encyclopedia of
Careers
and
Vocational Guidance Fourteenth Edition Career Guidance and Career Fields
Encyclopedia of Careers and Vocational Guidance, Fourteenth Edition Copyright © 2008 by Infobase Publishing All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage or retrieval systems, without permission in writing from the publisher. For information contact Ferguson An imprint of Infobase Publishing 132 West 31st Street New York NY 10001 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Encyclopedia of careers and vocational guidance.—Fourteenth ed. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN-13: 978-1-4381-2982-2 (e-book) 1. Vocational guidance—Handbooks, manuals, etc. 2. Occupations—Handbooks, manuals, etc. [1. Vocational guidance—Encyclopedias. 2. Occupations—Encyclopedias.] I. J.G. Ferguson Publishing Company. HF5381.E52 2008 331.702—dc22 2006101604 Ferguson books are available at special discounts when purchased in bulk quantities for businesses, associations, institutions, or sales promotions. Please call our Special Sales Department in New York at (212) 967-8800 or (800) 322-8755. You can find Ferguson on the World Wide Web at http://www.fergpubco.com Text design by David Strelecky Cover design by Salvatore Luongo Printed in the United States of America VB MSRF 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 This book is printed on acid-free paper.
Editorial Staff Editorial Director Laurie Likoff Editor in Chief James Chambers Project Editor Sarah Fogarty Editorial Assistant Matthew Anderson Manuscript Editors Rayna Bailey Martin Fox Andy Morkes Proofreading and Indexing Tech Books
Contents Career Guidance, Career Fields, and Career Articles: A–Z ix
Acknowledgements
40
Job Fairs
xi
Introduction
41
Networking and References
43
Job Searching on the Web
45
Searching the Classified Advertisements
Career Guidance Preparing for Your Career 3
Choosing a Career
Applying for a Job
6
Starting a Career and Making Career Transitions
49
The Resume
53
Cover Letters
55
The Career Portfolio and Credentials
57
Interviewing
10
Assessment Tests
15
Soft Skills
18
Occupational Classification Systems
21
Information Interviewing
You’re Hired!
23
Training for Job Entry and Career Development
61
Salary/Wages
62
Fringe Benefits
32
The Future World of Work 63
Finding a Job
Personnel Management: Probation, Evaluation, Raises, Promotion, and Dismissal
37
Placement Offices
67
Employment Laws
39
On-Campus Recruiting
68
Your Rights as an Employee
v
vi
Contents
Career fields
185
Engineering
75
Accounting
190
Entrepreneurs
79
Advertising and Marketing
195
The Environment
84
Aerospace
203
Fashion
88
Agriculture
208
Film
92
Airlines
214
Fire Fighting
97
Alternative Health Care
218
Food Processing
102
Animal Care
223
Foreign Trade
105
Automotives
228
Government
111
Banking and Financial Services
233
Grocery Stores
118
Biology
236
Health Care
121
Book Publishing
243
Home Furnishings
124
Broadcasting
249
Hospitality
128
Business
255
Human Resources
133
Chemicals
260
Information Services
136
Computer Hardware
266
Insurance
139
Computers
270
Internet
145
Computer Software
276
Law
149
Construction
282
Letter and Package Delivery
152
Cosmetology
286
Literary Arts
155
Dance
289
Machining and Machinery
159
Defense
294
Manufacturing
163
Dental Care
296
Mathematics and Physics
167
Earth Sciences
299
Metals
170
Education
303
Military Services
175
Electronics
309
Mining
179
Energy
314
Museums and Cultural Centers
contents
319
Music
429
Sports
324
Music and Recording Industry
433
Stone, Concrete, Ceramics, and Glass
330
Newspapers and Magazines
438
Telecommunications
334
Nuclear Power
443
Television
337
Packaging
446
Textiles
341
Parks and Public Lands
450
Theater
343
Petroleum
456
Toys and Games
347
Pharmaceuticals
460
Transportation
351
Photography
460
Travel and Tourism
354
Plastics
465
Trucking
358
Printing
468
Visual Arts
363
Public Relations
472
Waste Management
368
Public Safety
479
Wood
373
Publishing
485
