Political Scientists
2750 Pharmacists
2856 Political Speechwriters
2755 Pharmacologists
2858 Polygraph Examiners
2760 Pharmacy Technicians
2862 Pop/Rock Musicians
2764 Phlebotomy Technicians
2867 Postal Clerks
2767 Photo Editors
2870 Power Plant Workers
2769 Photographers
2874 Precision Machinists
2773 Photographic Equipment Technicians
2878 Precision Metalworkers
2776 Photographic Laboratory Workers
2882 Prepress Workers
2779 Photography Instructors
2886 Preschool Teachers
2782 Photojournalists
2890 Press Secretaries and Political Consultants
2787 Physical Education Teachers
2894 Printing Press Operators and Assistants
2792 Physical Therapists
2899 Process Servers
2795 Physical Therapy Assistants
2903 Production Assistants
contents
2906 Professional Athletes—Individual Sports
3013 Receptionists
2911 Professional Athletes—Team Sports
3016 Recreation Workers
2916 Property and Casualty Insurance Agents
3019 Recreational Therapists
and Brokers
2921 Property and Real Estate Managers 2925 Protestant Ministers 2929 Psychiatric Nurses 2932 Psychiatric Technicians 2936 Psychiatrists 2940 Psychologists 2946 Public Opinion Researchers 2949 Public Relations Specialists 2953 Public Transportation Operators 2956 Purchasing Agents 2960 Quality Assurance Testers 2964 Quality Control Engineers and Technicians 2968 Rabbis 2971 Radiation Protection Technicians
3023 Recycling Coordinators 3028 Reflexologists 3032 Refuse Collectors 3036 Regional and Local Officials 3039 Registered Nurses 3045 Rehabilitation Counselors 3048 Renewable Energy Careers 3056 Reporters 3060 Reservation and Ticket Agents 3064 Resort Workers 3068 Respiratory Therapists and Technicians 3073 Restaurant and Food Service Managers 3076 Retail Business Owners 3079 Retail Managers
2976 Radio and Television Announcers
3082 Retail Sales Workers
2981 Radio and Television Program Directors
3086 Retirement Planners
2985 Radio Producers
3088 Risk Managers
2988 Radiologic Technologists
3091 Robotics Engineers and Technicians
2993 Railroad Conductors
3098 Roman Catholic Priests
2996 Range Managers
3101 Roofers
3000 Real Estate Agents and Brokers
3104 Roustabouts
3003 Real Estate Developers
3108 Rubber Goods Production Workers
3008 Real-Time Captioners
3112 Sales Representatives
xix
xx
Contents
3116 School Administrators 3121 School Nurses
3230 Special Procedures Technologists 3233 Speech-Language Pathologists and
Audiologists
3123 Science and Medical Writers 3237 Sporting Goods Production Workers 3127 Screenwriters 3132 Secondary School Teachers 3136 Secret Service Special Agents 3141 Secretaries 3145 Security Consultants and Guards 3151 Semiconductor Technicians 3154 Senior Care Pharmacists 3159 Sheet Metal Workers 3163 Sign Language and Oral Interpreters 3168 Signal Mechanics 3171 Silverware Artisans and Workers 3177 Singers 3183 Ski Resort Workers 3186 Social Workers
3241 Sports Agents 3244 Sports Broadcasters and Announcers 3249 Sports Equipment Managers 3251 Sports Executives 3253 Sports Facility Managers 3257 Sports Instructors and Coaches 3261 Sports Photographers 3263 Sports Physicians 3268 Sports Psychologists 3272 Sports Publicists 3275 Sports Scouts 3277 Sports Trainers 3281 Sportswriters 3285 Stadium Ushers and Vendors
3192 Sociologists
3287 Stage Production Workers
3195 Software Designers
3292 Stationary Engineers
3200 Software Engineers
3296 Statisticians
3204 Soil Conservationists and Technicians
3299 Steel Industry Workers
3209 Soil Scientists
3303 Stenographers
3212 Songwriters
3306 Stevedores
3217 Spa Attendants
3309 Stock Clerks
3222 Special Education Teachers
3312 Stunt Performers
3225 Special Effects Technicians
3316 Supermarket Workers
contents
3320 Surgeons
3417 Traffic Engineers
3323 Surgical Technologists
3420 Transplant Coordinators
3327 Surveying and Mapping Technicians
3423 Travel Agents
3332 Surveyors
3428 Truck Drivers
3335 Swimming Pool Servicers
3433 Typists and Word Processors
3339 Systems Setup Specialists
3436 Umpires and Referees
3343 Tailors and Dressmakers
3440 Urban and Regional Planners
3346 Talent Agents and Scouts
3444 Urologists
3351 Tax Preparers
3447 Veterinarians
3355 Taxi Drivers
3451 Veterinary Technicians
3357 Taxidermists 3360 Teacher Aides 3364 Technical Support Specialists 3369 Technical Writers and Editors 3375 Telemarketers 3379 Telephone and PBX Installers and
Repairers
3382 Telephone Operators 3386 Temporary Workers 3390 Textile Manufacturing Workers 3394 Tire Technicians 3397 Title Searchers and Examiners 3400 Tobacco Products Industry Workers 3403 Toll Collectors
3454 Video Game Art Directors 3458 Video Game Producers 3462 Video Game Testers 3466 Wastewater Treatment Plant Operators
and Technicians
3471 Watch and Clock Repairers 3474 Webmasters 3479 Wedding and Party Consultants 3483 Welders and Welding Technicians 3488 Wireless Service Technicians 3492 Wood Science and Technology Workers 3497 Writers 3502 Yoga and Pilates Instructors 3506 Zoo and Aquarium Curators and
3405 Tour Guides
Directors
3409 Toxicologists
3513 Zookeepers
3413 Toy Industry Workers
3518 Zoologists
xxi
Acknowledgments The editorial staff of Infobase Publishing/Ferguson Publishing would like to express its appreciation to all of the companies, associations, and organizations that responded to our inquiries for their assistance in providing statistics, data, and descriptions for their fields. We would also like to thank all of the individuals who shared their time, knowledge, and experiences regarding their careers. This help has been enormously valuable in the preparation of the Encyclopedia of Careers and Vocational Guidance.
ix
Introduction The Encyclopedia of Careers and Vocational Guidance (ECVG) has been in print for more than 30 years. The original goal of the first edition was “to bring together the greatest possible amount of accurate information about occupations.” The ECVG has upheld this goal throughout its many years in print. Now in five volumes with revised and expanded coverage that includes 38 new career articles, 120 new photographs, and thoroughly updated career information throughout, the 14th edition continues in this tradition.
The third subsection, “Applying for a Job,” covers resumes cover letters ■ career portfolios ■ interviewing ■ ■
The fourth subsection, “You’re Hired!,” covers salaries fringe benefits ■ personnel management (probation, evaluation, raises, promotions, and dismissal) ■ employment laws ■ your rights as an employee ■ ■
What Will I Find and Where Will I Find It? Volume 1 includes the “Career Guidance” and the “Career Fields” sections; two appendices, “Career Resources and Associations for Individuals with Disabilities” and “Internships, Apprenticeships, and Training Programs”; the DOT, GOE, NOC, and O*NET-SOC government classification indexes; and two indexes, the “Organization and Web site Index” and the “Job Title Index.”
As the “Career Guidance” section is meant only as a brief introduction to these topics, each chapter contains an annotated list of Web sites for the reader to further explore areas of interest.
Career Fields “Career Fields” provides overviews of 93 career fields. Each article has been thoroughly updated and revised with the latest information available. The first section of each article, “Background,” covers general information and historical background. The historical information enables the reader to understand how that industry or field has developed over time. Although historical notes on each job are included in the job descriptions throughout the ECVG, the career field histories paint a broader picture of development. Also included in the “Background” section are statistics on current employment, production, and a brief discussion on the current status of the industry or field. In order for readers to understand how a particular job or career fits into a field or industry, they should have some understanding of that industry or field. The next section, “Structure,” provides an overview of how that industry or field works. The section describes the industry or field from the beginning of the process through the
Career Guidance The purpose of the “Career Guidance” section is to provide a brief overview of all aspects of career guidance. The first subsection, “Preparing for Your Career,” covers choosing and starting a career making career transitions ■ assessment tests ■ soft skills ■ government classification systems ■ information interviewing ■ job training and education ■ the future world of work ■ ■
The second subsection, “Finding a Job,” covers school placement offices on-campus recruiting ■ job fairs, networking ■ job searching on the Web and in the classified ads ■ ■
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completion of the end product—be it an actual product or a service. As it describes the process, this section discusses specific careers and their role in the process. The next section, “Outlook,” assembles information from the Occupational Outlook Handbook, the Career Guide to Industries, statistics from various associations and agencies, and other evaluative data to provide the best estimate of future performance and success of the industry or field. Following the “Outlook” section is “For More Information,” a listing of organizations that can provide career information on training, education, internships, scholarships, and job placement. As mentioned above, a brief line or paragraph describes each source and the information that can be obtained by contacting it. All of the contact information in this section has been thoroughly revised and updated since the last edition. The final section of each “Career Field” article directs the reader to related articles in the ECVG.
Appendix Following the Career Fields section are two appendices. “Career Resources and Associations for Individuals with Disabilities” lists organizations and associations that assist in training and job placement for people with disabilities and other special groups. “Internships, Apprenticeships, and Training Programs” includes books and organizations on these topics, as well as national, regional, and state bureaus of apprenticeship and training and state apprenticeship councils. These appendices have been completely revised for the 13th edition of the ECVG.
DOT, GOE, NOC, and O*NET-SOC Indexes Following the appendices are four indexes based on commonly used government classification systems: the Dictionary of Occupational Titles (DOT, 4th edition), the Guide for Occupational Exploration (GOE), the National Occupational Classification System (NOC, 2001); Canada’s framework for the classification of occupations), and the Occupational Information Network (O*NET)-Standard Occupational Classification (SOC) Index. The DOT index lists careers by their three-digit DOT Occupational Group number. The first level of the index lists the one-digit DOT Occupational Categories. The second level of the index lists the two-digit DOT Occupational Divisions. The third level of the index lists the three-digit DOT Occupational Groups. The last level of the index lists the ECVG career articles and their corresponding page numbers. The GOE index lists careers by their six-digit GOE Subgroups. The first level of the index lists the two-digit
GOE Interest Areas. The second level of the index lists the four-digit GOE Work Groups. The third level of the index lists the six-digit GOE Subgroups. The last level of the index lists the ECVG career articles and their corresponding page numbers. The NOC index lists careers by their four-digit NOC Unit Groups. The first level of the index lists the two digit NOC Major Groups. The second level of the index lists the three-digit NOC Minor Groups. The third level of the index lists the four-digit NOC Unit Groups. The last level of the index lists the ECVG Career articles and their corresponding page numbers. The O*NET-SOC index uses an organizational system that is based on the most current version of the Standard Occupational Classification system (SOC). SOC sorts occupations by four levels: major group, minor group, broad occupation, and detailed occupation. Each occupation is assigned a unique 6-digit code. The first two digits represent one of 23 major groups; the third digit represents the minor group; the fourth and fifth indicate the broad occupation; and the sixth, the detailed occupation. Two additional digits are used when an occupation is divided into further subdivisions. The last level of the index lists the ECVG career articles and their corresponding page numbers. At the end of Volume 1 the “Organization and Web site Index” lists all of the organizations and Web sites listed in all four volumes. The “Job Title Index” lists all the major job titles discussed in all five volumes.
Career Articles This edition of the ECVG contains new coverage of 38 career articles for a total of 747 career articles. These articles are found in Volumes 2, 3, 4, and 5. The “Quick Facts” sidebar in each career article provides a brief summary of the career, including recommended school subjects, personal skills, work environment, minimum educational requirements, salary ranges, certification or licensing requirements, and employment outlook. This section also provides acronyms and identification numbers for the various government classification indexes (described in the previous section). The first section of each article, “Overview,” contains a full definition of the career and any alternate job titles that may be associated with the career. The “History” section describes the history of the particular career as it relates to the overall development of its industry or field. The next section, “The Job,” describes the primary and secondary duties of the career.
introduction
The “Requirements” section discusses high school and postsecondary education and training requirements, any certification or licensing necessary, and any other personal requirements for success in the career. “Exploring” offers suggestions on how to gain some experience in or knowledge of the particular career before making a firm educational and financial commitment. The focus is on what can be done while still in high school (or in the early years of college) to gain a better understanding of the career. The “Employers” section gives an overview of typical places of employment for the career. “Starting Out” discusses the best ways of landing that first job, be it through the college placement office, newspaper ads, or personal contact. “Advancement” describes what kind of career path to expect from the career and how to get there. The “Earnings” section lists salary ranges and describes the typical fringe benefits. The “Work Environment” section describes the typical surroundings and conditions of employment—whether indoors or outdoors, noisy or quiet, social or independent, and so on. Also discussed are typical hours worked, any seasonal fluctuations, and the stresses and strains of the career. The “Outlook” section summarizes the job in terms of the general economy and industry projections. For the most part, Outlook information is obtained from the U.S. Department of Labor and is supplemented by information taken from professional associations. Job growth terms follow those used in the Occupational Outlook Handbook: Growth described as “much faster than the average” means an increase of 27 percent or more. ■ Growth described as “faster than the average” means an increase of 18 to 26 percent. ■
Growth described as “about as fast as the average” means an increase of 9 to 17 percent. ■ Growth described as “little change or more slowly than the average” means an increase of 0 to 8 percent. ■ “Decline” means a decrease of any amount. ■
“For More Information” is the final section of each article and is a listing of organizations that can provide career information on training, education, internships, scholarships, and job placement. At the end of Volumes 2, 3, 4, and 5, the “Job Title Index” lists all the major job titles discussed in all five volumes. Some career articles are also marked with an icon denoting “Fastest Growing Careers” and “Most New Jobs.” These determinations have been made based on statistics from the U.S. Department of Labor and represent some of the most promising sectors of the job market through 2014. Throughout the career articles you will also find interviews with professionals in the field, sidebars containing facts about the career, profiles of pioneers in the field, and books and Web sites for further information. There are also more than 500 photos of careers and careers fields throughout the ECVG. As always, we have endeavored to make this career reference as complete as possible in its depth and breadth of coverage. We include general career guidance information in an effort to be a first-stop career source. Whether the reader is just beginning to explore career choices or deliberating over a career change, this book is intended as a stepping stone to the decisions the reader needs to make to accomplish those career goals. —The Editors
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Preparing for Your Career Whether you are just beginning your quest for a first career, or you are researching possibilities for a second or third career, this section provides you with a brief overview of ways to begin, questions to ask, and points to consider.
Choosing a Career
people enjoy greater opportunity of choice throughout their careers. Today’s technologically advanced society offers both more occupations and more flexible ways of doing work. People face career choices throughout their lives. These choices may involve decisions such as enrolling in educational programs, enlisting in the military, gaining paid employment, being a volunteer or intern, starting a business, and moving to accept a new job position. Of course, it is impossible to know what is going to happen throughout your life, so you may wonder how you can choose and plan your career. Career counselors suggest you can be personally empowered to guide your own career through vocational guidance. Career guidance promotes the process of career development by providing pertinent information and helping you build skills to manage a career. One of these skills is knowing the vocabulary of careers.
Many people think that choosing a career means choosing their employer or choosing what type of job they would like to do. But choosing a career means more than just getting and working at a job. Every person has a career whether or not he or she is ever involved in paid employment because career means path. The idea of career management is to choose and direct your own path in life, particularly the part of your life that has to do with work. Career guidance helps people manage their careers. In modern society, most people spend major parts of their lives working in some capacity. Throughout history, both philosophers and psychologists have noted that the ability to successfully integrate working into your life is an important aspect of fitting into society and maintaining mental health. Not only do you obtain economic benefits from working, you also meet psychological needs, such as developing a sense of competency and finding meaning in your life. The type of work you do often affects both the way you see yourself and the way others see you. When they first meet someone, Americans frequently ask, “What type of work do you do?” How you fit work into your life and what type of work you choose to do influences both your lifestyle and other important social roles in your life. In the past, most people did not exercise a great deal of choice when deciding what type of work to do. People frequently did the same type of work that their parents did, or chose their employment based on job openings geographically near their homes. In the past, people did not change jobs as frequently as they do today. In the early 20th century, for example, it was not uncommon to have the same job for one’s entire working life. Now
■ The Vocabulary of Careers Work: Putting forth effort to achieve benefits for yourself or others. Work involves the constructive and systematic pursuit of objectives. People in most modern societies differentiate between the activities of work and play, or leisure, although there are cases in which the distinction may not be clear; for example, professional athletes work in activities that most people engage in as play. Most experts agree that the concept of play or leisure suggests a greater freedom of choice regarding the outcome of the activity, whereas working implies that you are expected to produce some specific outcome or results. Work skills: The combination of knowledge and abilities, developed through education and experience, needed to perform well in a particular job.
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Employment: Being engaged in work activities. People who are employed by others to work are referred to as employees. Employment may either be compensated (as in receiving wages or a salary for doing a job) or uncompensated (as in volunteering to complete a specific set of duties). Position: The required duties and responsibilities in a specific work situation. Not every organization fills all of its positions. Typically, a single person fills each position, but positions may include only part of the duties of a single job or may encompass the duties of multiple jobs. Job: The basic skills required to fulfill the duties and responsibilities of similar positions across different work situations. The term job is used more generally than position; for example, a person who wants to work in a job will usually apply to many different employers who are seeking an employee for their specific positions. Traditionally in the labor market, one person has held a single job, but recently some employers offer job sharing, in which two or more employees have positions fulfilling the duties and responsibilities of a single job. Occupation: Group of jobs requiring similar skills to fulfill their duties and responsibilities. Occupations tend to be specific to the differing industries. For example, management jobs may require similar skills but, while there are similarities in the work of either a hotel manager or a hospital administrator, these occupations are found in different industries. Career: The integration of work in your life considered across your life span, and the influence that engaging in work exerts on all other aspects of your life: psychological, sociological, and economic. Each person’s career is specific and unique to that individual. Career development: The process of considering what you can and can’t control, as well as the parts of your own personal experience that relate to fitting work into your life. Career development includes (1) identifiable process stages, such as entry, progress, and disengagement; (2) psychological characteristics, such as professional identity, career maturity, and work values; and (3) skills, such as self-awareness, applying information, decision-making, and short- and longrange planning. Career development is the object of intervention for career counselors. Career management: Acceptance of responsibility for your own career by being aware of the choices you make and the activities you pursue to direct your personal career development. Career counseling: Collaborating with an expert in the area of career development to enhance your career.
Career counselors may be licensed by the states in which they practice. The National Career Development Association (http://www.ncda.org) provides guidelines to consumers and job-seekers looking for a career counselor. Career guidance: A systematic approach to career development; career guidance facilitates self-direction by providing information and fostering career-development skills.
■ Identifying Skills for Career Development There are many different theories in the field of career development. Current thinking in the field suggests that a variety of things influence individual careers; however, you can and should be responsible for your own career by practicing career management. Career management is the process of developing skills that you use throughout your life to direct your career development. The following list summarizes the skills that various theorists in the field believe are important to career management. Not all of these skills, or their components, will be important for all people.
Self-Awareness If you want to become a competent career manager, you must be aware of your various personal attributes. These attributes may change, becoming more or less prominent throughout your life. They include the following: Self-identity: Your view of yourself. For many people this is greatly influenced by their work. Values: The specific set of core values that influence the types of work you choose to do and if you will be satisfied in your work. Career-development theorists suggest that work situations provide arenas in which you enact their values. Working may often provide you a sense of meaning in your life. Interests: You will be better satisfied working in occupations that match your interests. Aptitudes and abilities: Your aptitude is the potential you have to learn any specific skill. Prior to being accepted into a training program, you may be asked to complete a test that measures aptitudes, such as the Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT) or the Armed Services Vocational Aptitude Battery (ASVAB). You will perform better and are more likely to be retained in jobs that appropriately match your abilities or the skills you possess.
Planning Ability The ability to plan is an important career-management skill. Planning skills include:
Identification of long-term goals: Since career development is a lifelong process, and since many career goals take years to achieve, it is important to identify long-term goals. Many career counselors advise their clients to devise one-, two-, five-, and 10-year careermanagement plans. These plans are typically reviewed and updated yearly. Identification of short-term goals: Career counselors frequently refer to the adage, “a journey of 1,000 miles begins with the first step.” You must be able to relate short-term goals to long-term goals and to carry them out. Decision-making: Many theorists see decision-making skills as crucial to career management. Decision-making skills include being able to: (1) identify your choices, (2) identify the likely outcomes of your choices, (3) consider the pros and cons of your choices and their outcomes, (4) identify alternative outcomes, and (5) choose the option that is not only doable but most likely to get you what you want. Flexibility/adaptability: Situations over which you have no control often arise and influence careers. You must have the skills to be able to modify your career plans to adapt to such situations. Resilience: The ability to apply career-development skills throughout your life to meet changing needs in your career development and to exert career management.
Personal Management Skills Personal management skills address those aspects of your life that affect, and are affected by, working. Personal management skills include the following: Lifestyle decisions: How and where you choose to live. Role integration: How you balance the demands of your various life roles—child, parent, spouse, citizen—with your role of worker. Work/leisure integration: How you choose to spend your time when you are not working and how these choices affect your work. Interpersonal skills: How you manage your interactions with other people. Job-keeping or job-survival skills: Your abilities to meet job requirements that do not require technical skills.
Personal Marketing Skills In today’s labor market, you may have to get many different jobs throughout your working life. The skills to find desirable jobs and be hired for them include: Identification of skills and strengths: The ability to point out and discuss, both on a resume and in an interview, your specific skills and experiences that will make you successful in the job you are applying for.
choosing a career
Finding job openings: The ability to identify vacant positions or to create a desired position. Using tools and methods of the job search: Getting a job is a task that requires the use of specific tools. The resume and the job interview are two examples of tools used in the job search. It is much harder to get a job when you are not skilled in using the tools required to get it. Personal marketing strategies: There are many ways to get jobs. To be a successful career manager, you need to know what strategies work best for you.
Knowing about the World of Work Career management requires you to be aware of labor markets and opportunities to improve your skills to become more marketable. Occupational awareness: In order to know what types of jobs are available, you must be aware of the occupational opportunities in the different industries of the economy. Career management requires that you be able to research various aspects of a job, including the nature of the work, the typical salary, advancement possibilities, the employment outlook, the skills required for entry and advancement, how to train for entry, and other pertinent information. Labor market trends: Career development often spans several decades. Skills in understanding and using labor market trends (for example, knowing which industries and careers are growing and which are in decline) can aid in career resilience. Training opportunities: You must be aware of the many different ways to obtain training and improve skills to become more marketable.
■ Conclusion You will develop and use the skills outlined in this chapter throughout your life. Typically, career-development counselors suggest that you approach career decisions by engaging in self-exploration, that is, using self-awareness skills, and by learning about the world of work. Planning ability and personal management skills are used to select occupations and jobs appropriate to your career goals and to determine how to get the training and experiences you need to enter these jobs. To get a job, you must use your personal marketing skills. To keep a job or to determine if another job will offer greater satisfaction, you use your personal management skills and planning ability. The idea of career resilience is improving these skills and using them as needed throughout your life to manage your own career development. While many skills are required for career management, many of the same skills are required for success in both
preparing for your career
formal and informal educational experiences, and many are transferable from other settings. These skills can be developed either on your own or with the help of a professional. References such as the ECVG provide information on both the world of work and on the development of career-management skills. The remaining parts of the “Career Guidance” section focus on specific aspects of career management and how to apply these skills.
■ For More Information Many sites on the Internet offer information on various aspects of career management. While much information is available, there is limited free information as most of the sites are commercial in nature and exist to promote services, such as career counseling and assessments, or products, such as books. The “Career Guidance” section of the ECVG offers direction to some Internet sites, but does not endorse any of these sites or their services. Readers should be careful to thoroughly research any site prior to purchasing services or products and should remember that rapid change is inherent on the Internet, so site addresses may have changed since publication. College and University Career Offices http://dir.yahoo.com/Education/Career_and_Vocational/ Career_Planning/College_and_University_Offices/
The Web sites of career centers at colleges and universities are excellent resources for reliable information on the career planning process. They typically offer information on career planning and job searching and many links to other career-related Internet sites. This site provides links to the career resource centers of many institutions of higher education in the United States and abroad.
Career Development Manual http://www.cdm.uwaterloo.ca
This is another example of a university career services center that provides an excellent career resource on the Internet. Here the University of Waterloo, Ontario, Canada, presents detailed information on self-assessment and career exploration. Six steps to career/life planning success are outlined. They are self-assessment, occupational research, decision-making, employment contacts, work, and life/work planning. Each step has substeps you should read and work through for a better understanding of the process. For example, in self-assessment you will first determine your personality and attitudes before moving on to a discussion of skills and achievements. Then you can go on to knowledge and learning style, values, and so on. For the work step, you will learn something about job offers and acceptance, as well as work success.
Career Planning Process http://www.bgsu.edu/offices/sa/career
An example of a university career center that provides good information on the Internet is Bowling Green State University Career Center. Their major/career planning model (under the Students link) takes you through several steps: self-assessment, academic/career options, relevant/practical experience, job search/graduate school preparation, and career change. Each step specifies competencies for the area and provides ideas and strategies on how you can build competencies. How to Decide What to Do with Your Life http://www.rockportinstitute.com/pathfinder.php
Do you know what you want to be when you grow up? Do you know where to even begin when you’re trying to determine what might be the career of your dreams? If your answer to either of these questions is less than an enthusiastic “yes,” then check out this Web site, which contains excerpts from Nicholas Lore’s book, The Pathfinder: How to Choose or Change Your Career for a Lifetime of Satisfaction and Success. The author recommends that you commit yourself to making necessary decisions; break the big questions down into smaller, more manageable questions, and take it from there; put together your career plan one step at a time; take risks rather than settling for comfort; persist no matter what; and finally, celebrate your career.
Starting a Career and Making Career Transitions A common theme of theories that examine how people integrate work into their lives is development. These theories refer to career development, meaning that having a career is a process that occurs over a lifetime and that has identifiable stages. Typical stages include (1) exploring what occupation to pursue, (2) entering an occupation and establishing a pattern of working, (3) maintaining a pattern of work, and (4) disengaging from the role of work. One criticism of career-development theories has been that people no longer experience work as a stage-ordered developmental process. Experts observing today’s labor market have noted there is a growing trend for people to change not just
Starting A Career and Making Career Transitions
their job position, but also their occupations several times during their working life. This trend is due to factors outside of individuals’ control, such as losing a position through an employer’s downsizing, and factors within individuals’ control, such as deciding to temporarily step out of paid employment to engage more actively in other life roles, such as parenting. You will find that throughout your life you are faced with career transitions as you move into the workforce, out of the workforce, and then reenter the workforce. You may select an occupation to enter at the beginning of your career, but you will probably experience career transitions that require you to move not only from job to job but sometimes from occupation to occupation. Career-development experts suggest that the skills used in selecting an occupation do not vary whether you are 16 or 60; however, when it comes to making career decisions, the type of information that is helpful differs from person to person. For the most part, however, it is best to begin by learning a little something about yourself, and then learning a little something about the various occupations that interest you.
Interests
■ Self-Awareness
Abilities and Aptitudes
Starting a career means starting to integrate work into life. Most people start their careers without a great deal of awareness that they are doing so. Theorists have suggested that children develop their attitudes toward work and productivity when they are as young as six or eight years old. Aside from being careful observers of their parents’ attitudes toward work, many children experience work firsthand when they are expected to do chores at home. Starting formal schooling and being a student is one of the first career roles that people undertake. Your degree of success at school usually has a critical effect on your career, and understanding the relationship between success in school and work options is important for good career management. At the end of their first six years of formal schooling, most students must make career decisions in the form of the courses they choose: vocational or college preparatory. Before graduating from high school, many young people have already entered the workforce, either as partor full-time employees. Leisure also plays a role in the development of young peoples’ careers as their involvement in clubs, organized sports, or volunteer activities helps them find role models, learn about adult work, and clarify their self-concepts. Research suggests that, with all of these experiences, by adolescence most people have developed interests, abilities, aptitudes, and values that are relevant to their decisions about careers.
Young peoples’ concepts of their abilities are often related to their academic achievements. Young people may underrate their abilities if they have not achieved the academic successes that lead to admission to programs of continuing education. It is unfortunate that many people perceive their abilities and talents to be second-rate because their first educational endeavors have not prepared them to enter a higher educational institution. The formal educational system is only one of many different ways to develop abilities. Many people who have made major contributions to society did not achieve success in their early school years. It is important to emphasize that aptitude, that is, the potential to develop ability, may be a useful indicator of a person’s likelihood of success in the world of work. People often rule out occupational options because they do not believe they will succeed in the academic preparation required to enter the occupation. Completing certain academic course work is often required for admission to institutions of higher education, but the skills required in the classroom may be very different from the skills required on the job. It is important that you do not foreclose occupational options due to a lack of confidence in your ability to learn new skills.
Young people starting a career are traditionally told to choose an occupation that involves something they like and are good at doing. This advice focuses on interests and abilities. There are, however, various difficulties with an overemphasis on interests. While interest does relate to job satisfaction, most people have multiple interests that can be met in a variety of jobs. Some interest areas offer fewer occupational opportunities than others (for example, scuba diving). Furthermore, interest in an area does not guarantee that you have the skills or the ability to succeed in jobs related to that interest (while you may enjoy helping people, you may lack the ability necessary to be a doctor, for example). Nor does having an interest in an area necessarily mean that you would be happy using that interest in a job (for example, while you may enjoy sewing for yourself as a hobby, sewing eight hours a day for other people might not be that fun). The important thing about exploring your interests is that this typically produces a list of occupations that employ those interests. This helps to expand your awareness of the variety of possible occupations.
Values Young people are often simultaneously making occupational choices, attempting their initial endeavors at
preparing for your career
establishing work in their lives, and creating a lifestyle as independent adults. They are often not aware how values affect both lifestyle choices and satisfaction in occupational choice. People beginning their careers are often very concerned with typical occupational earnings but fail to realize that, among widely different occupations requiring similar levels of training to enter, there is a great similarity of income levels among workers. Financial reward is an important factor in occupational choice, but factors such as working conditions are equally important. It is not uncommon to hear adults who have experience in the workforce say, “You could not pay me enough to do that job.” Such a statement has to do with value conflicts they know they will encounter in the working conditions of the occupation. Values conflicts can also arise between work demands and other areas, such as desired life roles or spiritual convictions. One method of enhancing self-awareness is through assessment with standardized testing instruments. These instruments can aid in revealing your strongest interests, abilities, and values. Other ways of enhancing self-awareness include (1) making lists of strengths and weaknesses, (2) writing the scenario of a “perfect” day that includes work, (3) writing about what you want to be remembered for at the end of your life, and (4) discussion with friends and family.
■ Learning about the World of Work To many people, the identification of an occupation is the end of the career-selection process. They select an occupation and want to know how they can either get training to qualify to enter the occupation or how they can get their first job. Other people go on to college after high school because they cannot decide on an occupation to pursue. They think that getting a bachelor’s degree will prepare them for entry into many occupations and so they delay career decision-making. The initial challenge of starting a career seems so overwhelming, many people have a tendency to concentrate on what they need to know to take only the first step. They think if they can get their first job or if they get their undergraduate degree, then they can begin to figure out how to get what they want from their work lives. Whether you choose to begin full-time work immediately upon high school graduation or continue with education, starting your career will be easier if you learn as much as you can about occupations and how people enact their working lives. By thinking of a career as the integration of work throughout your life, and realizing that you will probably work in multiple occupations during your life, you expand your perspective beyond your
initial entry into work. Most people’s careers include (1) continued efforts through education, training, and experience to develop skills; (2) varied periods of employment; (3) multiple searches for jobs; and (4) transitions from different jobs and occupations. Information important to people starting careers includes (1) work requirements describing the skills needed to be employed in the occupation, (2) opportunities for developing employment skills, (3) licensing or certification needed for employment and types of jobs available for people who have limited experiences, (4) advancement opportunities for people who are experienced in the occupation, and (4) related jobs and occupations. You should envision yourself as developing a repertoire of skills that you will market in various occupations during your working life. Consider both educational and working experiences as ways to document the attainment of those skills. For example, high school diplomas and bachelor’s degrees are documents that represent the completion of academic course work that involves the mastery of specific skills. Work experiences, whether paid employment, internships, or volunteer activities, suggest that certain skills have been gained and used in those experiences. When starting a career, you need to be aware of the requirements to enter the occupation, including not only the educational training required but any licensing or certification requirements. It is important to understand the time frame usually needed to get the training and experiences for occupational entry. When considering an occupation, try to develop a perspective extending beyond entry by talking with people employed in the occupation. What other occupations have they been employed in during their careers? What skills do they identify as being significant to their employability? What advancement options or career transition options do they see as available to them? Consider career paths of advancement in an occupation or how the relationship between occupations of interest may lead to later career transitions. For example, an auto mechanic’s career might start with employment with a major retail chain, followed by positions in various garages of different employers, a transition to opening a garage, and then employment with an automobile dealer. A nurse might start a career working in a hospital and make a transition to become a professor of nursing at a university. A lawyer might start out working for a large law firm and after years of experience become a judge.
■ Career Transitions It is not unusual for people who have entered the labor market in one occupation to change to another or to
drop out of the workforce for a time and then reenter. The realization that career transitions are increasingly common in the modern marketplace helps most adults better deal with changes in their working lives. Career transitions can be either circumstantial or self-initiated, such as when a person loses a job or needs to leave the workforce for a time to attend to other life roles, such as parenting. The type of transition, and your feeling of control over the transitions, will depend on your individual experience, but coping with career transitions requires engaging all the career-management skills of self-awareness, personal management, planning ability, knowing about the world of work, and personal marketing.
Self-Awareness and Personal Management Self-awareness and personal management skills can lessen your chances of being overwhelmed by career changes. Many career-development experts acknowledge that your view of yourself is greatly influenced by your work. Thus career changes can be psychologically challenging, affecting your self-esteem and how you see yourself and your role in life. Mainstream American society tends to undervalue people who are not in the labor market. If you are not in the workforce, you may need to resist internalizing this attitude and suffering a loss of self-esteem. If you are making career changes, you need to consider lifestyle decisions, role integration, and work/leisure integration. Consider the many roles you play in your life as having equal importance with your work. During career transitions, it is often useful to do activities, under individual control, that build selfesteem, such as volunteering to help others or routinely exercising. These activities may serve dual purposes, both increasing self-esteem and building networks. Values tend to be clarified through life experience. The prominence of different values also varies developmentally. For example, career advancement may be more important to people beginning their work life than to those who feel stabilized in their work and desire to devote more time to their families. Values affect lifestyle decisions. For example, people often limit their career options to those available in their geographic area because of family ties. Work/leisure integration may influence where people choose to live because certain leisure activities are readily available. Value conflicts on the job often cause many adults to want a career change. As they confirm their interests, it becomes apparent that they are suited in their occupation but ill suited in their jobs because of values conflicts in the workplace. Most adults are able to identify their interests, and they have a better grasp of available jobs that appeal to
Starting A Career and Making Career Transitions
them than younger people. Typically, when adults are presented with a list of occupations generated from an interest inventory, they comment that they have held jobs in those occupations. Adults who say that they are no longer interested in their work may be underemployed and not challenged by their work duties or suffering from job burnout because of stress induced by working conditions. The use of leisure time to explore and develop expressed interests may sometimes help adults cope with job stress. The possibility of pursuing leisure activities as viable occupational opportunities through entrepreneurship should be considered when looking at personal interests. Rapid developments in modern technology have resulted in changes in the skills required for many occupations. Lifelong learning is needed for occupational survival. Experienced workers may have feelings of resentment and frustration because many young people entering their occupations have more up-to-date skills. Research has shown that people typically do not rate their abilities very accurately. Adults may lack self-confidence regarding their abilities to learn new skills. Assessment of ability and aptitudes should include consideration of attitude toward learning, since people who are highly motivated to learn may exceed the expectations suggested by assessments. Adults need to be aware of the learning situations that form the best ways for them to receive instruction and training in new skills.
Knowing about the World of Work, Personal Marketing, and Planning Ability Career management is focused on helping people integrate work into their lives in ways that are personally satisfying. Career transitions, then, are not seen as crises but as challenging opportunities to clarify how work fits into your life at any given time and to plan how you want work in your life in the future. The best approach to starting a career may be to identify occupations that match your interests and then try to develop the skills to enter a specific occupation. If you are in a career transition, however, you have a variety of strategies to use to change careers or reenter the workforce. If there are many occupational opportunities available, you do not want extensive retraining, and you are willing to seek work similar to positions you have had in the past, you might benefit from identifying your skills and targeting occupations that require similar skills. If there are limited occupational opportunities available, or if you have chosen to look for a job in a specific field, you may need to determine what skills are required for that field and seek training in those skills. Occupational availability
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will depend on the geographic region in which you are looking, so knowledge of the labor market in that area is essential. Self-awareness and personal management skills should be used to help identify individual short-term and long-term goals. Planning ability and knowledge of the world of work are used in decision-making to develop long- and short-term plans for meeting goals. Knowing about the world of work, labor market trends, and the relationships among occupations will help you maintain flexibility and adaptability in your career goals.
■ For More Information Manage Your Career http://www.careerjournal.com
The Wall Street Journal’s Career Journal is for the sophisticated career manager. It offers reprints of experts’ articles on career-related topics such as career management, occupational opportunities, job survival skills, job hunting, salary negotiation, and frequently asked questions. JobProfiles http://www.jobprofiles.org/index.htm
Steve Hay runs the nonprofit organization that sponsors JobProfiles. To learn about the world of work, take a look at this compilation of occupational profiles written by workers themselves. Individuals working in various occupations filled out questionnaires in which they summarized their job duties, explained how they entered the field, listed job stresses and rewards, projected the kinds of problems they expect to encounter in their industry within the next five years, identified skills necessary to do their job, and offered tips for newcomers to their profession. Among the wide variety of occupations described are those of park ranger, animator, sports manger, hydrogeologist, and boatbuilder. Advice is given to assist you in interpreting the profiles. A section covering general information on career management and a small collection of related links round out the site. Transition Assistance Online http://www.taonline.com
This military transition Web site assists military personnel with making the transition to civilian employment. Service members and veterans can submit resumes and search or browse job postings. Topics pertaining to career exploration and the process of reentering the workforce include self-assessment, developing goals, devising a plan of action, general job hunting and “second career strategies,” relocation, and financial considerations. Links to military, career, education, and community assistance sites are available.
Assessment Tests Assessment tests are a type of tool used in career counseling that can help you enhance your self-awareness. They clarify values, identify occupations that match personal interests, suggest aptitude areas, and identify abilities. Assessment tests also can provide a measure of your career maturity, that is, how ready you are to undertake your career management. There are many assessment tests, also called standardized assessment instruments or inventories, used in career counseling. They come in either the pencil-andpaper or computer variety and are typically given by professionals, such as career counselors who are trained in administration, scoring, and interpretation. The results frequently show how people taking the test compare to other people of their age and backgrounds. Extensive career testing is usually not recommended for students below the high school level because values and interests are not set until one reaches the mid-teens. To be effective as a tool in career counseling, the purpose and results of assessment tests must be made clear so that the test taker understands how these fit into the process. Assessment tests are not crystal balls. They are not designed to find you the “perfect” job any more than they can reveal the “true” you. They are usually done in a battery of tests. For example, you may be given inventories measuring your interests, values, and personality traits so that results from the different inventories can be compared. In this way, the results of the tests as a whole can best be weighed and discussed.
■ Values Inventories Values inventories focus primarily on work values or on lifestyle values. Their results are often related to occupations, so that after you take a values inventory you can identify jobs you might want to explore. Usually you are asked to use a scale from one to five to express your view of the importance of statements such as, “It is now, or will be in the future, important for me to be with friends” or “. . . to have good space and light in which to work.” There are no right or wrong answers. Your responses are scored to determine how they compare to others on values such as achievement, altruism, autonomy, creativity, economic rewards, independence, intellectual stimulation, physical activity, prestige, risk, security, social relationships, and variety. The scaled results of values inventories alone frequently do not reveal values that might be very important to individual career decision-making, however. For best
Assessment Tests
results, you must discuss the inventory with your career counselor. For instance, the career counselor might note that you scored high on a scale for independence. You may be asked to clarify what that means in your life. It may mean many different things for you. Perhaps you want to work without direct supervision or perhaps you want to be able to have time off from work to spend with your family. Profile scores that seem to conflict should also be discussed. For instance, “I see you scored high on altruism, prestige, and economic reward. What do those things mean to you?” There are a wide variety of instruments that measure values. Some examples include: The Work Values Inventory The Values Scale n The Survey of Interpersonal Values/The Survey of Personal Values n Study of Values n Work Environment Preference Schedule n n
■ Interest Inventories Matching personal interests to occupations has been a hallmark of career counseling. You are asked to indicate if you like, dislike, or don’t know if various activities such as “rewiring a toaster” or “writing plays” interest you. Some interest inventories ask you to indicate your interest in specific occupations. Interest inventories usually have many items. Results may take the form of lists of specific occupations or clusters, or groups, of occupations. Some interest inventories compare your responses to interest themes of people employed in specific occupational groupings. There are also inventories that ask you to indicate your level of interest in various leisure activities, which are then related to occupations. Interpretation of interest inventories includes soliciting your feedback regarding occupational areas of both high and low interest to confirm and explore the reasons behind your interest pattern. People who have not had opportunities to engage in specific activities may rate them as “don’t know,” resulting in low interest patterns. Younger people may generalize from limited experiences; for example, a student who does poorly in one science class might reject items like “working in a laboratory.” Interest inventories are not designed to find the occupations that are “right” for you, but to identify occupations that match your interests. The use, or lack of use, of interest inventory results causes difficulties in career counseling. Test takers may see an occupation on the list as confirming one they had previously chosen and thus not pursue thorough exploration of other options. Other test
takers may reject the results, stating they are not really interested in any of the occupations or that they know that the occupations are not “right” for them. This often happens when the jobs on the list are nontraditional for the gender of the test taker. You must understand that the resulting list of occupations is not the end of the career counseling process. To get the most out of the test, you must get more information about the occupations that are identified by the results. Frequently used interest inventories include the following: The Self-Directed Search The Strong Interest Inventory (formerly the Strong Campbell Interest Inventory) n The Kuder Occupational Interest Survey n USES (the U.S. Employment Services Interest Inventory) n Career Assessment Inventory (yields only occupations that can be entered with a high school diploma) n n
Check with your guidance counselor or a career counselor to see about taking one of these tests.
■ Achievement and Aptitude Tests Achievement tests measure skills that you have acquired. Aptitude tests measure both acquired skills and the potential you have to acquire a skill. Achievement tests, given in batteries that test a variety of academic areas, such as spelling, reading, math, and science, are frequently used in educational settings. Achievement tests focused on a single subject are used both by employers and by boards that issue professional licenses. Aptitude tests are used to predict the likelihood of the test taker being successful in an educational program or in the military forces. Aptitude tests typically include broader samples of domains than achievement tests, such as space relations, mechanical reasoning, form perception, motor coordination, and finger and manual dexterity. There are right and wrong answers on both achievement and aptitude tests. There are often time limits to complete sections. Results are frequently given in standardized scores that compare your performance to similar individuals. Both achievement and aptitude tests are used in American society as gatekeeping mechanisms, that is, failure to meet certain standards on these tests may keep you from pursuing certain career paths, such as entering an educational program or the military services or from receiving a professional license. Interpretation for people who do well usually consists of confirming their likelihood of success in an educational or occupational
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endeavor. It should be noted, however, that performance on the test does not guarantee success but suggests that with appropriate application you are capable of achieving success. Interpretation for people who do not do well requires exploration of possible reasons. Interpretation should focus on identifying both the areas of strength and weakness and on test-taking strategies. Some people do not do well on these types of standardized tests because of anxiety or a lack of familiarity with the test format. People who have specific learning disabilities may have difficulty with the timed aspect of the tests. If you are one of these people, you should understand your right to request needed accommodations. For many of these standardized tests, there are specific commercial programs of study available in book, software, and online formats. You may need to study a specific area by retaking a class or getting private tutoring. There is nothing wrong with studying to improve areas of deficit. If there is a serious question about your ability to perform on these tests, an individually administered intelligence test may provide a better assessment of your capabilities. Commonly used achievement and aptitude tests include: Metropolitan Achievement Test California Achievement Tests n Iowa Tests of Basic Skills n Stanford Achievement Tests n The Scholastic Assessment Test n American College Testing n Graduate Record Examinations n General Aptitude Test Battery n Armed Services Vocational Aptitude Battery n n
■ Personality Assessments Some career counselors use personality-assessment instruments to explore an individual’s preferences and relate them to occupations. These instruments are especially useful, however, for adults who are having trouble with both career and personal concerns. Sometimes employees who work closely with other employees can better understand each other’s styles through the use of these instruments. A typical test item is, “I prefer to stay home and read a book than go to a party,” and requires a true or false answer. There are no right or wrong answers. Results may be reported in terms of traits such as achievement, affiliations, autonomy, conformity, dominance, emotional stability, friendliness, nurturance, and social adjustment. Results typically compare people to others based on a particular category. While not a requirement, counselors sometimes sit with test takers while they take the test to listen to their comments as they decide how to respond to items. It is
not unusual to want items to specify situations or to want to “argue” with items. Test takers’ comments can provide insights into their values and identify areas for further discussion in interpretation. Interpretation in career counseling usually involves relating personality profiles to occupation choices and is similar to interpretation of interest inventories. Personality instruments used in career counseling include the following: Myers-Briggs Type Indicator Edwards Personal Preference Schedule n California Personality Inventory n California Test of Personality n Sixteen Personality Factor n n
■ Career-Maturity Testing Career-maturity testing, or career-development inventories, measures readiness to undertake career management. Results yield scores for attitudes toward work, planning ability, readiness for explorations, and knowledge of the world of work. Usually, these instruments are used with young people in a school setting to measure the effectiveness of guidance programs; however, there are versions appropriate for use with adults. Interpretation focuses on areas of both strength and weakness, with the aim to increase understanding of career development and management. Career maturity instruments include the following: Career Development Inventory Career Maturity Inventory n Career Beliefs Inventory n Adult Career Concerns Inventory n The Salience Inventory n n
■ For More Information Completing standardized assessment instruments can be some of the most expensive aspects of the career-management process. Fortunately, it is not necessary for everyone to be tested or to complete standardized assessment instruments. Some people are able to successfully manage their careers without ever being tested, while others find testing necessary to help them learn more about themselves and to provide guidance in decision-making. Many people enjoy taking standardized tests to determine if their results agree with their own self-assessments. Sometimes high school students and students at colleges and universities can take career tests for free or for minimum fees at their schools’ career counseling centers. Adults can sometimes find some testing available at minimal cost through government sponsored one-stop career centers.
assessment tests
There are many sites on the Internet that offer career testing for payment. Be a careful consumer and comparison shop before committing to any financial obligation over the Internet. The following sites offer some information and some tools for self-assessment over the Internet.
type, you find lists of pertinent personality traits, likes, and hobbies, as well as career possibilities. In the ASI example, one of the career possibilities listed is writers and editors. If you click on that link, you discover a job description plus useful information on education and training, employment outlook, and salaries. You will find similar coverage for numerous other job types.
The Princeton Review Career Quiz http://www.princetonreview.com/cte/quiz
The Princeton Review offers a 24-question career quiz based on the Birkman Method, which you can learn more about at this site. The brief career quiz yields results in terms of your personality on the job and a list of occupations that may interest you. The site also provides further information on careers and topics such as interviewing, resumes, and career planning. The career quiz is available at no charge to you. Holland Codes Self-Directed Search http://www.self-directed-search.com
John Holland is a career-development theorist who suggested that people tend to have interests that align with one to three of the follow types: realistic (R), investigative (I), artistic (A), social (S), enterprising (E), or conventional (C). This has become known as the RIASEC model. A person’s three-letter Holland code helps identify occupations that might be of interest to them. The Self-Directed Search (SDS) is an interest inventory that results in the taker’s Holland code. This site, from Psychological Assessment Resources, provides an overview of SDS, a career interest test, plus information on John Holland. There are pages for each of the six types. Personality traits are listed for each type, along with related occupations. You can actually take the test at the site, but you must pay a fee (under $10) if you want the results. The Career Interests Game http://career.missouri.edu
University of Missouri’s Career Center brings you this game based on John Holland’s RIASEC model of occupations. (There is a link to the game on the Career Center homepage above.) To play you need to rank the top three groups that appeal to you out of six groups of people, each group representing realistic (R), investigative (I), artistic (A), social (S), enterprising (E), or conventional (C) types. Descriptions of each type are provided. Your ranking of your group preference gives you a three-letter Holland code. For example, if you select the artistic, social, and investigative groups (in that order of preference), your Holland code is ASI. Your Holland Code can help you to identify what career path might be suitable for your personality. When you click on each RIASEC
The Career Key http://www.ncsu.edu/careerkey
Lawrence Jones’s Career Key is a vocational test designed to help you explore what career fields you may be suited for. The test can be taken online. You are asked to indicate career fields that appeal to you as well as to rate yourself in various skills, interests, character traits, and values. After you respond to all the statements, you are scored in regard to the six Holland types: artistic, conventional, enterprising, investigative, realistic, and social. Select your top personality type(s) to discover representative occupations, and then choose those jobs that seem most attractive. Advice is offered on making career decisions, and links to further information are listed. The Personality Page http://www.personalitypage.com/home.html
The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) is another standardized instrument frequently used in career counseling. It identifies personal preferences in receiving and using information. Test takers are classified into one of 16 personality types depending on their preferences on the bipolar scales of (1) introversion (I)/extraversion (E); (2) sensing (S)/intuition (N); (3) thinking (T)/feeling (F); and (4) perceiving (P)/judging (J). The personality types are referred to by four letter codes, for example, ESFP or INTJ. The instrument is available online but is quite expensive. This site does not offer the MBTI but does offer a Personality Type Indicator that provides results in the four letter codes used by the MBTI. There is a $5 fee for taking the assessment online one time and receiving the results. It also provides considerable information on the personality types at no charge. Another site that offers results similar to the MBTI is the Jung Typology test at http://www. humanmetrics.com/cgi-win/JTypes2.asp. Team Technology http://www.teamtechnology.co.uk/home.html
Team Techology presents detailed information about each of the Myers-Briggs types. The site contains a sophisticated discussion of the dominant and auxiliary functions of each type, including notes on the ways in which each type might contribute to a team environment, attain personal growth, and respond in a moment
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of crisis or when under stress. You cannot take the Meyers-Briggs Type Indicator test at this site.
for a fee. There’s also lots of information on finding and applying for admission to college and financial aid for college.
Keirsey Temperament and Character http://www.keirsey.com
This Web site about personality typing contains a lot of information from the books Please Understand Me and Please Understand Me II, written by David Keirsey with Marilyn Bates and Ray Choiniere. You will find descriptions of temperament and character as well as two tests used to identify personality types. These are the Keirsey Character Sorter and the Keirsey Temperament Sorter II. Similar to the Myers-Briggs personality inventory, these tests sort individuals into one of four temperaments: the rationals, the idealists, the artisans, or the guardians. Each category is broken down even further into variants, 16 in all. For example, the idealists group is made up of teachers, champions, counselors, and healers. You can take the tests online. Just answer the questions and submit your responses electronically, after which you’ll be presented with a rough indicator (that is, a good idea) of your temperament and the specific variant. Famous people representing each temperament type are listed: Albert Schweitzer is identified as a healer idealist, while Eleanor Roosevelt is a counselor idealist.
Test Publishers Pearson Assessments http://www.pearsonassessments.com/career
Pearson Assessments provides assessment tools to professionals in the fields of career counseling, education, mental health, medicine, and workforce development. This is a commercial company resource where industry professionals can order assessments. The site also offers descriptions and background information on several tests pertaining to career choice, personality, or other related issues. Visit the site to learn more about the Career Assessment Inventory (vocational and enhanced), Campbell Interest and Skill Survey (CISS), Interest Determination, Exploration and Assessment System (IDEAS); Sixteen Personality Factor (16PF), and other assessment tools.
ACT http://www.act.org
ACT used to be called the American College Testing Program. Today it is a multifaceted organization involved with all aspects of career planning. This site presents materials on career exploration, planning for college, and various assessment tools, including the ACT Assessment, a college-admissions test administered to high school juniors and seniors. It also provides some information on applying to college and sample ACT questions. There are also descriptions of other career-related assessment tools such as Counseling for High Skills (CHS), DISCOVER, and WorkKeys. GRE http://www.gre.org or http://www.ets.org
Scores from GRE (Graduate Record Examinations) are required to gain entrance to many graduate schools. Whether you’re interested in taking the paper-based or the computer-based test, you’ll find plenty of information about registration, fees, test structure, scheduling conflicts, and so on. Sample questions testing your verbal, quantitative, and analytical abilities, along with instructions, are also presented. There are sections specifically of interest to educators and researchers as well. Kaplan http://www.kaptest.com
Kaplan has long been known for its test-preparation courses for college-admission tests such as the PSAT, SAT, and ACT (undergraduate); the LSAT, MCAT, GMAT, and GRE (graduate); and various licensing and specialized examinations. This site contains a wealth of information pertaining to these exams as well as other career topics. Among the site’s numerous features are test descriptions, test dates, and background information. As a registered site user, you can take practice tests and, for a fee, various advanced preparation courses.
SAT and PSAT/NMSQT http://www.collegeboard.com
The College Board (College Entrance Examination Board) created the SAT (originally known as the Scholastic Aptitude Test, later called the Scholastic Assessment Test) and the Preliminary SAT/National Merit Scholarship Qualifying Test (PSAT/NMSQT). This site explains all about both tests and provides information for registering for the SAT, including the option to register online. Study guides for the SAT are also available
ASVAB Career Exploration Program http://www.asvabprogram.com
The U. S. Army sponsors the Armed Services Vocational Aptitude Battery (ASVAB) 18/19 Career Exploration Program. The ASVAB assesses verbal, mathematical, and technical ability in 10 areas. This site provides information on the ASVAB and sample questions from each area. Information about military services in the army is provided along with a search option to locate a recruiter.
Soft Skills
FairTest http://fairtest.org
The National Center for Fair and Open Testing (FairTest) is an organization concerned with making sure that standardized K–12, college admission, and employment testing is fair to all participants, regardless of race, ethnicity, gender, or income. A large collection of sample articles from Examiner, FairTest’s newsletter, is available. If you want to find other similar resources, browse through the related links page.
Soft Skills There are many skills required for work that are not in job descriptions. These are skills other than the technical skills required to do the job. They are sometimes called soft skills, basic skills, personal/interpersonal skills, or job-keeping skills. Many employers consider these skills to be “givens,” that is, they expect anyone applying for a job to have them, which is why they are usually not mentioned in job descriptions. But when employers are asked what they find most desirable and most difficult to find in employees, their answers usually include some or all of the soft skills. Because soft skills apply to any job, developing them promotes your abilities to do well in your job, be marketable when seeking a new job, and manage your career. Soft skills are interrelated and overlapping. You should be aware that discretion is required in applying soft skills in different jobs. For example, some organizations do not welcome creative input from low-level employees. So a clerk who proposes a new system for handling information may be ignored, but a manager who proposes that same idea may be rewarded. Not everyone can excel in all soft skills. Not everyone would be happy in all work environments. Career management involves (1) identifying which soft skills are areas of strength that are enjoyable to use, which are desired to be developed, and which are not and (2) finding employment that provides a good fit for soft skills you already possess and for developing desired skills.
■ Basic Skills Modern employers often claim to have difficulty finding workers with the basic academic skills they require. Your competence in these skills is usually demonstrated by having a high school diploma. There are very few positions available in the job market that do not require the mastery of basic academic skills. The following are some, but not all, of the basic skills.
Communication. These are skills that involve sending and receiving messages. Communication can be oral or written. Oral communication includes verbal and nonverbal components. Examples of verbal communication include speaking on the telephone, leaving voice-mail messages, speaking to your coworkers or supervisor, and making presentations to a group. Good verbal communication demands a clear speaking voice that is loud enough for your audience to hear. Do not use slang and avoid excessive gesturing with hands. Examples of nonverbal communication include the amount of space between people who are talking, eye contact, and body language. While oral communication skills are needed in all work situations, they are very important in jobs such as sales, teaching, and counseling. Written communication includes email messages, faxes, memos, and reports. Mastery of basic literacy skills of spelling and grammar is the foundation for written communication skills. Successful written communications are clear, concise, correct, and compelling. Computation. You must be able to add, subtract, multiply, divide, and understand the conversion of common measurement units. Technology and information management. There is more easily accessible information available today than at any other time in history. Technology and information management deals with selecting, organizing, and storing relevant, credible information for later retrieval and use. Information management also deals with how information is prepared for presentation. Informationmanagement skills include (1) familiarity with both traditional and electronic references, (2) understanding of both traditional filing systems (files kept in filing cabinets, usually in alphabetical order) and electronic databases, and (3) communication skills. Understanding social systems. You must grasp how your employer is affected by political and economic institutions and competing businesses.
■ Job-Keeping Skills Job-keeping skills have to do with understanding the normal behaviors your employer expects from you. Different behaviors are often expected from employees whose positions differ. Many of the rules that govern what an employer expects may not be written down. You should observe what seems to be accepted and what is rewarded in people whose positions are similar to yours. It is best to discuss any areas about which there are questions with direct supervisors. Attendance and punctuality. Organizations that keep regular working hours usually expect employees to arrive at work on time and remain at work throughout working hours. Your boss wants to know he or she can count on
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you being at work. Policies are usually established to govern how you can arrange to take time off for sicknesses or emergencies or to schedule earned vacation time. You are expected to stay on the job at work. Breaks may be scheduled and you should adhere to those schedules. Some workplaces offer flexible work hours. You may be expected to work extended hours for the completion of projects, but may be allowed to take time off irregularly. It is extremely important to find out what working hours are expected from you and to anticipate any difficulties in meeting those expectations. Failure to be at work when scheduled may be reason for dismissal. Timeliness. When deadlines are assigned, you are expected to meet those deadlines. It is best to anticipate any difficulty in meeting deadlines and discuss it with supervisors before being late. Repeated failure to meet deadlines is viewed as a lack of competence to meet the requirements of the position. Appropriate attire/personal hygiene. Presenting a professional appearance is an important element of job success. Because grooming routines are extremely personal, supervisors often feel awkward having to bring deficits to your attention, which means sometimes they would rather fire you than tell you that you are lacking these skills. Personal hygiene means practicing basic cleanliness, eliminating body orders, and maintaining your hair in a neat fashion. Personal hygiene concerns can also arise regarding the use of scents and having various body adornments, such as unusual haircuts, jewelry worn in body piercings, fingernail sculpting, or tattoos. Concerns can also arise regarding clothing that is appropriate. In most work environments, employers prefer you to present a conservative appearance. Employers may require that you not wear clothing, jewelry, or symbols indicating personal preferences in matters such as religion or politics. Employers may require you to wear a uniform. If your dress code is not as strictly specified, you must be careful not to underdress or overdress for your position. Again, it is wise to determine what other employees who are successful in similar positions are wearing and adopt similar attire and styles. Organizational culture. Every working environment has its own culture and ideas of what are desirable behaviors at work. For example, the gathering for coffee each morning may seem to be for socialization that is not job-elated, but important job-related information may be exchanged at that time. To fail to join in this informal meeting may result in both missing information and the perception that you are not a team player. On the other hand, that friendly gathering each morning may be just time-wasting by employees who are seen by their
supervisors as not being on-task. Some organizations are very informal. Supervisors may socialize with employees and employees may speak to them as if they were equals. In more formal organizations, supervisors may not socialize with employees. Employees must be careful to use proper channels when communicating with supervisors. It is vital to learn the organizational culture quickly and to behave appropriately. You need to pay attention to whether supervisors are supportive of the culture that is current in the organization. Supervisors sometimes desire to change organizational culture, but rather than trying to change existing employees’ behaviors, they will hire new employees. Supervisors are then frustrated when the old employees indoctrinate the new employees into the undesirable organizational culture. Asking supervisors when in doubt is a good idea.
■ Personal/Interpersonal Skills Personal/interpersonal skills have to do with self-development and with getting along with others at work. Character. Having a personal code of ethics and trying to live up to it may make you more employable. Employers prefer to hire people who will not steal from them or lie to them. Having character means having high personal standards of honesty and dependability. When you govern your own behavior from a code of ethics, and when you expect that others also will do so, you gain a reputation for being truthful and reliable, which makes you desired for positions of trust. People who have good character demonstrate that they are eager for self-improvement. They seek out situations in which they can learn new skills and practice new roles. They demonstrate self-discipline. When they make mistakes, they acknowledge them, accept criticism, and learn from them by analyzing how different actions would yield different results. Manner. How you convey your personality to other people is through your manner, that is, your usual way of behaving and overall demeanor. Employers, and most people, prefer people who are cheerful, energetic, enthusiastic, good natured, and pleasant. Having a professional manner means that you keep your work and personal lives well separated. You are friendly with your coworkers, supervisors, and customers but do not tell them the intimate details of your personal life. Even when you are sad or in a “bad mood” at work you should try to act as if you had no troubles. Initiative. Employers often advertise for employees who are “self-starters” or “motivated,” that is, employees who will undertake responsibilities on their own initiative. Having initiative means that you do not need the constant attention of your supervisor to tell you what to
do and to make sure you do it right. It means you ask questions to be sure you understand the tasks you are given and then work appropriately to complete them with the desired results. When you have completed assigned tasks, you ask for more work. You do not waste your boss’s time by being idle but look for tasks that need to be done or seek out ways in which you can help others. Diplomacy. There will be times when you do not agree with your supervisor or find one or more of your coworkers difficult to work with. Being diplomatic means that you can express your concerns without hurting others’ feelings and can disagree with others while letting them know that you still respect them. Diplomacy suggests that when one person loses, everyone loses. Diplomacy seeks to resolve conflicts by listening to every viewpoint and seeking solutions to problems that are acceptable to all. Teamwork. People who can work cooperatively with others, assuming both the roles of leaders and followers, are valued employees in modern work settings where many different projects are undertaken by teams whose members frequently change. To work well on a team you must be willing to put accomplishing the team’s goal ahead of getting personal recognition. It may mean being willing to complete tasks that are not specified as responsibilities in your job description and that may be below your capabilities. Working well on teams means being able to accept, understand, and value diverse people who have differing backgrounds, values, and ways of perceiving and thinking. Leadership. People are willing to take direction from leaders who have character and initiative and who understand teamwork. Leadership requires being both sensitive and considerate to others. Leaders model the types of behaviors they desire in their followers; for example, if working extra hours on a project is required, the leader should model dedication by arriving first and being the last to leave. Leaders generate trust in their team members by being dependable, crediting team members’ efforts in success, and accepting blame for both their own and their team’s mistakes. Leaders do not pretend be experts in all areas. They assemble teams of experts, listen to and act upon their suggestions and let team members know their input is useful and valued. Leaders are information managers, keeping their team members informed of the “big picture” and the part each of them will play in achieving the desired goals. Leaders use input from team members to help them devise plans for reaching the desired results in a timely way. Leaders secure resources for the team’s use and coordinate their efforts. Leaders are flexible, knowing that the best leadership is often based on the leader role being shared with the team members.
Soft Skills
Organization. A well-organized work area appears neat and allows for good information management. Organization promotes timeliness, that is, meeting deadlines appropriately, because organization means understanding the necessary steps required to getting something done, setting goals, and meeting them. Good organizers have good time-management skills and are able to work on several projects simultaneously by setting their priorities. Problem solving. Employers want employees who can identify problems, analyze them, hypothesize cause-andeffect relationships, think both creatively and logically, suggest alternative courses of action, and plan and carry out courses of action. Solving problems that come up as you are doing your job will more than likely be expected of you; however, solving problems that you notice in other people’s jobs, or in the company as a whole, may or may not be welcomed. Knowing the culture of your company is important when considering approaching supervisors with solutions to others’ or company problems. You must be diplomatic when suggesting change, so appropriate supervisory channels are acknowledged and so there is no appearance of being critical of the thinking that implemented the current systems.
■ For More Information There are many Web sites that offer businesses consultation and training in soft skills, usually for managers. Following are a few sites related to soft skills and a few with informative articles on the subject. The Seven Challenges: Cooperative Communication Skills Workbook & Reader http://www.newconversations.net/communication_skills_ workbook_summary_and_toc.htm
Good communication is an essential aspect of workplace relationships. This workbook from Dennis Rivers affords a guide to learning healthier, more respectful communication. Points covered can be applied to any life situation: with family or friends, in the community, and in the workplace. Some of the skills highlighted include responsive listening, conversational intent, clear expression, and acknowledging appreciation. Several exercises enable you to practice the skills outlined. A list of recommended titles for further reading is available. Mind Tools http://www.mindtools.com
This company, located in England, makes software products intended to provide customers with the skills necessary to use their minds to a greater extent than before.
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This site provides several tips and techniques for skills such as brainstorming, decision making, speed-reading, memory techniques, stress management, time management, effective planning, and communication.
learn about career opportunities the occupation offers n
If you are managing a career transition, you can check the potential for job openings in an occupation n determine if the skills you possess can transfer to another occupation n identify specific job openings n
Management and Teams http://content.monster.com/career/team
Do you have what it takes to be a manager? If you don’t already know, you may find out after visiting this section of the Monster.com site. Here you can read about time management, teamwork, communication, mentoring, and discipline.
Occupational Classification Systems The economy of any country is dependent upon the work its citizens perform. The labor market consists of how many people are employed and in what occupations. Labor-market information includes information about specific occupations, such as n the industries that employ people in the occupation n typical responsibilities and duties of workers in the occupation n the work environment and tools used on the job n the skills required, the level of education associated with these skills, and any special requirements such as licenses or certifications n typical compensation such as wages, salaries, and benefits n employment outlooks n ways to obtain training and ways to enter the occupation n sources of further information
You can use labor-market information in many ways. If you are starting your career and seeking to enter an occupation, you can n identify occupations that match your interests, aptitudes, and abilities n determine if working conditions in specific occupations match your values n find out how to get training to obtain skills to enter an occupation
There is so much occupational information available it can be difficult to determine what is relevant to any specific career challenge and to understand what it means. Career counselors are experts in finding and interpreting labor-market information. They are familiar with the variety of systems commonly used to organize labor-market information by classifying similar occupations together. In the United States, data on the labor market is collected and disseminated by the U.S. Department of Labor (DOL). In 1999, the DOL replaced its long-time standard Dictionary of Occupational Titles with the online O*NET, which uses the Standard Occupational Classification System (SOC). In compliance with the Office of Management and Budget initiative for use of the SOC by all federal agencies that collect and disseminate occupational information, O*NET 7.0 uses SOC codes for its occupational classification system.
■ The Standard Occupational Classification System (SOC) SOC sorts occupations by four levels: major group, minor group, board occupation, and detailed occupation. Each occupation is assigned a unique six-digit code. The first two digits represent one of 23 major groups, the third digit represents the minor group, the fourth and fifth digits indicate the broad occupational group and the sixth digit indicates the detailed occupation. (Note: O*NET 7.0 adds a two-digit extension [sequentially numbered beginning with “.01”] to the standard six-digit code to differentiate unique O*NET 3.1 occupations within the SOC.) Following are the 23 major groups in the SOC: 11-0000 Management Occupations 13-0000 Business and Financial Operations Occupations 15-0000 Computer and Mathematical Occupations 17-0000 Architecture and Engineering Occupations 19-0000 Life, Physical, and Social Science Occupations 21-0000 Community and Social Services Occupations
Occupational Classification Systems
23-0000 Legal Occupations 25-0000 Education, Training, and Library Occupations 27-0000 Arts, Design, Entertainment, Sports, and Media Occupations 29-0000 Healthcare Practitioners and Technical Occupations 31-0000 Healthcare Support Occupations 33-0000 Protective Service Occupations 35-0000 Food Preparation and Serving Related Occupations 37-0000 Building and Grounds Cleaning and Maintenance Occupations 39-0000 Personal Care and Service Occupations 41-0000 Sales and Related Occupations 43-0000 Office and Administrative Support Occupations 45-0000 Farming, Fishing, and Forestry Occupations 47-0000 Construction and Extraction Occupations 49-0000 Installation, Maintenance, and Repair Occupations 51-0000 Production Occupations 53-0000 Transportation and Material Moving Occupations 55-0000 Military Specific Occupations
■ The Guide for Occupational Exploration (GOE) The Guide for Occupational Exploration was developed in the 1970s by the U.S. Department of Labor to help people explore occupations that matched their interests. The U.S. Employment Services developed an interest inventory (USES inventory) that yields results in terms of GOE interest areas. The GOE classification system organizes occupations into interest areas, work groups, and subgroups. GOE codes are six digits. For example, the GOE code for guidance counselors is 12.03.01. The first two digits match one of 14 interest areas. The GOE system classifies occupations into one of 14 interest areas as follows: 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10
Arts, Entertainment, and Media Science, Math, and Engineering Plants and Animals Law, Law Enforcement, and Public Safety Mechanics, Installers, and Repairers Construction, Mining, and Drilling Transportation Industrial Production Business Detail Sales and Marketing
11 12 13 14
Recreation, Travel, and Other Personal Services Education and Social Services General Management and Support Medical and Health Services
The next two digits of a GOE code reflect the work group to which the occupation is assigned. These groups are based upon the levels of workers’ capabilities (job knowledge, skills required) and adaptability to work situations for that occupation. The next two digits reflect the subgroup, or specialty area, of the occupation. For example, guidance counselors are classified as 12.03.01, which means that workers in this occupation have interests in education and social services (12), educational services (03), and counseling and evaluation (01). Occupations that are similar share the same GOE code. For example, other occupations in the 12.03.01 group are personal financial advisors and educational psychologists. The GOE is only available in book form: The Guide for Occupational Exploration. 3rd ed. Indianapolis, Ind.: JIST Works, 2001.
■ The Dictionary of Occupational Titles The Dictionary of Occupational Titles (DOT) is an occupational classification system that the DOL created in the 1930s. It was replaced in 1999 by the O*NET system, but it is defined in this encyclopedia as a courtesy to those who may not be able to access the O*NET 7.0 system online. The fourth edition of the DOT provides more than 20,000 descriptions of specific occupations, each of which is assigned a unique nine-digit code number. The nine-digit number is always given with a period between the first six digits and a hyphen separating the last three digits from the first six. For example, the DOT code for career counselor is 045.107-010. Each DOT number provides information about the occupation, indicating its industry and its worker functions. The first three digits relate the occupation to industry by assigning an occupational category, division, and group. The first digit indicates into which of nine occupational categories the specific occupation is assigned. These categories are 0/1 2 3 4 5
Professional, Technical, and Managerial Occupations Clerical and Sales Occupations Service Occupations Agricultural, Fishery, Forestry, and Related Occupations Processing Occupations
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6 7 8 9
Machine Trades Occupations Bench Work Occupations Structural Work Occupations Miscellaneous Occupations
The first digit of the DOT code for the occupation career counselor (0) indicates it is a Professional Occupation. The second digit refers to the division into which the occupation is assigned. There are many divisions in each occupational category. For example, some of the divisions with the 0/1 occupational category include 00/01 02 04 05
Occupations in architecture, engineering, and surveying Occupations in mathematics and physical sciences Occupations in life sciences Occupations in social sciences
The second digit for the occupation career counselor (4) shows it is in the life sciences division. The third digit refers to the group to which the occupation is assigned. For example, the occupational division 04, occupations in the life sciences, includes group 5, occupations in psychology. So the first three digits for the occupation of career counselor, 045, indicate it is a professional occupation (0), in the life sciences (4), in psychology (5). The middle digits relate the occupations to the worker functions of data, people, and things. The lower the number, the greater the involvement of the worker in the occupation with data, people, or things. The fourth digit refers to using data in jobs in the occupation. Functions involved with data range from comparing (6) to synthesizing (0). Career counselors are usually most involved with coordinating (1) data. The fifth digit refers to interactions with people in jobs in the occupation. Functions involved with people range from taking instructions/helping (8) to mentoring (0). Career counselors work at mentoring (0) people. The sixth digit refers to things. Functions involved with things range from handling (7) to setting up (0). The career counselors handle (7) things. Because different occupations in the same industries may have the same levels of involvement with data, people, and things, the last three digits indicate the alphabetic order of titles within the six-digit code. When occupations have the same first six digits, they are very similar, which means people engaged in exploring occupations that might be right for them should look carefully at all occupations having the same first six digits in their DOT codes.
■ The National Occupational Classification (NOC) System In Canada, the Human Resources Development Canada uses the National Occupational Classification system to provide descriptions for more than 25,000 occupations in the Canadian labor market. The original system was created in 1992, and a new, expanded version was introduced in 2001. It is a hierarchical system in which occupations are assigned to one of 26 major groups, 139 minor groups, and 530 unit groups. Each unit group is designated by a four-digit code. NOC classifies occupations using the two criteria of skills type and skill level. Skill type refers generally to the type of work performed, but industry and educational field of study required for entry are factors considered in classifying occupations by skill type. The skill type categories include
0 Management Occupations 1 Business, Finance, and Administration Occupations 2 Natural and Applied Sciences and Related Occupations 3 Health Occupations 4 Occupations in Social Science, Education, Government Service, and Religion 5 Occupations in Art, Culture, Recreation, and Sports 6 Sales and Service Occupations 7 Trades, Transport, and Equipment Operators and Related Occupations 8 Occupations Unique to Primary Industry 9 Occupations Unique to Processing, Manufacturing, and Utilities
Skill level is the amount and type of education and training usually required to enter the occupation. Each minor and unit group is assigned to one of four skill levels, which are as follows: Skill level A University degree Skill level B Two to three years of community college or technical school or two to four years of apprenticeship Skill level C High school diploma and on-the-job training Skill level D On-the-job training
■ For More Information
Standard Occupational Classification You can search or browse through the major groups or the index of detailed occupations to arrive at occupational definitions at
Information Interviewing
http://www.bls.gov/soc http://online.onetcenter.org
The first site comes from the U.S. Department of Labor’s Bureau of Labor Statistics. The site contains a user’s guide to SOC and links to the major SOC classifications. The second site is the online O*NET, where users can find occupational descriptions and search for occupations by name or using their own skills profile. This site also enables you to search careers that match your skills, as well as Crosswalk, which enables you to match O*NETSOC jobs with jobs in other classification systems.
it is in a job interview. Information interviewing is more than just talking to people who know something about an occupation, however. In order to get the best results you must carefully prepare and use strategies to get interviews and to get the most from them. Look at information interviewing as a process rather than as a one-time thing. To do it effectively, you must do research to determine what you want to find out and to identify people likely to lead to finding that information; you must do interviews, and you must follow up with what you have learned by making more contacts and doing more research.
Dictionary of Occupational Titles http://www.oalj.dol.gov/libdot.htm
Last revised in 1991, the fourth edition of Dictionary of Occupational Titles (DOT) is presented here by the U.S. Department of Labor’s Office of Administrative Law Judges Law Library. You will find introductory material, detailed explanations of how occupational definitions are created and how occupational titles and codes are arranged, and lists of occupational categories, divisions, and groups, as well as occupational definitions. Certain information is offered in files that can be downloaded and opened using WordPerfect or Word. National Occupational Classification System http://www23.hrdc-drhc.gc.ca/2001/e/generic/welcome. shtml
Human Resources Development Canada offers an updated edition of the NOC system created in 1992. This Web site features an improved search engine and an online training tutorial to assist new users and NOC trainers.
Information Interviewing The purpose of information interviewing is to get information about possible jobs or career fields you are interested in. While there is a wealth of occupational information available in print, on video, on software, and through the Internet, interviewing someone who works in a field you are interested in can give you a new perspective and more detailed understanding of what it takes to succeed in a job. Information interviewing also helps you develop a network of contacts, which can be important later on when you are ready to look for a job; thus it is just as important to make a good impression in an information interview as
■ What Do You Want to Know? Most people enjoy telling others about their careers, but most successful people are very busy. Not being prepared with questions to ask, or asking questions that could be answered by doing a little research, is not going to make a very good impression. The first step in preparing for information interviewing is doing in-depth research on the occupation of interest. The questions asked in the information interview should show that you have a good grasp of the basic requirements of the occupation. Presumably you are interviewing someone because he or she has specific expertise or knowledge about the occupation that you could not readily learn from your basic research. Therefore, you should ask questions that only your interview subject could answer. For example: A poor information interview question: What level of education is required to enter this occupation? n A good information interview question: What universities on the East Coast have the strongest programs in civil engineering? n An even better information interview question: I am considering these three universities in the New England area . . . [name specific universities] . . . that have accredited programs in civil engineering. Which do you think will be the best for a student like me who prefers to learn by hands-on experience? n
How can you be sure you are asking good questions? Read all the information you can about the occupation. Make a list of questions you have after you’ve finished reading. Follow up by asking a career counselor or reference librarian how you can get answers to those questions. (One good reference for continuing research on an occupation is the “For More Information” section listed at the end of each career article of Encyclopedia of Careers and Vocational Guidance.) Knowing what questions to ask can be very difficult. Remember that you are trying to find out if the job or
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field you are researching would be right for you. Think about your interests, values, aptitudes, and abilities and ask questions that relate to those. One good question is always “What was one thing that you did not know when you entered this occupation that you wish you had known?” Also, the last question you ask should always be “Can you recommend anyone else I should talk to?”
■ Whom Do You Want to Interview? The questions that need to be answered and the research you do to find answers often suggest who might be good to interview. People who might be good to start with include people working in the occupation teachers and professors preparing people to enter the occupation n leaders of local professional organizations n members of state boards that issue professional licenses or certificates n n
Sometimes it can be difficult to identify the right person to interview. In the process of information interviewing, you usually have to ask others to help you identify the people who can best answer your questions. Some people who might be able to help you include career counselors librarians n members of local chambers of commerce n friends and family members n n
Information interviewing often requires contacting someone you do not know. It is much easier to speak to a stranger when you can begin by saying, “So-and-so suggested I call you,” rather than simply, “I found your name in the phone book.” This gives you a foot in the door. Sometimes, however, it is not possible to get a referral. In these cases, do not hesitate to identify potential people for information interviewing by using resources such as business directories n the yellow pages n the Internet n registries of industries and corporations n
■ Getting the Interview Many people would find it difficult to contact a stranger and ask for help, but that is often what it takes to get an information interview. Remember, most people like to have their expertise acknowledged and their opinions solicited. Whether you make the initial contact by letter or by telephone, it is important that you do the following:
n n
Tell the person how you got his or her name. Make it clear who you are. Explain your purpose. Describe how he or she can help you, including putting a limit on the time you are asking for. n Thank the person for being willing to help you. n Follow up as suggested, whether it be by calling in a few days, promptly showing up for the scheduled interview, doing further research, or calling another person suggested by your contact. n n
It is important to be explicit and honest when explaining your purpose and that your purpose confers only limited obligation on the person you want to interview. For example, “I have been researching the best way to start a career in retail purchasing. I know various college majors can prepare me for this occupation. Before I start specializing my studies, I would like to meet with you for 15 minutes to get your opinion on the best academic and experiential knowledge I can obtain to be a success in this field after I graduate.” It is best not to have hidden agendas such as wanting the person interviewing you to hire you or wanting him to refer you for a job opening. Remain courteous even when told “no.” Some people simply are too busy to meet with you. Or they may not think that they can be most helpful to you. Always ask if they know someone else who might be able to help you. Count it as a success if they refer you to someone else. Be flexible. Be willing to meet with people during their nonbusiness hours or during times, such as early in the morning or late in the afternoon, when they may be more likely to have time to be interviewed. It is best to meet with people at their places of business, since that will give you an opportunity to observe their work setting.
■ During the Interview Arrive promptly and prepared for the interview. Dress appropriately as if you were a professional in the interviewee’s organization. Be ready to briefly tell about your academic and work experiences and why you are interested in the occupation. It is a good idea to provide a card with your name and address or a single-sheet resume so the interviewee can easily contact you or provide your name as a referral. Have your list of questions ready and paper and pencil to take notes of the interviewee’s responses. Be ready to get to the business of the interview and be alert to keeping the interview within the promised time limit. Always be courteous and attentive.
Training for Job Entry and Career Development
■ Following Up the Interview Manage the information interview process by keeping records that track the contacts you have made and the results of interviews. It is important to follow through on the interview, whether it is by doing any further suggested research or contacting another person. It is also important to follow up with interviewees by sending a note thanking them for the time spent with you. It is a good idea to tell interviewees the results you obtained from the interview. For example, if you did suggested research, what did you learn? Tell interviewees if you called anyone they referred you to and obtained another information interview.
■ For More Information Informational Interviewing Tutorial http://www.quintcareers.com/informational_interviewing. html
This Quintessential Careers tutorial presents a thorough discussion of the process of information interviewing. Here you will find some of the reasons for conducting this kind of interview, suggested guidelines to follow (for example, don’t ask for a job when you’re on an information interview; wait for the actual job interview), a list of the types of questions you might want to ask, advice on appropriate follow-up and what to do with the information you’ve gathered, and much more. The step-by-step format is straightforward and will surely give you a good head start on preparing for your information interview. Want to know more? Check out the links to other related resources. Informational Interviewing http://danenet.wicip.org/jets/jet-9407-p.html
A neat fact sheet by the Wisconsin Department of Labor, Industry, and Human Relations, this site gives you a stepby-step outline for conducting an information interview and a list of questions appropriate to ask at an information interview.
Training for Job Entry and Career Development Employers want to hire workers who are able to carry out their job duties and achieve desired results. Every job has a minimum training requirement based on the complexity of the duties workers in that job are expected
to perform. If you want to be competitive in the labor market, whether you are just entering a job, looking to advance, or trying to change jobs, you need to know the required training for the jobs that interest you and look for ways to get that training. Those whose training best matches job-training requirements have a competitive edge in the labor market because they are the workers employers want to hire. Training includes course work at educational institutions and work/learning experiences such as apprenticeships, internships, and on-the-job training. Other ways to get training can be through volunteering and service learning. You can show proof of your training with certificates, diplomas, and documentation of experiences. You should realize that just getting the minimum level of training is usually not sufficient to be competitive in the labor market. Getting a certificate, diploma, or degree does not guarantee getting a high-paying job. It is usually a combination of academic preparation and experience that makes a person most competitive in the job market. You can enter many jobs in the U.S. labor market with a high school diploma and receive short-term, onthe-job training. However, these positions generally offer the lowest pay and benefits. As a rule, the more training required to enter a job, the higher the pay. Other factors, such as the specific job, the worker’s occupational experience and length of time on the job, and the type of employment setting, also influence earnings. Some occupations, such as plumbers, automotive mechanics, and carpenters, do not require a college degree but have higher-than-average earnings. It is also possible to earn a higher-than-average income in some sales occupations that do not require advanced training to enter. However, in today’s labor market, most of the jobs that pay aboveaverage earnings require postsecondary training. Generally, higher-paying occupations that require much training to enter also require successful completion of specific, accredited training programs, while occupations that require less training to enter offer more options in obtaining training, frequently including on-the-job training. You should be certain that the training programs in which you enroll fulfill requirements for your occupational goals. If you are seeking postsecondary training, you should consider the following questions: n What training is considered appropriate for entry into the occupation? n What are the various options to obtain training for this occupation? n If there is a license or certification require ment, does the academic program provide the
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appropriate course work and have the appropriate accreditation? n Is any further training required to obtain the license or certification beyond the academic degree or certificate of completion of the training program? Consulting with a career counselor is often an excellent way to learn about training options and financial resources for obtaining training. A career counselor can help determine if any given program is likely to provide the appropriate training required by employers in the occupation.
■ Two- and Four-Year Programs Higher education is educational programming beyond high school. It includes course work from two- or fouryear institutions and from graduate schools. People who successfully complete these educational programs receive degrees, either associate’s, bachelor’s, master’s, doctoral, or professional. On average, workers who have earned bachelor’s, master’s, doctoral, or professional degrees have higher incomes and lower unemployment rates than workers with less education. Some occupations that require a college degree for entry also require people entering the occupation to obtain a license or certification.
Associate’s Degree An associate’s degree is considered a two-year degree, which means that it normally takes two years of fulltime enrollment to complete. Currently, the majority of the fastest growing occupations in the U.S. labor market require an associate’s degree for entry. Some of the fastest growing occupations that you can enter with an associate’s degree include cardiovascular technologists and technicians diagnostic medical sonographers n forensic science technicians n paralegals and legal assistants n dental hygienists n occupational therapy assistants n physical therapists assistants n veterinary technologists and technicians n n
An associate’s degree may be conferred in arts (A.A.) or in science (A.S.) and is sometimes referred to as a technical degree. The course work to earn an associate’s degree typically is focused on specialized knowledge needed for occupational qualification. It is not unusual for associate’s degree programming to include an experiential requirement, that is, course work that requires performing job duties in a work setting. Two-year colleges usually award associate’s degrees. Some four-year colleges also offer associate’s degrees.
Two-year colleges are often called community colleges, technical colleges, or junior colleges. Tuition and fees are typically lower at two-year colleges than at four-year institutions; however, most two-year institutions do not offer students on-campus housing. Many two-year colleges have open admissions policies. This means that if your high school academic performance would not qualify you for regular college admission, you may be admitted to a two-year college if you satisfactorily complete remedial courses. Two-year colleges often have transfer agreements with four-year colleges so that students can enroll in a two-year college to complete their first years of college course work and then transfer to a four-year institution to complete their bachelor’s degrees.
Bachelor’s Degree A bachelor’s degree is a four-year degree and is often referred to as an undergraduate degree. It is usually designated as either a bachelor of arts (B.A.) or a bachelor of science (B.S.) depending upon the area of academic study and may be conferred with honors, that is, magna cum laude or summa cum laude, if the student maintains a high grade point average (GPA). While it is possible to complete a bachelor’s degree in four years of fulltime enrollment, on average, today’s students are taking between four to six years to complete their undergraduate degrees. One reason for this is because, while not typically required in undergraduate studies, many students have realized internship experiences make them more competitive in the job market and prolong their studies to include them. Currently, in the United States, occupations that usually require a bachelor’s degree or more education to enter are experiencing a faster than average rate of growth. Some of these include biomedical engineers computer software engineers, applications n computer software engineers, systems software n database administrators n employment, recruitment, and placement specialists n environmental engineers n network systems and data communications analyst n physician’s assistants n n
Four-year colleges and universities award bachelor’s degrees. There are a wide variety of these institutions and they offer a wide variety of educational experiences. High school students who are planning to attend college often find weighing the different options makes selecting a college or university a difficult choice. Two important considerations in choosing a college or university are the
degrees offered and the size of the student body. Each college and university offers degrees in specific areas and may not offer a program of studies or a degree in other areas. Universities are usually bigger than colleges, having more educational resources and bigger student enrollment. In addition to undergraduate degrees, they often award graduate degrees at all levels: master’s, doctoral, and professional. They do not necessarily offer all levels of graduate degrees in all program areas. Colleges may or may not offer graduate degrees, and if they do offer graduate degrees, they typically do not do so at all levels. Colleges and universities may be either private or public. Private schools may be affiliated with religious groups. Public schools are state sponsored. Typically, tuition is less at public schools than at private schools, and even less for residents of the school’s state. Most, but not all, four-year colleges and universities offer on-campus housing. Some schools are widely recognized for excellence in their educational programming, either generally or in specific areas of study. Because of this recognized excellence, some schools are considered prestigious and getting a degree from one of them confers some of its prestige onto the graduate. Ivy League, for example, is a term used to refer to eight universities and colleges in the northeast United States: Brown, Columbia, Cornell, Dartmouth, Harvard, Princeton, University of Pennsylvania, and Yale. The prestige associated with one of these schools (and many others recognized for their excellence in programming) can provide an advantage in the job market, not only because of the school’s distinction but also because of the potential for developing networks both with current employers and with others who will be working in the occupation. Thus it makes sense when selecting a school to consider those that are widely recognized as being at the top of the list for the field you want to study. Many students have difficulty deciding on a major field of study when they begin undergraduate studies. They think that because occupations that pay more than average require a bachelor’s degree that they will be able to find a high-paying job when they graduate no matter what they study. They may think a degree that indicates a broad field of studies, such as general studies or liberal arts, will prepare them to enter a number of occupations. While it is true that it is possible to enter many occupations with a liberal arts degree, the people who are most competitive for jobs seek out specific courses and experiences to prepare for occupational entry. Some occupations, for example, buyers, insurance claim representatives, and interpreters, employ workers who have bachelor’s degrees but their major fields of study may not be specific. If you are uncertain what major area of study will best prepare you to enter the occupation you want,
Training for Job Entry and Career Development
you might benefit from doing information interviewing with employers to inquire what course work and experiences they consider most important when they hire. Internships. To enter into some occupations with a bachelor’s degree requires completing an internship. For example, people who want to become dietitians need to complete a one-year dietetic internship in a program approved by the American Dietetic Association. Although many areas of study do not require any experiential components to earn a bachelor’s degree, students who intend to enter an occupation requiring a bachelor’s degree and who want a competitive advantage in the job market after graduation should seek out opportunities to include experiential learning, such as practicums and internships, in their degree programs. A practicum or an internship is an opportunity to perform the job duties expected of an employee in an actual work setting. It provides two advantages: (1) you can determine if you are on the right career path by seeing if you enjoy working in the occupation and (2) you can start developing a professional network of contacts who may be able to help in finding employment after graduation. College- and university-sponsored experiential learning programs often have a very high rate of placement of their graduates. You can learn about the possibilities of completing an experiential learning component, either with or without academic credit, by visiting the college or university career and placement office. Students who enroll in a four-year institution knowing that the occupation they seek to enter requires a graduate degree should plan to earn that degree after receiving their bachelor’s degree. While some institutions offer programs of study that allow you to progress from bachelor’s degree studies to graduate studies, it is more typical that you must apply for admission into a graduate program. That program may or may not be offered at the institution from which your undergraduate degree was awarded. The institution that awarded you an undergraduate degree may not admit you into its graduate program. If you are enrolling in an undergraduate program and anticipate that you will attend graduate school, you should ask faculty where their program’s graduates have continued their education. Acceptance into graduate programs often depends on factors such as the field of study in which the bachelor’s degree was awarded, the grade point average earned in undergraduate studies, and recommendations from undergraduate faculty members.
■ Graduate Studies Master’s, doctoral, specialist, and professional degrees are awarded as graduate degrees. Typically, it requires
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two to six years of studies after the undergraduate degree to earn a graduate degree. Some colleges, universities, and institutes of specialized study are accredited to award graduate degrees. Some programs of graduate study require students to be awarded a master’s degree and then seek a doctoral degree, while others admit students with the intention that they will complete their studies with the award of a doctoral or professional degree. Programs of study for entry into specific occupations or professions may need to be accredited by professional associations’ accrediting bodies. For example, the National Architectural Accrediting Board accredits architectural programs, the American Bar Association accredits law programs, and the American Psychological Association accredits psychology programs. Professional associations provide lists of colleges and universities that offer accredited programs of study. To be competitive in the job market, and often to be eligible to obtain licenses or certificates to practice in an occupation, it is essential that you have degrees from programs of study accredited by appropriate professional bodies. Completing a graduate degree from an accredited program is often only one requirement in the process of obtaining a professional license or certificate. Other requirements may include passing of competency tests after graduation and working under supervision in the occupation. If you are seeking entry into a graduate program, you should see yourself as a consumer seeking the best graduate program to meet your occupational goals. It is appropriate to inquire where graduates obtain employment and if the graduate degree is useful in obtaining occupational licensure or certification.
Master’s Degree Master’s degrees usually require you to earn between 36 and 64 or more graduate semester credit hours and usually to complete them in not less than two years of full-time study. Some of the fastest growing occupations that can be entered with a master’s degree include hydrologists occupational therapists n physical therapists n n
Master’s degrees are generally conferred in either arts (M.A.) or sciences (M.S.) depending on the field of study. Master’s degrees may be very specialized toward entry into a specific occupation; others may be awarded after studies that qualify graduates for entry into a variety of occupations. Some course work may be specified by accrediting bodies or by licensing or certifying boards. Experiential learning components may or may not be
required. Completion of either a comprehensive examination or a master’s thesis is usually required before graduation. Admission into master’s programs is selective. Undergraduate transcripts and scores on standardized tests are usually considered. Often, program faculty will interview people applying for entry into master’s-level programs. Faculty members are usually trying to be certain that graduation from the program will meet the applicant’s career goals. If you are knowledgeable about the occupational opportunities available to graduates, aware of any accrediting, licensing, or certifying body requirements, and familiar with any professional associations, you are considered a better candidate for graduate studies than someone who is less informed.
Advanced Graduate Studies: Specialist, Doctoral, and Professional Degrees There are a variety of degrees that may be earned in graduate studies beyond the master’s level, such as a specialist degree, as in education specialist (Ed.S.); a doctoral degree, as in philosophy (Ph.D.), education (Ed.D.), or psychology (Psy.D.); and a professional degree, as in doctor of medicine (M.D.), doctor of dental science (D.D.S.), juris doctor (J.D.), or bachelor of laws (L.L.B.). Doctoral studies usually require you to earn 90 graduate semester credit hours beyond the undergraduate degree. They often take four to six years to complete. Typically, both academic course work and experiential learning components are included in programs of study. Evaluative components may include comprehensive examinations and a research project that includes writing a doctoral dissertation. Admission into advanced graduate programs is usually highly competitive. Applicants may be evaluated on undergraduate and graduate course work completed, on standardized test scores, and through personal interviews. It is helpful to be knowledgeable about the occupation for which you are seeking further training, to be able to clearly articulate how this training will further your personal career path, and to suggest how you intend to contribute to the profession. Some of the fastest-growing occupations that can be entered with specialist, doctoral, and professional degrees include lawyers medical scientists, except epidemiologists n physicians n postsecondary teachers n psychologists n surgeons n n
Training for Job Entry and Career Development
■ Other Postsecondary Training Options Currently, the U.S. labor market provides a wide variety of occupations that you can enter without a higher education degree. Sometimes training is provided on the job. Training may also be available from a wide variety of programs. Some may provide academic course work and experiential components. Some may combine both academic and on-the-job training. For instance, training to become a hairstylist or cosmetologist is available in high school vocational classes, in postgraduate adult education, in private career schools, and in apprenticeships. Different program options have varied requirements in terms of tuition and length of time spent in training. The length and expense of a training program are not necessarily indicators of its quality, nor does having a certificate or diploma from a program necessarily make you more competitive in the job market. Think of yourself as a consumer of educational programming and carefully examine the training options available to help determine what training program best matches your time commitment, financing, learning style, and career goals. It may be helpful to do information interviews with local employers to determine what sort of training programs they prefer their employees to have completed.
Adult Education Courses Many public school systems sponsor adult education classes that offer course work both to obtain General Education Development (GED) certification and to get vocational training. GED certification is the equivalent of a high school diploma. Students who successfully complete vocational classes usually receive a certificate. These training programs generally can be completed in a year or less. Classes are frequently offered in the evenings and on weekends. The cost of training is usually moderate. The specific vocational classes vary from school system to school system, but it is possible to obtain training for a wide variety of occupations including dental assistants n hairstylist or cosmetologists n automobile mechanics n heating and air-conditioning technicians n secretaries n
Trade and Technical Schools or Colleges Trade and technical schools or colleges are usually private, for-profit, institutions that offer vocational training. Sometimes they are referred to as private career schools, vocational schools or colleges, or proprietary schools. These schools may be accredited by agencies recognized
by the U.S. Office of Education or by the Council on Post-Secondary Accreditation, such as the Career College Association. They may be licensed or registered by state boards of education. Typically, their programs of study emphasize training for a specific occupation. Training is commonly offered to enter occupations such as automobile mechanics data processing equipment repairers n dental assistants n desktop publishing specialists n food service preparation and management workers n hairstylists and cosmetologists n licensed practical nurses n heating and air-conditioning technicians n secretaries n n
These schools may offer course work similar to that available through adult education courses or at community colleges. Private career schools may also offer instructional programs in occupations, such as bartender or child care worker, which are possible to enter without specialized training. If you are considering these courses you should carefully consider their usefulness in improving your competitiveness in the labor market. Training programs may be completed in a year or two years. Students who successfully complete course work usually receive certificates, but some private career colleges are accredited to award associate’s degrees. Tuition costs may be equal to or exceed that of community colleges. If the school is approved, it may be possible to receive financial aid in the form of loans to pay for tuition. You should understand that you are expected to repay student loans. Many private career schools are accredited and offer both professional instruction and job placement that help their graduates advance on their career paths. However, because offering of educational programs and vocational training is not a highly regulated industry, you must be a cautious consumer. Typically, these schools cannot guarantee that after graduation their students will be hired in positions suitable for their training. State Boards of Education and Better Business Bureaus can often provide information to help you choose a private career school. It is appropriate to ask school representatives to tour instructional facilities and to ask questions such as What accreditation does this school have? How many people graduated from the educational program in the past couple of years? n What are the credentials of the instructors teaching the course work? n Is job placement service available? n n
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How long does it typically take graduates to find jobs in their field? n How many graduates have found jobs in the occupations for which they were trained? n Where are graduates currently working? In what positions? n
Care Facility Training Programs Hospitals and other care facilities, such as nursing homes, may offer opportunities to train to enter health care occupations. This training may combine academic course work and on-the-job training, or it may be onthe-job training only. Training programs usually can be completed in six months to two years. People completing care facility training programs usually are awarded a certificate. Costs for such programs are usually modest, often limited to fees for textbooks. Typically, you are paid lower wages while engaged in on-the-job training and receive higher wages when you have completed the program successfully. Occupations that you can enter with this kind of training include nurse’s aides n licensed practical nurses n physical therapy assistants or aides n occupational therapy assistants or aides n psychiatric assistants or aides n
Apprenticeships Apprenticeships have been a traditional way to enter the occupations referred to as “skilled trades” or “blue collar.” These include occupations in building trades and construction, such as carpenter, electrician, floor layer, painter and paperhanger, and plumber. They also include machine trades or industrial trades that employ boilermakers, ironworkers, machinists, tool programmers, millwrights, and tool, die, mold, and pattern makers. It is possible for experienced workers in many of these occupations to earn higher-than-average wages, so entry into apprenticeships in these occupations is often very competitive. Apprenticeships have also been a traditional way to learn artisan occupations that are sometimes referred to as crafts. These include occupations such as musical instrument maker, jewelry crafter, glassblower, and various folk arts. Apprenticeship training can also be available to enter a broad variety of other occupational fields, such as farm and animal workers, health care workers, and human services workers. Apprenticeships are based on the idea that a skilled worker teaches an apprentice occupational skills and, in exchange for this training, the apprentice agrees to work for the trainer at lower wages for a certain
period of time. Traditionally, people working in the skilled trades and arts are classified by their level of expertise: Apprentice: A beginner who is learning the craft. Journeyworker: A skilled worker who has successfully completed an apprenticeship. n Master craftsworker: A high-skilled worker who is an expert in the craft. n n
An apprenticeship is a training program based on a contract made between the trainer and the trainee, usually either between an apprentice and a master craftsworker, or an apprentice and a business that employs workers at all skill levels. The contract should include length of training required of the trainee length of work required of the trainee n on-the-job and academic training and its scheduling n wage schedules and associated costs n length of probationary periods n n
Apprenticeships often combine academic course work with on-the-job experience. The majority of apprenticeships to enter the skilled trades pay apprentices wages that are lower than those of more-skilled workers. As the worker progresses in the apprenticeship and gains skills, the wages are raised. Apprentices may be expected to pay for academic instruction and for associated costs such as textbooks, tools, and union membership. Apprenticeships for entering other occupations, such as the arts, may require apprentices to pay for their training and do not provide any wages for the trainee. The length of apprenticeship training programs varies, but those in the skilled trades may require up to four years or longer. Those who successfully complete an apprenticeship are conferred journeyworker status and receive a journeyworker’s card. Apprenticeships in sought-after training opportunities are usually competitive to enter. Think of entering an apprenticeship as similar to asking an employer for a job. Having good basic academic skills and being able to talk about why completing the apprenticeship is important to your career goals will make you more attractive to program administrators. Each apprenticeship usually includes a probationary period during which your ability to benefit from the training is evaluated. The probationary period is a trial period during which either you or your trainer may decide to end the apprenticeship. After the probationary period, the apprenticeship contract binds both the trainer and trainee in obligation to each other, and it becomes more complicated to end the apprenticeship.
Service Learning and Volunteering Service learning means working as a volunteer in a community service agency. Service learning helps you gain a sense of civic and social responsibility as you develop personal, professional, and academic skills by applying classroom learning in a work environment. There are volunteer opportunities in all occupational areas. Volunteers learn about jobs in different occupational fields and can participate in activities that develop skills. Some high schools make service learning a requirement. Their students must do up to 40 hours of volunteer work before graduation. Many community colleges and some undergraduate colleges are including service learning as experiential components in their course work. Service learning positions usually require you to identify organizations or agencies that provide opportunities of interest to you. You usually do information interviews with representatives of the organization to learn more about the activities in which you might be involved as a volunteer. Frequently, you enter into a service learning contract with the organization. This contract outlines the objectives of the service learning experience and the schedule for learning activities. You may be asked to keep logs or journals of your participation and observations. If the service learning experience is part of academic course work, you may be expected to make a presentation to your classmates on the services and activities of the organization or agency in which you completed your service learning. Service learning often allows volunteers to work with employees in their work environments. Volunteers learn about the job duties of people in specific occupations and observe people employed in different occupations working together. For example, volunteers who work in shelters for homeless or abused people will see food preparation workers, such as cooks and kitchen helpers; administrative workers, such as secretaries, janitors, and maintenance workers; helping professionals, such as social workers and counselors; and law enforcement officials. Volunteers may also get opportunities to learn how specific activities, for example, a political campaign, a criminal trial, a community festival, or a fund-raising event for charity, are organized and carried out. Volunteers can develop skills that make them more marketable, such as learning to greet and assist customers, assisting in clerical duties, running meetings, and dealing with the media. If you are not a student, you may find that volunteering in a service learning position provides experiences that aid you in career transitions or job advancement. Volunteer work may offer an opportunity to demonstrate skills and abilities that you can use in employment.
Training for Job Entry and Career Development
Achievements and activities done in unpaid volunteer work can be legitimately reflected on resumes and job applications. Volunteering can be used as a career-management strategy. Specify what learning objectives and skills development experiences are desired, such as learning how to put together a newsletter using desktop publishing. Use the local resources, such as United Way offices or Community Services Boards, or learn about organizations and agencies that use volunteers and that employ people in occupations that interest you. Interview the representative who coordinates the organization’s or the agency’s volunteers to determine if there are opportunities to meet your desired learning objectives. Document your activities and experiences in terms of job skills and ask volunteer coordinators to provide letters of recommendation specifying achievements.
Distance Learning or Distance Education Distance learning or distance education offers the availability of educational programming close to home. You do not have to go to the educational institution to take courses; instead the academic faculty comes to you via electronic media. There are many different forms of educational opportunities that are called distance learning. The oldest form of distance learning is the traditional correspondence courses in which academic course work is transmitted by mail. Educational institutions typically provide home-study materials such as workbooks, which may be supplemented by texts that you must provide. You mail completed homework assignments to the educational institution for grading. Correspondence courses are usually purchased at a set fee per course. You study on your own and complete courses at your own pace. Completion of a series of correspondence courses usually results in your being awarded a certificate. Today, the availability of a variety of media has broadened the delivery methods and scope of distance learning. Distance learning course work is offered via video conferencing, Internet, email, or a combination of all. Video conferencing sends audio and video images from a transmission station to receiving stations. This means you may have to go to some facility in your community, usually an educational institution or convention center, to attend distance learning classes. Video conferencing is usually two-way, allowing students and teachers to interact. Many educational institutions supplement course work delivered via video conferencing with Internet instruction. You access course work information and assignments via the Internet and you correspond with the instructor and other students by email. Some distance learning is offered via Internet, where you access
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course work and take tests online, join in class discussions in chat rooms, and correspond with your instructor and classmates via email. Distance learning opportunities are offered by a wide variety of sponsors including U.S. government agencies, professional associations, and institutions of higher education. Many colleges and universities offer some course work via distance learning formats. While it is possible to complete specific courses via distance learning, many colleges and universities require students to attend some on-campus classes in order to complete degree programs that include distance learning components. There is great variance in the quality of course work offered via distance learning formats. More and more accredited institutions of higher education are providing opportunities for distance learning. Other opportunities for education, particularly on the Internet, are scams. It is vital that you be an informed consumer and determine if the source of distance learning is legitimate and if the educational program offered will be useful in your personal career development. How do you know if your online educator is on the up-and-up? Distance learning offered by state and national universities is your best bet. Consider contacting the Accrediting Commission of the Distance Education and Training Council (http://www.detc.org) for a list of accredited institutions. There are also many Internet discussion groups that focus on distance learning. Get involved with one and learn more. Finally, consider visiting the Council for Higher Education Accreditation’s Research and Publications section (http://www.chea.org/ Research/index.cfm) to learn more about the challenges that distance learning poses for higher education.
■ For More Information Colleges and College Majors My Future http://www.myfuture.com
Sponsored by the U.S. Military Services, this site has a variety of interesting information. There are several sections devoted to military career options and military lifestyles, and there is also advice ranging from finding financial aid to buying a used car in the Personal Finance section. Career Help provides guidance on various steps of the job search process. Take the Interest Finder Quiz to determine the type of career you might be best suited for. A resume builder, cover letter dos and don’ts, interview tips, and materials on hot jobs round out the site. The information is concise, fun, and quick to read through.
What Can I Do with a Major In . . . ? http://www.uncwil.edu/stuaff/career/Majors
This University of North Carolina at Wilmington Career Services department hosts this informative Web site. Here you can discover what types of careers are associated with more than 40 popular majors. All About College http://www.allaboutcollege.com
This site contains links to the home pages of thousands of colleges and universities in the United States and abroad. You can browse through the listings by state or country. Your non-U.S. choices are Africa, Asia, Australia, Canada, Europe, Mexico, and South America. Not only are you given easy access to these home pages, but where available you will also have at your fingertips the email addresses for admissions offices at many of these institutions. This sites also offers information on graduate schools and many aspects of college life such as test preparation, study abroad, fraternities and sororities, financial aid, and job searches. There’s also a chat room where students can discuss topics of interest. Compare Colleges http://www.usnews.com/usnews/edu/college/rankings/ rankindex_brief.php
U.S. News & World Report offers a site where you can review college rankings, search for colleges by different criteria, compare colleges, and research topics like of location, affiliation, number of students, cost, financial aid, admissions, student satisfaction, faculty/student ratio, and other interesting facts of campus life. The site also provides information on topics such as conquering college admissions and considering two-year and fouryear college options. Study Abroad Directory http://www.studyabroad.com
If you’re interested in attending college outside the United States, then check out this site. You’ll find a handbook covering general information pertaining to living abroad, such as cultural differences, safety, how to deal with emergency situations, the costs of studying abroad and other money-related issues, and the necessary documents to bring along. A search tool allows you to look for schools that offer international study programs. Select the criteria you want to search by (for example, country, subject, summer programs). Your results page will include links to Web sites, contact information, and/or program descriptions. The Marketplace suggests sites where you can learn about financial aid, health insurance, travel agencies, student IDs,
Training for Job Entry and Career Development
and more. There are also a few listings for study abroad opportunities for high school students.
Community Colleges and Vocational Training Community College Web
ments, and what to do in case of an equal opportunity employment complaint. There are also basic facts on apprenticeship programs and links to other important government-sponsored Web sites important to career managers.
http://www.mcli.dist.maricopa.edu/cc/index.html
If you’re thinking about attending a community college, visit this site, where you’ll find links to home pages of more than 1,200 community colleges in the United States and a few other countries. You can search geographically, alphabetically, and by keyword. Also useful is the site’s wide assortment of annotated links to other Web resources. Some of the categories are students, employment, organizations, and journals. RWM Vocational School Database http://www.rwm.org/rwm
Addresses and phone numbers of private postsecondary vocational schools in the United States can be found at this site. First select the state you’re interested in and then choose the category. Among the fields represented are automotive, barbering, business, fashion design, plumbing, telecommunications, and welding. More specific occupations are included under these headings; for example, the business category includes accounting, administrative, general office, marketing, secretarial, and so on. Links are also offered for sites with financial aid information and the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics’ Occupational Outlook Handbook.
Graduate School Graduate School Guide http://www.graduateguide.com
Find a grad school with this searchable directory to U.S. schools offering doctoral, master’s, and professional degree programs. Search the database by entering a particular school name or by indicating state and major. Listings include institution name, address, phone number, and where available fax number, email address, and Web site address. Before making your final decision, read the Graduate Questions section to learn the types of questions to ask on your search for the right grad school. Links to related sites are also provided.
Service Learning and Volunteering Nonprofit Career Network http://www.idealist.org
If you are interested in researching jobs, internships, or volunteer opportunities in the nonprofit sector, this resource from the organization Action Without Borders is a great one. The Nonprofit Career Center features an international directory of information on more than 58,000 nonprofit groups worldwide, with links where available. The database is searchable by many variables, including country, area of focus, and mission keyword. If you don’t want to use the search form, you have the option to view everything. You also can browse through the links to other Web sites that contain tips for nonprofit job hunters and details on academic programs that can lead to a career in the nonprofit sector, along with much more. Global Volunteers http://www.globalvolunteers.org
Global Volunteers is a nonprofit organization developed to promote and maintain world peace through humanitarian services. Volunteers sign on for stints of as many as three weeks to work on human and economic development projects in Africa, Latin America, Europe, the United States, or Asia. This might entail teaching English, digging wells, planting community gardens, or providing professional services. (Don’t worry, you won’t be asked to extract teeth unless you’re really a dentist.) You can read volunteer testimonials, project descriptions, and the philosophy of Global Volunteers, plus you can download an application form at the site. You do have to pay a program fee, but it is tax-deductible and covers most of your expenses.
Distance Learning Distance Learning on the Net http://www.hoyle.com
Apprenticeships U.S. Department of Labor Bureau of Employment and Training Administration Registered Apprenticeship Web site http://www.doleta.gov/OA/eta_default.cfm
This sites offers information on benefits of apprenticeship, finding a program, eligibility and require-
Glenn Hoyle has created this site that provides a great overview of distance learning. Starting with definitions, he has created links and provided information about adult education, national and international colleges, courses and classes, technical and vocational education, organizations, conferences and events, and portals to the most popular distance learning sites.
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United States Distance Learning Association http://www.usdla.org
Primarily a professional group, the USDLA’s Web site offers a lot of information about distance learning that is useful to the public. The site also offers a glossary of distance learning terms and a scholarly journal devoted to articles on distance learning that includes a section written by students. Learning about E Learning http://www.usnews.com/usnews/edu/elearning/elhome.htm
This site provides a comprehensive view of distance learning and includes a directory of more than 2,800 traditional colleges and universities that provide distance learning opportunities. It also provides tips on the type of computer hardware that makes distance learning easier, a discussion forum, profiles of distance learners, tips on choosing the distance learning program that meets your needs, and financial aid for distance learning. Peterson’s Distance Learning http://www.petersons.com/distancelearning/code/search. asp?path=ug.fas.distance
Peterson’s, publisher of educational books, offers this database of distance learning opportunities. According to your interest, you can search by program, course, or school. There’s also an assessment to determine if distance learning is right for you, an article on distance learning that will help you learn more about topics like accreditation, and information on financial aid. The Distance Education and Training Council (DETC) http://www.detc.org
The DETC is a nonprofit association responsible for maintaining a storehouse of information about distance learning. The council sponsors the Accrediting Commission of the Distance Education and Training Council, a nationally recognized accrediting agency. There is a directory of accredited institutions by type, such as degree granting, high school, postsecondary, federal, and military. Or you can browse for an institution by subject taught. Contact details (including Web site addresses where available) and notes on courses and degrees are featured. The Free Publications section includes information on accreditation and evaluating the usefulness of a distance learning degree. The Useful Resources section provides links to educational resources, libraries, reference services, and educational agencies that focus on distance learning.
Western Governors University (WGU) http://www.wgu.edu
WGU compiles distance learning course and program listings from a variety of colleges and universities and presents them in a single course catalog.
The Future World of Work One of the most difficult aspects of career management is that it includes planning for an unknown future. Career managers consider questions such as “If I invest my time and money in training for an occupation, am I likely to get a job that will pay me back?” There are many events in life that you cannot anticipate but that influence your career. Even when you train for and enter an occupation for which you are well suited, your career path may be interrupted by events such as losing a job through downsizing or an accident that disables you from performing your job. An element of uncertainty is always part of career planning. Awareness of what the job market is now and what it might be in the future helps to take some of the uncertainty out of career planning.
■ Assumptions for Prediction Most forecasters make predictions about the future by looking at the past and at the current state of things, by analyzing trends, and by extrapolating the trends to make projections. They base their forecasts on several assumptions: Human beings and the societies they create act to achieve goals. For example, people have as a goal to live together in an orderly fashion and pass their knowledge on to the next generation, so societies create systems for government and education. n People and social systems are more alike than different. For example, most educational systems involve someone who has more knowledge (in role of teacher or trainer) instructing someone who has less knowledge (the student). n There will be a continuity of events so that social changes occur gradually rather than rapidly. Major social roles and social institutions change relatively slowly. For example, the role of a teacher standing in front of a class to deliver a lesson has not changed greatly throughout modern history. n
The Future World of Work
Changes can be attributed to cause-and-effect relationships, and trends must be viewed holistically, that is, on how they interact, influencing each other and the world. n
The likelihood of a forecast being accurate is based on probabilities. The number of people involved in the prediction and time frame of the prediction influence the probability of the forecast coming to pass. Forecasters focus on mega, or large, trends in society. It is easier to be accurate about the number of cooks that are going to be employed in the year 2014 than it is to accurately predict if any given individual is going to be a cook in the year 2014. The time frame for which the prediction is made is also important. For example, if you are currently employed as a cook, a forecast that you will be employed as a cook next year would be more probable, that is, more likely to be accurate, than the forecast that you will be employed as a cook in the year 2014. The more distant the future, the more difficult it is to predict with any accuracy. Technological developments in the last half of the 20th century resulted in the creation of jobs that were unknown in the 1970s. Forecasters concerned with the future of work usually make their predictions based on the entire U.S. economy and limit their forecasts to 10 years. Sometimes even short-term predictions can be wrong. Events such as natural disasters, disease, war, and technological developments can have drastic impacts that upset the assumption of continuity.
■ Changes in the Economy In the economy of the United States, who is working or looking for work, occupations, and job opportunities are always changing for many reasons. Changes in people’s life roles result in both changes in the labor market and changes in the demand for workers in some occupations. For example, since the mid-1970s, there has been a trend changing American women’s roles from homemakers to wage earners. Since 1976, increasing numbers of women have been joining the labor force. It is projected that by 2014, 46.8 percent of the labor market will be women. With more women in fulltime employment, there has been a steady demand for child care workers. The increase in numbers of women employed full time has also resulted in an increased demand for workers in personal care occupations, such as manicurists. Women’s return to the labor market has been paralleled by rapid growth in both packaged, precooked foods industries and fast food restaurants and services such as housecleaning, laundry, and dry cleaning.
Another reason for changes in the types of jobs available is new technologies. For example, in the 1980s and 1990s, when technological developments made computers commonly used tools, demands for workers having technical skills increased. While some occupations were created, others have employed fewer and fewer people, and some became obsolete. For example, many people used to have jobs as typists, but today’s job market demands that workers in a wide variety of occupations have keyboarding skills to do both word processing and to run computer programs. Similarly, switchboard operators became an obsolete occupation as technology developed complex telephone systems that did not require human operators. Two perspectives on the future of work come from information about the composition of the labor force and the types of occupations in demand and the number of openings these occupations are likely to offer. The best source of accurate projections of the U.S. labor market and the occupational opportunities for the labor market is the U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics.
■ Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) The BLS looks at the future of work in the United States by making projections about the labor force and about occupational opportunities. It updates its projections of the future of work in the United States every two years. The BLS makes these projections available in a variety of publications including Monthly Labor Review, Occupational Outlook Quarterly, and Occupational Outlook Handbook (OOH). The OOH is printed biannually in years that end with an even digit. OOH information is available on the Internet at http://www.bls.gov/oco.
■ The Labor Force The labor force, or the labor market, consists of people in the United States who are working or looking for work. It does not include people who are in the military services or who are in institutions, such as mental hospitals and prisons. Labor force projections look at the workforce participation rate of portions of the U.S. population. For example, typically labor force participation of people aged 16 to 24 is low because they often have school or child care responsibilities. This age group’s share of the labor force is expected to be 13.7 percent by 2014. The labor force share composed of workers age 25 to 54, the primary working age group, is expected to decline to 65.2 percent in 2014 from 69.3 percent in 2004, while workers 55 and older is projected to rise from 15.6 percent to 21.2 percent during the same time period. This is mainly due to the aging baby-boom generation.
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Current BLS projections look at the U.S. labor market for the years 2004 to 2014. You can use labor market trends to learn who will be competing for available jobs. General labor market trends include these: The labor force is projected to increase by 10 percent, or by 14.7 million workers, through 2014. The U.S. workforce will become more diverse. Asians are expected to rise from 4.3 to 5.1 percent of the labor force, and African Americans should increase from 11.3 to 12.0 percent. Hispanics are predicted to be the fastest-growing group, increasing their share of the labor market by a projected 33.7 percent. By 2014 Hispanics will make up a larger portion of the labor force than African Americans. White, non-Hispanics are expected to decline slightly from 70 percent to 65.6 percent of the total labor force. While the majority of workforce participants will be between the ages of 25 and 44, the aging of the baby boom generation means the median age of the labor force will continue to rise. The greatest changes occur at the extremes of the age ranges in the labor force, with the most rapid growth being among workers over 45 years of age and among workers 16 to 24 years of age. Male participation in the workforce is expected to grow by 9.1 percent, a rate projected to be outstripped by 10.9 percent growth for women. The number of men in the workforce is predicted to drop from 53.6 to 53.2 percent, compared to an increase from 46.4 to 46.8 percent for women.
■ The Job Market The job market consists of the types of occupations in demand and the number of job openings these occupations are likely to offer. It is important to distinguish between occupations that are rapidly growing and those that employ large numbers of people. It is often suggested that rapidly growing occupations are “hot” careers, that is, occupations that will be in demand in the future. Rapid growth indicates more workers are finding employment in the occupation, but it does not mean that large numbers of people are employed in the occupation. In fact, occupations with the greatest growth are occupations that have employed fewer numbers of people. Compare the occupational projections between 2004 and 2014 for two occupations with similar earnings: computer software engineers (applications) and registered nurses. Computer software engineers will have a 46 percent growth rate from 2002 when there were 394,000 jobs, to 2012 when there are projected to be 573,000 jobs. This amounts to a little more than 170,000 job openings due to both job growth and a need to replace workers who retire or leave the profession. Registered nurses will experience only a 27 percent growth rate between
2002 and 2012; however, there were 2,284,000 jobs for registered nurses in 2002 and there are projected to be 2,908,000 jobs in 2012, an increase of more than 600,000 job openings due to both growth and replacement of workers. A growing demand does not necessarily indicate a larger number of job openings than an occupation with less growth. If many people are training to enter an occupation in response to a growing demand, a very competitive job market will result. The BLS’s 2004 to 2014 projections use the Standard Occupational Classification (SOC) system. Occupations are classified into 23 major categories. For a listing of these categories, see the section on the SOC in the earlier section “Government Classification Systems.” The BLS forecasts for the American job market from 2004 to 2014 include the following: By 2014, the BLS projects 18.9 million new jobs will be added to the economy for a total of 164.5 million jobs. This represents a 13 percent increase in employment. The new jobs, however, will be distributed unevenly across major industries and occupations. n Nearly 18.7 million of the 18.9 million new wage and salary jobs through 2014 will be in service providing industries, continuing a shift away from goods-producing occupations. n Approximately 3 out of 10 new jobs created by 2014 will be in education and health services, giving this industry supersector a faster projected growth rate (30.6 percent) than any other. Health care and social assistance occupations, child care services, and private educational services are among the areas expected to see the greatest increase. n Employment in professional and business services is projected to grow by 27.8 percent, adding 4.5 million jobs in business administration, science, and technical services. This includes some of the fastest-growing job fields, such as computer systems design and waste management. n Employment in information occupations is predicted to rise by 11.6 percent, with major gains coming in software publishing (67.6 percent); Internet publishing and broadcasting (43.5 percent); and Internet service providers, Web search portals, and data services (27.8 percent). n Overall growth of 17.7 percent is projected for leisure and hospitality occupations, with a 25 percent increase in the arts, entertainment, and recreation subsector. n Trade, transportation, and utilities employment is expected to grow by 10.3 percent. n
The Future World of Work
Computer and health care occupations are expected to experience the fastest growth rate, while much larger occupations like retail salespersons, postesecondary teachers, and customer service representatives are expected to add the largest number of jobs. n
Use information from professional associations and do information interviewing to learn about future trends in specific occupations. n
■ For More Information Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) http://www.bls.gov
■ Interpreting the Data These general trends represent only a fraction of projections for the future of work in America available from the BLS. Different forecasters interpret this data to reflect varying perspectives on working in America in the future. For example, one forecaster might reflect that the labor market’s growing number of people who have diverse origins and who will be in extremes of age groups means the future workplace will need experts in human relations who can help people work better together. Another forecaster might suggest that, since 56 percent of all jobs do not require postsecondary education but generally offer lower pay and benefits, the quality of work life is deteriorating. Since experts in forecasting can validly argue for different interpretations, it can be confusing to apply it to personal career development plans. Here are some general guidelines to follow: Making career decisions requires weighing multiple factors such as (1) personal job satisfaction, (2) training required to enter the occupation, (3) typical earnings in the occupation, and (4) opportunities for employment in the occupation. n The number of job openings, rather than the growth rate, will indicate how plentiful or scarce jobs are in an occupation. n Even occupations employing fewer people will have openings to replace workers who leave their jobs, which creates opportunities for employment for competitively trained workers. n Large numbers of openings available in occupations requiring short-term training to enter make it possible to have employment while obtaining further training. n Jobs in an occupational area across different industries have many skills in common, referred to as transferable skills. For example, employment of managers in manufacturing, construction, and government is expected to be reduced, but there will be a large number of jobs for executive, administrative, and managerial workers in the services industries, finance, insurance, real estate, wholesale and retail trade, and transportation, communications, and public utilities. n Consider self-employment. n
The U.S. Department of Labor provides a vast number of online resources pertaining to national and regional labor economics and statistics of the past, present, and future. Reports, surveys, and statistics offered here deal with such topics as the cost of living, the consumer price index, employment and unemployment, as well as projections, safety and health, foreign labor, and much more. You can order BLS publications from the Web site or you can read selections online. Some choices are abstracts, excerpts, and full texts of articles and chapters from Monthly Labor Review, Compensation and Working Conditions, Issues in Labor Statistics, BLS Handbook of Methods, and Occupational Outlook Handbook. Other site features include a list of links to federal and international statistical agencies, a keyword search page of the entire BLS site or portions thereof, and regional economic analyses. National Current Employment Statistics http://www.bls.gov/ces
The National Current Employment Statistics surveys approximately 160,000 businesses and 400,000 workers to provide detailed industry data on employment, hours, and earnings of workers. The site presents data in several different forms, including news releases, tables, and data sets. You’ll find reports addressing such issues as real earnings, the employment situation, and labor strikes and work stoppages. You can access statistics dealing with average hourly and weekly earnings, weekly hours, and overtime in various industries. Occupational Outlook Handbook http://www.bls.gov/oco
Many career research sites refer to Occupational Outlook Handbook and even use its data. Brought to you by the Bureau of Labor Statistics, this resource has all sorts of information to help you determine a career path. For particular occupations, you can learn about the nature of the work, working conditions, training required, job outlook, and earnings. If you need help, there’s a section that explains how to interpret the BLS projections and data. U.S. Department of Labor (DOL) http://www.dol.gov
The DOL deals with practically anything work related: wages, unemployment, health and safety,
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equal employment opportunity, child labor, and more. The Quick Guide gives you a table of contents, and there is also a site map with an alphabetical list of contents, either of which should help you figure out where you want to go in this vast resource. Along with background material and a history of the DOL, there is information on laws and regulations, press releases, access to federal statistics and data, and images of workplace posters. Links to the Web sites of the DOL’s many agencies are available as well. America’s Career InfoNet http://www.acinet.org
Here you can find information on the employment outlook and trends in the U.S. job market and wages. You can get data on occupations that are the fastest growing, have the most openings, have the largest employment, are declining in employment, or are the highest paying. For any of these categories, you can specify the level of experience required (work experience, postsecondary training, bachelor’s degree). Employment statistics are given for a recent year and then projections are made for a future date. Once you select a particular occupation (for example, maybe physical therapists, child care workers, cashiers,
photoengravers, or optometrists), you can then indicate a state in order to get data comparing the job market in that state with the national median and midrange. This is supplemented by descriptions of necessary knowledge and skills, prerequisite training and education, and tasks to be performed, as well as numerous links to relevant Web sites where you can get further information. Gary Johnson’s BraveNewWorkWorld and NewWork News http://www.newwork.com
This extensive resource features a wide assortment of international news, essays, and book reviews pertaining to employment and the economy of the future. Brief synopses are given for current and archived headline news stories, with links to full texts from major news providers. Topics deal with the current economic situation, job searching, mentoring, evaluating job search Web sites, and more. As you peruse the site, you will run across numerous recommendations for other sites where you can find additional information similar to that in the news stories and essay. Some of the best sites are highlighted in Web Tips.
Finding a Job Many people view looking for a job as a scary process. Other people enjoy the challenge. Whatever your outlook, the articles in this section will give you an overview of the many different ways you can approach your search.
Placement Offices
Government The U.S. Department of Labor (DOL) Employment and Training Administration (ETA) sponsors a number of programs in every state that offer placement services. These programs include, among others, Employment Services, One-Stop, Job Corps, and Job Training Partnership Act. Employment Services offices offer services at no cost to any person who can be legally employed in the United States. There may be eligibility criteria to qualify for other government programs. To use Employment Services it is usually necessary to go to its offices. It is possible to learn the location of DOT/ETA programs in any state through the Internet at http://www.servicelocator. org/nearest_onestop.asp. At these placement offices, you typically find a number of resources for the job search. Some of these might include
Placement offices offer many different services to help people find jobs. Employers who are hiring notify placement offices of their openings. Placement offices may also help you assess your skills and abilities and identify jobs for which you qualify. Services may be offered to help build job-seeking skills, such as dealing with job-search paperwork and correspondence, preparing to interview, organizing a job search, and developing personal marketing strategies. Some offer services such as keeping your resume and transcripts on file and sending them out to employers when you request it. The type and quality of services placement offices provide vary widely. Some offer a full range of career counseling while others do little more than list job openings.
n printed materials that provide general information about occupations and the skills needed to enter specific occupations n workbooks to help with the career-management process n standardized assessment instruments to identify abilities and aptitudes n Internet access and computer-delivered occupational and educational information n training seminars and workshops on specific career management and job search topics n support and networking groups for job hunters
■ Nonprofit Placement Offices Education Most educational institutions that offer training for occupations have placement services. The services offered by the institution’s placement office should factor into your decision to enroll in a training program, whether at a private career school, a community college, or a four-year college or university. An active placement office can be a critical asset in transitioning into an occupation after completing training. To use these placement offices, you usually must be enrolled as a student or be a graduate of the institution. Adults making career transitions sometimes do not realize they can often use placement offices of higher educational institutions from which they graduated. Sometimes community college placement services are offered liberally to local people or operate in conjunction with government-sponsored programs, so it is a good idea to check them out.
Be aware that it is unlikely that you will walk in and be told where to go to get hired for a job you want. Visits to these offices usually are most helpful if you initially can spend an hour or more without distractions. Bring paper on which to make notes. It may be necessary to visit the office more than once. It is helpful to have thought of career-management objectives to accomplish using the placement service’s resources. These might include
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assessing personal skills and identifying matching occupations n creating a list of skills developed in previous employment n exploring occupational opportunities and learning how to get training n identifying local employers and learning about their job openings n learning how to complete a job application n creating a resume n testing to be screened for employment openings n improving interviewing skills n
link to discover the kinds of career and job services that are offered to students and alumni of that institution, to see a list of upcoming on-campus career-related events and job fairs, or to learn about the school’s on-campus recruiting. Additionally, some of these sites contain information that can be valuable to you in your job search even if you don’t plan to attend the school. You’ll find, for example, descriptions of conducting career research, information interviews, resumes, cover letters, and much more. Your Career Placement Office http://www.collegegrad.com/book/
■ For-Profit Placement Offices Finding jobs for people is also a for-profit business. Sometimes employers pay for-profit placement services to find employees. These for-profit placement services are often called “headhunters.” They seek out highly experienced workers and try to find them positions with hiring employers. Workers who have little experience or who do not have advanced training are not likely to be placed by this sort of for-profit placement service. Often the profits are obtained from job seekers. There are several ways this can work. The for-profit placement service acts as a temporary employment agency that charges the temporarily placed workers. The fees may be a percentage of hourly earnings for as long as the worker is on the job. This can be a good way for newly trained workers to get work experience as they try to establish themselves in an occupation. Another way for-profit placement services to make money is by contracting for a percentage of the first year’s earnings of any employee who is placed. When these for-profit agencies are paid for by the job seeker, they are motivated to find a placement, but collecting their fees does not depend on the job being satisfactory. Job seekers who enter such a contract are obliged to pay this percentage whether or not they remain with the employer for a year. Job seekers should be cautious when entering into contractual agreements with for-profit placement agencies. Remember it is a common career dilemma to be in the right occupation but in the wrong job.
Brian Krueger’s book College Grad Job Hunter provides abundant information to help you in your job search. This site presents a particular chapter intended to help you better utilize your college career-placement office. Its main functions (career planning and career placement) are described. What job search related materials might you find in your career placement office? There is a list of services typically offered. You’re advised to develop an ongoing relationship with a placement counselor at your school. Then you will not only reap the benefits of the resources at hand, but you’ll have access to the counselor’s professional expertise and knowledge. Recruiters Online Network http://www.recruitersonline.com
Thousands of recruitment and employment firms are members of Recruiters OnLine Network. There are many ways that you, the job seeker, can use this extensive Web site. You can search for jobs by keyword, post your resume, seek out a particular recruitment firm, and browse the member firm listing by category and location. Most matching services look for jobs that might match your skills and needs, but Recruiters Online Network finds companies that may be able to help you find a job. Start tracking these companies today and improve your chances of landing a job in the future. Employment and Training Administration One Stop http://www.doleta.gov/usworkforce/onestop
■ For More Information JobWeb College Career Centers Page http://www.jobweb.com/Career_Development/collegeres.htm
Part of JobWeb, a huge career resource from the National Association of Colleges and Employers, this page contains a directory of links to the placement offices and career development centers of hundreds of colleges and universities in the United States, as well as a handful in Australia, Canada, and the United Kingdom. Follow a
This site provides links to many government-sponsored resources for the individual job seeker, including America’s Career Kit, a suite of four electronic tools including America’s Job Bank, America’s Career InfoNet, America’s Learning eXchange, and America’s Service Locator. There’s also information on looking for work with links to other sites and information on Apprenticeship, Job Corp, Welfare to Work, and other government-sponsored initiatives.
On-Campus Recruiting One of the services of college and university placement offices is to arrange for employers to come to campus to recruit new graduates. On-campus recruiting efforts typically include job fairs and on-campus interviewing. Job fairs, although they are sometimes organized around employment for specific academic majors, are usually open for anyone to attend. Sometimes campus recruiting efforts are aimed at specific academic majors or colleges. For example, all recruiters interested in hiring architecture majors may be scheduled to visit in a week or two-week block. Campus recruiting is very heavy in the spring when many students are graduating, but if the labor market is tight, and there is a shortage of qualified workers, recruiters will sometimes be on campus in both fall and spring terms. Usually, only students who are nearing graduation can participate in on-campus interviewing. Each placement office has slightly different procedures for students to meet interviewers on campus. Generally, you must file copies of your resume with the placement office. Lists of recruiters who will be coming to campus are made available, and you indicate to whom you want your resume sent. Because employers choose whom they wish to interview by looking at applicants’ resumes, it is important to have prepared a resume that gives a good impression of your skills and experiences. After reviewing the resumes, the recruiters notify the placement office of the names of students they want to interview. Recruiters come to the campus for interviews on specific days. The placement office contacts the students whom the recruiters want to interview and makes interview appointments. On-campus recruiting offers several advantages. Employers are glad to recruit on campuses because they find a pool of qualified, competitive applicants. As a student, being interviewed on campus gives you an “implied referral,” that is, recruiters who have had positive results hiring employees from an educational institution tend to look favorably at other applicants from that institution. You also save time and money by being able to interview for several jobs without having to travel to individual employers’ offices. You have the support of your placement services throughout your job search. Placement service staff should be able to help you identify jobs for which you might qualify, help you write your resume, and help target appropriate employers to apply for employment. Frequently, placement service staff can help you prepare
On-Campus Recruiting
for interviewing by making you aware of the types of interview questions you are likely to be asked and by doing practice or mock interviews with you. Before the interview, placement service office staff can help you learn about the businesses of employers with whom you will be interviewing. Placement services usually have copies of annual reports and promotional literature. You should come to the interview already knowing about some opportunities the employer offers its workers. Placement services staff usually know about the types of job offers that the employer has made to recruits in the past, so you can go into interviews having realistic expectations regarding job titles and salaries. On-campus recruitment may offer you the opportunity to interview with several potential employers. Interviewing is an art that must be practiced to develop skills. Each interview should be viewed as an opportunity, even if it is unlikely you would accept an offer from the employer. Never turn down an opportunity to interview. Always prepare for, and conduct yourself in, each interview as if you really wanted a job offer. Each interview will be a learning experience if you analyze your performance and its results. It is a good strategy to try to schedule interviews so those with employers who really interest you occur after you have had the chance to build interview skills by interviewing with employers of less interest to you. An on-campus recruiting interview is just like any other interview for a job. It is vital to come to the appointment on time and to be dressed professionally. A final advantage for students is that usually you will know several of your peers who are also participating in the oncampus interviewing. Not only can you offer each other support, but you can exchange information regarding the types of questions that interviewers are asking, the most favorable responses, what to avoid, and what seemed to work during the interview process.
■ For More Information There are many Web sites sponsored by specific businesses that provide information about their campus recruiting efforts and by colleges and universities that provide information about recruiting efforts on their campuses. Both types of sites are worth visiting as both frequently include tips for the student seeking a job through campus recruiting. Tips for Surviving Campus Recruiting Interviews http://www.campusaccess.com/campus_web/career/ c3job_onc.htm
Campus Access.com is sponsored largely by Canadian colleges and universities. It provides some tips for
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surviving your on-campus recruiting experience. This site also provides industry profiles, other job search tips such as on resumes and interviewing, and links to job search sites and to Canadian college and university college career centers. Online College Recruiting http://www.campuscareercenter.com
Students and employers can meet at this online campus career center. This site offers free registration for students who can use it for job seeking with the many businesses that register with it. There are many pages devoted to job seeking tips in detail, such as how to give a good handshake and what employers look for in candidates. Insider’s Perspective http://www.recruiter.com/campusrecruiting.cfm
Recruiter.com is a site for providing information for professional recruiters. The site includes a section devoted to recruitment on colleges and universities that provides an insider’s perspective.
Job Fairs Job fairs usually bring together many of a community’s employers. Schools or colleges, Chambers of Commerce, or employers themselves often sponsor job fairs. Employers each have a display booth staffed by representatives who talk about their job opportunities. People staffing the job fair booths are often responsible for the recruitment of employees. Job fairs are a good way to learn about the jobs available in occupations in various industries. You can also use job fairs to make the first contact with employers and to start to network. You should prepare yourself before going to a job fair with the personal marketing tools of business cards, resumes, and paper and pen. Business cards should indicate, at minimum, your name and contact information, such as mailing address, email address, and phone numbers. If you have been established in the occupation in which you are seeking work, use the occupational title on the card and indicate licenses or credentials you have. If you are not experienced, you should prepare cards for the job fair with a handwritten note indicating the type of job you are looking for. As a networking tool, business cards should be handed out liberally. Whether or not an employer offers jobs in your occupational area, you should give every employ-
er’s representative you speak with your business card. It is a good idea to bring copies of your resume to give to employers who have jobs similar to the one you are seeking. A drawback of this is that this resume can only represent your general skills and experiences rather than being tailored to a specific job description. Bring a small notepad and a pen to note the names and phone numbers of people you might want to contact later. Job fairs give you a chance to market yourself to employer representatives face-to-face. Marketing yourself at a job fair requires making a good first impression. In many ways, the job fair presents an opportunity that is similar to an interview. Attend the job fair dressed neatly and professionally: Look like someone an employer would want to hire. How you meet the people staffing the booth will be a big part of making a good impression. You cannot afford to be shy. Notice the name of the company before you approach the booth. Smile, give an appropriate greeting, and offer to shake hands, while stating your name and saying you are interested in learning more about employment opportunities with the company, using the company’s name. For example, “Good morning, my name is John Slingsby. I would like to know more about employment opportunities at Biltmore Industries.” The representative will probably tell you the nature of the business and the occupations in which its employees work. If the occupation in which you are looking for work is not mentioned, ask specifically if the company has any need for workers in your field. If not, ask if the representative knows of companies who hire workers in that occupation. It is important to listen carefully to answers to questions and to show attention. Representatives cannot allow one person to take too much of their time as they need to attend to all the people interested in their company. It is appropriate to return to booths when representatives are less busy. Be sensitive to the needs of the representative. No one ever made a good impression by detaining someone who may urgently require a break time. Job fairs are not times for information interviews. You must be sure you are asking questions that are pertinent and that you are asking the right person. If there is no time for an extended conversation, and you still have questions, ask if the representative can be contacted later. If the answer is yes, get a business card with contact information or make a note of the representative’s name and phone number. Job fairs are good opportunities for making that first contact and for networking. Do not expect that you will be able to sell yourself to employers during the short time you will be able to talk at the job fair. If you leave the job
Networking and References
fair with a better knowledge of employers who hire workers in your occupation, you have been successful. If you leave with four or five names of employers’ representatives to contact later, you have begun to network and have been very successful.
■ For More Information The 10 Keys to Success at Job and Career Fairs http://www.quintcareers.com/job_career_fairs.html
How should you prepare for that upcoming job or career fair you’re planning to attend? This Quintessential Careers site explains what you need to know in order to make the most of your job or career fair experience. This site provides tips on dress and preparing job search marketing paperwork, such as resumes and portfolios. There are also links to major organizers of career fairs. Job Fair Success http://www.collegegrad.com/book/11-0.shtml
Before you go to your next job fair, take a look at this chapter from Brian Krueger’s book College Grad Job Hunter. You’ll find job fair strategies and tips to help you stand out from the crowd and make a lasting impression. What is the one mistake that most job fair attendees make? They stand in line. If you’re wondering what to do instead, you’ll have to go to the site to find out. Information is also offered on the various types of job fairs you might attend and what you should bring along. For example, have you ever considered going to another college’s job fair?
Networking and References Every job seeker has probably heard that many job openings are not advertised but are filled by means of networking, sometimes known as “the hidden job market.” Networking, sometimes called personal networking, is a system of contacts for information and for support. Network contacts can help you by n giving personal and emotional support through difficult career transitions and job searches n sharing resources and ideas about personal marketing strategies n giving you letters of recommendation n being references
helping you contact other people who might be able to provide information n exchanging information about opportunities and job openings n
Networks are assets for career management throughout your life. Most people are involved in networks of some kind. They consist of acquaintances, friends, relatives, and family members. Networks that just naturally exist in most people’s lives are called informal networks. Networks that are most helpful in career development are referred to as professional networks. Career managers actively develop and cultivate members for their professional networks. It is never too late to start developing or expanding your network. Developing a network requires strategically applying psychological principles in your interactions with people consistently over time.
■ Principles of Networking Identify Your Motives and Your Mission Your network activities will be directed by the motives you have for networking. Your motives must be consistent with your entire career-management plan. That means if you want your networking to get you a job, you had better prepare for that opportunity by getting the best training and experience to qualify yourself. Networking can be useful when searching for a job, but networking can also help your career development even if you are not specifically looking for a job. Networks are a great way to learn because networks share information. Networking is a tool for information interviewing as well as a career developing activity that encompasses work and leisure aspects in life. Networking opportunities can be found in organizations formed for all sorts of purposes: political and social action, historical preservation, education, leisure activities, and job clubs. Libraries and Chambers of Commerce are good resources to use to identify groups that have purposes that interest you.
Give Back What You Get Networks operate on the principle of reciprocity. That means you must be willing to give as well as to get. Networking requires that you invest both time and money to develop and to maintain your network. Be prepared to volunteer your time to help the efforts of organizations when you are networking. Keep in mind the interests of people you meet who you want to be part of your network. Be alert to those topics and share any related information you come across. This means you take time to send a newspaper clipping or information about a conference to the person you know it will interest. Networking means you must give time to returning phone
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calls, responding to emails, going out to lunch, and going to meetings. To be part of a network, your actions must let people know you are a good networker. That is, you will look out for their interests and will be a good reference point, passing their names along when it is appropriate to do so.
Be Positive Networking is based on positive personality characteristics and attitudes. Be nice to everyone. Think of every stranger as a potential friend. Treat everyone with respect. Develop the habit of calling the person you are speaking with by name. People want to help people that they like, so be likeable. Try not to speak badly of anyone; negative gossip and rumors can hurt. Spread good news. Speak well of other people’s accomplishments and modestly of your own. Let people know you are thinking of them by contacting them at least once or twice a year. Let them know what you are doing and what you are interested in doing.
■ Networking Tools Business Cards Business cards are one of the most important tools for networking. Distribute them liberally. You want people to remember you and to contact you. You want them to pass your card to others with whom you share interests. A business card should provide, at minimum, your name and contact information, such as your mailing address, email address, and phone numbers. Because you want your cards to last when they are passed around, they should be printed on good quality durable paper. Standard size cards will be the easiest for other people to keep in their card cases or card files. There are many varieties of acceptable business cards. Your business card represents you and creates an impression of you. You might want to use different cards for different purposes. For example, if one of your leisure interests is science fiction, it might be appropriate to have a card with a space theme, but that card would not be appropriate for business contacts. Try to make your cards personalized expressions of yourself. That means you probably should not use clip art, but if you are an artist, one of your own designs would represent your unique talents. When in doubt, simple, easy-to-read lettering on high-quality paper is always in good taste.
Availability Email, answering machines, and answering services are ways for people to be able to leave you messages when you are not able to talk to them. Networking means you
need to make yourself available to other people. Email is particularly useful because it lends itself to quick and easy responses. Answering machines and voice mail are so commonly used today that people get annoyed when there is no way to leave someone a message. There is some monthly cost involved to maintain these tools, but their support of network activities makes them well worth it.
Cards and Letters The U.S. postal system is a vital networking tool. To let people know you are thinking of them, there is nothing like sending a quick note by mail. Mailing notes and letters is a great way to maintain your network. For example, sending a note to a speaker you heard at a meeting is a good way to recruit that person into your network. Mail newspaper articles and clippings to people you know are interested in the topics covered. Sending people cards on their birthdays and on holidays is good networking. Occasionally mail notes to let people know you are thinking of them. Tell them what you are doing and what you are interested in.
Organization It helps in your networking efforts if you are organized. Most people regularly keep up with fewer than 50 people. A good network should be as big as possible. That means keeping up some sort of regular contact with hundreds of people and treating each one as an individual. A computer database or old-fashioned index cards is a good tool to help keep track of every person in the network. Records of each person might include contact information information on family members n employment details n birthday n interests n where you met them n friends you have in common n the last contact you had with them n any materials you sent them such as articles or clippings n anything you have received from them n any people you referred to them or any people they referred to you n n
■ For More Information Networking http://discussion.monster.com/articles/mistakes
Here are some ideas about networking from Monster. com, a major career resource on the Internet. This article
Job Searching on the Web
outlines 13 common networking mistakes and what you can do to avoid them. You can also participate in the monster.com discussion boards to actually begin networking with employers and job seekers. More Ideas and Networking Links http://www.rileyguide.com/netintv.html
Margaret F. Dikel has compiled the Riley Guide to job search sites on the Internet that includes networking, interviewing, and negotiating guidance. The networking section contains information on what is networking, how to network on the Internet, articles about online networking and where to network online, and even links to guides to netiquette, or correct behavior on the Internet.
Job Searching on the Web The World Wide Web contains many sites related to career management and job search. Career counselors, educational institutions, employers, and government organizations sponsor these sites. The Web is a dynamic place, so addresses may change as sites become defunct and new sites are added. The Web can be a useful tool both for exploring occupational options, learning about career management, and conducting a job search. The Web offers sites that can help with self-assessment n matching occupations to your interests and requirements n exploring opportunities in a field n learning about the future of work and specific occupational outlooks n finding out where to get training for an occupation n determining if licenses or certificates are necessary to enter an occupation n identifying professional associations n finding job openings and learning more about individual employers n
To find job search sites on the Web, use any of the major Internet search engines, such as AltaVista, http://www.altavista.com n Google, http://www.google.com n Yahoo, http://www.yahoo.com n
Excite, http://www.excite.com n HotBot, http://www.hotbot.com n
You might even want to check out which of the search engines will service you best by looking at Squirrel.Net’s search engine comparisons (http://www.squirrelnet. com/search/ratings.htm). Keywords to search include “resume,” “jobs,” “career,” and “work.” Another strategy is to try searching on a specific field that interests you, such as “computer animation.” Or look for a particular company, such as “Disney.” There are also directories that list Web site addresses and provide descriptions of the site.
■ Guidelines There is an overwhelming amount of information on the Internet. If you do not know specifically what you are looking for, you can become bogged down looking at lots of sites without learning what you want to know.
Be Selective You do not have to go to every site to get a good picture of career-management information from the Web. If you enjoy surfing the Net, go ahead and do it. You will find there are many interesting places to visit. However, do not think that you need to explore every career site on the Web because you might miss that piece of information that will be magic to your career. Unfortunately, there is no magic in career management. Most career sites give you the same career guidelines: Know yourself. n Find an occupation that matches your interests, abilities, and skills. n Know the world of work, especially the occupation that interests you. n
Consider the Source and the Motivation of the Producers of the Sites Anyone can post information on the Internet. Thus, you can’t always be sure that what you’re reading is from a reliable source. Information from sites sponsored by government agencies, colleges and universities, and large employers is usually considered more reliable than information from a single individual. However, because many sites provide links to other sites, it can be easy to move from site to site and become confused as to where information originated (or what site you are on). Doublechecking any information with sources outside of the Internet is a good idea. Remember: Even though a site may use a name that sounds reputable, that does not mean it is necessarily credible.
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While there is a considerable amount of valid information that can be obtained on the Internet, most sites exist based on the profit motive. Producers of the sites either want to sell you a product or service or they want you to visit their site because they are selling advertising space on the site to other producers of goods and services. Be a careful consumer and comparison shop your local markets for products and services offered on the Web. You may be able to find them both closer at hand and cheaper in your own community.
Protect Yourself and Your Privacy Even on the Internet there are people who are looking to take advantage of others. When you are job seeking, you are looking for an opportunity, and that can make you vulnerable. Before you allow charges to be put on your credit card, you should always check the legitimacy of the claims, products, or services being offered. For example, a common Internet scam has been selling information about high-paying, hot job openings; that is, for a charge on your credit card, you will be emailed a listing of 20 to 30 job openings. Of course, there is no way for you to be sure these are legitimate openings for which workers are being sought. Other claims to be wary of are those of so-called “experts” who, for a fee, offer to post your resume or re-do your resume. It is often the case that you could post your resume yourself for no charge or that the resume will be no better than one you could create yourself. Chat rooms on the Internet provide forums for discussion and support about careers and job search experiences. It is again important to protect your privacy and to carefully consider what you are being offered. For example, there is a big industry that exists in America to sell sexually oriented materials. People who are young, attractive, and naive are liable to be recruited and exploited as workers in this industry, which claims to offer opportunities for careers in movies or modeling. It is a good idea to look for a job when you already have one, but at the same time, there are reasons not to let your current employer know you are looking for another job. Remember that Internet postings are not private. Frequently you have no way to control the many possible destinations of information that you list.
Know Your Field Consider how employers in your occupational area advertise their openings. It is unlikely you will have much success if you think you will log onto the Internet and find the right job for you without being aware of where job listings in your occupational field are best located. Many occupational fields have very traditional media through
which openings are advertised, and some of these charge fees for Internet access. For example, if you are looking for a position in higher education as a professor, or even as a residence life director, you could try accessing the personnel area of home pages for each college and university. It would be much easier to access the job listings of The Chronicle of Higher Education (http://chronicle.com). If you are a counselor, you might want to look at the American Counseling Association’s Web site (http://www.counseling.org), but to access listings of job openings, you must pay dues to become a member of the association. Using the Internet, you can research many companies that are big employers. Getting a job with one of these employers might well require you to make a geographic move. If you are unwilling to leave the area you are currently living in, it will probably be a more fruitful use of your time to go to your local chamber of commerce and learn about local employers than to explore job opportunities or to post your resume on the Internet. If you are willing to relocate to work for a particular employer or if you want to live in a particular city, you can use the Internet to learn about openings with that employer or look at the classified ads in a city’s major newspaper.
Use the Internet with Other Resources The Internet is a good place to explore and to use periodically as one of the tools of career management. Job openings on the Internet are bound to be very competitive because the Internet is a worldwide tool. You may be one among thousands of applicants, whereas a job opening advertised even in a major metropolitan newspaper may attract only hundreds of applicants. So it is important not to neglect other job search tools, like your personal network. Information posted about businesses and employers on the Internet is self-generated, so naturally it will have a positive slant. Looking at a business’s Web site before interviewing with that employer is valuable, but before accepting an offer with that employer, it would be more valuable to talk to some of their other employees than to read their Internet information.
■ For More Information Guide to Job Hunting on the Internet http://www.quintcareers.com/jobhunt.html
You will discover that the Web has a lot to offer in the way of job search–related resources as you explore this Quintessential Careers guide, which walks you through the process of conducting an online job search. Follow the steps to get information or go to recommended sites that deal with such topics as general career exploration, company
searching the classified advertisements
research, online networking, internships and summer jobs, posting a resume on the Web, job offer negotiations, salary calculators and surveys, and relocation. The Newspaper for Internet Job Hunters http://www.interbiznet.com/hunt
Interbiznet.com offers lst Steps in the Hunt, a frequently updated (almost daily) newspaper for job seekers on the Internet. You can get daily inspiration while searching for a job and find many tips on job searching in the archives. You might want to try one of their job search links. University Sites for Internet Research and Job Hunting The University at Albany Libraries site (http://library. albany.edu/usered/) can help you learn several different ways to find information, including on the Internet, via email discussion groups and newsgroups, URLs, browsing, subject directories, and search engines. You can learn how to compose queries using Boolean logic and get some advice on fine-tuning a search. Access is provided to other University at Albany Internet tutorials. The University of Wisconsin offers a site (http://steenbock.library.wisc.edu/ instruct/jobhdout.htm) that provides many links to job hunting resources on the Internet. These are just two examples of the many career sites sponsored by college and university libraries. Check with your own school or with schools that interest you to see what kind of information they offer. CDT’s Guide to Online Privacy http://www.cdt.org/privacy/guide
The Center for Democracy & Technology (CDT) has compiled this guide to online privacy issues. “Top Ten Ways to Protect Privacy Online” (http://www.cdt.org/ privacy/guide/basic/topten.html) describes several things you can do to ensure greater online privacy. Among the suggestions offered are making sure that your online forms are secure, rejecting unwanted cookies, and using encryption. Privacy (as described in the U.S. Constitution) fair information practices, and legislative protection are covered in other sections. Several legal and Internet terms are defined in a glossary. This is just a small part of the CDT site. If you want to find out more about the organization’s goals and activities, click on the home page link and browse from there. Privacy in Cyberspace http://www.privacyrights.org/FS/fs18-cyb.htm
This fact sheet, from Privacy Rights Clearinghouse, a Utility Consumers’ Action Network program, examines
various forms of online activities and services (private, semiprivate, and public). Email and Web site privacy issues are discussed. Recommendations are given for protecting your privacy. This includes advice and/or cautions concerning newsgroup participation, selecting a password, anonymous emailers, and encryption. Other site features are a glossary of Web terminology, contact information and URLs for organizations involved in online privacy issues, and links to relevant sites where you can find further information on some of the topics covered. Job Hunter’s Bible http://www.jobhuntersbible.com
This site is designed as a Web complement to Richard Bolles’s ever-popular guide for job hunters, What Color Is Your Parachute? You can take a test to learn about yourself and what sites are best for obtaining career counseling, read articles on the best way for job searchers to use the Internet, create and post your resume, look at sites that advertise job openings, and learn what to do when you exhaust the Internet and still haven’t found a job.
Searching the Classified Advertisements Classified advertising appears in many different contexts in the job search. The classified advertising sections of local newspapers are a source for thousands of job openings. Local medium and small employers seeking entrylevel employees are the most frequent users of classified advertising. Newspapers, such as those published by professional organizations, aimed at members of specific occupations may offer classified advertising sections also. Although these ads may appear in larger metropolitan area papers, they seldom appear in small local newspapers. Some Internet postings may appear as “classified advertising.” Sometimes these are, indeed, the same listings as those that appear in a newspaper and sometimes they are specific to the Internet. Traditional classified advertising and its use in the job search is covered in this section. Classified ads vary depending on the newspaper in which they appear. Large metropolitan areas have large classified sections. If you live in a rural area with several
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competing small newspapers, it may be necessary to check each one. Sunday papers have the greatest number of listings, but listings that appear during the week may represent an employer who really needs workers. Classified ads are usually presented in occupational categories such as Accounting & Bookkeeping, Clerical/Office, Computer/Data Processing, Food Services, Medical/Dental, Sales, Technical/Trade, and General Help. It may be wise to check various sections because the section of the papers in which an ad runs may indicate an employer’s type of business rather than the job’s occupation. For example, under Medical/Dental, you may find listings for receptionists and cashiers to work in medical offices.
■ What Are They Saying? Traditional classified advertisements use abbreviations that need to be decoded to understand what the employer is seeking. Here are examples of some commonly used abbreviations: FT: Full-time work, traditionally a 40-hour workweek. PT: Part-time work, meaning less than 40 hours per week. Most part-time work does not include benefits (abbreviated benes.), such as health insurance or paid vacation time. To avoid paying benefits, many employers will offer entry-level employees part-time work that is just a few hours short of a 40-hour week. Flex. hrs./some weekend: Means workers should expect to work irregular schedules, Saturdays, Sundays, and on holidays. In production jobs, 2nd shift or 3rd shift indicates late afternoon to evening and night working hours, respectively. Exp. pref.: Experience preferred. This is not an entrylevel position. The employer is seeking an experienced worker. Sometimes ads will specify qualifications such as, “type 80+ WPM,” which means, “must type at least 80 words per minute.” Expect that a speed test for typing will be required when you submit an application. Employers often indicate specific skills they are seeking, such as “Good phone, typing, data entry, listening skills required.” This suggests the workers in this position will be dealing with customers, possibly by taking orders over the telephone. Applicants interested in this position would do well to emphasize previous experiences in which they used these skills. Employers usually list any other requirements, such as licenses, certificates, or registrations, the worker must have. A good driving record, that is, one without moving violations, is often required for workers in delivery jobs. Drug test or drug free means applicants
will be screened for use of illegal substances. Clues to interview questions can be found in phrases such as “dependable transportation required,” which suggests applicants will be asked how they intend to travel to work each day. Sal. low teens: This means the job will pay between $11,000 to $15,000 per year. Sometimes yearly salaries will be given with a K behind them, such as 20K, meaning the job will pay $20,000 per year. Min. wage: Means the current minimum wage ($5.15 per hour), often offered to entry-level workers. Commission: Workers in sales jobs are often paid by commission, meaning the salesperson earns a percentage of each sale. Sales workers’ incomes may depend entirely on their commissions or they may be offered salary plus commission. In these cases, ads sometimes indicate a figure with a plus sign behind it, such as “$15,000+,” meaning it is possible, but not guaranteed, to earn this wage. Pay negotiable, depending on experience: Means that to obtain the best wages, you should be aware of the current rate of pay for people in this occupation who have similar jobs, and you should be ready to emphasize your experiences that increase your value as an employee. It is important to know how workers in the job are paid. Many people think that all jobs must pay at least minimum wage, but this is not the case. For example, waiters frequently receive an hourly pay much lower than minimum wage because they are expected to make tips. Good benes.: The employer offers benefits in addition to wages or salary. Benefits can include paid holidays and/or paid vacations, health insurance, tax deferred savings and/or retirement accounts, which are indicated by 401(k). A good benefits package can increase the value of the income from a job by 33 percent. Since most benefits are offered based on the employer’s package, they do not tend to be negotiable, but that doesn’t mean you can’t try. However, when an employer does not offer benefits, it could be a factor in negotiating for higher wages.
■ Who Is This Employer? Some ads give the name of the employer and specify “no phone calls.” This means the employer expects workers to apply at the place of business, often on a specified date during given times. In these cases, show up as early as possible, dressed for and prepared to work. Be ready to fill out a job application. To be able to prove you can legally work in the United States bring two forms of identification, such as your driver’s license and social
security card. You may be hired on the spot if you can start immediately. Some ads indicate the employer desires workers in many different occupations. They may or may not note “fee paid.” Often these are ads of temporary employment services seeking workers. When you respond to such an ad, you should clarify immediately if there is a fee for job placement and, if there is, who pays it. Temporary employment agencies can offer entry-level job seekers a way to begin to build work experience. If you are applying at a temporary agency, you can expect that you may need to successfully pass some form of testing of your abilities, such as demonstrating you can perform common clerical tasks like alphabetizing. Often the agency will charge the worker they place in a temporary position a percentage of the job’s hourly wage. Sometimes the employer requesting the worker will pay the temporary agency’s fee. Other ads are referred to as blind ads, that is, they ask the applicant to respond by sending a resume to a post office box. Giving the box number hides the name of the employer. Post office rules require the postmaster to identify any box holder who is not an individual to anyone who asks; however, often the employer will require a response in care of (c/o) a box held by the newspaper. It may be impossible to determine to whom you are applying for a job, so responding to blind ads should be undertaken with caution. Sometimes there is no job at all behind the blind ad. It may be a means to get you to send information about yourself to someone who is running job search scams. Even if there is a job opening, it can be awkward applying for a job when you do not know the employer. What if you end up applying to your current employer who does not know you are looking for another job?
Searching the Classified Advertisements
Other ads may urge you to call a representative at a local hotel or motel on a certain day, or to call a certain person at a certain number. Be wary because most employers do not encourage applicants to call. Sometimes these are not advertisements for job openings at all. They may be ads to recruit for training programs. Or you may find yourself facing a high-pressure pitch to use this opportunity to buy into selling a product by investing in a start-up inventory. There may be a section in the classified ads headed Job Information. While these ads may appear to be offering work opportunities, they are usually trying to sell a service, such as providing you with job listings, for a fee. Watch out for scams. For example, you may see an ad that states “Federal Employment Information Is Free” and lists a 900 telephone number, which costs more than $2 per minute, to call for this free information. Many classified ads indicate that applicants should send resumes to a specific employer and give the business address. Employers who identify themselves give people applying an opportunity to find out about the business before applying.
■ For More Information Using the Classifieds The Alameda County Library Look Smart Job Search, http://www.aclibrary.org/jobsearch/default.asp?topic= JobSearch&cat=FindaJob, provides an interesting site that points out the advantages and disadvantages of classified advertising for both the employer and job seeker. It discusses what happens when you respond to an ad and provides links within the site for information on writing better job search correspondence to increase your chances of being selected for an interview.
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Applying for a Job Applying for a job is the quintessential first-impression experience: You don’t get a second chance. To help you make the most of it, the articles in this section give you an overview of the basics.
The Resume
to work on it over a period of time, usually several weeks to a month. Keep a file. Keep a resume-writing file. As your career develops, your resume will change. You can make the process of redrafting your resume easier by keeping a file of references to remind you of academic course work, job descriptions, and projects you completed in both work and volunteer experiences. Specific skills. Write descriptions of the specific skills you have gained in educational, work, and volunteer experiences. You need to both summarize skills and generate broad skill categories. See the “Describing Job Skills” section that follows for help in this area. Format. Decide on the best format after reading about formatting the resume. Content. Decide on the content areas you want to use. Layout. Design a layout. Critique. Let other people critique your resume for you. They can double-check for grammatical and spelling errors. They might make suggestions for layout or even how you can better emphasize skills. Redo. Keep recreating your resume. Tailor it for specific job openings. Change or rearrange headings of job skills categories. Redesign the layout. Keep it up to date, reflecting current information about your career.
Most people find writing a resume one of the most difficult aspects of the job search. Either they do not think they will do it right or they are not confident they can represent their skills on paper. Career counseling experts say, “The best resume is one that gets an interview.” Employers want to interview the applicants they think have the skills to do their jobs. Smart job seekers tailor their resumes to highlight their skills that match those the employer is seeking for the position. The best resume conveys your skills to an employer and reflects your experiences to document how those skills were acquired and have been used. There are many books on writing resumes, and you can also find tips on the Internet; however, there is no one right way to do it. Different references provide different slants on what should be on a resume. It is more important to know the practice of the occupation, that is, what the resumes of other people applying for the same sort of jobs look like. You want your resume to stand out because your skills make you the most competitive, not because your resume looks different from others.
■ The Process of Writing a Resume You are the person who is best able to create your own resume because no one knows your abilities and your work experiences better than you do. Although hiring a resume writing service may seem appealing, remember that your resume can only work with the information you provide. Many people find it difficult to translate what they have done in a job into the language of the resume. It is helpful to approach this task in a step-bystep process.
■ Describing Job Skills Begin drafting your resume by reviewing your work and volunteer experiences. List them by dates and details such as organization name, address, job titles you had, and major projects in which you were involved. Then go back and, under each experience, brainstorm, visualizing what you did in your work there. Write step-by-step lists of what you did in each experience. For example, a list describing working in a restaurant as a waiter might look, in part, like this:
Take your time. Allow time to write a resume. This is not a project that can be completed in a couple of hours. It usually takes several drafts before a usable resume is produced and several more attempts before it is fine-tuned to communicate what you want. So plan
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greeted customers took orders from customers, gave orders to kitchen and bar
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Applying for a Job
prepared salads n served salads and bread n picked up drinks from bar n served drinks n picked up salad bowls and carried to dishwasher n picked up food ordered from kitchen n served food n presented bills and took payment to cashier n picked up dishes from table and took to dishwasher n
Do not worry right now about the language you are using to describe what you did. The idea is to remember as completely as possible all the work activities in which you have been involved. Go to the library. When you have lists of what you did that show job skills, it is time to start using references. Identify your work by the occupational titles appropriate for each job. Also identify the occupational title of the job you want. Check references, such as Occupational Outlook Handbook (OOH) and Encyclopedia of Careers and Vocational Guidance (ECVG) for their descriptions of job duties you can use to model your resume. For example, the ECVG article “Food Service Workers” says waiters seat the customers, present them with menus, suggest choices from the menu, inform the customers of special preparations and seasonings of food, and sometimes suggest beverages that would complement the meal. Waiters take customers’ orders, serve food and beverages, calculate bills and collect money, clear and clean tables and counters, replenish supplies, set up table service, and clean service area and equipment. You can use these descriptions of job duties to help you make your own lists of action verbs and descriptions of duties. Look at real job descriptions. These can be found in personnel offices of large employers and on the Internet. Classified ads also provide brief descriptions of job skills employers seek. Ask employers who have an opening if you can have a job description of the position for which you would like to be hired. Summarize. Summarize the work activities from your own list into categories and write a sentence starting with an action verb describing them. For example, in the waiter’s list, it can be summarized that the waiter “served food and drinks customers ordered.” These summaries are the basis for your resume. A chronological resume uses summaries of job duties for each job held. A functional resume requires the job duties be sorted into broad job skill categories. It is easy to generate job skill headings when you know the job description that the employer is trying to fill. Look at the skills that are being emphasized and tailor your headings appropri-
ately. Consider different headings that might describe your skills. If you get stuck, think of sorting your jobs skills into the headings that deal with data, people, and things. For example, sorting the job duties of the waiter results in major skills categories such as customer service, food preparation, facility maintenance, and cash handling.
■ Formatting the Resume There are two basic formats for resumes and lots of variations on these formats. The formats are different ways of presenting the same information: the basic content of job skills. Which format is best for you depends on factors such as the common usage in your occupational area and your own work history.
Chronological This format presents the work history in the order of occurrence from most recent to earliest. At the end of the basic drafting process, you should have a listing of the jobs you have held, the dates you held them, and where you were employed in each one. This, with the job description, is the basis of the chronological resume. Advantages of the chronological format are as follows: n It is traditional and most familiar to employers. It is the easiest to create. n It can convey the impression that you are both dependable and an achiever if you show continuous employment in positions of increasing responsibility.
Reasons chronological format may not be the best choice are as follows: n If you have held many jobs with similar duties in the occupational area in which you are seeking employment, your resume can become quite long and repetitive. n If you have not had a history of continuous employment in an occupational area, it is easy to see when you have not been employed or when you were employed in an occupation other than the one in which you are seeking employment.
Functional This format groups work experiences together to emphasize job skills by categories or headings. For example, a person who has had various positions in computing jobs might use these skill headings: database management, systems analysis, network maintenance, and programming. A college professor might use these headings: teaching, research, and project management and program evaluation. An executive secretary might use: com-
The Resume
puter operations, convention and conference planning, and administrative management. When people first started using functional format resumes, they only described job skills without detailing work experiences. Most employers want to know where and when job skills were gained, so contemporary functional resumes usually include a listing of employment experiences. Sometimes this is referred to as a combination format. Functional resumes are best for workers who have substantial skills in certain areas and who have had considerable job experience. Functional resumes offer the following advantages: Skills headings emphasize job qualifications. Applicants can tailor skills presentation to job openings. Employers do not have to look at each job title and work experience to try to determine if the applicant has the skills being sought. n Descriptions under skills headings put major accomplishments first and more routine job duties last. n Workers who want to transfer skills from one occupation to another benefit from using a functional format that emphasizes skills rather than job titles. n Interruptions in employment are not as obvious when a functional resume is used. n
Reasons why the functional format may not be the best choice are as follows: n Entry-level employees may not have enough work experience to have developed skills in several broad areas. n Employers like to see where and when you have held employment. This objection can be overcome by including a listing of work experiences. n You know the employer is hiring for a job title you have held in previous employment but you do not know the specific skills the employer wants.
■ Contents of the Resume What to Include Contact information. If employers cannot contact you, they cannot interview you. To be of any use, your resume must clearly provide your name and ways of contacting you: traditionally, your mailing address and phone numbers (be sure you have provided a number to an answering service or machine when you are not available to respond to calls). It is also helpful to include a fax number and email address. Because this information is most important, it should be at the top of the resume.
Objective. An objective states what your employment goal is, such as “to obtain an entry-level administrative assistant position requiring database skills.” Some experts suggest including an employment objective. Others suggest that it is obvious that your objective is to get the job for which you are applying. An objective might work for you if it closely matches the job duties and will definitely work against you if it does not. The job skills you present will have greater weight in your fit with the duties than your objective. An objective is not mandatory. Using an employment objective may be considered a trend that is passé. Job skill content. A chronological resume presents job skills as they were acquired in work and volunteer experiences in order from most recent to least recent. Traditionally, a chronological resume describes each experience in the following order: dates of employment, job title, employer’s name and address, and summary of job duties. A functional resume presents specific job duties under broad skill headings. Work experience. When you use a functional resume, a work experience section listing dates of employment, job titles, and employers’ names and addresses comes after the job skills content. There may be variations of work experiences such as volunteer experience, internships, or community service. In every case, the dates of involvement, the organization’s name and address, and job titles or projects are indicated. Education. The list of educational experiences includes dates attended, names of the educational institutions, major courses of study, diplomas or degrees earned, and any honors earned. Professional credentials. These include any licenses, certifications, or registrations you hold. This section may also include affiliations with professional organizations. Other relevant information. If you have had an article published in a professional journal or have received awards from professional organizations, it is appropriate (and it may be important) to note it on your resume. Keep in mind your resume is a tool to market yourself. You want to list any information pertinent to your work achievements.
What Not to Include Resume writing is a dynamic art form. What is trendy and promoted one year falls out of fashion and is not used the next. Including an Employment Objective section is a good example of a fashion that was used in the 1980s but is not current today. Today’s resumes do not usually include the following: Personal information. Much personal information is in the category of protected, that is, characteristics or
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preferences on which individuals cannot be discriminated against. Other personal information is simply not relevant. If you believe personal information is pertinent to the job, such as your participation in a variety of sports if you are applying for a job at a sporting goods store, you have the option to include it, but remember resumes are tools employers use for screening, so volunteering personal information may work against you. References. Employers will specify if they desire the names and contact information of references. It is assumed that you will be able to provide references, so it is gratuitous to note “References available by request.”
■ Resume Layout There is considerable leeway in resume layout and design. Design considerations may be occupationally specific. For example, a design appropriate to applying for jobs in creative occupations, such as the arts or advertising, might not be acceptable to applying for jobs in finance or management. Resume layout and design issues probably generate the greatest variance in experts’ opinions, yet layout and design changes are easy to make. Remember that there is no one right way to create a resume. Applying for different types of jobs may require different types of resumes. If the resume gets the applicant an interview, it is a good resume. Following are some suggested guidelines. Shorter is better. Employers are busy people whose screening may be no more than a glance at many resumes. This is one reason why functional resumes are popular; their headings highlight job skills. A chronological resume can have a similar effect by highlighting job titles. Resumes need to get the message across quickly. Some experts swear by one-page resumes, others allow not more than two. But when applying for some positions, longer resumes are acceptable; for example, colleges and universities request applicants who want to be professors to submit a form of resume called a curriculum vitae that typically is more detailed and, consequently, much longer. Paper. Use high-quality paper that is conservative in color, usually white, ivory, buff, or gray. It is usually recommended that all job search correspondence—cover letters, resumes, and thank-you notes—be on matching paper and have matching envelopes. White space. Keep a balance between print and white space. It is good for a resume to look substantial, as opposed to scant, but it is not desirable for a resume to look crowded. Standard, easy-to-read fonts are preferred. Avoid italics and script, gothic, or block fonts. Some variation in type size and the use of bold and underline type is usually considered appropriate to emphasize headings or job titles.
■ Submitting the Resume There are several choices for delivering your resume to prospective employers. Most job seekers use regular mail, but more and more employers are accepting and encouraging email and fax transmissions. It is recommended that if you use electronic transmission, you also send a printed copy by regular mail. Place your cover letter on top of your resume and, if samples are requested (such as writing or design samples), place them at the bottom of the pile. Stapling or taping sheets together is not recommended, so make sure your name appears on each page. Use an envelope that is the same size as your paper so that you don’t have to fold it. Some experts recommend that you hand deliver your resume to ensure that it arrives undamaged. If you choose this method, however, don’t ask to speak directly with the person to whom you are delivering your package. You most likely will be denied, and you may make a negative impression by interrupting the schedule of a busy person. Leave your envelope with the receptionist or front office personnel. When working on your resume, it’s best to prepare both print and electronic versions. Although most employers accept resumes via email, there are many that prefer a print copy. For the electronic version of your resume, use a standard word processing application and a plain text format. Set the margins so that lines are no more than 65 characters (to stay within email length-of-line restrictions). With plain text you will not be able to use bullets, boldface type, or italics, so make sure the layout of your resume is readable without these features. Save the file as an ASCII or plain-text (.txt) document and name it using your last name. Don’t label it “resume,” as it could become lost among the dozens of email applications a company receives that are all labeled resume. Include the cover letter with the resume in one file. An employer may indicate that you can send an email resume as an attachment and specify which programs are acceptable, such as Word or WordPerfect. It is recommended that if you send your file as an attachment, you also copy and paste it into the text of your email message. In the subject line of your email message, include the job title and/or reference number. Follow up a week later with an email or a phone call.
■ For More Information Best College Resumes http://collegegrad.com/resumes/resumes.shtml
This step-by-step resume guide helps you develop a resume. It presents topics such as “A New Perspective on
Cover Letters
Resumes,” “The Very Best Way to Create a Resume,” “Two Words Never to Use on Your Resume,” and lots of tips on proofing your resume and making it irresistible. There are resume writing checklists and even a free critiquing service. Resume Tutor http://www1.umn.edu/ohr/careerdev/resources/resume/
This tool helps you create a resume through an online workbook setting. You are given a choice of resume formats: traditional (or reverse chronological), functional, or combination. (If you don’t know what they look like, check out the examples.) For whatever the topic or question posed (regarding career objective, qualifications summary, work experience, etc.), you fill in specified fields with the relevant information, which is then gathered into a sample resume to be presented in your browser window in the format you selected. In an attempt to further clarify the process, advice is given and/or comments are made in response to the information you placed in the various fields. This is a straightforward and relatively painless way to begin assembling a resume. eResumes & Resources http://www.eresumes.com
Rebecca Smith, author of Electronic Resumes & Online Networking, explains the pros and cons of various types of electronic resumes: ASCII (plain text, rich text, or hypertext), keyword, and scannable. The site contains samples of good resumes and cover letters, as well as many articles and tutorials on writing these important job-search documents. How to Write a Masterpiece of a Resume http://www.rockportinstitute.com/resumes.html
Rockport Institute’s founder, Nicholas Lore, provides this excerpt from his book, The Pathfinder: How to Choose or Change Your Career for a Lifetime of Satisfaction and Success. This site provides tips on what a resume is and isn’t, guidelines for creating a visually appealing resume, and what should and should not appear on the resume.