Appendix 1: Career Resources and Associations for Individuals with Disabilities
377
Pulp and Paper
382
Radio
490
385
Railroads
390
Real Estate
Career Articles: A–Z
394
Recreation
501
Accountants and Auditors
398
Religious Ministries
506
Acquisition Librarians
403
Restaurants and Food Services
509
408
Rubber
Active and Contemplative Religious Sisters and Brothers
411
Sales
514
Actors
415
Shipping
520
Actuaries
419
Social Sciences
524
Acupuncturists
422
Social Services
529
Adult and Vocational Education Teachers
425
Space Exploration
533
Adult Day Care Coordinators
Appendix 2: Internships, Apprenticeships, and Training Programs
vii
viii
Contents
537
Advanced Practice Nurses
645
Animal Trainers
540
Advertising Account Executives
650
Anthropologists
543
Advertising and Marketing Managers
654
Antiques and Art Dealers
546
Advertising Workers
658
Apparel Industry Workers
552
Aerobics Instructors and Fitness Trainers
663
Appliance Service Technicians
557
Aeronautical and Aerospace Technicians
667
Aquaculturists
562
Aerospace Engineers
672
Aquarists
567
Agribusiness Technicians
675
Arborists
570
Agricultural Consultants
677
Archaeologists
574
Agricultural Equipment Technicians
681
Architects
578
Agricultural Pilots
684
Archivists
582
Agricultural Scientists
689
Aromatherapists
587
Aircraft Mechanics
695
Art Directors
592
Airplane Dispatchers
701
Artist and Repertoire Workers
595
Airport Security Personnel
703
Artists
598
Airport Service Workers
711
Asbestos Abatement Technicians
603
Air Quality Engineers
714
Assessors and Appraisers
607
Air Traffic Controllers
719
Astronauts
613
Alcohol and Drug Abuse Counselors
725
Astronomers
617
Allergists/Immunologists
730
Astrophysicists
619
Ambassadors
733
Athletic Directors
623
Amusement Park Workers
736
Auctioneers
627
Anesthesiologists
740
Audio Recording Engineers
630
Animal Breeders and Technicians
745
Automatic Teller Machine Servicers
635
Animal Caretakers
748
Automobile Collision Repairers
641
Animal Handlers
753
Automobile Sales Workers
contents
758
Automobile Service Technicians
871
Book Editors
764
Automotive Industry Workers
875
Bookkeeping and Accounting Clerks
769
Aviation Safety Inspectors
879
Border Patrol Officers
774
Avionics Engineers and Technicians
883
Botanists
778
Ayurvedic Doctors and Practitioners
887
Bounty Hunters
782
Baggage Porters and Bellhops
891
Brewers
785
Bail Bondsmen
897
Bricklayers and Stonemasons
789
Bailiffs
902
Broadcast Engineers
793
Bakery Workers
907
Business Managers
797
Bank Examiners
911
Buyers
802
Barbers
915
Cable Television Technicians
806
Bartenders
920
Camera Operators
809
Bed and Breakfast Owners
923
Campaign Workers
814
Beekeepers
926
Canning and Preserving Industry Workers
820
Beverage Industry Workers
930
Cardiologists
823
Bicycle Mechanics
932
Cardiovascular Technologists
827
Billing Clerks
938
Career and Employment Counselors and Technicians
830
Bindery Workers
942
Carpenters
833
Biochemists
947
Cartographers
839
Biofeedback Therapists
950
Cartoonists and Animators
844
Biologists
953
Cashiers
850
Biomedical Engineers
956
Caterers
853
Biomedical Equipment Technicians
960
Cement Masons
858
Bodyguards
964
Ceramics Engineers
861
Boilermakers and Mechanics
969
Chemical Engineers
865
Book Conservators
974
Chemical Technicians
ix
Contents
977
Chemists
1078 Composers and Arrangers
981
Chief Information Officers
1084 Computer and Office Machine Service
985
Child Care Service Owners
990
Child Care Workers
993
Child Life Specialists
997
Children’s Librarians
1001 Chimney Sweeps 1005 Chiropractors 1010 Cinematographers and Directors of
Photography
1014 Circus Performers 1019 City Managers 1023 Civil Engineering Technicians 1026 Civil Engineers 1030 Cleaning Service Owners 1033 Clinical Nurse Specialists 1036 Clowns
Technicians
1087 Computer and Video Game Designers 1093 Computer Network Administrators 1099 Computer Programmers 1103 Computer Support Service Owners 1107 Computer Systems Programmer/Analysts 1112 Computer Trainers 1115 Computer-Aided Design Drafters and
Technicians