Cover Letters Cover letters are also called letters of interest. They are business letters that enclose resumes for consideration for hiring. No resume should be sent without a cover letter that specifies the position for which you are applying. The cover letter tells why you are interested in the
job. It is another opportunity to market yourself to the employer. Remember, most employers receive many applications for each job opening. Usually, employers only want to interview the top three to five job applicants. In the first glance at a cover letter the decision is made to reject it or to look at the resume. The best cover letter works with the resume to get you an interview. As with resumes, there is no one right way to write a cover letter. Generally, the format of cover letters must be neat, business like, and without errors. The content must be succinct, persuasive, and relevant to the employer. Usually, the letter of interest in the job, or cover letter, is a single page that covers an enclosed resume. Like the resume, you can find many books and Web sites that offer tips on how to write a cover letter. Following are some suggested guidelines for the content and format of the cover letter.
■ Format of the Cover Letter The cover letter is a business letter. That means it should include the basic elements of the business letter: return address or letterhead address date of composition n title (Mr., Mrs., Ms., Miss, or Dr.) and name of the addressee, that is, the person to whom it is being sent n job title of the addressee n name and address of the business or company n salutation line, such as Dear [title and name of addressee] n body of letter n closing n signature of the sender and typed name of the sender n n
It is a good idea to have some stationery printed for your job search. The same stationery (or high-quality paper) should be used for all job search correspondence (resumes, cover letters, thank-you notes) and envelopes should all match. Printed stationery should be personalized with your name and address at the top. You may prefer that your cover letter indicates the return address of your current place of employment, but put all job search correspondence on your own stationery or paper. When you apply for jobs on your current employer’s letterhead stationery, it creates the impression you will take an employer’s property for personal use. You may use either the block or indented form of the business letter but be consistent throughout. Use the type font that matches your resume. It is preferable to address the cover letter to an individual. Sometimes it is necessary to make a phone call
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to inquire to whom the letter should be addressed. Make sure you get the spelling of the person’s name correct, along with his or her correct job title. At times, it is impossible to find out the name of the person who will get and screen the cover letter and resume. In those cases, it is best to use either gender neutral or gender inclusive salutation lines, such as Dear Search Committee Chairperson, Dear Personnel Manager, or Dear Sir or Madam. To Whom It May Concern is usually considered too impersonal. The language of the body of the cover letter is formal. Do not use abbreviations. Proofread the cover letter to be sure it does not contain grammar or spelling errors. The closing line of the letter should be one of those commonly used for business correspondence: Very truly yours, or Yours very truly, or Sincerely.
■ The Contents of the Cover Letter You want to market yourself in the cover letter, so what you say should be specific to the position you are applying for and the skills you can bring to that job. A general rule is that the cover letter should be used not to tell what you want but to tell what you can do for the employer. If you are responding to an advertisement, emphasize your experiences and skills that match the described job’s qualifications. The marketing strategy you use depends on your skills, on what you know about the employer’s business, and on the usual practices of the occupation in which you are applying. Content considerations for the cover letter include the following: Position. Specify the job opening for which you are applying and where you heard about it. This is usually the first line of the cover letter. You want to immediately create a favorable impression with the reader. One strategy is to use the name of a person the reader knows and respects. For example, “Mr. Frank Jones, the marketing director at [name of employer’s business], told me that you will be launching a major campaign this spring and will need experienced, motivated salespeople.” Another strategy is to create a pleasant feeling of obligation in the reader, such as “Thank you for considering my application for the position of executive secretary that was advertised in today’s Morning News.” Some experts suggest using hard-sell or exciting approaches, such as “You can stop looking at applications for that take-charge restaurant manager because here she is.” Approaches of this nature had some popularity in the past but are not currently in vogue. References. Use the name of any reference that creates a commonality between you and the employer. This is when your personal networking comes into play. People like people who know people they know and like. For
example, “Ms. Elisabeth Blesamy, whom I have been working with to arrange the Red Cross’s charity ball, told me you need a conference organizer with my skills.” Job description. Restate the language of the job description. Do not be afraid to use the same words. For example, an ad might specify “must be skilled in desktop publishing and graphic design including familiarity with Quark XPress and Photoshop.” Respond specifically, “I use Quark XPress to lay out the monthly newsletter for the North Mountain Photo Club. Scanning and using Photoshop lets me format all the members’ photographs, including some that need restoration and touch-up. I also use Illustrator to create original graphics for the newsletter.” Vary structure. Since you are marketing your own accomplishments, it can be challenging not to start all the sentences in the body of the cover letter with I. But note the example above interspersed a sentence beginning with an action verb between two sentences starting with I. Try to vary the sentence structure to avoid seeming egotistical or repetitive. Ask for a meeting. End by expressing your desire to meet to further discuss your qualifications and provide contact information such as your phone numbers and email address. Some experts advise you to say when you will follow up with a phone call. If you say you are going to call, you should do so as stated to show you are dependable. But unless you think you can further sell yourself, it is probably best to let the employer contact you. Most people do not like to have to give bad news. Most employers do not like to tell applicants that they are not interested in interviewing them and will usually tell you other candidates were more competitive. Few employers have the time to tell you what you should have done to get an interview, that is, how you should revise your cover letter or resume or what skills you need to present or develop. Nor will employers generally refer you to someone else who might be interested in hiring you. So unless you are the type of person who can make a very positive impression during a phone call, let the employer call you.
■ For More Information Cover Letter Tutorial http://www.quintcareers.com/cover_letter_tutorial_map.html
This detailed tutorial is from Quintessential Careers. You can start from the very beginning and learn about cover letter basics (why and when to use one and what kinds there are) and work your way through to the very end (writing tips and letter formatting). Or you can skip around the various topics listed in the outline. A brief step-by-step explanation tells what to discuss in each paragraph of your letter. But what do you do if
The Career Portfolio and Credentials
you have little actual job experience? You’ll learn how to make the most of college experience in your cover letter. Having college students in mind, guidance is offered on how to present academic and extracurricular activities as being relevant to a work situation. This material will come in handy down the road if you decide to switch career paths and don’t feel as if you have any related experience. And there’s still more, including examples of what to avoid (negativity, rambling), what to stress (your knowledge about the company, your skills and qualifications), and ideas for opening and closing paragraphs. Descriptions of commonly made mistakes and poor cover letters, along with suggested corrections, are also included. 200 Letters for Job Hunters http://www.careerlab.com/letters
This site has more than 200 cover letters and other jobrelated correspondence samples for you to dig through. Categories of letters include letters of introduction (or sales letters), letters in response to want ads, followup letters, letters asking for a reference, letters seeking a salary increase, and much more. Go to the section that interests you (say, for example, the one on cold calls) and you’ll find plenty of advice about how to get your foot in the door, plus those cover letters! The letters in this particular section demonstrate how to sell yourself by focusing on your skills, how to approach a company you’re especially interested in working for, and how to put together a blitz campaign (when you send a series of letters to a specific employer). Many letters are supplemented by suggestions for improvement or explanations of how they can be used in different industries. Note, however, that you will have to pay a registration fee to gain full access to all of the letters on the site. In addition to the site’s wide assortment of sample letters, you will also discover some useful advice about conducting a job search when you’re in a hurry, organizing your ideas before you write, and how to follow up your letter, along with a list of commonly made mistakes in letter writing. More Tips for Writing Cover Letters http://www.career.fsu.edu/ccis/guides/write_eff.html
Florida State University’s Career Center provides this excellent tip sheet on writing cover letters. It includes do’s and don’ts, how to format letters, and sample letters. There is also information on how to respond to a classified ad, thank you letters, letters of acknowledgement, and letters to accept or decline a job offer. There’s also a list of bibliographic resources at the end.
The Career Portfolio and Credentials A career portfolio is a collection of documents that prove your skills, abilities, and achievements. It is a record of your personal career development. It is like a resume in scrapbook form. A portfolio can be a useful job search marketing tool because it provides examples of what you have achieved with the skills you are selling. Portfolios have a long history of use by people in creative arts, engineering, and education occupations. Portfolios of actors and actresses include playbills from productions in which they had roles and photos of them in costume for various parts. Models use portfolios to show pictures of their employment in advertising campaigns or in fashion shows. Journalists and writers put article series, short stories, and lists of their publications in their portfolios. Portfolios allow artists and photographers to show samples of their work. Today’s computer graphic designers sometimes present their portfolios on disk. In today’s job market, using a portfolio can give job applicants in any occupational area a competitive edge. Many high schools and some colleges require their students to assemble portfolios as a graduation requirement. Developing the portfolio can help you in the following ways: It serves as a reminder of what you accomplished in previous jobs or in volunteer experiences. People making career transitions may know they have the ability and skills to enter a new occupation but lack documentation. A portfolio captures what abilities were used and when skills were developed. n It shows how your skills and abilities have resulted in achievements and accomplishments. n It builds confidence as you prepare for an inter view. n
■ Materials for a Portfolio What you finally put in your portfolio depends on what skills and abilities you want to emphasize. Examples of materials that should be saved for a portfolio include transcripts of educational course work completed diplomas, certificates, and degrees earned n certificates of achievement and other awards n thank-you letters and letters of commendation n n
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job evaluations and work performance records programs from conferences and conventions that you helped organize n newspaper articles covering your achievements n promotional materials of any workshop or seminar you conducted n work samples, such as pages showing database setup, homepages designed, desktop published newsletters, lesson plans, and writing samples n professional licenses, certificates, and registrations n letters of recommendation n n
Get in the habit of taking and keeping lots of photos. Take photos of products built, presentations, events such as fund-raisers organized, bulletin boards created, or interiors that you decorated. Also collect photos of you on the job and with coworkers. Putting photos, such as one showing you receiving an award, next to the actual award certificate makes your portfolio more alive as it captures the moment. Photos can make a portfolio interesting by showing how you have matured throughout your career development. Photos can also reflect qualities employers desire, such as working successfully with people from diverse backgrounds.
■ Assembling a Portfolio Portfolios should be easy to customize for the job interview and to carry to the interview. Portfolio materials must be preserved in a format that allows them to be used flexibly. There are a variety of packages you can use for your portfolio. The materials to be presented, occupational practices, and your personal preferences will influence your choice of packaging for your portfolio. Some options are self-mounting photo albums, two or three ring binders, and accordion folders. It is a good idea to decide that your materials must be no bigger than a certain size, such as 8 1/2" 5 11". Most certificates will be this standard size. Prepare your materials for presentation. It will not make a good impression if you show up with a disorganized bundle of ragged and worn scraps of paper and clippings. Copying materials is a good way to preserve the originals. Most duplicating machines permit reduction and enlargement of copies, so you can size materials appropriately. Make several copies of some materials, such as writing samples, which you will include in a mini-portfolio packet to leave with the interviewer. Copies tend to be flimsy. Presentations of papers and photographs can be nicely made on the adhesive mounting pages that are available for photo albums. Or you might want to use clear plastic sheets that can be inserted in a binder.
Computer disk. This format may be a good choice if you are applying for a position requiring computer skills. Plan on bringing your own laptop to the interview and be sure the battery is charged because you cannot depend on an employer to provide equipment or electrical support. Copy a self-running version of the presentation on a disk to leave with the interviewer. Captions. Write captions for each piece of material contained in the portfolio. The captions should be statements that describe the material and the context, such as “This certificate for volunteer of the year was awarded to me in 2000 by the United Way for my work with fund-raising.” The caption should also specify skills used and results achieved, such as “I trained over 100 volunteers to answer the phones and enter bids into a computer program for the call-in auction on public access TV. We raised more than $65,000 to adapt the local playground to accommodate children with disabilities. I recruited more volunteers to help on that and did some carpentry, too.” Spotlight achievements. Decide which skills and abilities are important to get you the job you are applying for and assemble the portfolio for the interview to spotlight achievements that resulted from using these skills and abilities. Organize the portfolio so you can easily access the different materials. One way to do this is similar to creating a functional resume. If you are using a functional resume, make your portfolio in a parallel format using the same skill headings. Consider the broad skill areas you want to market in the job interview as headings. For example, a person applying for a managerial position might use headings such as organizational skills, personnel management, and computer skills. A fund-raiser might use education, publicity, and program development. Select the materials that best display your achievements, skills, and abilities in each heading area. Prepare a table of contents that is headed by your contact information. Customize. Tailor your portfolio for each job interview based upon the research you have done to determine what skills and abilities the employer wants in applicants for the position. You probably will not use all of your materials in every portfolio you create. Create a mini-portfolio. Use your table of contents, with your contact information at the top, and attach copies of some of the portfolio materials, such as work samples, to make a mini-portfolio packet that you can give to the interviewer.
■ Using the Portfolio in the Interview Remember the portfolio is a marketing tool to get the job. It should be used to demonstrate achievements in
Interviewing
areas relevant to the qualities the employer is seeking in a worker to fill the job. If the portfolio is not relevant to the skills and abilities needed on the job, it will not work for you. Some experts suggest stating at the beginning of the interview that you have brought a portfolio, which is fine, provided you have accurately assessed what is desired for the job. However, if your portfolio is not on target, you have hurt yourself by needlessly introducing it. Another approach is to make it obvious that you have it, such as carrying it in and putting it on a table. This could be a problem because there might not be a table and you do not want to intrude on the interviewer’s desk space. So if you carry it in anything but a briefcase, you may end up with it in your lap throughout the interview. Again, if you are not going to use it, it may be best not to let the interviewer know you have it. What if you decided during the interview that your portfolio highlighted skills that were not needed for the job, but the interviewer asked to see it? The best approach is probably to introduce the portfolio in response to a question about the skills or abilities that you know are highlighted in the portfolio. While displaying the portfolio page, you can state how the achievement was a result of your use of the requested skills and abilities.
■ Advantages of Using the Portfolio Following are some of the advantages of using a portfolio. It shows you can assimilate experiences, drawing parallels from what you have done to what will be desired on the job, and that you are aware of the skills and abilities that helped you achieve your goals. n It suggests creditability of your qualifications. The portfolio provides documentation that backs up your resume. n It shows you took effort to prepare for the interview by considering the skills and abilities required for the job. n It can demonstrate your organization, neatness, and creativity in presentation of the materials. n It can help you to guide the interview to be certain your best qualifications are mentioned. When you are interviewing for a position where leadership is sought, it may help show that you can take charge of a situation. (Be careful, though, how you exert control in the interview. Some interviewers, rather than trying to screen applicants, are happy to let applicants take over the job of selling. Other inter viewers may have very specific interview questions they want to ask.) n
It provides a tool that can help you jog your memory during the interview should anxiety impede your ability to verbalize experiences that demonstrate your skills and abilities. n
■ For More Information Portfolio Library http://amby.com/kimeldorf/p_mk-toc.html
Author and teacher Martin Kimeldorf offers much helpful advice to assist you in determining what to include in a portfolio and how to compile those materials. Step-bystep instructions are given for putting together personal, professional, and high school portfolios. As you will discover, this resource will come in handy no matter what stage you’re at in your career search. There are discussions of reasons for college students to use portfolios and how the author has used portfolios through the years. The article “Using Job Search Portfolios in an Uncertain Labor Market” presents suggestions of various samples you might want to include in your career portfolio. To get a clearer picture of what a portfolio looks like, check out the portfolio samplers. They show examples of how to creatively document and display testimonials and achievements. References are made to a number of books where you can find additional information. Steps in Creating a Career Portfolio There are several good Web sites for developing a career portfolio that are sponsored by university career centers and major Web sites for job seekers. The University of Wisconsin-Eau Claire (http://www.uwec.edu/Career/ Online_Library/Portfolios.htm) provides a good comprehensive look at starting a portfolio as does Washington State University (http://www.careers.wsu.edu/content/ resourcecenter/portfolios.asp). Net-Temps (http://www. net-temps.com/careerdev/index.htm?type=topics&topic =working&id=59) has a good site on how more experienced job seekers can use portfolios.
Interviewing Interviewing is when a potential employer meets with you to discuss your job qualifications. In an interview, the people interviewing you ask questions and, usually, you will have the opportunity to ask them questions. You will be evaluated on your professional appearance and manner, as well as on your responses to questions, and on any information you provide.
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There is great variation in the way interviews are conducted by different employers in different occupational areas. Interviews may be at the employer’s place of business or elsewhere, such as on campus or during professional conventions. There may be one interview or you may be asked to additional interviews before a hiring decision is made. Many interviews are one on one between the candidate and the employer, often the person who will be directly supervising the employee. Often candidates will be interviewed by a group of supervisors and coworkers. Interviews of this type are usually scheduled to last an hour or two. Large employers in some occupations interview a candidate over several days. The candidate meets with many people in different positions in the organization, dines with interviewers, may attend receptions to meet coworkers, and may be asked to make presentations or work on a project. Candidates who are expected to participate in an interview of this nature usually furnish an agenda for the interview in advance. When an employer calls to ask you to an interview, it is appropriate to ask questions about the interview format. Every interviewee needs answers to the first three questions listed below. The rest of the questions are applicable for interviewees in specific occupations. It is important to be familiar with the interview practices of your occupation to know what to expect. To help you prepare for the interview, ask the following questions: Where will the interview be conducted? When will the interview be conducted and how long it will take? n Who will you meet in the interview? n What activities will be part of the interview process? n Will you have to make a presentation or participate in a work sample? n Are there travel expenses associated with the interview and will the employer pay any costs? (This is only relevant if you have to travel a great distance to get to the interview. Do not ask your interviewer to reimburse you for cab fare or commuter train fare.) n n
■ Dressing for the Interview One of the criteria on which you will be evaluated as a potential employee is your appearance during the interview. Employers hire people whose appearance matches the standard set for their own employees. It is customary to interview in the type of outfit that would be worn at work. Each occupation has its own practices. For example, skilled-trades workers interview in less formal work clothing than workers in banks or business offices. In all cases, interview clothing should be neat and clean. The following are a few tips for dressing for the interview:
If you have an opportunity before the interview to go to the employer’s place of business and see the types of outfits employees are wearing, do so, and model your interview dress accordingly. n If you are applying for a position where specific clothing, such as safety boots, is required, wear it to the interview. n Traditional, conservative, classic styles are usually preferred over the latest fashion. Tailored, well-fitting clothing is preferred over styles that are either very loose and baggy or very tight-fitting. n The total outfit is important. Wearing athletic shoes spoils the good impression of a great-looking business suit. Footwear should be clean, shined, and appropriate, which usually means oxfords for men and pumps for women. Preferred colors in men’s shoes are brown or black. Women should avoid heels that are overly high or clunky. As a rule, conservative is preferred over stylish. n Accessories should contribute to, not detract from, the outfit. Jewelry should be traditional, conservative, and not excessive for the employment sought. For example, a very expensive watch might be appropriate for a person applying for a bank manager’s position but not for someone applying to be a dishwasher. n Any aspect of an interviewee’s appearance that is nontraditional may make an unfavorable impression on a potential employer. Again, it is helpful to be aware of what the employer desires and to prepare for the interview accordingly. For example, retail salespeople in a specialty boutique that caters to young people might be encouraged to wear sport fashions and styles that would not be acceptable at a more mainstream retailer. Sometimes clothing or accessories that are nontraditional are important to interviewees’ religious beliefs or personal sentiments. While many employers must obey federal nondiscrimination guidelines, not all must, and even among those that do, wearing of clothing and accessories as an area that is protected against religious discrimination has not been upheld. For example, Muslim women, whose beliefs include hijab or khimar, that is, wearing a headscarf, have been refused employment by many major companies in a variety of industries. n
A briefcase is a very important interview accessory. It permits interviewees to carry items that may be needed or useful in interviews. When carrying a briefcase, do not carry a purse. Put the items you would carry in the purse in the briefcase. Items to carry in the briefcase include:
Interviewing
Two forms of identification, such as driver’s license and social security card, which can be used to verify your legal employment status in the United States. n Bills and coins in a wallet or change purse. You do not want to be late for an interview because you could not find free parking for your car. n A notepad and pen. The interviewer may provide information that you want to make a note of, such as the name of a contact for your network. Bring your date book or appointment planner. You may be asked to schedule a second interview. n A handkerchief or tissues. There is nothing more embarrassing than a sudden sneeze that leaves you needing a tissue you do not have. n Your business card and extra copies of your resume. It is possible an interviewer may want to look at your resume again and not have a copy handy. It makes a good impression when you can promptly furnish one. n Your portfolio with copies of materials to leave with interviewers, such as writing samples, your miniportfolio packet, or computer disks with presentations you have prepared. n
■ What Not to Bring to an Interview It is amazing what some people consider appropriate to bring to an interview. The following items are not recommended for any reason. Anyone else, neither friend, relative, spouse, nor guardian. You do not want to have anyone even waiting in the lobby because they gave you a ride to the interview. It is important to create the impression that you are capable of autonomous functioning, that is, that you can get to work on your own. n Cell phones or loud pagers. You do not want to create any interruptions in the interview. You certainly do not want to receive phone calls. Be sure you are not bringing in any equipment, such as a pager or a watch, that has alerts that might go off and beep. Even glancing at a vibrating pager or at a watch suggests you are not attending to the interviewer. n Food, drink, or chewing gum. n Entertainment equipment such as radios or portable headsets. n
■ Preparing for the Interview You should have researched a fair amount of information about this employer when you applied for the job. Review materials, such as the job description and annual reports, before the interview. Now is the time to use your personal network by asking your contacts if they know anyone employed by the business, so you might obtain an
insider’s slant. Be careful of your source and remember you are getting one person’s perspective when talking to an employee or someone who does business with the company. Consider what you can say to show you have the skills and abilities to do the duties on the job description and the typical job duties in the occupation. Practice your responses to commonly asked interview questions, such as the following: Tell me about yourself. n What are your strengths? n What are your areas of weakness? n What do you want to be doing in five years? n What is the one significant contribution you can make on this job? n
Experts suggest the more you practice interviewing, the better you will be able to present yourself during interviews. Mock interviews with others is a good way to practice, particularly if they can be videotaped and you can critique your own performance. Other techniques to prepare for interviewing include: practicing relaxation to reduce symptoms of anxiety, such as tense muscles, hands shaking, or a highpitched voice n visualizing yourself being interviewed and thinking of different ways you might respond to questions n
■ During the Interview Conduct yourself according to standard business manners. Stand to greet people and respond to their offer of a handshake, and smile. Traditional protocol provides guidelines for who initiates handshakes, but today’s common practice makes it acceptable to greet an individual, state your name, and offer a handshake. Wait to be seated until you are asked to do so. This provides an advantage in that the interviewer will usually desire you in a particular seat and will indicate which one you should take. Do not intrude on the interviewer’s space; for example, do not put anything on the interviewer’s desk. Let the interviewer initiate the conversation. Make appropriate eye contact. Speak in moderate tones. Attend to the interviewer or interviewers. Do not interrupt when they are speaking. Sometimes interviewers ask more than one question at a time. It can be difficult to remember many questions in a row while thinking how you will answer them. Some experts suggest making notes of the questions asked, but most interviewers, like most people, are uncomfortable when the person they are speaking with makes notes. It may be best to focus on remembering the first question and responding to it.
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When you have answered, if you need to, you can ask to be reminded of the other questions by saying, “Did you have another question?” People like it when you use, but not when you overuse, their names. Try to use the name of the person who asks a question when responding: “Mr. Jones, I am a modest person, but I pride myself in doing a job right. When I get involved in a project, regular working hours does not mean quitting time to me.” You will usually be given an opportunity to ask questions. It is often difficult to think of good questions to ask. You do not want to ask about wages, salaries, or benefits. Those will be discussed when and if the employer makes a job offer, or if the employer approaches the subject first during an interview. Since you will usually be given your chance to ask questions at the end of an interview, you usually cannot make much use in that interview of information you learn from questions. So questions such as “What would you say are the most important characteristics of the worker you want to hire?” will not help you if you will not be given the time to address how you have those characteristics. When you are given the opportunity to ask questions, it is an opportunity to try to determine if employment in this job would be desirable for you. To see if you can work with your potential boss, you might ask, “Mrs. Jones, I understand I would be working under your direct supervision. How would you characterize your leadership style?” You might learn about how the company sees its employees: “What would you say is the most important reason people like to work for XYZ company, Mr. Smith? Or “What opportunities are there for skills development for a person who accepts employment in this position?” Note the question is about skills development, not advancement. Many positions offer no opportunity for direct advancement, and if employers perceive advancing as important to you, they may think you would not be a good fit in their job. Politely refusing offers of refreshment (a simple, “No, thank you” without explanation) enables you to maintain your good impression while avoiding the distraction of, for example, drinking coffee while you are being interviewed. At the end of the interview, remember to thank interviewers for meeting with you and reemphasize your desire to work with them.
Keep records of who you interviewed with and for what position. Even if you do not get an offer, if you made a good impression, this may be someone you could contact later as part of networking.
■ For More Information Job Interviewing Resources http://www.quintcareers.com/intvres.html
Quintessential Careers offers this guide to job-interviewing resources that includes links to many sites pertinent to interviewing. The strength of this site is in the many different interview questions provided for consideration and in the information on behavioral interviewing. Look for interviewing do’s and don’ts, the STAR Interviewing technique, tips on phone interviewing, and questions you can ask at the interview. There is also a cover-letter tutorial. Successful Interviewing http://www.dac.neu.edu/coop.careerservices/interview.html
If you are looking for straightforward information about job interviews, take a look at this handout from Northeastern University in Boston. It begins by listing the goals of both the candidate and the interviewer. Next is a description of how you should prepare for the interview, which is followed by an explanation of the four basic stages that make up the interview process. This leads to some notes on the different types of interviews you are apt to encounter. These include screening, one on one, and group, to name a few. Advice is offered on how to answer questions like “What are your strengths and weaknesses?” and “Why do you want to work here?” Finally, a few pointers are given for negotiating salary. Job Interview Success http://www.job-interview.net
Job-Interview.net provides a good site with articles on all aspects of interviewing. Topics covered include nonverbal signs to look for during an interview and interview questions and answers listed by job function. There are sections for interviewers, so you can get a feeling for what they are looking for on the other side of the table. Lots and lots of suggestions on good answers to specific interview questions. Virtual Interview
■ After the Interview Write a thank-you note to the interviewers emphasizing your desire to work for them and using whatever you learned in the interview to put a marketing slant on your skills and abilities. Mentally review and evaluate your own performance. What questions did you respond to well? Which ones do you need to research further or answer better?
http://interview.monster.com
Monster.com offers a virtual interviewer for a variety of fields including administrative support jobs, human resources, health care, marketing, Internet, retail and more. You will be asked an interview question and given the opportunity to select the best answer from several alternatives. An explanation is provided on which answer is the best and why.
You’re Hired! Congratulations! You got the job! Now what do you do? The articles in this section inform you about some important aspects of being employed.
Salary/Wages
average earnings are calculated, earnings of a small number of highly paid workers inflate the figure. This leads to the reported average earnings actually being higher than what most people make in the occupation. The median is the figure that best reflects what a worker with some job experience can expect to make. The median salary is the amount in the middle when earnings of all workers in the occupation are considered. The way workers receive their earnings depends on the business practices common in the occupation; for example, an employer may or may not issue paychecks from which taxes have been withheld. In the United States, all workers must pay taxes on money they earn. Taxes are paid to the federal government for programs such as Social Security and Medicare and to state governments. Some employers pay the taxes owed on the earnings before they pay workers. On payday, workers receive a statement of earnings for the pay period. This statement reflects the gross amount of earnings, that is, how much was earned before deductions. Deductions include money that was withheld to pay taxes and any contributions the employee makes to pay for benefits, such as health insurance. The actual amount of the check is the net earnings, that is, the earnings after taxes and benefits have been paid. In some occupations, such as outside sales, workers may be considered independent contractors, and employers do not withhold money from their earnings for taxes. Workers who receive tips may not have taxes withheld on this income because employers usually do not know the amount of tips workers receive. Federal and state governments expect workers to pay taxes on income earned annually. It is important to save money from income not taxed throughout the year to be able to pay taxes on the due dates.
Many people think that all workers receive a weekly paycheck, that the minimum wage (currently $5.15 per hour) is the least employers can pay workers, and that no employer can require a worker to be on the job for more than 40 hours a week without paying overtime. These are all myths. Pay for work may be given weekly, biweekly, monthly, or when the job is completed. When and how much workers are paid depends upon the practices in the occupation. For example, workers who receive tips usually take home tips received on the job at the end of each work shift. They may get a weekly paycheck but are often paid less than minimum wage. Their tips are expected to make their hourly earnings greater than the minimum wage. In some sales occupations, workers are paid, entirely or in part, by commission, which means their income depends on making sales. Workers who earn a salary, that is, a set amount per year instead of an hourly wage, may be required to work more than 40 hours a week but receive no overtime pay. Before starting to look for a job, it is useful to understand both how much workers in the occupation earn and how workers in different jobs are usually paid. References, such as this encyclopedia and the Occupational Outlook Handbook, provide information on the earnings in a wide variety of occupations. When looking at earnings, it is important to understand the difference between entry-level, average, and median earnings. Entrylevel wages, or starting salaries, are the amounts usually paid to workers who are new to an occupation. These workers, who are often recent graduates from training programs, do not have much experience on the job. Average wages are the mean of all the earnings of all workers in the occupation from entry level to the most experienced. Because some experienced workers also have longevity on a job, they may be paid much more than workers who have some job experience but who have not worked a long time in one position. In some occupations, a very few star players make very large salaries while most of the workers in the occupation earn more moderate amounts. The way
■ For More Information Salary Negotiation and Job Offer Negotiation Tutorial http://www.quintcareers.com/salary_negotiation_tutorial. html
Quintessential Careers offers practical advice in this step-by-step tutorial on salary negotiation. Some of the 61
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issues covered are when and how to talk salary, how to determine your competitive market value, what kinds of questions you should ask and the things to consider after an offer’s been made, how to respond to an unacceptable job offer, and suggestions specifically aimed at new college graduates. Much of the advice is presented in the form of sample responses of what to say when you are asked certain salary-related questions. This should give you a good head start on how to handle a variety of situations. Links to salary surveys, salary calculators, and cost-of-living resources are also featured. JobStar Salary Information http://jobstar.org/tools/salary/index.php
JobStar has compiled links to many Web sites dealing with salaries and wages. Look for more than 300 salary surveys and features on negotiating starting salaries. As JobStar is a California-based project, some of the information or links deals specifically with California. Salary Survey Data http://www.wageweb.com
Wageweb offers salary survey data on over 170 positions by employers in industries such as finance, engineering, marketing, administration, human resources, management, health care, and manufacturing. This site offers not only salary information but also job descriptions that provide useful action words when preparing a resume.
Fringe Benefits Some employers offer no fringe benefits and others offer a wide variety of benefits. What benefits are offered usually depends on both different occupational practices and the size of the employer. Generally, larger employers offer more benefits than smaller employers. Benefits packages, that is, the different types of benefits employers offer and the amount of payment they contribute toward those benefits, add compensation value comparable to actual earnings. Benefits packages can increase the value of earnings by 33 percent. For example, a paid holiday gives employees a day’s pay without working. Benefits can help employees save money; for example, an uninsured person might have to pay $60 to go to a doctor’s office, but a person who is covered by an employer’s health insurance might only pay $15. If the employer pays the cost of the health insurance, that is like the employer giving the worker $45. Following are descriptions of some of the benefits commonly offered by employers.
■ Paid Holidays, Sick Leave, Personal Days, and Vacations Paid holidays are days off for which employees are paid. Sick leave, personal days, and paid vacation time are benefits that are often offered on an accrual system, that is, as employees work a certain period of time for the employer, they earn paid time off in case of sickness or personal needs. These benefits are often earned on a schedule; for example, one sick day may be earned a month. Usually, sick leave and personal days accrue if they are not used, that is, if not used in the month earned, the time off can be saved for use later. Sometimes there is a cutoff of how many days can be saved. Some employers pay for accrued days when workers leave their employment. Often employees must work a certain period of time, usually a year, before they begin earning paid vacation time.
■ Insurance Because some employers hire large numbers of workers, it is possible for them to negotiate with insurance companies to have their employees covered at a cost lower than individual policies. This is called group insurance. Employers pay all or part of various types of group insurance policies for their workers. Health insurance is commonly offered, and employers also may allow employees to insure their dependents at reduced cost. Other insurance packages offered include disability, which pays employees who suffer impairment and become unable to work, and life, which, in the case of an employee’s death, makes payments to designated survivors. For workers in some occupations, employers pay the costs of professional insurance that protects against malpractice lawsuits.
■ Retirement Employers often put money into retirement accounts, such as IRAs or 401(k) plans. Sometimes the employer matches the amount employees choose to save toward retirement. Many times, money that employees put into a retirement account is not taxed. By contributing as much as possible to retirement accounts, employees save money by avoiding paying taxes on those earnings. In some cases, employees must work for the employer for a certain period of time before they are eligible for retirement accounts. When they have completed this period, they are referred to as being vested. Some retirement accounts can be converted to cash when a worker leaves the employment. Taxes must be paid on such cash payments received.
■ Other Benefits Employers sometimes offer a variety of other benefits. What is offered often depends on the occupation. For
Personnel Management: Probation, Evaluation, Raises, Promotion, and Dismissal
example, food service workers are often provided a meal on the job. Some jobs, such as apartment manager, provide the worker housing. Workers required to wear uniforms may have both uniforms and laundry services provided by employers. Some employers pay fees for renewal of professional licenses or for memberships in professional organizations. Some employers offer their workers shares of their business’s stock so when the company’s value increases, the employee gains a profit. When negotiating a job offer, it is important to know usual benefits offered by similar-sized employers in the occupation. Benefits packages are generally non-negotiable: Employers either offer them or they do not. But the value of a benefits package to the employee should be considered part of the total earnings gained by working for the employer. The total compensation a worker gains may be greater working at lower pay for an employer who offers a comprehensive benefits package than working at higher wages for an employer who does not offer benefits.
■ For More Information Successful Job Offer Negotiation http://www.collegegrad.com/book/21-0.shtml
This site presents a chapter from Brian Krueger’s book, College Grad Job Hunter. Once you have been presented with a job offer, there are different techniques to use in determining whether or not you want to accept it. Read about these techniques here and learn some of the important questions to ask. Remember that salary is not the only thing to consider when deciding whether or not to accept a job offer. Be sure to look at all the perks of the job: insurance (medical, dental, life, and disability), vacation, holidays, sick days, retirement plans, tuition reimbursement, overtime and comp time, and so on. Some benefits are more open to negotiation than others, depending on company policy, so it is important that you find this out before getting too far along in the negotiation process. Advice is also given on how to handle counteroffers made by your current employer, how to give notice when you want to quit your job, and how to leave without burning bridges. Another site offering information on negotiating for job benefits is Stephanie Sanborn’s brief article at http://www.infoworld.com/ articles/ca/xml/00/09/18/000918calist.xml.
Evaluating Your Employee Benefit Package About Financial Planning (http://financialplan.about. com/mbody.htm) is a Web site that gives information about money management; here it provides an article on maximizing your benefit through using flexible spend-
ing accounts (http://financialplan.about.com/library/ weekly/aa111200a.htm). Employee Benefits Survey http://www.bls.gov/ncs/ebs
This Bureau of Labor Statistics survey provides data and information about employee benefits offered in the private and federal sectors. Some 6,000 private companies (large, medium, and small) as well as state and local government establishments are represented in the report, which documents employee participation in various employer-sponsored plans and includes tables that cover paid leave, health care and disability benefits, retirement plans, employee contributions, coinsurance rates, and more. BenefitsLink http://www.benefitslink.com
While this site will probably be of most use to employers and plan advisers and administrators, employees and job seekers will find a wide range of interesting benefits-related subjects to explore. The site features synopses of current news items dealing with such issues as sick pay, pensions, and health care costs, with links to full stories; several Q&A columns discussing retirement plan distributions, 401(k) plans, COBRA coverage, and more; an employee benefits library of links to government sites offering documents concerning employee benefits plans; a wide array of Benefits Links articles and annotated links pertaining to disability benefits, government plans, managed care, social security, and stock options; and job listings. There are also links to health and retirement plan information for employees.
Personnel Management: Probation, Evaluation, Raises, Promotion, and Dismissal Hiring workers, evaluating how well they are doing their jobs, keeping them as employees, promoting them, or firing them are all personnel-management actions. Employers who have many workers usually have written personnel policies explaining
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the way workers are hired n what is expected for satisfactory job performance n how performance is evaluated n earnings for each position and how earnings increase n what promotion opportunities exist and how to be promoted n what can be expected when performance is not satisfactory n
New employees may attend an orientation session during which these policies are explained. Employees working for employers who have personnel policies are given a handbook with the written policies. Personnel policies protect both employers and their workers by providing rules on how the employer handles actions that affect its employees. Federal laws against discrimination have influenced the development of personnel policies. Unions and other bodies representing employees try to influence personnel policies to protect employees’ rights. Usually only larger employers have formal, written personnel policies. This is because the number of workers employed is a factor that determines what laws protecting workers are applicable to the employer. Employers who hire only a small number of workers do not have to meet the same legal requirements as larger employers. This means the employment rights of workers in small businesses are usually less protected than those of union workers, of government employees, or of workers in corporations doing business nationwide. Written rules or procedures help protect workers because if an employer does not follow these rules, it is grounds for an employee to file a grievance. Personnel policies provide procedures for filing a grievance, that is, making a complaint that the employer is not following the personnel policy rules in dealing with the worker. Smaller employers who are not subject to federal regulations often have no written personnel policies. There is often no procedure to follow if workers think their employer is not treating them fairly. Often the only option for an employee who thinks an employer has not been fair, or perhaps has even broken the law in their treatment of the employee, is to sue the employer in court to prove the employer’s actions were damaging. Suing can be an expensive and time-consuming procedure. Employers who do not operate under formal written personnel policies or who do not enter into a contract with employees are sometimes referred to as offering employment at will, meaning they may hire or dismiss employees as they choose, with or without reason. Personnel policies usually make employment more secure for the employee by clarifying procedures for actions
between employers and their employees. When considering a job offer, it is important to learn what personnel policies, if any, the employer follows. Following are some issues covered by personnel policies.
■ Probation Sometimes employees in a new job are informed there is a probationary period during which their suitability to perform satisfactorily will be evaluated. Should they fail to perform to satisfaction during the probationary period, they will be asked to leave the position. After employees have satisfactorily completed a probationary period, they are owed due process before they can be dismissed from a job. (See more about due process under “Dismissal.”) The probation period is a time of trial for the new employee, but after probation the employee has better protection against being let go or fired than do workers whose employers do not offer probationary periods. Workers whose employers are not required to have formal personnel procedures are actually on probation no matter how long they have been working for an employer. Their employment is at will, meaning their employer may dismiss them without having to follow any formal procedure.
■ Evaluation Employers with personnel policies have formal procedures for evaluating workers’ on-the-job performance. Adequate or satisfactory performance ratings may be necessary for retention. Retention means being kept on as an employee. To be considered for promotion or to receive more pay, it may be necessary to receive performance ratings that are better than adequate. Usually, immediate supervisors are responsible for rating workers’ job performance. Policies for evaluation usually specify that employees are told, prior to the rating period, what duties they are expected to fulfill and the performance criteria or standards for ratings. Rating periods are usually every six months or every year, in which case the evaluation is called an annual review. At the end of each rating period, a supervisor provides an employee with feedback regarding the employee’s ratings. If the evaluation is that the job performance is unsatisfactory, recommendations for improvement or remediation are given and must be followed for retention. These recommendations are part of what is considered due process. Failure to follow up on them could be considered sufficient reason for dismissal. Workers whose employers do not have formal procedures for evaluation may find it difficult to get feedback regarding how well their supervisors think they are doing their jobs or how they can improve. Most people do not
Personnel Management: Probation, Evaluation, Raises, Promotion, and Dismissal
like to give bad news. Without procedures to follow, and without rating scales, many supervisors find it awkward to tell employees that their work is not satisfactory. Employees who desire feedback should ask for it. Ask for a private interview with the supervisor. Show you are open to, and can handle, criticism. For example, “I know I handled that customer poorly. I get really upset when a customer yells at me, particularly if I did not know I was doing anything wrong. I should not have responded to her with that snippy comment. Please tell me what I could do to better deal with irate customers.” Follow through on any recommendations and show that you are using them. Continue to ask for feedback again, either after a similar incident or after a couple of months have passed and you think the supervisor should have noticed improvements. Sometimes supervisors tell workers they are doing fine and do not offer recommendations for improvement. Excellent work may not be appropriately recognized unless the worker takes the initiative to record, or document, superior performance. Keep records of achievements, such as completing a project with highquality work before a deadline, receiving high compliments from customers, or troubleshooting a system flaw to save time and money. Documenting achievements is important, either to get a raise or to start looking for another job.
■ Raises and Promotion As they gain experience in a job and learn to perform the duties better, most workers expect that they will earn an increased amount of money. One way employers keep good employees is offering pay that is competitive with other employers. To keep their pay rates competitive, some employers offer cost-of-living raises. Many employers base pay rates on both length of time on the job and on work-performance ratings. Personnel policies provide information on pay schedules and when raises will occur. Usually, pay increases are offered for each year spent on a job. Some employers also offer merit increases to reward employees who get excellent job-performance ratings. Bonuses are a lump sum of money that are not part of earnings, that is, employers do not owe bonuses to workers. Some employers offer bonuses either through tradition, like a gift Christmas bonus, or as a motivation to strive for achievement. Bonuses are frequently offered in sales occupations for making more than a certain volume of sales. Employers are not obliged to offer raises. Many employers have no schedule for raises and no policy for increasing workers’ pay. Workers often have to ask for raises. Asking for a raise requires the same sort of per-
sonal marketing skills that got you the job. A record of work achievements provides a convincing reason why a raise is deserved. Before you ask for a raise, you need time on the job to accomplish achievements that show you are valuable to your employer. It is seldom wise to ask for a raise prior to having spent six months on the job. A good strategy is to schedule an interview with your supervisor to ask for evaluative feedback. If your supervisor has many recommendations to improve your work performance, do not ask for a raise. If you are told you are doing an excellent job, it may be a good time to ask for a raise. Be aware of the profit climate of the business, however, before asking for a raise. If the business is not doing well, even deserving employees will not be given raises. Asking for a raise means asking respectfully, not demanding, and being able to accept no for an answer. Base your request for a raise on your own performance and achievements on the job, not on any comparison with other workers. Promotion has traditionally meant being rewarded for excellent job performance by being able to move up an organization’s hierarchy to a new job with increased responsibilities, higher pay, and more prestige. This traditional meaning of promotion has changed in modern businesses. Corporate ladders are seldom part of today’s organizational structures. Very few businesses offer promotion-from-within programs to identify and train promising employees to meet anticipated organizational openings. It is often more cost efficient for companies to hire from outside than train employees to meet job qualifications for promotions. Conducting job searches that invite applicants from outside of the organization also helps employers adhere to federal guidelines for equal opportunity, nondiscriminatory hiring. So employees who wish to be considered for a job that offers more responsibilities and higher pay usually have to go through the same process for hiring as a person who is not currently working for the business. In today’s world of work, supervisors and employees are often trained in totally different occupational areas. Doing your job well does not necessarily mean you are qualified to do, or would want to do, your supervisor’s job. To get promoted, it is often necessary to become better qualified through more training and taking responsibility for more job duties. Businesses may offer programs to enhance employees’ awareness of the qualifications needed for positions in the organization and may offer some help for employees seeking training. Some organizations offer employees opportunities for lateral promotions, that is, moving to different departments within the organization, but usually these are positions with similar job titles. The idea is to get some new job responsibilities.
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Workers who want to be promoted take advantage of every opportunity to obtain more training and to work on projects that expand their skills. The idea of lifelong employment with an organization that offers excellent employee-advancement opportunities is outmoded in today’s job market. Career managers know that promotion usually means leaving one job to take another with another employer. Being able to document more skills and more achievements on your resume and in your job portfolio prepares you for promotion by making you competitive for the next job.
■ Dismissal “You’re fired” are two words no employee wants to hear. Some employees’ tenure on their jobs is somewhat protected by personnel policies offering due process. Due process means that an employee cannot be immediately dismissed for unsatisfactory performance but that certain steps must be taken to try to help that employee meet job performance standards. Most workers do not realize that employers have no obligation to provide them employment or to keep them on the job. Without due process policies in place, employment is at will, and employees can be immediately dismissed from a job with or without cause. Without cause means that employment was terminated through no fault of the worker. For example, the employer lays off employees because it is no longer the busy season or an employer decided to downsize, restructure the organization, and eliminate employees’ positions. With cause means the employer found some fault in the employee’s performance either on or off the job. Some with cause reasons for firing a worker include: failure to show up for work repeated absences without leave n failure to satisfactorily perform duties n sleeping on the job n drinking or using illegal substances on the job or reporting to work under the influence of alcohol or illegal substances n stealing from the employer n refusing to perform expected job duties n destroying the employer’s property n n
Employers can terminate workers for incidents that occur off the job, for example, being convicted of drunken driving, the use of illegal substances, and felonies. Even behavior employees might view as within their rights, for example, participating in a public rally for an unpopular group, might be cause for dismissal to employers who do not wish to seem associated with that group. If you think you have been unjustifiably dismissed from a job, the course of action available depends upon
a variety of circumstances. For example, what you can do depends on if you have a contract with the employer or if there has been a violation of any laws the employer is obliged to follow. As most small employers are at-will employers, the only course open may be suing in a court of law. It would be necessary to consult with a lawyer to determine if there are grounds for a suit and if it is likely a lawsuit would result in a conclusion favorable to the worker. If an employer has violated personnel policies, there is usually a grievance procedure that can be pursued. If the worker has been employed under a union agreement, there will be grievance procedures that can be followed. If the employer is bound by federal regulations and has violated them, the worker can file a complaint with the appropriate federal agency.
■ For More Information Ethan Winning’s Articles http://www.ewin.com/ewarts.htm
This large collection of articles dealing with personnel issues comes from California-based human resources professional Ethan Winning, author of Labor Pains: Employer and Employee Rights and Obligations. The articles cover a wide range of topics: at-will employment, dress codes, resignation and severance, employee contracts and more. Additional articles are available if you pay for a subscription. Performance Appraisal http://www.performance-appraisal.com/intro.htm
The Archer North System is a performance-appraisal system developed by Archer North & Associates. This Web site, advocating the use of performance appraisals in the workplace, is based on it. Content is aimed toward human resources personnel, but it will serve to give a glimpse of what all could be involved in an employer’s performanceappraisal process. First there is a brief introduction to the history of workplace performance appraisals. This is followed by an overview of the purposes for conducting them. Then three different types of performance appraisal are described. These are rating scales, the essay method, and the results, or MBO (management by objectives), method. Pros and cons of each approach are outlined. Additionally, benefits to conducting a performance appraisal are explored, reasons are given for why to use, or not to use, a reward system based on appraisal results, and suggestions are offered on how to avoid or deal with conflict and confrontation during the review process. Getting Fired The ‘Lectric Law library (http://www.lectlaw.com/files/ emp43.htm) provides frequently asked questions about
employee rights when being faced with dismissal from a job. Askmen’s Armando Gomez writes on how to deal with getting fired (http://www.askmen.com/money/ career/31_career.html) and Quintessential Careers (http://www.quintcareers.com/getting_fired.html) also provides some tips on what to do when dismissed from a job. Monster.com’s Paul Barada tells how to explain to your next prospective employer that you were fired (http://hr.monster.com/articles/fired).
Employment Laws There are a variety of employment laws that the U.S. government has enacted to protect the welfare and rights of workers. The area of employment law is very complex. Some laws apply only to workers in specific occupational areas, such as agriculture or mining. Other laws are more general, but certain businesses, such as those employing few workers, may not have to comply with these laws. Some of the major employment laws are listed below. Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964. This federal statute forbids employment discrimination based on race, color, sex, pregnancy, national origin, or religion. It applies to federal, state, and local government employers and to private employers with more than 15 employees if their business affects interstate commerce. The Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) enforces Title VII. When employees who believe they have been discriminated against file their complaints, the EEOC investigates, seeks conciliation, or brings a suit against the employer. Employers who are found to have been discriminatory have been ordered to perform remedies such as pay back wages or rehire, reinstate, or promote employees, and pay attorneys’ fees and damages. The Immigration Reform and Control Act of 1986. Forbids discrimination on the basis of national origin or citizenship. This means people who may legally work in the United States but who are not citizens cannot be discriminated against because they are not citizens. People who may not legally work in the United States, such as illegal aliens, are not protected under this act. Equal Pay Act of 1963 (EPA). Requires men and women to be compensated equally for equal work. Equal work is not necessarily identical job duties. Equal work addresses the working conditions, skills, effect, and responsibilities among the jobs done by an employer’s male and female employees. The Age Discrimination in Employment Act of 1967 (ADEA). Forbids employment discrimination,
Employment Laws
including mandatory retirement (in most cases) against workers above age 40. It applies to employment agencies, labor unions, and employers with more than 19 employees. The Family and Medical Leave Act of 1993 (FMLA). Requires employers who have 50 or more employees to provide eligible employees up to 12 weeks of unpaid, jobprotected leave for family or medical reasons. Occupational Safety and Health Administration Compliance Assistance Authorization Act of 1998. Requires certain safety standards, such as having fire escapes and adequate ventilation systems, be met in employers’ physical plants. The Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990. Forbids discrimination against workers who have disabilities but who are qualified to perform a job. Fair Labor Standards Act (FLSA). Deals with payments of the minimum wage and overtime for more than 40 hours of work performed per week by workers covered by this act. It requires employers to keep records of hours worked and wages earned. It restricts the employment of young people in hazardous occupations and the number of hours people under 16 years of age can work.
■ For More Information Answers to Employment Law Questions http://www.dol.gov/elaws
The U.S. Department of Labor provides this e-laws Web site that can help you learn more about the labor laws outlined above. This is a user-friendly site where you can learn more about specific legal issues in employment. Information on employment laws is presented in easyto-understand text with links to more details in specific topic areas, so it is possible to do in-depth research at this site. There is also a search function on keywords to make it easy to find specific topics in the site. Labor Laws Law Library http://www.law.cornell.edu/topics/topic2.html
Cornell University’s Legal Information Institute created this page that takes you to specific federal statutes, federal agency regulations, and federal judicial decisions on specific employment law topics such as employment discrimination, unemployment compensation, collective bargaining, worker’s compensation, pensions, and workplace safety. Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 http://www.eeoc.gov/policy/vii.html
Text of U.S. legislation prohibiting employment discrimination, as amended by the Civil Rights Act of 1991, from the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission.
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It addresses issues of discrimination based on race, color, religion, sex, and national origin. Equal Pay Act of 1963 http://www.eeoc.gov/policy/epa.html
Text of U.S. legislation forbidding gender-based wage discrimination among employees having similar positions and responsibilities who are employed at the same place of work, from the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission. EPA amendments from volume 29 of the U.S. Code are noted.
on ADA myths and facts and one devoted to the ADA in regard to individuals with HIV/AIDS. For even more materials, check the link to the ADA home page, which offers related publications for sale, status reports pertaining to ADA enforcement, texts of select DOJ settlement and consent agreements, and information on new and proposed legislation. Fair Labor Standards Act http://www.dol.gov/esa/regs/statutes/whd/allfair.htm
Text of U.S. legislation (plus ADEA amendments) prohibiting employment discrimination against workers aged 40 or older, from the U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission.
Text of U.S. legislation dealing with minimum wage, overtime compensation, maximum workweek hours, and child labor provisions, originally dating from 1938 and later amended, from the Wage and Hour Division of the U.S. Department of Labor’s Employment Standards Administration. FLSA history and other provisions are also included. You will need Adobe Acrobat Reader to view the files.
Family and Medical Leave Act of 1993
The Minimum Wage
Age Discrimination in Employment Act of 1967 http://www.eeoc.gov/policy/adea.html
http://www.dol.gov/esa/whd/fmla
http://www.dol.gov/esa/whd/flsa
This U.S. Department of Labor site presents the text of the U.S. legislation whereby eligible workers are entitled to unpaid leave under certain circumstances, during which time the worker would receive health benefits and after which time the worker could return to work. Also available are an FMLA fact sheet, a compliance guide, poster images, and further explanatory materials.
This Web site describes in detail the Fair Labor Standards Act. In addition to being able to read the complete text of the act, you can find out more about federal minimum wage guidelines under the “General Information” heading of the “Compliance Assistance Materials” section.
Occupational Safety and Health Administration Compliance Assistance Authorization Act of 1970, as Amended through 2004
Your Rights as an Employee
http://www.osha.gov/comp-links.html
Click on the “OSH Act” link on this page to read the text of the U.S. legislation that requires certain standards of safety at the workplace. The OSH Act originally dates from 1970 and has been amended through 2004. You can view the text in full or in parts. If you’re looking for a particular section or topic, use the search function. Americans with Disabilities Act Information on the Web http://www.usdoj.gov/crt/ada/adahom1.htm
This page contains a collection of links to U.S. Department of Justice (DOJ) resources pertaining to the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) of 1990. You can read the statute itself or find answers to select questions about the ADA (for example: Does an employer have to give preference to a qualified applicant with a disability over other applicants? and Must an employer modify existing facilities to make them accessible?). There is also a section
There is no one blanket law or document that defines the rights of employees. Various federal laws cover some workers. State laws provide some protections to other workers. Employees do not normally cede any of the usual protections of penal codes; for example, employers cannot assault workers, because such behavior is illegal. While there is no Bill of Rights for Employees, workers should generally expect the following: Safe working conditions. Workers should not be asked to perform duties or be expected to work in conditions that flagrantly endanger their physical wellbeing. Workers in some occupations, such as firefighters or police officers, are required to perform some duties that have a measure of jeopardy. Other occupations, such as medical personnel, require workers to be in environments, like hospitals, that may put them at risk. However, even in occupations where some hazards can
Your Rights as an Employee
be expected, there are prescribed safety measures. In all occupational areas, employers must provide reasonably safe working conditions and not require the performance of duties that pose a potential for harm to the worker. Safe working conditions also include not requiring an employee to perform duties that are against the penal code, that is, employers cannot ask employees to break the law. Pay for performance as scheduled. Employers must pay workers for work performed at the agreed-upon rate of compensation and at the agreed-upon time. A non-hostile working environment. Employers must insure that workers are not subject to harassment in their place of work or in their normal performance of duties. Harassment is a persistent condition of abuse: physical, verbal, or sexual. Employers must protect their employees from on-the-job harassment by either supervisors or other employees. Anyone can be subjected to harassment. For example, people often think sexual harassment is limited to female employees being abused by male supervisors or coworkers. It is important to recognize harassment regardless of the gender of the people involved. Do not think that a person’s status in the organization or his or her age or gender precludes him or her from being a harasser. Females may harass males, and harassment may occur between people of the same gender. Harassment can occur in one-to-one situations, when a group singles out a person, or when one group is harassed by another group. Harassment can take many forms. Some are quite obvious; others are more difficult to recognize. Some examples of physical harassment include being pushed or shoved being struck n being poked or jabbed n being grabbed n being restrained or physically intimidated, such as blocked from movement by another person’s body n n
Some examples of verbal harassment include being teased about personal physical characteristics being called names or being subjected to racial slurs n being subjected to comments or jokes that are derogatory to diverse peoples n being threatened n n
Some examples of sexual harassment include n being subjected to offensive comments, jokes, or gestures of a sexual nature
being ogled, jeered at, whistled at, or subjected to catcalls n being told certain body parts are sexy or that certain clothing looks sexy n being touched inappropriately, ranging from frequent brushings or patting to fondling and groping n being told that sexual acts are required to be hired, as job duties, or to be considered for promotion n
An important concept in the definition of harassment is that it is persistent, that is, a recognizable pattern of behaviors that occur over time. Most workers do not expect to be in a hostile environment, so they are slow to recognize harassment. It typically takes a while to recognize the pattern. Many workers overlook the first signs, thinking the inappropriate behavior is an aberration, a one-time occurrence, a slip in manners or good taste on the part of the offending person. Harassment is also difficult to recognize because it can occur in so many different forms. Typically, harassment behavior patterns increase over time. Harassment may be verbal comments that are inappropriate, but perhaps not intended to offend, and develop over time to intentionally offensive comments and physical acting out. Often workers feel stress caused by harassment before they recognize the pattern of behavior. Dealing with harassment on the job requires confrontation. Many people find it difficult to confront others because they have not developed assertiveness skills. Employees sometimes find it easier to quit their jobs than to confront harassers, particularly if they are harassed by supervisors or if harassers outnumber them. Harassers accelerate their behavior when they are not confronted, so it is important to be sensitive to the signs of harassment and to try to stop the pattern before it begins. The following are some tips for dealing with harassment: Recognize and be sensitive to “trial balloons” of harassment. It usually begins with the person being harassed overlooking the first several offenses. This casts the person into the victim role. It is important to be appropriately assertive and confront potential harassers at the first incident. Harassers often offer the first offending remark in a group. It is difficult to be assertive and say you find a remark offensive when other members of the group appear to accept it. Confronting a harasser is an opportunity to establish yourself as a leader as opposed to a victim. n Inform the person making the remark that it is offensive to you. Do this even if the person is a supervisor. Ask him or her to desist without being n
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judgmental about their behavior. For example: “I do not like to have language like that used in front of me. Please do not tell jokes like that. I don’t think I am the only one here who thinks they are not appropriate for work.” Suggest appropriate behavior: “I know you think it is pretty funny to call me honey, but I do not. I would rather you call me by my given name.” Typically, trial balloons are comments that the potential harasser can say were not made seriously and were not intended to offend. Do not respond with “that’s all right.” Reinforce your message: “Yes, but now you know it does offend me, so please do not do it again.” n Record the incident. Write it down. The first time someone says something that really annoys you and you feel annoyed and stressed, those feelings should be your clue that it is harassment. Record the date, the time, who said what, how you responded, and how you felt. Keep a record of all such incidents. Most people do not begin documenting harassment until it has reached a point where they hate their jobs and are sick from stress. Start with the first petty annoyance. Perhaps it was just one off-color remark that will never happen again. But perhaps it is the first incident in what will become a pattern of harassment. Keep your record of these incidents at your home, not at your place of work. n Tell the harasser’s supervisor. Do this nonjudgmentally, focusing on facts and your desire to perform your job duties effectively. For example: “I want you to be aware that Bob Jones told a joke with sexual content yesterday. I told him it offended me and asked him not to repeat jokes like that at work. I want to be able to do my job here well. I know you want this workplace to be an environment where people show appropriate respect for each other.” n Inform yourself about your options. Learn early what you should do when harassed on the job. You may be able to file a grievance. You may have to consult a lawyer and file a lawsuit. Currently, there is no law that specifically forbids harassment, but there is a body of various laws that have successfully been used to sue for damages against harassers and employers who have allowed their work places to be hostile environments. n Keep the big picture of your career management in your own mind. Work should be a fulfilling part of your life, not an area of high stress that makes you sick. Be realistic about your rights and the recourses available to you. It is unfortunate when you encounter an employment situation that does not work for
you, whether it is because of a bad work climate or because of bad supervisor. It is important to recognize that there are such situations, where, through no fault of your own, it is impossible for your career to flourish. A good career manager considers the possible outcomes of alternatives and the effort necessary to achieve them. It may be a better personal choice to seek new employment than to remain in an intolerable situation and try to fight injustice.
■ For More Information Recognizing Harassment http://www.worktrauma.org
Workplace harassment can be so insidious or so unexpected that sometimes employees have difficulty first recognizing what is occurring. This site is committed to stopping bullying, abuse, mobbing, harassment, and trauma in the workplace. Here you can read articles on inappropriate harassing behaviors at work and how to stop them. Topics include surviving the bully, strategies for success, empowerment and support. While the site has the commercial purpose of selling books and workshops on the topic, there is still much good free information on this site. Information about Sexual Harassment http://www.de.psu.edu/harassment/webpages
This site also contains much free information about sexual harassment generally and sexual harassment in the workplace specifically. There are links to many other sites that provide information about sexual harassment. Employment: Workplace Rights and Responsibilities http://www.nolo.com
Nolo Press, staffed by a team of in-house lawyers and having close affiliations with others in the legal profession, is a publisher of self-help law books and software. This section of the Nolo Web site features essays on topics having to do with what you are entitled to and held accountable for in the workplace. Articles cover such issues as job hunting, discrimination, sexual harassment, wages, workplace safety, job termination, privacy, and self-employed workers. Contact addresses and links for organizations providing additional information are offered. If you want to purchase any Nolo Press titles, you will find order details at the site. DiscriminationAttorney.Com http://www.discriminationattorney.com
This collection of articles and resources relating to employment law is from the California-based Law Offices
Your Rights as an Employee
of David H. Greenberg. This site is intended to inform both consumers and lawyers. There are summaries of cases involving sexual harassment, different kinds of discrimination (for example, age, disability, pregnancy, race, and sexual orientation), wrongful termination, and breach of contract. Whistle-blowing, class action lawsuits, and damages are also briefly described. After you visit this site you will have gained a good overview of various aspects of employment law, but if you require legal assistance with an actual case, the site advises you to contact a lawyer directly. Tips are offered on doing just that.
1998. This site contains the text of that act and assorted other materials pertaining to the agency, its history, and its functions. Among the many resources offered at the site are compliance guides; information on OSHA training and state programs; fact sheets, press releases, and other publications concerning ergonomics and other workplace safety issues; guidelines discussing health hazards of numerous chemicals, protective equipment to be used, what to do in the event of spills or leaks, and so on; and answers to frequently asked questions.
Equal Employment Opportunity Commission
National Labor Relations Board
http://www.eeoc.gov
The EEOC, a U.S. government agency, is responsible for enforcing various employment-related legislation, including Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, the Age Discrimination in Employment Act of 1967, the Equal Pay Act of 1963, Titles I and V of the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990, the Civil Rights Act of 1991, and Sections 501 and 505 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973. EEOC press releases will help you keep up to date on court rulings and other matters. Read fact sheets to find out more on racial, age, and religious discrimination as well as on sexual harassment. Learn about rights of an individual with a disability. There are sections devoted to filing a discrimination charge, the EEOC mediation program for resolving workplace disputes, small business concerns, enforcement and litigation, enforcement statistics, and EEOC’s Technical Assistance Program Seminars. Additionally, the text of the Freedom of Information Act is presented, along with a reference guide and other pertinent documents. Occupational Safety and Health Administration http://www.osha.gov
OSHA, an agency of the U.S. Department of Labor, is responsible for enforcing worker safety guidelines according to the Occupational Safety and Health Administration Compliance Assistance Authorization Act of
http://www.nlrb.gov
NLRB, an independent U.S. federal agency, is responsible for enforcing the National Labor Relations Act, which deals with the relationship between labor unions and private-sector employers. Through this act employees are given the right to organize and conduct collective bargaining negotiations with their employers, as well as the right not to do so. In addition to the text of the act, the site features NLRB facts, summaries of current cases, case decisions, press releases, rules and regulations, and manuals and other publications. There is a section devoted to the NLRB and the Freedom of Information Act. To read some of the materials, you’ll need to use Adobe Acrobat Reader. Certain selections are also available in Spanish. Your Rights as an Employee http://www.nerinet.org
Workplace Fairness sponsors this site to provide workers information regarding employee rights. You can view fact sheets on topics such as health and safety, discrimination, harassment, hiring, termination, pay and hours, unemployment insurance, privacy, and more. Each topic is presented in detailed sections; for example, privacy issues include drug testing, searches, surveillance, computer monitoring, medical information, background investigations, and more.
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Accounting
Accounting n Background Even before the introduction of the first coins in about 600 b.c., farmers kept track of their livestock and other valuable possessions in order to have an accurate financial record. Having 16 sheep, for example, meant the ability to trade up to 16 sheep for something else of equal value. The farmer needed to know how many sheep to keep to ensure continued offspring, and how many he could trade. This was the first, most basic, type of accounting. Financial records have been found in the ruins of ancient Greek and Roman towns showing that accountants and bookkeepers were at work balancing the financial records of businesses. Once currency in the form of paper money came into play—about a.d. 600 in China, but not until the 1600s in Europe—more advanced accounting skills were needed to keep track of where the money went. In 1494, Luca Pacioli, an Italian mathematician, wrote a treatise on accounting and bookkeeping that established the foundation for modern bookkeeping methods. One of these was the double entry method of bookkeeping, in which each transaction is recorded twice in a financial ledger, once to the debit of one account and once to the credit of another. This method allowed businesses to keep track of the movement of their funds. Throughout the 15th and 16th centuries, how-to books on bookkeeping were printed in Italy. Since printing presses made reproductions relatively inexpensive, the disbursement of information on the new bookkeeping methods was swift. Presses in major cities in Italy were able to write and print their own manuals on bookkeeping and accounting. As property investment, taxation, and tax write-offs made running a business more complex, there was a growing need for flexible, comprehensive bookkeeping methods. In the late 18th century, the industrial revolution gave birth to large businesses that were involved in a vast array of production and manufacturing services. The heads of these companies needed accurate financial records to determine the cost and effectiveness of doing business. The accounting profession in the United States dates back to the 1880s, when English and Scottish investors began buying stock in American companies. Needing experts to keep an eye on their investments, they sent over accountants. Many of these accountants stayed on to establish their own accounting businesses. Federal legislation, including the introduction of the income tax in 1913 and the excess profits tax in 1917,
Edward Flocco, left, a tax preparer for Holtzman Tax Services in Philadelphia, prepares a last minute tax return for a client. (Associated Press/Mark Stehle.)
helped bring about an accounting boom that has made the profession one of the largest in business today. In order to establish standardization and identification of qualified public accountants, the certified public accountant (CPA) examination was developed in 1917. The Uniform CPA Exam measures professional competence and earning the CPA certificate is evidence of professional qualification. The American Institute of Certified Public Accountants grades and prepares the nationally recognized four-part CPA examination, which is administered by the state boards of accountancy. Other qualifying tests have also been developed over the years. Some of them include the licensing exams for the Certified Management Accountant (CMA) credential for professionals who work primarily for corporations, Certified Internal Auditor (CIA), and the Certified Information Systems Auditor (CISA). These credentials help to establish an accountant’s expertise and help potential clients to identify the accountant that meets their needs. Until the 1980s, eight large, conservative, and stable firms known as the Big Eight dominated the industry. Accounting jobs tended to be predictable and dependable. But that changed as accounting firms became “lean
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Types of Accounting ■ Financial,
or general, accounting deals with the financial position of an enterprise and with the results of its operations.
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Tax accounting is concerned with determining the taxes owed by individuals, enterprises, and states and trusts.
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Governmental accounting is concerned with identifying and tracing the use of public funds rather than determining profit.
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Fiduciary accounting deals with financial entities held in trust, such as estates and insolvent or bankrupt concerns.
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Cost accounting is concerned with the costs of a particular product, process, job, or division of an organization.
and mean,” consolidating and diversifying to become more competitive. Some, like Arthur Andersen, added new services such as management and computer consulting. Others bought out rival companies. The Big Eight was reduced to the Big Six as companies were hit by the recession and the savings and loan crisis. Accounting firms were blamed as savings and loan institutions went bankrupt and were sued for faulty audits. Facing costly lawsuits while in the midst of a recession, firms began to cut jobs in an effort to lessen costs. Salaries were reduced, training programs cut, and the days of guaranteed employment, promotion, and job security came to an end. However, the number of large corporations continues to increase as mergers and acquisitions dominate the marketplace, and accounting continues to grow in complexity. Smaller companies are experiencing transitions as well and are outsourcing their accounting work, as well as other back office services, to outside contractors in an effort to cut costs. Accounting now involves more than “bean counting” and more than simply balancing daily financial journals and account ledgers for a business. Accountants must be able to draw pertinent financial data from a variety of sources and analyze complicated transactions, often involving huge sums of money. New technologies flourished during the 1990s, and much of the work that was done by hand is now computerized. Firms are utilizing new electronic systems for submitting and preparing financial statements, and new ways of tracking costs have been developed. Online services and CD-ROMs now provide a framework for
financial planning and allow individuals and small businesses to manage their own accounting and prepare and file their tax returns. The accounting industry will always face new challenges. Working within the global economy and integrating new technologies such as e-commerce are just a few of the issues that are changing the face of the industry. In 1998, the Big Six became the Big Five with the merger of two of the industry’s powerhouses. To better compete in the global marketplace, Price Waterhouse and Coopers & Lybrand joined to form PriceWaterhouse Coopers. In 2002, the Big Five became the Big Four as a result of Arthur Andersen’s indictment for obstruction of justice for its role in the bankruptcy of Enron Corporation, which defrauded investors and energy consumers on a massive scale. Today, the four largest firms are Deloitte Touche Tohmatsu (now doing business as Deloitte), Ernst & Young, KPMG, and PriceWaterhouseCoopers. In response to this recent financial crisis, the federal government passed the Sarbanes-Oxley Act in 2002. This law requires higher levels of financial accounting and disclosure from all publicly held companies.
■ Structure Accountants and auditors prepare, analyze, and verify financial reports for businesses and government organizations. The accounting department figures profits for the company, prepares its taxes, and keeps track of the cost of running the company. The auditors check those calculations to verify their accuracy. Accountants develop bookkeeping methods that allow a company to keep track of assets and liabilities at any given time and monitor any changes that occur over a period of years. Accountants and auditors may be required to establish a system that breaks down debits into categories of expenditure (money going out of the company) or periods of expenditure. The bookkeeping system depends on the goals of the business and the needs of its management. Budgeting is another major responsibility of most accountants. Using past and current financial records, accountants forecast what a company can afford to spend in a particular area. This plays a vital role when company executives decide how financial resources should be allocated. Because each company has very specific needs, most managers, especially in larger firms, prefer to hire accountants to work exclusively for them. Some large companies are so complex that they have several different accounting divisions. A full-time accountant may be referred
to as a management accountant, private accountant, or industrial accountant. Smaller businesses may hire a permanent accountant as part of the staff, or they may hire one who will work with them on a freelance basis. Some small companies may hire a specific accountant to work with them on a particular project, especially if that accountant is an expert in that area. The auditing department also works on the books for the company. Internal auditors keep track of company expenses to make sure that financial information is reported correctly. They are responsible for evaluating financial information to determine possible fraud or waste. They may also be responsible for developing more efficient methods of operation or new safeguards to ensure that the company is operating efficiently. Auditors monitor the company’s operations and bookkeeping procedures to maintain compliance with tax and business laws. When experts set up an accounting system for a business or individual, the needs of the client must be assessed before the system is designed. Sometimes more than one accounting system is required to keep accurate track of the company’s transactions, particularly in large businesses. A balance-sheet system lists assets and liabilities, as well as other financial data. This gives stockholders and company officials insight into the well-being of the business on a regular basis. An income statement provides an account of operative costs and cash intake, so the overall cost of doing business can be appraised regularly without calculating in other company investments. Accounting systems can also be set up to list earnings paid to stockholders and earnings reinvested in the company. The flow of funds can be tracked to determine where and when company funds are paid out. If there are periods when a large amount of cash leaves the company, then arrangements may be made to reschedule payments to remove high and low points in the cash flow. In a larger company, a staff of accountants shares the responsibilities of tracking the business. Accounting firms handle the complex finances of large corporations that require external assistance with financial management. During the late 1980s, several accounting firms merged into larger corporations. The trend continues today as accounting firms condense into larger groups covering a broader geographical area and offering clients a wider range of services. As the world shrinks, the field of accounting continues to grow. The single largest employer of accountants and auditors is the U.S. government. Government accountants
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maintain the enormous quantity of financial records of government agencies. They also have the same responsibilities as private accountants but, for some agencies, the budgets are immensely larger than those of private corporations. Accountants also have the opportunity to work independently as financial consultants; others run their own business or work part time during tax season. Some also work as teachers or school administrators.
■ Outlook Overall the accounting industry is expected to grow faster than the average through 2014; however, the composition of the industry may change substantially. In 2002 the federal government indicted Arthur Andersen for obstruction of justice for its role in the bankruptcy of one of its clients, Enron Corporation. As a result, Andersen lost many major clients, fell from its Big Five position, and underwent prosecution. In response, the federal government enacted legislation that increase penalties for financial malfeasance, as well as making accounting executives personally responsible for the reporting of false financial information. The Sarbanes-Oxley Act requires companies to adhere to stricter accounting measures as a result of public mistrust of corporate and accounting procedures resulting from the bankruptcy of Enron and other corporations. Increased scrutiny of accounting procedures should increase opportunities for accountants, especially CPAs. It seems reasonable to expect that technologies will continue to change the face of the industry, with the invention of complex computer systems, software, and artificial intelligence. Number crunching jobs will be eliminated, while those that require computer experience and analytical skills
Accountants can spend several hours checking and rechecking their figures. (Don Smetzer, Tony Stone Images.)
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should become more numerous. The best positions will go to those with proficiency in accounting and auditing computer software or expertise in specialized areas such as international business, specific industries, or current legislation. In addition, employers increasingly seek applicants with strong interpersonal and communication skills. Internal auditors and forensic accountants and auditors will increasingly be needed to discover and eliminate waste and fraud. There will be a shift away from tax preparation because of the increasing number of taxpreparation firms and software. Firms will continue to merge in order to remain competitive, and they will specialize in an effort to find their niche in the marketplace. Accounting firms will find themselves competing against other non-CPA companies for the same business and ultimately will seek alliances to build a stronger business. While mergers continue, staff, including partners, are cut back, smaller firms will flourish. The AICPA expects higher work standards to be established and more rigorous training and hiring of lower and mid-level workers. High-level employees will be phased out, and paraprofessional accountants will step in. According to the Chicago Tribune, more than 2,300 small accounting firms have been created in the United States since 2001. The outlook for accounting will be strong despite a radically changed banking industry and the continuing increase in the number and complexity of financial transactions. Expect the accounting industry to grow in the following four key areas: International accounting. International trade is on the rise, and accounting firms are expanding rapidly into Eastern Europe, Russia, China, East Asia, and Latin America. Future expansion is predicted to occur in Mexico, Chile, Venezuela, Argentina, and Brazil. Investigative accounting. This will be a large growth area given the scope of fraud committed in recent years and the likelihood of future fraud as business transactions become more intricate. Financial/estate planning. The number of Americans aged 65 or older is rising, and many members of this group will seek accounting assistance to make investment decisions and manage their finances. Environmental accounting. This specialty is emerging as accountants consult with corporations to ensure compliance with rapidly evolving environmental policies and avoid lawsuits.
n For More Information For information on accreditation and testing, contact Accreditation Council for Accountancy and Taxation
1010 North Fairfax Street Alexandria, VA 22314-1574 Tel: 888-289-7763 Email:
[email protected] http://www.acatcredentials.org
For information on the Uniform CPA Examination and student membership, contact American Institute of Certified Public Accountants 1211 Avenue of the Americas New York, NY 10036-8775 Tel: 212-596-6200 http://www.aicpa.org
For information on accredited programs in accounting, contact Association to Advance Collegiate Schools of Business 777 South Harbour Island Boulevard, Suite 750 Tampa, FL 33602-5730 Tel: 813-769-6500 http://www.aacsb.edu
For more information on women in accounting, contact Educational Foundation for Women in Accounting PO Box 1925 Southeastern, PA 19399-1925 Tel: 610-407-9229 Email:
[email protected] http://www.efwa.org
The FAE supports continuing education for current accountants. Foundation for Accounting Education (FAE) 64 Pleasant Street PO Box 458 Wenham, MA 01984-1319 http://www.fce.org
The IFAC is a worldwide organization that promotes accountancy. International Federation of Accountants (IFAC) 545 Fifth Avenue, 14th Floor New York, NY 10017-3609 Tel: 212-286-9344 http://www.ifac.org
n Related Articles Banking and Financial Services; Insurance; Accountants and Auditors; Actuaries; Bank Examiners; Billing Clerks; Bookkeeping and Accounting Clerks; Credit Analysts; Economists; Financial Analysts; Financial Institution
Tellers, Clerks, and Related Workers; Financial Institution Officers and Managers; Financial Services Brokers; Forensic Accountants and Auditors; Statisticians; Tax Preparers
Advertising and Marketing n Background From the street cries of merchants selling their wares to today’s sophisticated electronic means of reaching customers, advertising has experienced a dramatic evolution. In its earliest days, advertising allowed merchants to go from street to shop, adopting symbols and later written signs to show the goods and services they offered. With the invention of paper and advances in education that enabled more and more people to read, tack-up signs became common. It wasn’t until printing was introduced in the 15th century, however, that advertising was truly revolutionized. Merchants began printing and distributing handbills by the hundreds. Advertisements in newspapers became a familiar sight by the 17th century. By the end of the 1800s, magazines were carrying ads of all kinds. The advertising industry formally emerged in the 1840s, when newspaper-advertising solicitors began representing groups of newspapers. In 1865, a new system was introduced: buying newspaper space and dividing and selling it to advertisers at higher prices. Other forms of advertising also came onto the scene. By the early 1900s, for example, outdoor posters developed into the billboard form, and the merchants who used them were the principal advertisers. In 1922, radio station WEAF in New York City offered program time to advertisers. The use of television advertising began just before the end of World War II. Today, the Internet is catapulting the world of advertising into a whole new realm, allowing vendors not only to target and reach customers but to interact with them as well. Modern advertising is defined as mass communication paid for by an advertiser to persuade a particular segment of the public to adopt ideas or take actions of benefit to the advertiser. Today, most national advertising, and much local advertising, is prepared by advertising agencies. Marketing is anticipating customer needs and directing a flow of need-satisfying goods and services from producer to customer. A combination of events led to the creation of the marketing industry as it exists today. After the Roaring
Advertising and Marketing
Twenties, which produced an abundance of products, it was no longer true that a good product would sell itself. Competition for customers increased, and producers sought ways to boost awareness of their products in order to remain viable in the market. When radio broadcasting flourished in the United States during the 1920s, advertisers quickly capitalized on the new medium. A second major influence on the development of the marketing industry was the Great Depression of the 1930s. As money became scarce, an increased number of producers competed for dollars in an ever-shrinking marketplace. Up until then, producers had been willing to market anything with the assumption that someone out there somewhere would buy it. But businesses soon discovered otherwise. Sales began to drop. If there was no interest in or need for a product, an advertising campaign might carry the company through the first wave of purchases. After that, however, there would be little chance of improving sales. The business discipline of marketing began to take shape as sellers realized that if a group of potential buyers could be found for a product, the product could be better designed to suit the needs of those buyers. Sellers also discovered the importance of identifying a group of buyers before starting an advertising campaign. By doing so, the producer could style the campaign to reach that specific group and would have a better chance of launching a successful product. Marketing, therefore, provided a service for both sides of the business world, the seller and the buyer. This market-driven thinking is now a major part of business decisions and begins long before product development, manufacturing, and sales. In fact, the market is the central focus of both today’s advertising and marketing trends and those that will take industries into the next millennium. Database marketing, for example, allows companies to identify their current and potential markets and provide customer service—before, during, and after the sale. Relationship marketing—developing long-lasting relationships with customers—requires companies to examine customers’ needs, offer products and services that satisfy those needs, supply products and services quickly, and offer customers choices with respect to the products as well as ways to purchase and pay for them. In order to reach and keep their customers, advertisers and marketers are capitalizing on the newest technologies. The number of Internet users worldwide was estimated at 1.04 billion in 2006, and companies are responding by placing advertising on the Web and creating Web sites that allow customers the ease and convenience of online shopping. From flowers to antiques, clothing to furniture, virtually everything can be pur-
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Words to Know Advertising: Mass communication paid for by an advertiser to persuade a particular segment of the public to adopt ideas or take actions of benefit to the advertiser. Advertising agency: A group of researchers, writers, artists, buyers of space and time, other specialists, and account executives who design and execute advertising programs for clients. Copywriter: Idea generator who writes the text and creates the basic framework of advertisements. Database marketing: The use of databases to identify current and potential customers according to demographics and preferences. Electronic banners: The Internet’s equivalent of billboard advertising, which accounts for 80 percent of online ads. Five-second flash: The term used to describe the estimated amount of exposure time of an outdoor poster to the average motorist. Integrated services: Advertising, marketing, sales, and promotion services all in one package. Interactive marketing specialist: A person who specializes in online advertising and marketing. Marketing: Activities that identify customer needs and accordingly direct the flow of goods and services from producer to customer. Media: The avenues through which advertisers can place ads, including the Internet, television, radio, magazines, newspapers, and outdoor signs. Niche market: A specialized group of customers to whom advertisers often target campaigns. Nielsen ratings: National audience percentages based on the television viewing habits of a select number of families chosen to reflect as closely as possible families from across the country. Package research: Research that studies customer response to how a package looks on the shelf. Relationship marketing: Marketing that aims to develop long-lasting relationships with customers. Sample: A group that reflects the entire population from which it is selected.
chased online. Other technology-related trends include fax-on-demand services, phone shopping via voice mail, and 24-hour interactive communication.
■ Structure In 1975, $27.5 billion was spent on advertising in newspapers, magazines, business publications, medical journals, and telephone directories; on billboards and buses,
the radio, network television, and cable. In 1998, with the addition of online advertising, that figure had risen to more than $180 billion. Ad spending in 2003 dropped to $128.3 billion, according to TNS Media Intelligence/ CMR (Competitive Media Reporting), a provider of marketing communication and advertising expenditure information. Advertising expenditures have increased since then, however, and TNS Media predicted that total U.S. advertising spending would reach $150.3 billion in 2006. Today, most national advertising and much of local advertising is prepared by advertising agencies. A modern advertising agency is composed of researchers, copywriters, artists, telemarketers, buyers of space and time, other specialists, and account executives who represent the agency to its clients. The size of an agency is determined by the amount of advertising it bills to its clients. Many agencies are small, billing less than $10 million a year. Part of an agency’s income results from commissions that are equivalent to 15 percent of the advertiser’s cost of placing the ads. While some agencies bill clients on a fee basis, others use a fee/commission combination. Large advertising agencies usually handle a variety of accounts, while some of the smaller agencies specialize in a single field. They may handle only financial accounts, for example, or hotels, book publishers, or industrial clients. Some agencies are known for their expertise in selling package goods. Others excel in retail and department store promotion or selling on the Internet. Almost every agency develops some distinctive quality to help sell its services. Along with targeting a well-produced message to its intended audience, the placement of ads in the most effective media is extremely important to the success of an advertising campaign. The newest mass medium to hit the scene, the Internet, is a worldwide, computer-based network consisting of online services, Web sites, newsgroups, and more. The Internet allows advertisers and marketers to precisely target customers, accurately measure response, and clearly identify consumer needs. Through the Internet’s Web sites, consumers themselves provide companies with information about their interests, demographics, preferences, and needs, either through registration surveys or indirectly by the choice of Web sites they visit. With more than 600 million users, the Internet is drawing advertisers in droves. In the first quarter of 2006, companies spent about $2.3 billion on Internet advertising, and increase of 19.4 percent compared to the first quarter of 2005. Internet advertising’s mainstay is the banner, a narrow rectangle across the top of the screen that can blink, flash, or be static. An offshoot of the banner is the skyscraper,
which is the vertical equivalent and runs in a narrow margin on either side of a Web page. Since surfers have become used to banners and skyscrapers, they get less attention, so some advertisers place their messages in large boxes that are hard to ignore. Another trend in Internet advertising is the pop-up window, a separate window that opens while a Web page is loading. Many other media also allow advertisers to showcase their offerings. Television, for example, provides opportunities to show products in actual use. Through a TV ad, an advertiser can design a message that appeals to both the eye and the ear at the same time. Advertisers usually include their messages during the course of various television shows to achieve the desired reach and frequency. Rating services like A. C. Nielsen and Arbitron measure the sizes of audiences through the use of home meters and diaries. According to the Television Bureau of Advertising, 98.2 percent of U.S. households had a TV set in 2006 and the average time per household spent viewing TV was eight hours a day in 2006. The reach and frequency of a TV commercial are determined from this raw data. The newest trend in advertising and marketing is the placement of products or mention of services in actual television shows and films. For example, advertisers interested in promoting a specific soft drink might arrange to have it placed in the background of a scene or have a main character drink it. In addition to network television, advertisers are increasingly turning to cable TV. Developed in the late 1940s simply as a means of improving reception, cable television today reaches more than 67 percent of all American households, with almost 74 million current subscribers. Appealing to specific audiences, such cable channels as MTV, HBO, The History Channel, Cable News Network, and ESPN, allows advertisers to target specific audiences with ease. There are more than 575 million radios in the United States, according to the CIA: The World Factbook. Radio commercials are designed to deliver messages on behalf of local and national advertisers. While radio production techniques are relatively inexpensive and a radio commercial reaches large audiences, listeners conjure up different pictures in response to radio ads than they do with visual ads. Magazine advertising offers special values not found in other media. Magazines are kept longer than daily newspapers, for example, and may be picked up and read several times or passed on from one reader to another. Thus, the actual number of readers may be considerably higher than circulation figures indicate. Many advertisers send direct mail to prospects from carefully maintained lists. Such lists can be bought from
Advertising and Marketing
Designers in an advertising firm discuss storyboards for a new TV commercial. (Kalunzy/Thatcher, Tony Stone Images.)
firms that compile information about buyers with specific interests and income levels. As a rule, the more specialized the list, the higher the price. Nearly all direct mail seeks to encourage some kind of buying action, often with return cards or coupons, and is frequently used in conjunction with other types of advertising. Outdoor advertising, such as billboards, posters, and electric signs, is favored by national advertisers, as well as local businesses that want to attract passersby. Those who create outdoor posters design them with the five-second flash in mind, since that amount of time is the estimated exposure of the message to the average motorist. This means that the message must be very short and instantly understood. Transit advertising is displayed in or on such public vehicles as subway cars, buses, and commuter trains. The messages in transit ads can be longer than those on outdoor signs, because passengers have more time to look at these ads. Some companies have in-house advertising departments, while others work with agencies. Similarly, many large companies have their own marketing departments, with smaller organizations often using outside marketing services. How a product is marketed can determine its success or failure. Advertising plays a key role in this process. Marketers work with advertising professionals to determine how ads should look, where they should be placed, and when the advertising should begin. The look and message of an ad are researched by employees in advertising and marketing to make sure that the ad effectively interests the targeted audience. Timing of advertising is extremely important to the success of a marketing strategy as well; launching an advertising campaign too
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early may create interest well before the product is available. In such cases, by the time the product is released, the public may no longer be interested. Research usually starts long before a product is developed. Since competition is often intense, marketing department personnel go to work compiling data about similar products in the marketplace. If there is some chance that a product will sell well enough to cover initial expenses, the cost to manufacture and launch the new product is determined. The price of the product to consumers will then equal the overall cost of production plus the desired profit. The marketing department is also responsible for developing a distribution plan for products. If a product is expected to sell well to a certain group, for example, then marketing professionals must decide how to deliver to members of that group based on when and where they shop. Large companies often handle sales and distribution from inside the company, while smaller companies may sell through wholesalers, who supply retail stores with products from many different manufacturers. Once markets are evaluated and merchandise is designed, the actual production begins. The marketing department’s work, however, is not yet done. Along with the public relations department, marketing professionals contact members of the press with the aim of getting product information out to the public. The failure rate for new products is very high. Once a product is released, marketers evaluate sales and look for ways to make improvements in features and designs. Package research studies show how a product looks on the shelf. Designers explore new color combinations, more appealing shapes, interesting patterns, and new materials. If problems can be easily corrected, a company may decide to launch an improved version of the product. If, however, the target audience is not being reached or is not interested, the company might redesign the product or the advertising or discontinue production altogether. Although it is not an exact science, marketing uses a scientific and statistical approach in answering a client company’s questions about selling a product to the public. The advertising aspect of a marketing campaign must get attention, arouse interest, secure belief, create desire, and stir action. Beauty, comfort, convenience, and quality are the promises that sell all kinds of products, from consumables to cars.
■ Outlook Advertising and marketing grow in direct proportion to the national economy. As a result of the favorable economic climate in the United States during the late 1990s, both
industries enjoyed considerable growth. In the early 2000s, employment growth in these industries slowed as a result of a weaker economy. Economic conditions are expected to improve, and the U.S. Department of Labor predicts that the advertising and marketing industries will grow faster than the average through 2014. Such growth will be accelerated through the development of new products and services and the resulting increase in competition among producers of both industrial and consumer goods. Greater competition among producers will, in turn, spur more intense advertising and marketing efforts for their products, and competition for these advertising and marketing jobs will be fierce. Creative college graduates who communicate well will have the best job prospects. Those who have knowledge of and experience with cutting-edge technology will have an enormous edge. People who know how to create Web sites, for example, are hotly pursued in the advertising and marketing arenas, as are Web professionals, graphic designers, and interactive marketing specialists. As the global economy continues to expand and opportunities to market foreign products increase, those who speak a foreign language also will be in demand. More than half of all advertising firms employ fewer than 20 people. These small shops will offer strong employment opportunities for people with experience, talent, and flexibility, but competition is especially intense and jobs—which depend on attracting and keeping clients—are often not guaranteed. In addition to smaller agencies, self-employment and home-based businesses are on the rise. Marketing and advertising professionals with an entrepreneurial spirit are starting their own marketing and advertising firms or offering consulting services to a growing number of small businesses and services that have opened in recent years in response to cutbacks and salary reductions. On the other side of the coin, the mega-agencies— multinational agencies created from mergers and acquisitions—still dominate the advertising industry. Of the approximately 47,000 advertising agencies and public relations firms in the United States, most of the large firms are located in New York, Chicago, and Los Angeles and offer higher pay scales than smaller agencies. About one in five firms and more than one in four jobs are in New York or California. One way these advertising giants attract and keep clients is by offering integrated services: advertising, marketing, sales, and promotion services all in one package. As a result, many agencies seek employees with not only advertising experience but public relations, packaging, and/or sales promotion experience as well. Another important trend that continues to affect employment opportunities in the advertising industry is
specialization. Many agencies are increasing their focus on niche markets, and they will continue to specialize. Expected high-growth areas include foreign-language programming, advertising aimed at specific ethnic groups, advertising targeted at the over-50 market, special events advertising and marketing, and direct marketing campaigns for retailers and technological companies. Many nonindustrial companies will create advertising jobs as a result of the growth of the managed health care, nutrition, and fitness industries. And banks and local governments will use both marketing and advertising techniques in order to deliver services more cost effectively. Banks, for example, will require researchers to guide them in creating more competitive consumer investment tools. In addition, local governments will use marketing research techniques to locate the best sites for schools and hospitals and advertising techniques to promote special events and new services. Part of the satisfaction of advertising work is in the sense of creative accomplishment, such as seeing and hearing your own ideas as they appear before millions of people. But there is less glamour than is commonly supposed and much more of the day-to-day routine that requires painstaking attention to detail. In addition, advertising employees need to have people and communication skills, common sense, and the ability to solve problems. Most entry-level positions require a bachelor’s degree, preferably with a concentration in the liberal arts. Employment in the marketing industry is projected to grow faster than the average through 2014. There will be more emphasis on selling quality products, increased marketing segmentation, shorter life cycles for products, and increased demand for new and better-quality products. In addition, many chief executive officer positions in businesses of all kinds will be filled by those with marketing experience, because marketing will play an increasingly important role in differentiating and creating need for products. This is good news for managerlevel marketers. As for those just starting out, the ability to anticipate trends will become more valuable than the traditional skills in technical marketing. On the downside, many marketing jobs will be temporary. In addition, the hours of the marketing worker can often be quite long, with overtime a frequent requirement in every level of the marketing profession. Stress is a continual element of the job, since inaccurate product estimates can mean the difference between survival and failure for a small company. Employees who fare the best in marketing are detailoriented people who work well under pressure and enjoy the challenge of developing a new product for sale. Human resource professionals recommend refresher
advertising and marketing
courses at local colleges and universities to stay abreast of new trends and processes.
■ For More Information For profiles of advertising workers and career information, contact Advertising Educational Foundation 220 East 42nd Street, Suite 3300 New York, NY 10017-5806 http://www.aded.org
For information on college chapters, competitions, and internships, contact American Advertising Federation 1101 Vermont Avenue, NW, Suite 500 Washington, DC 20005-6306 Tel: 202-898-0089 Email:
[email protected] http://www.aaf.org
The AAAA is the management-oriented national trade organization representing the advertising agency business. American Association of Advertising Agencies (AAAA) 405 Lexington, 18th Floor New York, NY 10174-1801 Tel: 212-682-2500 http://www.aaaa.org
For career resources and a job bank, contact American Marketing Association 311 South Wacker Drive, Suite 5800 Chicago, IL 60606-6627 Tel: 800-262-1150 Email:
[email protected] http://www.marketingpower.com
Visit the following Web sites for advertising and marketing glossaries: Glossary of Terms Used in Advertising and Marketing Communications http://www.garyeverhart.com/glossary_of_advertising_ terms.htm
The University of Texas at Austin: Department of Advertising http://advertising.utexas.edu/research/terms
■ Related Articles Business; Public Relations; Advertising Account Executives; Advertising and Marketing Managers; Advertising Workers; Art Directors; Business Managers; Demographers; Graphic
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Designers; Marketing Research Analysts; Media Planners and Buyers; Public; Opinion Researchers; Statisticians; Telemarketers; Writers
Aerospace ■ Background Despite a slowdown in recent years, aerospace is a career field that continues to attract many people because of its cutting-edge technology and wide range of career opportunities. Aerospace technology has made our world a smaller place. The ability to move humans in flying machines has changed our culture, from the way we travel to the way we wage wars. One hundred years ago, multinational companies were nonexistent; today, air travel and satellite communications have made them the trend. Air travel has also expanded the threat of foreign attack for every country in the world; today, citizens of all countries live with the knowledge that they are vulnerable from their skies. Ironically, the same technology that brought about bomber planes and missiles also has more benevolent benefits. Air travel has made it easier for people of widely different cultures to gain a better understanding of each other, thus reducing the threat of war. Aerospace also encompasses travel outside our atmosphere. This field, astronautics, also has benefited humanity in many ways. Research in outer space has produced medical breakthroughs, improved manufacturing processes, and allowed for earlier, more accurate weather prediction, among other benefits. The aerospace industry was born in the early part of the 20th century and literally took off shortly after Orville and Wilbur Wright’s first flight in 1903. Orville made the first flight, flying their wood, wire, and cloth airplane 120 feet. What had begun as a curiosity gathered intense interest as pilots and inventors worked to improve the Wright brothers’ design. By 1911, airplanes were being used in war. At first, airplanes were used mainly for reconnaissance missions, but they were soon adapted for dropping bombs. The recognition of the value of aircraft for warfare led to intense efforts to develop the aerospace industry, and technological advances in aviation design developed at an incredible pace. In 1915, the aerospace industry in the United States was stimulated by the creation of the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics, which would later become the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). After 1925, pri-
vate companies began carrying airmail. Engineering improvements, such as the use of wind tunnel testing and engine and airframe design, provided faster, larger and more durable airplanes. World War II brought further developments in aircraft. Factories and workers all over the country were mobilized to build the planes needed to fight the war, and the United States developed great expertise in building aircraft. An important innovation to modern air travel, the jet engine, had been developed by the end of the war. By the end of the 1950s, jet travel had revolutionized the airline industry, opening air travel to millions of people around the world. However, the industry couldn’t continue to develop at such a breakneck pace. The end of the Cold War and increased cooperation in space exploration reduced the need for the federal government to pour great amounts of money into the aerospace industry. Beginning in the 1980s, orders for new aircraft, both military and commercial, began to drop dramatically. The focus of the U.S. aviation industry shifted to developing markets in foreign countries that lagged behind the United States in production and technological capabilities. Research concentrated on safety improvements and quieter, more efficient aircraft. The beginnings of astronautics, which later would become NASA’s focus, followed closely on the heels of the airplane in the early part of the 20th century. Astronautics, the science of space flight, soon revolutionized not only modern warfare but also humanity’s vision of its place in the universe. Beginning with the ideas of Konstantin Tsiolkovsky, a Russian schoolteacher who theorized that a rocket fueled by liquid propellants could be operated in space, the American Robert Goddard and the German Hermann Oberth developed the first liquid-propellant rockets. Goddard launched the first such rocket in 1926, with a flight that reached about 41 feet, landing 184 feet from its launch site. Soon after the war, the Soviets launched the first successful spacecraft, Sputnik, in 1957, and the space age began. The United States responded by creating NASA and stepping up efforts to develop craft capable of carrying humans into space. Throughout the Cold War, the space race continued, leading to the landing of the first man on the moon in 1969. The two countries saw the dedication of enormous amounts of resources to the development of ever more sophisticated technology, including conventional, nuclear, biological, and chemical weapons, air and naval craft, and surveillance, intelligence, communications, and computer technology. Much of the technology developed initially for defense has been adapted for commercial and civil use. Today, much of the work performed by NASA in space is
Aerospace
directed at improving our understanding of many biological, chemical, meteorological, and other scientific processes that can then be implemented for promoting the health and welfare of all. Developments such as the reusable space shuttle and the space station, a permanent orbiting laboratory in space, have renewed ambitions toward living and working in space. Today, two countries that distrusted each other for much of the 20th century are working together on an ambitious aerospace project, the International Space Station (ISS). The United States, Russia, and 14 other countries have combined technology and manpower to build, expand, and maintain an international space station. The ISS has become the largest, most sophisticated, and most powerful spacecraft ever built. (For information on the experiments being
Words to Know Aerodynamics: The study of gases in motion, principally applied in the design of airplanes. Aeronautics: The design and construction of aircraft. Aerospace: The science and technology of flight; also the atmosphere and the regions of space around it. Air pressure: The weight of the atmosphere over a particular point. Average air exerts 14.7 pounds on every square inch at sea level. Airplane: A winged vehicle capable of flight, generally heavier than air and driven by jet engines or propellers; the six main parts of an airplane are the fuselage, wings, stabilizer, rudder, engines, and landing gear. Airspace: The FAA designates six areas of Special Use Airspace. Air traffic controllers and pilots are responsible for knowing what type of airspace they are flying in and acting accordingly. They are: Alert Area: Airspace that may contain a high volume of pilot training or unusual aerial activity. Controlled Firing Area: Airspace where firing activities are controlled to eliminate hazards to passing aircraft. Military Operations Area: Airspace in which nonhazardous military activity may take place. Prohibited Area: Airspace in which no person may operate an aircraft without special prior permission.
conducted, crew members, and other facts about the ISS, visit http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/main/ index.html.)
■ Structure Various technologies, sciences, and industries are necessary to produce the products, services, and scientific understanding that make up the modern aerospace industry. The industry requires the talents of an extraordinarily diverse range of careers. Engineers, scientists, technicians, computer programmers, pilots, mechanics, graphic artists, and administrators are some of the different professionals who work in the field. A look at how research is conducted in the aerospace industry provides an example of how these profession-
Restricted Area: Airspace where the flight of aircraft is not prohibited, but is subject to restrictions, such as certain specified flight levels. Warning Area: Airspace extending three nautical miles outward from the coast of the United States that may contain hazardous activity. Astronautics: The science and technology of space flight. FAA: The Federal Aviation Administration. The FAA regulates air travel in the United States. Gravity: Natural force that pulls objects on or near Earth toward Earth. NASA: National Aeronautics and Space Administration. NASA oversees the United States space exploration program. Orbit: The path of a satellite in relation to the object around which it revolves. Payload: The instruments that are accommodated on a spacecraft. Satellite: A free-flying object that orbits Earth, another planet, or the sun. Space: Begins where Earth’s atmosphere is too thin to affect objects moving through it, about 100 miles above Earth. Thrust: The push given by a rocket to its engines; thrust is required for an object to escape the pull of gravity. Trajectory: Flight path.
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als work together to advance the field. From the highly theoretical nature of basic research (such as understanding the law of gravity) to the applied research resulting in new materials, components, systems, products, and technologies, research scientists continually refine and expand aerospace technology. Physics plays an important part in the development of new types of aircraft, weapons, and missiles; chemistry research provides new materials for use not only on Earth but also in space. Biologists explore the effects of such factors as speed, gravity, and space on the human body, and also develop vaccines and other defenses against chemical or biological weapons. Engineers and other scientists work on the development and production of safe, efficient equipment. Their work includes studies of the atmosphere and space; the improvement of the usefulness, performance, speed, safety, and efficiency of combat, aeronautical, and space vehicles; and the development and operation of vehicles capable of carrying instruments, equipment, supplies, and living organisms through space and through the atmosphere. Defense research also involves creating and refining communications, surveillance, tracking, and other systems that allow pilots, soldiers, and other personnel to maintain visual, audio, and long-range contact, among members of their own or opposing forces, through a variety of conditions. Products of the aerospace industry can be separated into three sectors: space, military, and commercial. Space. Space challenges the frontiers of higher speeds and safer, more efficient operations of air and spacecraft. Questions that researchers try to answer through experimentation and computer simulation involve a variety of aspects of space exploration and travel. Some fundamental questions are: How long can humans live in a weightless condition? Is there other life in our galaxy? Practical questions concerning both the research scientists and the engineers are: Will the engine fire as planned? Will the power source continue to produce electricity? The aerospace industry conducts research to answer these questions, solve technical challenges and problems, and develop new, more powerful, safer, and efficient technologies. Military. Aerospace technology is a vital part of the national security of the United States. The military relies on aircraft and satellites during war and peace for surveillance, defense, and as an accurate means of carrying weapons such as bombs and missiles to their intended targets. The Department of Defense (DOD) operates from the Pentagon in Washington, D.C., overseeing the activities of our armed forces. The DOD contracts with private aerospace companies to procure the manufacturing, scientific, research, and
engineering resources to promote national security. The DOD may provide specifications for a new type of weapon or aircraft, then contract with a commercial manufacturer to design and produce it. The DOD may fund the research of scientists from a variety of backgrounds: mathematics, physics, chemistry, biology, astrophysics, and others working at colleges and universities and private companies. Commercial. Commercial aircraft, whether for passenger or freight use, constitutes the largest portion of the aerospace industry’s sales. Flying on an airplane became more accessible to average Americans during the 1960s and 1970s and the volume of passenger travel has had healthy growth. The terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, along with the concurrent economic recession, caused significant declines in passenger travel, but industry experts believe that travel will rebound quickly. Business, too, has increased its reliance on airplanes. For customers all over the world, speedy air mail and package delivery is not an innovation, but an expectation. Large multinational companies fly employees all over the world to conduct business. The demands of business and the traveling public fueled the growth of the industry in the second half of the 20th century, balancing, or at least reducing, the effects of military and space cutbacks during that same time period. The way aircraft and spacecraft are manufactured has also evolved, largely for economic reasons. It is often cheaper for a smaller company to specialize in building a few parts than it is for a large company to build an entire airplane, for example. Some companies specialize in manufacturing or managing the manufacturing of the entire system, usually by subcontracting various phases of the operations, while other companies specialize in certain components or materials. There are only 50 or so major aerospace manufacturers, but thousands of subcontractors, from very large to very small companies, supply parts, supplies, materials, and subassemblies to the principal contractors. Manufacturers generally compete for contracts for military, commercial, and space aircraft. One craft may have been built by several different manufacturers. The space shuttle provides an example of this. The shuttle’s orbiter was placed under the responsibility of the Johnson Space Center in Texas, and its principal contractor was Rockwell International. The Marshall Space Flight Center in Alabama, meanwhile, contracted with both Morton Thiokol Chemical Corporation and Martin Marietta Aerospace for the shuttle’s solid-fuel booster and liquid-fuel propellant. The development of a new type of aircraft may take many years from its initial design to final production. In the initial phases, computers are used to create theoretical models to test the design under a variety of simulated
conditions and flight patterns. Next, scale models of a successful design are subjected to a barrage of tests, such as wind-tunnel testing, to refine the design still further. A full-scale model of the aircraft is built and its various components—the wings, fuselage, landing gear, etc.—are subjected to further testing. Finally, test craft are built to see how well the aircraft and its various systems operate under actual flying conditions. Full-scale manufacture of the aircraft begins only after an aircraft has successfully completed the testing phase. The process from initial design to final production may take as little as a few months for commercial aircraft; a military project, however, can take many years before completion. According to the U.S. Department of Labor, aerospace manufacturing provided more than 444,000 wage and salary jobs in 2004. The aerospace industry offers a wide variety of jobs requiring workers with different educational backgrounds. Scientists and engineers are generally expected to have completed advanced degree programs, including doctoral and post-doctoral work, often while gaining on-the-job experience. Technologists in the industry generally complete a bachelor’s degree program in aerospace technology or a related field, while technicians generally hold an associate’s degree. Employers often offer, and even require, additional on-the-job training. People with a high school diploma can find employment in many areas of production and manufacturing. Due to the highly technical nature of much of the work, those with less than a high school diploma may find it difficult to enter the field. Even support personnel are generally required to have a high school diploma.
■ Outlook In the decades following the Second World War, the aerospace industry was one of the most important in the United States. Apart from the international prestige to be gained by winning the space race, the ongoing threat presented by the Cold War between the United States and the Soviet Union drove the industry’s growth. Aerospace contractors could be assured of billions of dollars of new contracts each year; interest in space travel and research was also high. The collapse of the Soviet Union and the end of the Cold War in the late 1980s and early 1990s created a new reality for the aerospace industry. The immediate threat to national security disappeared, and with it, the need for high levels of spending. Other factors also combined to depress the aerospace industry. After the Challenger disaster of 1986, the space program entered a decline. Decisions were made to reduce the reliance on the space shuttle through the 1990s, and NASA’s budget was cut. (In 2003, a second space shuttle disaster occurred when
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This technologist is working on a 747 engine at an aerospace plant. (Stewart Cohen, Tony Stone Images.)
the Columbia disintegrated in mid-air while reentering the Earth’s atmosphere. This created further stress on the industry and led to renewed calls for decreases in NASA’s budget.) The recession of the early 1990s, coupled with the Persian Gulf War, severely reduced the level of air travel. Meanwhile, a wave of corporate downsizing swept the country, and by the mid-1990s, more than one million management jobs had been eliminated. Because business travel has always been one of the mainstays of the airlines, the aviation industry saw even further reductions in air travel. The deregulation of the airline industry in the early 1980s had also led to the failure of a number of airlines. All of these events meant that fewer orders for new commercial aircraft were being placed with the major aerospace manufacturers. Between 1989 and 1995, more than 500,000 jobs were eliminated. The aerospace industry recovered slightly in the late 1990s, with 898 jetliner orders in 1996, 940 in 1997, 1,124 in 1998, 776 in 1999, and 1,081 in 2000. Employment also recovered somewhat, but peaked in 1998. The industry began to experience another decline due to several factors, including the Asian financial crises, foreign outsourcing for engines and parts, competition with the European manufacturer Airbus, and a struggling economy. Airlines began to lose money as air travel declined in the first half of 2001. Orders for new aircraft severely declined and layoffs affected thousands of workers. The September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks caused a steep decline in commercial flight and orders for new commercial aircraft. Since then, travel has rebounded gradually, and the U.S. Department of Labor predicts that the industry will return to its pre 9/11 condition over the next sev-
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eral years. Industry experts say that the war on terrorism could provide an opportunity for the aerospace industry to restructure itself and regain strength. To fight terrorism, protect the United States, and continue to support its troops in Iraq, Afghanistan, and other locales, the U.S. government has increased its spending on aircraft, shipbuilding, ballistic missile defense, intelligence, surveillance, reconnaissance, and other defense-related programs. The U.S. Department of Labor projects that employment in the aerospace products and parts manufacturing industry will grow more slowly than the average career, with higher growth predicted for the military aircraft and missiles portion of the industry. The employment percentage could increase further depending on government decisions to increase military spending. As a result of the Columbia disaster, there was considerable debate concerning NASA’s budget, the necessity of human travel in space, and the future of the U.S. space program. Congress increased NASA’s budget slightly, and NASA announced plans to create a new crew exploration vehicle by 2008, retire the space shuttle and complete the International Space Station by 2010, and send a return manned mission to the Moon by 2020 as a first step to a manned mission to Mars. As part of its overall plan, NASA is expected to continue its research in aerospace technology, aviation, and space transportation, including military and commercial applications.
■ For More Information For information about scholarships, colleges, and career opportunities, contact Air Force Association 1501 Lee Highway Arlington, VA 22209-1198 Tel: 800-727-3337 Email:
[email protected] http://www.afa.org
Contact AIA for publications with information on aerospace technologies, careers, and space. Aerospace Industries Association of America (AIA) 1000 Wilson Boulevard, Suite 1700 Arlington, VA 22209-3928 Tel: 703-358-1000 http://www.aia-aerospace.org
For career information and details on student branches of this organization, contact American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics 1801 Alexander Bell Drive, Suite 500 Reston, VA 20191-4344
Tel: 800-639-2422 http://www.aiaa.org
■ Related Articles Airlines; Defense; Space Exploration; Aeronautical and Aerospace Technicians; Aerospace Engineers; Astronauts; Astronomers; Astrophysicists; Electrical and Electronics Engineers; Engineers; Industrial Engineers; Mechanical Engineers; Robotics Engineers and Technicians
Agriculture ■ Background Rudimentary farming developed approximately 10,000 years ago. Archeological records reveal that people first planted seeds about 9000 b.c. However, it would be another thousand years before farming produced crops as a primary source of food. As the skills of farmers increased, food production improved. Animal husbandry, fishing, and planting skills became more sophisticated. The inventions of machines and tools had an important impact on agricultural advancement. Prehistoric people crafted the sickle for harvesting, the Egyptians developed irrigation, and the Mesopotamians developed the plow pulled by oxen. In the Middle Ages, horses replaced oxen, increasing the speed of the plow. In the early 1700s, Jethro Tull designed and built the first mechanical seed planter. The agricultural revolution, roughly from 1700 to the mid-1800s, revolutionized crop production. Crop rotation allowed farmland to be used continually, and animal breeding improved dramatically. Farms were thus able to yield crops that far exceeded the needs of the communities that worked on them. This surplus of food was exported to other towns where it was bought and sold by merchants. Hence the development of the marketplace, which became central to the rapid growth of cities. Steamboats, railroads, and improved routes of transportation allowed for agricultural commodities to be distributed wider and easier, opening up the marketplace for farmers. Canning, refrigeration, and other developments in food processing in the mid-1800s also resulted in better sales. In the early 20th century, a number of new developments helped improve and radically reshape the agricultural industry. The gasoline tractor led the way for new machine technology, while scientific advancements in the areas of plant breeding and soil conservation allowed farmers to specialize and make full use of
natural resources. The 20th century was also a period of active federal government involvement in farm production. The Agricultural Extension Service, formed in 1914, brought agricultural education to farmers all across the country. New Deal legislation in the 1930s helped farmers deal with the devastation brought on by the Dust Bowl. The Agricultural Marketing Act of 1937 allowed the federal government to buy crop surpluses and donate them to the poor and to schools. The government remains involved in agriculture today, most recently through the Farm Security and Rural Investment Act of 2002. A drought in Texas in the late 1990s, a drop in hog prices, and the migration of populations from rural communities to urban areas have all contributed to insurmountable problems for farmers and agricultural counties throughout the country, calling for more government assistance. Farms have increased considerably in size since the end of World War II, while the number of farms in the United States has declined. This is partly because technology has allowed for the operation of a much larger farm than it did during the time of horse-drawn equipment and partly because of the growth of large-scale farms run by corporations. It has become increasingly difficult for new farmers to invest in the industry. The rising cost of equipment and labor and the dropping prices of commodities make it very difficult for even established farmers to maintain their land and crops. As a result, many small farm communities are evaporating. More people are migrating to urban and suburban areas, resulting in the closings of schools, hospitals, and other community institutions. For years, farmers have relied on other forms of income, such as off-farm business revenue and salaries from off-farm jobs, for the bulk of their living expenses. Some surveys show that 90 percent of farm household income is from off-farm sources. Despite some of these grim figures for the American farmer, the agricultural industry and agriculture-related careers thrive. According to the U.S. Department of Labor, agricultural production employed approximately 2.1 million workers in 2004, making it one of the largest industries in the country. According to the U.S. Department of Agriculture’s National Agricultural Statistics Service, women made up 27.2 percent of agricultural producers as of 2002—up from 12.6 percent in 1997. Minorities have also made significant strides. The percentage of agricultural operators of Hispanic, Latino, or Spanish origin increased by 50.8 percent from 1997 to 2002, and the percentage of African-American agricultural operators increased by 8.8 percent during this time span. Farmers still feed the nation and the world, and new uses for commodities are opening new markets.
Agriculture
Agriculture Online We’ve come a long way from the Old Farmer’s Almanac and barn-top weather vanes; today’s farmer can check the weather and commodities prices and chat with other farmers without even stepping from the house. The following Internet sites provide farmers and others in agriculture with up-to-the-minute information about their industry: ■ Agweb.com (http://www.agweb.com/farmjournal.asp). Agweb.com is the online version of Farm Journal and includes daily news reports, market prices, and live chat and discussion groups. Free registration gives you access to in-depth articles on a well-designed, easy-tonavigate site. ■
AgriBiz & Associates (http://www.agribiz.org). The reports at this site touch upon diverse agricultural concerns, including information about international commodities, daily news about biotechnology, and other Internet resources.
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Grainnet (http://www.grainnet.com). Many articles from the print magazine Grain Journal are included on this site along with classifieds, lists of suppliers, and a Web site directory.
Advances in science and technology have made agricultural production much more efficient, but also more complex, calling upon the skills of farm managers, technicians, consultants, and agribusiness professionals.
■ Structure The American agricultural industry is vast and diverse. It is made up of the farmers who cultivate the land, raise livestock, and grow plants; the industries that purchase, process, distribute, and transport farm products and farm supplies; and the organizations that supply services to the farmer and the consumer. This whole complex network of activities is often called agribusiness. The base for all agricultural work is the farm. The average farm is run by a farm operator or a farm manager, who in most cases has attended college and earned an agricultural degree. Farms usually employ both permanent and seasonal workers. Part-time employees work during the harvest and planting seasons, and permanent employees are responsible for the day-to-day operations of the farm throughout the year. Single crop farms are commonplace. On these farms, the cash crop (the crop that is grown for sale) is the only thing produced. Wheat and corn single crop farms are widespread throughout the Midwest and Plains states.
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An agricultural worker prepares freshly picked organic strawberries for shipping and distribution. (Rubberball Productions.)
Specialized livestock production is mainly centered on cattle, hogs, and poultry operations in the United States. Sheep, goat, turkey, and aquaculture (fish) farms are examples of single livestock operations. Diversified farms produce several different crops or animals, or a mixture of both, for sale. The old-style family farm was often a diversified farm. These farms are less common now, partly because of the simplicity of specialized production, but mainly because the profit margin is often higher with single-crop production. Land is normally well suited to only a few types of plants or animals, which makes diversification difficult. However, the diversified farm is less dependent on the success of a single item. Drought, disease, and other natural disasters may take less of a toll on the farm that produces many different products. Farmers depend on other industries to provide seed, fertilizer, and machinery. After the crops are harvested or
livestock are bred, output industries process and market the farm products. Storage, shipping, processing, packaging, and canning are just some of the industries that assist the farmer in the sale of goods. For example, a shipping company makes sure that a farm’s produce reaches the customer in the best condition for sale. A storage company makes sure that all of a farm’s apples produced in September do not arrive at the store on the same day. It will store some of the apples for future sales, schedule future deliveries, and can some produce for off-season sales. These are all important aspects of agribusiness. To ensure sales of their produce, farmers can arrange to sell their crops before producing them. This is known as contract farming, and it has benefits for both the buyer and the farmer. It is an arrangement between a farm and a buyer, such as a food processor or marketer, to ship the produce to the buyer upon harvesting. The farmer must agree to a price at the time of the contract. If there are a lot of successful crops of the type the farmer sells, the farmer may get a higher price for the crops in a contract than if he had waited for the harvest and bid with many other farmers waiting to sell their goods. However, if crop production is low, then the buyer may get a cheaper price on a product if the buyer arranged the contract early in the season, before the farmer knew that there would be fewer of the items produced than normal. In an open sale, the farmer would be able to raise the price, because there would be more people trying to buy from him. The off-the-farm portion of the agricultural industry, in addition to offering goods and services, also provides an opportunity for many diverse and interesting careers. Of the approximately 24 million people working in various areas of agriculture, only about 2.1 million are located on farms, whereas about 21.9 million work in jobs related to agriculture, but off the farm. In 1862, the U.S. Congress gave each state a land grant that consisted of 30,000 acres of land for each senator and representative in Congress. The state was to sell the land and use the proceeds to build a college that would specialize in education for agriculture and engineering. Some states created new universities, and some funded colleges in universities that were already established. The University of Illinois and the University of California are two well-known land-grant universities. State universities with agricultural schools are usually affiliated with research centers called agricultural experiment stations. Experiment stations conduct research on farming techniques to develop the most effective methods of farming for each region. Scientists at the stations work with soils, crops, feed rations, animals, plant variations, and genetic strains to devise the best farming method for the climate and the zone in which they work. Some
states have several stations working in different areas to account for regional differences.
■ Outlook Employment in the agricultural industry is expected to decline through 2014, according to the U.S. Department of Labor. Overproduction, increasing productivity, and industry consolidation have reduced opportunities in the industry—especially for self-employed farmers. Opportunities for agricultural managers, farmworkers, and graders and sorters will be slightly better. The U.S. Department of Labor predicts that several trends should help farmers and other specialized workers in this industry. Some farmers are prospering by focusing on growing specialty crops, participating in farmer-owned and -operated cooperatives, or switching to all-organic farming practices in response to public fears about the effects of pesticides and fertilizers used in traditional agriculture. Fish farming and aquaculture will also become more important and more profitable in the next decade. Growth in aquaculture is spurred by declining ocean catches due to overfishing and the growing demand for seafood items, such as shrimp, salmon, and catfish. Another important development in agriculture involves methods of processing grains to make new products and helping farmers to deal with crop surpluses. In many agriculture-based states, adding value to agricultural products is the largest creator of wealth and jobs. The pursuit of new uses for farm crops will provide many jobs for those involved in processing and will also provide farmers with new markets for their crops. For example, corn is used for ethanol, sweeteners, feed products, corn oil, and lactic acid. Studies are underway that will expand corn’s uses to include adhesives, paper and packaging, nonprescription medical products, and even plastic. Food safety is an important issue that will impact jobs for food scientists, agricultural scientists, and inspectors. Recent outbreaks of mad cow disease and foot-andmouth disease in livestock in Europe have prompted heightened efforts to detect and prevent these problems in the United States. There are also concerns about the West Nile virus, anthrax, E. coli bacteria in livestock and meat products, and residual pesticides in plant products. Efforts are also being made to protect this industry from agri-terrorism. Genetic engineering in both plant and animal agriculture is being hotly debated in the agricultural and political communities, as well as among consumers. Some proponents of genetic engineering believe that engineering crops and livestock to be more resistant to disease, insects, and other problems and to have longer shelf
Agriculture
lives will greatly benefit farmers. However, the effects of genetic engineering on the environment and on humans, as well as the long-term effects on the agricultural products themselves, have not yet been determined. Research, experimentation, and debate are likely to continue well into the 21st century. Some analysts are predicting that farmers of the future may earn more income by dealing in renewable energy, particularly selling wind power. There are also possibilities for ethanol, biodiesel, and the generation of electricity from the methane produced by livestock feeding operations. More diverse career opportunities are available for those with advanced degrees in agriculture-related fields. Agricultural scientists, agribusiness professionals, and equipment technicians will see their jobs expand to involve high-tech methods of conservation, planting, tilling, and treating farm crops.
Words to Know Acre: An area that measures 43,560 square feet; 640 acres equals one square mile (or section). Agronomy: The science of soil management and the production of field crops. Biotechnology: The use of live organisms (plant and animal cells) to manufacture new products. Bushel: A unit of dry measure equivalent to four pecks or eight gallons. Center pivot: An irrigation system composed of a pipeline supported on towers that rotate, self-propelled, around a central point. Combine: A grain harvester that combines cutting and threshing into one operation. Commodity: Any partially processed or unprocessed good, such as grain, fruits, and vegetables. Crop rotation: The system of alternating crops planted in the same ground, to protect the quality of the soil. Forage: Food, such as hay, for horses and cattle. Industrial crops: Crops used for industrial purposes rather than for food or livestock feed. Livestock: Cattle, sheep, and other animals raised on a farm. Market price: The worth of a farm commodity, per bushel. Oilseed crops: Crops, such as canola, soybeans, and sunflower seeds, used for the production of cooking oils. Organic farming: Producing crops without synthetic fertilizers, pesticides, or other chemicals. Tillage: Plowing or harrowing land for the planting of crops.
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For a variety of information on such topics as agriculture, conservation, food and nutrition, weather, and employment, contact U.S. Department of Agriculture Higher Education Program 14th Street and Independence, SW Washington, DC 20250-0002 Tel: 202-720-2791 http://www.usda.gov
■ Related Articles
This farmer is working with irrigation and weather sensor systems to track the progress of his crops. (Mitch Kezar, Tony Stone Images.)
Farm managers and operators will need extensive understanding of new farming methods and equipment as well as computer-aided operations. In the past, fields were treated as if every acre had the same needs; scientists and farmers have discovered that the soil and plants are better treated as individually as possible. Precision farming through computers, satellites, and sensors treats each acre of soil and each plant for its own specific needs. With computers in tractors, farmers are able to determine exactly how much fertilizer, herbicide, etc., is needed by the soil and plants. Farmers can then treat the soil and plants with even more effective fertilizers and pesticides, and their genetically engineered crops will be more resistant to drought and disease.
■ For More Information The Farm Bureau hosts youth conferences and other events for those interested in farming; its Web page includes articles of interest to farmers and the public. American Farm Bureau Federation 600 Maryland Avenue, SW, Suite 800 Washington, DC 20024-2520 Tel: 202-406-3600 http://www.fb.org
For a career resources booklet, contact ASA or visit its Web site. American Society of Agronomy (ASA) 677 South Segoe Road Madison, WI 53711-1086 Tel: 608-273-8080 http://www.agronomy.org
Agribusiness Technicians; Agricultural Consultants; Agricultural Equipment Technicians; Agricultural Pilots; Agricultural Scientists; Animal Breeders and Technicians; Aquaculturists; Beekeepers; Dairy Products Manufacturing Workers; Farm Crop Production Technicians; Farm Equipment Mechanics; Farmers; Grain Merchants; Horticultural Technicians; Range Managers; Soil Conservationists and Technicians; Soil Scientists
Airlines ■ Background The first recorded flight of a human being took place in 1783 when French inventors Joseph and Etienne Montgolfier inflated a large balloon with hot air, reaching an altitude of 6,000 feet. Advancements in aeronautics, the science of flight, soon led to the development of successful glider designs. Two brothers, Orville Wright and Wilbur Wright, became convinced that the typical glider wing structure was fundamentally flawed. They built a wind tunnel to test the flow of air over a variety of new designs. At the same time, they developed specifications for an internal combustion engine powerful enough to lift its own weight and the weight of a plane. They consulted marine engineering texts and constructed a propeller for their plane. By the time the Wright brothers made their historic first flight on December 17, 1903, near Kitty Hawk, North Carolina, they embodied the basic structural components—engineering, manufacturing, ground crew, and pilots—of today’s airline industry. Technological advances followed rapidly. Spurred in part by the growing certainty of war in Europe, designers sought faster, more maneuverable, and more stable aircraft. Attempts to develop commercial air transport largely ended, however, with the outbreak of World War I. Efforts were now directed at developing the airplane’s military potential. By the end of the war, planes could
reach speeds nearing 200 miles per hour and could climb as high as 30,000 feet, while operating for many hours in the air. By 1919, a U.S. Navy plane made the first transatlantic flight of nearly 3,400 miles. Nonetheless, commercial use of the airplane would remain limited for some years after the war. Airplanes were not yet large enough or reliable enough to carry passengers at a profit, and they were not yet able to fly in bad weather. In 1919, companies in Germany, France, and England, with support from their governments and using converted surplus warplanes, began civil airline services. In the United States, civil airplanes were chiefly the props of stunt flyers and daredevils. However, the passage of the Kelly Air Mail Act of 1925, in which the transport of mail was turned over to private contractors, gave the airline industry the boost it needed. A series of technological advances in airplane and airplane engine design during the 1920s and 1930s gave a further boost to the airline industry. Increasing numbers of people were flying on commercial airplanes. The Air Commerce Act, passed in 1926, established licensing requirements for pilots and airlines, while creating an airway network with lights and radio beacons. This provided not only for greater safety in the air, but also for greater consumer confidence in the young airline industry. Then, on May 21, 1927, Charles Lindbergh completed the first nonstop flight from New York to Paris and set off a boom in aviation and air travel. Within six years, the United States boasted the busiest airport in the world, at Newark, New Jersey. Companies, such as Boeing, Douglas, and Lockheed, began devoting themselves to the manufacture and design of aircraft. In the 1930s, many of the small airlines from the decade before had merged to form what would become known as the Big Four airline companies: American, United, Trans World (TWA), and Eastern. By the end of the 1930s, the U.S. companies carried 30 million people per year. World War II interrupted the growth of the commercial airlines. All available resources and research were directed toward the war and to winning dominance in the air over the powerful German Luftwaffe. The development of the jet engine, a turbine engine more powerful than the internal combustion engine, occurred during this time. The jet engine had a dramatic impact on the commercial airline industry. Following the war, the industry underwent a rapid expansion. Planes could now carry larger numbers of people and transport far heavier payloads, with shorter travel times and fewer refueling stops. In the United States, the Federal Aviation Agency, later called the Fed-
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eral Aviation Administration (FAA), regulated the technical aspects of the airline industry, performing safety inspections of the aircraft, creating specifications for airport and runway design, and establishing a system of air traffic control to help maintain the safety of the increasingly crowded skies. The Civil Aeronautics Board regulated the economic aspects of the industry, dictating which routes each airline was allowed to fly and what fares they could charge their passengers. In 1952, British European Airways was the first to add commercial jet service and became the first foreign company to make a successful entry in the U.S. market. U.S. airlines were far slower to adopt jet planes into their fleets. It was not until 1959 that Boeing introduced its 707. But by the middle of the next decade, the United States dominated the international airways. By the end of the decade, manufacturers were building jumbo jet airplanes, such as the Boeing 747 and McDonnell-Douglas’s DC-10, capable of carrying from 300 to nearly 500 people per flight. These planes reached speeds of up to 625 miles per hour. In 1976, the supersonic Concorde was introduced. It was designed to fly at 1,350 miles per hour, and flew until 2003, when its commercial flights ended. Larger planes meant lower prices, and lower prices meant more passengers than ever before. Meanwhile, airplanes had long been put to other uses. Alongside the commercial airline industry, the general aviation industry included roughly 80 percent of all registered aircraft in the United States. Manufacturers such as Cessna and Piper created smaller, usually piston-engine planes, for such purposes as pilot training, aerial sports such as skydiving, and private pleasure flying. Later, the jet engine
A pilot reviews the flight checklist before take-off. (Associated Press/ Richard Patterson.)
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was adapted for general aviation use in executive and business transport services. Private mail and package delivery companies such as Federal Express and United Parcel Service began to build fleets of their own. Until 1978, the airline industry was strictly regulated by the Civil Aeronautics Board. Air travel was largely dominated by a handful of giant companies. In an effort to increase competition within the industry, the Airline Deregulation Act of 1978 removed these controls. The airline industry entered a chaotic period in which many airlines failed, while others merged and many new ones appeared. Ticket fares decreased for some larger, more frequently traveled destinations. But for smaller destinations, fares rose drastically. Nonetheless, the industry underwent an explosion in the number of passengers flying each year. As the industry entered the 1990s, a more profitable hub-and-spoke system began to emerge in which airlines based their operations in one or more cities. However, an economic downturn, coupled with the enormous competition of the last decade, took its toll on the airlines. The sudden end of the Cold War meant an end to unlimited government defense spending, causing a crisis among aircraft manufacturers. In the industry itself, fewer and fewer jobs were being created, and many were being lost. The end of the recession, however, brought renewed prosperity to the airlines and increases in the numbers
Words to Know Air Commerce Act of 1926: Established licensing requirements for pilots and airlines along with other safety and regulatory measures, giving consumers more confidence in commercial aviation. Airframe: The parts of an aircraft other than the engine, such as wings, fuselage, landing gear, etc. Avionics: From the words aviation and electronics, this is the application of electronics to the operation of aircraft, spacecraft, and missiles. FAA: Federal Aviation Administration, a federal agency. GPS: Global Positioning System, which allows airplanes to use computers and satellites to determine the fastest and most efficient flight paths; slowly eliminating the need for tight air traffic control. Kelly Air Mail Act of 1925: Legislation that turned the transportation of mail over to private contractors, providing a watershed opportunity for commercial aviation. NTSB: National Transportation Safety Board, a federal agency.
of people traveling. Airlines focused more on services such as electronic ticketing, frequent flyer programs, and in-flight telephones and videoplayers to increase their attractiveness to customers. Another trend was the formation of partnerships between U.S. and foreign companies, allowing them to extend the routes they could offer to their customers. Many aircraft manufacturers began to enter other areas of manufacturing and technology to replace revenues lost to the shrinking defense budget. The economy slipped into recession again in 2001, hitting the airline industry hard, primarily because of drastically lower numbers of business travelers. Then, the terrorist attacks of September 11 put the industry in real crisis. The attacks shut down air transport completely for four days and then new security measures and regulations were immediately instituted. Airlines were forced to reduce flight capacity and cut schedules. To persuade passengers to fly again, they had to offer cheaper fares. As a result, the industry reported losses of nearly $10 billion at the end of 2001. Close to 100,000 jobs were lost. In response, Congress passed the Air Transportation Safety and System Stabilization Act to help the airline industry deal with the financial ramifications of the terrorism. The bill provided direct cash grants, loan guarantees, compensation for increased insurance costs, and limits to liability for third-party damages resulting from terrorist acts. The U.S. Department of Labor predicts that increasing business and leisure travel and an improved economy will help the airline industry gradually rebound over the next decade.
■ Structure The aviation industry may be divided along three lines: commercial, general, and military. Commercial aviation includes the airlines, air taxi and charter operations, airplane rental, and aerial applications. Commercial aviation is further broken down according to the size of the company. National carriers are airlines that earn between $100 million and $1 billion per year. Regional carriers have revenues of less than $100 million each year. Other commercial uses for aircraft include forest fire containment, crop dusting, and aerial signage. Helicopters are used for police, emergency, rescue, and passenger services, and for traffic reporting. There are 540 commercial service airports in the United States. General aviation encompasses personal and instructional flights and business and executive aircraft. General aviation also includes smaller crafts, such as ultralights. Most of the airplane activity in the United States occurs in general aviation. General aviation aircraft fly over 29 million hours, nearly two times the commercial airline flight hours, and carry 166 million passengers each year.
There are approximately 2,764 general aviation airports in the United States, but general aviation craft fly into and out of most of the country’s more than 18,000 airports. Airports range in size from a single unpaved landing strip to complex sites of 20,000 acres or more. Large airports have often been compared to cities. Each has its own police force, fire department and emergency rescue service, retail stores and restaurants, maintenance crews, warehouses for cargo, and even its own transportation system. A large airport may employ thousands of people. Many airports are managed by fixed-base operators (FBO). The FBO is often responsible for the entire operation of the airport, including its management, fueling, hangar, and repair facilities. A feature at many airports is the control tower. Air traffic controllers regulate the flow of traffic into and out of the airport. Additional air traffic control centers are spaced along the airways, linking the entire system. Other important features of larger, international airports and airports located near the country’s borders are the customs and immigration departments. More than 100 airlines make use of these airports. The typical organizational structure of an airline includes operations, maintenance, marketing, and finance divisions. The operations division manages the day-to-day activities of the airline, overseeing the pilots and flight attendants, the flight dispatchers, flight scheduling, and ground crews. The maintenance division handles the avionics and mechanics of the airplane, performing daily inspections, and routine repairs and maintenance, such as filling the tires with air and fueling. The marketing department sells the airline’s services as well as creates new programs, services, and advertisements to attract customers. It also takes ticket reservations and purchases. The finance division is concerned with maintaining a smooth cash flow to ensure the airline’s continued success. Other areas of an airline may include an interior design staff to develop the passenger areas of a plane and clothing designers to design the uniforms of the pilots, flight attendants, check-in personnel, and others. Airlines carry more than just people. Transportation of cargo, from single packages to shipments such as 25-ton printing presses, complete oil well towers, and heavy construction equipment, is an important source of income. The use of airplanes to transport fresh fruits, vegetables, and seafood has had a great impact on the variety of foods available for people to eat. Other industries, such as the auto industry, transport parts and components by air so that they arrive at their factories just when they are needed. An added source of revenues is transportation of mail and packages, which may contribute as much as 15 percent to a major carrier’s earnings. There are now many companies that specialize in
Airlines
mail transport, some with their own fleets of airplanes. A typical airplane carries a variety of cargo, along with its passengers and crew. An important component of the airline industry is the aircraft manufacturer. The major carrier aircraft manufacturers in the United States are Boeing Aircraft Company and Lockheed Martin. They also build aircraft, weapons, vehicles, and components for the military and the U.S. space program. Much of their work involves the research and development of new technologies. Many features of the modern airplane were first developed for the military or the space program and were later adapted for commercial aircraft. A typical aircraft manufacturer employs people from nearly every field, from physicists, biologists, engineers, technicians, and mathematicians to accountants, lawyers, writers, and artists, as well as traditional manufacturing personnel. Many other manufacturers provide essential aircraft components and electronics. A number of manufacturers concentrate on supplying aircraft to the general aviation industry. Major general aviation manufacturers include New Piper Aircraft, Cessna Aircraft Company, Raytheon Aircraft Company, Learjet, and Gulfstream Aerospace Corporation. Still other manufacturers build helicopters. The growing popularity of ultralight aircraft, many of which are built by the purchaser from a kit, has created still more manufacturing opportunities. The popularity of skydiving also has increased the need for such equipment as parachutes and safety harnesses. The Federal Aviation Administration oversees the airline industry, performing a number of important functions. Aircraft and airports must meet rigid specifications for safety, performance, noise, and pollution standards. Routine inspections of each aircraft alert airlines to faults in their aircraft and keep unsafe airplanes from the sky. The FAA establishes training and licensing requirement for pilots, instructors, and other workers. The FAA also hires, trains, and assigns air traffic controllers to manage the traffic flow above airports and across the country. Most of the current air traffic control system in the United States has been in place since the 1960s. As its computers and other components have aged, and even become obsolete, the FAA has begun to rebuild the system, sponsoring research and development into new components that will be able to regulate air traffic for many years to come. The FAA also governs the design, construction, and operations of airports. Everyone who flies remains subject to the FAA’s rules and regulations.
Outlook The airline industry suffered during 2001, due to reduced air travel and a struggling economy in the early part of
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The Douglas DC-3, which first entered service in 1936, is credited with changing commercial air travel from a novelty to a practical means of transportation. Thousands were built during World War II and many are still flying. (New Standard Encyclopedia.)
the year and then because of the terrorist attacks in the fall. Airline industry losses for 2001 were nearly the same as during the Gulf War in the 1990s when the United States experienced somewhat similar economic and political conditions. The Air Transportation Safety and System Stabilization Act (dubbed “the airline bill”) has kept some airlines from bankruptcy, but the industry needs air travel to return to its pre-terrorism volume. Many major airlines implemented cost-cutting measures, including employee layoffs. Some airlines are talking to unions to renegotiate wages and cut other costs. Smaller airlines that were already operating at lower costs, such as Southwest Airlines, JetBlue Airways, and Frontier Airlines, have fared better and remained profitable despite the recession. Aviation experts predict that the airline industry will continue to suffer over the short term then begin to see a slow recovery as passengers get back on board. While the airline bill took care of the carriers, it didn’t offer any help to the almost 100,000 laid-off workers. Some airlines did not offer severance packages. Some options being considered include requiring airlines to pay severance as a precondition of receiving government aid or loan guarantees. This would help only those who are eligible for severance under the stipulations of their union contracts. About 55 percent of airline employees are not covered by union contract. Terrorism has also affected aircraft manufacturing. In recent years, the industry has been hurt by a decreased defense budget. However, the Defense Appropriations Bill for fiscal year 2005 provided $416.2 billion in new discretionary spending authority for the Department of Defense. The budget includes spending for weapons; aircraft; shipbuilding; ballistic missile defense; intelligence,
surveillance, and reconnaissance, military personnel pay raises and medical programs; troop readiness and sustainment programs; and other programs. Manufacturers that serve commercial airlines are laying off workers and some may close plants because new aircraft orders have been stopped or delayed. General aviation manufacturers were also affected, although the number of active general aviation aircraft was expected to remain about the same as in past years. Many small airports have gone out of business in recent years, and many more are expected to fail, especially those unable to keep up with advancements in technology as they become standard in FAA regulations. As the industry developed the hub-and-spoke services, some airports have seen dramatic decreases in air traffic; others, particularly larger airports, have seen a boom in the number of flights and passengers they handle each year. These airports will continue to require large numbers of employees. Airport employees will have to undergo security checks and complete more rigorous training in order to comply with new government safety and security regulations. The FAA is in the process of completing its transition to a new air traffic control system. Many of its computers, state-of-the-art in the 1960s, are less powerful than most personal computers today. With more and more airlines adopting global positioning system (GPS) equipment, the need for tight air traffic control will be eliminated. The role of the air traffic controller will be reduced to provide assistance during potentially dangerous and emergency situations. Strong growth will be seen in the number of jobs related to computer development and operation.
■ For More Information To read The Airline Handbook, visit the ATAA Web site. Air Transport Association of America (ATAA) 1301 Pennsylvania Avenue, NW, Suite 1100 Washington, DC 20004-1707 Tel: 202-626-4000 Email:
[email protected] http://www.airlines.org
For career information, contact Aviation Information Resources Inc. Tel: 800-247-2777 or 800-538-5627 http://www.jet-jobs.com
For information on licensing, careers, and aviation, contact Federal Aviation Administration 800 Independence Avenue, SW, Room 810 Washington, DC 20591-0001 Tel: 202-366-4000 http://www.faa.gov
Alternative Health Care
For information on career pamphlets, books, lists of schools, and scholarships, contact General Aviation Manufacturers Association 1400 K Street, NW, Suite 801 Washington, DC 20005-2403 Tel: 202-393-1500 http://www.generalaviation.org
For information on careers, lists of schools, and scholarships, contact National Air Transportation Association 4226 King Street Alexandria, VA 22302-1507 Tel: 800-808-6282 http://www.nata.aero
For information on regional airlines operating in the United States that employ pilots, flight attendants, mechanics, agents, and other personnel, contact Regional Airline Association 2025 M Street, NW Washington, DC 20036-3309 Tel: 202-367-1170 Email:
[email protected] http://www.raa.org
For a RealAudio and RealVideo experience of aviation, as well as information on aviation safety, becoming a pilot, and other information, contact Cyberair Airpark http://www.cyberair.com
■ Related Articles Aerospace; Defense; Military Services; Space Exploration; Transportation; Travel and Tourism; Agricultural Pilots; Air Traffic Controllers; Aircraft Mechanics; Airplane Dispatchers; Avionics Engineers and Technicians; Flight Attendants; Helicopter Pilots; Pilots; Reservation and Ticket Agents
Alternative Health Care ■ Background The United States has been involved in an escalating health care crisis since the 1980s. Alternative health care (also called alternative medicine) plays an increasingly important role both in stirring the conflict and in contributing to potential solutions.
What is the health care crisis? There is a growing feeling of alienation between patients and health care practitioners. Physicians and patients are losing confidence in the effectiveness of modern medicine to treat many conditions. In addition, many of the treatments that are effective have become so expensive that most people cannot afford them. What caused the crisis? It is the result of a combination of factors: the successes and failures of modern medicine and the American public’s acceptance of outside control of their health. All of these factors combined to lead to skyrocketing health care costs. Modern medicine has had many outstanding successes. During most of the 20th century, conventional modern medicine (also called allopathic medicine) waged a war on disease. It made great strides toward the control or eradication of many dreaded illnesses, such as smallpox, polio, and malaria, and it made great advances in the treatment of heart attacks, strokes, and cancer. Allopathic medicine has been especially successful in treating life-threatening diseases and trauma. As a result of the successes of modern medicine, many people began to believe there would eventually be a “magic bullet” for everything. All they had to do was find the physician with the right pill, treatment, or surgery, and they could conquer any medical problem. People in the medical professions, especially doctors and hospitals, were seen as having all the answers. Many, perhaps most, Americans became accustomed to considering the medical establishment to be in charge of their health. They believed that they could live any way they wanted, and when they got sick, the doctors could fix them. People seemed to think that could eat junk food, be couch potatoes, and subject themselves to enormous amounts of stress and then go to a doctor for a magic bullet to cure what ailed them. To a great extent, many individuals gave control of their health to the medical establishment. Health care providers accepted control and adopted an increasingly authoritarian attitude. Modern medicine developed more weapons to fight disease that were more specialized, mechanized, and expensive. With the increasing specialization and mechanization of health care, costs rose far beyond the means of the average individual. By the 1970s, it became increasingly apparent that modern medicine did not have all the answers. Many chronic (long-term) conditions did not respond well to allopathic medical treatment. Some side effects and cures proved to be worse than diseases. A sense of alienation was growing between patients and health care providers. Busy medical practitioners had little or no time to spend with their patients. Individuals were unable to communicate
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meaningfully with their health care providers, and they felt cut off and frustrated. On top of everything else, the cost of medical care skyrocketed. People began looking for different ways to meet their health care needs. They turned to practitioners of systems of health care that were not part of the mainstream medical establishment. In the 1980s, the term alternative medicine came into use. It was used to refer to medical
Words to Know Accreditation: Nongovernmental, voluntary process of evaluation for institutions, agencies, and educational programs. Acupuncture: System of medicine that balances the body’s vital energy (qi) by inserting fine needles into the skin at specific acupuncture points. Acute illness: Sickness characterized by sudden onset, possibly severe pain, and relatively short duration. Allopathic medicine: Name for conventional modern medicine that was first used by Samuel Hahnemann, the founder of homeopathy. He used the term in contrast to homeopathic medicine. Alternative medicine: Approaches not widely taught in medical schools, generally available in hospitals, or known or accepted by the majority of conventional medical practitioners. Biomedicine: Conventional approach to medicine, characterized by emphasis on the measurement of physiological, physical, and chemical processes. Botanical medicine: Drug made from part of a plant. Certification: Form of professional recognition that indicates that an individual has voluntarily met the standards established by a professional organization. Chronic illness: Sickness that lasts a long time or recurs frequently. Complementary medicine: Usually noninvasive, nonpharmaceutical practices such as massage therapy or nutritional counseling that an allopathic physician might prescribe along with conventional treatments. Conventional medicine: Also called modern medicine, allopathic medicine, and biomedicine;
systems, modalities, or treatments that were not generally taught at conventional medical schools in the United States. These approaches to healing were seen as “alternative” to conventional medicine, that is, they were used in place of allopathic medicine. Many of the alternative systems, such as traditional Oriental medicine, had histories that dated back hundreds of years. Other systems, such as chiropractic, were
an approach to medicine that typically views health as the absence of disease. DO: Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine. Herbal: Book about herbal medicine. Holistic medicine: Philosophy of medicine that focuses on treating the whole person—body, mind, and spirit. Homeopathy: System of medicine that treats disease with small doses of natural remedies that would produce symptoms similar to the disease if given to a healthy person. Integrative medicine: Approach that uses both alternative and conventional medicine. Licensure: Required process established by a governmental body that grants individuals the right to practice within the governmental jurisdiction, usually a state. Natural healing: Usually the use of noninvasive and nonpharmaceutical therapies to help heal a patient. NCCAM: National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine. N.D. or N.M.D.: Doctor of Naturopathic Medicine. NIH: National Institutes of Health. Osteopathic medicine: System of medicine that combines conventional medical education with a variety of manual treatments and a holistic perspective. Because of its unique combination, some consider osteopathic medicine to be allopathic medicine, while others consider it to be alternative medicine. Pharmacopoeia: Book describing medical preparations. Traditional medicine: System of health care that has been in existence in the culture of its origin for a long period of time—often hundreds of years. Trauma: Injury or wound to a living being.
of more recent origin. People were attracted to these systems because they talked with other individuals who said a certain approach had helped them. Alternative health care systems were able to help precisely because they were very different from modern medicine. Their strengths were in working with chronic illness, not with acute, life-threatening disease or injury. Their approach to clients was more cooperative, not authoritarian, and their therapies were more natural, not mechanized. As a result of these characteristics, alternative therapies were also comparatively cost effective. Because alternative systems helped fill the gaps left by the failures of conventional medicine, the public interest in alternative health care grew rapidly. Some conventional doctors also became interested and began to incorporate alternative therapies into their own practices. Over the years, a number of terms have developed to describe the relationships between conventional and alternative care. In the early 1990s, the expression complementary medicine came into use. Doctors and hospitals frequently used the term to reflect the fact that they used an alternative treatment not as an alternate to conventional treatment, but rather in addition to it. The conventional treatment was still considered to be primary, and the other systems of medicine played a secondary role. The most recent term used to describe the interrelationship between alternative and conventional medicine is integrative medicine. In integrative medicine, the focus is on the needs of the individual patient. No preference is given to conventional or alternative approaches. Both are used as indicated by the patient’s condition. Whether they called it alternative, complementary, or integrative, patients and health care providers are turning in increasing numbers to these health care approaches. Health care providers want to help people get well, and people who are ill want to get better, so the health care crisis is, indeed, a crisis for both health care providers and for individuals. Alternative systems address many of the issues of the health care crisis. Some people have lost confidence in modern medicine because it is not always effective in addressing many chronic diseases. Many alternative systems excel in alleviating chronic pain and illness. Practitioners and patients alike feel alienated as a result of the increasing mechanization and paternalism of conventional medicine. With its client-centered, whole-person approach, alternative health care bridges the gap between health care professionals and clients and establishes a sense of partnership. The high costs of specialization and mechanization have driven the cost of health care ever higher. Alternative systems focus on prevention, wellness, and natural
Alternative Health Care
remedies, all of which are less expensive than mechanized, high-tech, chemical strategies. Alternative health care approaches offer many potential solutions to the health care crisis. Prompted by the immense public interest and the skyrocketing cost of health care, the government created the Office of Alternative Medicine (OAM) in 1991. The OAM was originally established as a part of the National Institutes of Health. Its mission was to determine which alternative approaches were most effective and to distribute that information to the public. By 1998, the results of OAM studies, together with continuing popular interest and rising medical costs, encouraged the government to upgrade OAM’s status from an office to a center. The OAM was elevated to the National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine. This center has a much broader scope and more power to conduct research in the field of alternative health care than OAM did.
■ Structure The field of alternative health care is not actually an established industry with a defined structure and branches. Although it is sometimes referred to as alternative medicine, that term is too restrictive to describe the diversity of the field. Alternative health care is a collection of approaches to wellness, health care, and medicine. Its modalities can roughly be grouped into three categories: ancient traditional medical systems, more recent complete medical systems, and individual therapies. Traditional medical systems, such as Ayurveda (traditional Indian medicine) and traditional Oriental medicine, have been developed and practiced over hundreds of years in the cultures of their origin. These traditional systems are based upon complete philosophies regarding the origins and nature of life, human beings, wellness, and medicine. To successfully learn and practice such systems, you must be open to understanding and integrating a unique value system and worldview into your approach to life and the practice of health care and medicine. A number of alternative approaches are of more recent origin but also represent complete health care systems. Some, for example, homeopathy, originated in other countries. Others, like chiropractic, originated in the United States. Learning these health care systems does not necessarily require a change in philosophy, but many of them require an educational process that is as demanding as the study of conventional medicine. Other alternative health care approaches focus on a particular type of therapy. Examples of this group are
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A patient has acupuncture needles inserted into her face during an acupuncture treatment. (AP Photo/Jim McKnight.)
aromatherapy and massage therapy. These therapies are not complete systems of health care. Many of them can be incorporated into the practices of other health practitioners. The therapies generally require less intensive education, but they provide very meaningful opportunities to help people improve their lives. Helping individuals improve their lives is central to all alternative health care. In spite of their apparent diversity, these approaches have many essential principles in common, such as: Believe in the healing power of nature. Whatever approach alternative health care practitioners use, they have a strong fundamental belief in the natural ability of the body to heal itself when given the proper essential ingredients. These ingredients include clean air, water, nutritious food, proper rest, and exercise. Alternative practitioners work to help individuals learn lifestyle
changes that will provide their bodies with the natural elements that will help them heal. Do no harm. Alternative practitioners choose the therapy or remedy that will do the most good, while at the same time is the least invasive and has the fewest harmful side effects. Use natural remedies. Many alternative health care systems emphasize the use of natural remedies, such as whole foods, nutritional supplements, or herbs. Some alternative approaches also incorporate conventional pharmaceuticals and treatments in situations where more natural medicines are not effective. Natural remedies are usually much less expensive than modern pharmaceuticals. Consider the whole person. The whole-person approach to healing is an integral part of the belief system of alternative health care practitioners, and they have a deep respect for the dignity of humankind. Their healing treatments consider the entire human being—body, mind, and spirit. They also take into consideration the environment in which individuals live. What are their pressures and stresses? Their hopes and joys? Be client-centered rather than practitioner-centered. Practitioners of alternative approaches to health care work to develop a partnership between practitioner and client. They encourage questions and discussion. They involve the client in decisions about medications, procedures, and treatment strategies. Use a practitioner-as-teacher approach. This approach emphasizes helping clients learn to improve their lives through the development of healthier lifestyles, including nutrition and exercise. Health care practitioners serve as teachers, coaches, and examples. They present information clients need to learn to make healthier choices. They encourage and support their clients through their successes and failures in their efforts to improve their lives. And they live according to the principles they teach and provide examples that their clients can follow. Expect results to generally take time. Alternative health care approaches are frequently used for chronic ailments. Illnesses that have developed over a long period of time may take a while to show improvement. That is not always the case, though, and sometimes results can be so quick as to seem almost miraculous. Focus on wellness. Alternative approaches consider health to be much more than just the absence of disease. Prevention of disease is important, but the real goal is for people to reach increasing levels of wellness. Practitioners strive to help their clients achieve physical, mental, and spiritual balance in their lives. Building sound health reduces the incidence of illness and keeps health care costs down.
With its emphasis on wellness, cooperation, and the whole person, the field of alternative health care has brought a new sense of enthusiasm, innovation, and hope to patients, to health care, and to the medical profession. The rapid changes that have occurred in health care and medicine in recent years seem to have a life and momentum of their own. Where will all of this change and enthusiasm lead?
■ Outlook In late 1998, the U.S. government gave additional recognition to the field of alternative health care, elevating the Office of Alternative Medicine to the status of a center—the National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine (NCCAM). The U.S government has also dramatically increased NCCAM’s budget since its conception, from $20 million in 1998 to more than $127.7 million for fiscal year 2006. The center focuses on conducting clinical trials in a variety of alternative approaches. The lack of sufficient clinical data to prove the efficacy and safety of alternative approaches has long been a major criticism put forth by the medical establishment. Advocates of alternative medicine argue that health care systems that have been validated through centuries of use do not need scientific proof. In addition, they point out that hundreds of very good studies on many of the modalities already exist. Still, carefully controlled clinical trials may provide scientific data that will help legitimize alternative approaches in the eyes of more conventional practitioners and thus help pave the way toward more cooperation between alternative and conventional practitioners. In 2000, the White House Commission on Complementary and Alternative Medicine was established to help access and regulate the methods and practitioners of complementary and alternative medicine (CAM). According to a 2002 report from the commission, as many as 43 percent of the U.S. population has used some form of CAM. Medical professionals, hospitals, and other health care professionals are showing a growing interest in CAM. According to the report, “Although such prevalence of use and interest in CAM is not an indication that these practices are effective, it does suggest that those with chronic conditions and the physicians who treat them are looking for more therapeutic options than are widely available in conventional health care settings.” Growing coverage by the insurance industry is another significant indicator that the momentum of the alternative health care movement will continue. Some major
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insurance companies now offer coverage for certain alternative therapies. The state of Washington requires all insurance companies to cover licensed and certified alternative health care practitioners. The clinical trials conducted by the NCCAM and other agencies undoubtedly will have a profound impact on the areas studied. The results may help some alternative approaches and discredit others—justly or not. Alternative health care practitioners will be watching the clinical trials very carefully. The NCCAM trials and other studies will create more opportunities in research for practitioners of alternative approaches. Integration of alternative approaches into conventional medical education will continue to increase, creating more teaching opportunities for alternative practitioners. With all of its hope, excitement, and change, alternative health care is the most rapidly growing segment of the field of health care in general. Significant recent events indicate that the alternative health care explosion will continue well into the 21st century.
■ For More Information For information about complementary/alternative medicine and referral lists of physicians educated on the latest findings in those areas, contact American College for Advancement in Medicine 23121 Verdugo Drive, Suite 204 Laguna Hills, CA 92653-1339 Tel: 949-583-7666 http://www.acam.org
For articles on holistic health, self-help resources in a variety of alternative/complementary modalities, and a searchable database of practitioner members, contact American Holistic Health Association PO Box 17400 Anaheim, CA 92817-7400 Tel: 714-779-6152 Email:
[email protected] http://ahha.org
To learn about the national center that specializes in alternative medicine and for excellent resources on alternative health care approaches, visit National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine 9000 Rockville Pike Bethesda, MD 20892-0001 Tel: 888-644-6226 Email:
[email protected] http://nccam.nih.gov
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For a wealth of health care information, news and events, funding opportunities, and scientific resources, contact National Institutes of Health 9000 Rockville Pike Bethesda, MD 20892-0001 Tel: 301-496-4000 http://www.nih.gov
For comprehensive Internet information on alternative and conventional health care and extensive links, contact HealthWorldOnline http://www.healthy.net
For articles on holistic medicine and alternative medicine and more than 1,000 links to other sites, USENET groups listings, and more, check out Holistic Healing Web Page http://www.holisticmed.com
■ Related Articles Health Care; Acupuncturists; Aromatherapists; Art Therapists; Ayurvedic Doctors and Practitioners; Biofeedback Therapists; Chiropractors; Creative Arts Therapists; Ergonomists; Ethnoscientists; Herbalists; Holistic Dentists; Homeopaths; Horticultural Therapists; Hypnotherapists; Kinesiologists; Massage Therapists; Music Therapists; Myotherapists; Naturopaths; Nurse-Midwives; Oriental Medicine Practitioners; Osteopaths; Reflexologists
Animal Care ■ Background Animal care involves the care and maintenance of animals, both wild and domestic. The animal care field includes the training and breeding of animals, as well as promoting their health and care. It also includes the entire range of actions taken by humans to protect and preserve wildlife and ensure its continued survival, such as the regulation of hunting and fishing and the establishment of zoos and sanctuaries. Another important part of animal care is educating people about animals and their needs; for example, naturalists educate the public in a general way while veterinarians educate pet owners about specific concerns. The relationships among humans and other species are complicated and interdependent. Early humans hunted animals for food and killed animals that threatened their lives or their territory. Later, certain species were domesticated, to ensure an available supply of food, clothing, and tools. Other species were domesticated as pets.
Through the centuries humans have found ways to use and control animals for their own benefit, which has contributed to changes in the genetics of some domesticated species, transplantation into new or man-made habitats for some, and even extinction of some species. Since the 1600s, more than 500 species are known to have become extinct, mostly as the direct result of human alteration of habitat (because of the development of industry and agriculture) or excessive hunting. Hundreds of other species are in danger of extinction, including the tiger, Brazilian tapir, giant otter, gorilla, and numerous species of whales. A concerted conservation movement didn’t get started in the United States until the second half of the 19th century when the government set up a commission to develop scientific management of fisheries, established the first national park (Yellowstone), and set aside the first forest reserves. Theodore Roosevelt’s administration is noted for progress in saving natural resources, which included the establishment of the U.S. Forest Service and the appointment of a conservation commission. Progress in conservation was slow over the next 25 years until the 1930s when many conservation programs were started under Franklin D. Roosevelt’s administration as a part of the New Deal. Conservation is now an established activity of the federal government, which takes responsibility for soil, forests, grasslands, water, fish and other wildlife, and federally owned recreation areas. Since ancient times, many people, including the Greeks, Romans, Aztecs, and Incas, have kept collections of wild animals. Animals were collected for scientific study, and also for display, entertainment, and sport. Noblemen of the Middle Ages had private zoos. One of the first zoos designed for public exhibition and scientific research was the Jardin des Plantes in Paris, which opened in 1793. By the end of the 19th century there were zoos open to the public in several large European cities and in the United States. Today, some animal species exist only in zoos, and animal scientists attempt to breed rare animals in captivity, usually with limited success, and sometimes to return animals to the wild. The domestication of animals probably began as a herding process when early nomads moved from place to place according to the migrations of the animals that provided their food. Herders eventually developed ways to contain and control livestock production and then engaged in bartering and selling of animals. Livestock farming and animal husbandry grew over the centuries to become the big business it is today, not just for the production of food but also vaccines, antitoxins, hormones, and vitamins, as well as wool and hides. Animals are also domesticated for sport, particularly horses and dogs, and as pets. Horses, once raised pri-
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marily for transportation and farm work, now are bred for leisure activities, including equestrian competition, racing, rodeo, and for show. Pets have been kept since ancient times. Originally they were tamed wild animals, but today most dogs and cats, the most popular pets, have been kept in captivity for generations and have been modified by selective breeding. People also keep other small mammals, such as rabbits and hamsters, birds, amphibians and reptiles, fish, and insects, as pets.
■ Structure The animal care industry can be divided into two areas, although there are many jobs common to both. One area is the study and care of animals in the wild, which includes conservation, preservation of habitat, and research. The second area is the breeding and care of domesticated animals, including livestock, pets, and animals bred for sport and leisure. People who study and care for fish and wildlife are generally well educated and highly experienced. Biologists, zoologists, veterinarians, and ecologists are some of the scientists who work in the field, in laboratories, wildlife refuges, museums, and zoos. They observe animals in the wild and in captivity to better understand their behavior—what they eat, how they mate, their social structure, how they defend against predators, how they raise their offspring, where they travel and how they interact with other animals and their environment. This helps scientists not only understand a particular species, but contributes to overall knowledge of the intricate living world, including human life. Knowledge about wildlife also helps scientists to be able to preserve natural habitats with hopes of preventing extinction of threatened species. Captive animals are also studied, as their behavior is altered by living in unnatural habitats and having to interact with and depend on humans. Some zoos and research facilities try as best they can to recreate as natural a habitat as possible, and some have programs for breeding threatened species in captivity with hopes of returning them to the wild. Scientists are assisted by zookeepers, breeders, technicians, photographers, park rangers, caretakers, administrators, and other support workers with a wide variety of education and experience levels. Most positions in wildlife care are extremely competitive because of the large numbers of people interested in this field. More people will be attracted, too, as attention is drawn to the species and habitats that are being threatened by human population growth and industrialization. Many people choose to volunteer at zoos and parks while they pursue higher education. The care of domesticated animals also requires a wide variety of workers. The agricultural industry involves the
Veterinarians diagnose and control animal diseases, treat sick and injured animals medically and surgically, and advise owners on proper care of pets and livestock. (Corbis.)
care and handling of beef and dairy cattle, hogs, poultry, sheep, goats, and fish and shellfish. The people who care for livestock and poultry on a daily basis are the farmers, farm managers, and agricultural technicians who feed the animals and keep barns, pens, coops, and other farm buildings clean and in good condition. They oversee breeding and marketing activities. Aquaculture farmers raise fish and shellfish in marine, brackish, or fresh water, usually in ponds, floating net pens, raceways, or recirculating systems. They stock, feed, protect, and otherwise manage aquatic life sold for consumption or used for recreational fishing. Scientists and researchers are also involved with the care of farm animals, including experts in breeding, diet management, and the control of diseases and pests. They monitor meat and dairy quality and safety and develop vaccines and drugs to prevent viruses and bacteria. Some scientists develop new ways to use animals for human benefit besides food, for example, to provide vaccines, hormones, glues and resins, and other products. Genetic scientists have worked with farm animals for years, trying to develop breeds that are more resistant to disease, produce more milk or eggs, or produce meat that is leaner, for example. Pet care is a rapidly developing industry in the United States, where new pet sitting and pet grooming businesses
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Words to Know AAZK: American Association of Zoo Keepers. AHA: American Humane Association. Animal husbandry: The raising and breeding of animals. Aquarist: Zoo or aquarium employee who provides dayto-day care for fishes or marine mammals and birds in aquariums. ASPCA: American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals. AZA: American Zoo and Aquarium Association. D.V.M.: Doctor of veterinary medicine. Equestrian: Related to horses. Euthanize: To kill an animal in a humane manner. Farrier: Equestrian worker who cares for the horses’ hooves and shoes. HSUS: Humane Society of the United States. Naturalist: Professional who is responsible for preserving, restoring, maintaining, and protecting natural or seminatural habitats and educating the public about the environment. NPS: National Park Service.
are opening all the time. It is estimated that more than 60 percent of American households have one or more pets and Americans spend more than $23 billion a year on their pets, including food, veterinary care, grooming, and toys and supplies. Pet care businesses are becoming more regulated but still do not have very stringent certification or education requirements. They are open to enterprising animal lovers with good people skills and business sense. A new trend has been the opening of pet bakeries that make homemade biscuits and other treats for dogs and cats. Pet care workers include those who need extensive training, such as veterinarians and veterinary technicians. Breeders and trainers need less rigorous training, but more experience. Positions that require little formal training or on-the-job training include groomers, kennel workers, pet sitters, dog walkers, animal shelter employees, and pet store workers. A number of domesticated animals are raised for sport and leisure. Equestrian management is big business, with nearly seven million domesticated horses in the United States. Those who work with horses include farriers, horse breeders, horse trainers, jockeys, stable managers, riding instructors, ranch managers, racetrack managers, breeders, and groomers. Horses are raised for racing, showing, and riding. They are the only animals that participate in the Olympics, in events such as dressage, show jumping, and cross-country jumping. Horses are also bred and trained for polo, rodeo, and police work.
Most types of domesticated animals are raised for show competition, including cows, pigs, chickens, horses, dogs, and cats. Some domesticated animals as well as wild animals bred in captivity are used in circus and entertainment acts and in movies. These include horses, dogs, elephants, chimpanzees, bears, lions, and tigers. Animal rights activists have worked to ensure that these animals are well cared for and not mistreated in any way. As a result of stricter requirements for animal care, animals are used less and less in circuses and related entertainment venues.
■ Outlook The animal care industry in general is expected to grow over the next several years. Those occupations related to pets have an especially promising outlook because pet ownership is on the rise and many owners are willing to invest substantial amounts of money in the care and grooming of their pets. The outlook for occupations related to the care of wild animals is less certain. Popular concern for wildlife is high, but public funding for park rangers and other wildlife caretakers is limited. Furthermore, competition for such jobs is very high and turnover is low, resulting in comparatively low salaries and few job openings. As in all fields, animal care jobs can always be found by people with the right combination of education, experience, determination, and concern for animals; unlike many other fields, animal lovers can often create their own jobs. According to the American Horse Council Foundation, 1.4 million people work full time in the horse industry. There is not expected to be much change in horse-related employment in the next few years, particularly as the economy is uncertain. The U.S. Department of Labor reports that animal care and service workers held a total of 172,000 jobs in 2004. Almost 75 percent of this number worked as non–farm animal caretakers in boarding kennels, animal shelters, stables, grooming shops, animal hospitals, and veterinary offices. A significant number also worked for animal humane societies, racing stables, dog and horse racetrack operators, zoos, theme parks, circuses, and other amusement and recreations services. The department predicts that employment in this sector of animal care will grow faster than the average for all occupations through 2014. Employment for medical scientists is expected to grow much faster than the average through 2014. Employment for veterinarians, biological scientists, and agricultural scientists is expected to grow about as fast as the average through this same time period. The outlook is not as favorable for agricultural scientists, for whom employment will have slower than average growth.
Automotives
■ For More Information For career and small business information, as well as general information about animal rights, contact American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals 424 East 92nd Street New York, NY 10128-6804 Tel: 212-876-7700 http://www.aspca.org
For more information on careers, schools, and resources, contact the AVMA. In addition, check out the AVMA’s Web site for career and education information. American Veterinary Medical Association (AVMA) 1931 North Meacham Road, Suite 100 Schaumburg, IL 60173-4360 Tel: 847-925-8070 Email:
[email protected] http://www.avma.org
For information on careers, contact American Zoo and Aquarium Association 8403 Colesville Road, Suite 710 Silver Spring, MD 20910-3314 Tel: 301-562-0777 http://www.aza.org
Visit the Web site of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service to learn about such topics as migratory birds, law enforcement, endangered species, and training programs. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service U.S. Department of the Interior 1849 C Street, NW Washington, DC 20240-0001 Tel: 800-344-9483 http://www.fws.gov
■ Related Articles Animal Breeders and Technicians; Animal Caretakers; Animal Handlers; Animal Trainers; Aquarists; Biologists; Ecologists; Genetic Scientists; Naturalists; Pet Groomers; Pet Shop Workers; Veterinarians; Veterinary Technicians; Zoo and Aquarium Curators and Directors; Zookeepers; Zoologists
Automotives ■ Background The automotive industry plays a vital and powerful role in world economies, in terms of the value of its product,
the jobs it creates, the income it generates, and the taxes it pays. The industry as a whole employs people at all levels of the occupational spectrum, from highly skilled engineers and scientists to semiskilled assemblers. The modern automobile can be traced back to the 1880s, when German automobile pioneers Karl Benz and Gottlieb Daimler developed a gasoline-powered internal combustion engine. Before Benz and Daimler, inventors working independently all over the world had experimented with self-powered vehicles, but these early steam-powered automobiles were noisy, dangerous, and cumbersome. The gasoline engine proved more flexible than steam engines, as well as more reliable, smaller, and easier to mass-produce. The design and manufacture of gasoline-powered automobiles began to flourish in the United States. Charles Duryea and Frank Duryea built the first U.S. model in 1892–93. Other early American gasolinepowered automobile producers include John Lambert, Gottfried Schloemer, Elwood Haynes, Brady King, and Ransom Eli Olds, whose Oldsmobile became the first commercially successful American-made automobile, selling 5,000 cars in 1904. Three main factors in early 20th-century America signaled the automobile’s success in this country: the nation’s rapid population growth, its large and expanding middle class, and its geographic vastness. With such potential for demand, American automobile manufacturers needed an efficient and affordable new method of producing their cars. Henry Ford believed that mass-produced cars could and should be affordable to the average person. He wanted to build “a car for the great multitude.” This car was the Model T. It first sold for $950 in 1908 (a price tag most middle-class Americans could not afford), but went down drastically in price as Ford’s assembly line became more efficient; it sold at $360 in 1916 and as low as $290 in 1926. In his efforts to make the Model T more affordable, Ford developed a moving conveyor belt for his assembly line. Speed and efficiency of car manufacturing was greatly improved from this point on. Henry Ford was also a pioneer in employee management. He believed strongly that workers who were happy and successful at home could be more productive on the job. He implemented the five-dollar day in 1914, a high wage for the time, and lines of men seeking jobs formed outside his factories. The five-dollar day was a profit-sharing plan. In order for a worker to receive his share of the profits, the company required that “he must show himself to be sober, saving, steady, industrious, and must satisfy the staff that his money will not be wasted in riotous living.” Ford also encouraged his workers to purchase Ford vehicles.
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Ironically, it was Henry Ford’s good intentions that laid the groundwork for his trouble with unions. Many employees didn’t like the control Ford exercised over their lives and added this protest to already growing discontent over working conditions that often included long days, few breaks, and increases in assembly-line speed by management. The United Auto Workers (UAW) union was founded in Detroit in 1935 and through the years has lobbied the industry for benefits such as pensions, unemployment for laid-off workers, and cost of living wage increases. The largest and longest postwar strike was from November 1945 to March 1946, by the UAW against General Motors (GM). By the end of World War I, Ford was the dominant American automobile manufacturer with his Model T. Ford’s only potential U.S. competitor at the time was General Motors. General Motors was founded in 1908 in Flint, Michigan, by carriage manufacturer William Durant. By the mid-1920s, a new major competitor to Ford and General Motors joined the market. Walter Chrysler took over the failed Maxwell Motor Company in 1925 and founded the Chrysler Corporation, thus completing the so-called Big Three of the American automobile industry. During World War II the major automakers stopped producing cars and helped with the war effort by building military vehicles and weapons. After the war, the world output of automobiles skyrocketed from 10 million a year in 1950 to 30 million a year in 1970. During this period the United States lost its dominance in automobile production to the Japanese automakers, who soon became the world leaders. In the 1970s, Japanese automobile manufacturers made the next big advancement in the industry with their implementation of highly specialized computer automation to the assembly line. Automation had been used before by most manufacturers but not to the extent introduced by the Japanese. The new automation incorporated computer-controlled robotic mechanisms capable of simulating precise human hand and arm movements to a variety of tasks, such as welding, riveting, drilling, and painting. The mechanisms were programmed by physically moving them through each task and precisely recording each movement. The machine then stored this information and repeated it continuously without error. It was not until the 1980s that American manufacturers began employing similar types of automation in their assembly lines. Environmental regulations and the high price of gas in the 1970s and 1980s ushered a shift in American automobile preferences to the smaller, more fuel-efficient cars made by the Japanese and Europeans. Throughout the
1970s, 1980s, and early 1990s, the American and European manufacturers saw a general decline in the industry, while the Japanese manufacturers still managed to do quite well. After six years of consecutive growth, 1989 through 1991 were dismal years for the U.S. industry. Sales finally went up in the mid- to late-1990s. Today, the automobile industry’s success fluctuates on a quarterly basis, with some of the major manufacturers reporting quarterly losses in the millions of dollars, yet rebounding sharply the following quarter with significant earnings. In the 1980s, as the global economy became more prevalent and definable, the larger automobile manufacturers became multinational corporations by opening facilities, called transplants, in other countries. Transplant operations allow foreign manufacturers to bypass costly tariffs and unpredictable fluctuations in foreign exchange rates, which are reflected in a vehicle’s price. Further evidence of globalization can be found in Chrysler’s 1998 merger with the German company Daimler-Benz. Other recent mergers include Ford’s purchase of Jaguar, Volvo, and Land Rover; GM’s merger with Saab and other foreign automotive companies. In 2006, Toyota Motor Company surpassed Ford to become the second-largest carmaker in the United States, behind General Motors. Faced with rapidly rising gas prices, and having invested heavily in making SUVs and other larger vehicles, American car manufacturers have struggled to compete. Ford’s sales fell 32 percent and G.M.’s sales dropped by 19.4 percent from mid-2005 to mid-2006. Detroit remains the headquarters of the major U.S. automobile companies, but many of the manufacturing plants are located throughout the country. The majority of the industry’s employees work in the Great Lakes region, including Michigan, Ohio, and Indiana. Almost 25 percent of all jobs in the automotive industry are in Michigan. While aspects of motor-vehicle manufacturing take place in nearly every state in the country, most of the remaining workers are found in California, Kentucky, Tennessee, Missouri, and Texas. The U.S. Department of Labor reports that production workers employed by establishments that manufactured complete motor vehicles earned a median hourly salary of $22.45 in 2004—wages that are among the highest in all industries in the United States. For full-time work, this translates to a yearly salary of $46,696. In addition, many companies cover the cost of approved education courses in the industry. The major manufacturers also offer exemplary benefits packages to their employees. Benefits packages vary from business to business. Auto industry employees can expect health insurance and paid vacation from most employers. Other benefits may include dental and eye care, life and disability insurance,
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and a pension plan. Yearly bonuses or profit sharing can be added to salaries if the business does well.