1120 Confectionery Industry Workers 1124 Congressional Aides 1129 Conservators and Conservation Technicians 1133 Construction Inspectors 1136 Construction Laborers 1139 Cooks and Chefs
1039 Coal Miners
1144 Copy Editors
1044 Collection Workers
1150 Copywriters
1047 College Administrators
1153 Coremakers
1051 College Professors
1155 Corporate Librarians
1056 Color Analysts and Image Consultants
1159 Corrections Officers
1059 Columnists
1164 Cosmetic Surgeons
1062 Comedians
1170 Cosmeticians
1066 Comic Book Writers
1175 Cosmetics Sales Representatives
1071 Commodities Brokers
1177 Cosmetologists
1076 Community Health Nurses
1183 Cost Estimators
contents
1187 Costume Designers
1293 Detectives
1191 Counter and Retail Clerks
1297 Diagnostic Medical Sonographers
1193 Court Reporters
1302 Dialysis Technicians
1199 Creative Arts Therapists
1307 Diesel Mechanics
1205 Credit Analysts
1312 Diet and Fitness Writers
1208 Crime Analysts
1316 Dietetic Technicians
1212 Critical Care Nurses
1321 Dietitians and Nutritionists
1215 Cruise Ship Workers
1326 Digital Agents
1219 Cryptographic Technicians
1330 Disc Jockeys
1222 Cultural Advisers
1334 Dispensing Opticians
1225 Customer Service Representatives
1336 Divers and Diving Technicians
1229 Customs Officials
1342 Drafters
1234 Cytotechnologists
1347 Drug Developers
1239 Dairy Products Manufacturing Workers
1350 Dry Cleaning and Laundry Workers
1243 Dancers and Choreographers
1353 Drywall Installers and Finishers
1248 Database Specialists
1356 Ear, Nose, and Throat Specialists
1254 Data Entry Clerks
1358 Ecologists
1257 Data Processing Technicians
1362 Economists
1262 Demographers
1365 Editorial and Research Assistants
1265 Dental Assistants
1369 Editors
1268 Dental Hygienists
1375 Education Directors and Museum Teachers
1272 Dental Laboratory Technicians
1381 Elder Law Attorneys
1277 Dentists
1386 Electrical and Electronics Engineers
1281 Deputy U.S. Marshals
1392 Electricians
1284 Dermatologists
1397 Electrologists
1289 Desktop Publishing Specialists
1401 Electroneurodiagnostic Technologists
xi
xii
Contents
1405 Electronics Engineering Technicians
1508 Farm Equipment Mechanics
1410 Electronics Service Technicians
1512 Farmers
1416 Electroplating Workers
1517 Fashion Coordinators
1419 Elementary School Teachers
1521 Fashion Designers
1424 Elevator Installers and Repairers
1525 Fashion Illustrators and Photographers
1428 Emergency Medical Technicians
1529 Fashion Models’ Agents
1432 Emergency Nurses
1533 Fashion Writers and Editors
1435 Employment Firm Workers
1536 Fast Food Workers
1438 Endocrinologists
1540 FBI Agents
1440 Endodontists
1545 Federal and State Officials
1443 Energy Conservation Technicians
1549 Fiber Optics Technicians
1448 Energy Transmission and Distribution
1552 Film and Television Directors
Workers 1557 Film and Television Editors
1452 Engineers 1562 Film and Television Extras 1453 English as a Second Language (ESL) Teachers 1564 Film and Television Producers 1458 Enologists 1570 Film and Video Librarians 1461 Environmental Engineers 1573 Financial Analysts 1465 Environmental Technicians 1579 Financial Institution Officers and Managers 1470 Epidemiologists 1584 Financial Institution Tellers, Clerks, and 1473 Ergonomists
1479 Ethnoscientists
1589 Financial Planners
1485 Event Planners
1593 Financial Services Brokers
1490 Executive Recruiters
1596 Firefighters
1494 Exhibit Designers
1602 Fire Inspectors and Investigators
1497 Export-Import Specialists
1606 Fire Safety Technicians
1501 Family and Consumer Scientists
1613 Fish and Game Wardens
1504 Farm Crop Production Technicians
1616 Fishers
Related Workers
contents
1620 Fitness Directors
1732 General Practitioners
1623 Flight Attendants
1736 Genetic Counselors
1628 Flight Instructors
1740 Genetic Scientists
1634 Floor Covering Installers
1745 Geographers
1637 Florists
1748 Geographic Information Systems Specialists
1641 Fluid Power Technicians
1751 Geological Technicians
1645 Food Photographers
1754 Geologists
1648 Food Service Workers