■ Structure The modern automotive industry is massive, complex, and in a continual state of flux. The successful manufacturing of an automobile today—from drawing board to salesroom floor—depends equally upon the expertise of many different professions. There are numerous employment opportunities. If you really want to work in the automotive industry, whether it be in a business, technical, scientific, creative, financial, sales, mechanical, or assembly position, chances are there’s a spot for your specialty in or related to the industry. Approximately 1.1 million people were employed in the motor vehicle and parts manufacturing industry in 2004, according to the U.S. Department of Labor. About 63 percent worked in firms that produced motor vehicle parts. Twenty-three percent worked in firms that assembled complete motor vehicles and 13 percent worked in firms that produced truck trailers, motor homes, travel trailers, campers, and car, truck, and bus bodies. The largest automotive employers in the United States are the Big Three: General Motors (which includes Buick, Cadillac, Chevrolet, Oldsmobile, Pontiac, and Saturn), Ford Motor Company (which includes the Lincoln/Mercury division), and DaimlerChrysler (which includes Dodge, Jeep/Eagle, Plymouth, and Mercedes-Benz). The headquarters for each of the Big Three and their divisions are located in Michigan. The major Japanese and some European automakers also contribute to U.S. industry employment with plants in the United States. These include Honda (and its Acura division), Nissan (and its Infiniti division), Toyota (and its Lexus division), Isuzu, Subaru, and Hyundai from Japan. Automotive parts manufacturers are major employers in the industry. Parts makers employ engineers, scientists, and craftworkers. Parts industry engineers, designers, and scientists work with automakers in designing automobile assembly units in the original equipment manufacturing (OEM) markets. Craftworkers and assembly workers assemble the units and ship them to the automobile assembly plant. Some of the major OEM companies are Dana, Eaton, and TRW. Aftermarket (or replacement) parts makers employ engineers and scientists to design and develop smaller automobile parts, such as spark plugs, belts, batteries, and filters. Assembly workers and craftworkers assemble the parts manually or operate machinery that does the assembly. Replacement parts suppliers work with both manufacturers and repair shops to supply parts for new cars and for existing models. Some of the major compa-
This auto mechanic works with specialized tools to repair a faulty part. (Corbis.)
nies in the aftermarket industry include Genuine Parts, Pep Boys, and Federal-Mogul. Automobile service technicians and collision repairers are employed in repair and maintenance shops, dealerships, and service stations throughout the United States. Many specialty shops are privately owned and hire only highly trained technicians experienced in many types of repairs, equipment, and car models. Technicians working for dealerships specialize in the models their dealership sells and often benefit from free training courses sponsored by the manufacturer or dealer. Many companies that have a fleet of automobiles, such as cab, car rental, and delivery companies, employ full-time service technicians to work on their cars. Even before a car is manufactured, the manufacturer’s sales and marketing departments plan a promotional strategy. Sales and marketing workers must distribute information on the new cars well in advance of their public introduction. The vehicles built in pre-production pilot plants are used to introduce the new models to dealers and for other promotional activities. Along with the preparation of mass-media advertising, large quantities of product brochures are printed for distribution. Sales representatives suggest to dealers a variety of sales campaigns that center around styling, engineering, and production features of the new models. Service personnel
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Words to Know Aftermarket: All products and services available to consumers after a car is built and sold, such as replacement parts and services. Alternative fuel vehicles: Vehicles powered by energy other than solely gasoline or diesel, such as by battery packs with electric motors, fuel cells that generate electricity, ethanol, or natural gas. Big Three: General Motors, Ford, and DaimlerChrysler. Chassis: Underlying frame of an automobile. Crossover vehicle: An emerging class of automobiles that combine the softer ride of cars with the cargo capacity and versatility of sport utility vehicles. Durable goods: Products designed to last at least three years; automobiles are considered durable goods. Just-in-time: A system where auto parts and modules are delivered to the assembly line just as they are needed, rather than being stockpiled at the assembly plant. Lean production: Japanese production method that focuses on minimizing the amount of work in progress by using increased automation, quality control by line workers, and smaller just-in-time inventories. Mass production: Manufacturing process in which a product is manufactured in stages by moving from station to station on an assembly line; allows workers to make several products at once. NAFTA: North American Free Trade Agreement; pact that calls for the gradual removal of tariffs and other trade barriers on most goods sold and produced in North America, including automobiles. OEM: Original equipment manufacturer; a company that uses product components from other companies to build a product that it sells under its own name and brand, a common practice in the automotive industry. Prototype: Custom-built working example.
in the dealerships are trained for any new service and maintenance techniques. Some service shops (many franchised) specialize in one type of repair, such as mufflers and exhaust systems. There are many chain maintenance shops that specialize in oil changes and minor maintenance procedures. These jobs may require less mechanically skilled workers to do simple, repetitive tasks. The automotive industry relies on the coordination of four distinct operations: styling, where designers create new automobile looks and features in line with market surveys and acceptable to production engineers; engineering, where the intricacies of design are laid out, from
engine requirements to electronics, all under price and quality guidelines; manufacturing, where parts are made and the automobile is assembled according to engineering specifications; and sales, where the final product is marketed and sold. A new model must go through several steps before it is ready for production. They are market survey, modeling, prototype building, testing, evaluation, correction, design and production of the manufacturing machinery, and final assembly. The effect a new development plan has on the manufacturing operation of a particular model assembly line varies according to the extent of design change. Some models may keep the same body shape for many years and only have a minor mechanical or aesthetic retooling, requiring little change in the assembly process. Other models may change completely and require major modifications to the assembly process. Manufacturers strive for a seamless switch, called integrated build, from one model production to the next. The largest extent of change comes with the introduction of a new product. Currently, new-product cycles (the number of years until a new product is added to the market) for U.S. automakers is about every eight years; the Japanese automakers are on about a four-year cycle. Manufacturers use market surveys to forecast customer preferences in model design and features. They poll current owners of their automobiles, as well as people in demographically chosen areas, to collect public opinion of customer expectations, likes, and dislikes in their automobiles. Once a survey indicates a profitable market for a particular product, model makers build exact clay models of this proposed automobile. The models are made to resemble as close as possible the final product in order to give stylists, engineers, and executives the best feel for how the car will look. Clay models also provide the basis for engineering drawings and blueprints. To ensure that new products or models fit within company guidelines, cost estimators, in collaboration with manufacturing and engineering experts, determine if the proposed new model can be manufactured according to cost and quality standards. They determine whether the new model can be built with existing factory equipment. Cost estimators write proposals detailing the extent of change and costs for a new model. Some new car proposals may not warrant expensive retooling to the factory. In this case, the new model is shelved for later consideration or sent back to the designers and engineers to be redesigned to assimilate better with existing manufacturing equipment. From the approved model design (shape of car) and the specific dimensions design (dimensions of construction, such as inner panel supports, brackets, joints and flanges,
door thickness, and other specifications), factory engineers create blueprints and tools for production. Manufacturing test facilities (or pilot plants) are reworked to handle the new models, while production continues on current models in the main plants. Depending upon the extent of change, new equipment may be needed to accommodate design and manufacturing requirements or existing equipment may be altered for the same purpose. At pilot plants, mechanical prototypes are designed for early engineering, fabrication, and testing of chassis and engine components for new models and products. Once this basic foundation has passed rigorous engineering and safety tests, operational prototypes closely resembling the appearance and mechanics of the final car are built. Engineers use these prototypes to evaluate durability, functionality, safety, and serviceability of the car. Before a car is manufactured on the final assembly line, numerous preparatory operations take place. Each part of the automobile, from the side paneling to the gas tank, must be shaped accurately by one or more different forming operations. Nearly all these operations can be divided into four basic operational groups: foundry, machining, forging, and stamping. Foundry operations workers pour molten metal into a mold where it cools and hardens into a casting. Castings are made for such parts as the engine block, cylinder head, or camshaft. When the casting cools, it is removed from the mold and trimmed to remove excess metal. Machining operators, who form one of the largest metalworking groups in the industry, shape the castings even further with tools that cut away excess metal. Forging workers heat metal stock to shape parts such as crankshafts and connecting rods using forge hammers and presses. Paneling, such as car doors and hoods, is shaped in the stamping process. Sheet metal is placed between the punch (the upper form of the stamp) and the die (the lower form) and then pressed together at great pressure and velocity to form the panel. Stamping workers perform three basic operations: blanking, piercing, and forming. Blanking cuts the excess metal to the specified size, and piercing punches holes where needed. In forming, the part is given its final shape. This sometimes requires a series of operations that may be performed progressively by a row of presses, each one bringing the part one step closer to its finished form. At most assembly plants, manufacturing operations for many specific parts are contracted out to other firms. They fall into three main divisions: original equipment manufacturers (OEM), replacement (or aftermarket) parts, and rubber fabricating. OEMs, the largest of the three, work closely with vehicle manufacturers to design and supply frames, bodies,
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engines, axles, wheels, transmissions, bearings, valves, bumpers, brakes, fuel injectors, seats, seat belts, airbags, and cushioning. They often sign contracts with manufacturers to produce the specific part for the life of the car. Replacement parts companies produce those parts of an automobile that eventually will need to be replaced, generally within three to seven years. They supply these parts for both new cars and as replacement parts for existing cars. Most parts companies specialize in a particular part, such as shock absorbers, brake pads, exhaust systems, wiper blades, spark plugs, batteries, or oil and gas filters, among others. Rubber fabricating companies supply tires, belts, hoses, valves, and other small rubber parts used throughout an automobile. The basic assembly process is, for the most part, standard throughout the industry. Hundreds of workers and numerous machines perform thousands of essential tasks in the assembly of an automobile. There are two main assembly lines—body and chassis—and several smaller lines, all of which converge to one main line.
■ Outlook The automotive industry continues its slow recovery from the lean years of the late 1980s, when the Big Three laid off thousands of workers and closed entire factories, though it faces new challenges caused by rising fuel prices. The industry is expected to continue to evolve in the first decade of the new century and forecasts call for manufacturing jobs to continue to decline. The U.S. Department of Labor predicts that employment in the motor vehicle and parts manufacturing industry will grow by 6 percent through 2014, compared to an expected 14 percent expansion for all industries combined. Employment in the motor vehicle manufacturing segment of the indus-
Workers on a General Motors assembly line install parts on a car. (Danny Lehman/Corbis.)
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try is expected to increase by only 2 percent. Employment increases are expected in vehicle parts manufacturing (6 percent) and motor vehicle body and trailer manufacturing (8 percent). Much of the recent recovery attempts in the automotive industry have been characterized by cost-cutting measures, including further elimination of manufacturing jobs and consolidation of large companies. In 1998, the German company Daimler-Benz merged with the American Big Three automaker Chrysler in an effort by both companies to increase cost-efficiency. Such mergers often result in the elimination of jobs where efforts would be duplicated under the new organization. Further cuts have also come as American automakers implement lean production measures used by their foreign competitors. Lean production is characterized by increased automation, quality control by workers on the line, and smaller, just-in-time inventories. Today’s automotive industry workers work more hours for less pay than their predecessors did 20 years ago. Still, auto manufacturing jobs pay well compared to other manufacturing jobs: Most automotive production workers who are union members and employed by one of the Big Three automakers make more than $60,000 annually and receive excellent benefits packages. Competition among U.S. automakers and their foreign competitors will be fierce as the Big Three attempt to lure back aging baby boomers from their Japanese automobiles, while both battle over capturing younger markets. In efforts to level the playing field and to benefit from cooperative manufacturing (i.e., shared risk and technology), the Big Three have teamed up with their Japanese competitors in so-called joint ventures. Ford and Mazda teamed up to produce the Ford Probe. GM and Toyota worked together to produce the Geo Metro and Toyota Corolla. The Big Three have also joined forces among themselves to research and study technical challenges. Research and development (R&D) is one area where job prospects are expected to remain strong. Major industry players are currently funding billions of dollars each year in R&D and are likely to continue doing so. Fierce competition forces automakers to produce cars packed with new technology, from amenities to safety features, one step above their rival’s. One major area of competition is in the development of hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs)—automobiles that combine an electric engine with internal combustion. Hybrids have better fuel economy and create lower pollution emissions than conventional vehicles. Honda and Toyota both have HEVs on the market, and American manufacturers have begun to introduce hybrid systems into their vehicles.
R&D jobs will be mostly for engineers and scientists in the industry. Stricter air pollution laws are also spurring R&D to rethink how cars are powered. The automotive industry is strongly affected by the health of the economy. A 10- to 20-percent change in employment from one year to the next is not unusual. Increased fuel prices have had a major effect on automobile sales, so manufacturers will have to struggle to adapt. In general, there is less consumer demand for cars and trucks during economic recession, and manufacturers usually respond by firing or laying off workers. Declines will occur especially for machine setter, operator, assembler, and tender occupations. Employment of office and administrative support workers will grow slowly due to expanding office and warehouse automation. There will be some job growth for engineers, industrial production managers, business operations specialists, and computer specialists.
■ For More Information For education and industry information, contact Automotive Aftermarket Industry Association 7101 Wisconsin Avenue, Suite 1300 Bethesda, MD 20814-3415 Tel: 301-654-6664 Email:
[email protected] http://www.aftermarket.org
For information on accreditation and testing, contact National Automobile Dealers Association 8400 Westpark Drive McLean, VA 22102-5116 Tel: 703-821-7000 Email:
[email protected] http://www.nada.org
For information and books on careers, and a list of training programs, contact National Automotive Technicians Education Foundation 101 Blue Seal Drive, SE, Suite 101 Leesburg, VA 20175-5646 Tel: 703-669-6650 http://www.natef.org
For information on training and certification for automotive technicians, contact National Institute for Automotive Service Excellence 101 Blue Seal Drive, SE, Suite 101 Leesburg, VA 20175-5646 Tel: 877-273-8324
Banking and Financial Services
Email:
[email protected] http://www.asecert.org
■ Related Articles Manufacturing; Automobile Collision Repairers; Automobile Sales Workers; Automobile Service Technicians; Automotive Industry Workers; Diesel Mechanics; Engineers
Banking and Financial Services
Facts about the Banking Industry ■
The banking industry employed approximately 1.8 million people.
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More than 70 percent worked at commercial banks and 30 percent worked in credit unions and savings institutions.
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Approximately 66 percent of people in this industry worked at banking establishments that employed 20 or more workers.
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Only 2 percent of bank workers were unionized.
Source: U.S. Department of Labor, 2004
■ Background Banking Banking in the United States emerged immediately after the Revolutionary War. The First Bank of the United States was a federally chartered bank established to print money, purchase securities (stocks and bonds) in companies, and lend money. It also was responsible for establishing lending rules that state banks would have to follow. At the end of the 20-year charter, Congress refused to renew the First Bank’s charter because of concern about the power that the bank held. The bank was subsequently closed. Another federal bank followed but only remained operational for four years before it suffered the same fate as the First Bank. With the demise of the federal banks, state banks quickly grew in power and size. Each bank was allowed to issue its own currency, which created an enormous fluctuation in the number of dollars actually in existence. This, in turn, influenced the value of each dollar. If the bank produced too much money, or lent money and did not receive enough of it back, the bank would close and depositors would lose everything they had invested. This instability was a continual problem throughout the 1800s, but particularly from 1800 to 1863, an era known as the Wildcat Period. In 1863–64, the government took steps that would eventually drive the banks’ currency out of use. The National Banks Act was passed to charter state banks, issue national currency, and eventually tax the usage of bank currency. The taxation effectively killed all but the national currency. In 1913 Congress established the Federal Reserve. In response to a series of financial panics set off by the limited number of dollars being printed, the Federal Reserve was established to act as the government’s central bank. It was divided into 12 districts, with a board of governors to
determine policy, supervise the fluctuation of currency reserves for banks, and print currency.
Financial Services In 1792, the forerunner of the New York Stock Exchange was started, allowing investors to buy stocks (a portion or share of the company) and bonds (a loan note from a company or the government to an individual lending money). With few controls on the purchase of stocks and bonds, investors in the stock market were able to receive great profits from companies that performed well. Investors were able to buy stocks and bonds with as little as 10 percent down. From 1919 until 1929, more than $50 billion of new stocks and bonds was sold to the public. By 1932 almost half were worthless. Stock purchases had over-inflated the value of the company stocks. When panic set in, the prices collapsed. The market crash of 1929 marked the beginning of the Great Depression, a period of economic crisis and low business activity that lasted through most of the 1930s. The market crash also led to the passage of the Securities Acts of 1933 and 1934, which greatly strengthened previously established methods of self-regulation and public disclosure. Each provision in these acts was directed at a previous abuse. The far-reaching Securities Act of 1933 provides for the full disclosure of all facts relating to new issues and is known as “the truth in securities” act. Because of the market crash, the government and industry representatives jointly acted to restore investor confidence in the securities markets. In February of 1933, banks in Detroit failed. They had lent too much money without maintaining enough in reserves. The loans were risky and the amount paid back was too small to allow the banks to continue functioning. When news of this spread, people across the country
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lined up to withdraw their money before their banks failed as well. This created a bank run, in which people tried to withdraw more money than was available. There was not enough money in the banks to return every deposit to the depositor. President Franklin D. Roosevelt shut down the banks on March 3 of that year, declaring a bank holiday. The banks were not allowed to reopen until government inspectors had evaluated their books. The FDIC (Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation) was created in 1933 to establish government guarantees of the money deposited in banks. The 1934 Securities Act established the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC), a federal agency in charge of supervising the trading of securities and ensuring that self-regulation functioned properly. Under reform legislation, misrepresentation and manipulation of the financial markets became federal offenses. The securities industry itself accepted more fully the basic obligations and responsibilities for self-regulation. The 1938 amendments to the Securities Exchange Act of 1934 established the National Association of Securities Dealers (NASD). It was organized as the self-regulatory organization responsible for the over-the-counter securities market. The SEC oversees the self-regulation of NASD dealers, as well as members of the New York, American, and regional stock exchanges. Through these legislative measures, a new era in the stock and bond business began. The growth of this industry since 1939 would not have been possible without the reforms achieved in the preceding years. Other difficulties arose over time, however, as many inexperienced people entered the stock market and the market itself began to grow rapidly. A lack of sophistication on the part of new investors and a lack of qualifications among many new brokers combined to create problems. A small stock boom erupted in 1961, with the prices of many obscure electronics and spaceage stocks climbing to unreasonable heights, sometimes promoted by a few unscrupulous salespeople. The speculative boom of 1961 collapsed dramatically in the sharp market break of May 28, 1962. Unlike the crash of 1929, however, this decline did not have a similar deadening impact upon overall business conditions. Also, many more individuals had purchased their stocks for long-term investment and were not overly concerned with the decline, which later proved only temporary. In addition, a year before, Congress, realizing that important changes had taken place in the markets, had ordered what became known as the Special Study of Securities Markets. This review was conducted by a group of economists, lawyers, and brokers charged with taking a comprehensive look at the industry and suggesting ways in which investors might be better protected.
By the time several volumes of the monumental Special Study report were issued by the SEC, the brokerage community had already taken many important steps to improve standards and operations. The Special Study, with its 176 recommendations, did not uncover abuses such as were prevalent in the 1920s. Some of the findings, however, became the basis for new federal legislation. The 1964 Securities Acts extended disclosure requirements to thousands of companies not previously covered by federal and exchange regulations. Most of the important and large companies throughout the nation must now regularly publicize the pertinent facts about their sales and earnings. Previously, only those companies that had listed their securities on the exchanges were required to disclose and publish such information regularly. In addition, stricter standards were formally established for new people entering the securities business. One continuing problem for Wall Street in the mid1980s was stock manipulation based on insider information (information not known to the investment public). The SEC, however, conducted well-publicized investigations of violations of its rules, applying a system of safeguards that had been made more sophisticated and strengthened since the SEC’s beginning in 1934. (In the 2000s, financial malfeasance by corporations and the investment industry again prompted the SEC to institute reforms to increase public confidence in investment markets. One of the major reforms it instituted required corporate chief executive officers to sign off on financial reports produced by their companies.) On October 19, 1987, the New York Stock Exchange experienced a drop in stock prices far greater than the one in 1929. The Dow Jones Industrial Average had risen to a then all-time high level of 2,722 on August 25, having climbed almost 1,000 points in eight months. September saw a slight drop in the average, but nothing close to the drop that hit in October. Over a three-day period from October 14 to October 16, 1987, the Dow Jones lost more than 261 points. On October 19, this downward spiral reached almost panic proportions as the Dow Jones Average dropped 508 points. This reduced the overall value of the stock market by more than 22 percent. In actual cash value, the loss was estimated at more than $500 billion. Two government investigations and a New York Stock Exchange investigation looked into the causes of the crash and determined that, although no single flaw in the system was responsible, more safeguards against market fluctuations were needed. As a result of the investigations, the limit on movement of stock prices was set at 100 points. If prices move in a range greater than that, trading will be shut down for an hour. If there is larger
fluctuation after trading restarts, then other time restrictions are applied on trading. Also, new restrictions on electronic trading (where machines are programmed to trade automatically) were imposed so that the machines are shut off after a 50-point movement either up or down. The market built back up in value after the crash, but many people withdrew their investments from the stock market and put them in what they considered less volatile markets. A crisis also rocked the banking industry in the late 1980s. Savings and loan (S & L) institutions, also known as thrift institutions, once had the specific function of providing their customers with savings accounts and mortgages for home ownership. When banks were deregulated in the 1980s, however, investors began pulling their money out of the S & Ls because they could get better returns on their investments elsewhere. The S & Ls in turn tried to compete with commercial banks by investing their customers’ money in other potentially more lucrative markets, such as commercial real estate. But the bottom fell out of these markets, and the banks lost large quantities of money. Since customers’ deposits are insured by the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation, it was the taxpayers who had to foot the bill for the bad investments of the banks in order to pay back the customers whose money was lost. The S & L crisis has been blamed on Congress, on the Reagan administration, and on unscrupulous bankers. The result was the closure of many banks and greater regulation to prevent the same kind of thing from happening again. The early 1990s was a revolutionary period in banking as mergers and acquisitions swept the industry. Layoffs and mergers were rampant. While reorganization was necessary to keep up with emerging technology, major restructuring also was needed to face competition from investment firms and other financial companies. For example, AT&T entered the credit card market. Investment companies provided check writing and loan services. Even services central to traditional banks, such as payment processes, were invaded by nonbanking companies. The result is a fewer number of large banks offering diversified services and a larger number of small banks offering specialized services and products. New banking regulations also characterized this decade. Most importantly, the Gramm-Leach-Bliley Act (often known as the Financial Modernization Act) was passed in 1999. It repealed the 1933 Glass-Steagall Act, which separated banking from the securities business. The Financial Modernization Act allowed banks to begin selling investment and insurance products and insurance companies, securities firms, and banks to merge and provide one-stop shopping for financial services.
Banking and Financial Services
Mergers continued through the early 2000s with the banking landscape changing almost daily. Top banks merged to form larger corporations that are more competitive within the global and technological marketplace. Besides mergers, online banking is also changing the industry. Just a few years ago, only a few banks had Web sites; now all of the top 30 banks in the United States offer online banking in some form. More than 53 million people in the United States banked online in 2005, according to the Pew Internet & American Life Project.
■ Structure Banks and Savings Institutions Banks and savings institutions in the United States are financial businesses, chartered and supervised by either state or federal government agencies to provide financial services for the public. Banks collectively administer hundreds of billions in resources and millions of dollars more in trust funds and other accounts. Basically, individual banks act as intermediaries for the movement of money, credit, and capital to wherever they are needed within the economy. It is estimated that 90 percent of all payments in the United States are made by bank checks. There are billions of checks written in the United States each year, and the number is increasing steadily. In addition to checks, most banks today offer debit cards. Debit cards look like credit cards but draw from the user’s checking account. Today, most automobiles, home appliances, and houses are bought through bank consumer loans. Inventories, equipment, and machinery for business and industry are financed by term loans made through bank commercial departments.
ATM machines are a popular and convenient way to access bank accounts virtually anywhere. (Marianna Day Massey/ZUMA/ Corbis.)
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There are thousands of commercial banks, which are sometimes described as financial department stores because they offer all kinds of financial services, such as checking and savings accounts, loans, and trust services for the administration of estates, endowments, and pension funds. There also are several hundred savings and loan institutions in various states that specialize in savings and time accounts and the making of mortgage loans. In addition to large banks and savings and loan institutions, there are scores of private and specialized banks, such as investment banks and land banks. Under federal law, banks cannot underwrite stock or bond issues. They cannot engage in underwriting or investment banking. But they can take and fill orders, and in 1982 the government began approving requests from banks and bank holding companies to acquire or establish brokerages. These limited service firms either perform their own market operations or contract with carrying firms to handle stock and bond trades, registration and billing, and dividends and margin accounts. Credit unions and other institutions not legally defined as banks offer some comparable services, such as savings accounts and consumer loans. In the aggregate, banks operate thousands of offices located in practically every neighborhood and community in the country. Many of the larger banks maintain offices in principal foreign cities of the world. The banks are organized so that through correspondent relationships they perform services for other banks or for individual customers both in this country and abroad. The major service areas of banking are commercial banking, including corporate lending; consumer, or retail, banking; and trust administration and estate planning. Business banking is the major service function of the industry. Business bankers are involved in making loans to businesses and corporations. This includes providing credit assistance for such things as accounts receivable financing, leasing, energy financing, and equipment financing. Bank loans to commerce and industry total hundreds of billions of dollars. Corporate services also include foreign currency exchange and other trade-related requirements for companies that export their products. Such companies use special financing techniques, such as cross-currency loans and commercial letters of credit. International banking is one of the newer and interesting specialties within the industry. Retail banking offers consumers not only lending services, but also savings, investment, and payment services. Mortgage loans are made for the purchase of homes, and smaller amounts are lent for appliances, cars, vacations, and
the like through traditional installment loans or even a line of credit activated by a checking account or other means. Bank cards represent the fastest growing type of consumer credit in America. Commercial credit cards, as well as individual bank cards, offer customers flexibility in money management and convenient credit availability. Payment services for bank customers range from regular checking accounts to electronic bill-paying services, 24-hour-a-day automated teller machines, and direct deposit of Social Security checks and other checks. Most banks now offer debit cards. While they appear as credit cards and often are affiliated with a major credit card company, the debit cards draw from the user’s checking account. The major advantage to debit cards over checks is the ease of use (not having to show further identification). Savings services include statement and passbook accounts, as well as a variety of long-term deposits offering higher rates of interest. Bank trust services, which were originally for the administration and conservation of large estates, are now growing to include pension and retirement funds and a wide variety of smaller funds to meet the needs of people of moderate means. Through trust departments, customers may arrange for professional administration of their assets, estate planning, and a variety of personal financial services.
The Securities Industry The New York Stock Exchange, the American Stock Exchange, and the regional exchanges (for example, the Midwest Stock Exchange in Chicago and the Pacific Stock Exchange in San Francisco) provide central meeting places and supervised auction markets where member brokers buy and sell securities for their clients. The exchanges as such do not buy or sell securities nor do they set prices. Instead, they provide the facilities for trading and enforce a variety of rules and regulations designed to maintain fair and orderly markets. The exchanges require the listed companies to meet certain specified standards of size and earnings and to publicize important basic financial information regularly. Shares in companies that offer stocks are traded, along with other types of securities, every business day around the world. The over-the-counter (OTC) market is, after the New York Stock Exchange, the second largest U.S. market for stocks. It is served by a network of brokers; they are not in one specific place, as are exchange members. The electronic NASDAQ (National Association of Security Dealers Automatic Quote System) offers shares of new or smaller companies traded on the OTC. The business practices of the member brokers are governed by rules requiring certain amounts of financial
backing and strict standards of business conduct in their dealings with clients and with each other. Most exchanges are limited-membership associations, and admission is by election. Rules are established by a constitution and bylaws and are enforced by an elected governing board with the aid of officers and committees. At the New York and the American exchanges, the supervisory work is carried out by a paid professional staff. Specialists are those member brokers who deal only with other brokers and act for those brokers who cannot remain at a post on the exchange floor until prices specified by their customers’ buy and sell orders are reached. Part of the regular brokerage commission is paid to them when they act as a broker’s broker. The specialists also act as dealers, buying and selling shares for their own accounts. It is their job to sell stock when nobody wants to sell and to buy when there are no buyers. In this way they maintain a market and try to restrain wide fluctuations in price. The American Stock Exchange (AMEX) trades in the shares of smaller, growing companies. Formerly known as the Curb Exchange because trading used to be done out-of-doors on the street, AMEX served as the proving ground for trading in the shares of such companies as DuPont, General Motors, and RCA, all of which subsequently transferred to the New York Stock Exchange. The regional stock exchanges trade many of the same stocks that are listed on the two major exchanges. The regional exchanges also trade the shares of many smaller local companies. The American Stock Exchange is also a membership organization. The New York and American Stock Exchanges operate in a similar fashion. The president, selected by the board of governors, is charged with administrative responsibility, and under the president’s direction, a staff of several hundred people implement policy. The Surveillance Department follows the action of market prices and studies financial news, investment advisory service reports, and brokerage recommendations, watching for any signs of unusual activity. Self-regulation has characterized the securities markets in this country since their inception. The exchanges have always, in varying degrees, imposed upon their members certain rules of conduct. These self-governing activities were officially endorsed and strengthened by the first federal Securities Acts of 1933 and 1934, which set the current pattern of self-regulation supervised by the government. Before the passage of the legislation that created the Securities and Exchange Commission in 1934, the individual states had enacted a number of contradictory laws purporting to regulate the sale of securities. These varied
Banking and Financial Services
greatly and only a few provided for effective enforcement. Today, however, each state has some legislation governing issuance and sale of securities. Some have created smaller and somewhat similar versions of the Securities and Exchange Commission. They all require securities and brokers to be registered, and some have established qualification standards for salespeople. Certain selling practices are prohibited in some states, and the public sale of securities that do not meet strict standards can be prohibited by several state administrators. It is the federal agency, the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC), however, that bears the main burden of overseeing the operations of the securities industry. The SEC, an independent governmental organization located in Washington, DC, enforces the laws passed by Congress in the interest of protecting the investing public. It is composed of five commissioners, appointed by the president, with no more than three commissioners belonging to one political party. Its staff is responsible for registering, supervising, and investigating the operations of the securities industry. At the SEC headquarters, the Division of Corporation Finance examines the many detailed financial statements that must be submitted by companies that sell their stock to the public. If any statement seems misleading, inaccurate, or incomplete, the company is so informed and given an opportunity to file corrections or clarifications before the securities can be sold. The commission can prohibit the sale of securities if all the facts are not presented or if they appear misleading. The SEC, however, has no power to pass on the merits of a security. It cannot pass judgment on value or price. A company that might want to dig for green cheese on the moon could be permitted to sell its stock by the SEC, as long as all the facts about this venture were truthfully and completely stated. Congress left to individual investors the responsibility for appraising the actual value of particular securities offered for sale. Two out of three SEC employees are located in Washington while the others work in the regional and branch offices. College training is a virtual necessity, and the more important jobs require more specialized training. The SEC has been a noted training ground for many young lawyers who have subsequently gone into private practice. While the individual exchanges supervise the trading on the floor and many of the activities of their members, the main responsibility for self-regulation of the overthe-counter markets rests with the National Association of Securities Dealers. This self-policing organization is a private, nonprofit organization headquartered in Washington, DC, with 14 district offices. It enforces the rules
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of fair practice that govern the professional conduct of its member firms, and a uniform practice code that deals with technical methods for executing transactions and conducting a securities business. The bulk of its work is done by committees composed of brokers who serve without pay, acting on the principle that ethical standards can best be adopted and enforced by self-governing bodies of individuals rather than by direct government controls and regulations. Surprise examinations are made of all member offices at least once every three years. All salespeoples’ backgrounds are reviewed, and they must take special examinations in addition to those required by the major stock exchanges. Underwriting practices are watched, and excessive price changes are reported and analyzed. Disciplinary actions, such as fines, suspensions, and expulsion from the association, are taken against those who violate any rules.
The Commodity Futures Industry Commodity exchanges in various parts of the country provide facilities and equipment for commodity futures trading. Formed as membership organizations like the major stock exchanges, they fall under the regulatory authority of the federal Commodity Futures Trading Commission. They have trading floors with trading pits, or rings, where futures contracts are bought or sold. There are 11 domestic exchanges, with the major ones located in Chicago, New York, Minneapolis, and Kansas City, Missouri. Organized in 1848, the Chicago Board of Trade (CBOT) is the nation’s oldest and largest commodity futures exchange. It accounts for about half of all the futures trading volume in the United States. It provides facilities for trading in futures contracts (agreements to buy or sell commodities such as agricultural products, silver, gold, plywood, and energy sources) for its more than 3,600 members.
Facts about the Securities and Commodities Industry ■
The securities, commodities, and other investments industry employed 767,000 people.
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Approximately 75 percent of firms in this industry employed fewer than five workers.
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Nearly 25 percent of employees worked 50 hours or more per week.
Source: U.S. Department of Labor, 2004
The CBOT and another Chicago exchange, the Chicago Mercantile Exchange, account for most of all U.S. futures trading. Indirectly the two account for thousands of jobs in support and ancillary positions, from telecommunications specialists to brokerage house personnel. Other American futures exchanges include the Commodity Exchange of New York, the Kansas City Board of Trade, the MidAmerica Commodity Exchange of Chicago, the Minneapolis Grain Exchange, and the New York Cotton Exchange. Some exchanges specialize. For example, the New York Cotton Exchange focuses on cotton contracts, while the Minneapolis Grain Exchange specializes in wheat. Other exchanges may offer facilities for futures trading in live and feeder cattle, coffee, copper, and other commodities. Futures trading is a means of providing protection against changeable prices in the cash markets. Users of the futures market (buyers of grain, for example, or the farmers who grow grain) minimize the risk of adverse price changes by hedging, or buying or selling futures contracts at prices immediately available.
■ Outlook The U.S. Department of Labor predicts that employment for workers in the banking industry will decline by 2 percent through 2014. New mergers and job cuts in the banking industry are announced practically every week, and some analysts predict that consolidations will reduce the number of large national banks to a dozen in the next few years. More positions will be eliminated as banks automate more of their functions and shift toward electronic service in an effort to keep up with emerging technology and remain competitive. While the number of financial giants decreases, small niche-oriented and community banks will flourish. Banks will become more product-oriented as they try to develop a unique position in the market and distinguish themselves from competitors. Expect banking to become more automated and electronic. A bank in Oregon recently installed an automated loan machine. A customer can walk away with a check or direct deposit in 10 minutes. Security First Network Bank was the first “Internet bank” with highly secure computer banking technology. According to Online Banking Report, more than 40 percent of U.S. households now bank online and it is estimated that this number will increase to 50 percent by 2010. Positions in computer and information technology, sales and marketing, and research will grow while administrative and teller positions will decline. As banks aggressively pursue customers, ideal employees will be able to use network and database technology to collect and
analyze information on prospective customers. Employees with aggressive sales and marketing talents will be valuable assets. Order takers are characteristic of the old banking world. Bankers must now be a customer-focused sales force. As a result, employment for customer service representatives will increase as more of these professionals are needed to respond to customer requests via telephone or email. The deregulation of the banking industry has created a wide range of employment outlooks for workers in the field. Employment of securities and financial services sales representatives, financial analysts, and financial advisers will improve as banks begin to offer financial and insurance products to their customers. Competition from nonbank institutions for loans and credit services will create fewer employment opportunities for loan officers and more opportunities for financial services sales representatives who—in addition to selling loans—offer a myriad of services. American banking entities are going global and growing internationally, especially in Latin America and Asia. Many major banks, such as Citibank, actively hire U.S.educated Asians and Latin Americans to develop banking business overseas. The European Monetary Union (in which 11 European countries agreed to merge their individual currencies into a single new currency, the euro) was created in 1999; many feel it will encourage highly favorable business conditions and opportunities throughout Europe for American banking institutions. Today, according to the European Union, more than 300 million Europeans in 12 countries use the euro. Banking and financial services professionals who have specialized language skills, a desire to travel, and knowledge of these emerging markets will advance quickly. As banks continue to compete with investment firms, they will seek out finance professionals who can develop products for the corporate market. Investment products and mutual funds are a booming part of commercial banking. This will continue to grow as pending deregulations attempt to remove barriers between commercial and investment banking. The U.S. Department of Labor predicted that employment in the securities and commodities industry would grow about as fast as the average for all industries through 2014. Like the banking industry, the American securities and commodities industry is expanding to a global scale. The opening of new foreign markets will offer securities and commodities professionals many new opportunities. The aging of the baby-boom generation, and their resulting need for retirement planning and investment options, has also played a role in the impressive growth of this industry.
Banking and Financial Services
Even though online trading has grown rapidly over the past five years, it has not reduced the need for direct contact with an actual broker. Many investors still feel more comfortable using the expertise of full-service brokers and financial planners who can help them understand the complexities of trading. Employment in the securities and commodities industry, like most other industries, will continue to be influenced by advances in technology and telecommunications. The industry has become highly automated and, as a result, opportunities for computer professionals, such as computer software engineers, systems analysts, and computer scientists, will be very strong over the next decade. Conversely, employment of brokerage clerks, secretaries, and bookkeeping, accounting, and auditing clerks is projected to grow more slowly than the average occupation through 2014.
■ For More Information The ABA offers banking information as well as an overview of schools and their business programs. American Bankers Association (ABA) 1120 Connecticut Avenue, NW Washington, DC 20036-3902 Tel: 800-338-0626 http://www.aba.com
Contact this organization for information on continuing education and seminars in banking. BAI has joined forces with the Institute of Financial Education, which provides training for entry-level to middle management employees of financial institutions via in-house group workshops and courses, independent study, and self-training. Bank Administration Institute (BAI) One North Franklin, Suite 1000 Chicago, IL 60606-3421 Tel: 800-224-9889 Email:
[email protected] http://www.bai.org
The center provides information on workshops, home study courses, educational materials, and publications for futures and securities professionals. How to Become a Futures Broker is an informative 24-page booklet (cost: $3) that discusses the National Commodity Futures Exam, how to become an associated person or introducing broker, and industry contact information. Center for Futures Education PO Box 309 Grove City, PA 16127-0309 Tel: 724-458-5860
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Email:
[email protected] http://www.thectr.com
FWI offers career support for women in finance as well as a job bank. Financial Women International (FWI) 1027 West Roselawn Avenue Roseville, MN 55113-6406 Tel: 651-487-7632 Email:
[email protected] http://www.fwi.org
For information on certification, continuing education, and general information on the banking and credit industry, contact National Association of Credit Management 8840 Columbia 100 Parkway Columbia, MD 21045-2158 Tel: 410-740-5560 Email:
[email protected] http://www.nacm.org
For information on the NASD Institute for Professional Development, contact National Association of Securities Dealers (NASD) Tel: 301-590-6500 http://www.nasd.com
■ Related Articles Accounting; Insurance; Law; Accountants and Auditors; Actuaries; Automatic Teller Machine Servicers; Bank Examiners; Billing Clerks; Bookkeeping and Accounting Clerks; Business Managers; Commodities Brokers; Credit Analysts; Economists; Financial Analysts; Financial Institution Tellers, Clerks, and Related Workers; Financial Institution Officers and Managers; Financial Planners; Financial Services Brokers; Forensic Accountants and Auditors; Insurance Claims Representatives; Insurance Policy Processing Occupations; Insurance Underwriters; Life Insurance Agents and Brokers; Property and Casualty Insurance Agents and Brokers; Risk Managers; Tax Preparers
Biology ■ Background Life has many different levels of organization from the atom to complex organisms, to whole populations and ecosystems. The biological sciences look at life on one
or more of these levels—at anything that is or has been alive. The field of biology also looks at the effects of surroundings on living things. People who study biology learn how living things work, how they relate to one another, and how they evolved. Studying biology teaches you to ask questions, judge evidence, and solve problems. Because living things vary greatly in how they live and where they came from, the field of biology is divided into many different specialty areas. Most biologists are researchers of one type or another. Many teach and conduct studies at colleges and universities. Industry employs research biologists in such areas as biotechnology (the use of biological systems to produce new goods and services), drug development, and food processing. Nonresearch careers involving biology can be found in medicine, education, and environmental protection. Biology is the basic background needed for doing many things that are good for society: fighting disease through the creation of new medicines, developing conservation measures to protect the environment, breeding better crops, evaluating food and drug safety, and even inventing support systems for life in space. Biology did not develop as a science until the last few centuries b.c., when science began to be separated from religion, particularly with regard to medicine. Although Hippocrates, known as the father of medicine, greatly influenced this development, it was Aristotle, a student of Plato, who established observation and analysis as biology’s basic tools. Throughout human history, discoveries in biology have profoundly affected daily life and the overall quality of living. From the third century b.c. to the second century a.d., agriculture and medicine were the main areas to benefit from biological studies. During the Middle Ages, Arab scientists applied what they learned from Greek discoveries to medicine. The Renaissance saw the rediscovery of Greek culture, which led to rapid advances in Italy, France, and Spain. There, during the 15th and 16th centuries, Leonardo da Vinci and Michelangelo became skilled anatomists while looking for perfection in art. In the mid-16th century, Andreas Vesalius introduced dissection as a teaching aid, creating detailed anatomical diagrams that became standards for future medical illustrations. In the 17th century, William Harvey introduced experimentation while studying the human circulatory system, which marked the beginning of understanding mammalian body systems. Since that time, discoveries in biology have occurred at a fast and furious pace. Louis Pasteur developed vaccines and the field of immunology to prevent disease. Matthias Schleiden and Theodor Schwann correctly named the cell as the fundamental unit of all organisms. Gregor Mendel
Biology
Biologist Wade Steinriede (left) and technician Keysha Hamilton measure residues from a rye cover crop among no-till cotton. The cover crop inhibited weed growth, enhanced soil quality, and reduced soil loss. (Peggy Greb, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture.)
discovered the principles of heredity through his study of peas. While the 19th century saw many advances in cell study, the 20th century was dominated by studies and breakthroughs in biochemistry and molecular biology. In 1944, Oswald Avery and a team of scientists isolated and identified DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) as the transmitter of genetic information. In 1953, James Watson and Francis Crick unraveled the complex structure of DNA to predict how it can carry the genetic code for all living matter. As you can see, biology is the foundation for most of the discoveries that affect our daily lives. It breaks new ground in improving health, understanding our world, and improving the quality of our existence. Biology is unlimited in the areas it offers for study and discovery. Although biologists of the future will work in fields and laboratories like they do today, some will venture far into space or deep into the sea. Others may do their work in virtual reality rooms that look like something from a science fiction novel. People who work in the field of biology help to make today’s science fiction tomorrow’s reality.
■ Structure Biology subfields are many and varied and include microbiology, anatomy, morphology, plant and animal
physiology, ecology, pathology, cell biology, molecular biology, marine biology, and genetics, just to name a few. There are fields of specialization for different classifications of living things: herpetology, entomology, and ornithology, for example. For all these areas, the elements of the job are essentially the same: building on the work of others, both past and present, through experimentation and observation. Most research in biology uses a team approach. Team members review previous research and experiments, then set a goal for their project. They may form a hypothesis (an educated guess) to prove or disprove a current theory or set an open-ended objective, such as finding out what happens over time to people who smoke or drink. An experiment may prove something or not. After experimentation, the biologist analyzes the results, often publishing his or her findings in a scientific journal article. Publishing results is a key part of doing research, for only by sharing data and evaluations can the scientific community make the most of research. Scientists working under contracts with research companies do not own their discoveries; their research becomes the property of the employer. Scientists working independently can keep their discoveries
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Words to Know Agronomy: The study of field crops, such as cotton, corn, and wheat, and of their relationship to the soil. Anatomy: The study of living structures, chiefly internal. Animal husbandry: The study of the care and breeding of farm animals. Ecology: The study of living things in relation to each other and in relation to their surroundings. Economic biology: The study of organisms that are useful to humans or that affect human activities. The various phases of economic biology are often taught in agricultural colleges with emphasis on such practical matters as production and selling techniques. Eugenics: The study of improving the human race through heredity. Genetics: The study of inheritance, or how living things resemble or differ from their ancestors. Biologists concerned with evolution study the development of complex living things from simpler forms of life. Horticulture: The study of all ornamental or food plants except field crops. Molecular biology: The branch of biology that uses the techniques of biochemistry and biophysics in the study of the molecular structure of living organisms. Scientists in this field generally use simple organisms, such as bacteria, in their studies, but the principles they discover generally apply to all living things. Research has been concentrated on heredity, cell development, and evolution. Morphology: The study of form, usually visible form, in living things. Paleobotany: The study of fossil plants. Paleontology: The general science of fossils. Paleozoology: The study of fossil animals. Pathology: The study of diseases. It is both a biological and a medical subject. Physiology: The study of the functions of living cells, tissues, organs, and systems. Taxonomy: The classification of organisms into orderly groups according to their physical structure and other traits.
as their own and have the right to patent and charge others for using their research. Generally, those working in the biology field do one of four types of work: basic research, applied research, testing, or support. Basic research seeks knowledge for its own sake, uncovering fundamental truths and transforming the unknown into the known. Often done at universities, basic research includes all areas of biology.
Applied research deals with translating basic knowledge into practical, useful products and processes for use in areas such as medicine or agriculture. Research biologists at universities generally split their time between their research projects and teaching. Because researchers need skilled help from others trained in biology, some biologists work in support roles, such as laboratory technicians, who help carry out experiments. All specialists must combine a thorough knowledge of general biology with other skills and professional training. Research biologists work for government agencies in the areas of conservation, environmental protection, agriculture, and the use of natural resources. They work for private industry in the development of new tools, devices, and drugs for medical diagnosis and treatment. Research biologists also study genetics, including human, plant, and animal genetics, with hopes of finding applications in medicine and agriculture. More and more, people are doing jobs that combine their knowledge of biology with other specialized training. The office for many of these jobs is the outdoors and the dress is casual. Horticulturists, for example, work in greenhouses and fields, developing new crop varieties and designing landscape plans. Zookeepers may work with captive breeding programs for endangered species. Zoos, museums, and nature centers hire educators, exhibit designers, artists, and other specialists with biology backgrounds. Those with a talent for writing may work as science journalists, breaking down science so that nonexperts can understand it. Other biologists work as policy analysts for the government, helping to develop science-based legislation. Physicians, dentists, nurses, medical technicians, and physician assistants must also have solid biology backgrounds.
■ Outlook The outlook for biologists with doctoral degrees who want to teach at a college or university is competitive for basic research positions. The increase in the number of advanced degrees, together with budget tightening for many areas of research and development, has slowed the number of grants awarded, according to the Occupational Outlook Handbook. Positions will continue to open up, though, as tenured faculty retire. Employment for biologists is expected to have average growth through 2014, according to the U.S. Department of Labor. The opportunities are better for biologists with bachelor’s or master’s degrees who seek sales, marketing, and research management positions that do not require a Ph.D. The outlook for jobs in private industry is better than for independent research positions, as companies
Book Publishing
respond to public concern for protecting the environment and human health. Ecologists, whose work examines environmental effects, will be needed to continue work on global warming issues and disappearing rainforests. An increase in the amount of research dedicated to health issues, such as AIDS, cancer, and Alzheimer’s disease, should also result in an increase of job opportunities. Genetics and biotechnology are two of the most promising employment areas for biologists. The American Institute of Biological Sciences says that plant geneticists, for example, will be needed to develop better methods of engineering crops. Researchers studying human biology will be hired in hopes of discovering ways to slow the aging process, cure genetic diseases, and reverse paralyzed nerve cells. Applications arising from new knowledge about recombinant DNA, or genetic engineering, promise to open up job opportunities, especially in the health care and pharmaceutical fields.
To access various genetics societies that provide information on graduate and postgraduate programs in human genetics, career publications, and other resources, see the following Web site. A World of Genetics Societies http://www.faseb.org/genetics
■ Related Articles Agriculture; Animal Care; The Environment; Parks and Public Lands; Agricultural Scientists; Animal Breeders and Technicians; Aquarists; Biochemists; Biologists; Biomedical Engineers; Biotechnology Patent Lawyers; Botanists; Cytotechnologists; Ecologists; Ethnoscientists; Fish and Game Wardens; Genetic Scientists; Horticultural Technicians; Marine Biologists; Microbiologists; Naturalists; Oceanographers; Park Rangers; Pathologists; Physicians; Range Managers; Toxicologists; Veterinarians; Zoologists
■ For More Information For information on specific biology careers, contact American Institute of Biological Sciences 1444 I Street, NW, Suite 200 Washington, DC 20005-2210 Tel: 202-628-1500 http://www.aibs.org
For information on careers and accredited schools, contact American Society for Biochemistry and Molecular Biology 9650 Rockville Pike Bethesda, MD 20814-3996 Tel: 301-634-7145 Email:
[email protected] http://www.asbmb.org
For information on careers, mentoring, scholarships, and other resources, contact American Society for Microbiology 1752 N Street, NW Washington, DC 20036-2904 Tel: 202-737-3600 http://www.asm.org
For information on education, careers, publications, and a variety of other ecology-related topics, contact Ecological Society of America 1707 H Street, NW, Suite 400 Washington, DC 20006-3919 Tel: 202-833-8773 Email:
[email protected] http://www.esa.org
Book Publishing ■ Background The earliest known books were the clay tablets of Mesopotamia and the papyrus rolls of Egypt. Examples of both date from about 3000 b.c. According to archeological findings, the Chinese developed books about 1300 b.c. Early Chinese books were made of wood or bamboo strips and bound together with cords. With the spread of Greek culture and the Greek alphabet in the third century b.c., books became accessible to more people. For the first time, the general public began to read on a wide range of topics. Up until that point, books had been primarily produced for scholarly research or for use by royalty. The Romans developed the book trade on a large scale. Ownership of private libraries became a mark of distinction, and each Roman ruler established his own library. The precursor to the modern book was the codex, which consisted of pieces of parchment that were folded and bound to form pages that could be turned. The advantage of pages was that they made it possible to find a particular place in a document relatively easily; it was far less convenient to find a passage in a scroll, which had to be unrolled until the appropriate passage was found. The codex was developed independently by various peoples, including the Maya of South America and the Romans. Some of the most important developments in publishing were the result of Chinese innovations and inventions.
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Words to Know Acquisition editor: Editor who seeks out authors to write manuscripts. Copy editor: Editor who makes corrections to the manuscript. This includes correcting the spelling, grammar, punctuation, style, and general readability of the text. Galleys: Initial batch of typeset pages an editor receives. House style: A publishing house’s preferred way of spelling, punctuating, and using words. Manuscript: The text of a book before it has been styled or set into type. Page proofs: Typeset pages complete with the placement of art and photos (or space allotted for art and photos), before they are printed. Plate: The “master” from which all copies of a printed page are produced. The surface of the plate contains the reverse image of the printed page. Ink is applied to the plate, and then run over paper, producing a printed page. Prepress work: The procedures performed by a printing company, starting with when they receive electronics files and related materials for a publication, concluding with the printing of the publication. These procedures include making plates and performing checks to ensure the publication will print correctly. Proofreader: One who typically reads galleys and proofs for typographical and page format errors.
Among these were the invention of paper in 105 b.c., the invention of block printing in the sixth century, and the invention of movable type in the 11th century. The oldest dated, printed book known is a Chinese version of the Diamond Sutra, a Buddhist text, which, according to its colophon (production information printed at the end of a book), was completed on May 11, 868. Although knowledge of paper was transmitted to Europe by the Arabs, the invention of printing was not. Block printing developed in Europe in about 1400, but it was Johannes Gutenberg who changed publishing forever by inventing a method of printing that utilized movable metal type. His method caught on fairly quickly, and within about 50 years it had spread throughout Europe. Gutenberg’s invention was groundbreaking because it made possible the mass production of printed material. The printing press revolutionized book publishing. The key to the printing press lay in its capacity to produce multiple copies of a book quickly and at a relatively low cost. Books were now available to everyone who could read. By the middle of the 15th century, printers were incorporating illustrations into the text. They made use
of woodcut blocks and copper engravings. The copper engravings maintained a fine crisp line in the illustration, allowing printers to produce maps in quantity. Although the number of books printed would continue to rise, few changes were made in the method of book production until the beginning of the industrial revolution. With the advent of the power motor, paper could be run through the presses by machine. Mechanical methods of typecasting and typesetting were developed that allowed the type to be produced and displayed faster. The cost of paper declined as the speed with which it could be made accelerated. In the 20th century, offset printing and other technological advances enabled book publishing to reach all segments of society. Between 1900 and World War II, little portable presses sprang up, which popularized magazines and books that appealed to readers with specific interests, such as those for readers of mysteries. Running these presses required very little investment of capital and thus enabled people to print and sell about a thousand copies of a publication and still see a return on their investment. As paper and presses became more expensive, however, many of the smaller presses were forced to stop publishing. Today desktop publishing offers some of the same benefits to small publishers as little presses did. Desktop publishing allows for the complete design and production of a publication, with relatively high-quality text and graphics, on a single computer system. Because it is fairly inexpensive, it allows for the publication of a small number of books, newsletters, or magazines at a relatively low cost. It also poses stiff competition to major publishing houses that may also produce and sell a small number of higher-quality publications, but at a greater cost.
■ Structure Publishing begins with authors, sometimes known as writers, and their ideas; or with a book producer, agent, or editor who identifies a topic that demands a book. Writers of trade books typically hire a literary agent to help them present their ideas and finished manuscript to interested publishers. There are many types of books published; currently the largest market share is in trade books, textbooks, and technical and professional books. A publishing house may produce books in all these categories or just in one category. Textbooks are books that are designed to be used in schools, and they are divided into such categories as elementary school, high school, and college. When writing textbooks, publishers must take into account such factors
as subjects that are emphasized in school curricula, subjects that are taboo, and the reading ability of the students in the targeted age groups. In recent years, for example, textbook publishers have tended to de-emphasize some of the “dead white men” who were the almost exclusive focus of textbooks in the past, and instead they have adopted a more multicultural approach that gives more attention to the accomplishments of women and people of color. The category of trade books encompasses most of the books that people commonly read, including short and long fiction; poetry; and nonfiction books on contemporary issues, history, religion, art, music, and a host of other subjects. Large publishers often produce trade books on a wide variety of subjects, but smaller firms may specialize in one or a few subjects. Technical and professional books are, for the most part, specialized works intended for relatively small segments of the population. Because they are produced in much smaller numbers than are trade books, technical and professional books are usually expensive. Medical students and doctors need books on medicine, law students and lawyers need law books, and scientists need books that address their specific areas of interest. There is one area of technical publishing that deserves to be mentioned in its own right: reference books. Reference books are usually designed to make the location of particular pieces of information as convenient as possible. They are not designed to be read from cover to cover. When most people use a dictionary, for example, they want to look up a particular word rather than read the entire dictionary (although some people do like to increase their knowledge of words by reading through dictionaries). In addition to dictionaries, encyclopedias and almanacs are also examples of the types of reference books that are published. Once a manuscript is accepted by a publishing house, it goes to the editorial department. Headed by an editor in chief or editorial director, the editorial department evaluates manuscripts, revises written material with the writer, and prepares the manuscript for the production staff. Once a manuscript is revised by the author and approved by an editor, it is turned over to the production department. Production is the division of publishing that takes a manuscript and makes it into a book—usually with the help of page-layout programs. The copy editor makes corrections to the text. This includes correcting the spelling, grammar, punctuation, style, and general readability of the text. This can either be done by writing on the typed pages or by making the changes to the text on a computer. Typesetting is done by a computer that generates the pages that will print in the book. The pages are read by
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Dan Brown, author of the wildly popular The DaVinci Code, signs copies of his book during a book signing. (Associated Press/Tim Boyd.)
a proofreader who will catch any problems with the text or with coding. Once all the pieces of the book are in place, the book is ready to be printed. The marketing department, the acquisition department, and the production department work to determine the number of books that will be printed, the size, the binding style (hardback or paperback), and other details. While a book is in production, the promotion department hires advertisers to schedule space in magazines and newspapers, works out cooperative advertising with retailers, and produces point-of-purchase material for use in stores. Direct mailings to promote or sell the books are also arranged. For potential bestsellers, the staff may also arrange for newspaper, radio, and television releases and set up interviews for authors in all of those media, with the intention of keeping authors in the public eye. In the United States, publishing companies vary in size from offices with only a handful of employees to corporate giants employing a thousand people or more.
■ Outlook As long as people continue to read, there will be a future in book publishing. Employment in book publishing is expected to grow at a slower rate than the average career field through 2014. Future opportunities for writers and editors are expected to be greatest in textbook and technical publications. Technological improvements have had a large impact on the publishing industry. Desktop publishing has made editing and page makeup simpler and more efficient, allowing for a greater output of titles. CD-ROM publications
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continue to be a growing new book format as consumers purchase computers and computer accessories. Digital printing has the potential to revolutionize the industry by making printing faster and more economical. Computerized ordering systems are making the publishing business much more cost effective. These systems allow for more accurate inventory maintenance and more efficient distribution networks. Sales of books have increased in the past few years and continue to do so. U.S. book sales totaled more than $23.7 billion in 2004, a 1.3 percent increase from 2003, according to the Association of American Publishers. Sales of adult hardbound and paperbound books and mass market paperbacks rose, while juvenile hardbound book sales decreased. Education and professional and scholarly sales all remained solid. A continued rise in sales is expected to last through the end of the decade due to the growing population, availability of disposable income, and the introduction of books in a variety of formats that appeal to both the traditional and the nontraditional reader.
■ For More Information For more information on book publishing, contact Association of American Publishers 71 Fifth Avenue New York, NY 10003-3004 Tel: 212-255-0200 http://www.publishers.org
The Literary Market Place publishes current addresses of publishing companies in the United States and Canada. In addition, it lists associations, significant individuals, literary agents, and other publishing-related organizations. The Literary Market Place Information Today Inc. 143 Old Marlton Pike Medford, NJ 08055-8750 Email:
[email protected] http://www.literarymarketplace.com
The periodical Publishers Weekly contains current information on the book publishing industry as well as listings of job openings, primarily in the New York area. Publishers Weekly http://publishersweekly.com
■ Related Articles Newspapers and Magazines; Printing; Public Relations; Publishing; Pulp and Paper; Art Directors; Book Editors; Cartographers; Cartoonists and Animators; Editors; Graphic Designers; Indexers; Lexicographers; Literary
Agents; Magazine Editors; Newspaper Editors; Online Journalists; Photographers; Printing Press Operators and Assistants; Science and Medical Writers; Writers
Broadcasting ■ Background For centuries people have sought to improve methods of communicating over long distances. In 1895 an Italian engineer, Guglieimo Marconi, demonstrated how to send communication signals without the use of wires; instantaneous worldwide communication soon became a reality. In the early 1900s, transmitting and receiving devices were relatively simple, and hundreds of amateurs constructed transmitters and receivers on their own and experimented with radio. Ships were rapidly equipped with radios so they could communicate while at sea with each other and with shore bases. In 1906, human voice was transmitted for the first time by Reginald A. Fessenden. Small radio shows started in 1910; in 1920, two commercial radio stations went on the air: KDKA in Pittsburgh and WWJ in Detroit. By 1921, a dozen local stations were broadcasting. The first network broadcast (more than one station sharing a broadcast) was of the 1922 World Series. By 1926, stations across the country were linked together to form the National Broadcasting Company (NBC). Four years later, the first radio broadcast was made around the world. There has been a steady growth in the number of radio stations in the United States. Now most towns have at least one radio station, and the larger cities have as many as 30 or more, with diverse programming to suit all tastes. In 2006, the United States alone had more than 13,769 radio stations, both commercial and public. One major trend in radio is the increasing use of programming created by services outside the broadcasting industry. Satellite radio, in which subscribers pay a monthly fee for access to more than 100 radio stations, will be a big threat to smaller, marginal stations. Modern television is based on electronic theory that grew out of the experiments of Heinrich Geissler in 1857, in which he discharged electricity in a vacuum tube, causing rare gases in it to glow. Other scientists immediately began to experiment with vacuum tubes, and in 1898 Karl Braun made the first cathode-ray tube in which he could control the flow of electrons being released. The development of the iconoscope tube in 1923 turned optical energy into electrical energy. It was
not until 1927 that the first workable cathode-ray-tube camera was invented by a 16-year-old boy named Philo T. Farnsworth. Improvements by Vladimir Zworykin made the system practical. Soon after, the first experimental television program was sent by wire from New York to Washington, DC. But it was not until 1939, when President Franklin D. Roosevelt used television to open the New York World’s Fair, that the public realized that the use of television as a standard means for communication was just around the corner. Several stations went on the air shortly after this demonstration and successfully televised professional baseball games, college football games, and the Republican and Democratic conventions of 1940. The onset of World War II limited the further development of television until after the war was over. Since television’s strength is the immediacy with which it can present information, news programs became the foundation of regular programming. Meet the Press premiered in 1947, followed by nightly newscasts in 1948. Television began to expand rapidly during the 1950s, following the lifting of the Federal Communications Commission’s freeze on the processing of station applications. In 1953 there were 120 commercial stations. By 2006, there were 2,218 broadcasting television stations. Cable television has experienced rapid growth over the past decade; approximately 65 million Americans subscribed to basic cable in 2006, according to Nielsen Media Research. Approximately 29.6 million Americans subscribed to digital cable in 2006, according to the National Cable and Telecommunications Association. Other consumers are turning to satellite television and other technologies for their entertainment needs. Broadcasting on the Internet has become a popular form of electronic communication. Many radio and television stations have launched Web sites to complement their programming. According to a 2006 survey conducted by the Radio-Television News Directors Association and Ball State University, 87 percent of radio stations and 99 percent of television stations had Web sites.
■ Structure Broadcasting is the electronic transmission of images and/or sound. Radio and television are the main broadcasting media. The radio and television industry is made up of a large number of relatively small and independent stations that are individually owned and operated. Approximately 327,000 people were employed in the radio and television broadcasting industry in 2004, according to the U.S. Department of Labor. In television, large stations located in metropolitan centers can employ several hundred people, whereas a
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Words to Know AM broadcast: Amplitude modulation system of radio transmission using power of 25 to 50 kilowatts, the maximum power permitted by the FCC. Analog: A signal that varies continuously in frequency or amplitude. Digital transmissions of data, which can be compressed for better quality, are replacing analog. Arbitron ratings: These ratings are provided within local markets to identify how many people are listening to the different radio and television stations within a market as well as to further identify who those people are—their age, sex, and buying patterns. Broadcast: To transmit programs from a radio or TV station. Demographics: Statistics that show a radio listener’s or a television viewer’s age, income, and other data; this information is valuable to producers and advertisers trying to reach specific audiences. Digital: A transmission, by a computer, composed of a discontinuous signal; replacing analog signals in telecommunications. Electronic media: Broadcasting companies that transmit information electronically, such as TV and radio stations, cable networks, and news services. FCC: Federal Communications Commission; an agency of the U.S. government that regulates broadcasting and other communication. FM broadcast: Frequency modulation method of radio broadcasting; it produces a clearer signal than AM. HDTV: High definition television; linked to satellite, cable, and computer networks to provide better resolution than current systems. Interactive: Video games, CD-ROM programs, Web pages, and other multimedia that allow users to affect the direction of the presentation of material. Market: The geographic area that a radio or television station serves. Nielsen ratings: A listing of TV programs according to the number of viewers; compiled by Nielsen Media Research, ratings are used in determining advertising rates. Satellite broadcasting: Broadcasting radio and television programs with the digital technology used in computers and compact discs. Provides higher quality broadcasts. Also called digital broadcasting. TelePrompTer: A monitor that displays the script for reading on air by a newscaster or other TV presenter
small station in a small city may employ as few as 35 people. In radio, the smallest station may employ only four or five full-time people. Many television stations
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and radio stations are affiliated with one of the national networks. An affiliate station is not owned by the network, but merely has a business contract under which it is supplied by its network with a considerable amount of programming. This programming may consist of national or international news and news analysis, which can be put together more efficiently and cost effectively at the network headquarters. In television, the typical affiliate is supplied with programs during a portion of the morning hours, a portion of the afternoon hours, and a portion of the evening hours. During the remaining time, the station develops its own programming. This programming may be locally developed and presented live, or it may be videotaped for later showing. Stations also purchase programs from various organizations that produce shows for general sale or else have acquired the rights to them. Each station develops the particular program format that in its judgment will best serve its market. Cable television networks operate under some of the same arrangements as commercial television stations. Some cable networks are advertiser-supported. These networks may carry original programming or purchase rights to rebroadcast shows that originally aired on commercial television. Other cable networks are subscriber supported. These networks tend to run motion pictures, special broadcasts of sports or entertainment events, and movies produced specifically for cable. Cable systems may also transmit material that is not limited by the restrictions of language, subject matter, or motion picture audience ratings that affect commercial television broadcasts. Pay-per-view cable programming often covers special events that the viewer can opt to pay for on an event-by-event basis. Radio is structured similarly to television, but there are some significant differences. With the rise of television, the amount and variety of programs offered in radio was reduced. In radio, the network’s major responsibility is to supply news and feature programs of national interest that would be difficult for the individual station to produce. By the 1980s, satellite distribution of such programming became commonplace. Radio and television depend on electromagnetic waves to carry signals from the transmitting tower to the receiver in the home. Each broadcast requires a certain amount of air space for a certain amount of time; otherwise interference would occur. Thus each user of space is assigned an area of the spectrum, which is referred to as a channel in television and a frequency in radio. There are many users of the spectrum besides radio and television stations, including the federal government
(particularly the Armed Forces), state and municipal governments for police and similar types of communications, and private users of all types. Private users include airlines, private communication concerns, and amateurs. Without the assignment of spectrum space by a central authority, communications would be chaotic because of signal interference. Because of the need for regulation in the broadcast industry, Congress established the 1927 Federal Radio Commission, which in 1934 became the Federal Communications Commission (FCC). The FCC became an independent agency of the federal government composed of five commissioners appointed for terms of five years by the President. It supervises and allocates spectrum space, makes channel assignments, and licenses radio and television stations for periods of seven and five years respectively to applicants who are legally, technically, and financially qualified. The FCC determines whether the operation of each station will be “in the public interest, convenience, and necessity.” If there is more than one applicant for a station frequency, the FCC decides which should receive the license. At the end of the license period, the FCC reviews the overall operation of the station and determines whether its license shall be renewed. The commission also sets limits on the number of broadcasting stations that a single individual or organization can control. The 1996 Telecommunications Act removed all limits on group size nationally and raised the number of stations that a broadcaster can own in one market to a maximum of eight. This new leniency has paved the way for large station and network mergers in recent years. The FCC issues regulations for broadcasting stations concerning engineering and operating standards and certain other matters, such as indecency. It defines indecency as any material that is considered patently offensive, as measured by contemporary community standards, and which deals with sexual or excretory functions or organs. The FCC has also been involved in introducing digital television transmission. The FCC required major network affiliates in the top 10 markets to build digital transmitting facilities by May 1, 1999. All other commercial stations in all markets were required to construct digital broadcast facilities by 2006. Broadcasting is affected by politics, but it is primarily a business in the usual sense, dependent on sales and profits for its continued existence. It is particularly exciting because it is like show business with a stopwatch; programming is timed down to the second, and precision
Broadcasting
and speed are crucial for both taped and live broadcasts. Broadcasting relies on the creativity of its employees to develop and hold the interest of its listening and viewing audiences. Yet, because of the unremitting pressures of deadlines, broadcasting must be geared to quick decisions and quick action.
■ Outlook Employment in the radio and television broadcasting industry is expected to increase about 11 percent, more slowly than the average for all other occupations through 2014, according to the U.S. Department of Labor. Competition is the name of the game in the broadcasting industry. The public has many viewing and listening choices, from cable, satellite TV, and conventional television to radio, satellite radio, and Web broadcasts. Because of this competition and FCC deregulation, radio and television stations have been consolidating to keep their costs down. These consolidations have created fewer opportunities for technical workers, top managers, marketing and advertising sales workers, and broadcasters (especially in radio), as owners of multiple stations downsize and merge staffs to save money and improve productivity. Job seekers should be prepared for stiff competition, since this field is an attractive and popular career choice. Be prepared to work in a smaller market to gain experience; most larger markets stations, such as Chicago and New York, prefer to hire experienced workers.
■ For More Information Contact BEA for scholarship information and a list of schools offering degrees in broadcasting. Broadcast Education Association (BEA) 1771 N Street, NW Washington, DC 20036-2891 Tel: 888-380-7222 Email:
[email protected] http://www.beaweb.org
National Association of Broadcasters 1771 N Street, NW Washington, DC 20036-2800 Tel: 202-429-5300 Email:
[email protected] http://www.nab.org
For information on scholarships and student membership, contact National Association of Farm Broadcasters PO Box 500 Platte City, MO 64079-0500 Tel: 816-431-4032 http://www.nafb.com
For statistics and information on the cable industry, visit the NCTA Web sites or contact National Cable and Telecommunications Association (NCTA) 1724 Massachusetts Avenue, NW Washington, DC 20036-1903 Tel: 202-775-3550 http://www.ncta.com
The RTNDA provides information on awards, scholarships, and internships and offers publications, such as Breaking into Broadcasting and Careers in Radio and Television News. For more information, contact Radio-Television News Directors Association (RTNDA) 1600 K Street, NW, Suite 700 Washington, DC 20006-2838 Tel: 202-659-6510 Email:
[email protected] http://www.rtnda.org
For career information and an overview of the industry, visit About.com: Radio http://radio.about.com
For job listings and union information, contact National Association of Broadcast Employees and Technicians 501 Third Street, NW, 8th Floor Washington, DC 20001-2760 Tel: 202-434-1254 Email:
[email protected] http://www.nabetcwa.org
For broadcast education, support, and scholarship information, contact
■ Related Articles Business; Film; Radio; Television; Actors; Art Directors; Audio Recording Engineers; Broadcast Engineers; Cable Television Technicians; Camera Operators; Cartoonists and Animators; Comedians; Disc Jockeys; Media Planners and Buyers; Production Assistants; Radio and Television Announcers; Radio and Television Program Directors; Radio Producers; Real-Time Captioners; Reporters; Screenwriters; Sports Broadcasters and Announcers; Stage Production Workers
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Business ■ Background The practice of conducting business is as old as civilization itself. As long as people have been exchanging goods and services for payment of some sort, business transactions have been a part of life. Business was, in fact, one of the factors that led to America’s independence, when the early settlers, who wanted to develop their own businesses and industries, rebelled against England’s economic constraints. Early businesses typically took one of two forms: private ownership or partnership. In a privately owned company, the person who established the business was solely responsible for the services provided, the employment of any workers, and the profits or losses of the business. Most of these early sole proprietorships evolved from a trade or skill the owner possessed. For example, a person skilled in working with iron might open a blacksmith shop, while a person skilled at sewing would open a tailor’s shop. Partnerships were businesses owned jointly by two or more individuals. In these business ventures, the partners usually pooled their resources to open and run a business, sharing in the profits and risks. In some cases, partners might equally split the financial cost of starting a business. In other cases, one partner might provide the funding, or capital, to start the business while another partner provided the idea, the managerial skills, the labor, or other less tangible assets. Partnerships were especially common in family businesses, with two siblings often starting a business together. Often, the younger family members were trained on the job to follow their parents into the business when they were old enough to take over. Corporations, today’s common form of business, were developed in the early Middle Ages as a legal alternative to private businesses or partnerships. What made corporations significantly different from sole proprietorships or partnerships was that a corporation was considered its own entity in the business world independent of its controlling members. The first corporations were religious orders, universities, and town governments. A very important change in the legal structure of businesses took place in England in the 15th century. New limited liability laws were passed, mandating that no individual could be held financially responsible for the debts incurred by a corporation. If a corporation ran into financial trouble, the courts would not pursue the personal earnings of any one member or members of the corporation. The only money that the corporation
founders could lose was the money they used to start and run the company. Between 1600 and the mid-1700s, some corporations took on the added responsibility of maintaining law in territories where they held a monopoly. The East India Company, a British firm in India, and the Hudson’s Bay Company in North America were two such firms that regulated what eventually developed into British colonies. In their applications for incorporation, these companies had to state their goals for the advancement of public welfare. The American concept of business changed dramatically with the American Revolution, however. The newly independent American colonists rejected the idea of business as a government regulator. Even so, most of the new corporations chartered in the early 1800s were involved in public service of some kind, such as construction of water routes, banking, and insurance. Eventually this changed, and commerce and manufacturing firms became the predominant applicants for charter in the United States. With the burgeoning of the industrial revolution in the late 18th century, businesses became more mechanized and more specialized. Earlier companies had typically involved just a few people who together executed all the tasks necessary to manufacture a product or provide a service. As machinery made it possible for businesses to produce more materials faster, businesses expanded in size and scope. More workers were hired to keep up with the increased pace, and as a result, more management personnel were hired to oversee the workers and handle the financial aspects of the company. As they grew, companies began to structure themselves in different ways. Departments were formed to handle very specific aspects of the business: financial, marketing, personnel, etc. This departmentalization of business responsibilities became a significant feature of the modern corporation. A new way of structuring a business emerged in the late 19th century, when the Singer Corporation first allowed individuals to sell its sewing machines in particular regions. Soon afterward, General Motors started selling cars in the same manner, as did Coca-Cola with its soft drinks. This method of doing business is called franchising. Fast-food restaurants soon got into the franchising business. Dairy Queen, one of the oldest fast-food franchises, opened in 1940 and began selling franchises in 1944. During the 1950s, franchising became very prevalent. Among the most well-known franchisers to emerge at that time were McDonalds, Dunkin’ Donuts, and Aamco Transmission. McDonalds was one of the first franchisers to establish guidelines for what the stores
could look like, what products could be sold, and what types of promotions could be run. In this way, the corporation was able to maintain strict control over the quality of the product line, guaranteeing consistency across the country and building brand recognition and loyalty. Originally, most franchises were offshoots of goodsproducing companies, like Singer sewing machines. Eventually, however, franchising spread into many other kinds of industries. Today, the trend is toward serviceindustry franchises, such as real estate offices, law offices, insurance agencies, and cleaning services. Today, the business world is more diverse than ever. In addition to the more traditional ways of structuring companies, factors such as technological improvements, loosening of trade restrictions, and changing demands on the part of employees have created new ways of doing business. One of the most important trends in today’s business is that of doing business remotely, via the Internet. This type of business, called e-commerce, means that businesses can advertise their goods and services, take orders, and receive payment electronically. Businesses conducting e-commerce can often reach a far broader range of clients and customers than they would otherwise, at far less marketing and advertising cost. Many companies have built e-commerce Web sites and are conducting business online in addition to their more traditional methods of doing business. For example, many manufacturers and merchandisers who have traditionally displayed their goods in actual stores or customer showrooms now also maintain Web sites through which customers can order and pay for items. Some companies have even taken e-commerce one step further and have done away with the actual, physical store altogether. These companies, sometimes called virtual companies, operate only via the Internet. These companies save enormous amounts of money by not having to maintain and staff a store. Technological advances, along with changing employee expectations, have contributed to another trend in today’s business world—working at home. There are two subtrends in the movement toward working at home: home-based businesses and telecommuting. Home-based businesses are, essentially, very small organizations that conduct all their business from the owner’s home. Many home-based businesses are one- or two-person operations, although some have more employees. They may be goods-producers or service businesses. Property managers, lawyers, public relations and marketing professionals, cleaning services, artists, sign makers, photographers, and many other business people have opted to run their businesses from home. By taking advantage of modern communications technology, these home-based businesses can
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Working from home has become increasingly popular due to the accessibility of the internet and advances in computer technology. (R. Wright/Corbis.)
market their goods across the country and even internationally by building Web sites, taking orders, and shipping their goods to the appropriate destinations. Telecommuting, another at-home working trend, involves a company’s employees working off-site, in their own homes, rather than at the company’s offices. According to a survey by the International Telework Association and Council, of the 44 million people who worked away from the office in 2004, 54 percent worked from home at least one day per month, and 22 percent worked at home daily or nearly every day. Of those who telecommute from home, 16.5 million are self-employed. A final important trend is the increasingly global nature of business, as numerous firms take advantage of loosened trade restrictions to expand their operations into overseas markets. Many U.S. firms, for example, have targeted new and emerging markets by expanding into Latin America, India, Russia, China, and other countries. Commonly, a U.S. firm maintains its headquarters in the United States, and has satellite offices or branches in various other countries. Corporations that operate in more than one country at a time are called multinational corporations, and they are becoming increasingly common.
■ Structure All businesses can be defined as organizations that provide customers with the goods and services they want. Most businesses attempt to make a profit, that is, to make more money than it takes to run the business. Some businesses, however, attempt only to make enough money to cover their operating expenses. These businesses, which are often social service agencies, hospitals, foundations, or advocacy groups, are called nonprofits or not-for-profits.
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Words to Know Annual meeting: A corporation’s yearly management meeting, usually held after the end of its fiscal year. Members of the board of directors are usually elected during this meeting. Assets: The holdings of a business, including land, buildings, inventory, machinery or equipment, investments, cash, and money owed (accounts receivable). Capital investment: Money that a business invests in itself for growth purposes. Capital investments can include new buildings, vehicles, equipment, etc. Consumer goods: Products, like food and clothing, that satisfy human needs and wants. Debt-to-worth ratio: A company’s total liabilities divided by its net worth. Entrepreneur: A person who organizes, manages, and assumes the risk of a business venture with the expectation of gaining a profit. Fiscal: Referring to money matters. Free-market economy: An economy, like the United States’, where wages and prices are primarily determined by competition instead of by the government. Incorporate: To form or become a corporation. Labor market: Availability and demand for employees for a specific geographic area. Liabilities: Whatever a business owes, including accounts payable, mortgages or other loans, and taxes. Liquidate: To sell out completely. Net worth: The total book value of a business, minus the value of its liabilities. Operating expenses: All the costs associated with running a business, including payroll, equipment, and materials. Primary market: The initial target market for a product. Profit and loss statement: Financial report that summarizes the revenues and expenses and shows the net profit or loss in a specified accounting period (also called an income statement). Secondary offering: An offering by a company’s shareholders to sell their stock to the public. In a secondary offering, the proceeds go to the shareholders, not the company.
There are three main types of businesses in the U.S. economy: manufacturers, merchandisers, and service providers. Manufacturers produce products of all kinds. From skateboards to limousines, from paper plates to soda, from shoelaces to designer suits, virtually everything around you comes from a manufacturer of some sort. Many manufacturers make only small parts, rather
than complete, finished products. These manufacturers, often called suppliers, provide their parts to larger manufacturing firms, who use them to construct finished products. For example, an airplane manufacturer purchases the parts needed to make an airplane from a number of other manufacturers, who specialize in making those parts. Merchandisers are businesses that help move products through a channel of distribution to the consumer or end-user. There are two types of merchandisers: retailers and wholesalers. Wholesalers purchase goods from manufacturers and then sell them to buyers, who then resell them to consumers. Retailers are the businesses that actually sell the goods directly to the consumer. Grocery stores, office supply stores, and mall stores are all examples of retailers. The third main type of business is the service provider. Service providers are businesses that do not sell an actual product but rather perform a service for a fee. Common examples of service providers are banks, restaurants, dry cleaners, hotels, and hairstylists. Many U.S. businesses are defined as small businesses, businesses with fewer than 500 employees. According to statistics from the U.S. Small Business Administration, there are approximately 24 million small businesses in the United States. These businesses employ 50 percent of the private workforce and pay more than 44 percent of the total U.S. private payroll. Small businesses are usually started by an individual or group of individuals with an idea for a product or a talent or expertise in a certain area. Typically, these entrepreneurs fund a new business partly with their own savings. They may also get a small business loan from a financial institution, such as a bank or a venture capital group. Venture capital groups are investment groups who invest in new or growing businesses that show promise. Many of these small businesses are privately owned, which means that an individual or a small group of individuals own and operate the entire company, and are solely responsible for making its decisions. Other companies, especially larger ones, are publicly owned. Publicly owned companies are owned not by one or a few individuals, but by hundreds or thousands of individuals called shareholders. Each shareholder in a public company owns a part, or share, of that company. The amount of the company each shareholder owns is determined by how many shares of the company’s stock he or she owns. Each shareholder gets to cast votes on certain company decisions in proportion to how many shares of stock he or she owns. Publicly held companies are governed by an elected board of directors, who have the power to hire or fire the top-level management of the company. The
board of directors has the responsibility of overseeing the company’s operations and its performance in the marketplace. Frequently, small privately owned companies become publicly owned companies. For this to happen, the company’s owners decide to sell off part of their ownership to interested buyers in an initial public offering, or IPO. In an IPO, buyers purchase shares of the company’s stock. Shares of publicly held companies are bought and sold on the stock market. The increase or decrease in price of a company’s shares of stock is very important to a company’s value. Although this is primarily a look at how business as a whole is structured, it is important to realize that there are certain structures in place within each individual business as well. There is a wide variety of corporate structures, but almost every successful company’s structure contains four main components: production, marketing, finance, and human resources. Production includes the conceptualizing, designing, and creating of products and services. Depending upon the size of the company and the type of product or service it produces, production subcategories might include a research and development department, which develops and tests new products; and a quality control department, which monitors products or services for consistency and quality. Production also includes the actual workers and equipment used to produce the product. For example, the factories and factory workers who make automobiles are a part of production. The second of the four components is marketing. Marketing is the process of distributing and promoting the company’s product to the right people at the right time. For example, a company’s marketing department might determine which magazine advertisements or television commercial time slots would best reach a particular product’s target consumer group. Marketing departments may develop marketing campaigns designed to catch consumers’ attention and interest, like Dairy Management’s “Got Milk?” and Nike’s “Just Do It” campaigns. A company’s marketing department is supported by advertising, public relations, and sales personnel. The finance department of a company handles the management of money. Financial decisions, such as when to acquire new property, when to borrow capital, and when to raise or lower prices, are typically the responsibility of top-level management. In privately owned companies, the owners often oversee the finances. In larger, publicly held companies, a highly trained finance professional or staff may handle financial decisions. Human resources management is the branch of a company that deals with employees. Recruiting, hiring,
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training, evaluating, disciplining, administering benefits packages, and firing employees are all activities that fall into this category. Many smaller companies do not have a specific department to handle human resources. Almost all larger companies do, however.
■ Outlook Because it is such a broad category, it is difficult to project growth for business as a whole. It is entirely possible, and even common, for one industry to suffer slow growth or decline while another industry thrives. There are certain trends, however, that affect business as a whole. Almost all businesses are affected by changes in the economy. When the economy is thriving, consumers have more money to spend, which means that they buy more products and services. When the economy suffers a downturn, however, virtually all businesses suffer along with it, as consumers cut back on spending. During economically unsound periods, many companies lay off or terminate employees in order to stay afloat. The economy is currently experiencing one of these unsound periods. During the early 2000s, there were a number of layoffs and mergers in Internet businesses, airlines and travel, retail, and computer and electronics industries. It remains to be seen what long-term effect the terrorist activity and ensuing military action will have on U.S. business. In addition, rising inflation, especially of oil and energy costs, together with recent declines in the housing market suggest a continued risk of an economic decline. Most businesses are being cautious and conservative in spending, hiring, and expansion. Another trend that will affect many, if not most, businesses is that of increased use of technology. As every industry becomes more automated, workers who have technological skills become ever more important, and technology-related industries will continue to be an area of rapid expansion. It is becoming increasingly difficult
History Lesson The U.S. stock market, where shares of publicly owned companies are frantically bought and sold each day, began in 1792. In May of that year, a group of businessmen met on a narrow street in New York City named Wall Street. These businessmen wanted to start an organization to help investors buy and sell stock certificates. They established a number of rules about how these certificates would be traded, deciding to charge customers a small fee for arranging the purchase or sale of their stocks. These businessmen were the forefathers of today’s stockbrokers.
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this country for significantly less money than American workers would be paid. This trend has especially affected workers in manufacturing, but increasingly affects those in other businesses as well.
■ For More Information For information on educational programs and career resources, contact American Business Women’s Association 9100 Ward Parkway PO Box 8728 Kansas City, MO 64114-0728 Tel: 800-228-0007 Email:
[email protected] http://www.abwahq.org
Contact the IFA to receive the Franchise Opportunities Guide, or visit the association’s Web sites to view the online version. International Franchise Association (IFA)
With considerable experience, consultants may serve as freelance and temporary experts for a variety of businesses and industries. (Mathew Hohmann.)
for workers in almost every position to survive in the modern business world without basic computer literacy. In addition, as computers continue to cut down on human work, some jobs may be eliminated or combined to reduce costs. Technology will continue to influence the way business is done in other ways as well. There is likely to be a continuation of the increased use of the Internet as a buying-and-selling medium. Telecommuting and entrepreneurial home-based businesses, too, are expected to continue to increase due to technological advances and the ease of communication between computers. Recent years have seen some changes in the corporate structure, which may continue. In the last decade, many companies have cut positions in an effort to reduce costs and enhance organizational efficiency. Called downsizing, this trend has the largest effect on middle-management workers, but also creates increased workloads for remaining employees who must take on the duties and responsibilities that were previously handled by workers whose jobs have been eliminated. Another troubling trend for U.S. workers is the practice of outsourcing jobs to other countries, as technology, globalization, and political influence allow corporations to employ workers outside
1350 New York Avenue, NW, Suite 900 Washington, DC 20005-4709 Tel: 202-628-8000 Email:
[email protected] http://www.franchise.org
Junior Achievement is a nonprofit organization that teaches young people about business, free enterprise, and the workforce. Junior Achievement One Education Way Colorado Springs, CO 80906-4477 Tel: 719-540-8000 http://www.ja.org
Visit the SBA Web site for small business statistics and other relevant information. U.S. Small Business Administration (SBA) 409 Third Street, SW Washington, DC 20416-3212 Tel: 800-827-5722 http://www.sbaonline.sba.gov
The Entrepreneurs’ Organization (EO) is a nonprofit educational organization for entrepreneurs. Contact EO for information on educational and networking opportunities. Entrepreneurs’ Organization (EO) 500 Montgomery Street, Suite 500 Alexandria, VA 22314-1565 Tel: 703-519-6700 Email:
[email protected] http://www.eonetwork.org
chemicals
To explore a variety of business career areas as well as other business information, visit the following Web site. Careers in Business http://www.careers-in-business.com
■ Related Articles Computers; Entrepreneurs; Human Resources; Accountants and Auditors; Billing Clerks; Bookkeeping and Accounting Clerks; Business Managers; Buyers; Chief Information Officers; Collection Workers; Cost Estimators; Cultural Advisers; Customer Service Representatives; Data Entry Clerks; Economists; Event Planners; Executive Recruiters; Forensic Accountants and Auditors; Internet Consultants; Internet Executives; Internet Store Managers and Entrepreneurs; Internet Transaction Specialists; Labor Union Business Agents; Management Analysts and Consultants; Office Administrators; Office Clerks; Public Relations Specialists; Purchasing Agents; Receptionists; Secretaries; Statisticians; Stenographers; Temporary Workers; Typists and Word Processors; Webmasters
Chemicals ■ Background Modern chemistry can trace its birth to the large-scale production of alkalis and alkaline salts of potassium and sodium in the late 1700s. These compounds were used to make soap, glass, and textile bleaches, and they were therefore in tremendous demand. The crude, inefficient procedures by which they were made could not satisfy their ever-increasing use. In 1789, Nicolas Leblanc, a French surgeon, invented a synthetic process for converting common salt into soda ash, using sulfuric acid, limestone, and charcoal. Leblanc’s method led to great advances in industrial processing. English industrialists spent much time, money, and effort to improve his manufacturing process, leading to large-scale production and increased industrial use. In 1872, the chemical industry was revolutionized by the introduction of the more efficient, less costly Solvay process for making alkalis, which replaced the Leblanc process. Continuing developments and manufacturing improvements found new ways to economically produce ammonia, sodium hydroxide, chlorine, and other industrial chemicals in large quantities. During World War I, the British blockades prevented valuable chemicals produced only in Germany from reaching America. This provided the impetus for the development of the organic chemical industry in the United States. The U.S. government assured the uninter-
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Words to Know Academia: The academic world of colleges and universities. Alkali: A hydroxide compound that is very soluble in water and produces a high concentration of hydroxyl ions in solution. Biotechnology: Use of data and techniques of engineering and technology to study problems concerning living organisms. Capital-intensive: Business or plan that requires a large investment of money. Catalysis: Speeding up a chemical reaction by addition of a substance that does not undergo a permanent chemical change. Categorizing: Classifying. Earth-friendly: Material that does not harm the earth by its presence. Electrochemistry: The science that deals with the use of electrical energy to bring about a chemical reaction. Forensic chemistry: The science concerned with the relation between chemistry and the law. Hydrocarbon: A compound containing only hydrogen and carbon, such as benzene and methane. Octane number: A number representing the antiknock properties of a gasoline: the higher the number, the greater the antiknock properties. Pesticide: Any chemical used for killing insects, weeds, or other harmful living things. Petrochemical: A chemical derived from petroleum or natural gas. Plastic: A nonmetallic compound, synthetically produced, that can be molded into various forms for commercial use. Polymer: A naturally occurring or synthetic substance consisting of giant molecules formed by adding smaller molecules to each other. Pyrolysis: Chemical decomposition of a substance by heat. Synthetic: Produced by chemical reaction rather than being of natural origin. Toxicologist: A scientist who studies poisons, their effects, and their antidotes.
rupted services of its chemists and chemical engineers by deferring them from military service to help create materials necessary for the war effort. Different branches of America’s chemical industry began cooperating instead of competing. This cooperation led to the construction of ammonia plants to produce explosives and fertilizers. The importance of rubber in warfare was determined in World War I. The Germans, who had been cut
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off from foreign rubber sources by the British blockade, ran out of tires for their trucks and rubber boots for their troops. In an effort to circumvent this situation, the German chemical industry tried to make synthetic rubber. However, it could never produce enough to satisfy its needs. In 1941, when Japan attacked Pearl Harbor, America suddenly found itself in the same position as the Germans had 27 years before. However, with government assistance, the U.S. chemical industry was able to make enough synthetic rubber to satisfy American war needs. Nylon, discovered by Wallace Carothers at DuPont in 1927, reached the market in 1939. It was initially used for women’s hosiery, dresses, and undergarments. With the onset of war, nylon was manufactured solely for parachutes. Another petrochemical, polyethylene, was in great demand for insulation in radar and other electrical equipment. New developments in catalysis in 1940 enabled the American petroleum industry to produce ultrahigh octane gasoline for tanks and aircraft and toluene for TNT manufacture. From 1945 to 1980, the chemical industry enjoyed substantial growth. But the early 1980s witnessed the most severe decline in world sales since the Great Depression of the 1930s. Although companies had developed new, more efficient production methods, skyrocketing petroleum prices greatly reduced world demand for basic
It Was an Accident! In 1856, William Perkin, an English chemistry student, came home from university on holiday. Being that he came from a wealthy family, he had his own private laboratory and even an assistant. One day without really understanding what he was doing, he mixed aniline (a coal tar derivative) with potassium dichromate (a powerful oxidizing agent). The reaction became so violent that it scared Perkin and his assistant. They quickly threw the flask with its frothing substance into the sink and began to wash it down the drain. Some of the liquid splashed onto a piece of white cloth on the table top and stained it a beautiful pale purple. Realizing that there was something of value in this mixture, Perkin saved what he could and experimented with it. He found that the liquid had extraordinary dyeing properties, and he called its tint mauve. Thus began the synthetic dye industry, which expanded far beyond the manufacture of mauve. This dye gave its name to a whole era of English history, the Mauve Period. Not only did this experiment give Perkin an indelible place in the history of chemistry, but it also made him a very wealthy man.
chemicals. In order to compete more effectively, many chemical firms spent heavily on expansion and research and development. Though these maneuvers were somewhat successful, foreign competition has continued to restrict sales. Despite the fact that U.S. industry is still dominant, its share of the global market has diminished. Our leading status is partially due to our vast domestic sources of coal, sulfur, phosphate rock, petroleum, forests, croplands, and water. Important problems still confront our chemical industries: the development of alternate sources of energy, elimination of environmental pollution, and improvement of the safety of existing chemical products.
■ Structure Most of the over 50,000 chemical products manufactured by the chemical and allied industries are used by other industries to make jet fuels, food additives, paints, detergents, and perfumes. The range of products is so wide that no one method of categorizing them exists. A simple division can be made by classifying them as organic or inorganic chemicals. The chemical industry is a loose confederation of eight separate branches: agriculture, detergents, nitrogen compounds, paints, paper and textiles, petrochemicals, pharmaceuticals, and plastics. The agricultural chemicals industry produces fertilizers and pesticides. The nitrogen compounds necessary for fertilizers are also essential for the manufacture of explosives such as nitroglycerine and TNT. Products made by these industries are also used to produce fireworks, adhesives, and inks. The pharmaceutical industry is involved in the production of drugs. Petrochemicals employees represent about 30 percent of the chemical workforce. The petrochemical industry is currently growing very rapidly and accounts for the largest number of new chemicals. The pulp, paper, and textile industries are huge consumers of chlorine and chlorine compounds used as bleaching agents. The plastics industry makes containers, sheeting, films, fibers, fabrics, piping, automobile parts, tires, hoses, and wearing apparel from polymers like nylon, Dacron, and vinyls. The detergent industry produces soaps, detergents, special cleaning preparations, ammonia, bleaches, floor waxes, shoe polishes, cosmetics, deodorants, and perfumes. The paints and allied products industry makes paints, varnishes, lacquers, enamels, putties, paint removers, sealers, and stains. The paints and coatings sector usually remains fairly stable and is often used as an indicator of the overall economy.
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The divisions of the chemical industry differ in the occupational makeup of their workforce. Industries that make finished products ready for sale to the final consumer, such as paint and cosmetics, hire more administrative, marketing, and managerial personnel. A greater number of production workers are employed by industries that sell their products primarily to industrial consumers. The chemical industry is highly capital-intensive and has factories in practically every state. California, Illinois, New Jersey, New York, Ohio, Pennsylvania, South Carolina, Tennessee, and Texas have the most plants.
■ Outlook Due to plant automation and more efficient production methods, job opportunities for production workers, who made up almost 43 percent of the total chemical industry workforce in 2004, are expected to decline, despite a projected growth in output. The U.S. Department of Labor predicts that the chemical manufacturing industry will decline by 14 percent through 2014. For those in the specialty occupations, including chemical engineers and chemical technicians, the employment outlook will be slightly better as the chemical manufacturing industry continues to research and develop new chemicals and streamline production processes for existing products. Employment for chemists will grow more slowly than the average for all occupations through 2014. Chemists who have at least a master’s degree will be in the strongest demand. Opportunities for all workers will be best in pharmaceuticals and biotechnology and in research, development, and testing firms. Opportunities in academia may not be as strong as overall employment declines in the chemical industry create less demand for teachers in chemical-related disciplines. Many openings that do arise will be for part-time or non–tenure track positions. One area of strong growth is expected to be forensic chemistry, especially DNA analysis. According to the American Chemical Society (ACS), experts predict that more than 10,000 new forensic scientists will be needed over the next decade to work in private laboratories and government agencies. There is also a need for chemists to do crime-scene investigation and analysis of evidence. Companies that provide environmental services and earth-friendly products should do well. Environmental concerns will also continue to compel the chemical industry to devote resources to comply with governmental regulations. Therefore, occupations related to compliance, improvement of product visibility, and promotion of consumer confidence should grow. International competitiveness will also be important.
This chemicals worker is checking pipes at a chemical plant. (Mitch Kezar, Tony Stone Images.)
Other trends include a continued emphasis on research and development. In order to stay competitive and differentiate their products, companies will continue to produce specialty chemicals, such as advanced polymers and plastics, which are designed for specific uses. This should increase employment of chemists in research-oriented positions. A focus on new manufacturing processes will also continue and should represent opportunities for chemical engineers. The market shift to specialty chemicals and increasing competition will create more marketing and sales positions as companies strive for product visibility and an increasing market niche. In general, opportunities in the chemical industry continue to be best for those with advanced degrees.
■ For More Information For career and industry information, contact American Association of Textile Chemists and Colorists PO Box 12215 Research Triangle Park, NC 27709-2215
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Tel: 919-549-8141 http://www.aatcc.org
For information on careers, mentoring, and scholarships, as well as a list of schools, contact American Chemical Society 1155 16th Street, NW Washington, DC 20036-4801 Tel: 800-227-5558 Email:
[email protected] http://www.chemistry.org
For information on careers as well as a list of schools, contact American Institute of Chemical Engineers 3 Park Avenue New York, NY 10016-5991 Tel: 212-591-7338 http://www.aiche.org
For information on careers in the fragrance industry, contact Fragrance Foundation 145 East 32nd Street New York, NY 10016-6002 Tel: 212-725-2755 Email:
[email protected] http://www.fragrance.org
For information about the history of soaps and detergents, contact this organization or visit its Web site. Soap and Detergent Association 1500 K Street, NW, Suite 300 Washington, DC 20005-1209 Tel: 202-347-2900 Email :
[email protected] http://www.sdahq.org
For fun and educational information on the field of chemistry, check out the following Web site: Rader’s Chem4Kids http://www.chem4kids.com
■ Related Articles Manufacturing; Pharmaceuticals; Plastics; Stone, Concrete, Ceramics, and Glass; Air Quality Engineers; Asbestos Abatement Technicians; Biochemists; Chemical Engineers; Chemical Technicians; Chemists; Environmental Technicians; Industrial Chemicals Workers; Laboratory Testing Technicians; Nuclear Medicine Technologists; Paper Processing Workers; Petroleum Engineers; Petroleum Technicians; Plastics Engineers; Plastics Technicians; Quality Control Engineers and Technicians; Toxicologists
Computer Hardware ■ Background The computer industry has dramatically changed since the early 1800s when Charles Babbage conceived the basic parts of the modern computer. The Babbage model, known as the analytical engine, was composed of gears and levers and was the size of a desk calculator. Early computers, using vacuum tubes to store program concepts, were considered first-generation computers. The computer hardware industry took off with the arrival of the second-generation computers in the mid 1950s. Using components run by the newly invented transistor, these new computers were smaller, faster, more reliable, and easier to use. No more resetting switches or changing circuit boards! By the mid 1960s, third-generation computers were being built. The industry now had the capability of building smaller transistors grouped together to form integrated circuits (ICs). Many ICs were based on a small piece of silicon, called a chip. The technology developed in the following years allowed ICs to be smaller, faster, and more powerful. The microprocessor—thousands of ICs bundled onto a single chip—was invented in 1971. This ushered in the fourth generation of computers, which are still in use today. By the 1980s, competition among the industry giants, such as IBM, Apple, and Packard Bell, resulted in lower prices. Computers were now affordable for small businesses, as well as for home use. Computers are getting smaller, yet becoming faster and more powerful in their capabilities. Computer hardware professionals are constantly experimenting, designing, and building smaller, stronger microchips and microcomputers to meet the demand. Products such as laptop computers, notebooks, handheld digital computers, and consumer products such as toys and appliances are tremendously popular. Their success has prompted computer companies to invest heavily in their design and development departments to produce the next high-tech item. The computer hardware industry also includes the manufacturing of peripherals such as modems, monitors, scanners, and just about anything you can attach to your computer. The popularity of computers, whether used for business, school, or personal entertainment, remains strong. This success hinges, in part, on the work of the computer hardware field where talented and driven individuals are needed to design, build, analyze, and serve the market.
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■ Structure Computers have proven to be an almost indispensable tool for business, as well as for home use. Their powerful growth has created a wealth of jobs for both the hardware and software sides of the industry. Job titles and descriptions are constantly evolving in this field, the result of rapidly changing technology and industry demands. However, the main professional occupations in the computer hardware industry are computer scientists, computer engineers, systems analysts, and support workers; all can be further divided into specific specialties. Each group is involved in the design, manufacturing, and implementation of computer hardware systems, as well as computers and their components and peripherals. Here’s how they all fit together. Computer scientists design computers, develop new information technologies, and find new applications for computers. They are employed by the academic professions to program computer languages, research new computer theories, and develop new hardware. Computer scientists may also work for private industries developing languages or tools, creating new systems, or designing computer games. In general, computer scientists are regarded as possessing a higher level of computer theory and expertise than computer engineers and systems analysts. Computer engineers design, build, and test computer hardware, such as computer chips and circuit boards, as well as computer systems and software. They also work with peripheral devices, such as printers, scanners, modems, and monitors. There are many different types of computer engineers. Development engineers staff the research and development departments of computer firms. Their purpose is to come up with new product ideas, their functions, and applications. In some companies, systems analysts may also play a part in the design process. Systems analysts plan and develop new products or revamp existing technology and systems to meet the specific demands of a business or organization, compared to engineers who may not have a target market, or client, in mind. Many times, systems analysts oversee the entire production process from start to finish. They are employed by a variety of companies specializing in business, accounting, science, or engineering, among others; most analysts have a bachelor’s degree in computer science. As part of the design process, system analysts, design engineers, or a team of both, design each component, then assemble and test each new product. They evaluate effectiveness, cost, and reliability, among other factors, before pursuing the project. Computer-aided design (CAD) programs automate three-dimensional designs
A technician works on a circuit board in need of repair. (William Taufic/Corbis.)
that engineers can manipulate when experimenting with different drafts of a potential product. Once the product design is completed and approved, computer production engineers supervise the manufacturing of the hardware product. They evaluate the manufacturing process, or the equipment used, to make production more efficient and cost effective. Production engineers and their staff implement any necessary changes. Quality assurance engineers monitor the production process to make sure the hardware product is made properly and flawlessly. The new, or improved, hardware product is now ready for use. Computer sales representatives sell computers and related hardware and peripherals to businesses or individual customers for home use. System setup specialists are often needed by businesses to install new computer systems or evaluate and upgrade existing ones. They also offer technical support and training to computer users. Computer service technicians test, repair, maintain, and install computer equipment. Technical writers are important to the computer hardware industry because they create a bridge between computer companies and the ultimate end users of the product, the customers. Technical writers produce user manuals, installation guides, and tutorials in a concise format that is easy for nonspecialists to understand and follow. Besides simplifying technical
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Words to Know Bug: An error, such as a design flaw, in software or hardware. Bus: An electrical conductor that serves as a common pathway for electrical signals for several components in a computer. CAD (computer-aided design): The use of a computer in designing a product. Its principal application is in mechanical engineering. CPU (central processing unit): The part of a computer that carries out the instructions of a program. Debug: To remove the bugs, or defects, from programs or equipment during the initial testing of products. Hardware: The physical components of a computer system. They typically include the motherboard, disk drives, display, keyboard, and the CPU. Motherboard or system board: The main printed circuit board in a microcomputer. It contains various integrated circuits (including the microprocessor and RAM chips) and slots (receptacles) for expansion cards. Peripheral: An auxiliary device (such as a modem, monitor, or disk drive) that is connected to a computer. Port: An external electrical connector used for attaching a peripheral to a computer. Software: A term for computer programs, as opposed to computer equipment. Originally the term referred to the programs, programming aids, and the documentation associated with programs.
language and coding, technical writers also test documentation against the actual product. Computer support specialists, also called help desk technicians, are employed by companies or organizations to provide assistance and support for computer hardware users, as well as software and system users.
■ Outlook Although the U.S. Department of Labor predicts an overall decline of 7 percent in employment opportunities in the computer and electronic product manufacturing industry, employment opportunities for some positions are still largely good, especially among professional and related occupations. The Department of Labor predicts that three of the 10 fastest growing jobs from 2004 to 2014 will be computer-related. The computer hardware industry is boosted by several key factors. The Internet continues to provide faster ways to obtain more information, attracting many new
computer users. New computer peripherals, such as personal digital assistants (PDAs), use advanced microchip technology that requires the work of qualified computer professionals. Computer networking is expanding into all fields of business, creating opportunities for systems analysts. The power of semiconductors, integrated circuits in particular, is important outside of the computer industry. These electronic components give power to aircraft navigational systems as well as electronic consumer goods, such as cellular phones, toys, and refrigerators. Also, computer professionals who can translate technolingo into layperson’s terms (for example, technical writers and computer support specialists) will be in high demand. However, though many opportunities within the industry exist, expect competition for these jobs to stay fierce. A degree in computer science or electrical engineering is a prerequisite for most companies, though nonscience degree holders may be considered if they have ample computer training or practical experience along with various computer courses. Management opportunities favor those with advanced degrees in computer science, computer engineering, management information systems (MIS), or an MBA. Certification is also becoming more important in this industry, as employers seek to hire the best-educated and most qualified candidates from a growing pool of applicants. Along with having strong programming and analytical skills, successful industry workers should be excellent communicators and quick thinkers. They should also have good business sense. In the past, industry giants were located only in California’s Silicon Valley or the San Francisco Bay area. Up-and-coming computer hardware companies are now established throughout the United States in states including Texas, North Carolina, South Dakota, and Idaho. Major computer hardware companies include IBM, Hewlett-Packard, Toshiba, Intel, and Dell. Though the computer hardware industry is not immune to economic volatility or changes in profit margins, qualified computer workers with advanced education and certification will always be needed.
■ For More Information Contact ACM for information on internships, student membership, and the ACM student magazine Crossroads. Association for Computing Machinery (ACM) 1515 Broadway, 17th Floor New York, NY 10036-5701 Tel: 212-869-7440 Email:
[email protected] http://www.acm.org
Computers
For information on technical careers, scholarships, and Computer magazine, contact IEEE Computer Society 1730 Massachusetts Avenue, NW Washington, DC 20036-1992 Tel: 202-371-0101 http://www.computer.org
For certification information, contact Institute for Certification of Computing Professionals 2350 East Devon Avenue, Suite 115 Des Plaines, IL 60018-4610 Tel: 800-843-8227 Email:
[email protected] http://www.iccp.org
For employment information and online career sites for computer professionals, contact Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers 1828 L Street, NW, Suite 1202 Washington, DC 20036-5104 Tel: 800-701-4333 Email:
[email protected] http://www.ieee.org
For certification information as an analyst, contact Quality Assurance Institute 2101 Park Center Drive, Suite 200 Orlando, FL 32835-7614 Tel: 407-363-1111 http://www.qaiworldwide.org
For information on careers and internships in technical writing, contact Society for Technical Communication 901 North Stuart Street, Suite 904 Arlington, VA 22203-1822 Tel: 703-522-4114 Email:
[email protected] http://www.stc.org
■ Related Articles Computers; Computer Software; Electronics; The Internet; Computer-Aided Design Drafters and Technicians; Computer and Electronics Sales Representatives; Computer and Office Machine Service Technicians; Computer Network Administrators; Computer Programmers; Computer Systems Programmer/Analysts; Computer Trainers; Data Entry Clerks; Database Specialists; Data Processing Technicians; Desktop Publishing Specialists; Graphic Designers; Graphics Programmers; Hardware
Engineers; Information Brokers; Internet Developers; Internet Security Specialists; Microelectronics Technicians; Quality Assurance Testers; Semiconductor Technicians; Software Designers; Software Engineers; Systems Setup Specialists; Technical Support Specialists; Technical Writers and Editors; Webmasters
Computers ■ Background Computers can be divided into three broad categories, by operation and industry sector: hardware, software, and the Internet. Hardware refers to the physical equipment of a computer, such as motherboards, memory chips, and microprocessors. Software includes the programs that tell the hardware exactly what to do and how to do it. The Internet is composed of numerous global networks that are connected to each other. Developed in Asia and widely used during the Middle Ages, the abacus can be considered the origin of modern computing devices. An abacus, composed of strings and beads representing numerical values, can be used for arithmetic. Today, Japanese children still learn to work on an abacus before being introduced to electronic calculators. French philosopher Blaise Pascal invented the world’s first digital calculator in the 17th century. His machine was based on a system of rotating drums controlled with a ratchet linkage. He originally intended it for use in his father’s tax office, but the principles behind it are still used in modern automobile odometers. In honor of his early contributions to computer technology, the programming language Pascal was named after him in the 1970s. A German philosopher and mathematician, Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibnitz, later improved Pascal’s design, making a handheld version similar to a handheld calculator. It never became available commercially, however. The first significant automated data-processing techniques were applied to making fabric patterns, not calculating numbers. French weaver Joseph-Marie Jacquard introduced a punch-card weaving system at the 1801 World’s Fair. His system was straightforward enough; the punched cards controlled the pattern applied to the cloth as it was woven. The introduction of these looms caused riots against the replacement of people by machines. After proposing in 1822 that it might be possible to compute table entries using a steam engine, Charles Babbage had second thoughts about his idea and went on
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to design the analytical engine that had the basic components of the modern computer in 1833. This earned him the title of father of the computer. He was aided greatly by the daughter of famous poet Lord Byron, Ada Augusta King, Countess of Lovelace, who is recognized as the world’s first programmer. In 1890, U.S. inventor and statistician Herman Hollerith put the punched card system to use for the 1890 census. He discovered that perforated cards could be read electrically by machines. Each perforation could stand for some important piece of information that the machine could sort and manipulate. Hollerith founded Calculating-Tabulating-Recording Company in 1914, which eventually was renamed International Business Machines (IBM) in 1924. IBM is still a computer industry leader today. In the mid-1940s, punched cards were also used on the Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator (ENIAC) at the University of Pennsylvania. ENIAC’s inventors developed the world’s first all-electronic, general-purpose computer for the U.S. Army. This computer was enormous and relied on over 18,000 vacuum tubes. In 1949, they introduced the Binary Automatic Computer (BINAC), which used magnetic tape, and then developed the Universal Automatic Computer (UNIVAC I) for the U.S. census. The latter was the first digital computer to handle both numerical data and alphabetical information quickly and efficiently. In 1954, IBM built the first commercial computer, the 650 EDPM, which was programmed by symbolic notation.
ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator) was the first large electronic digital computer, completed at the University of Pennsylvania in 1946. It used vacuum tubes in place of electromechanical parts. (University of Pennsylvania.)
By the late 1950s, the transistor, invented 10 years earlier, had made the second generation of computers possible. Transistors replaced the bulky vacuum tubes and were lighter, smaller, sturdier, and more efficient. The integrated circuits of the late 1960s introduced the solid-state technology that allowed transistors, diodes, and resistors to be carried on tiny silicon chips. These advances further reduced operating costs and increased speed, capacity, and accuracy. Minicomputers, much smaller than mainframes (large-scale computers) but of comparable power, were developed shortly afterward. The next important advances included large-scale integration and microprocessing chips. Microchips made even smaller computers possible and reduced costs while increasing capacity. The speed with which a computer processed, calculated, retrieved, and stored data improved significantly. Decreased costs allowed manufacturers to explore new markets. In the mid-1970s, Steve Wozniak and Steve Jobs started Apple out of their garage. Their vision was to bring computers into every home in America and even the world. Toward that end, they developed a user-friendly computer offered at a reasonable price. User-friendliness was essential, since many people without computer skills would have to adapt to the computer system. The development of their eventual product, the Macintosh computer, was the first to give on-screen instructions in everyday language and successfully use a graphical interface. In addition, Apple introduced the mouse, which allows users to point and click on screen icons to enter commands instead of typing them in one by one. IBM and manufacturers who copied their designs were quick to enter the personal computer (PC) market once they recognized the tremendous sales potential. The result was a friendly debate among computer users over which are better—Macs or PCs? Regardless of personal preference, the two incompatible systems often led to problems when people tried to share information across formats. Software designers have since developed ways to make file conversions easier and software more interchangeable. One major trend of the last decade has been the downsizing of computer systems, replacing big mainframe computers with client-server architecture, or networking. Networks allow users greater computing flexibility and increased access to an ever-increasing amount of data. The second major trend of the last decade has been the rapid growth of the Internet and World Wide Web. Initially developed for the U.S. Department of Defense, the Internet is composed of numerous networks connected to each other around the world. Not surprisingly, this massive network has revolutionized information
sharing. It is used for real-time video conferencing, electronic mail services, online research, help lines, and longdistance telephone calls. The World Wide Web usually refers to the body of information that is available for retrieval online, while the Internet generally refers to the back-end network system plus its various services. Hardware companies are continually striving to make faster and better microprocessors and memory chips. Intel and Motorola have been the innovators in microprocessor design, striving for faster and more efficient processors. Such innovations allow computer manufacturers to make smaller, lighter, and quicker computers, laptops, and handheld models. As processors get faster and memory increases, computers can process more sophisticated and complicated software programming. Advances in hardware technology have led directly to advances in software applications. As the developer of Windows, Microsoft has been the leader in the software industry. Windows is a userfriendly, visual-based operating system. (An operating system is the interface between the user, the programs stored on the hardware, and the hardware itself.) Disk operating system (DOS) is one of the early operating systems, and while still used, it requires more computer knowledge than other operating systems. The Windows and Mac systems allow users to point and click on icons and menus with a mouse to tell the computer what to do, instead of having to type in specific commands by hand, as DOS requires.
■ Structure This article covers the hardware and software branches of the computer industry (For additional information, see the articles “Computer Hardware” and “Computer Software”.) For more information on the Internet, see the article “The Internet.” Many different types of companies hire computer professionals. Computer manufacturers and software companies hire the whole range of professionals. Many of these employers are clustered in certain geographical areas, like northern California, Seattle, and parts of the East Coast. Living in an area with many potential employers increases the likelihood of being hired (or rehired) by an employer relatively quickly. Computer companies range from huge market leaders to small start-ups. In addition, there are thousands of small- to medium-sized companies that create specialized products, such as software to be used specifically to run corporate human resource departments. Large corporations are major employers of computer professionals as well. Many maintain information systems (IS) or information technology (IT) departments, which
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hire people for the many different positions previously described. The number of in-house information systems departments has grown with the increased usage of computers in the workplace. Almost all companies, including banks, insurance companies, consumer products firms, and government agencies, have IS or IT departments. Other employers of computer professionals are consulting firms, such as Deloitte and Ernst & Young. They hire college graduates with majors in computer science to help them integrate the latest technology into their clients’ business. Most of these jobs are headquartered in large cities and require a lot of travel.
Hardware Hardware firms produce every piece of equipment used to build a computer system. This includes the equipment inside a computer, such as memory chips, microprocessors, network cards, and motherboards. It also includes the equipment mostly found outside the computer, called peripheral hardware, such as keyboards, monitors, printers, fax modems, scanners, digital cameras, Zip drives, and CD-ROMs. Internal hardware makes the difference between a slow, hard-to-use computer and cutting-edge technology. Memory chips store data and programs, while processors follow program instructions to manipulate the data in a desired manner. For example, when a secretary uses a word processor to type letters, the microprocessor transforms the keyboard input into electrical impulses that are stored on the memory chips. Many companies specialize in improving the speed, accuracy, and overall quality of these devices. Secondary storage devices, such as floppy disks, Zip disks, portable memory devices such as flash drives and recordable CD and DVD drives, are used to store information and transfer it physically to another computer location. Another type of storage is the hard drive, which is generally installed inside the computer. Hard drives hold a tremendous amount of information. External hard drives are also available to increase computer storage space. Input devices are another type of hardware and include keyboards, scanners, and video cameras. Scanners read printed material (such as photographs) and convert it into electrical impulses to be stored in the computer. Then, systems operators can change them in any way desired. They can also use them to prepare formal presentations in different media, including 35mm color slides, videotape, or computer presentations. Output devices, such as a monitor, allow users to access and change data and information. Some television manufacturers specialize in making monitors with
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Words to Know Babbage, Charles: Known as the father of computers. Browser: User-friendly software that makes Internet searches quicker and more efficient. DOS: Disk operating system; the interface between the user, the programs stored on hardware, and the hardware itself. GUI: Graphical user interface. Hardware: The physical equipment of the computer, such as motherboards, memory chips, and microprocessors. Internet: A worldwide system of computer networks connected to each other. Intranet: A restricted Internet, available only to the members of a group, such as a club or business corporation. Input devices: Hardware such as keyboards, scanners, and video cameras. Mainframe: A large, main computer that handles data, programs, and software required for extensive procedures. Programming language: The form of instructions used to run computer programs; common languages include BASIC, COBOL, FORTRAN, and C++. Software: Programs that tell the hardware what to do and how to do it. Storage device: Device such as a CD-ROM, DVD-ROM, floppy disk, magnetic tape, or Zip drive that stores computer files outside of the computer. UNIVAC I: The first digital computer to handle both numerical and alphabetical information quickly and efficiently. World Wide Web: The collection of information available for retrieval from the Internet.
higher resolution and better graphics capabilities so that more complex applications can be run and displayed successfully on the systems. Another output device is a printer. Dot matrix printers of the early 1980s soon gave way to ink jet printers, bubble jet printers, and laser printers. Color printers have become as common as the black-and-white printers. Communications devices, such as modems, enable computers to connect to other systems via cables or telephone lines. The modem allows the transfer of information between computers. Wireless broadband has recently been developed in response to the strong demand for fast access to data on the Internet. This technology allows connection to the Internet via a groundbased antenna system or via satellite signal. A modem or wireless broadband technology is necessary for users to access the World Wide Web and online services like
America Online and others. Internet service providers provide users with access to the Web through dial-up phone lines, or increasingly high-speed services through DSL or cable connections.
Software Programming is a vital part of the computer industry. Without detailed, precise programs, computers would be useless since they only do exactly what they are told to do. Several programs are necessary to make computers operate properly. Systems programmers write instructions for how hardware pieces should function with one another. This task includes configuring printers, hard drives, and memory chips. Programmers must be proficient in several programming languages and are greatly aided by commercial prepackaged programs. The software industry is unique within the business world in that very little overhead (equipment, office space, or personnel) is needed to get started. When an individual or group of individuals comes up with a good idea for new software and can convince financial backers to invest in their idea, a start-up is born. Many start-ups have tried to make a name for themselves with innovative and creative software applications. Often, these companies are so small and have such limited resources that they operate out of garages or basements. Industry leaders, such as Microsoft, Apple, and Google, all came from such humble beginnings. However, many start-ups never make it and go bankrupt. It is a good idea for individuals interested in working in software to be flexible and keep their technical knowledge up to date. In this way, if a company folds, programmers and designers can more easily find other employment. Most software companies approach software design in a similar fashion. First they identify a client or consumer need, such as organizing home finances. This process can last many months, depending on the intended user and the company. If a mass-market product is being considered, companies must evaluate many different factors, including the specifications of average in-home computers, competitive products already on the market, costs of development and customer service, and potential market for the product. When the decision is made to go ahead with the application, programmers write the code. (In the past, writing code for a major project could take months. Today, new technologies have eliminated the need for some routine programming work.) Each subsection of the program is tested and retested and then usually tested many times again. Just imagine the amount of coding required by a word processing program; features like the spell check, dictionary, and thesaurus alone could constitute millions of lines of commands.
There is much more to the computer business than research and development, however. Many people are employed by computer companies to market and advertise their products to the right people. Sales representatives must be trained, promotional brochures must be developed, and price schedules must be determined. Within the hardware and software branches of the computer industry, there are a number of different types of jobs. Many positions overlap and not every company hires people in each functional area. These basic areas are design, programming, administration, service, and sales.
Design For our purposes, designers include researchers who evaluate the market or existing technology to find windows of opportunity for improvements or new product design. Researchers have considerable freedom to explore uncharted areas of computer technology. Often, their ideas are not implemented for years to come until the market catches up to the theory. Designers usually work on a project that has already been defined in some way. For example, an accounting department might request a special system to improve its operations. A software designer is assigned to handle that problem. Generally, designers use their knowledge of hardware and software to design a computer system and set of applications that will solve a business or scientific problem. More specifically, designers can specialize in databases, networks, or software applications. Computers, whatever their function, are based on the principles and processes of mathematics. The design process remains similar regardless of position. The problem is defined, equipment is analyzed and upgraded if need be, software is customized, and new programming fills any gaps.
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Administration Computer administrators are in charge of daily operations of different kinds of computer systems. The most common areas of specialization are database, network, systems, security, and quality assurance. Administrators are responsible for a variety of tasks. They help install new systems and train new users. They also address user problems as they arise. For example, a user might not be able to gain access to certain files on a network server. The administrator verifies first that the user is inputting the correct password and following the right procedure. If the problem is not due to user error, the administrator checks the security files, making sure the user is granted access. Administrators are also involved with backing up the system regularly. They also ensure good systems communications. If a network server goes down, for example, a network administrator attempts to isolate the cause of the problem and fix it. If it is too complicated, the administrator must call in higher-level systems people.
Service Computer service is another broad category of careers in the computer industry. Systems set-up specialists, technical support specialists, and computer repairers are included in this group. Systems set-up specialists install new hardware and software either at the client site or in a service center. Large installations at major corporations can take days or even weeks to properly install. Set up work requires solid knowledge in the basics of computer technology as well as strong manual dexterity skills. Sometimes systems are
Programming Programming is much more detail oriented and less abstract than design analysis. It can involve hardware, software, or both. In any case, programmers write the coded instructions that make computers do what we want them to do. Systems programmers write the instructions that make different computers and peripherals perform well together. Software programmers write instructions for how computers should respond to various input and what on-screen displays should be generated. Programmers are required to know at least one, but usually more, computer programming language, including BASIC, COBOL, FORTRAN, and C++. Computer programming languages change as the capacities of computers expand, so programmers must continually update their skills.
A custom computer goes through the assembly line at Dell. (Corbis.)
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Computer Fun Facts The IEEE Computer Society has many interesting facts about computers on its Web sites. Did you know that ■ Grace Murray Hopper, while working on the Mark II computer at Harvard, found the first computer bug, which was a real bug that had been crushed in the jaws of a relay switch. She glued it to the logbook of the computer and thereafter when the machine stopped, told people they were debugging the computer. The very first bug still exists in the National Museum of American History of the Smithsonian Institution. ■
In the movie, 2001: A Space Odyssey, Arthur C. Clark introduced HAL, the computer of the future and based it on the artificial intelligence proposals of I. J. Good and Marvin Minsky. Supposedly, HAL was the monosyllabic cipher of IBM.
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Less than four months after IBM introduced the personal computer in 1982, Time magazine named the computer its man of the year. Never before had an inanimate object been chosen for that honor.
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Ada Augusta King, Countess of Lovelace and the daughter of Romantic poet Lord Byron, translated a pamphlet on Charles Babbage’s analytical engine. She added her own notes, as well as working closely with Babbage himself. She became recognized as the world’s first computer programmer.
so complicated that specialists are called to help plan the layout of the computer room, both of the multitude of wires and the physical equipment. Technical support specialists can also specialize in either hardware or software. They work in large corporations or for computer companies that offer technical support to end users. For example, a large bank probably has a technical support person on staff in the information systems department. This individual is responsible for helping users when they encounter problems as well as fixing problems with the machines when they break down or crash. Technical support specialists who work for a computer manufacturer may answer phone calls from frustrated users who cannot get their computers or applications to run properly. These specialists talk consumers through the problems and attempt to solve them over the phone. Computer repairers are called in when the hardware breaks down physically. Transistors can blow, for example, or motherboards or other internal hardware can be defective from the start. Computer repairers analyze the
hardware, determine the cause of the problem, and fix it by repairing the equipment or replacing certain parts with new ones.
Sales The computer industry would not exist without a sales force. Computer sales representatives work for computer manufacturers or retail stores. They are very knowledgeable about the wide range of products on the market and must be good at persuading consumers that their company’s product is better. Their work requires technical expertise as well as strong interpersonal communication skills.
■ Outlook Employment for many computer professionals, such as software engineers, systems administrators, computer systems analysts, and database administrators, is expected to increase much faster than average through 2014 as technology becomes more sophisticated and organizations continue to adopt and integrate these technologies, making job openings plentiful. Additionally, faster-thanaverage growth is predicted for computer support specialists and network administrators. Falling prices of computer hardware and software should continue to encourage more businesses to expand computerized operations and integrate new technologies. To maintain a competitive edge and operate more cost-effectively, firms will continue to demand computer professionals who are knowledgeable about the latest technologies and can apply them to the needs of businesses. As for the Internet, the expanding integration of Internet technologies has resulted in a rising demand for a variety of skilled professionals who can develop and support Internet, Intranet, and World Wide Web applications. Growth in these areas is expected to create strong demand for computer scientists, engineers, and systems analysts who are knowledgeable about networks, data, and communications security. Employment opportunities in the computer industry are numerous and varied. Flexibility is key because as the industry shifts into new, unexplored areas, computer professionals have to shift as well. In addition, many computer professionals use certain jobs as springboards to other higher-level jobs. For example, few professionals want to work in technical support long term, but many start there to get a foot in the company’s door in order to be first in line for any internal positions that open up. According to the U.S. Department of Labor, employment of programmers is predicted to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations through 2014. Advanced software capable of writing basic code has
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eliminated some jobs, and other programming jobs are at risk of being outsourced to other countries. Employment of computer equipment operators is expected to decline, since advances in automation continue to increase, reducing the need for such workers. Three things are essential to aspiring computer professionals: determination to keep up with the latest technology, flexibility, and formal education. Of course, a solid understanding of computer basics is required as well. However, the technology of today will be obsolete in months, if not weeks, and only those individuals who strive to be on the cutting edge will have long-term growth potential during their careers.
cians; Computer and Video Game Designers; Computer Network Administrators; Computer Programmers; Computer Support Service Owners; Computer Systems Programmer/Analysts; Computer Trainers; Database Specialists; Data Entry Clerks; Data Processing Technicians; Desktop Publishing Specialists; Electrical and Electronics Engineers; Graphic Designers; Graphics Programmers; Hardware Engineers; Information Brokers; Internet Consultants; Internet Developers; Internet Security Specialists; Microelectronics Technicians; Quality Assurance Testers; Semiconductor Technicians; Software Designers; Software Engineers; Systems Setup Specialists; Technical Support Specialists; Technical Writers and Editors; Webmasters
■ For More Information For information on internships, student membership, and the ACM student magazine Crossroads, contact Association for Computing Machinery (ACM) 1515 Broadway, 17th Floor New York, NY 10036-5701 Tel: 800-342-6626 Email:
[email protected] http://www.acm.org
For information on scholarships, student membership, and the student newsletter looking.forward, contact IEEE Computer Society 1730 Massachusetts Avenue, NW Washington, DC 20036-1992 Tel: 202-371-0101 http://www.computer.org
For information about the IT industry, contact Information Technology Association of America 1401 Wilson Boulevard, Suite 1100 Arlington, VA 22209-2325 Tel: 703-522-5055 http://www.itaa.org
For certification information, contact Institute for Certification of Computing Professionals 2350 East Devon Avenue, Suite 115 Des Plaines, IL 60018-4610 Tel: 800-843-8227 http://www.iccp.org
■ Related Articles Computer Hardware; Computer Software; Electronics; The Internet; Computer-Aided Design Drafters and Technicians; Computer and Electronics Sales Representatives; Computer and Office Machine Service Techni-
Computer Software ■ Background The software industry comprises many facets: personal computer (PC) applications; operating systems for both stand-alone and networked systems; management tools for networks; enterprise software that enables efficient management of large corporations’ production, sales, and information systems; software applications and operating systems for mainframe computers; and customized software for specific industry management. Packaged software is written for mass distribution, rather than for the specific needs of a particular user. Broad categories of packaged applications include operating systems, utilities, applications, and programming languages. Operating systems control the basic functions of a computer or network. Utilities perform support functions such as backup or virus protection. Programming software is used to develop the sets of instructions that build all other types of software. The software most familiar to the majority of computer users is application software. This includes the familiar word processing, spreadsheets, and email packages used in business; games and reference software used at home; and subject, or skill-based, software used in schools. Although software has always been an important part of computer history, the software market did not really take off until the advent of the personal computer. IBM debuted its personal computer in 1981. Osborne released the first portable computer that same year. Apple came out with the first graphical user interface (GUI) and mouse, which set the standard for future computers, according to Cass Brewer (“Computer History,” Web Guide Monthly, September 1998). The GUI made computers much easier
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Words to Know ASCII: American Standard Code for Information Interchange. Debugging: The process of testing, making appropriate changes, and rechecking software before it is released. GUI: Graphical user interface. Hacker: Person who breaks into the resources of corporate computer systems. Hub: A central location for the attachment of wires from workstations on the network. Hubs receive signals from one station and retransmit them to another. IS: Information services departments within corporations. IT: Information technology. LAN: Local area network that connects two or more communication devices within a localized geographical area. Network interface card: An expansion card installed in a PC to provide an interface between a LAN and the PC. Network operating system: Software that enables PCs attached to a LAN to communicate with the server and other PCs on that network. Network server: An intelligent device on a LAN that runs network operating software and provides various services to the intelligent devices on the network. Rollout: The release of a software package or upgrade. Router: A networking device that manages protocoldependent LAN-to-LAN internetworking traffic. Switch: A networking device that receives incoming packets, stores them temporarily to examine link-layer information, and then decides whether the packet needs to be forwarded, and if so, to which port. Wireless LAN: Local area network that uses radio waves instead of cables to connect to a user device.
for the average person to use. “Software was used mainly by ‘power users,’” says David Berner, a systems analyst for Baxter International. “But with the GUI, nontechnical people could also use computers easily.” That user friendliness propelled computers to become the devices that have revolutionized the way we do business and, in reality, the way we live. “In 1983,” according to the IEEE Computer Society, “software development exploded with the introduction of the PC. Standard applications included not only spreadsheets and word processors, but graphics packages and communications systems.” Needless to say, the software industry has boomed since then. The worldwide packaged software industry for all platforms was worth about $220 billion in 2005. Of this,
the United States is estimated to hold an approximately 50 percent share of the market. U.S. software companies lead the world in development and production of original, effective, and efficient products for businesses, homes, and schools.
■ Structure The field of computer software can be divided into three environments: corporate information services (IS) departments, software vendors, and consultants. People in corporate IS departments usually work on the implementation and support of software and hardware products for companies that produce nontechnical items or services. People who work with software vendor companies focus on creating products for sale. Consultants are independent contractors who are hired by corporations to help implement new software packages.
IT Departments Information technology (sometimes known as information services) departments support the information-systems needs of corporations. They analyze a company’s technological needs, then explore what kinds of software products are already available for implementation. Some customization of the software might be necessary, so information technology (IT) employees might develop or add various programs. There are several software-related positions within IT departments. Programmers write, test, and maintain software. They write specific programs by breaking down each step into a logical series of instructions that the computer can follow. Programmers then code these instructions in a conventional programming language, such as C or FORTRAN; an artificial intelligence language, such as Prolog; or one of the more advanced, function-oriented or object-oriented languages, such as Java, C++, or Smalltalk. Programmers usually know more than one programming language and must often learn new ones as they are released. They update, repair, modify, and expand existing programs. Programmers also test programs by running them several times to ensure that the instructions in the user manuals are correct and that they produce the desired information. If an error occurs, programmers make the appropriate changes and recheck the programs until they run smoothly. This process is called debugging. Database/data warehouse administrators work with database management systems software, from coordinating changes to testing and implementing databases. They are responsible for design implementation and coordinating security measures. Systems analysts use their knowledge and skills to solve computer problems and enable the technology to meet
the individual needs of an organization. They have a multidimensional vocation that requires a range of technical, managerial, and creative skills. Systems analysts study business, scientific, or engineering data-processing problems and design new solutions. This process can include planning and developing new computer systems, or devising ways to apply existing systems’ resources to additional operations. They also might design entirely new systems, including hardware and software, or add one software application to harness more of the computer’s power. The ideal systems analyst has a balance of programming and analysis skills. Directors and managers of IT and client/server computing are responsible for overall software application development and support. They analyze and select products as well as supervise the budgets and contract negotiations. IT managers also handle some project-management duties. Systems programmers and Unix administrators install, maintain, upgrade, and support the operating systems and software products. They mainly work with the software systems and do not have a lot of interaction with users. Directors of technical services and technical support managers are responsible for the implementation and support of software products. They work closely with vendors and other departments to ensure software reliability. Network engineers deal with LAN and WAN support and PC/LAN connectivity. They have lots of interaction with users and troubleshoot network conditions. This job also includes designing networks and analyzing products. Intermediate engineers maintain and support network issues. Junior engineers usually provide help desk support and configure the company’s PCs. Directors of network services handle all of the network communications responsibilities. Computer operators run jobs, change tapes and disks, and monitor equipment. Operations supervisors are responsible for data center hardware implementation and its overall support. Computer operations managers, supervisors, and directors of computer operations also work with vendors to maintain the overall system reliability and hardware configuration planning, as well as managing support staffs. Chief information officers or vice presidents are responsible for the overall operations of the department, including budgets. Chief information officers spend a lot of time negotiating vendor contracts, and building teams of specialists to carry out their strategic plans.
Software Vendors Software vendors develop and sell software products (sometimes coupled with hardware). To remain compet-
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itive, software companies must keep up with emerging technologies. There are several steps to complete before introducing a new software package or upgrade. These steps include conceptualization, design, alpha prototype creation, beta testing, and rollout (or release). While this can be very stimulating work, there can be downsides. Many times, it is necessary to work extra hours to meet deadlines. On the other hand, it can be very exciting when you are in the thick of things, working toward creating the best product on the market. There are two types of jobs within vendor companies: technical and functional. Technical people, such as programmers and systems architects, actually make the concept work. Functional people deal with the aesthetics and userfriendliness of the software. These positions include design analysts, testers, and quality-assurance technicians. Other functional positions are project managers and trainers. Vice presidents or directors of development are in charge of other software engineering managers or technical support departments. In small companies, vice presidents of
A cross-sectional view of a machine part produced with computeraided design (CAD) software. CAD reduces the time and effort needed to design products and can provide data that will allow computer-controlled machine tools to manufacture them. (International Business Machines.)
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engineering might also be designers. In large companies, they might have 100 people reporting to them. Managers of research and development are in charge of developing, maintaining, and supporting all of the projects in their areas. Software designers, sometimes known as software architects or software engineers, are the most purely technical people in the industry. They are responsible for creating the company’s new products. Occasionally, they lead teams of engineers. Sometimes they receive royalties for the products they develop. A good software designer can make or break a company. Software engineers maintain existing code, develop new enhancements to older products, and write custom interfaces with other projects. These professionals also possess strong programming skills, but are more concerned with analyzing and solving programming problems than simply with code. Software engineers sometimes mentor junior- and intermediate-level developers. Before the product is shipped or made available to the general public, it must be tested to ensure it performs all of the functions that are documented in the user manual. If there is a problem with a particular code, testers or quality-assurance people collaborate with the development team to get it resolved. Vice presidents of sales and marketing and directors of sales support are responsible for sales, customer support, and product planning, usually for one region of the country. Individuals who hold these positions have usually started out in technical development and moved up into the various levels of sales and marketing. They travel frequently in order to foster customer relationships with the company. The sales staff has system engineers to help support them, especially during sales presentations. They also are responsible for customization of the software at the customer’s site, installation, and upgrades. Project managers oversee the implementation of their clients’ systems according to their specific requirements. This includes assembling resources to develop the application as well as to prepare and stabilize the system. Project managers supervise these resources and oversee the necessary contracts. They also prepare the documentation required for the project, including a detailed plan that contains all of the tasks necessary to complete the project and the resources assigned to those tasks, as well as daily meeting logs and weekly status reports. Customer support specialists provide assistance and advice to users. They interpret problems and provide technical support for hardware, software, and systems. Directors of product planning report the strategic direction of the company to the outside world. They plan trade shows and advertising and analyze the competition’s products, pricing, and packaging. Directors of
data center operations support the computer systems of software developers and other departments within the vendor company.
Consulting A growing number of software professionals are employed on a temporary (or contract) basis. Many are self-employed and work independently as consultants. For example, a company that is installing a new computer system might need the services of several systems analysts just to get the system running. Because not all of them would be needed once the system is functioning, the company might contract directly with systems analysts, temporary-help agencies, or consulting firms. Such jobs can last from several months to more than two years. This growing practice enables companies to bring in people who have the exact skills they need to complete particular projects rather than having to spend time or money training and retraining existing workers. Often, experienced consultants then train the company’s inhouse staff as a project develops.
■ Outlook While overall growth in this industry has slowed, the U.S. Department of Labor predicts that three of the 10 fastestgrowing jobs through 2014 will be computer related. In addition, thousands of job openings will result annually from the need to replace workers who move into managerial positions or leave the labor force. Keeping current with new or upgraded products is extremely important for software professionals. “You have to keep up to date on all of the new technology. This industry changes so quickly, that if you do not, you will be out of a job,” notes systems analyst David Berner. “I recently interviewed someone who only knew some of the older computer languages. We did not hire him, and it will be tough for him to find a job.”
■ For More Information For information on scholarships, student membership, and the student newsletter looking.forward, contact IEEE Computer Society 1730 Massachusetts Avenue, NW Washington, DC 20036-1992 Tel: 202-371-0101 http://www.computer.org
For certification information, contact Institute for Certification of Computing Professionals 2350 East Devon Avenue, Suite 115 Des Plaines, IL 60018
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Tel: 800-843-8227 http://www.iccp.org
For more information on careers in computer software, contact Software & Information Industry Association 1090 Vermont Avenue, NW, Sixth Floor Washington, DC 20005 Tel: 202-289-7442 http://www.siia.net
To read an online version of this popular computer industry magazine, visit Computerworld http://www.computerworld.com
■ Related Articles Computer Hardware; Computers; Electronics; The Internet; Computer and Electronics Sales Representatives; Computer-Aided Design Drafters and Technicians; Computer and Office Machine Service Technicians; Computer Network Administrators; Computer Programmers; Computer and Electronics Sales Representatives; Computer Systems Programmer/Analysts; Computer Trainers; Database Specialists; Data Entry Clerks; Data Processing Technicians; Desktop Publishing Specialists; Graphic Designers; Graphics Programmers; Hardware Engineers; Information Brokers; Internet Developers; Internet Security Specialists; Microelectronics Technicians; Quality Assurance Testers; Semiconductor Technicians; Software Designers; Software Engineers; Systems Setup Specialists; Technical Support Specialists; Technical Writers and Editors; Webmasters
Construction ■ Background Construction is an industry field that includes the erection, maintenance, and repair of buildings and other immobile structures, and the building of roads and service facilities that become integral parts of structures and are essential to their use. Construction includes structural additions and alterations but excludes the building of mobile structures such as trailers and ships. Most of the earliest buildings have not survived to this century because they were made of nonpermanent materials. However, some structures that were made of stone and baked brick have survived. The 3,000-year-old
Egyptian pyramids are assembled from mammoth stone blocks; the 2,500-year-old Mayan temples in Guatemala are handcarved stone. As builders began to understand the physics of a building, they were able to modify the structure to stand taller, have wider and more open rooms, and have windows to allow in light. Pillars allowed more open windows and wider rooms. Arches and vaults allowed buildings to have higher roofs. Two thousand years ago, the Romans developed a mix for concrete that was extremely strong and long lasting. In fact, today there are innumerable Roman structures still standing and some that are still used. The Romans built international roads, laying stones down for thousands of miles, to facilitate the movement of troops. They built aqueducts to move water hundreds of miles. They developed the first pipelines to move wine and olive oil from the villages to the shore where the products would be loaded on boats. For the next 1,500 years, buildings and roads improved with new understandings of physics and new mixes of concretes and cements. The buildings remained brick, stone, concrete, wood, or other natural products. It was not until 1796, with the first iron-frame building in England, that the next major breakthrough in building design occurred. Cast-iron pillars allowed architects and builders a chance to construct buildings higher than 10 stories. By the turn of the century, buildings were being constructed that were 14 and 15 stories high. These were the first skyscrapers. The new mechanical elevator allowed people to use floors too high to climb to by stairs. Metal as a building material changed bridges, buildings, tunnels; almost every structure was affected in design. Bridges could be designed to span across much larger waterways. Buildings eventually reached more than 100 stories. Tunnels could cross miles under rivers, even under the English Channel. Today, the construction industry is still testing new materials and new methods of building with metals and synthetic products. Lighter, stronger materials allow the construction of larger, more open structures with less support. These new products are designed to withstand natural disasters, such as earthquakes and hurricanes. The other major shift in the construction industry is the movement away from building new structures and toward repairing, expanding, and maintaining old structures. Almost 50 percent of construction work in the United States is in renovation and repair. As cities become saturated with buildings, renovation and restructuring will become the most common part of the building trades. Also, as the U.S. road and bridge system ages, repairs are needed to keep the vast transportation network in a usable condition.
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Did You Know? The largest building in the world by volume is in the United States. It is a one-story airplane plant at Everett, Washington. Its footprint covers 98.3 acres and encloses an area of more than 472 million cubic feet. In this enormous space, Boeing 747, 767, and 777 jet airliners are built. Source: http://www.boeing.com
■ Structure The construction industry is one of the largest industries in the United States. According to the U.S. Department of Labor, it employed 7 million wage and salary workers in 2004. There were approximately 818,000 construction companies in the United States in 2004. Approximately 62 percent of these companies were specialty trade contractors, 30 percent were building construction contractors; and 7 percent were heavy and civil engineering construction or highway contractors. More than 65 percent of construction companies employ fewer than five people. Construction is a detailed and complex industry, dealing with all aspects of building a structure, whether it’s a skyscraper or a highway. This includes clearing sites and developing structures. Construction also covers service equipment that, when installed, becomes an integral part of the structure, such as plumbing, heating, central air-conditioning, electrical wiring, lighting equipment, elevators, and escalators. In general, the first step in construction involves bidding for a project. It is not true that the contractor who bids the lowest price is always awarded the contract. Bids are judged on several points: experience of the contractor, designs submitted for the project, proposed time schedule, recommendations from previous customers, and cost. The winning contractor then hires subcontractors to perform selected projects, such as laying the foundation, fireproofing the structure, and installing the ventilation system. After all of the tasks have been coordinated with the subcontractors, the structure is ready to be built. Construction takes many forms, and its products vary widely in size, appearance, composition, character, and purpose. These products are divided into major groups or categories according to their principal characteristics, and each of these is further divided into subcategories. The categories apply to new construction as well as repair and renovation work. The largest single category of construction is residential building construction, which includes structures ranging from small homes to huge housing develop-
ments, and usually amounts to about one-third of the total annual dollar volume. Another major category is nonresidential building construction, or general building construction. It includes industrial buildings, such as plants and factories; commercial structures ranging from small stores to great skyscrapers; and institutional and other kinds of nonresidential structures, such as schools, churches, and hospitals. Highway and heavy construction is another principal category. Highway work embraces not only networks of interstate highways, but also bridges, local roads, and streets. Airport runway construction is largely done by highway contractors, since runways and highways involve much of the same methods, materials, machines, and skills. Typical heavy projects include dams, big bridges, tunnels, railroads, missile bases, refineries, and waterways such as the Panama Canal, the St. Lawrence Seaway, and river channels. Similar equipment and construction methods are employed for highway and heavy construction. Earthmoving, for example, may be done for a highway project or for an earth-fill dam. Finally, municipal utilities construction encompasses the essential services for counties, towns, and cities. Such projects include sewage treatment plants, water purification projects, water and sewer lines, underground utilities, street resurfacing, park and playground construction, as well as sidewalk construction and maintenance. Construction activity is divided into two broad classifications: private and public. Private construction is construction work performed for private owners, whether individuals, corporations, or other business firms, organizations, or institutions of a nongovernmental character. It is usually paid for out of private funds. Public construction is construction work performed for federal, state, or local agencies of government and usually paid for out of tax money, bonds, or other public funds. However, the governing distinction between private and public construction is the ownership of the project at the time of construction and not the source of funds used to pay for the project. For most of the trades involved in construction, the workers do not start at the beginning of the building process and work until the building is complete. Workers come in for the portion of the job that involves them and then move on to other projects. So, an electrician comes in to wire a house and then moves on to another construction site. He or she may have to come back to do more electrical work, but it is not essential to have an electrician at a job site every day. Because workers come and go, it is important to have a project supervisor, or job foreman, who knows all the phases of the work being done.
■ Outlook Construction accounts for approximately one-tenth of the U.S. annual gross national product. Physical facilities built by the construction industry include homes, stores and buildings, mills and factories, highways and streets, bridges, railroads, airports, wharves and docks, pipelines, tunnels, dams, power plants, irrigation projects, public works, and defense installations. Whether it is the life savings of one family buying a home or the investments of a corporation to finance the erection of a skyscraper, it all adds up to a substantial yearly increase in national investment. The nation’s banks, insurance companies, pension plans, and other financial institutions have a big stake in construction, for they finance most of it. In the 21st century the nation will be forced to make major repairs to its infrastructure—highways, tunnels, bridges, dams, schools, power plants, water and sewer systems, subways, and airports—which will generate the need for all kinds of people employed in highway and heavy construction work. In addition to the increased numbers of projects, the construction projects themselves will grow in both size and complexity. New laws setting higher standards for building and construction materials, worker safety, energy efficiency, and pollution control will need to be addressed by skilled professionals with expertise in construction science, engineering, and management. Residential construction should continue to grow, although the demand for remodeling and repair work is likely to be stronger than the demand for new housing. The remodeling trend will also take place in nonresidential construction as aging industrial plants, schools, hospitals, and other large buildings need alteration, expansion, and repair. Employment growth is expected in highway, bridge, and street construction, as well as in repairs to prevent further deterioration of highways and bridges. Employment of construction managers, who oversee projects and ensure that laws are upheld, is expected to grow as fast as the average through 2014. Managers with a bachelor’s degree in construction science and work experience with a construction management services firm should have plenty of job opportunities. Job growth also will occur in most of the skilled construction trades, especially for electricians. They will be needed in greater numbers not only to replace old wiring in existing facilities but to keep pace with the continuing growth in telecommunications and computer equipment now used in many new structures, including, for example, electronically operated “smart” buildings.
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Employment of tile and marble setters, construction and building inspectors, and heating, air-conditioning mechanics and installers should grow faster than the industry average. Employment of carpet installers, construction laborers, floor sanders and finishers, insulation workers, paperhangers, plasters and stucco masons, and tapers is expected to grow more slowly than the construction industry as a whole because of the development of new materials and equipment that increases productivity with less labor. All these factors point to a steady expansion of the market for construction services. Although further technological improvements in construction methods and equipment is expected to raise the productivity of workers, the volume of activity will require substantial numbers of craftworkers in the various building trades, mostly as replacements for those who retire or leave the labor force for other reasons. Although prospects look promising, the construction industry is very sensitive to fluctuations in the national economy. These fluctuations usually affect part-time and seasonal workers and lower-skilled workers the most. Skilled, artistic tradespeople are almost always in demand, even during economic downturns.
Words to Know Environmental impact statement: A report, often required by the Environmental Protection Agency, prepared to determine how proposed construction will affect the environment, including wildlife and natural resources. Feasibility study: A report prepared by cost estimators to determine whether proposed construction is economically viable. General contractor: The person or firm entrusted by the site owner with overall responsibility for building construction; see also Subcontractor. Geographic information systems (GIS): A combination of digital computer technology and mapmaking techniques that stores data in the form of a map instead of a list. Photogrammetric surveying: The process of taking reliable measurements from photographs, usually aerial photographs. Quantity surveying: The process of financially managing proposed construction by evaluating and advising on economic, legal, and scheduling concerns. Subcontractor: The person or firm entrusted by the general contractor with responsibility for one particular aspect of building construction, such as roofing or plumbing work.
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Email:
[email protected] http://www.csinet.org
For information on training and job listings, contact Home Builders Institute 1201 15th Street, NW Washington, DC 20005-2800 Tel: 800-795-7955 http://www.hbi.org
For industry information, contact National Association of Home Builders 1201 15th Street, NW Washington, DC 20005-2800 Tel: 800-368-5242 http://www.nahb.org
For information on apprenticeship training programs for construction industry workers, visit Employment & Training Administration U.S. Department of Labor http://www.doleta.gov
■ Related Articles Construction sites can be dangerous places to work, so safety regulations must be followed at all times. (Matthew Hohmann.)
■ For More Information For information on training programs and accreditation, contact American Council for Construction Education 1717 North Loop 1604 East, Suite 320 San Antonio, TX 78232-1570 Tel: 210-495-6161 Email:
[email protected] http://www.acce-hq.org
Machining and Machinery; Architects; Asbestos Abatement Technicians; Bricklayers and Stonemasons; Carpenters; Cement Masons; Civil Engineering Technicians; Civil Engineers; Construction Inspectors; Construction Laborers; Cost Estimators; Drafters; Drywall Installers and Finishers; Electricians; Elevator Installers and Repairers; Floor Covering Installers; Glaziers; Heating and Cooling Technicians; Ironworkers; Landscape Architects; Lathers; Marble Setters, Tile Setters, and Terrazzo Workers; Operating Engineers; Painters and Paperhangers; Plasterers; Plumbers and Pipefitters; Roofers; Sheet Metal Workers; Stationary Engineers; Surveying and Mapping Technicians; Surveyors; Welders; Welding Technicians
For information on careers and training, contact Associated General Contractors of America 2300 Wilson, VA 22201-5424 Tel: 703-548-3118 Email:
[email protected] http://www.agc.org
Cosmetology ■ Background
For information on college student membership, scholarships, certification, and education programs, contact Construction Specifications Institute 99 Canal Center Plaza, Suite 300 Alexandria, VA 22314-1559 Tel: 800-689-2900
From a new summer hairdo to a milk and honey facial, from a leg waxing to an eyebrow plucking, cosmetologists provide a wide range of beauty and health services. Back when a shave and a haircut were two bits, men spent their lunch hours relaxing in hydraulic barber chairs for hot, aromatic shaves. Meanwhile, women got
their hair done in beauty salons, while also indulging in occasional manicures and facials. This attention to skin care and hair care is no longer regarded as an indulgence; as a matter of fact, some doctors are beginning to prescribe spa treatments for their patients. The cosmetology industry is at the forefront of new attitudes regarding mind/body awareness, relaxation techniques, nutrition, and spirituality. Now, men and women frequent the same salons, paying the same kind of attention to their hairstyles and appearance. Spas, which were considered the domain of rich old women for most of the 20th century, have become vacation spots of choice for men and women, young and old. And cosmetology, because of its stability, growth potential, and financial security, has been highly ranked in recent career surveys by Money, Women’s World, and the U.S. Department of Labor. Cosmetologists work in many different settings; they may rent a chair in a local hair styling salon or bodywrap spa guests at a tropical resort. “Day spas” are cropping up across the country, opening up jobs for cosmetologists with experience in massage, facials, nail care, and hydrotherapy. To compete, hair and nail salons are expanding to include additional rooms for face and body treatments. Fitness centers are also expanding their lines of service and are hiring massage therapists and spa attendants. New treatments, like aromatherapy, and new products, like herb-based, chemical-free cosmetics, require the industry to constantly change, adapting to trends and attitudes. But cosmetologists aren’t limited to the spa and beauty salon. A variety of jobs are available at the fringe of the cosmetology industry. Cosmetologists work in films, at recreational parks, cosmetology schools, funeral homes, and health clubs. The earliest beauty salons were in the caves of prehistoric humans who decorated their bodies with the pigments they used to paint the cave walls. Ancient Egyptians also painted their bodies, but paid the most attention to decorating the eyes. This eye treatment was both for beauty and health—the dark paint protected their eyes from insects and the harsh sunlight. Egyptians also dyed their skin and hair with henna, a practice that eventually caught on in Rome and even regained popularity here at the end of the 20th century. In ancient India and medieval Europe, hair and body decoration was practiced only by the upper classes and by royalty. Throughout history, everything from beet juice to lethal white lead has been used to decorate the skin and hair. By the 1700s, the men and women of Europe wore stark white face powder, powdered wigs, and bright red lip rouge. Makeup was toned down by the Victorian age; a more reserved attention to cosmetics was then stimulated by
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early twentieth-century advertising. Advertising is still a very important part of the cosmetology industry. Magazines, TV, and other media promote glamour, beauty, and fashion trends.
■ Structure The hair salon is the most well-known icon of the cosmetology industry. Salons can range from a space in a stylist’s home to a small storefront operation to a large multi-station facility with separate rooms for shampooing, cutting, coloring, perming, makeup, massage, and other services. Cosmetologists who have finished training and have received a state license to practice usually start in entry-level positions in salons. These positions might include floor sweeping, shampooing clients’ hair, making appointments, ordering supplies, and other tasks. Gradually, new cosmetologists take on more responsibilities and have more direct client contact, starting with simple cuts and styling. With more on-the-job experience while building a client base, they do more complicated cuts and styles, perms, and hair coloring. Another popular alternative for cosmetologists is selfemployment. Some work as freelance hair and makeup designers who work with photographers, modeling agencies, film production companies, theaters, or television studios. Some open their own salons or rent a station in an established salon. Because so many cosmetologists seek self-employment, there is a great deal of mobility within the industry. According to a 1999 survey (the most recent information available) conducted by the National Accrediting Commission of Cosmetology Arts and Sciences (NACCAS), one out of every three salon employees changed jobs in the last year. Approximately 25 percent of those who left salon establishments went into business for themselves, either as salon owners or booth renters.
Access to Cosmetology Education More than $3 million in scholarships is available through Access to Cosmetology Education (ACE) Grants. Sponsored by three major beauty industry associations (the American Association of Cosmetology Schools, the Cosmetology Advancement Foundation, and the Beauty and Barber Supply Institute), ACE Grants are the first industry-wide effort to encourage motivated and qualified individuals to join the world of cosmetology. To find out how to apply for an ACE Grant, call 1-888-411-4726.
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There are a number of specialties within cosmetology. In hair styling alone, cosmetologists can specialize in cuts, color, or perms. They may also become makeup artists, nail technicians, electrologists, image consultants, or developers and marketers of beauty products. According to the Occupational Outlook Handbook, there were 670,000 barbers, hairstylists and cosmetologists, 60,000 manicurists and pedicurists, 30,000 skin care specialists, and 25,000 shampooers in 2005. The cosmetology industry also includes people working in other career fields, such as health care (cosmetic surgeons, dermatologists, surgical aides), the film industry (hair and makeup artists, costume designers, special effects artists), advertising, retail sales, fitness, and management. Magazine, newspaper, and Web publishing offer opportunities for full-time and consultant cosmetology experts. There is a variety of jobs available in the manufacturing of beauty and personal care products (such as cosmetics, hair care products, skin care products, and toiletries), including chemical scientists, technicians, packaging designers and engineers, advertising and marketing professionals, sales and distribution personnel, and production workers.
■ Outlook Cosmetologists work to make their clients look and feel their absolute best. (Corbis)
Words to Know Aromatherapists: Practitioners who use fragrant, plantderived oils to treat a wide range of conditions and problems in their clients. Dermatologic surgeons: Dermatologists who perform surgical cosmetic procedures. Electrolysis: A permanent method of removing unwanted facial or body hair through the use of an electric probe. Estheticians: Another term for cosmeticians or skin care specialists. Image consultants (also called color analysts): Practitioners who assess clients’ coloring and advise them on their most flattering colors for makeup and clothing. Olfactory: Of or related to the sense of smell. Thalasso hydrotherapy: A fresh seawater massage available in some spas. Tonsorial artists: Old-fashioned term for barbers, derived from the Latin word meaning to shear.
Check the yellow pages of your phone book under “Beauty Salons and Services” and you’ll see how much the industry is growing. You’re likely to find a long list of salons in your area. Day spas are also opening up across the country, and salons are expanding to include more spa services like body wraps and massage. Hotels and resorts are adding salons, spas, and fitness centers to their facilities. The clientele of spas and salons has expanded to include men. Many skin care lines carry products for men, and cosmetic surgery is gaining wider acceptance among both men and women. Those in the cosmetology industry, through such professional organizations as the NACCAS and the Cosmetology Advancement Foundation, are making efforts to educate people about the varied career options within the industry. Due to the growing number of salons and the mobility within the industry, these cosmetology associations are actively recruiting people to meet the industry’s high demand for workers. The U.S. Department of Labor projects average growth for all cosmetology occupations through 2014. The number of barbershops is declining, but trained barbers should not have difficulty finding jobs because of the lack of qualified applicants. The high rate of turnover in the cosmetology field and the continuing demand for services should create plenty of opportunities.
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■ For More Information For career information and information about grants and scholarships, contact Cosmetology Advancement Foundation PO Box 811 FDR Station New York, NY 10150-0811 Tel: 212-750-2412 http://www.cosmetology.org
For information on accredited schools and jobs, contact National Accrediting Commission of Cosmetology Arts and Sciences 4401 Ford Avenue, Suite 1300 Alexandria, VA 22302-1342 Tel: 703-600-7600 http://www.naccas.org
For industry and career information, contact National Cosmetology Association 401 North Michigan Avenue, 22nd Floor Chicago, IL 60611-4255 Tel: 312-527-6757 http://www.salonprofessionals.org
■ Related Articles Aromatherapists; Barbers; Color Analysts and Image Consultants; Cosmetic Surgeons; Cosmeticians; Cosmetics Sales Representatives; Cosmetologists; Dermatologists; Electrologists; Makeup Artists; Massage Therapists; Mortuary Cosmetologists; Nail Technicians; Salon Managers; Spa Attendants
Dance ■ Background Dance is one of the oldest of the arts. Anthropologists believe the first formal dances were probably symbolic dances performed by early tribal societies as part of ritual ceremonies held to ask spirits or gods for success in hunting or in battle. Some anthropologists think that dancing and music originally came from the same mating-display impulses that occur in other species. The Egyptians used dance to honor their leaders and during parades, funerals, and religious ceremonies. Israelites performed circle dances, processional chain dances, and energetic stamping-and-jumping dances at religious festivals. Greek children learned to dance as part of their education; adults performed dances in festivals honoring the god Dionysus
and as part of Greek comedy and tragedy. Many of these dances were adopted and developed by the Romans as well. During the Middle Ages, the church banned pagan ritual dance, but dance was performed in the Mass and in miracle and mystery plays. Social dancing also was important in court activities. Dance flourished with the other arts during the Renaissance. In Italy in the 15th century, dance helped tell stories in conjunction with celebrations. The balletto combined dance, poetry, song, and elaborate scenery, and a performance could last for hours or days. King Henry II of France married Catherine de Medici, who brought the balletto to France, where it was renamed ballet. The French court’s ballets de cour led to the development of ballet as theatrical dance, distinct from court ballroom dancing and folk dancing. During the mid-1600s, King Louis XIV of France was a great supporter of ballet. He also was known to participate in ballets. He founded L’Académie Royale de Dance, where classical ballet positions were first codified under dancing master Pierre Beauchamps. By the beginning of the 18th century, ballet became a serious profession, moving out of the court and onto the stage, with its own schools, theaters, paid dancers, and choreographers. Noted choreographers and dancers were Jean Philippe Rameau, Franz Hiverding, Jean Georges Noverre, and August Vetris. One of the oldest ballets still performed today is the French La Fille Mal Gardée choreographed by Jean Dauberval. Meanwhile, ballroom dancing remained popular with the aristocracy. The first public dance halls, called assembly rooms, opened in London in the mid-1700s, eventually spreading throughout Europe and America. Point shoes and dancing on the toes became part of ballet toward the middle of the 19th century. As the Romantic movement developed, some of ballet’s greatest masterpieces were written and debuted: La Sylphide, Swan Lake, Giselle, Sleeping Beauty, and The Nutcracker Suite, among others. Russian ballet became the center of attention late in the century. Among the great modern masters of ballet were Vaslav Nijinsky, Anna Pavlova, George Balanchine, Mikhail Fokine, Serge Diaghilev, Margot Fonteyn, Mikhail Baryshnikov, and Rudolf Nureyev. Modern dance, developed in the early 1900s, began as a reaction against what was viewed as the formal, set techniques of ballet. Modern dance stressed a less-structured, more personal approach to dance. Many modern dances did not tell a story, but expressed abstract concepts such as time, space, emotion, or movement for movement’s sake. Among the American pioneers of modern dance
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Words to Know Accompanist: A pianist who plays for dance classes or dance rehearsals. Arabesque: A move in which the dancer balances on one leg with the other extended behind and arms extended. Barre: A horizontal handrail that the dancer holds onto while performing ballet exercises. Character shoe: Leather shoe, usually with a strap that buckles across the ankle, sometimes with a heel, often worn for contemporary dance or musical theater. Choreography: Predetermined arrangement of movement created for a specific dance piece. Five positions: The fundamental positions that form the starting points of most dance movement. Jeté: A leap from one foot to the other, made with a kicking movement of the leg. Leg warmer: A covering for the legs, usually worn while rehearsing to prevent cramping. Leotard: One-piece, tightfitting, sleeved or sleeveless garment covering the torso, worn by dancers in rehearsal and sometimes as part of a performance costume. Plié: A movement in which the knees are bent outward with the back held straight. Relevé: Straightening of the legs and raising onto the toes. Repertoire or repertory: The group of pieces that a company chooses from for each scheduled performance. Technique: The basic vocabulary of any given style of dance; ballet, jazz, and other styles of dance all have their own techniques. Toe shoe: A ballet shoe with a rigid, padded filling in the toe to allow the dancer to stand up on the toes.
were Loie Fuller, Isadora Duncan, Ruth St. Denis, and Ted Shawn. Later dancers from this school included Doris Humphrey, Charles Weidman, and Martha Graham, and their more contemporary successors, Merce Cunningham, Alvin Ailey, Twyla Tharp, and others. In the United States, African-Americans developed tap dancing in the 1800s by combining traditional African dances with English and Irish dance steps that emphasized the sounds the shoes made during the dance. Tap dance was among the many variety acts incorporated into vaudeville and musical revues, which were quite popular in America in the early 1900s. The first choreographed tap dancing routines were performed by the Floradora Sextet in 1900. Later popularizers of tap dancing included Bill “Bojangles” Robinson, Fred Astaire, Ruby Keeler, and more recently, Gregory Hines and Savion Glover.
As ragtime and jazz found their way into the musical lexicon, they affected ballroom dancing as well, popularizing such dances as the Castle walk (named for Vernon Castle and Irene Castle), fox-trot, tango, and the maxixe, a Brazilian dance. In the 1930s, Americans danced to the swing music of big bands, including the Lindy hop or jitterbug, as well as novelty group dances like the Lambeth walk, conga, and big apple. In the 1950s, Latin American dances, such as the mambo, cha-cha, and merengue, were popular, and with the advent of rock and roll in the 1960s and disco in the 1970s, social dancing became more and more free-form and improvisational. The evolution of musical theater and musical comedy, both live on stage as well as in film and television, resulted in the popularity of many kinds of modern and classical dances, including ballet, modern, tap, jazz, folk, ethnic, and ballroom. Popular stage and film choreographers have included Jerome Robbins, Bob Fosse, Gower Champion, and Michael Bennett. People from around the world use folk dances as an expression of cultural pride. In the United States, for example, the square dance represents a form of folk art expression. Folk and ethnic dances, once primarily social events that everyone could participate in, have taken to the stage and become performance art as well. Flamenco, tango, Irish step dance, West African dance, Native American dance, and Indian classical dance are just a few of the dance forms that are performed on stage, and they have also had a significant influence on ballet, modern, tap, and Broadway choreography.
■ Structure As with other performing arts, the staff involved in executing a dance performance extends far beyond the talent that appears on the stage, and includes choreographers, costume designers, and lighting technicians. The performer, however, is the most visible and best known of the people in dance. Dancers use their ability to move rhythmically and athletically to perform in ballets, modern dance ensembles, musical shows, folk shows, and other productions. They most often perform as part of a group, though some dancers perform solo. Among the different types of dancers are the acrobatic dancer, whose dancing is characterized by difficult gymnastic feats; the ballet dancer, who uses classical ballet movements to perform dances that often suggest a theme or tell a story; the modern dancer, whose dancing explores abstract ideas; the jazz dancer, who uses contemporary styles, often in shows and musical theater; and the tap dancer, whose style is distinguished by the feet tapping a rhythm in time with the music.
All dancers must take good care of their bodies and keep themselves in the best possible physical shape. The most successful of today’s dancers have training in a variety of styles so that they may adapt to the demands of contemporary choreography, which can combine movements from ballet, modern, tap, and other styles. Choreographers create original dances and teach them to dancers and other performers. They often direct the presentations of their work. Choreographers follow the same format for assembling a production that directors do. They audition performers, rehearse the performers, block out the action that takes place on stage, and combine the elements of design, movement, lighting, and sound into a cohesive piece. Such a task requires an understanding of music and storyline. Many choreographers begin as dancers. Some go on to start their own companies, while others remain freelance professionals whose work is commissioned by different companies around the country and even the world. Ballet masters or rehearsal directors assist in teaching a dance to a group of dancers. Usually the ballet master or rehearsal director has learned the dance directly from
Dance
the dance. At times, when the dance is a preexisting work being introduced to a new company, it is taught to the company’s ballet master, who then takes charge of teaching and rehearsing the dance in the choreographer’s absence. Dance may be performed in a small studio or a large auditorium, although the floor or stage upon which the dancers perform must meet specific qualifications so that the dancers will not be injured. Although dance usually does not involve such elaborate or realistic sets as one sees in theater, there usually is some scenic design, sometimes in the form of a backdrop or other simply scenic pieces. A set or scenic designer decides what elements will be used and how to enhance the presentation. Scenery behind the performers sets the mood and the location. Lighting sets mood and highlights movements and performers at key points in the presentation. The lighting designer draws up plans for how each part of the performance will be lit. The general lighting, specific illuminations (such as spotlights), and the special-effects lighting are all charted, timed, and choreographed to the performance. The choreographer, scenic designer, and
Dancers with choreographer the Boston Balletor rehearse for the annual production of the Nutcracker. (Associated Press/Michael Dwyer.) the original has actually performed
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Types of Dances Big Apple: A ballroom group dance performed in a circle to swing music, according to the directions of a caller; originated in the Big Apple Club of South Carolina. Bolero, Fandango, Flamenco: Spanish dances. Cakewalk: A high-stepping, strutting dance originated by African-American slaves. Cha-cha: A ballroom dance that originated in Cuba in the 1950s, bouncy and rhythmic, marked by a triple step (chacha-cha) and subtle hip movements. Conga: A line dance in which each dancer holds the waist or shoulders of the dancer ahead; three quick walking steps are followed by a kick to the side; originated in Cuba in the 1930s. Country dances: English folk dances for two or more couples, performed in a circular or square formation or in two facing lines. Fox-trot: Smooth, gliding ballroom dance with various combinations of slow and quick steps; originated in the United States around 1914. Lindy hop or lindy; also jitterbug or swing: A ballroom dance marked by energetic movement and improvised steps; originated in Harlem in the late 1920s. Mambo: Ballroom dance that originated in Cuba in the 1940s; a fast dance performed to Latin-American and jazz rhythms. Polka: A ballroom dance and a Bohemian folk dance, moderately fast with hopping and gliding steps. Square dance: An American folk dance for four couples arranged in a square who respond to instructions from a caller. Tango: A ballroom dance marked by long, gliding steps, graceful pauses, and close body contact. Twist: A fast dance in which the partners, who do not touch, twist their arms and hips; originated in the United States in the 1960s. Virginia Reel: An American folk dance, usually involving four to eight couples in two lines who follow the directions of a caller. Waltz: A ballroom dance marked by smooth turning and gliding movements, usually to a three-count. There are many variations, from the Viennese to the American.
lighting designer work closely together to create a unified, memorable final product. Stage crew members help build the sets. They also operate lighting and sound equipment during a performance. Lighting of the performance is designed, set up, and executed by lighting technicians. Manipulating the
equipment, establishing the timing, and creating special effects are part of the lighting job. Directing the amplification and recording of stage sounds is done by sound technicians. They also tape record performances for records, tapes, compact discs, video, film, and television broadcasts. Sound amplification, sound effects, and recordings are well plotted before the performance actually begins. For dance, the sound usually consists primarily of prerecorded or live musical accompaniment. Soundboards that control effects, amplification, and recording are controlled by the technicians during the performance. Makeup and costuming are expressive elements of the appearance of the performers that augment and reinforce the mood of the dance. Even the most basic costumes are carefully chosen to help tell the story or present the spirit of the piece being performed. Makeup artists apply makeup and other material to dancers. Costume directors select and help create the costumes for dance performances and oversee the production of the costumes by designers and seamstresses. Costume directors work closely with the choreographer and must be able to design costumes that don’t interfere with dance movements. Dance companies with large administrative staffs also may employ managers to handle marketing, public relations, fund-raising, and development. For those fortunate enough to be employed by a single company for the long term, the typical schedule demands travel. Dance companies often travel around the country or around the world for weeks or months at a time. Road production managers oversee and coordinate the business and operational aspects of a dance company while it is on tour. They arrange with local unions to hire stagehands and with local officials to secure the proper performance permits. They inspect theaters to make sure that the theater’s facilities are appropriate for the production. Road production managers have various administrative duties, such as accounting for expenditures and receipts, paying the company and crew their wages, and arranging accommodations for the company and crew. Typically, dance productions have several nighttime performances a week, with one or two matinee performances. Some performances may be held only once or twice. Rehearsals are often during the day. A career in dance, like most other arts, requires a passion for dance itself. Most people start taking classes at a very early age and continue into adulthood and throughout their careers. Dancers usually are hired through an audition, either for a one-time production or to be part of an ongoing company. Some companies have apprentice or trainee programs, which allow dancers to work
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their way into the full company. Most choreographers start out as dancers, as do company artistic directors. Because there are relatively few dance companies that contract dancers or choreographers all year, professional dancers often must supplement their income with work in other professions. For example, dancing talent is used at and by summer resorts, on cruise ships, in gambling casinos, at state fairs, and at amusement and theme parks. Many dancers and choreographers also teach dance, either in professional studios or at schools and universities.
and opera companies, music videos and television, film production, universities, and studio teaching.
■ Outlook
The following is a national nonprofit service organization for professional dance. It represents ballet, modern, ethnic, jazz, and tap companies; dance service and presenting organizations; individuals; and other organizations. Dance USA
Employment opportunities for skilled dance artists will continue to grow. The U.S. Department of Labor reports that employment for dancers and choreographers should grow about as fast as the average through 2014, although competition will remain keen. There are always more aspiring dancers than positions available. As with most careers in the arts, although the possibilities of success exist and excite the imagination, the possibilities of disappointment are all too real. The employment picture is clouded by fierce competition and too few available positions. Typically, performers make ends meet by branching out. They find short-term jobs in television or industrial revues. During the summer they try to find work with a stock company at a resort or with a musical road company. While the number of dance companies continues to grow, the number that employs dancers, choreographers, and administrative and technical staff with any regularity is remaining steady or declining, due to cuts in the budget of the National Endowment for the Arts and other funding sources. In times of economic recession, less money is spent on leisure activities, and growth of careers in these fields suffers accordingly. The industry will grow in proportion to its ability to attract audiences. According to the Survey of Public Participation in the Arts, published by the National Endowment for the Arts, 20.1 million people in the United States attended a dance event in 2002—a decline of 8 percent since 1992. Other forms of entertainment that compete with dance include theater, music, movies, sporting events, computer games, and home-video rental. Those who begin as dancers often find themselves exploring related opportunities, such as teaching or administration because their careers, like those of professional athletes, are likely to be limited as they grow older. Many people well trained in dance find work as teachers in performing arts schools or as private instructors. For those who do succeed, a career path often includes a variety of jobs. The areas of most promising opportunity are national dance
■ For More Information For information about the Fannie Weiss Student Scholarship, contact American Dance Guild PO Box 2001, Canal Street Station New York, NY 10013-0874 Tel: 212-932-2789 http://www.americandanceguild.org
1111 16th Street, NW, Suite 300 Washington, DC 20036-4809 Tel: 202-833-1717 http://www.danceusa.org
This federal grantmaking agency supports the visual, literary, design, and performing arts and has a list of service organizations and state and regional arts organizations. National Endowment for the Arts Arts and Education Education and Access Division Nancy Hanks Center 1100 Pennsylvania Avenue, NW Washington, DC 20506-0001 Tel: 202-682-5400 http://arts.endow.gov
Defense ■ Background From simple rocks to sophisticated satellite surveillance systems, people have always sought ways to defend themselves and to protect their territory and to promote their interests. The development of weapons, tools, vehicles, and strategies, both defensive and offensive, plays a crucial role in the safety and welfare, as well as the economic health, of almost every society. Today, defense is a multibillion-dollar enterprise with private industries building weapons and defense systems for the government. The rudimentary weapons of earlier times—rocks, slings, and spears—were made of whatever materials were available. The weapons were often made by the war-
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Words to Know Aeronautics: The design and construction of aircraft. Artillery: Heavy firearms, such as cannons and tank guns, as opposed to small arms, such as rifles and grenades. Astronautics: The science and technology of space flight. Distant Early Warning (DEW) Line: A series of 60 radar sites along the 70th parallel in the United States and Canada; used in the 1950s and 1960s. Fortification: Defense structure used for protection from enemy attacks; made obsolete by the advent of air warfare. Intercontinental Ballistic Missile (ICBM): Modern missile technology that many countries possess; ICBMs can be used to deliver nuclear warheads. North American Aerospace Defense Command (NORAD): An underground command center that houses the passive air and space defense program that monitors the skies over the United States and Canada. Reconnaissance: Inspection or exploration of an area, especially to gather military information. Satellite: A free-flying object that orbits Earth, another planet, or the Sun. Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT): A series of talks between the United States and Russia in the post-Cold War era that limits the development of new weapons and sets guidelines for the disposal of existing weapons. Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI): Also known as Star Wars; a system proposed by President Reagan that would use laser-equipped satellites and space-based weapons to destroy ballistic missiles.
riors who used them. At the same time people developed weapons, they also developed ways to protect themselves. The earliest armor was of animal hides, and as weapons evolved into spears and arrows, warriors learned to fashion metal into shields. Another early weapon was fire. The Greeks used incendiary weapons as early as the fourth century b.c. Gunpowder, invented by the Chinese, became one of the most important developments in the art of war. By the 14th century, armies had adapted gunpowder for use with cannons, which could fire large stones or metal balls for long distances and destroy a city’s fortifications. Mortars, developed by the Dutch in the 17th century, and other explosive bombs were used to terrible effect. The castles and other fortifications that had protected cities for so many centuries were rendered far less effective by these new weapons. Gunpowder was also adapted for use in firearms by the
14th century and in rockets by the 13th century. Cannons were also mounted on sea vessels. In the 16th century, the British designed the first real warship, and the British naval fleet soon dominated the seas. The invention of the airplane and the automobile married private industry to war and defense efforts in the early part of the 20th century. The first military order for an airplane was made soon after Orville Wright and Wilbur Wright’s first flight in 1903. By 1911, airplanes were being used in war. At first, airplanes were used mainly for reconnaissance missions. However, they soon were adapted for dropping bombs. In peacetime, the government relied on industry to produce equipment such as vehicles, tanks, naval vessels, and airplanes. World War I and, to a greater extent, World War II proved just how adaptable private industry was to producing the materials of war. When the United States entered World War II, industries that previously had little to do with defense efforts were mobilized to produce everything needed for the war, from supplies to vehicles to weapons. Other industries were tapped for valuable defense technologies. Radar, radio, and sonar were useful not only for guiding aircraft and naval vessels but also for warning of impending attacks. Chemical weapons, such as the mustard gas used in World War I, made new types of defense equipment, such as gas masks, vital to the soldiers on the ground. Automobiles made armies even more flexible; where previously they had relied on the railroads or horse-drawn wagons for supplies, armies could now be deployed and maintained virtually anywhere. The automobile was also adapted for strategic use in battle. Outfitted with armor and heavy weapons, a tank became a ferocious, seemingly unstoppable weapon. Another important innovation of World War II was the development of the first jet engine. By the end of the 1950s, jet travel had revolutionized the airline industry, opening air travel to millions of people around the world. The Cold War between the United States and the Soviet Union, coupled with the space race that developed between the two countries, saw the dedication of enormous amounts of resources to the development of ever more sophisticated weapons. Cold War-era weapon development included conventional, nuclear, biological, and chemical weapons; air and naval craft; and surveillance, intelligence, communications, and computer technology. Much of the technology developed initially for defense has been adapted for commercial and civil use. The aerospace industry, for example, provides not only military aircraft but aircraft for commercial aviation. Defense and the aerospace industry remain intrinsically linked. The use of aircraft and space technology
Defense
Officers monitor air and space activity at the command post of the North American Aerospace Defense Command. The facility is housed in a steel building deep inside Cheyenne Mountain near Colorado Springs, Colorado. (U.S. Air Force.)
has become a dominant force in modern warfare. The Persian Gulf War (1990–91) showed the strategic importance of these technologies. Using aircraft, long-range missiles, and sophisticated guidance systems coupled with satellite-based intelligence operations, the United States and its allies were able to weaken the Iraqi army almost to the point of surrender before the land-based war even began. After tensions eased between the United States and Russia, new concerns arose with smaller countries, such as North Korea, that had the technology to build rockets that could reach the United States. The Strategic Defense Initiative, proposed by Ronald Reagan and known as Star Wars, died with the end of the Cold War in the 1980s, but new concerns prompted the government to invest in a new national missile defense system. Today, the United States is currently occupying Afghanistan and Iraq, and concerned with fighting the threats of terrorism that come from terrorist groups from various parts of the world. Billions of dollars are being spent on developing high-tech weapons, aircraft, communications systems, and other methods of protecting the United States from traditional military attacks as well as chemical and biological warfare.