1758 Geophysicists
1652 Food Technologists
1762 Geriatric Care Managers
1656 Food Writers and Editors
1768 Geriatric Nurses
1661 Foreign Correspondents
1772 Geriatric Psychiatrists
1665 Foreign Service Officers
1778 Geriatric Social Workers
1670 Forensic Accountants and Auditors
1782 Geriatricians
1675 Forensic Experts
1787 Glass Manufacturing Workers
1680 Foresters
1791 Glaziers
1685 Forestry Technicians
1795 Grain Merchants
1692 Forge Shop Workers
1798 Grant Coordinators and Writers
1695 Franchise Owners
1802 Graphic Designers
1699 Fund-Raisers
1807 Graphics Programmers
1703 Funeral Home Workers
1811 Greeting Card Designers and Writers
1707 Furniture Designers
1816 Grief
1712 Furniture Manufacturing Workers
1819 Ground Services Workers
1717 Gaming Occupations
1822 Groundwater Professionals
1723 Gastroenterologists
1826 Guidance Counselors
1724 Genealogists
1830 Gunsmiths
1729 General Maintenance Mechanics
1834 Hardware Engineers
Therapists
xiii
xiv
Contents
1837 Hazardous Waste Management Specialists
1945 Human Services Workers
1842 Hazardous Waste Management Technicians
1949 Hypnotherapists
1847 Health Advocates
1954 Illustrators
1850 Health and Regulatory Inspectors
1958 Inbound Tour Guides
1856 Health Care Managers
1961 Indexers
1860 Health Club Owners and Managers
1962 Industrial Chemicals Workers
1863 Heat Treaters
1967 Industrial Designers
1866 Heating and Cooling Technicians
1971 Industrial Engineering Technicians
1872 Help Desk Representatives
1975 Industrial Engineers
1878 Hematologists
1979 Industrial Machinery Mechanics
1880 Herbalists
1982 Industrial Radiographers
1886 Histologic Technicians
1986 Industrial Safety and Health Technicians
1889 Historians
1990 Industrial Traffic Managers
1892 HIV/AIDS Counselors and Case Managers
1993 Information Brokers
1897 Holistic Physicians
1997 Instrumentation Technicians
1900 Home Health Care Aides
2001 Insurance Claims Representatives
1904 Home Health Care and Hospice Nurses
2005 Insurance Policy Processing Workers
1907 Homeopaths
2008 Insurance Underwriters
1914 Horticultural Technicians
2011 Intellectual Property Lawyers
1917 Horticultural Therapists
2016 Intelligence Officers
1921 Hospice Workers
2020 Interior Designers and Decorators
1923 Hotel and Motel Managers
2026 Internet Consultants
1928 Hotel Concierges
2031 Internet Developers
1931 Hotel Desk Clerks
2033 Internet Executives
1935 Hotel Executive Housekeepers
2038 Internet Quality Assurance Specialists
1938 Household Movers
2042 Internet Security Specialists
1941 Household Workers
2047 Internet Store Managers and Entrepreneurs
contents
2051 Internet Transaction Specialists
2157 Library Media Specialists
2055 Interpreters
2162 Library Technicians
2063 Janitors and Cleaners
2167 Licensed Practical Nurses
2065 Jewelers and Jewelry Repairers
2169 Life Insurance Agents and Brokers
2070 Job and Die Setters
2175 Lifeguards and Swimming Instructors
2073 Jockeys
2178 Lighting Technicians
2077 Journalism Teachers
2181 Line Installers and Cable Splicers
2084 Kinesiologists
2186 Linguists
2088 Labor Union Business Agents
2190 Literary Agents
2092 Laboratory Testing Technicians
2192 Loan Officers and Counselors
2095 Land Acquisition Professionals
2195 Lobbyists
2098 Land Trust or Preserve Managers
2199 Locksmiths
2104 Landscape Architects
2204 Locomotive Engineers
2107 Landscapers and Grounds Managers
2207 Logging Industry Workers
2111 Laser Technicians
2212 Magazine Editors
2115 Lathers 2118 Lawyers and Judges 2124 Layout Workers 2127 Leather Tanning and Finishing Workers 2129 Legal Nurse Consultants
2215 Magicians 2219 Mail Carriers 2224 Makeup Artists 2229 Management Analysts and Consultants 2233 Manufacturing Supervisors 2235 Marble Setters, Tile Setters, and Terrazzo
2132 Legal Secretaries
2136 Lexicographers
2239 Marine Biologists
2138 Librarians
2244 Marine Services Technicians
2145 Library and Information Science Instructors
2248 Marketing Research Analysts
2149 Library Assistants
2253 Massage Therapists