■ Structure At one time, airplane manufacturers, shipbuilders, and munitions factories were the chief suppliers of defense equipment. Today, computer companies that work for business also build specialized computers and software used to operate satellite and monitoring systems. Companies like Boeing and Lockheed Martin Aeronautics Company build commercial aircraft as well as specialized military aircraft. The defense industry incorporates a wide variety of technologies, sciences, and industries and requires the participation of virtually every type of profession. The national security of the United States is organized by the federal government under the Department of Defense (DOD). Operating from the Pentagon in Washington, DC, the DOD oversees the activities of the Army, Navy, Air Force, and Marines, including 1.4 million men and women on active duty, 654,000 civilians and another 860,000 million volunteers serving in the National Guard and Reserve. Headed by the secretary of defense, military and defense operations are directed by the Joint Chiefs of Staff, who in turn oversee the unified commands, including the Space Command, the Atlantic and Pacific Commands, and the Tactical Air Command.
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The DOD employs its own staff of scientists, engineers, and researchers, who explore, design, develop, and implement many technologies useful or even vital to the national defense. The DOD also procures the manufacturing, scientific, research, and engineering resources of a wide variety of industries. Procurement of weapons, vehicles, aircraft, and related systems are made through the DOD. The DOD may provide specifications for a new type of weapon or aircraft, then contract with a commercial manufacturer to design and produce it. The DOD may fund the research of scientists from a variety of backgrounds, such as mathematics, physics, chemistry, biology, astrophysics, and others who work at colleges and universities, and private companies. Research is a vital component of the defense industry. From highly theoretical research to applied research resulting in new materials, components, systems, products, and technologies, researchers continually refine and expand our defensive capabilities. Physics plays an important part in the development of new types of aircraft, weapons, and missiles; chemistry research provides new materials for use not only on Earth but also in space. Biologists develop vaccines and other defenses against chemical or biological weapons. Engineers and other scientists work on the development and production of safe, efficient equipment; the usefulness, performance, speed, safety, and efficiency of combat, aeronautical, and space vehicles; and the development and operation of vehicles capable of carrying instruments, equipment, supplies, and living organisms through space and through the atmosphere. Defense research also involves creating and refining communications, surveillance, tracking, and other systems that allow pilots, soldiers, and other personnel to maintain visual, audio, and long-range contact among members of their own or opposing forces under a variety of conditions. A vast complex of manufacturers contributes directly or indirectly to the country’s defense efforts. Defense manufacturers build trucks, tanks, and other vehicles; ordnance, which includes cannons, artillery, and other weapons and their ammunition; and radar, sonar, radio, and other systems and components. Some companies specialize in manufacturing or managing the manufacturing of the entire system, usually by subcontracting various phases of the operations, while other companies specialize in certain components or materials. Thousands of subcontractors, from very large to very small companies, supply parts, supplies, materials, and subassemblies to the principal contractors. Defense manufacturers also produce missiles for the armed forces and spacecraft for use by National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) and the DOD.
They work closely with the DOD to develop equipment, vehicles, arms, and systems related to the nation’s security. Manufacturers compete for contracts to research, develop, and ultimately build equipment required by the DOD. The DOD is a highly structured bureaucracy. People who work for the DOD generally must take civil service exams and are placed according to their exam results and training. The DOD even trains its own employees at a college it operates, the Defense Acquisition University in Fort Belvoir, Virginia. The college provides systems acquisition education and training for the people who are responsible for acquiring weapons systems. It trains military personnel and is generally not open to civilians other than DOD employees.
■ Outlook In the decades following World War II, the defense industries were among the most important industries in the United States. Apart from the international prestige to be gained by winning the space race, the ongoing threat presented by the Cold War between the United States and the Soviet Union required that a large proportion of the nation’s energies and resources be devoted to improving our defense capabilities. Defense contractors could be assured of billions of dollars of new contracts each year; interest in space travel and research was also high. The collapse of the Soviet Union and the end of the Cold War in the late 1980s and early 1990s created a new reality for defense industries. The immediate threat to national security disappeared, and with it, the need for high levels of spending. Military bases were closed, and the number of military personnel on active duty was reduced. At the same time, other factors combined to depress the industry. After the Challenger disaster of 1986, the space program entered a decline. Decisions were made to reduce the reliance on the space shuttle through the 1990s, and NASA’s budget was cut. A second space shuttle disaster occurred in 2003 when the Columbia disintegrated in mid-air while reentering the Earth’s atmosphere. This disaster led to slight increases in NASA’s budget. In the late 1990s, changes in the political climate of the world fueled new developments for high-technology companies and the space program. In 1999, the government allocated $6.6 billion to build missiles, radar, and other components of a national missile defense system. Concern over the threat posed by missile attacks from countries like North Korea prompted renewed interest in a way to defend the United States from the weapons of mass destruction that missiles could deliver.
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The terrorist activity on U.S. soil in September 2001 instigated immediate defense operations against physical, chemical, and biological threats, cyberattacks, and missile threats. In the past, defense systems were targeted at specific countries or groups, but today they are concentrated more on the threats themselves, according to the Quadrennial Defense Review released to Congress on September 30, 2001. The review stated that the size of the military will remain about the same, but portions will be reconfigured to combat unconventional, unpredictable threats. The Defense Appropriations Bill for fiscal year 2005 provided $355.4 billion in new discretionary spending authority for the Department of Defense, $38.2 billion more than was made available for 2001. The budget included spending for weapons; aircraft; shipbuilding; ballistic missile defense; intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance, military personnel pay raises and medical programs; troop readiness and sustainment programs; and other programs. Employment in the aerospace industry has been in steady decline since the early 1990s. According to the U.S. Department of Labor, aerospace manufacturing provided more than 444,000 wage and salary jobs in 2004. (See the article “Aerospace.”) The renewed military spending could mean more opportunities for engineers and production workers.
■ For More Information Contact AIA for publications with information on aerospace technologies and careers. Aerospace Industries Association of America (AIA) 1000 Wilson Boulevard, Suite 1700 Arlington, VA 22209-3901 Tel: 703-358-1000 http://www.aia-aerospace.org
ASEE and NSPE have information on their Web sites about careers in engineering, scholarships, internships, and schools, and much more. American Society for Engineering Education (ASEE) 1818 N Street, NW, Suite 600 Washington, DC 20036-2406 Tel: 202-331-3500 http://www.asee.org
National Society of Professional Engineers (NSPE) 1420 King Street Alexandria, VA 22314-2794 Tel: 703-684-2800 http://www.nspe.org
For news and links to various topics on defense, visit this Web site. U.S. Department of Defense http://www.defenselink.mil
Related Articles Aerospace; Military Services; Aeronautical and Aerospace Technicians; Aerospace Engineers; Border Patrol Officers; Cryptographic Technicians; Customs Officials; Engineers; Military Workers
Dental Care ■ Background Although modern dentistry dates back only to the 1700s, archeologists have provided evidence of dental treatment from thousands of years ago. The ancient Egyptians treated toothache and swollen gums in the 16th century b.c. The Greek physician Aesculapius was the first recorded supporter of tooth extraction around 1250 b.c., and Hippocrates wrote about dental diseases in the fifth century b.c. The Etruscan civilization used crowns and bridgework in the eighth century b.c. Some people in the Roman Empire wore false teeth, and the Greek physician Galen also wrote about teeth in the second century. From the ninth to 12th centuries, Arabic scholars who wrote about dental disease and treatment included Abulcasis and Avicenna. Arabians made toothbrushes by pounding the end of a stick. From the Middle Ages up to the early 18th century in Western Europe, teeth were extracted by barber-surgeons. A French dentist, Pierre Fauchard, is called the father of modern dentistry. In 1728, he published a book, Le Chirurgien Dentiste (The Surgeon Dentist), that emphasized the importance of healthy teeth. He developed the first orthodontic treatment methods and devised a more advanced technique for making dentures. Throughout the 1700s in America, dentists mainly pulled diseased teeth and provided dentures. Revolutionary War hero Paul Revere, a metalworker by trade, made dentures from gold and ivory. The first president of the United States, George Washington, was often said to have had wooden teeth; in fact, his denture teeth were made either of ivory or carved cow’s teeth. While dentures remained very expensive for 150 years after Washington, the invention of vulcanized rubber in 1851 meant many more people could afford dentures. Porcelain teeth were attached to rubber that had been molded on a model of the mouth. In the 20th century,
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however, acrylic plastics replaced vulcanized rubber and porcelain in dentures. The world’s first dental school, the Baltimore College of Dental Surgery, was established in 1840. Currently, there are 55 dental schools in the United States. The use of anesthesia during surgery was developed in part by two American dentists. In 1844, Horace Wells pioneered the use of nitrous oxide, or laughing gas. Dentists today still use nitrous oxide to relieve pain and anxiety. William Morton was the first to use ether as an anesthetic gas. Local anesthetic injections of novocaine were first recommended in 1906. Since then, dental researchers have continued to investigate other anesthetic methods to allow pain-free dental treatment. Not only are numerous local anesthetics available today, but some dentists also use a method that involves placing electrodes on the skin and using electrical current to prevent pain. For extensive dental procedures or for patients who are extremely anxious, dentists may use sedative medications or general anesthesia.
An orthodontist checks his patient’s braces for loose brackets. (Photo Disc/Getty Images.)
In the 1890s, an American dentist, G. V. Black, made significant changes in how dentistry was practiced. In addition to creating a foot engine to power the dental drill, he devised a cavity classification system that remains in use today. He also suggested that tooth decay and gum disease were infectious diseases caused by bacteria, decades before there was any scientific proof of his theory. In 1895, Wilhelm Roentgen discovered X-rays. By the next year, X-ray images were being used in dentistry. Dentists use X-ray films, or radiographs, to detect tooth decay and other diseases that affect the teeth and jawbones. The high-speed, air-turbine, dental drill became available in 1957. The high-speed drill allows dentists to remove decayed tooth substance much more rapidly and with much greater comfort for the patient. The dental profession has been the driving force behind fluoridation of water supplies in the past 50 years. Widespread fluoridation has prevented tooth decay in children and adults. Because tooth decay has become less common, people are now retaining more teeth into old age. Recent advances in technology and medical care are reflected in dental care. Bone grafting and bone regeneration use materials such as Gore-Tex. New medication technology allows dentists to place antibiotics between the gums and teeth to treat periodontal disease. Lasers are currently used for gum surgery; in the future, dentists may use lasers to drill cavities or make tooth surfaces more resistant to decay. The technology of computeraided design/computer-aided manufacturing, or CADCAM, is also used in dentistry to make ceramic tooth inlays. Dental researchers continue to fine-tune filling materials. Although many tooth-colored filling materials are available now, they are generally not as durable as silver amalgam fillings. Many dental schools are striving to educate dentists to become physicians of oral health. Today’s dentist must be well versed in health issues that affect the body outside of the oral cavity. Patients with certain heart conditions, cancer, AIDS, or diabetes require special care from their dentists. People who take prescription medications may have oral side effects, such as dry mouth, and some medications affect dental treatment in other ways. Medical emergencies may occur in the dental office, so dentists and their staff must be ready to deal with them. Many people are nervous about receiving dental treatment, no matter how painless; thus, dentists also need to know psychology. In addition to examining the teeth and gums, today’s dentists check their patients for signs of cancer in the mouth or head and neck. Because of the ill effects of tobacco on oral health, some dentists help their patients stop smoking or chewing tobacco.
The dental care field provides a range of occupational options. More than 600,000 people are employed as general dentists, dental specialists, dental hygienists, dental assistants, and dental laboratory technicians.
■ Structure Most dental care workers work in private dental offices. Other settings where dental care workers may be employed include hospitals, dental schools, research facilities, nursing homes, and the military. The general dentist is the most familiar dental care worker. There are more than 150,000 dentists working in the United States today and approximately 85 percent of dentists work in a general dental practice. Much of a general dentist’s time is spent examining patients’ teeth and mouths, treating tooth decay with fillings, and providing crowns and bridges—in other words, restoring the teeth and mouth to function. Dentists also treat diseases affecting the soft tissue, such as gum disease and canker sores, and the jawbones, such as abscesses. General dentists also perform many of the treatments that are performed by specialists, but they may refer the most difficult cases to specialists. For example, general dentists perform routine root canals, treat mild gum disease, and extract teeth. General dentists may enter practice immediately after dental school, or they may pursue advanced education in general practice first. Whereas a large portion of medical care is delivered by health maintenance organizations, most dental care is currently provided outside of managed-care programs, often with traditional fee-for-service insurance arrangements. However, managed care is making inroads into dental practice, and this trend is likely to continue. Dentists who complete advanced training in a specialty may practice as dental specialists. There are nine officially recognized specialties in dentistry. Approximately 15 percent of all dentists are specialists. Orthodontists correct problems in tooth and jaw alignment, usually through the use of orthodontic braces or removable appliances. While most orthodontic patients are children and teenagers, adults make up an increasing portion of the orthodontist’s caseload. Oral and maxillofacial surgeons perform surgery on the mouth, jaws, and face. In addition to removing impacted wisdom teeth, they repair jaw fractures, remove cancerous tumors, and surgically correct poorly aligned jaws. Some oral surgeons perform plastic surgery procedures on the face. Periodontists treat diseases of the gums and bones that support the teeth. They perform gum surgery, prescribe antibiotics, insert dental implants to replace missing teeth, and perform procedures to regenerate bone around the teeth.
Dental Care
There are five other dental specialties. Endodontists treat diseases and injuries that affect the tooth root. Root canal treatment involves drilling a hole in a tooth to gain access to the pulp within, removing the pulp tissue and nerves, and filling the root canal. In addition to providing root canal treatment, endodontists sometimes perform endodontic surgery. Pediatric dentists provide a broad range of dental care to children, from infancy through adolescence. Prosthodontists provide advanced treatment with dentures or bridges for people who have missing teeth. Many public health dentists work for the government to ensure that individual communities and the nation as a whole receive needed dental care. At the national level, public health dentists may work for the National Institutes of Health or the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. States and cities may also employ them. Oral and maxillofacial pathologists often are responsible for diagnosing diseases that affect the bones and soft tissues of the mouth. They often examine specimens under a microscope. Oral and maxillofacial radiologists use radiant energy to diagnose and manage diseases, disorders, and conditions of the bones and soft tissues of the mouth. Other groups of dentists seeking official specialty recognition are dental anesthesiologists and holistic dentists. Most Americans are familiar with dental hygienists. The hygienist’s job usually includes cleaning the teeth above and below the gum line, taking X-rays, applying fluoride to teeth, and educating patients about dental hygiene practices, such as flossing. In some states, dental hygienists may practice independently, but in most states they may work only under a dentist’s supervision. Some dental hygienists teach courses at dental hygiene schools or work in research, administration, or insurance companies. Dental assistants have less dental training than dentists and dental hygienists. They may be clinical or preventive dental assistants, working alongside the dentist while they are treating a patient. As infection control managers, dental assistants are responsible for disinfecting and sterilizing dental equipment. They often assemble instrument trays for the dentist’s use. Dental assistants also process X-rays, provide oral hygiene instruction to patients, schedule appointments, maintain supplies and records, and may process insurance claims and serve as dental practice managers. The vast majority of dental laboratory technicians work in dental laboratories rather than dental offices. They make crowns, dentures, porcelain veneers, and other items needed to restore damaged teeth or replace missing teeth. They may also bend orthodontic wires into the proper shape. Dental research offers scientific opportunities to dentists. Dental researchers may work for the National Insti-
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Words to Know Canine: A pointed tooth adjacent to the incisor, also known as a cuspid or eyetooth; adults have four canine teeth. Cementum: The tissue that covers the dentin in the tooth root. Crown: An artificial replacement for the natural crown of the tooth; often made of porcelain attached to a metal core. Dental caries: Tooth decay, or the progressive destruction of tooth substance, caused by bacteria present in plaque. Dentin: The part of the tooth beneath the enamel. Denture: An artificial substitute for a missing tooth or teeth and the adjacent soft tissue. Enamel: The hard, shiny material that makes up the outermost layer of the visible portion of a tooth. Fluoride: A chemical compound of the element fluorine and another element; fluoride is used in water supplies, toothpaste, and other products to prevent tooth decay. Gingiva: The oral tissue that is covered by a mucous membrane and surrounds the teeth; the gums. Incisor: A front tooth used for cutting; adults have four upper incisors and four lower incisors. Mandible: The lower jawbone. Maxilla: The bone that forms half of the upper jaw; the upper jaw is made up of the right maxilla and the left maxilla. Maxillofacial: Pertaining to the jaws and face. Molar: A tooth located in the back of the mouth that grinds food; adults have four first molars, four second molars, and four wisdom teeth (third molars). Occlusion: The contact between the biting surfaces of upper and lower teeth. Palate: The roof of the mouth, consisting of the hard palate and, behind it, the soft palate. Plaque: The sticky substance that forms on tooth surfaces, made up principally of bacteria; responsible for starting tooth decay and gingivitis. Premolar: A tooth with two pointed cusps located between the canines and molars, also known as a bicuspid; adults have four first premolars and four second premolars. Pulp: The blood vessels, nerves, and other cells in the center of each tooth. Restoration: Any filling, crown, inlay, bridge, partial denture, or complete denture that restores or replaces lost tooth structure, teeth, or oral tissues.
tute of Dental and Craniofacial Research, a division of the National Institutes of Health. Many researchers work at universities and dental schools. The dental industry, which includes companies that make filling materials, dental instruments, medications, toothbrushes, and toothpaste, also employs and funds many researchers.
■ Outlook Employment opportunities for dentists are expected to grow about as fast as the average job through 2014. However, if the number of dentists graduating from dental schools does not increase, fewer dentists will be available to meet increasing demand for dental care. Thus, the job prospects for dentists are promising. Although young people primarily need preventive care, since fluoridation of water has succeeded in reducing tooth decay, older generations will need increasing amounts of dental treatment. Today’s elderly have kept more of their natural teeth, meaning that they have more teeth in need of regular dental care. If the number of dentists holds steady, dentists will become busier. With the swelling demand for dental services, the salary trends for dentists are also promising. In 2005, the median salary for dentists was $129,920. According to the American Dental Association, the real income earned by general dentists is now close to that earned by physicians in general practice. Dental hygiene and dental assisting are projected to be among the 20 fastest growing occupations through 2014. One factor increasing demand for these workers is the expected increase in demand for dental care related to the aging of the American population and greater retention of natural teeth. Dental hygienists are performing more of the routine services that used to be provided primarily by dentists. In addition, new dentists and those with heavier workloads are more likely to hire an increasing number of dental support professionals in the years ahead. The opportunities for dental laboratory technicians should be good, although the occupation will experience slower-than-average growth through 2014. Employers are having difficulty filling trainee positions primarily because such positions offer low entry-level salaries. Experienced technicians who have established their professional reputations may have the opportunity to start their own laboratories. In general, the services of dental laboratory technicians will be needed less; today’s patients are likely to need more crowns or partial dentures than complete dentures. This may be partly offset by increased demand for tooth-colored fillings.
■ For More Information For information on licensure, accredited dental programs, and to read publications, such as the Journal of the American Dental Association, contact American Dental Association (ADA) Department of Career Guidance 211 East Chicago Avenue Chicago, IL 60611-2678 Tel: 312-440-2500 http://www.ada.org
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This organization promotes education and keeps its members up to date on the latest developments in the field. It publishes a bimonthly magazine for members and holds an annual meeting in conjunction with the Academy of General Dentistry. American Dental Assistants Association 35 East Wacker Drive, Suite 1730 Chicago, IL 60601-2211 Tel: 312-541-1550 http://www.dentalassistant.org
For information on careers, educational programs, and available publications, contact American Dental Hygienists’ Association 444 North Michigan Avenue, Suite 3400 Chicago, IL 60611-3903 Email:
[email protected] http://www.adha.org
This association publishes the Journal of Dental Technology and other educational publications and provides a variety of member benefits. National Association of Dental Laboratories 325 John Knox Road L103 Tallahassee, FL 32303-4113 Tel: 800-950-1150 Email:
[email protected] http://www.nadl.org
■ Related Articles Health Care; Dental Assistants; Dental Hygienists; Dental Laboratory Technicians; Dentists; Endodontists; Holistic Dentists; Orthodontists; Periodontists
Earth Sciences ■ Background Curiosity about the physical world inspired the development of the earth sciences, sometimes called geosciences. The earth sciences include geography, geology, geophysics, meteorology, and oceanography. Geography dates to the dawn of history, when investigations and explanations of the world first began. In ancient Greece, Aristotle had the audacity to suggest that the Earth was round instead of flat. He wrote about natural science, including marine life. Eratosthenes calculated the circumference of the earth with remarkable accuracy and developed the concepts of latitude and longitude. Early advances in all of the earth sciences were also made by the Chinese, Egyptians, Arabs, Romans, and others. They
speculated about the origin of the earth, the causes of earthquakes and volcanic eruptions, and the nature of fossils. Early weather prophets predicted the weather by such signs as the behavior of birds, insects, or other animals. During the Middle Ages, most geographic ideas of the ancient world, including that of the spherical shape of the earth, were lost by Europeans. Ocean study was hampered by fear of rumored monsters and of the unknown, and by technical difficulties in navigation. Fear gave way to curiosity, however, and the travels of Marco Polo, Dias, Columbus, da Gama, Magellan, and Hudson yielded new maps and a greater knowledge of the world. Their voyages were primarily made for geographic discoveries and for trade and colonization. Along the way, however, they gathered information on currents, sea ice, and other physical and biological phenomena. The invention of the thermometer (1593) and the barometer (1643) made scientific weather forecasting possible. The relationship between air pressure and weather was recognized, and by 1670 some barometers were marked “fair” and “rain.” An important early work in geology was written in the late 1600s by Nicolaus Steno of Denmark. His work describes several principles of physical and historical geology and presents the view that fossils are the remnants of once-living creatures. During the 17th and 18th centuries, many European naturalists explained the presence of marine fossils in mountain rocks in terms of catastrophes, such as the biblical flood. In the late 1700s, James Hutton, a Scottish geologist, developed the theory that the surface of the earth undergoes continual, gradual change as the result of a number of natural processes, some that break down rock and wear down the land and others that form new layers of rock and build the land back up. In the early 1800s, William Smith, a British canal engineer, demonstrated that fossils are the key to studying and matching layers of rock of different regions. Sir Charles Lyell’s Principles of Geology (1830–33) was influential in the development of modern geology. He opposed the idea that catastrophes accounted for geologic events. He showed that the higher a fossil is found in the rock sequence the more it resembles living types. In 1840, Sir James Clark Ross successfully sounded the bottom of the south Atlantic to 16,063 feet, using a crude hemp line and a lead weight. Darwin’s Beagle expedition (1831–36) and the Challenger venture (1872–76) revealed much information about the ocean bottom and undersea life. Early in the 19th century, scientists began to collect international weather observations. The invention of the telegraph made it possible to gather weather information quickly from a wide area, and weather services were established in a number of countries.
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The earth sciences have been further developed and refined by 20th century advances in tools and technology. Scuba gear, manned submersible units, cameras, radar, and infrared sensors help oceanographers study the ocean’s effect on climate, life in the ocean, and the evolution of the ocean floor. Radar, weather satellites, and computers allow meteorologists to forecast weather, track storms, and process large amounts of weather data. Geologists use sophisticated computer models to study plate tectonics and seismographs to determine the depth and formation of rocks below the earth’s surface. Geographers and other earth sciences professionals use geographic information systems technology to map, manipulate, store, and selectively retrieve geographic data. This data can be used in a variety of areas, including business, the study of disease outbreaks and epidemics, environmental planning, and natural resource management. The practical aspects of earth sciences received great emphasis in the 20th century, particularly in the mining and petroleum industries and in the construction of tunnels, dams, and roads.
■ Structure Each of the earth sciences has its own set of specialties. Geography is a kind of bridge between the physical and social sciences. It is concerned with the distribution of
Anatomy of an Earthquake An earthquake is accompanied by three types of waves that vibrate the Earth’s surface—primary, secondary, and surface waves. ■ The Primary Wave (or P Wave) alternately compresses and expands the rock of the Earth’s interior. This wave moves through the Earth at a speed that varies greatly. Under some conditions it is about five miles per second. ■
The Secondary Wave (or S Wave) shakes the rock sidewise as it advances. It travels through the interior of the Earth about three-fifths as fast as the primary wave.
■
The Surface Wave (or L Wave), which is the most damaging, resembles the waves produced when a stone is dropped in a puddle. The surface wave moves at a speed of about two miles per second.
The transmission of these waves through the Earth is affected by the type of material through which they travel. By studying the strengths of the waves at various points around the world after a major earthquake, scientists have been able to learn about the structure and composition of the interior of the earth.
people and things, the location of places on the earth’s surface, and the relationships between people and their natural environment. It includes the study of topography (the overall arrangement of the land), landforms (mountains, plateaus, plains, canyons, and the like), climate, and such features of the natural environment as plants and animals, soils, minerals, and water resources. Physical geography is the study of land and water features and the natural forces responsible for their occurrence. This branch includes climatology, the study of weather conditions over an extended period of time; geomorphology, or physiography, the study of surface features and topography; and mathematical geography, concerned with the earth’s size, shape, and movements. Human geography is the study of the way human beings live in their physical and cultural environments. This branch includes cultural geography, the study of the geographical distribution of cultural traits; economic geography, the study of how people make a living; political geography, the study of the influence of geography on nations, national interests, and international relations; population geography, the study of the geographical distribution of humans and the analysis of changes in distribution patterns; urban and transportation geography, the study of cities and towns in relation to their location, size, shape, and function; regional geography, the study of physical, economic, political, and cultural characteristics of regions as small as a congressional district to as large as a continent; and medical geography, the study of epidemics, health-care delivery systems, and the ways in which our environment affects health. Geology is divided into two main branches. Physical geology investigates the composition and structure of rocks and the forces that bring about change in the earth’s crust. This branch includes geochemistry, the analysis of the chemical composition of the earth’s crust; geomorphology, the description and study of external forms of the earth’s surface; mineralogy, the study of the chemical and physical properties of minerals; petrology, the study of the origin, occurrence, structure, and history of rocks; seismology, the study of earthquake shocks and their effects; and structural geology, the investigation of stresses and strains in the earth’s crust and the deformations they produce. Historical geology examines the rocks for evidence of conditions on the earth’s surface millions of years ago. It also traces the rise of plant and animal life as revealed by fossils. This branch includes geochronology, the study of time in relation to the history of the earth; paleontology, the study of fossils; and stratigraphy, the classification of rock sequences. Geophysics, a branch of physical geology, is the application of the science of physics to the study of the earth. Geophysicists have developed highly technical methods for investigating problems in geology, meteorology, and
oceanography. Using sensitive instruments, geophysicists measure and describe physical forces that cannot be studied with equal accuracy by direct observation. They are interested primarily in natural forces, such as the forces generated by earthquakes, storms, and ocean currents. Geophysicists help locate oil and mineral deposits, underground water, and the flaws in rock formations at places where roads and dams are to be built. Meteorology is the science of the atmosphere and its phenomena. It has two major divisions: Weather refers to the condition of the atmosphere in a specific place at a particular time; climate refers to average weather conditions in particular areas over a long period of time. Oceanography is the science covering all aspects of ocean study and exploration. It draws on the sciences of botany, zoology, meteorology, physics, chemistry, geology, fluid mechanics, and applied mathematics. Physical oceanography is the study of water masses and ocean currents, the interaction between the ocean and atmosphere, and the relationship between the sea, weather, and climate. Chemical oceanography is the study of the distribution of chemical compounds and chemical interactions that occur in the ocean and the seafloor. Biological oceanography is the study of the forms of life in the sea. Geological and geophysical oceanography is the study of the shape and material of the ocean floor.
■ Outlook The employment outlook for those in earth science positions is generally expected to be good. Although employment is projected to grow more slowly than the average through 2014, a large number of expected retirements and the relatively low number of qualified earth science graduates should translate into good employment prospects for those entering the field. Opportunities also vary by specialty. Most geologists and geophysicists are employed in the oil and gas industry. Although this industry can be somewhat volatile, the ever-increasing demand for energy resources and the development of new technologies has brought some stability to this field in recent years. The prospects for employment should be favorable in the areas of environmental protection and reclamation. Earth scientists will be needed to help clean up contaminated sites in the United States and help private companies and government agencies comply with environmental regulations. Positions with agencies dependent on government funding, however, will be closely tied to the status of federal and state budgets. In times of cutbacks, there will be little if any job growth with such agencies. Most oceanographers’ work is research-based and there will be stiff competition for funding, especially funding from government agencies. Opportunities are
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Earth scientists excavate eastern gamagrass roots for study at the USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service’s Big Flats Plant Materials Center in New York. (Agricultural Research Service Photo Unit, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture.)
better for those with advanced education and for those who have expertise in other sciences or engineering. Overall employment of geographers is expected to grow about as fast as the average through 2014 due, in part, to the limited need for geographers outside of government and academic institutions. All social scientists, in fact, are projected to experience employment growth that is slower than the average. Geographers who have a background in economics or urban planning have the brightest employment outlook. Employment for meteorologists is expected to be about as fast as the average. The National Weather Service has no plans to increase the number of weather stations or the number of meteorologists in existing stations for many years, and employment of meteorologists in other federal agencies is expected to remain stable. If the health of the economy improves, however, the outlook in private industry should be better than in the federal sector. Weather-sensitive industries like farming, commodity investments, radio and television, utilities, transportation, and construction firms need more specific weather information than can be provided by the National Weather Service. They will require meteorologists to interpret the results of seasonal and other longrange forecasting research.
■ For More Information For information on geoscience careers, contact American Geological Institute 4220 King Street
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Alexandria, VA 22302-1502 Tel: 703-379-2480 http://www.agiweb.org
AGS publishes maps, books, journals, and other geographyrelated materials. American Geographical Society (AGS) 120 Wall Street, Suite 100 New York, NY 10005-3904 Tel: 212-422-5456 Email:
[email protected] http://www.amergeog.org
For information on careers and scholarships, contact American Institute of Professional Geologists 8703 Yates Drive, Suite 200 Westminster, CO 80031-3681 Tel: 303-412-6205 Email:
[email protected] http://www.aipg.org
This organization has a newsletter, a journal, employment announcements, and scholarships and student information. American Meteorological Society 45 Beacon Street Boston, MA 02108-3693 Tel: 617-227-2425 Email:
[email protected] http://www.ametsoc.org
This association has information on careers in geography, profiles of geographers, job listings, and an internship guide. Association of American Geographers 1710 16th Street, NW Washington, DC 20009-3198 Tel: 202-234-1450 Email:
[email protected] http://www.aag.org
For career information and job listings, contact Geological Society of America PO Box 9140 Boulder, CO 80301-9140 Tel: 303-447-2020 http://www.geosociety.org
This association has a newsletter, job announcements, and science links. National Weather Association 1697 Capri Way Charlottesville, VA 22911-3534
Tel: 434-296-9966 http://www.nwas.org
■ Related Articles Biology; The Environment; Parks and Public Lands; Social Sciences; Arborists; Biochemists; Biologists; Botanists; Cartographers; Chemists; Civil Engineers; Ecologists; Environmental Engineers; Fish and Game Wardens; Geographers; Geographic Information Systems Specialists; Geologic Technicians; Geologists; Geophysicists; Groundwater Professionals; Hazardous Waste Management Technicians; Horticultural Technicians; Land Acquisition Professionals; Land Trust or Preserve Managers; Marine Biologists; Meteorologists; Naturalists; Oceanographers; Paleontologists; Petrologists; Range Managers; Soil Conservationists and Technicians; Soil Scientists; Surveying and Mapping Technicians; Surveyors; Toxicologists
Education ■ Background American colonists first began establishing elementary schools for their children in the early 17th century. These schools were private, and only the wealthiest families could afford to enroll students in them. The main purpose of these early schools was to teach the students religion due to its major role in colonial life. Reading, writing, and arithmetic weren’t considered as important. Before 1642, only 10 percent of the young children in the colonies attended school. That year, the colony that would eventually become Massachusetts passed a law stating that parents must teach their children to read. By 1647, the colony mandated that every town with 50 families or more must establish an elementary school. This paved the way for widespread education for children. However, it wasn’t until more than 200 years later, in 1852, that the state of Massachusetts passed the first law in the country making school attendance compulsory. By 1918, all states had such laws. The earliest secondary school was located in the Massachusetts Bay Colony. The Boston Latin School opened in 1635 with the purpose of training children, primarily boys, to become well-read members of the clergy. Like the Boston Latin School, many of the early secondary schools focused on the language of Latin. In the 1700s, the colonists, led by Benjamin Franklin, founded another type of secondary school called the academy. Academies offered a wide variety of subjects in addition to religion,
but they were all private schools that charged tuition and catered to the sons and daughters of affluent families. Public education did not really take hold until the early 1800s, after the Revolutionary War had ended and the country was beginning to unite. Boston was the site of the first public high school, which opened in 1821. After fighting the war, many Americans wanted children to learn about patriotism and about becoming morally upstanding individuals. Many also wanted to de-emphasize religion in the schools. The growing spirit of unity in the country had another important effect on public education, namely the movement toward using standard texts in all schools. The first college in the United States was Harvard, founded in 1636. By 1833, Ohio boasted the country’s first coeducational college, Oberlin. The concept of kindergarten (meaning children’s garden in German) came to the United States from Germany in 1856, when Margaretha Schurz opened a private kindergarten in Watertown, Wisconsin. The first public kindergarten was established in St. Louis in 1873. In 1901, the first public two-year college in the United States, Joliet Junior College, was founded in Illinois. Today, there are nearly 1,200 community colleges in the United States. Education went through many changes in the 1900s. One such change was a declining emphasis on strictness and rote learning (memorization) and a greater emphasis on developing the whole person. Educators added elementary school courses in science and geography, as well as fun classroom activities and field trips. Although World War II caused many people to leave school, the public school system continued to expand and take on more significance, even in the political and social arenas. One of the most important educational reforms of the 20th century was the 1954 Supreme Court decision forbidding racial segregation in public schools. School systems have suffered many crises in recent years. Reports by the National Commission on Excellence in Education stress the widespread public perception that something is seriously amiss in the existing educational system. Many feel that educational systems fall far short of the goal of cultivating a learning society and that U.S. students lag far behind their counterparts in other developed nations. Urban schools, in particular, have suffered in the last decade from the problems of violence, drug abuse, gang activity, and high dropout rates, in addition to diminishing student performance. Experts say that as many as 20 percent of Americans are functionally illiterate. Many different reasons have been cited for these declines: too little federal funding, poor parental influence, poverty,
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This kindergarten teacher is helping her students learn to tell time. (Corbis.)
irrelevant or uninspired curricula, the lack of national standards and a national curriculum, poorly motivated students, and poorly trained teachers. The No Child Left Behind Act was enacted into law in 2002. The Act does the following: (1) sets achievement goals for teachers and paraprofessionals; (2) holds states to higher accountability for the educational achievement of their students in exchange for more flexibility in how they can use federal education funds; (3) stresses the importance of using scientific research to determine what educational programs and practices are most effective for students and educators; and (4) gives parents with children in schools that do not meet state standards for at least two straight years the option to transfer their children to a better-performing public school or public charter school. The full impact of the Act is as yet unknown, but supporters feel that it will greatly reduce the achievement gap between rich and poor students and white and minority students, while opponents note that these programs have not received promised funding and that the testing mandates of the Act distract from other educational goals. Despite problems with the nation’s school systems, teaching careers have broad appeal and offer varied opportunities. Teaching attracts people with a keen interest in a particular subject area, a desire to work with people, a commitment to social service, a wish for a life of scholarship and study, and a desire for a secure professional career.
■ Structure The majority of people involved in education are engaged in teaching. Teaching responsibilities vary greatly from job to job in terms of subjects, schedules, and assigned
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Words to Know Academic adviser: A faculty or staff member who helps college students choose majors, course plans, and professors. Bilingual education: Classes in which students with limited English-speaking skills are taught in their native languages. Charter school: A public school that operates independently of the traditional public school system. Its curricula may be similar to that of traditional public schools or it may be designed to meet the specific educational needs of a community. Charter schools are usually sponsored by state or local school boards. Distance education: Traditionally known as correspondence courses, these programs allow students to take courses by mail or via the Internet. Elective: A high school or college course that is optional but counts toward graduation requirements. English as a second language (ESL) class: English language class for people with limited English-speaking skills. Enrollment: Total number of students registered for a class, program, or school.
Faculty: The staff of professors and instructors in a high school or college. Financial aid: Funds, which may come from the government, private agencies, colleges, and banks, that help individuals pay tuition and other college expenses. Humanities: College programs that include courses in foreign language, philosophy, and the visual and performing arts. Interdisciplinary: Programs or courses that include instruction in a number of different academic areas. Liberal arts: Academic work in the humanities, social sciences, and natural sciences. Life sciences: Academic programs, including biology, biophysics, and zoology, that involve the study of living organisms. School district: A local agency that oversees the operation of the public schools of the area. Syllabus: An outline, or schedule, for a course. Technical education: A program that prepares people for positions in technical careers; usually includes the study of the principles of technology and the development of technical skills. Tenure: Status granted to a faculty member that ensures job security and permanence.
duties. For example, elementary school teachers typically work with one group of children all day, while middle and secondary school teachers teach four, five, or more groups of students throughout the day. College professors may only present a few lectures a day, but also conduct scholarly research. Teachers of younger children perform many of the roles of a parent, so the jobs of the preschool, kindergarten, and elementary school teachers include the personal and social responsibilities that are assumed by parents at home. These jobs, of course, include the full gamut of responsibilities for the emotional and intellectual growth of children. Responsibilities of teachers of grades K–6 include teaching, selecting and planning course work, grading homework, and evaluating student achievement. They participate in conferences with parents, other teachers, and administrators on problems with curriculum, instruction, and guidance. They meet with social workers and psychologists regarding students with mental, emotional, behavioral, physical, or learning disabilities. High school teachers have basic responsibilities similar to those of elementary school teachers, but they act less
as parent substitutes and are more concerned with academics. Typically, high school teachers specialize in one or two subjects. But even at the high school level, teachers are concerned about more than the students’ academic progress. They help students deal with personal problems and advise them in matters concerning their future, such as selecting colleges and careers. Similar to the high school teacher, the college professor shares the commitment to a specific field of knowledge, but such commitment is more intense. College professors are expected to participate in the activities of a professional society or association. Increasingly, professors are sought out as consultants in business, government, and public service. With more demands on their time outside of the classroom, college teachers have less time to spend with students than they would like. Professors with years of experience and a high level of specialization may choose to teach at the graduate level. These teachers spend more time in research activities and work with a small number of graduate students. At all levels of the profession, teachers today are generally better educated than they were years ago. All states
require the minimum of a bachelor’s degree for a beginning position, and many teachers have graduate degrees. A variety of new opportunities for educators have evolved in nontraditional areas. Qualified education professionals are needed to work in agencies such as adult education programs, recreation departments, drug and alcohol abuse programs, Planned Parenthood units, and government organizations such as the Peace Corps and Job Corps. Teachers are finding more opportunities in business, vocational, and special interest training, where a degree in education is not as important as work and life experience. Thousands of people are employed by professional organizations, private agencies with educational programs, and government offices of education. Every state in the United States has an office of education, which hires professionals to monitor and make recommendations for local school policies. The federal government also employs professionals to ensure that legislative mandates regarding education are carried out at the state and local levels. Federal education officials are concerned with such areas as early childhood education, bilingual education, inclusion of students with disabilities, transportation, and school health. School districts and schools at all grade levels hire workers with education backgrounds to work as administrators. School and college administrators, including superintendents and principals, often first work as teachers. Administrators for elementary and secondary public schools handle finances, record keeping, course development, hiring, enforcement of state requirements, union negotiations, maintenance of school properties, and other management duties. At the college level, administrators act as presidents, vice presidents, deans, admissions officers, financial aid managers, student advisors, buildings and grounds managers, and department heads. Association leaders and educators in government offices also often begin their careers as teachers. To be qualified and experienced for these higher-level positions, most education administrators and government officials have completed graduate study in education. Many educational publishing houses prefer to hire textbook editors with teaching experience. As former teachers, these editors are not only experts in the subject matter, but are also better able to determine whether the material is appropriate for the age and reading level a book is intended for, and whether instructions are clear and easy for a teacher to use. Many teachers belong to a professional union such as the National Education Association or the American Federation of Teachers. Most teachers also join other associations or societies that represent their own subject
Education
areas or fields of specialization. Professional organizations and unions help teachers attain improvements in education, such as reduced teaching loads to allow more time for planning and evaluating, increased pay and benefits, and budgetary allowances that permit teachers to attend professional meetings. Other policy changes benefiting teachers include laws guaranteeing due process, establishing grievance procedures, ensuring fair dismissal procedures, and protecting teachers’ rights and academic freedom. Teachers must be extremely dedicated to their students, to the subjects they teach, and to the notion of education in general. Perhaps it is for this reason that teaching is frequently referred to as a calling rather than a career. It is generally regarded as a noble profession, yet teachers continue to receive low pay, work long hours, and have limited resources, particularly at the elementary and secondary school levels.
■ Outlook According to the U.S. Department of Labor, employment in the field of education is expected to increase by 20 percent through 2014, higher than the average growth rate projected for all industries. Aside from growth within the field, many job openings will arise from the need to replace workers who retire or change occupations. Enrollments in elementary, middle, and secondary school are projected to remain flat, which will lead to average employment growth for preschool, elementary, middle, and secondary school teachers. Opportunities should be good, though, in schools in inner cities and rural areas, and in the following states that are predicted to have large increases in enrollment: California, Hawaii, Idaho, Utah, New Mexico, and Texas. Opportunities should also be strong for educators who specialize in the teaching of mathematics, science (especially chemistry and physics), bilingual education, vocational education, and foreign languages. Postsecondary student enrollments are expected to increase, spurring much faster than average employment growth for postsecondary teachers. Opportunities should be especially strong in Arizona, California, Florida, New York, and Texas. Although college enrollment is expected to increase, competition for full-time faculty and administrator positions will remain high. Lower paid, part-time instructors, such as visiting professors and graduate students, are replacing tenure-track faculty positions. Organizations such as the American Association of University Professors and the American Federation of Teachers are working to prevent the loss of full-time jobs, as well as to help part-time instructors receive better pay and benefits.
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Email:
[email protected] http://www.aasa.org
To read about issues in higher education, visit the AAUP Web site. American Association of University Professors 1012 14th Street, NW, Suite 500 Washington, DC 20005-3465 Tel: 202-737-5900 Email:
[email protected] http://www.aaup.org These first-and second-graders are working with blocks to show mathematical relationships and help them to understand basic concepts. (Donald R. Downey, New Standard Encyclopedia.)
More instructors will find work in community colleges and other adult education programs. The federal government is committed to providing vocational training for high school graduates who choose not to enroll immediately in four-year colleges or universities. These school-to-work programs prepare graduating seniors for high-wage technical jobs and require trained adult and vocational education teachers. The U.S. Department of Labor projects that the number of special education teachers, speech-language pathologists and audiologists, and counselors will grow about as fast as the average occupation through 2014, because of increasing enrollment of special education students, continued emphasis on inclusion of disabled students in general education classrooms, and the effort to reach students with problems at younger ages. Jobs for teacher assistants also will grow somewhat faster than average in general, special education, and English-as-a-second-language classrooms.
■ For More Information For information on community college education, contact American Association of Community Colleges (AACC) One Dupont Circle, NW, Suite 410 Washington, DC 20036-1110 Tel: 202-728-0200 http://www.aacc.nche.edu
For information about careers in administration, contact American Association of School Administrators 801 North Quincy Street, Suite 700 Arlington, VA 22203-1730 Tel: 703-528-0700
For information on union membership, contact the following organizations: American Federation of Teachers 555 New Jersey Avenue, NW Washington, DC 20001-2029 Tel: 202-879-4400 Email:
[email protected] http://www.aft.org
National Education Association 1201 16th Street, NW Washington, DC 20036-3290 Tel: 202-833-4000 http://www.nea.org
The DETC serves as a clearinghouse of information on distance learning. It also sponsors a nationally recognized accrediting agency and offers a list of accredited institutions at its Web site. Distance Education and Training Council (DETC) 1601 18th Street, NW Washington, DC 20009-2529 Tel: 202-234-5100 http://www.detc.org
For information about careers in education, scholarships, networking, and publications, contact the following organization: National Association for the Education of Young Children 1509 16th Street, NW Washington, DC 20036-1426 Tel: 800-424-2460 Email:
[email protected] http://www.naeyc.org
■ Related Articles Adult and Vocational Education Teachers; Career and Employment Counselors and Technicians; College Administrators; College Professors; Computer Trainers;
Education Directors and Museum Teachers; Elementary School Teachers; English as a Second Language Teachers; Guidance Counselors; Interpreters and Translators; Mathematics Teachers; Medical Ethicists; Naturalists; Nursing Instructors; Preschool Teachers; School Administrators; School Nurses; Secondary School Teachers; Special Education Teachers; Teacher Aides
Electronics ■ Background The electronics industry is composed of organizations involved in the manufacture, design and development, assembly, and servicing of electronic equipment and components. Together, these organizations offer a wide variety of products that frequently have only one thing in common: They depend upon electronic technology to operate. Electronics is one of the fastest evolving and most innovative industries, and also one of the most competitive. The research and development of new, better products is of great importance in electronics, where companies often compete fiercely to bring the newest technology to market first. Electronics is the branch of science and technology that deals with the study, application, and control of the conduction of electricity in a vacuum, in gases, in liquids, in semiconductors, and in conducting and superconducting materials. There are thousands of electronic products with countless applications. These products consist of materials, parts, components, subassemblies, and equipment that use the principles of electronics to perform their major functions. The roots of the electronics industry go back to the late 1800s, when scientists experimented with gaseousdischarge tubes and discovered that electricity could pass through gas from one metal electrode to another. Subsequent experiments led to the discovery of the vacuum tube, a tube with all the gases removed, through which electric current could flow. In 1904, a British scientist, John Ambrose Fleming, built the first commercial vacuum tube. It was used to detect radio signals. Three years later, Lee De Forest, an American inventor, produced a triode, or three-electrode tube, which was the first electronic amplifier. The early years of the electronics industry were known as the vacuum tube era. During this period, which lasted from the 1920s to the 1950s, the primary electronic device was the vacuum tube. At first it was used primarily in radio receivers and broadcasting equipment. As more was learned about vacuum tubes,
Electronics
however, they came to be used in television sets, radar, electronic computers, and sound motion pictures. In the 1950s, the electronics industry expanded with the first commercial use of the transistor and the development of semiconductor diodes. Transistors, and other solid-state materials, allow electrons to flow through a solid material rather than through a vacuum tube. Transistors were first used as amplifiers in hearing aids and pocket-sized radios. By the 1960s, transistors and semiconductor diodes were being used instead of vacuum tubes in many electronic products. These years are often referred to as the solid-state era of electronics. The electronics industry expanded even further with the development of integrated circuits in the late 1950s. Integrated circuits are very small semiconductor chips that can do the work of thousands of individual electron devices such as transistors. Integrated circuits revolutionized the electronics industry and made possible many new products. At first, integrated circuits were used in military equipment and spacecraft. Later, they were used in radios, televisions, computers, and many other types of electronic products. Around 1970, researchers working in the laboratory of an electronic component manufacturer developed the first microprocessor. Microprocessors, which have been called one of the most important discoveries of the last half of the 20th century, are tiny silicon chips on which all of the arithmetic and logic functions of a computer are placed. In essence, they are tiny chips that serve as miniature computers. At first, microprocessors were used to create pocket-sized calculators, video games, and home appliances. They then led to the creation of small computers. Until that time, computers were gigantic in size and very expensive. Only the federal government and giant industries could afford them. Microprocessors, however, allowed the development of smaller computers that could operate faster and perform many functions that larger computers could not. Today, microprocessors are used in a variety of products, such as digital watches, personal computers, microwave ovens, telephone equipment, and electronic controls in automobiles. The electronics industry continues to expand and to search for ways to use electronic components to create new and innovative products. Today’s high-performance microprocessors allow computers to perform applications in new technologies, such as real-time video image processing, medical imaging, and digital telecommunications. Scientists are developing products such as an all-in-one personal computer and television set with built-in digital video disc (DVD) player, stereo sound, and recordable-optical CD, Internet access device, and three-dimensional video game player. Other scientists
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A production worker works in a cleanroom in an electronics plant. (Hewlett-Packard.)
are working to create a supercomputer that can perform one trillion floating point operations per second, which is 10 times faster than the fastest existing computer. Others concentrate on wireless communication and computing devices that are small enough to fit in your pocket. The electronics industry is closely tied to economic conditions both within the United States and around the world. In the early 1970s and 1980s, total U.S. shipments of electronic equipment, components, and systems grew steadily and totaled many billions of dollars in sales. Exports comprised about 25 percent of the electronics industry’s business. In the mid-1980s, however, despite a strong U.S. economy, the electronic components industry suffered a sharp downturn. Intense foreign competition and offshore operations by American companies contributed to a trade deficit. But high levels of research and development and capital expenditures in the late 1980s set the industry back on its feet, and by the mid1990s, sales and exports of electronics were at record highs and the industry was once again strong. Since then, shipments by U.S. electronic components manufacturers have continued to grow. Today, electronics manufacturing is global in scope. To compete effectively, U.S. electronics suppliers must sell to both domestic and foreign markets. Not only are foreign sales markets vital, but foreign labor markets are increasingly important, too. To stem production expenses, many U.S. electronics manufacturers have moved their assembly and testing plants to other countries where wages are lower. Even so, most manufacturers keep at least part of their operations in the United States. There are heavy concentrations of manufacturing plants along the Atlantic Coast from Baltimore north-
ward, in the Midwest centering around Chicago, and on the Pacific Coast, with the greatest production center in southern California. One well-known area with a heavy concentration of electronics companies is Silicon Valley, an area south of San Francisco. This area developed with the growth of integrated circuits and microprocessors. During the 1960s and 1970s, many electronic component manufacturers settled their operations there and the area became known as a high-tech area with many companies doing cutting-edge research. Today, some companies are moving from the Silicon Valley and other traditional manufacturing areas to cities in Arizona, Texas, Oregon, and other states. Manufacturing plants are being established in many parts of the country. There are numerous exciting opportunities and intellectual challenges for the future in electronics manufacturing and associated service operations. New applications are being discovered in such areas as space exploration, telecommunications, computer technology, and industrial and commercial automation. As society becomes increasingly automated at home and at work, the electronics industry will continue to research efficient, innovative ways to incorporate electronics technology into daily life.
■ Structure The products made by the electronics industry can be divided into four basic categories: government products, industrial products, consumer products, and electronic components. The first category, government products, represents a high percentage of sales in the industry. Missile and space guidance systems, communications systems, medical technology, and traffic control devices are just a few of these high-priced, high-tech products. The second category covers industrial products, which include large-scale computers, radio and television broadcasting equipment, telecommunications equipment, and electronic office equipment. Industrial products also include testing and measuring instruments, industrial control and processing equipment, electronic instruments for nuclear work, and radiation detection devices. The third category, consumer products, is the most commonly known area within the electronics industry and includes such things as wireless phones, compact disc players, DVD players, televisions, radios, video games, and VCRs. Other consumer products are personal computers, Personal Digital Assistants, electronic ovens, and home intercommunication and alarm systems. The fourth category is made up of the small pieces that all electronics are made of: components. Integrated circuits, capacitors, switches, transistors, relays, micro-
chips, television picture tubes, and amplifiers are among the most widely known. Electronic components usually are classified in three broad groups: electron tubes, semiconductors, and passive components. Tubes include receiving, television picture, and various power and special-purpose tubes. Principal semiconductor devices are integrated circuits, microprocessors, transistors, diodes, and rectifiers. Passive components include capacitors, resistors, transformers, relays, connectors, and switches. Because of its dependence on technology and the need to keep abreast of technical progress, electronics manufacturing provides a large number of opportunities for engineers and scientists. In 2004, more than 30 percent of individuals working in the electronics industry were in professional specialty occupations, primarily electrical and electronics engineers. About 6 percent of those employed in the electronics industry are technicians, mostly engineering technicians, who work closely with engineers. Today, there is strong growth in companies doing research and development in areas such as telecommunications, computers, and biomedical and medical engineering. Although electronics employs a high number of professional and technical workers, more than three out of 10 workers in this field are in production. Many are assemblers, who put together the various parts of an electrical device. Other production workers inspect and test equipment before it is shipped out. About 14 percent of the jobs in this field are executive, managerial, and administrative, and the remainder are clerical and sales and service positions. The principal unions involved in electronics manufacturing are the International Union of Electronic, Electrical, Salaried, Machine, and Furniture Workers; International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers; International Association of Machinists and Aerospace Workers; and United Electrical, Radio and Machine Workers of America.
■ Outlook Approximately 1.3 million Americans were employed in the computer electronic equipment manufacturing industry in 2004. Overall employment in this industry is projected by the U.S. Department of Labor to decline by 7 percent through 2014. The greatest employment declines will occur in the following industry segments: computer and peripheral equipment (–17.5 percent), and semiconductor and other electronic components (–11.7 percent). Manufacturing and reproducing magnetic and optical media is predicted to decline by 0.2 percent. Contributing factors to the decline include the continuing automation of manufacturing processes and the
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trend for U.S. electronics companies to move their production and assembly operations to lower-wage countries, such as those in the Pacific Rim. Only one industry segment—navigational, measuring, electromedical, and control instruments (+4.2 percent)—is expected to experience employment growth through 2014. Growth will also vary among the different types of jobs in the industry. More growth is expected among the professional specialty occupations, such as scientists,
Words to Know Analog: An electrical signal that is processed in a continuous wave, based on real-world qualities like speed, sound, and voltage. Capacitator: A device for accumulating and holding a charge of electricity. Circuit: The complete path of an electric current. Circuit board: A board that contains the wires connecting the various parts of an electronic system. Current: The movement or flow of electric charge. Digital: An electrical signal that is broken down into a series of zeros and ones and therefore varies in measured increments. Diode: A device through which an electric current can pass in only one direction. Electron tube: A device that typically consists of a sealed glass bulb containing two or more electrodes; used to generate and amplify electric oscillations and alternating currents. Fab: A semiconductor fabrication facility, that is, a chip factory. Integrated circuit: A piece of silicon on which thousands or millions of transistors have been combined; also called a chip. Microprocessor: A computer on a digital chip, which performs math and logic operations and executes instructions from memory. Rectifier: A device in which current flows more easily in one direction than in the other direction; used to change an alternating current into a direct current. Resistor: A device that introduces resistance into an electric current. Schematic: A diagram of a circuit. Semiconductor: A device that controls electronic signals. Solid-state: Refers to electronic devices that can control current without using moving parts, heated filaments, or vacuum gaps. Transistor: A device used for amplification or switching of electrical current.
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This worker is assembling a video display terminal for a computer. (Lear Sigler, Inc., Data Products Division.)
engineers, and computer systems analysts. This is because of the increasing sophistication of technology and manufacturing processes as well as the competitive nature of the industry, which leads to strong efforts in research and development. Production positions will decline due to increasing technological advancements in manufacturing and outsourcing of positions to plants that are located in foreign countries. The electronics industry is extremely susceptible to economic conditions, both within the United States and around the world. Global competition is increasing, and many U.S. manufacturers are joining in partnerships with foreign companies, most notably Japanese companies, in order to succeed. The environment is extremely competitive and is expected to remain so in the future. Employment opportunities within individual companies will be significantly affected by those companies’ efforts to remain competitive. Many companies reduced their workforces during the 1990s in order to have leaner staffs and less operating expenses. Radical changes are not unusual as a company drops one product line, adds another, or gears down after a large project. For example, a large company may lay off a large number of workers in one area of the company, while at the same time it may hire new employees for a different area. Electronics professionals can expect to change jobs and companies several times during their careers. In order to succeed, professionals will need to acquire multiple skills, have a strong technical foundation, and stay up to date on changing technologies. The use of electronic components in automobiles has been growing steadily since the early 1990s. In the late 1970s, electronic parts made up only about 1 percent of the total cost of an automobile. Today, depending upon
the make and model, electronic components account for between 8 and 15 percent of an automobile’s cost. Electronic navigational systems are also being used by the automotive industry, as well as many other industries. These systems are based on technology developed by the Department of Defense for its global positioning system, a satellite-based navigational system used for military purposes (and now also available to the general public). Some automobiles are now equipped with electronic navigational systems that use satellite-tracking systems to guide them to their destinations. Equipment includes a computer screen and both visual and audio prompts. Another electronic navigational technology being developed is an enhanced vision system that allows airplane pilots to “see” through weather through the use of electronic sensors that create high-resolution radar imagery. Home theater products represent another rapidly growing area of consumer electronic products. Many U.S. households have the basic equipment for a home theater: big-screen TV, VCR or DVD player, and stereo system. Projection televisions with screens as big as 70 inches are popular items, as are combined television/ VCR/DVD products. Larger screens are expected in the near future. Another recently developed personal audio/ visual product is the HDTV (high-definition television). HDTV uses digital technology to produce twice the picture resolution of the traditional televisions. HDTV can also display computer graphics and show movies in their original widescreen height-to-width ratio. This industry sector continues to evolve rapidly. The computer industry is a leader in creating technologically advanced products. There are now more than 227 million Internet users in North America, with 55 percent of Internet users having broadband access at home or work. Computer and semiconductor companies are constantly working on developing lighter, smaller, and more efficient electronic components that can be used in computers and related products. Before a product even comes out, engineers and scientists are working on creating a faster and better version. One of the new products being developed is a graphics/multimedia chip that will offer full-screen, fullmotion video, DVD-quality sound, and 64-bit graphics. Software developers and electrical and electronics engineers have created new products that allow electronic banking and electronic shopping. Other technological innovations include electronic printing. Digital printing technology, first developed in 1993, allows information to be transported electronically and reduces many of the equipment and material costs associated with printing. There should be increased opportunities in the development of military electronics. The Defense Appropria-
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tions Bill for fiscal year 2005 provided $355.4 billion in new discretionary spending authority for the Department of Defense, $38.2 billion more than was made available for 2001. Portions of the budget have been earmarked for surveillance and reconnaissance, missile defense systems, and development of new fighter aircraft, all requiring the expertise of electronics scientists, engineers, and computer specialists.
■ For More Information For general information and current news about the electronics industry, contact American Electronics Association 5201 Great America Parkway, Suite 520 Santa Clara, CA 95054-1122 Tel: 408-987-4247 http://www.aeanet.org
For specific information on various industry sectors, including consumer electronics, telecommunications, and electronic components, contact this organization or visit its Web site. Electronic Industries Alliance 2500 Wilson Boulevard Arlington, VA 22201-3834 Tel: 703-907-7500 http://www.eia.org
For information on engineering and computers or to find the IEEE student branch nearest you, contact Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) 1828 L Street, NW, Suite 1202 Washington, DC 20036-5104 Tel: 732-562-3900 Email:
[email protected] http://www.ieee.org
For information on math, science, and engineering programs for high school students, and for brochures on careers in engineering, contact Junior Engineering Technical Society Inc. 1420 King Street, Suite 405 Alexandria, VA 22314-2794 Tel: 703-548-5387 Email:
[email protected] http://www.jets.org
■ Related Articles Aerospace; Broadcasting; Computer Hardware; Computers; Computer Software; Defense; Music and Recording Industry; Telecommunications; Aeronautical and Aero-
space Technicians; Aerospace Engineers; Appliance Service Technicians; Audio Recording Engineers; Avionics Engineers and Technicians; Biomedical Engineers; Broadcast Engineers; Cable Television Technicians; Communications Equipment Technicians; Computer-Aided Design Drafters and Technicians; Computer and Electronics Sales Representatives; Computer and Office Machine Service Technicians; Computer Programmers; Electrical and Electronics Engineers; Electronics Engineering Technicians; Electronics Service Technicians; Energy Transmission and Distribution Workers; Industrial Engineering Technicians; Industrial Engineers; Instrument Makers and Repairers; Instrumentation Technicians; Laboratory Testing Technicians; Mechanical Engineering Technicians; Mechanical Engineers; Metallurgical Engineers; Metallurgical Technicians; Microelectronics Technicians; Robotics Engineers and Technicians; Semiconductor Technicians
Energy ■ Background For most of human history, fire was the main source of energy. Wood, charcoal, then coal provided fuel for fire. Over the years, however, people have acquired a more sophisticated knowledge of fuels and energy. This has resulted in the development of atomic energy, as well as new methods of accessing, storing, and utilizing a variety of resources, including petroleum, coal, natural gas, and water. The natural gas industry established itself in the early 19th century. In Britain, the first gas company was founded in 1812. The first American company opened in Baltimore in 1817. However, the oil rush of 1859 and the introduction of the electric light in 1879 thwarted the natural gas industry. Gas lights had been more effective and easier to use than kerosene lamps, but electric lighting became even more popular. Though used less and less for lighting, gas was still the primary fuel for cooking and even today maintains a share of that market. When huge reserves of natural gas were discovered in the Southwest in the early 1900s, the production of natural gas increased to 800 billion cubic feet a year. Further increases in the production of natural gas have been dependent on the development of pipelines that carry the gas to potential market areas. Other energy sources were also investigated during the 19th century. The internal combustion engine, patented in 1838, set the stage for gasoline’s popularity as a fuel.
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Jean Joseph Étienne Lenoir built a single-cylinder engine in 1860, and by 1865, 400 copies of it were being used in Paris to power such machines as printing presses and water pumps. German inventors built some of the first two- and four-cylinder combustion engines, fueled by gasoline and used to power vehicles. With the development of the automobile, the demand for gasoline grew dramatically. World War II further increased the dependence on gasoline and other petroleum products by creating a demand for fuel for tanks, ships, and other wartime vehicles. This stimulated the need for exploration of a large number of oil wells across the country. By the 1970s, the demand for oil had increased to the extent that Western nations could no longer supply enough oil to meet their own needs and were forced to import it from Middle Eastern countries. When these Middle Eastern countries gained control over the quantity and the price of oil being sold, they formed a cartel, known as the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC), which became one of the major influences on the world economy during this period. To combat the influence of OPEC, Great Britain, the United States, and other oil-producing countries increased domestic production in order to reduce the world’s dependence on oil from the OPEC nations. OPEC was forced to reduce prices and lost its control of the oil market. However, on the domestic market, greater availability of oil and gas products resulted in lower prices and decreased profits for the energy companies. The exploration, production, and delivery of energy extracts a large price from the environment. The grounding of the Exxon Valdez in Alaska’s Prince Edward Sound in 1989 resulted in one of the largest oil spills in history and remains North America’s worst environmental disaster ever. The damaged ship dumped 10 million gallons of crude oil into clear, clean water, killing thousands of birds, fish, and mammals, destroying the area’s fishing industry, and causing a national uproar. In just two weeks, the oil spill extended along the Alaskan shoreline at a distance equal to the entire coastal length of the state of California. The energy companies’ desire to drill for oil in Alaska’s huge Arctic Wildlife Refuge continues to meet with great opposition from environmental groups and others who wish to preserve the pristine condition of this area, which serves as an important habitat for artic animals and birds. Oil and gas exploration and extraction alter the environment, and among the challenges facing energy producers is the development of techniques for reducing alterations and damage to the environment created by the drilling, refining, transporting, and burning of fossil fuels.
Pumps of varying sizes are placed in wells where oil will not emerge rapidly. (Phillips Petroleum.)
Another challenge is to find more efficient ways to use nonrenewable energy sources and to harness energy from renewable sources, such as the sun, wind, and sea. Until the 1930s, hydroelectric power was responsible for providing most electricity because hydroplants were less expensive to operate than those that relied on thermal energy released by burning fuels like coal. Today, hydroelectric plants, which are often located at river dams, are just one source among many for generating energy. Hydropower supplies about 10 percent of our nation’s energy, according to the U.S. Department of Energy. Nuclear energy has played an important role in the energy industry since World War II, when the first atomic bombs were exploded. As the focus of nuclear engineering after the war grew to include nonviolent uses for atomic energy, nuclear reactors were built to propel naval vessels and to produce electric power. There are more than 100 nuclear power plants operating in the United States. However, several serious accidents at large nuclear reactors, specifically Three Mile Island in Pennsylvania and Chernobyl in the Ukraine, have provoked widespread fear about the dangers of radioactive contamination. In addition, nuclear wastes produced by these and other facilities must be carefully managed, and there is much conflict among government officials, taxpayers, and residents about where and how the waste should be disposed.
In the future, utility companies will no longer be monopolies. This is driven by three major factors: a significant drop in the cost of solar and wind power (in the latter case, a decrease of 80 percent in the last 15 years), a rise in consumer environmental awareness, and the gradual emergence of a deregulated electricity market. Consumers will be able to choose their energy source. Renewable energies, such as geothermal, bioenergy, solar power, and wind energy, will provide new options for many people concerned about the environment and conserving natural resources.
■ Structure Nearly every field of science and engineering is involved in the energy industry. Among the oil industry’s key employees are geologists, geophysicists, petroleum engineers, chemists, and chemical engineers. Together, these highly skilled men and women carry much of the responsibility for finding oil, producing it, processing it in the refinery, and conducting petroleum research. The U.S. oil industry is made up of thousands of companies engaged in one or more of five principal categories: exploration, production, refining, transportation, and marketing. Companies active in all five are known as integrated companies. Mineralogists and paleontologists who study fossil remains in the earth as a clue to oil-bearing sands are among the scientists who perform exploration research. According to one expert, the chances of striking oil when a well is drilled average only one in nine. Only one in 144 wells drilled in new fields results in commercially significant quantities of oil and natural gas. Geologists use a variety of sources to help find petroleum. They use background information to hunt for signs of certain kinds of underground rock formations where oil is likely to collect. For example, oil may be found where layers of certain kinds of rocks have slipped or tilted in a particular way, or where the layers have been pushed up to form a kind of underground dome. Sometimes geologists can find places where the tilted layers stick out of the earth. They frequently drill holes to get core samples of the underground layers. Geophysicists rely on another important type of exploration method. Working with such tools as the gravimeter, magnetometer, and seismograph, they chart underground rock formations and calculate the composition, depth, thickness, and slope of the structures. In the past, these calculations were made with explosives, set off at several different points. Later developments in seismic land surveys include the use of vibratory or percussion devices that do away with the drilling of holes and the use of explosives. With
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vibratory devices, the geophysicist can get accurate information and minimize environmental damage. In water, these devices send out pulses in the form of electrical discharges or contained explosions of propane gas or air so that marine life won’t be harmed. Petroleum and natural gas often are found in the same fields. When the geologist and the geophysicist have turned in their reports and recommendations, a petroleum company decides whether to drill. Drilling requires a great amount of equipment and supplies. Dozens of skilled workers are required, including exploration crew, geologists, drilling crew, engineers, and other skilled technicians. Once recovered, the crude oil has to be transported to refineries where it is turned into thousands of useful products. (For more information, see the article “Petroleum.”) Gas energy comes primarily from domestic natural gas wells. Gas production has been bolstered by pipeline imports from Canada, by domestic production of synthetic natural gas from petroleum, and by delivery of liquefied natural gas by ship from overseas. Potential sources for future use include natural gas from Alaska and Mexico, natural gas from coal, and gas from renewable organic and other unconventional sources. Advancing technology may allow us to draw energy from seawater and from pools of superheated brine. Another recent technological advancement is the use of nuclear energy to generate electricity. Nuclear power plants are made up of one or more nuclear reactor units.
Renewable Energy Because U.S. energy consumption is increasing, scientists, environmentalists, geologists, and other professionals are interested in exploring renewable sources of energy, such as solar and wind energy. Historically, coal has been very cheap and plentiful, but solar and wind energy are very clean and efficient in comparison. Customers who buy electricity have never been able to choose the type of energy source they would like to use. But, in a few years, that will change as utility monopolies are broken up and additional sources, such as solar and wind energies, are offered to the public. Utility companies are investing in solar and wind projects so that they, too, may offer the new options to their customers. Demand is expected to be high because many people are very concerned about keeping the earth clean. Jobs in designing, installing, and maintaining the necessary solar and wind equipment will be on the rise. Source: American Solar Energy Society
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Words to Know Chemical engineer: Worker who designs and operates refineries based on the research findings of a chemist; also responsible for ensuring the safety and quality of the product during manufacturing. Compressor operator: Worker who runs compressor engines and other related equipment. This includes loading and unloading compressors, starting and stopping engines, and controlling the speed of the engines in order to maintain the optimum operating pressures. Environmental conservation expert: Person who analyzes and recommends safe, environmentally responsible ways to extract, refine, transport, and market oil and natural gas. Exxon Valdez: Ship that was grounded in Alaska’s Prince Edward Sound in 1989 and dumped 10 million gallons of crude oil into a pristine environment, producing the worst environmental disaster ever recorded in North American history. Geologist: Scientist who locates natural resources, such as petroleum, by studying the rock environment and drilling for ground samples. Geophysicist: Scientist who works with tools, such as gravimeters, seismographs, and vibratory devices, to chart underground rock formations and calculate the depth, composition, thickness, and slope of the structures. Industrial engineer: Professional responsible for methods analysis; work standards development and control; planning, scheduling, and budgeting; and economic analysis of operating practices and investments. Mineralogist and paleontologist: Scientists who study fossil remains in the earth to locate oil-bearing sands.
In each unit, uranium undergoes a fission reaction, which produces enormous quantities of heat. During this fission reaction, the nucleus of an atom is split into energized particles called neutrons. The neutrons are released at such great speed that they collide with other atomic nuclei and cause additional splitting action to occur. This chain reaction would be uncontrollable if it did not occur within the walls of the reactor core. If the chain reaction is not contained properly, the results could be catastrophic, as in the 1986 incident in Chernobyl nuclear plant in the former USSR (now Ukraine). Nuclear fission also pro-
Nuclear disaster: Occurs when safety procedures fail during nuclear activity and the surrounding environment becomes inhospitable. So far, two major accidents have occurred: one at Three Mile Island near Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, and one at Chernobyl, Ukraine. Nuclear reactor operator (NRO): Worker who is licensed by the Nuclear Regulatory Commission to oversee the generating machines in a nuclear plant. NROs interpret data from monitoring instruments that record all activity in the reactor unit. Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC): A cartel of oil-producing, oil-exporting Middle Eastern countries. In the 1970s, they dominated the oil market and sent U.S. oil prices soaring with their monopoly. Petroleum scientist: Expert who works in exploration research in order to better understand how oil was formed and to make drilling expeditions more precise. Power plant operator: Worker who controls the boilers, turbines, generators, and auxiliary equipment in traditional, nonnuclear plants; monitors equipment for irregularities in the generation or distribution of power. Radiation protection technician: Worker who monitors radiation levels, protects workers from being exposed to dangerous radiation levels, and decontaminates radioactive areas. Renewable energy: A clean and unlimited source of power or fuel. This energy is harnessed from different sources such as wind, sunlight (solar), water (hydro), organic matter (biomass), and the Earth’s internal heat (geothermal). Rig-builder supervisor: Person who directs work on the rig, including putting up the tall, open towers called rigs or derricks and overseeing the process of drilling into the ground.
duces toxic, long-lived nuclear waste, so the nuclear power industry and government must develop ways to contain these wastes for the long term. Heat generated by this fission process creates steam from water circulating around the reactor core. Pipes keep the steam under very high pressure and carry it away to the turbine, which drives the electric generator that produces electricity. (For more information, see the article “Nuclear Power.”) Solar energy converts the sun’s light into energy that can be used to make electricity. In the near future, the
demand for architects that can design buildings to maximize sunlight will grow, as will the demand for installers of solar systems for homes and businesses. According to the American Solar Energy Institute, more than one million Americans use solar water heaters, more than 500,000 use solar energy to heat their swimming pools, and more than 200,000 homes use solar electric (PV) technology. Wind energy has been the fastest growing energy technology in the world for the past three years, according to the American Wind Energy Association. In order to better harness this renewable energy source, engineers will be needed to improve the design of today’s windmills and make them more efficient so that wind energy rates can compete with other available energy sources. Until just a few years ago, most wind farms were concentrated in California and Texas, but other states with sizable wind farm development include Colorado, Iowa, Kansas, Minnesota, Nebraska, New York, North Dakota, Oklahoma, Oregon, Pennsylvania, South Dakota, Washington, West Virginia, Wisconsin, and Wyoming. According to the American Wind Energy Association, the U.S. wind industry employs more than 2,000 people who contribute directly to the economies of 46 states. The U.S. installed capacity has increased significantly since 1998, from 1,900 megawatts to over 10,000 megawatts in 2006. The Pacific Northwest Laboratory predicts that U.S. wind energy potential could be as high as 10,777 billion kilowatts generated annually, or more than twice the electricity generated in the U.S. today.
Energy
■ Outlook U.S. energy consumption is expected to increase at an average annual rate of about 1.2 percent through 2025, according to the Energy Information Administration, a statistical agency within the U.S. Department of Energy. Even though production of oil, petroleum, and natural gas is expected to increase through 2008, the demand still outweighs the supply, so the United States will continue to rely on imports. Short-term energy issues include concerns for energy shortages, economic slowdown, and volatile energy markets. Key long-term issues include the supplies and prices of fossil fuels, the development of U.S. electricity markets, technology improvement, and the impact of economic growth on projected energy demand and carbon dioxide emissions through 2025. While the number of oil refineries in the United States is gradually declining, their overall production capacity is increasing due to better efficiency. Since the Clinton administration, the U.S. Bureau of Land Management has leased large areas of Alaska’s National Petroleum Reserve to the oil industry for oil exploration. However, much of the oil exploration and refining activity has gone overseas, particularly to offshore Africa, South America, the Middle East, the former republics of the Soviet Union, and the North Sea. Natural gas production is expected to increase at an average annual rate of 1 percent through 2025. Net imports are also expected to increase, primarily from Canada. Two of the four existing U.S. liquefied natural gas import facilities have announced plans to reopen
Bull Shoals Dam, on the White River in Arkansas, provides hydroelectric energy to the area. (Arkansas Dept. of Parks and Tourism.)
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and three of the four have announced plans to expand their capacity. Because domestic companies cut way back on exploration and production of oil and gas in the 1980s after worldwide oil prices declined, and because cost-cutting measures were instituted, projections to 2014 for engineers do not show an increase. However, the elevated overseas oil production and the plans for drilling in Alaska may result in a slight increase in the demand for workers willing to travel. Coal production is expected to increase at an average annual rate of 1.5 percent through 2025, but since European demand for coal is declining, U.S. coal exports will also decline. Job opportunities in the wind energy field will grow significantly, as wind power capacity will triple or even quadruple in the next decade. Positions that will need to be filled include those of windsmiths, technicians, engineers, avian specialists, electricians, and construction workers. Employers will also need to fill manufacturing, research, development, and management jobs. The American Wind Energy Association estimates that if the United States increases its current wind energy capacity 15-fold, which they do not believe to be unreasonable, our country could stand to gain as many as 150,000 new jobs in this area.
■ For More Information This nonprofit organization promotes the advancement of engineering and science relating to the atomic nucleus and of allied sciences and arts. For information on publications, scholarships and seminars, contact American Nuclear Society 555 North Kensington Avenue La Grange Park, IL 60526-5535 Tel: 708-352-6611 http://www.ans.org
This trade association represents employees in the entire petroleum industry. For free videos, fact sheets, and informational booklets available to educators, contact American Petroleum Institute 1220 L Street, NW Washington, DC 20005-4070 Tel: 202-682-8000 Email:
[email protected] http://www.api.org
This national trade association represents municipal, state, and local government-owned electric utilities. For more information on the industry, contact American Public Power Association 2301 M Street, NW
Washington, DC 20037-1484 Tel: 202-467-2900 http://www.appanet.org
This national organization promotes the widespread use of solar energy and sponsors the National Solar Conference. For information on publications, such as Solar Today, contact American Solar Energy Society 2400 Central Avenue, Suite A Boulder, CO 80301-2862 Tel: 303-443-3130 Email:
[email protected] http://www.ases.org
This national trade organization of the U.S. wind energy industry promotes the growth, research, federal legislation, and development of the industry. For information and publications about the wind energy field, contact American Wind Energy Association 122 C Street, NW, Suite 380 Washington, DC 20001-2109 Tel: 202-383-2500 Email:
[email protected] http://www.awea.org
For industry news and updates, publications, conferences, career opportunities, and membership information, contact Geothermal Energy Association 209 Pennsylvania Avenue, SE Washington, DC 20003-1107 Tel: 202-454-5261 Email:
[email protected] http://www.geo-energy.org
For more information on hydropower, contact National Hydropower Association 1 Massachusetts Avenue, NW, Suite 850 Washington, DC 20001-1404 Tel: 202-682-1700 Email:
[email protected] http://www.hydro.org
For information on renewable energy research and the development of new technologies, contact National Renewable Energy Laboratory 1617 Cole Boulevard Golden, CO 80401-3393 Tel: 303-275-3000 http://www.nrel.gov
This organization is dedicated to the peaceful use of nuclear technologies. For more information, contact
Engineering
Nuclear Energy Institute 1776 I Street, NW, Suite 400 Washington, DC 20006-3708 Tel: 202-739-8000 http://www.nei.org
This society promotes the science and education of exploration geophysicists in the development of natural resources, in characterizing the near-surface, and mitigating earth hazards. For informational brochures, contact Society of Exploration Geophysicists 8801 South Yale Tulsa, OK 74137-3575 Tel: 918-497-5500 Email:
[email protected] http://www.seg.org
For information on the energy industry, contact U.S. Department of Energy 1000 Independence Avenue, SW Washington, DC 20585-0001 http://www.energy.gov
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Engineering ■ Background A lot of brainpower goes into engineering—a lot of knowledge, creativity, thoughtfulness, and pure hard work. Humankind has been “engineering,” so to speak,
since we realized we had opposable thumbs that we could use to handle tools. And from that point on we began our ceaseless quest to make, to build, to create tools and systems that helped us live our lives better. There were a lot of mistakes, but engineers and scientists learned from them and built a foundation of engineering laws and principles. We can trace the development of civilization to the present day through engineering hallmarks like Stonehenge, the Egyptian pyramids, the ancient cities of Greece, the extensive system of roadways and aqueducts built by the early Romans, Europe’s construction of fortresses and cathedrals, the invention of dams, electricity, the automobile, the airplane, the building of canals and cross-continental railways, nuclear energy, putting a man on the moon—and that’s just skimming the surface of the many things engineers are responsible for that built our civilizations and defined how we think of ourselves and our societies. The rise of the first cities in 3000 b.c. in Mesopotamia (modern-day Iraq) created a need for engineers, though there was certainly no concept of what an engineer was then. These early “engineers” did not apply scientific principles to their work, but rather they learned by example, from mistakes, and from the urgency of pure need. People relied on “engineers” to address their everyday needs and survival. To protect against enemy attacks, engineers learned to heighten and strengthen building walls through the use of brick (a building material most likely invented by accident). To bring food and water into the city, engineers constructed a system of levees, small canals, and reservoirs. The first engineer of prominence whose architectural legacy has survived millennia, was the ancient Egyptian builder, Imhotep. He designed and built what is commonly believed to be the first pyramid, the Step Pyramid, around 2650 b.c. just outside of present-day Cairo, Egypt. Modern engineers marvel at the skills the ancient Egyptians demonstrated in the building of the pyramids. To build a structure as massive and architecturally perfect as a pyramid at a time of very limited building resources (the invention of the wheel was in its infancy—they had nothing like cranes, levels, or any sort of machinery to move the large, heavy stones) was a task of incredible ingenuity. The ancient Egyptians used sledges to transport the stones from the distant quarries where they were mined. The main method they used to move the huge stones (some weighing up to 55 tons) higher up as the pyramid grew was called jacking, which used wedges and levers to slowly but surely move the stones higher and higher. The engineers of ancient Greece studied more complex principles of geometry and put them to use in advanced
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architectural designs. These engineers used five basic machines to help them in their building: the wheel, the pulley, the lever, the wedge, and the screw. More complex building methods and different building materials began to appear with the Greeks. They developed a variety of joints, made use of the column as a load reliever, used post-and-beam construction, and they used the arch, although rarely. The Greek engineers employed materials like iron, lead, limestone, and marble. Other Greek contributions to engineering include studies on the lever, gearing, the screw, the siphon, and the concepts of buoyancy, and the invention of force pumps, hydraulic pipe organs, and the metal spring. Whereas the Greeks were the theorists of early engineering, the Romans were the projectors and administrators. They busily set out to construct many great public works, like building roads, bridges, tunnels, aqueducts, and even plumbing for each city home. Rome’s major concern for establishing a system of civil engineering was to aide its war machine. Military engineers were responsible for building roads and bridges (to better access future conquests, assure quick communications, and protect their empire), and baths (to relax the warriors after battle), and of course, for developing a variety of weaponry. The Roman military engineer’s greatest responsibility, however, was the fortification of army camps. They built all kinds of fortifications, which included walls of varying thickness, height, and shape to better repel would-be attackers. Modern engineering’s true beginnings are mostly rooted in the 17th and 18th centuries, where mathematical principles and laws of physics began to be understood and developed. Isaac Newton’s groundbreaking research in mathematics and physics was quickly picked up by engineers and put to practical use. Aside from enlightening the world about gravity, Newton’s work in mechanics produced the generalization of the concept of Force, the formulation of the concept of Mass (his First Law), and the principle of Effect and Counter-Effect (his Third Law). Other mathematicians and engineers of the time, enlightened by Newton’s findings, went on to make mathematical discoveries that paved the way for the work of future engineers. It wasn’t until the 18th century that the first schools of engineering were established. Previously, most young engineers learned their skills by apprenticeships, if they were lucky enough to get one. A French military engineer, Sébastien le Prestre de Vauban, recognized the need to have an actual corps of engineers in the military to study and improve the building of fortifications, bridges, and roads. Shortly thereafter, engineering schools began to appear throughout France, and then the rest of Europe, and finally in the United States. In 1775, the U.S. Con-
tinental Congress stated, “That there be one Chief Engineer at the Grand Army . . . [and] that two assistants be employed under him . . . ,” and thus began the United States Corps of Engineers. This new need for engineers prompted the beginning of scientific schools at Harvard (1847), Yale (1861), the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (1865), and other engineering schools. Vauban’s plan to educate engineers was largely for military purposes. Armies needed easy ways to get from point A to point B, so roads and bridges had to be built (The Romans, we have seen, did this very well). It was around this time too, that the civil engineer came on to the scene as a separate discipline. When military engineers built roads, bridges, canals, and other public works, they tended to build them only when it served a very specific military purpose. Cities needed better water supplies and sanitation facilities, and local roads that could link smaller communities. As cities grew, they tended to do so in a not-too-orderly fashion, so civil engineers were needed to plan the cities. In 1771, John Smeaton, the first self-proclaimed civil engineer, founded the Society of Civil Engineers with the objective of bringing together like-minded engineers and other men with financial resources to design and build public works. With the advent of steam power and the industrial revolution at the end of the 18th century, great engineering accomplishments seemed to happen every day— from the steam engine and the large-scale mining of coal, to the cotton gin and new agricultural technology, the world was changing quickly. New processes for manufacturing iron and steel made their use more common in all branches of engineering, which was evidenced by the first suspension bridge, erected by J. Finley in the United States in 1801. This invention made possible the building of bridges in locations where a standard mid-span support bridge could not feasibly be built, thus greatly improving transportation. A suspension bridge is suspended by cable attached to and extending between supports or towers—a modern-day example is the Golden Gate Bridge in San Francisco. Over the years suspension bridge technology was improved and they became a common sight throughout the world. The 19th century marked the dawn of electrical engineering. Many scientists at the time, excited over this new, and most likely profitable, phenomenon, electricity, dove headfirst into all its mysteries and intricacies, making many valuable discoveries. Once these scientists laid down the principles of the field, other engineers, inventors, and scientists put these principles to practical applications, like Samuel Morse’s invention of the telegraph in 1837, Alexander Graham Bell’s telephone in 1876, Thomas Edison’s light bulb in 1878, Nikola Tesla’s
electric motor in 1888, and many others. By the early 20th century, much of the infrastructure of modern society as we know it was coming to light. The first major engineering feat of the 20th century was Orville and Wilbur Wright’s first controlled flight of a powered airplane. Aeronautical engineering, as it came to be known, was a dangerous endeavor at its outset, and early engineers labored for a long period of time without significant success. Gliders were the first airplane design to test the skies and provided engineers with valuable information on aerodynamics. The Wright brothers came up with the idea of fixing a motor to their plane for long distance flight and made several failed (though educational) attempts to take off. Finally, in 1903 they succeeded in flying an engine-powered biplane for 59 seconds. Over the next two years they made more adjustments and tests and eventually ended up selling planes to the U.S. military. As with previous centuries, it was the military and war that fueled most of our major engineering advancements. The 20th century has been no different. The U.S. and European militaries recognized immediate potential in airplanes and put its engineers to work on making them safer, more maneuverable, faster, and rugged. By 1914, just in time for the first World War, militaries fitted their planes with radios, navigational equipment, and guns. Planes were also designed to haul and drop bombs. European navies invested heavily into submarine research. The German navy, although a latecomer to the submarine, was the early leader in this technology, and during World War I its U-boats were greatly feared by Allied ships at sea. Fighter plane and submarine design advanced even further by World War II. Military engineers increased the plane’s and sub’s speed, range, and general mechanical abilities to make them easier to learn and operate. By 1942 the German Luftwaffe flew the first real jet plane, which reached speeds of more than 500 miles per hour. One of this century’s most profound engineering innovations came in the 1930s with nuclear power. In the race to develop the atomic bomb, the U.S. government spearheaded the Manhattan Project to study and develop nuclear power. As nuclear engineers began to realize the awesome potential of nuclear energy, schools were established to study this extremely dangerous new technology and a new branch of engineering was born— nuclear engineering. In the 1950s, the Cold War brought about fierce technological and military competition between the United States and Russia, necessitating the services of all types of engineers. The exploration of space became another area where engineers sought to demonstrate their country’s
Engineering
technological dominance. In 1957, the Soviets launched Sputnik, the world’s first orbiting satellite. The United States countered with its own satellite, Explorer I, in early 1958. In the early 1960s, Russia and America set their sights on the moon and engineers from both countries worked feverishly to be the first to land a man on the moon. And in 1969, the world was awestruck when U.S. astronaut Neil Armstrong stepped from his spacecraft onto the rocky surface of the moon. Even today engineering marvels still abound, from the skyscrapers in our cities, to the artificial heart, to the tiny computer processors in many of the electronics we buy. The rapid speed at which computer technology is progressing is unprecedented. Big news one month in the computer industry is almost ancient history in the following months. Modern society is becoming increasingly automated, as human power is replaced by the nevercomplaining, never-tiring robot. According to the 1828 charter of the British Institution of Civil Engineers, engineering is “the art of directing the great sources of power in nature for the use and convenience of man.” Most engineers will hold true to this as an accurate definition of their field, with perhaps a few additions. Not much of the philosophy has changed since 1828. What has changed is the scope and method of engineering, which began as an empirical art and has gradually developed into a highly specialized science.
■ Structure The engineering industry comprises many fields of study, all employing unique and sometimes similar methods of science to reach practical solutions to problems and questions in all industries. There are five basic areas of study in which engineers in all branches of the industry can specialize: research, development, application, management, and maintenance. While an engineer may work exclusively in one of these areas, it is more common for their knowledge and duties to overlap. For example, research and development are commonly linked and called R&D. Those working in the application side of a project may often find themselves making maintenance calls. All engineering projects begin with research. The type and scope of research will be different in each branch of engineering, but generally, once a goal has been set by an industry or institution and brought to the engineers, they set out to find possible ways to solve it. This could entail visiting a manufacturing plant to get a first-hand understanding of an industrial problem. It could entail testing different materials for a specific application. It could also require the engineer to struggle over mathematical or computer applications, as well as spend long hours in a laboratory mixing chemicals. The scope of research is
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limitless. Some research engineers work independently, seeking to find new principles and processes for a specific branch of engineering. Closely tied to research is development. Development entails applying the results of a research project to a specific function. Since there may be more than one way of doing this, a development team must perform tests and studies to find the best way. A research engineer may have come up with several useable materials for a part on an airplane, but it is up to the development team to figure out which of those materials works best in the big picture. For example, a certain material might be chosen for an exterior part on a plane. It works fine, it’s durable and weather resistant; however, a development team might discover the material reacts negatively to the exhaust of the engines, or that at certain altitudes and speeds it reacts differently than when on the ground. With these observations made, the development team will reject the material and look for one that is more stable under these types of stresses. With the research and development complete, the real fun begins—project application. Engineers use the data from the R&D studies and apply them to the design and production of materials, machines, methods, or to whatever the ultimate goal is. For example, a team of civil engineers, after finding the best materials and location for building a bridge in Alaska, will then set out to design and build the bridge. A team of industrial engineers, having studied an outdated method of production at a manufacturing plant and having researched newer methods specific to that type of manufacturing, will begin implementing the new method and train plant employees. A management engineer, who earlier may have been part of the R&D or application team, will be responsible for keeping the developed idea working. They study their work as it was intended to function—whether that be machinery, a drawbridge, or a carving knife—and look for ways to improve on it in the future. If a team of electrical engineers designs a new system of electronic circuits for a home entertainment system, they may find that once everything is in place and the system has been manufactured that there are certain minor aspects that can be improved. While the development team is supposed to have found these possible flaws before production, it is almost impossible to catch every possible little glitch. Engineers consider this learning from experience and will improve the design in the future. Maintenance, the final stage in an engineering project, is concerned with the project’s upkeep. A team of mechanical engineers, for example, may have designed a machine to package coffee in tin containers. The engi-
neers visit the plant, set it up, and go home with everyone satisfied. Two months later, a maintenance engineer, who was likely involved in the application process, is called back to the plant to fix a problem in the system—the coffee keeps overflowing, causing waste. These sorts of maintenance calls are fairly common, as it takes a while with any new project to work out the bugs. Again they learn from experience, and similar systems in the future will probably not have the same problem. Engineers in a particular industry, say in nuclear engineering, will of course, be trained in nuclear engineering, but they will also have to understand many basic to complex principles of other branches of engineering. Depending on their specific studies, the nuclear engineers may need understanding of environmental, chemical, aerospace, mechanical, electrical, industrial, materials, naval, or computer engineering. Professional Engineer, or PE, is a special title like Ph.D., which indicates that the engineer has completed education and experience requirements and passed tough exams. PEs are under legal responsibility for their engineering work and are bound by an ethics code to protect the public health and safety. PEs have graduated from an accredited engineering program, have had at least four years experience under a licensed PE, and they have passed the Principles and Practice of Engineering (PPE) exam. There were approximately 1.4 million engineers in the United States in 2004, according to the U.S. Department of Labor. More than 72 percent worked as electrical and electronics, civil, mechanical, industrial (including health and safety), aerospace, and computer hardware engineers. Forty percent of all engineers worked in manufacturing and 27 percent worked in the professional, scientific, and technical service industry. Since engineering is such a broad field, there are literally thousands of different places you can find employment, depending on your specialty. Engineers are needed in virtually every field. Whether you want to work for a small company or a large firm, indoors or outdoors, nine to five or the graveyard shift, there are engineering careers available for you. You can find your engineering career at a desk behind a computer with regular hours not far from your home; or you may find your engineering career in the workshop with a socket set in one hand, a computer-aided calibrator in the other, and a little grease under your nails; or you may find your engineering career in the dank sewers of a major city as you plan a more effective method of waste management. As a mechanical, automobile, chemical, industrial, plastics, or robotics engineer you may find employment with one of the Big Three U.S. automobile makers, as
Engineering
Words to Know Ampere: The unit of measurement for an electrical current. Biomechanics: Developing mechanical devices like the artificial hip, heart, and kidney. Capacitor: An electrical element used to store electrical energy, consisting of two equally charged conducting surfaces having opposite signs and separated by a dielectric. Cellular, tissue, and genetic engineering: Application of engineering at the cellular and subcellular level to study diseases and design intervention techniques. Circuit: A connection of two or more electrical elements to serve a useful function. Clinical engineering: Application of engineering to health care through customizing and maintaining sophisticated medical equipment. Conduction: The process by which heat travels through a substance. Convection: The process by which heat is transferred by the movement of fluids. First law: In all processes energy is simply converted from one form to another, or transferred from one system to another. Gear: A toothed wheel, cylinder, or other machine element that when turned fits with another toothed
well as any of the thousands of private manufacturing companies. As an aeronautical or aerospace engineer you will almost certainly try to land a job at NASA or a major commercial firm like Boeing. Civil engineers can find jobs with local and city governments, with construction firms, with the military or federal government, and even large corporations. The petroleum and chemical engineer can seek jobs, naturally, with petroleum and gas companies like BP, Texaco, and ExxonMobil Corporation, or they can look for jobs with major chemical companies like Dow Chemical, Eastman Chemical Company, or DuPont. Environmental and biological engineers will have no problem finding employment at the Environmental Protection Agency, industry, or consulting firms. Companies producing high-tech equipment for commercial and industrial use look for skilled electrical engineers, as well as software, mechanical, materials, and plastics engineers. Engineers are also employed by local, state, and the federal government—194,000 in 2004, according to the
element to transmit motion, or to change speed or direction. Generator: An electromechanical device used to convert mechanical energy into electrical energy. Mechanism: A part of a machine containing two or more parts arranged so that motion of one part compels the motion of the others. Momentum: The measurement of the motion of a body, determined by multiplying its mass by its velocity. Radiation: Energy emitted as electromagnetic waves or subatomic particles from a source or substance. Second law: Heat cannot pass from a cooler to a hotter body without some other process occurring. Semiconductor: A substance with electrical conductivity, such as germanium or silicon, which is between being a good conductor and a good insulator used in such devices as transistors, diodes, and integrated circuits. Thermodynamics: The study of heat and other forms of energy. Voltage: The energy required to move a specific number of electrons across two points. Watt: The unit of measurement for electrical power.
U.S. Department of Labor. Some federal employers of engineers include the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, and the Departments of Agriculture, Defense, Energy, Interior, and Transportation. New engineering fields are developing all the time, as are specialties. One of the most recent developments is genetic engineering, which involves the alteration and manipulation of the genes of living things. Other possibilities for engineers can be found in academia as instructors or researchers.
■ Outlook We live in a rapidly changing, high-tech world, where the major engineering riddles of one year are solved the next year. Engineers wield tremendous influence on our lives, cultures, and societies. As the world changes with the latest technologies and as we grow accustomed to the luxuries they offer, there will be an increased demand for highly skilled, innovative professionals to continue the trend. These advancing technologies will put pressure on industry
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to improve and update their current systems—whether they be for production facilities or corporate offices—if they are to stay competitive. Overall, the U.S. Department of Labor predicts slower than average growth for all engineers through 2014, although job prospects vary by specialty. An employment decline is expected for petroleum engineers and mining and geological engineers. Aerospace engineers, marine engineers and naval architects, and nuclear engineers will have slower-than-average growth. Growth that is about as fast as the average is expected for agricultural engineers, chemical engineers, civil engineers, computer hardware engineers, electrical engineers, electronics engineers, health and safety engineers, materials engineers, mechanical engineers, and industrial engineers. Employment for biomedical engineers and environmental engineers should grow much faster than the average career.
■ For More Information For information about careers in engineering, contact American Society for Engineering Education 1818 N Street, NW, Suite 600 Washington, DC 20036-2479 Tel: 202-331-3500 http://www.asee.org
For information on engineering careers and student membership, contact Junior Engineering Technical Society 1420 King Street, Suite 405 Alexandria, VA 22314-2750 Tel: 703-548-5387 Email:
[email protected] http://www.jets.org
For information on National Engineers Week Programs held in many U.S. locations, contact National Engineers Week Headquarters 1420 King Street Alexandria, VA 22314-2750 Tel: 703-684-2852 Email:
[email protected] http://www.eweek.org
For information on training programs, seminars, and how to become a student member, contact Society of Manufacturing Engineers One SME Drive PO Box 930 Dearborn, MI 48121-2408 Tel: 800-733-4763 http://www.sme.org
For information on licensure, contact National Society of Professional Engineers 1420 King Street Alexandria, VA 22314-2794 Tel: 703-684-2800 http://www.nspe.org
For career guidance and scholarship information, contact Society of Women Engineers 230 East Ohio Street, Suite 400 Chicago, IL 60611-3265 Tel: 312-596-5223 Email:
[email protected] http://www.swe.org
■ Related Articles Aerospace; Manufacturing; Mathematics and Physics; Aeronautical and Aerospace Technicians; Aerospace Engineers; Air Quality Engineers; Biomedical Engineers; Ceramic Engineers; Chemical Engineers; Civil Engineers; Electrical and Electronics Engineers; Electronics Engineering Technicians; Engineers; Environmental Engineers; Hardware Engineers; Industrial Engineers; Mechanical Engineering Technicians; Mechanical Engineers; Metallurgical Engineers; Metallurgical Technicians; Mining Engineers; Nuclear Engineers; Optical Engineers; Packaging Engineers; Petroleum Engineers; Petroleum Technicians; Plastics Engineers; Plastics Technicians; Quality Control Engineers and Technicians; Robotics Engineers and Technicians; Software Engineers; Traffic Engineers
Entrepreneurs ■ Background Have you ever baby-sat neighborhood kids? Mowed a lawn or two in the summer? Run a lemonade stand? Then you already know something about being an entrepreneur. You’ve set your own hours, named your prices, and earned money. The entrepreneurial spirit has long been strong in kids and teens; this is evident in the number of junior achievement organizations, such as Future Business Leaders of America, devoted to the interests of young entrepreneurs. A Gallup poll found that 70 percent of high school seniors want to own their own businesses someday. Although entrepreneurial enterprises are popular with teenagers, people often outgrow the ambition to embark on their own businesses because they need to support a family and pay rent or mortgage and don’t want to risk
financial security. But many adults choose to break away from the norm and start their own companies. Some of the biggest corporations of today started out as small businesses: Coca-Cola was a concoction by a Georgian pharmacist who jugged his mixture in his backyard, then carried it to Jacob’s Pharmacy to sell for a nickel a glass; Henry Ford, who invented the quadricycle in 1896, was the man behind the origins of the automotive industry. And there are similar entrepreneurial success stories today, as people establish companies on the basis of diverse products and services. Dineh Mohajer invented Hard Candy cosmetics by mixing nail polishes together, gave the colors mock-exploitative names like Scam and Skitzo, and made gross sales of over $10 million her first year of business. Dave Kapell invented Magnetic Poetry, words on magnetic strips, and now pulls in millions of dollars a year in sales. And when these people aren’t running their businesses, they’re telling their success stories on TV, in magazines, and on the Internet, to a public itching to quit their own jobs and set up offices at home. It’s not necessary to invent a new fashion trend or popular novelty to start a new business. The numbers vary from study to study, but the Small Business Administration reports that there are approximately 23 million home-based businesses in the United States. Some of these businesses may be making big money, but most are simply making their founders comfortable. In addition to providing services and making good living wages, many small business owners are fulfilling their dreams. For example, a personal chef may find the ease and slower pace of creating individualized menus much more satisfying than the odd hours and frantic demands of a restaurant kitchen. A husband and wife may gladly quit their full-time jobs to open up their home as a bed and breakfast. The owner of an adult day care service may see her business as an opportunity to give something valuable to the community. Consulting is a popular entrepreneurial trend. The roots of consulting include the development of timeand-motion studies by Frank and Lillian Gilbreth in the early 1900s. They developed these studies to evaluate the efficiency of industrial employees’ work habits. They were hired to survey the design of different companies and then prepare proposals to redesign the methods used in their operations and tasks. Because of the demand for their specialized service, Frank Gilbreth started a consulting firm that handled requests on a freelance basis. This was among the first consulting firms established in the United States. Today, hiring specialists is an established business practice. It can often be more cost effective to hire a specialist temporarily than to hire a full-time, salaried employee.
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Women in Business America’s 10.4 million women-owned businesses employ 12.8 million people and contribute $1.9 trillion to the economy, according to the Center for Women’s Business Research (CWBR). According to a study called “Removing the Boundaries: The Continued Progress and Achievement of WomenOwned Enterprises” by the CWBR, between 1997 and 2000 the number of women-owned firms with 100 or more employees increased by 43.9 percent, 68 percent faster than all businesses passing the 100-employee mark. The study also found that the ranks of women-owned firms with 500 or more employees increased by 124.3 percent over the same period. In addition, the number of womenowned firms with revenues of $10 million or more grew by 36.8 percent, more than three times the rate of comparably sized firms.
Owning a small business has been a part of the American dream since the earliest days of the country, and the era from the late 20th century until today has seen a great increase in entrepreneurial ambition. This may be in part due to the downsizing trends of American companies. Whereas earlier in the century, a person could work for one company until retirement, such job security has become more rare. It’s increasingly common for men and women in their 50s to lose their jobs and find themselves with few job prospects. With severance pay in hand, these people often invest in the businesses they’ve been longing for, recognizing these ventures as no more risky than any other career pursuit. In the first half of the 20th century, a person chose a job path and stuck with it; today, people are more likely to experiment with a variety of careers throughout their lives. There are more than 550 colleges and universities that offer entrepreneurship courses, 350 more than there were in 1984. Additionally, nearly 50 schools offer entrepreneurism as a degree program. There are also more organizations, periodicals, and Web pages advising people on how to start their own businesses and keep them running. Entrepreneur and Success magazines publish special issues devoted to small businesses, and they maintain Web sites. The Edward Lowe Foundation gives small business owners access to extensive databases, research, and conferences and publishes Entrepreneurial Edge magazine. From 1991 to 2000, the Small Business Administration (SBA) helped nearly 435,000 small businesses get more than $94.6 billion in loans. In 2003, the SBA lent a total of $248 billion in small business loans of under a million
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dollars each.The SBA also provides business start-up kits, workshops, and research assistance. This wealth of information, along with the ease of accessing it via the Internet, has undoubtedly played a part in the boom in small businesses. Technology in general has made it easier to run a home-based business. Computer software, specially designed for a profession, takes much of the time and effort away from administrative details. Email and faxes allow better communication, and the Internet provides market research, industry support, and ways to better promote a business.
■ Structure Entrepreneurship covers a huge range of business endeavors from the homemaker who makes, packages, and sells her special jams and jellies from her home to the plastics manufacturer who employs more than 500 workers in three factories.
This florist owns a successful floral arrangement company that creates displays for weddings, birthdays, and other occasions. (Corbis.)
Many people who own small businesses start small, often part time, from a home office and expand as the demand grows. They perform all the functions normally found in any business, including those of president, manager, manufacturer or service provider, secretary, accountant, investor, benefits administrator, salesperson, and maintenance engineer. Owners of home-based businesses might be involved in making and selling products, such as food items, jewelry, furniture, ceramics, or clothing. Or they might provide services, either performed in the home office or at other locations outside the home, such as writing and editing, telemarketing, housekeeping, computer programming, pet sitting, or catering. Owners of these types of businesses can be quite successful for a long time, working completely on their own. They enjoy answering only to themselves and having control over every part of their work. They take all the responsibilities, suffer all the hardships, and reap all the rewards. Consultants usually work independently out of their own homes or offices, although some work on a part- or full-time basis for consulting firms. Traditionally, consultants have provided professional expertise in such areas as marketing, public and media relations, business plan development, finances, productivity, automation, computer programming, and downsizing. Today, the field of consulting has expanded to include almost every possible aspect of modern life. You can find consultants who will charge you a fee to help you plan your wedding, design and build your home, coordinate your wardrobe, purchase the right car, manage your finances, find an affordable college for your children, and place your parents in the right nursing home. Small, start-up businesses, midsized companies, large corporations, and governmental agencies frequently contract with consultants who have a specific area of business expertise. Successful home-based businesses often grow and expand, and the owner must decide how to handle the expansion. If the owner, for example, has started a ceramics business out of love for working with clay, he or she may decide to hire another person to handle business affairs, such as accounting, taxes, licenses, and bill payment. Another business owner may decide to purchase updated, more efficient equipment or technology, hire one or two staff, and rent office or studio space outside of the home to better serve a growing clientele. The larger a business becomes, the more complicated its structure also becomes. In addition to managing the business, the owner has to manage people, and instead of providing a service or manufacturing a product personally, the owner must find workers, train them, monitor their work, provide a safe and productive work environment, and pay salaries and benefits.
A small business doesn’t necessarily have to start as a home-based business. An entrepreneur with a somewhat larger investment capacity can start a business, such as a small restaurant, a public relations firm, a travel agency, or a secondhand clothing store, for example. These types of small businesses require a detailed plan and enough money to purchase startup equipment and materials, rent space, pay utilities, purchase insurance, fund advertising, and pay salaries and benefits for at least a year. The owner may get loans from a bank, the Small Business Administration (SBA), or a commercial finance company. In addition to the complicated financial arrangements, the plan for a small business includes such things as finding a market, establishing a presence in the community, creating a demand for the product or service, hiring capable staff, and monitoring quality control. Another choice for entrepreneurs is to purchase a franchise, such as a Baskin-Robbins, a RadioShack, or a Mail Boxes Etc. The franchiser lends its trademark or trade name and a business system to franchisees, who pay a royalty and often an initial fee for the right to do business under the franchiser’s name and system. Entrepreneurs who choose this option have the security and support of the established name, a ready market, and a business system already in place. Some of the most popular franchise industries include fast food, retail, service, automotive, restaurants, maintenance, building and construction, retail food, business services, and lodging. An estimated 1,500 franchise companies operate in the United States, doing business through more than 320,000 retail units. The average initial investment level for nearly eight out of 10 franchises, excluding real estate, is less than $250,000, and the average length of a franchise contract is 10 years, according to the International Franchise Association. A person can become an entrepreneur by taking over an already existing business. A son or daughter may take over from a parent who is retiring, a long-time employee may purchase a business from a boss, or someone could purchase a business without having previous ties. As with a franchise, the location is already established and outfitted with equipment and materials. A business system is in place, and suppliers and clientele are established. Unlike a franchise, however, the new owner can change the business system or any other aspect of the business as desired. (An exception might be if the new owner keeps the same business name and the sales contract stipulates certain business practices based on the use of that name.) The Internet has opened a wide variety of opportunities, although dot-coms experienced hard times in the early 2000s. Creative entrepreneurs have found ways to use the new technology, not just to market and sell products and services, but as the basis of a business.
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Words to Know Consultant: An individual, often working on a freelance basis, who advises businesses on how to improve management and increase productivity. Cottage industry: A term used to refer to businesses that produce a product from home. The craft industry is often referred to as a cottage industry. Demographics: Statistical groupings of the population based on age, sex, income, and other characteristics; used in developing business and marketing plans. Direct mail: Contacting consumers and clients directly by sending out information and advertising about a product or service. Franchise: A contract with a company to sell the company’s products or services and use the company’s name, logo, and business guidance. Freelance: Someone who sells their work or services by the hour, day, or project, rather than working on a salary basis for one employer. Incorporated: A legal corporation; larger businesses with employees incorporate for tax benefits and liability reasons. Independent contractor: An individual who contracts with a business on a freelance basis. Intrepreneur: Someone who works within a company with a certain amount of independence, offering expertise in the running of a separate, or internal, business. Investment: The money used to start and operate a business. Marketing: Getting a product or service to the consumer through advertising, shipping, and selling. Microbusiness: A small business intended to stay small, have few employees, and serve a limited marketplace. Network: Sharing knowledge and resources with other small businesses in order to develop more business contacts. Not-for-profit: A business created to solve a problem and not motivated by profit; concerned with making money, however, to meet operating and staffing expenses. Patent: Provided by the U.S. Patent Office; allows exclusive rights to produce an invention for a specified period of time. Schedule C: The form to file with the Internal Revenue Service to record the profit and loss from a business.
For example, online researchers use Internet databases, libraries, and catalogues to find information for their clients. Design and management of Web sites can be done by one person from a home computer or by a few people cooperating in a small business venture.
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According to the SBA, there are approximately 25.8 million small businesses in the United States. They employ 50 percent of the private workforce, generate more than half of the nation’s gross domestic product, and are the principal source of new jobs in the U.S. economy.
■ Outlook Entrepreneurship is risky. It takes considerable money, time, and effort to open a business and to keep it going long enough to start seeing profits. Success also depends on trends, customer demand, political climate, competition, the economy, and other unpredictable social factors. The SBA Office of Advocacy reports that in 2005 there were an estimated 671,800 employer business openings, but 584,000 employer business closings and bankruptcies. In spite of the risks, entrepreneurship will continue to be strong. It is part of the American identity—the United States is viewed worldwide as a land of opportunity. A study by the Kaufman Center for Entrepreneurial Leadership found that 70 percent of people between the ages of 14 and 19 were interested in becoming business owners. Of the general public, 50 percent are thinking about starting a business. There are no educational, racial, or gender barriers to starting a new business, so there are opportunities for people of all backgrounds. According to the U.S. Census Bureau, minority-owned businesses include 4.1 million firms that generated $694.1 billion in revenues as of 2002. About one in five of all minority-owned firms had paid employees and more than 4,400 minority-owned firms had 100 or more employees. The nation’s 10.4 million women-owned businesses employ 12.8 million people and contribute $1.9 trillion to the economy, according to the Center for Women’s Business Research. The trend in home-based businesses is growing rapidly. The trend was started primarily by women who wanted to stay home to care for their children but either didn’t want to give up their jobs or needed the income. Now more than half of the people working from home are men. Other factors that have contributed to the increase of at-home businesses include downsizing during hard economic times, the growth of the Internet and computer technology, and the growth of the service sector of the economy. Entrepreneur magazine periodically predicts new business trends that sound promising. For example, ID Society (http://idsociety.com), founded by Jonathan Webb, 28, and Adam Berkowitz, 27, is an all-in-one marketing firm that offers Web design, Flash development, CDROM business cards, printing, marketing and any other promotional efforts a client might need. The popularity of disk-jockey culture has created start-up businesses in
clothing, record labels, and record stores. DJs themselves are selling equipment and clothing. There is also a niche for Internet businesses that legally sell downloadable music and provide online events featuring music superstars and related products. Another promising trend is companies that provide technical education for targeted populations, such as Cybercamps, which instructs kids in computer technology. The entrepreneurial spirit in America is accepted and well respected. There is honor and pride associated with starting a business from scratch and working hard to make it succeed. Anyone can start a business, whether motivated by a love for making raspberry jam, the familiarity of carrying on the family printing business, the invention of a new dot-com niche, or the ability to anticipate the next craze in electronic gadgets. The opportunities are endless for entrepreneurs who are willing to accept the risks, or blindly ignore them.
■ For More Information For information on consulting, contact Association of Professional Consultants PO Box 51193 Irvine, CA 92619-1193 Tel: 800-745-5050 Email:
[email protected] http://www.consultapc.org
For information about Entrepreneurial Edge magazine and many other small business resources, contact Edward Lowe Foundation 58220 Decatur Road PO Box 8 Cassopolis, MI 49031-0008 Tel: 800-232-LOWE Email:
[email protected] http://edwardlowe.org
For information about franchising, contact International Franchise Association 1350 New York Avenue, NW, Suite 900 Washington, DC 20005-4709 Tel: 202-628-8000 Email:
[email protected] http://www.franchise.org
This organization has a wealth of information on homebased businesses, including a national registry, publications, a list of home-based occupations, and more. National Association of Home Based Businesses 10451 Mill Run Circle, Suite 400 Owings Mills, MD 21117-5577
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Tel: 410-363-3698 Email:
[email protected] http://www.usahomebusiness.com
To learn about membership for women entrepreneurs, contact National Association of Women Business Owners 8405 Greensboro Drive, Suite 800 McLean, VA 22102-5104 Tel: 703-506-3268 Email:
[email protected] http://www.nawbo.org
For information on entrepreneurship opportunities for students, contact Students in Free Enterprise 1959 East Kerr Street Springfield, MO 65803-4775 Tel: 417-831-9505 Email:
[email protected] http://www.sife.org
To learn about government programs, contact SBA; visit its Web site for small business statistics and other relevant information. U.S. Small Business Administration (SBA) 409 Third Street, SW Washington, DC 20416-3212 Tel: 800-827-5722 http://www.sba.gov
■ Related Articles Business; Antiques and Art Dealers; Bed and Breakfast Owners; Child Care Service Owners; Chimney Sweeps; Desktop Publishing Specialists; Financial Planners; Florists; Franchise Owners; Greeting Card Designers and Writers; Information Brokers; Lawn and Gardening Service Owners; Medical Billing Service Owners; Personal Chefs; Personal Shoppers; Swimming Pool Servicers; Tailors and Dressmakers; Taxidermists
The Environment ■ Background Environmental careers have expanded rapidly in the last 35 years, and just about everybody expects that growth to continue for some years. Of course, the reasons
behind this success are often disquieting, if not ominous. Ground-level ozone and airborne particles are affecting millions of people throughout the United States. Wildlife habitats continue to be threatened, and 1,310 plants and animals in the United States alone were considered endangered or threatened as of 2006, according to the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. Hazardous waste still needs to be cleaned up at thousands of Superfund sites. And periodic contamination, or poisoning, of water supplies by pollutants shows that much work is left to be done to ensure safe drinking water for all. Fears about such phenomena as global warming, holes in the ozone layer, acid rain, and other environmental crises have many people wondering what the planet will be like in the coming decades for their grandchildren or even for their grandchildren’s children. Public support for environmental work is strong and apparently continues to grow all the time. A CBS News poll found that 61 percent of Americans think it’s more important to protect the environment than to produce energy. A Harris poll of 2005 found that 74 percent of American adults agree with the statement that “protecting the environment is so important that requirements and standards cannot be too high, and continuing environmental improvements must be made regardless of cost.” The Environmental Careers Organization (ECO) breaks down environmental careers into these broad categories: parks and outdoor recreation, air and water quality management, education and communication, hazardous waste management, land and water conservation, fishery and wildlife management, forestry, planning, and solid waste management. What’s more, says ECO, new kinds of jobs are being created all the time to meet new demands. There currently are more than 30 major environment-related areas of study at the college level, and some experts say that we’ve only begun to see the tip of the iceberg in terms of types of environmental jobs. Many environmental problems are interconnected and broad ranging. Acid precipitation, often known as acid rain, is caused by pollutants released into the air from cars, trucks, planes, factories, and power plants. When acid rain or acid snow falls, lakes, streams, and oceans are contaminated, causing harm to marine and freshwater life, drinking-water supplies, crops, buildings, and forests. In other words, air pollution can lead to water pollution and to forest destruction. Likewise, forest destruction leads to air and water pollution. These problems further become human problems when they directly affect our health and well-being. This interconnectedness of environmental problems has led to a distinct trend. Environmental professionals increasingly are encouraged to be cross-trained to be able to work
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An ecologist takes a water sample at Prime Hook National Wildlife Refuge in Delaware. (Jim Palmer, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.)
on issues involving, for example, both wildlife biology and forestry. The public’s enthusiastic response to Earth Day convinced politicians throughout the country that their constituents were passionately interested in environmental issues. Soon after, Congress created the Environmental Protection Agency. Since the inception of Earth Day, Congress has enacted nearly 40 major federal environmental laws. Today, Earth Day is observed by more than 200 million people worldwide, in more than 140 countries. The history of environmental problems is closely linked to two things: the expanding world population and the many advances in technology that began with the industrial revolution. When relatively few people inhabited the earth and before they lived in cities, they could afford to pollute their environment with few adverse effects. Trees could be cut for fuel in small enough numbers, and the smoke from widely scattered fires dissipated in the atmosphere. Sewage and garbage could be disposed of without causing disease. Air and water pollution existed, but not in large enough degrees to spark a public outcry or to halt the activities that caused them. As early as 1300, London, the most heavily populated city in England, was suffering ill effects from the widespread use of coal as a fuel. The air was thick with smoke and smelled bad. In 1306, King Edward I banned coalburning in London, though the reasons are unclear. Some
believe the king was successfully lobbied by the powerful wood establishment to ban coal at a time when England’s wood was in short supply, thus keeping wood prices high. Others believe that the king showed remarkable wisdom and foresight in recognizing the harmful effects of air pollution. After a time, however, coal use resumed because there simply wasn’t enough wood to fuel the city. The state of the environment started to deteriorate much more rapidly with the advent of the industrial revolution in Europe in the mid-1700s. Large numbers of people living in closely concentrated cities began to produce immense quantities of pollutants with no means of efficiently and harmlessly dispersing them. Great clouds of smoke spewed from factories fueled by coal. By 1750, England had become the first country to be largely powered by coal, but people were so excited by the mechanization of industry and the conveniences that industry and city living afforded, that they pressed full speed ahead without giving much consideration to the damage being done. The mastery of coal, combined with the advent of the steam engine, not only made England the leading industrial nation in the 1800s, but it made it the world’s largest polluter as well. Smog engulfed the city, and all manner of wastes were dumped into the Thames River. (Later, when these wastes got into the drinking-water supply, thousands of people became ill with typhoid fever.) In the 1900s, the situation was worsened by continuing technological developments, including the automobile. In 1952, the sulfur dioxide smog was so severe in London that 4,000 deaths were attributed that year to breathing and respiratory problems caused by pollution. The United States relied on wood as its primary fuel until 1850, as the amount of wood was abundant and clearing the forests was a major American industry. Coal became the most utilized fuel from about 1885 until about 1950, when oil and gas ended its reign. Although there was no single precipitating event in this country to draw awareness to environmental problems, the biggest contributing factor was probably the net consequence of our reliance on and high consumption of nonrenewable fossil fuels. The environmental movement in the United States was spawned in the 1960s, though its roots were to some extent in the conservationist movement that emerged in the 19th century. By that time, most lakes and rivers in this country had suffered damage, and Lake Erie was actually declared dead, devoid of any plant or animal life. (It has since been revived to some extent.) Air pollution plagued every major U.S. city. And scientists discovered in the mid-1960s that fir and spruce trees in the eastern part of the country were being damaged by something called acid rain. From the beginning of the industrial revolution, some voices have called out for protection, conservation, and care of the environment. Henry David Thoreau was cel-
ebrating nature and warning about the encroachment of railroads and industry in the mid-19th century; the Audubon Society and the Sierra Club were formed in the 1890s out of concern that wilderness areas were disappearing; and the National Wildlife Refuge System helped stop the slaughter of Pelican Island, Florida, waterfowl in 1903 (the birds’ feathers were being used for women’s hats). The National Park Service was created in 1916 to conserve the national parks’ scenic areas and wildlife. Fishery management began in the 1870s and was a busy profession by the 1950s. The first Clean Air Act was passed in 1955, the Air Quality Act in 1967. Rachel Carson’s book, Silent Spring, published in 1962, was an urgent statement about the serious health and environmental threats of insecticides. But there was no environmental industry per se until the 1960s, according to the ECO; a comparatively few rangers, foresters, public health officials, and advocates essentially made up the environmental field until this time. However, the watershed year for the U.S. environment movement surely was 1970. In 1970, Americans celebrated the first Earth Day, a nationwide event to promote awareness of the planet’s fragility. Earth Day called on consumers and government leaders to clean up the country’s messes, to develop alternative and renewable energy resources, and to preserve and take better care of the pristine areas that remained. It raised public awareness and helped fire up environmental action at the grassroots level—that is, citizens began to take action themselves to help the environment. The federal government established first the Council on Environmental Quality and then the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to implement environmental legislation. Out of the EPA were born all the state-level EPA organizations, which also work to implement the laws. The National Environmental Policy Act, which took effect in 1970 as well, required that any federal agency with plans to build, support, or regulate a large facility such as a highway, dam, or power plant first must issue an environmental impact statement (EIS) that would assess any damage the project might cause to the environment. The EIS must also take alternative proposals under consideration. A preliminary EIS is reviewed by federal, state, and local authorities and is made available to the public before the federal agency prepares a final EIS and decides whether to proceed with the project. Sometimes an EIS has resulted in projects being challenged legally and delayed; one well-known example is the Tellico Dam on the Little Tennessee River, which might have eradicated a little-known, endangered species of fish called the snail darter. The project was challenged by 11 lawsuits and held up for several years. It was resumed only after the three-inch-long fish were relocated to other tributaries
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of the river. The status of the snail darter since has been upgraded from endangered to threatened. The environmental movement picked up steam in the 1970s. In the 1980s, environmental groups, such as the Sierra Club, Audubon Society, Friends of the Earth, and Wilderness Society, gained considerable lobbying power on Capitol Hill in opposition to pressure from big business and President Reagan, and many laws were passed to clean up and protect the environment. These included the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act of 1976, meant to regulate how industry got rid of its wastes. They also included the Superfund Act for cleaning up toxic wastes at abandoned sites and prosecuting the responsible parties, the Clean Air Act, the Wild and Scenic Rivers Act, the Clean Water Act, and several others. A stance on the environment, pro or con, now is part of many political candidates’ platforms. For example, Ronald Reagan’s anti-environmental stance on most issues, and in particular his appointment of anti-environmentalist James Watt as Secretary of the Interior (the department in charge of the National Park System), sparked a great deal of outrage in the environmental community and led to record-breaking memberships
A worker cleans up oil spilled into Prince William Sound by the tanker Exxon Valdez in 1989, the worst oil spill in U.S. history. (Jill Bauermeister, U.S. Forest Services.)
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Gaylord Nelson, Founder of Earth Day On April 22, 1970, more than 20 million people participated in demonstrations, attended teach-ins, and listened to speeches about the environment. It was, at the time, the largest demonstration in history. This watershed event, called Earth Day, inspired our country to recognize the importance of environmental issues. The annual event, which continues to change the world today, grew out of one man’s frustration with federal government’s inattention to environmental issues. That man was Gaylord Nelson, a senator from Wisconsin. Nelson was born on June 14, 1916. He earned his B.A. at San Jose State College and his law degree from the University of Wisconsin Law School. He served as first lieutenant in the U.S. Army in Okinawa before returning to Madison, Wisconsin, to practice law. From 1959 to 1962, Nelson served as governor of Wisconsin. During his tenure in this office, he initiated a program to purchase one million acres of land for recreation, parks, and wildlife areas. This revolutionary program was funded through a penny-a-pack tax on cigarettes. When Nelson was elected to represent Wisconsin in the U.S. Senate in 1962, he was troubled by that body’s apparent indifference to environmental problems. To draw attention to environmental issues, Nelson urged President Kennedy to embark on a Conservation Tour. The President agreed and embarked on the tour in September
of 1963. The tour failed to galvanize the public to environmental awareness, and Nelson continued to search for new ways to draw attention to environmental problems. In the late 1960s, Nelson ran across an article about the teach-ins being held on college campuses. He was electrified by the concept. In a speech in Seattle in September 1969, Nelson announced that there would be a national environmental teach-in in early 1970. The nation’s response was overwhelming. The public’s enthusiastic response to Earth Day convinced politicians throughout the country that their constituents were passionately interested in environmental issues. Soon after, Congress created the Environmental Protection Agency. Since the inception of Earth Day, Congress has enacted nearly 40 major federal environmental laws. Today, Earth Day is observed by more than 200 million people worldwide, in more than 140 countries. Gaylord Nelson was also the sponsor of the 1964 Wilderness Act. He introduced legislation to require automobile fuel efficiency standards, ban the use of DDT and Agent Orange, control strip mining, and ban the use of phosphates in detergents. In 1995, he received the Presidential Medal of Freedom for his lifelong efforts on behalf of the environment. Gaylord Nelson passed away on July 3, 2005. His achievements demonstrate that, with enough conviction and energy, one person can make a difference. Together we can save the planet.
in environmental groups. Watt eventually relinquished his post under pressure. On the other hand, during the Clinton administration, some people were disappointed that Vice President Al Gore, an avowed environmentalist, was not more aggressive on environmental issues. While environmental quality has improved on many fronts, serious problems remain to be solved. Industrial and auto emissions have been cut significantly, but many cities still don’t meet EPA regulations for allowable limits of airborne pollutants. Other problems still to be resolved include the worldwide phasing out of ozone-depleting chemicals in order to protect the damaged ozone layer, which shields us from harmful radiation; the reduction of so-called greenhouse gases, including curbing emissions of carbon dioxide, to reverse the trend of global warming; and putting a stop to the burning of tropical forests, which also contributes to global warming and has many other deleterious effects.
Some of these issues were addressed at the international level for the first time in the Earth Summit, a gathering of leaders from 178 nations in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, in June 1992. The majority of the nations represented signed treaties aimed at curbing global warming and at promoting biodiversity, or protecting endangered plants and wildlife. The delegates at the convention also adopted a nonbinding plan called Agenda 21, which calls for industrial nations to provide financial and technological assistance to developing countries while also encouraging them to protect their environments. In December 1997, representatives from 159 nations met in Kyoto, Japan, to discuss ways to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, the principal agents responsible for global warming. Thirty-eight developed nations, including the United States, agreed in principle to the Kyoto Protocol, promising to reduce their emissions of the six greenhouse gases (carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide, meth-
ane, hydrofluorocarbons, perflurocarbons, and sulfur hexaflouride) by an average of 5.2 percent by 2012. The United States, the world’s largest producer of greenhouse gases, agreed to reduce emissions to 7 percent below 1990 figures. While many considered any agreement a success, others questioned how these voluntary reductions could be monitored and enforced. Many developed countries, such as the United States, were disappointed that developing countries such as China, India, and Brazil would not commit to limiting their own greenhouse gas emissions. The United States signed the Kyoto treaty in November 1998 but is not subject to its terms and obligations until the treaty is ratified by the Senate. A follow-up conference in Buenos Aires, Argentina, in November 1998 proved largely disappointing as developed and undeveloped countries continued to disagree about the implementation of the Kyoto Protocol. The effectiveness of these conferences remains to be seen, but it’s clear that environmental concerns have taken on global, as well as national, importance. Another significant development is the attention to environmental racism, or the tendency to condone poorer environmental conditions (hazardous waste dumps, illegal/abandoned dumps) in areas populated mainly by people of color. Action has included studies and meetings like the 1991 First National People of Color Environmental Leadership Summit.
■ Structure The number of environmental jobs in the United States is thought to be between one and 4.5 million, with most estimates falling around the two million mark. Environmental needs are so pervasive, affecting so many different types of industries, municipalities, and wilderness areas, that the environmental industry really is found everywhere. Based upon the Environmental Career Organization’s (ECO) general breakdown of environmental jobs, the following is a loose overview of the structure of the industry.
Planning Whether the objective is to save a wildlife habitat, put a transportation system in place, or guide a booming city’s expansion, environmental planners focus on developing a detailed scheme upfront to help make sure the objective is met. They became very important with the passage of the 1970 National Environmental Policy Act and its rule that any federal project requires an environmental impact statement—that is, the people carrying out the project have to research and document the effect of the project on the environment. Though most environmentalists do some planning, official planners tend to view a situation more widely and address several problems with one plan.
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They may concentrate on a specific geographic area or a specific environmental issue, such as air quality. Environmental planners may have backgrounds in environmental science, land management, or law. They rely on a network of experts, including researchers and scientists who report on air, water, and soil quality and wildlife conservation and management. Planners also use environmental lawyers, lobbyists, and public relations specialists to help get plans approved. Environmental planning also includes education and communication. Teachers, from preschool to college level, and wildlife guides share the task of communicating information about the environment to others. Jobs in this category include everything from college professors who instruct tomorrow’s scientists and engineers, to tour guides who take groups through Yellowstone or the Everglades, as well as corporate communications workers who inform the public about a company’s activities that might impact the environment. Because of their bias, their information may or may not be the most reliable. Currently, an urgent task is to help educate people about landfills and other touchy, but critical, subjects so that communities can make informed decisions about them.
Solid Waste Management This is the largest of the environmental fields. Chemists, engineers, recycling coordinators, recycling experts, and others in this field seek to cut down on the amount and danger of solid wastes, popularly known as garbage. Once, people just put their garbage in dumps; then they started burning it; then they used landfills. Now, solid waste managers are trying to reduce the amount of garbage generated in the first place (source reduction), lower the toxicity of garbage that goes into landfills, and find new uses for garbage (such as turning waste into energy). They also seek ways to burn garbage more efficiently, without releasing toxic substances into the air. Individual communities and businesses employ these professionals to help them handle their solid waste. In addition, special companies devoted solely to collecting, separating, transporting, and disposing of others’ solid waste have become a big business. Increasing public concern about the amount and kind of solid waste accumulation has created opportunities in green businesses. These business are concerned with making products that do not harm the environment during manufacturing or use, and packaging is either biodegradable or recyclable. Other businesses concentrate on turning nonbiodegradable material into new products. For example, old tires can be used to make floor mats, asphalt surfaces, carpet padding, playground equipment, bumpers, and guardrails. Plastics can be turned into siding, lumber, wire and cables, carpeting,
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and clothing. There are numerous jobs associated with the design, manufacture and marketing of green products, although there is some debate about whether these should be called environmental careers.
Hazardous Waste Management Hazardous wastes present another, different problem: this is garbage that’s potentially lethal to human health or the environment and must be disposed of in special ways. The ECO says millions of tons of such substances are produced each year. While the chemical industry produces by far the most hazardous waste—up to 70 percent of it—there are many other sources as well, from nuclear reactors to dry cleaners. Biologists, chemists, engineers, geologists, hydrogeologists, and many others are employed in this field. Specialists include radioactive waste managers, who deal with the various waste materials produced by nuclear energy production and nuclear-powered equipment manufacturing, and industrial health/hygienists, who focus on the health effects of exposure to hazardous waste. Opportunities are found with local, state, and federal environmental agencies; on in-house staffs of companies that generate hazardous waste; with consultants or disposal companies; and with emergency response companies, which specialize in dealing with hazardous waste emergencies like chemical spills.
Words to Know Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA): 1980 law (known as Superfund) that mandated cleanup of private and government-owned hazardous waste sites. Ecosystem: A community of various species that interact with one another and with the chemical and physical factors making up the nonliving environment. Endangered species: A species having so few individual survivors that it may become extinct over all or most of its natural range. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA): Federal agency responsible for overseeing the implementation of environmental laws, including those designed to monitor and control air, water, and soil pollution. Environmental science: The study of how we and other species interact with each other and the nonliving environment of matter and energy. Hazardous waste: Any discarded substance, usually chemical, that can cause harm to humans. Recycling: The collecting and reprocessing of a resource in order to turn it into a new, reusable product.
Air Quality Management Air quality engineers, air quality planners, analytical chemists, and toxicologists are just some of the people in this field, which is devoted to the abatement and prevention of air pollution. Under this broad category, people might work on acid rain, ozone depletion, or greenhouse gases. Even more specifically, they might analyze the root causes of these problems. Some study the effects of sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide, particulates, or mercury, all of which are substances emitted into the air when fuels or trash are burned. Others study how much sulfur dioxide is emitted in a coalburning process. Some design, implement, and monitor the effectiveness of scrubbers, which are devices that clean emissions before they’re released into the atmosphere. Others monitor the effects of a certain quantity of sulfur dioxide on the human respiratory system or on animal and plant life.
Water Quality Management This area focuses on getting polluted water back to the desired quality level, whether for drinking, swimming, fishing, power, irrigation, or other uses. Work involves rivers, lakes, canals, and other surface water, as well as the water below the ground, known as groundwater. A key area is the recovery and treatment of wastewater for reuse; this is the biggest area of focus within the water quality management category. Other areas of interest are the preservation of wetlands, which are home to certain fish and wildlife, and the reduction of the damaging effects of floods and droughts. Wetlands ecologists, fish and wildlife scientists, and botanists are just some of the professionals working on wetlands problems.
Land and Water Conservation In addition to conserving wilderness areas, this category includes work to ensure better use of land and water for any purpose, so both can sustain many different types of plants and animals. There are specific laws for conservation of federal- and state-owned land and water, including the National Forest System. Local governments develop their own plans for any land or water in the area not owned by the state or federal government. Special projects in this field include reconstructing destroyed ecosystems. The federal government employs the most people in this category, in such agencies as the Bureau of Land Management, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, and National Park Service.
Fishery and Wildlife Management This area focuses not only on making sure there are enough of certain species of fish and animals to meet
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human needs but on taking steps to ensure the health of the whole surrounding ecosystem that supports these species. Wildlife biologists and fishery biologists are key players in this field. Professionals in this category work on wetlands restoration, saving endangered species, cleaning up contaminants, and other projects. Private fisheries and other private companies, plus many U.S. agencies like the Forest Service, employ people in this category.
Parks and Outdoor Recreation Rangers, forest firefighters, geologists, landscape architects, and many others fall into this category. So do park managers, resource managers, researchers, and maintenance personnel. While the National Park Service employs some of these professionals, it doesn’t use many. These professionals are found in greater numbers working for other U.S. agencies, or for state, county, or city parks, zoos, and other facilities. One intriguing area in this category is the re-greening of city neighborhoods, which involves bringing open park spaces back into urban areas.
Forestry The majority of work in this field involves ensuring healthy forests for use in lumber, paper, and other manufacturing. Smaller percentages of employees work for federal, state, or local governments as foresters, helping to conserve and expand forests. Even smaller percentages work for consulting firms, educational organizations, or nonprofit organizations. Issues in this field include saving endangered species, conserving forest wetlands, and combating pollution. Urban forestry also is increasingly drawing interest; the number of trees within urban areas is dropping, and cities are using foresters to help regain the numbers. Again, it’s important to note that many environmental problems are interrelated and work may crisscross between categories. For example, biologists discovered that a major section of the Florida Everglades was contaminated by mercury. After that initial discovery, it took other scientists to figure out how the mercury got there and where it came from. They discovered that incinerated mercury had been carried into the surface water by rain. What started out as solid waste was burned and caused air pollution, which in turn led to the formation of acid rain, which polluted the water in the Everglades. Federal and state regulatory officials play an important role in the environmental industry. One of their key tasks is to go to the original source or sources of the problem, such as commercial incinerators, and deter-
A soil conservation technician examines sea oats that were recently planted to stabilize erosion during severe storms and hurricanes. (Bob Nichols, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture.)
mine whether the emissions are within legal limits. If not, the offending company might be fined or given a certain amount of time to comply with the regulations. The regulator checks later to determine whether the problem has been fixed. He or she also might testify against the polluter in court.
■ Outlook Because of growing concern in the United States and around the world for the future health and survival of the planet, most indicators point to growth in the field of environmental sciences. Exactly how large the field will become is difficult to project because the amount of attention paid to the environment in this country varies with each political administration and other issues, such as the health of the economy and the tension between creating new jobs and protecting the environment. Media attention to one cause or another, such as preserving the wetlands, saving the rainforests, saving the whales, or recycling, waxes and wanes. Even so, the media helps to periodically remind people that significant environmental problems urgently need solutions. Industrialized nations now have more resources and more interest in finding alternatives to fossil
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fuels, protecting the ozone layer, putting a stop to habitat and species destruction, and developing methods for conserving water, energy, and other resources. Recent political turmoil has heightened the threat of an energy crisis in the United States, and concern is growing over the possibility of bioterrorism and chemical warfare. The situation has put scientists and government officials on alert to ensure that the environment, including human health, is protected from such threats.
■ For More Information For information on environmental resources, scholarships, and colleges offering degrees in the environmental sciences, contact Air & Waste Management Association (AWMA) One Gateway Center, Third Floor 420 Fort Duquesne Boulevard Pittsburgh, PA 15222-1435 Tel: 412-232-3444 Email:
[email protected] http://www.awma.org
For information on careers and certification, contact Ecological Society of America 1707 H Street, NW, Suite 400 Washington, DC 20006-3919 Tel: 202-833-8773 Email:
[email protected] http://www.esa.org
For information on careers, publications, and internships, contact Environmental Careers Organization 30 Winter Street Boston, MA 02108 Tel: 617-426-4375 http://www.eco.org
The mission of the EPA is “to protect human health and to safeguard the natural environment—air, water, and land—upon which life depends.” Contact this government agency for information on careers, internships, and general environmental issues. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) Ariel Rios Building 1200 Pennsylvania Avenue, NW Washington, DC 20460-2403 Tel: 202-272-0167 http://www.epa.gov
For information on career opportunities, employment benefits, the application and hiring process, and federal job information/testing offices, contact National Park Service 1849 C Street, NW Washington, DC 20240-0001 Tel: 202-208-6843 http://www.nps.gov
Greenpeace is an independent organization that advocates “non-violent direct action and creative communication to expose global environmental problems and to promote solutions that are essential to a green and peaceful future.” Greenpeace America 702 H Street, NW Washington, DC 20001-3874 Tel: 202-462-1177 http://www.greenpeaceusa.org
The Nature Conservancy is a private environmental organization that purchases land in order to “preserve the plants, animals and natural communities that represent the diversity of life on Earth.” To learn more about employment opportunities and internships, contact The Nature Conservancy 4245 North Fairfax Drive, Suite 100 Arlington VA 22203-1606 Tel: 703-841-5300 Email:
[email protected] http://nature.org
NAAEE is an environmental interest group that seeks to promote environmental education and support the work of environmental educators. For information about its programs, contact North American Association for Environmental Education (NAAEE) 2000 P Street, NW, Suite 540 Washington, DC 20036-5915 Tel: 202-419-0412 Email:
[email protected] http://www.naaee.org
For comprehensive information on forestry-related careers and education, contact Society of American Foresters (SAF) 5400 Grosvenor Lane Bethesda, MD 20814-2198 Tel: 301-897-8720 Email:
[email protected] http://www.safnet.org
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For information on student volunteer activities and programs, contact Student Conservation Association PO Box 550 Charlestown, NH 03603-0550 Tel: 603-543-1700 http:// www.thesca.org
For information on careers and educational requirements, contact U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 1849 C Street, NW Washington, DC 20240-0001 Tel: 800-344-9453 http://www.fws.gov
Contact the USGS or visit its Web site for information about its environment theme, including current and future projects, as well as a registry of earth and environmental science Internet resources. U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) 12201 Sunrise Valley Drive Reston, VA 20192-0002 Tel: 888-275-8747 http://www.usgs.gov
For information on universities and colleges offering curricula in wildlife conservation, contact The Wildlife Society 5410 Grosvenor Lane, Suite 200 Bethesda, MD 20814-2144 Tel: 301-897-9770 Email:
[email protected] http://www.wildlife.org
Unity College offers more environmental programs than any other college in the United States. For more information, contact Unity College PO Box 532 Unity, ME 04988-0532 Tel: 800-624-1024 Email:
[email protected] http://www.unity.edu
■ Related Articles Biology; Earth Sciences; Parks and Public Lands; Waste Management; Air Quality Engineers; Arborists; Biochemists; Biologists; Botanists; Chemists; Ecologists; Energy Conservation Technicians; Environmental Engineers; Environmental Technicians; Fish and Game Wardens;
Foresters; Forestry Technicians; Geologists; Geophysicists; Groundwater Professionals; Hazardous Waste Management Specialists; Hazardous Waste Management Technicians; Land Acquisition Professionals; Land Trust or Preserve Managers; Marine Biologists; Meteorologists; Naturalists; Oceanographers; Park Rangers; Range Managers; Recycling Coordinators; Renewable Energy Careers; Soil Conservationists and Technicians; Soil Scientists; Tour Guides; Wastewater Treatment Plant Operators and Technicians
Fashion ■ Background Clothing has been worn by people of all cultures since prehistoric times; its basic function was to protect the body from the elements. Clothing styles have been influenced by well-known people, religion, tradition, art, science, and more recently, the media. Archaeologists have found no clothing from early periods before the Stone Age. This may be because of the fragility of the garments; even if they were buried, they didn’t survive the weathering of the centuries. It is assumed that prehistoric people made clothing for warmth from the skins of animals killed for food. The clothes may have been unfitted and tied or wrapped around the body. Toward the end of the Stone Age (about 10,000 years ago), the first sewn clothing was made in the southern regions of Europe with needles carved from bone. In the northern regions, people used leather straps to sew together skins. Holes were made in the garment and a hook was used to pull the leather thong through the skins. From pottery and wall paintings, archaeologists have clues to the clothing of the ancient Egyptians. Material was woven from spun thread. The thread was spun on a spindle, a long smooth stick with a notch at one end for catching the thread or yarn. Spinning the spindle against a bowl, called a whorl, produced a fairly even, continuous fiber. These fibers were formed into fabric by weaving. The first clothing Egyptian men wore was a band around the waist, with pendants and religious objects hanging from the band. The first clothing worn by Egyptian women was a white linen skirt that reached down to the ankles. The first pair of trousers was worn in Persia around the sixth century b.c. The type of clothing worn in any location often was influenced by the climate. In warmer climates, both men
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and women tended to wear dresses and other loose fitting apparel that was open at the bottom. Those in colder climates were more likely to wear pants. Religious customs also influenced the type of apparel worn. For example, in the 12th century when the Muslims conquered northern and central India, dramatic changes were made in the dress code to conform to Muslim practice. Until the conquest, the warm climate had dictated that dress styles leave some of the body uncovered, but the Muslim practice of covering as much of the body as possible led to a change. For women, this meant covering the arms, legs, and in many areas, the head and most of the face. It was also in the 12th century that the spinning wheel came into use, although its origin is unknown. The spinning wheel increased the speed at which threads and yarns could be produced. The two-bar loom was invented at about the same time, increasing the speed at which the threads could be woven. Advances in fabric making resulted in more beautiful and widely available clothing. The next wave of inventions to assist fabric makers in their art came during the 18th century. The spinning jenny, a machine that spun more than one thread at a time, was invented by James Hargreaves in about 1764. The water-frame, cotton-spinning machine invented by Richard Arkwright made hard, twisted thread from cotton rather than linen, the fiber used until then. In 1785, Edmund Cartwright developed a power loom that ran on steam. He opened a factory in England that used the machine for rapid production of fabric. In 1793, Eli Whitney, an American inventor, developed the cotton gin, which reduced the amount of time and manpower necessary to pull the seeds from cotton. In 1830, Barthelemy Thimonnier patented a sewing machine in Paris. The same fate befell Thimonnier and Cartwright: In fear of losing their livelihood, weavers and tailors destroyed their factories, leading to many instances of destruction and violence across Europe. In 1846, Elias Howe of the United States developed a sewing machine. The machine was quick and used two threads in a lockstitch pattern, as sewing machines use today. However, Howe’s sewing machine was no more accepted in the United States than Thimonnier’s invention had been in Paris, and he sold part of the patent rights in England. In 1851, Isaac Singer built the sewing machine that would survive the objections of the tailors. The machine made only simple stitches, and although it sped production of the basic elements of garments, tailors still were needed for much of the manufacturing process. These early workers were required to purchase their own sewing machines.
As the industrial revolution progressed, the sewing machine was joined in 1860 by a band-knife cutting machine, invented by John Barran of Leeds, England, that cut several layers of fabric. In the 1890s, the first spreading machine was put to use in garment making, as was the first buttonhole machine, which was invented in the United States at the Reece Machinery Company. Factories began to replace craft shops. In the early 20th century, New York City’s Lower East Side became the largest producer of clothing in the world. This was due to the city’s large population of immigrant garment workers and easy access to both New England’s woolen mills and the South’s cotton mills. The small garment factories were poorly lit and ventilated, unsafe, and unsanitary. The rooms were packed with workers who labored 12 or 14 hours a day for meager wages. The term sweatshop was used to describe these early businesses. On March 25, 1911, in New York City, a disastrous fire swept through the Triangle Shirtwaist Factory, killing 146 people, most of them young girls. The building had only one fire escape, and the exit doors were blocked. The factory had just been approved by the city inspectors for fire safety. As a direct result of the tragedy, the city was forced to revise its building codes and labor laws, and membership in garment industry unions increased dramatically. The International Ladies Garment Workers Union, founded in 1900, developed enough support after the fire to lobby for labor laws to be enacted and enforced. The Amalgamated Clothing Workers of America was established in 1914 and soon became one of the largest unions in the apparel industry. The era of the sweatshop was coming to an end in the United States. The World Wars increased the need for clothing production and helped maintain the United States’ leadership position in the apparel-producing industry. Like many other fields, the apparel industry was starting to specialize and departmentalize. Jobbers bought raw materials, such as cotton, and sold it to contractors. Contractors made materials—fabrics, threads, or even garments. Manufacturers bought materials and threads and made clothes to sell to wholesalers or to distributors who owned their own stores. Wholesalers sold finished products to retail stores. However, shops that produced finished garments from raw materials still existed; they were called vertical mills and vertical mill distributors. During the first half of the 20th century, the garment industry was concentrated in the United States and Great Britain. By the 1950s, many other countries, including Canada, Belgium, the Netherlands, South Africa, the Scandinavian countries, Australia, and Japan, began
to expand their garment industries. In the 1960s, the garment industry grew rapidly worldwide, expanding greatly in the Far East, especially in Japan, South Korea, Taiwan, Hong Kong, and Singapore. The greatest change in the apparel industry in the last 50 years has been the migration of manufacturing jobs to Asia. A substantial number of garments are made abroad because of the reduced cost of labor and taxes as well as technologically advanced, well-engineered factories. The quantity of clothing imported increased by more than 300 percent in the late 20th century. Because of the limited investment required to cut and sew garments and the tendency of firms to specialize in one operation, such as cutting, small companies can enter this industry with relative ease. Most manufacturers have small factories, which employ fewer than 100 workers. However, the relatively few companies with more than 100 workers employ more than 60 percent of the workforce in the apparel industry.
■ Structure The apparel industry is made up of thousands of manufacturers. It includes almost all types of clothing, except hats, shoes, hosiery, and fur, which are excluded because of the fundamental differences in materials and manufacturing methods. The apparel industry generally is subdivided into two categories. Men’s and boys’ clothing includes suits, overcoats, other outer garments, slacks, shirts, ties, underwear, and sleepwear. Women’s and girls’ clothing encompasses coats, suits, other outer garments, dresses, blouses, skirts, slacks, and accessories, such as scarves, underwear, and sleepwear. The U.S. apparel industry began in the Mid-Atlantic region, where it still is centered around New York City. The pool of experienced workers in these states is far greater than in any other area of the country, and the largest concentration of factories producing men’s apparel is located there. These plants usually are larger than those making women’s garments because men’s clothing undergoes fewer design and style changes and thus is better suited to mass production. In the women’s and girl’s outerwear sector of the apparel industry, the majority of the cut-and-sewn garments originate in New York City, but much of the sewing is contracted out to firms throughout the world. In addition, some relatively low-priced women’s and children’s garments, such as low-end cotton dresses, which do not require highly skilled operators, are made throughout the country. The production of a garment consists of designing the item, cutting the cloth, sewing the pieces together, pressing the garment, and merchandising the product.
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Words to Know AMTEX: American Textile Partnership. CAD/CAM: Computer-aided design and computer-aided manufacturing. Chargeback: Financial penalty for infractions, such as errors in purchase orders or failure to deliver floor-ready merchandise. Cruisewear: Apparel designed for vacationing, originally for shipboard activities. Dressmarker: Custom tailor. Fabricated: Assembled, produced; as in fabricated textiles. Floor-ready: Clothing on hangers, prepared for presentation in the store. Grading: Adjusting pieces of a garment for various sizes. Made to measure: Custom-designed apparel. National Textile Center: Consortium of universities involved in textile research. Parity: Equality; elimination of tariffs on goods from other countries. Preticket: Price tag applied to a garment by the apparel firm, showing retailers’ price. Ready-to-wear: Apparel manufactured in preset sizes, not customized. Showing: Event held to display new designs and styles to buyers and media representatives. Subsector: A specific area of apparel, such as men’s and boys’ clothing. Sweatshop: Small, early 20th century apparel factory, especially in New York City, that was crowded, unsanitary, and unsafe, especially from fire. Tannery: Facility where animal hides are cleaned and preserved in tannin solutions to make leather. Tannin: Chemical extracted from certain trees or plants and used to keep leather from decomposing. Workroom: Location where textiles are cut and assembled into garments. WWD: Women’s Wear Daily; periodical considered the clothing industry bible.
A designer creates the look of a piece of clothing. He or she draws a picture of the item and works with sewers and others to make a sample of it. The designer then makes modifications of the design based on suggestions from apparel executives and other management personnel. Once an item of clothing has been designed, it is sent to the merchandising department, where it is prepared and presented for sale to retailers. Merchandisers must understand clothing trends as well as pricing. Some
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This fashion designer fits fabric of a design to a mannequin in her studio. (Corbis.)
merchandisers buy piece goods used in the manufacture of garments, while others are concerned with pricing the garments. Because the apparel industry covers such a wide variety of garments and uses practically every type of textile manufactured, merchandising problems vary from one segment of the industry to another. When the garment style has been produced, shown to retail buyers, and accepted by the merchandising department, the manufacturer gives the orders to the cutting department of the factory. There are five basic operations in the cutting department: marking, spreading, cutting, assembling, and ticketing. Small shops may combine two or more of these operations into a single job. Markers trace the pattern pieces on large sheets of paper. In some cases, they trace the pattern with chalk directly on the cloth itself. Spreaders lay out bolts of cloth into exact lengths on the cutting table. A machine cutter
follows the pattern outline on the cloth and cuts various garment pieces from layers of cloth. Using an electrical cutting machine, the cutter slices through all the layers at once. In more automated facilities, markers send the layout electronically to a computer-controlled cutting machine, and the cutter monitors the machine’s work. Thus numerically controlled machine operators are replacing many cutters. Newer technology has been developed so that computer-controlled markers and cutters often are used. Computers allow for more precise information to be programmed into set patterns and more uniform shapes to be cut. After the garment has been cut, assemblers bring together the various pieces needed, including lining, interfacing, and trimmings, to make a complete garment. They match color, size, and fabric design and use chalk or thread to mark locations of pockets, buttonholes, buttons, and other trimmings. They identify each bundle with a ticket. This ticket previously was used to figure the earnings of workers, who were paid according to the number of pieces they produced. Present technology uses bar codes and computers to calculate the worker’s pay and track the bundles through the production line. The bundles then are sent to the sewing room. Sewing machine operators put the material together into its finished form. These and other production workers must be careful to follow the patterns supplied by the designers. Some pressing is done as a garment is assembled; sometimes it is done at the completion of all sewing. Delicate garments must be pressed by hand. The finished clothing then is inspected and sent to the shipping room. From there, the material is sent to the markets the manufacturer has created for the product. Manufacturers must have a good sales staff so that stores will choose to carry the newly created clothing line. Marketing plays a very important part in the success or failure of a line of clothing. Once the prices for each garment have been established, salespeople for the manufacturer travel to New York and other merchandising centers to show their goods. A great deal of selling in the women’s wear field is done in the showrooms of New York. The menswear division also has its semiannual buying periods, and large retailers go to the New York market to purchase a substantial proportion of their seasonal requirements. The orders usually are larger than in the women’s wear field, because a retailer can make longterm commitments without fear that the garments will be out of style within a short time. Executive offices of apparel manufacturers usually are located in the same states as the factories, but nearly
every important apparel manufacturer has a sales office in New York City. This is where large retailers usually do their buying and where industry wide sales meetings are held each new season. Stores at some distance from New York employ local residents to comb the market for merchandise and advise them on placing orders. Some stores have organized cooperative-buying offices. These have increased the importance of the New York market as a selling and buying center where fashion ideas originate and where buyers and sellers congregate. A large number of the workers in the apparel manufacturing industry are women (the highest percentage in U.S. manufacturing), and minorities account for about 27 percent of the workforce. About 8 percent of workers belong to unions, according to the U.S. Department of Labor. The major union is the United Needletrades, Industrial, and Textile Employees (UNITE), a merger of the International Ladies Garment Workers Union and the Amalgamated Clothing and Textile Workers Union.
■ Outlook In the face of foreign competition, the future of the apparel industry is unclear. Imports from foreign countries have deeply affected the U.S. apparel industry. Foreign imports have taken increasingly larger shares of such important markets as blouses, coats, shirts, and sweaters. As a result, employment in U.S. plants has declined. The related field of textile manufacturing has also seen significant declines. According to the National Council of Textile Organizations, 365,400 textile-manufacturing jobs were lost from June 2001 to June 2006. This represents a decline of 37 percent. In 2004, the apparel industry provided approximately 285,000 wage and salary jobs. According to the U.S. Department of Labor, wage and salary employment in the apparel industry is expected to decline 46 percent through 2014— greater than the decrease for nearly any other industry. Declining employment will be caused by growing imports and competition from foreign markets, new technology, and cost-cutting practices imposed by retailers. The apparel industry is highly competitive, and low profits and wages are characteristic. There are approximately 14,000 establishments in all 50 states and most jobs are with large firms: More than 58 percent of all U.S. apparel industry workers are employed at companies of 100 workers or more. Many U.S. firms will continue to move their assembly operations to low-wage countries, which will adversely affect employment for lower-skilled machine operators. However, much of the apparel will still be designed and cut in the United States, which will maintain the demand for some pre-sewing functions.
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Learn More About It Dickerson, Kitty G., and Jeannette Jarnow. Inside the Fashion Business. 7th ed. Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 2002. Mauro, Lucia, Kathy Siebel, and Maureen Costello. Careers for Fashion Plates & Other Trendsetters. 2d ed. New York: McGraw-Hill/Contemporary Books, 2002. Stephens Frings, Gini. Fashion: From Concept to Consumer. 8th ed. Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 2004. Watson, Linda. Vogue: Twentieth Century Fashion. London, U.K.: Carlton Books, 2002.
Technological changes continue to affect the fashion manufacturing process. Many apparel manufacturers now use computer systems to design products, make patterns, and present their products to buyers. Many of the operations at apparel factories are difficult to automate, however, because of the large variety of fabrics and the intricate cutting and sewing required of most fashions, so the fashion industry is likely to remain labor-intensive. Quick Response is a new production concept that uses computers and allows manufacturers to quickly produce and deliver products in high demand and avoid producing clothing that does not sell well. The system relies on automated checkouts with bar-code scanners to track inventory, identify strong sellers, and know when to replenish stock, thereby cutting lead time in the order and delivery of goods. The fastest job growth in retail trade is projected for apparel and accessory stores. Pressing machine operators, custom tailors, and workers whose skills can be used in retail clothing stores, laundries, and dry cleaners will have the best opportunities. Workers who have knowledge of computer-aided design and computer-aided manufacturing will have the best employment prospects.
■ For More Information For industry information, contact American Apparel and Footwear Association 1601 North Kent Street, Suite 1200 Arlington, VA 22209-2127 Tel: 800-520-2262 http://www.apparelandfootwear.org
For information about this school, programs, and an application, contact FIT. Fashion Institute of Technology (FIT) Seventh Avenue at 27th Street New York, NY 10001-5992
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Tel: 212-217-7999 Email:
[email protected] http://www.fitnyc.edu
For a list of accredited schools, contact National Association of Schools of Art and Design 11250 Roger Bacon Drive, Suite 21 Reston, VA 20190-5248 Tel: 703-437-6312 Email:
[email protected] http://nasad.arts-accredit.org
For information on purchasing the U.S. textile industry, contact National Council of Textile Organizations 1776 I Street, Suite 900 Washington, DC 20006-2601 Tel: 202-756-4878 http://www.ncto.org
For comprehensive information on a career in the sewn products industry, visit Careerthreads.com http://www.careerthreads.com
For subscription information, visit the following magazine’s Web site: Women’s Wear Daily http://www.wwd.com
■ Related Articles Textiles; Apparel Industry Workers; Buyers; Cosmetologists; Costume Designers; Fashion Coordinators; Fashion Designers; Fashion Illustrators and Photographers; Fashion Models’ Agents; Jewelers and Jewelry Repairers; Knit Goods Industry Workers; Makeup Artists; Models; Nail Technicians; Photo Stylists; Shoe Industry Workers; Tailors and Dressmakers; Textile Manufacturing Workers; Textile Technicians
Film ■ Background In the Woody Allen film Annie Hall, Allen tells Diane Keaton, “A relationship is like a shark . . . if it doesn’t keep swimming, it dies.” This could also serve as a good metaphor for the film industry. For over 100 years, the film industry has avoided many deaths by moving forward.
It has adapted to the times, enjoying golden eras and surviving slumps. But such complexities can be expected of an industry driven by both art and commerce. The film industry holds a place in the American imagination like no other, while also maintaining a firm hold on the American pocketbook. The U.S. moviegoing public spends approximately $8 billion annually at the box office. We rent and purchase our favorite films on video and DVD and subscribe to many cable channels devoted to the 24-hour repeat of recent and classic productions. We read magazines and books about filmmaking and visit Web pages devoted to our favorite stars and movies. And thousands of people flock to Hollywood every year to invest in a more glamorous life, with dreams of becoming an actor, screenwriter, or director. What follows are only some of the major developments in the history of this evolving, ever-changing industry. The desire to create more than static, nonmoving images emerged soon after the development of still photography. If one picture could capture a single moment, inventors realized, then it should be possible to devise a similar technique for capturing a series of moments. Flip cards, the first version of moving pictures, worked on a simple principle. If a series of still pictures can capture the movements of someone running, showing the pictures in rapid succession would give the illusion of the movement of running. In 1877, Eadweard Muybridge successfully captured a horse in motion by using 24 cameras and trip wires that triggered the camera shutters as the horse ran along. The famous inventor Thomas Edison produced a short movie called The Sneeze in 1894, using film for the first time instead of individual plates. Georges Melies introduced narrative films in 1899 in France, and in 1903 Edwin Porter filmed The Great Train Robbery, the first motion picture that told a story using modern filming techniques. Porter used editing to put together a compelling story that he had filmed out of sequence. Motion pictures became increasingly popular in the early 1900s, with the advent of the movie house and silent film stars such as Charlie Chaplin and Rudolph Valentino. It was not until 1927, when The Jazz Singer with Al Jolson was produced, that talking movies began to be made. In the 1920s the first animated films were released for theater distribution. The 1920s also saw the rise of the studio moguls who built the large production companies such as Paramount and Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer (MGM). These companies dominated the industry for years, with tight control of talent, publicity, and film distribution. The 1930s is often considered the first golden era of filmmaking. It is estimated that 65 percent of the population went to the movies in 1938, accounting for 80
million tickets sold every week. The studios flooded the theaters with films, both good and bad, to keep the public entertained. Though many silent film stars couldn’t find success in the new talkies, others, like Charlie Chaplin and Greta Garbo, thrived. Ernst Lubitsch, Frank Capra, and George Cukor are only a few of the great directors who worked during this period. During World War II, films provided an escape from hardship and tragedy, as well as an aid to the government to educate people about the war effort. Frank Capra, George Stevens, John Huston, and other great filmmakers of the era dedicated themselves to making documentary films for the government. Many feature films were patriotic in nature, or served as portraits of quality American life being protected by the soldiers overseas. A special war tax attached to each theater ticket allowed moviegoers to make a contribution just by being entertained. After the war, however, this close relationship between the film industry and the government soured. The government demanded the big studios give up their theaters, greatly limiting the studios’ control over the features shown across the country. The studios were also hurt by the anti-Communism that swept the nation in the time of Joseph McCarthy. The government formed the House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC) in 1947 to sniff out supposed Communist sympathizers in the film industry. A blacklist of actors, screenwriters, and directors believed to be pro-Communist ended the careers of many blacklisted filmmakers. Hollywood received a great deal of negative publicity, and a public backlash of films evolved, including a boycott by the American Legion. Today, the scandal still has an impact, demonstrated by the uproar when Elia Kazan, director of such film classics as Streetcar Named Desire and On the Waterfront, who cooperated with the HUAC by naming those in the industry he believed to be Communists and thus effectively ending their careers, was announced as the winner of a special Academy Award in 1999. The Oscars were picketed and Nick Nolte, Ed Harris, and others of the night’s nominees refused to applaud during Kazan’s acceptance. Also contributing to the demise of the big studios was the rush to the suburbs. Americans were leaving the big cities and, therefore, their proximity to the grand movie houses. They also began to spend their recreational dollars on records for their new hi-fi’s and for tickets for travel on the new airlines. By the late 1940s, the studios had to allow contracts with filmmakers and stars to lapse, ending the studios’ years of complete power over the industry. Television changed the film industry in a variety of ways, and it continues to do so. With the popularity of
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TV growing in the early 1950s, movies had competition like nothing before. In 1946, the film industry made more money domestically than at any other time in its history—a gross of $1.7 billion. The early 1950s saw a large drop-off in movie attendance, and by 1962, domestic gross had been cut nearly in half to $900 million. In the 1950s, the movies began to compete by offering elements (and gimmicks) viewers couldn’t find elsewhere. Although the Technicolor process of color film had been perfected in 1933, filmmakers still shot primarily in black and white (B&W). Not only were B&W films less expensive to produce than color films, but filmmakers had honed their skills with B&W, and were more comfortable with it. But B&W TV was growing in popularity and film producers recognized the need to use color more frequently to draw viewers to movie theaters. The industry also tried a few technological stunts, such as 3-D. House of Wax and other horror films were the primary users of 3-D, but other genres dabbled in it as well. The musical Kiss Me, Kate was presented in 3-D. This process, however, was short-lived. And though Cinerama, a film industry gimmick that consisted of films presented on a large, wraparound screen, lasted a bit longer than 3-D, it too sizzled out within 10 years, ending with Stanley Kubrick’s 2001: A Space Odyssey in 1968. CinemaScope, another big-screen novelty, proved more successful and inspired other wide-screen processes such as VistaVision and Panavision. Film producers offered something else TV viewers couldn’t get at home: films with controversial subject matter and dialogue. Otto Preminger adapted the play The Moon Is Blue in 1953 and released it without the Movie Production Code’s seal of approval. The code had been in place since the 1930s to essentially censor films on the basis of morality. Preminger sprinkled his film with a few frank discussions of sex and use of such words as “virgin.” Although The Moon Is Blue is tame and coy in contrast to later films, its success led other filmmakers to push at the boundaries of the code more aggressively. The success of foreign films, not subject to the code, also proved the public’s appreciation of more daring films. By the late 1960s, the code had become barely relevant, and it was abandoned in 1967 in favor of the ratings system still used today. Despite the film industry’s early efforts to separate itself entirely from TV, TV came to have a large impact on the way films were made. Filmmakers and actors cut their teeth with TV projects; films became smaller in scope with lower budgets; and some television screenplays, such as Marty and A Catered Affair, were adapted for the big screen. The film industry’s survival in the face of great competition was evidenced in the 1970s. In addition to enjoying
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greater financial success, films also enjoyed another artistic golden era. The late 1960s and early 1970s brought along groundbreaking films that explored, like never before, politics, violence, society, and sexuality. Filmmakers like Robert Altman (Nashville), Francis Ford Coppola (The Godfather), Arthur Penn (Bonnie and Clyde), Martin Scorcese (Taxi Driver), Roman Polanski (Chinatown), and Woody Allen (Manhattan), made films that were both critically and financially successful. Though many of these filmmakers still make quality films today, their earlier work stands out. The film sequel also evolved during this period; film series had long been a tradition, but Coppola was the first to label a film Part II when he released his sequel to The Godfather. Horror movies such as Halloween and Friday the 13th capitalized on their formulas well into the 1980s and 1990s, and other genres, such as action films and comedies, followed suit with their own sequels. The revolutionary period of the 1970s went unmatched in the 1980s. Whereas the 1970s produced a long list of great directors, the 1980s produced relatively few breakout filmmakers. David Lynch (Blue Velvet), Spike Lee (Do the Right Thing), Tim Burton (Beetlejuice), and Barry Levinson (Diner) established careers in the industry, and some female directors, such as Susan Seidelman (Desperately Seeking Susan) and Joan Micklin-Silver (Crossing Delancey), made films that met with both critical and financial success. But the 1980s are mostly marked by the introduction of VCRs in American homes. By the middle of the decade, even small towns had video rental stores, and filmmakers seemed to make films with an eye toward the video version. Some films even went directly
to video, losing little in the translation. But the 1980s also laid the groundwork for the two major developments of the 1990s: the big-budget, special effects spectacle and the independent film. The success of George Lucas (Star Wars) and Steven Spielberg (E.T.) ushered in a new standard of big-budget filmmaking and experimentation with special effects and computer technology. Lucas and Spielberg helped to establish the tradition of the summer blockbuster, as film studios began to compete for younger, primarily male, audiences. With Independence Day, Men in Black, Star Wars I–III, and Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King, and Pirates of the Caribbean: Dead Man’s Chest the top moneymakers of the late 1990s and early 2000s, this is a trend that is likely to continue. And industry executives weren’t the only ones tracking weekend grosses. The 1990s and early 2000s also saw the regular publication of the top 10 films for any given week, and the public became more aware of film successes and failures. At the other end of the spectrum, the inexpensively produced work of independent filmmakers hearkened back to the glory days of the 1970s. The success of the Sundance Film Festival, and the attention given the films it spotlighted, revealed an audience for more personal, artful films. The independently produced Pulp Fiction not only made a lot of money but also won awards and inspired several imitations. Also, many women, minority, and gay filmmakers found their voices in independent cinema. Today, producers and directors strive for a union of all the different aspects of great filmmaking. They attempt to create work that is artful, technologically enhanced, and financially rewarded.
■ Structure
Working in film can be an exciting career. This is a crew at work on an outdoor shoot. (Corbis.)
Most movie productions begin with the selection of the story to be told. The movie may be based on a novel, a play, or an original script. With documentaries, the movie focuses on a nonfiction subject. The second most important step after developing the storyline or subject is to acquire funding. With commercial films, the company sponsoring the production pays the production costs and approves the steps in the process of making the film. In the days of the studio contracts, the conception, production, and financing of films was all done within one studio. For example, 20th Century Fox would have producers, staff writers, directors, and actors and actresses, from whom they would choose for a particular film. Today’s system is different. Although there are people who will sign contracts to do several films for one studio for a prearranged salary, most people work on a
project-by-project basis. Producers now bring a project to a studio with an estimated cost of production and perhaps the main actors and actresses already cast, and a studio may agree to back the production. The studio will pay for the costs of producing the film and for the salaries of the crew and cast in exchange for the film’s profits when it is released. If the movie is successful, it will bring in more money from ticket sales than the film cost to produce. Movies have become very expensive projects, with some films costing many millions of dollars to produce. These films require a huge turnout in the theaters to make any money for the company sponsoring the film. Small productions need not sell as many tickets, but frequently the actors and actresses are not well known, and selling tickets becomes more difficult. With the increased cost of film production, the independent producer has to be a good salesperson to be able to persuade a studio of the marketability of a film idea. If there are popular actors and actresses involved in the film, or a particular storyline has done well before, the producer is more likely to find financing than if a new idea or unknown actors are involved. Some studios are more willing to take the risk of a lesser-known cast and story if the cost of production is not too high. Occasionally, a producer will go to a studio with just the idea for a film. With studio backing, he or she may be able to attract bigger names to work on the film. Studios have developed a “step deal” for this and other arrangements. With a step deal, the studio can withdraw funding from a project if the producer cannot get an adequate script or staff together. Documentary filmmakers usually have more difficulty securing financing than a mass-market motion picture. If the funding is sought through endowments, government agencies, or broadcasting stations, the producer and director should anticipate putting together a fairly lengthy proposal with extensive research on the selected topic. For example, the length of the documentary needs to be planned out and explained. A timetable for the research, filming, and editing has to be calculated. The potential investors also need biographical information on the more important staff members of the documentary so they know the background of the people with whom they are entrusting their money. The producer may have to produce a shortened version of the film (a pilot) to show what the full-length project will look like. It can take from six months to 10 years to secure financing for a documentary. Once funding has been found for a project, a payment schedule is worked out with the producer of the documentary. Some funds are usually supplied up front, with vari-
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Short Shorts Audiences have long had an impact on filmmaking, regularly expressing their opinions and concerns, even before the regular use of focus groups by the industry: ■ In silent films, actors didn’t always recite the lines that appeared on the title cards. By the end of the silent era, filmgoers became so good at reading lips, that many wrote letters of complaint to the makers of What Price Glory? (1926). The actors Edmund Lowe and Victor McLaglen used profanity in many of the scenes, offending hundreds of lip readers. ■
Parents complained to the makers of Elmer the Great in 1933 because of its influence on their children. A scene featured Joe E. Brown attempting to drink from a coffee cup with the spoon still in it. After poking himself in the eye repeatedly, Brown finally bent the spoon out of the way. Children across America, after seeing the film, bent all the family spoons.
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By 1947, Shirley Temple, America’s sweetheart and the most successful child star of all time, was a young adult of 19. That Hagen Girl gave Temple the opportunity to play an adult role, and featured a scene where 36-yearold Ronald Reagan tells her he’s in love with her. When the film was previewed, audiences were so disturbed by the scene, that the scene was ultimately cut.
ous amounts distributed along the way and the remaining money delivered after the completion of the project. A film crew on a documentary can be as small as four people—a producer-director, a camera operator, a sound technician, and a lighting technician—although some documentaries require a large staff. As with other forms of film production, the lower the costs, the easier it is to find funding. After funding has been arranged, the filmmakers prepare to film. Whether you’re making a documentary or a feature film, you’ll need a script. In the case of a feature film, screenwriters write and rewrite the script to develop characters, tighten the plot, and keep within time limitations. The action must be planned carefully. Timing, continuation of narrative, camera angles, and the many other details that go into making a cohesive piece of work need to be worked out as thoroughly as possible before the filming begins. If the producer waits until the actual production to decide on major aspects of the project, the costs increase dramatically. Decisions about where the filming is to be done, whether in a studio or on location, go into the cost analysis of the
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Words to Know Agent: A business manager who uses industry connections to find film work for actors, screenwriters, and other professionals; negotiates contracts and receives a percentage of a client’s fee. Art department: A collection of professionals (art director, set director, and others) who work with the visual aspects and designs of a film. Boom mike: A microphone attached to the end of a long pole and kept above the heads of actors out of view of the camera. Box office: The office from which theater tickets are sold; also refers to the commercial success of a film. Casting: Placing actors in roles for a film. Continuity: Maintaining the consistency of details (costumes, actor positions, etc.) from scene to scene. Documentary: A nonfiction, journalistic film composed of interviews, historical background, and other factual reports surrounding a specific subject. Focus group: A small group of unbiased viewers who preview a film for a production company and offer their opinions. Foley artist: A professional who recreates sound effects for a film, matching the sounds with images. Indie: A film produced independently, outside of the major studio system. Matte shot: A shot incorporating an artist-created backdrop. Post-production: Editing, effects, and other work done on a film after primary filming is completed. Print: Developed film that can be projected onto a screen for viewing. Soundstage: An area within a studio comprised of large sets. Steadicam: A special camera that allows scenes to be shot smoothly as a Steadicam operator moves across a set or location.
project. Casting of the actors, actresses, narrators, and other talent that will be in the project affect the budget. How long the filming will take, the special effects required, and the overall size of the staff and production all determine the final budget for a film. The studio production department needs all this information before final approval of the contract can be made. For animated features, the methods of funding can be either like that of the documentary or that of a mass market motion picture. Animated features continue to have great appeal to the public and continue to be produced,
despite the incredible time and detailed work that must go into the manufacturing of an animated film. Each image to be captured in a film of live action needs to be drawn onto a clear plastic sheet. Simple movements, like saying hello, require at least eight different drawings shown in sequence to recreate actions of the body and mouth. A full-length feature takes at least two years to complete and may use more than one million different drawings. As computer animation is more widely used, however, the amount of painstaking work done by hand and the time it takes to produce an animated film have been greatly reduced. Although computers have automated some aspects of animation, the creation of three-dimensional animation (such as that of Pixar) on computers still requires incredible amounts of labor. Depending on the size of the project, live-action filming can take several days to several months. The picture is normally filmed out of sequence. The film can be shot in a studio on a soundstage, where everything is recreated to look like an actual location. The film can also be produced on location, in the actual setting where the story takes place. Once the filming is done, the film is reassembled in a studio. Special effects, music tracks, and any conversation that may have been muffled by other noises during the filming is added at this point. This type of work requires both precision and split-second timing to assure that the on-screen action matches the sound heard. Once the project is completed, the film is reviewed by the people in charge of the production. If the final product is acceptable, the film is released. This means that the film is distributed to the theaters. Now it is up to the marketing and distributing staff to build an audience for the film. Their job is to encourage the public to watch the production and to make the public aware of where the film is playing. Without an audience, even the best motion pictures will have little impact. Most work in the motion picture industry revolves around Hollywood and New York City. Actors, however, can get their start in smaller productions in any number of cities around the country. Chicago’s Second City Theatre, for instance, has been a training ground for such actors as Bill Murray and Dan Akroyd, who became regulars on TV’s Saturday Night Live for several years and then embarked on profitable film careers.
■ Outlook The film industry is greatly ruled by trends. Th