2153 Library Directors
2258 Mathematicians
Workers
xv
xvi
Contents
2261 Mathematics Teachers
2370 Millwrights
2266 Meatcutters and Meat Packers
2373 Mining Engineers
2272 Mechanical Engineering Technicians
2377 Models
2276 Mechanical Engineers
2383 Molders
2280 Media Planners and Buyers
2387 Mortuary Cosmetologists
2285 Media Relations Specialists
2392 Motivational Speakers
2288 Medical Assistants
2395 Multimedia Artists and Animators
2292 Medical Billing Service Owners
2401 Multimedia Sound Workers
2295 Medical Ethicists
2407 Museum Attendants
2300 Medical Illustrators and Photographers
2410 Museum Directors and Curators
2304 Medical Laboratory Technicians
2416 Museum Technicians
2308 Medical Librarians
2419 Music Agents and Scouts
2312 Medical Record Technicians
2422 Music Conductors and Directors
2317 Medical Secretaries
2428 Music Journalists
2319 Medical Technologists
2431 Music Librarians
2323 Medical Transcriptionists
2436 Music Producers
2328 Merchandise Displayers
2441 Music Teachers
2331 Merchant Mariners
2447 Music Therapists
2336 Metallurgical Engineers
2450 Music Venue Owners and Managers
2341 Metallurgical Technicians
2454 Music Video Directors and Producers
2345 Meteorologists
2459 Music Video Editors
2349 Meter Readers, Utilities
2463 Musical Instrument Repairers and Tuners
2352 Microbiologists
2469 Musicians
2356 Microelectronics Technicians
2476 Myotherapists
2360 Military Pilots
2480 Nail Technicians
2365 Military Workers
2485 Nannies
contents
2490 National Park Service Employees
2594 Oncological Nurses
2495 Naturalists
2598 Oncologists
2501 Naturopaths
2601 Online Journalists
2506 Neonatal Nurses
2605 Online Producers
2509 Neurologists
2609 Operating Engineers
2512 News Anchors
2612 Ophthalmic Laboratory Technicians
2516 Newspaper Editors
2616 Ophthalmologists
2520 Nonprofit Social Service Directors
2619 Optical Engineers
2525 Nuclear Engineers
2623 Optics Technicians
2529 Nuclear Medicine Technologists
2627 Optometrists
2532 Nuclear Reactor Operators and Technicians
2630 Oriental Medicine Practitioners
2537 Numerical Control Tool Programmers
2637 Orientation and Mobility Specialists
2540 Nurse Anesthetists
2641 Orthodontists
2543 Nurse Assistants
2646 Orthotic and Prosthetic Technicians
2546 Nurse Managers
2651 Orthotists and Prosthetists
2549 Nurse-Midwives
2654 Osteopaths
2555 Nurse Practitioners
2659 Packaging Engineers
2558 Nursing Home Administrators
2664 Packaging Machinery Technicians
2563 Nurse Instructors
2668 Painters and Paperhangers
2567 Obstetricians/Gynecologists
2672 Paleontologists
2570 Occupational Health Nurses
2676 Paper Processing Workers
2573 Occupational Safety and Health Workers
2681 Paralegals
2579 Occupational Therapists
2685 Park Rangers
2583 Occupational Therapy Assistants and Aides
2689 Parole Officers
2586 Oceanographers
2692 Pathologists
2591 Office Administrators
2695 Pediatricians
xvii
xviii
Contents
2698 Pedorthists
2800 Physician Assistants
2702 Perfusionists
2803 Physicians
2705 Periodontists
2809 Physicists
2708 Personal Chefs
2813 Pilots
2712 Personal Shoppers
2818 Plasterers
2715 Personal Trainers
2821 Plastics Engineers and Technicians
2719 Personnel and Labor Relations Specialists
2827 Plastics Products Manufacturing Workers
2725 Pest Control Workers
2831 Plumbers and Pipefitters
2728 Pet Shop Workers
2834 Podiatrists
2732 Pet Sitters
2837 Police Officers
2736 Petroleum Engineers
2842 Political Columnists and Writers
2741 Petroleum Technicians
2847 Political Reporters
2746 Pharmaceutical Industry Workers
2852 Political Scientists
2750 Pharmacists
2856 Political Speechwriters
2755 Pharmacologists
2858 Polygraph Examiners
2760 Pharmacy Technicians
2862 Pop/Rock Musicians
2764 Phlebotomy Technicians
2867 Postal Clerks
2767 Photo Editors
2870 Power Plant Workers
2769 Photographers
2874 Precision Machinists
2773 Photographic Equipment Technicians
2878 Precision Metalworkers
2776 Photographic Laboratory Workers
2882 Prepress Workers
2779 Photography Instructors
2886 Preschool Teachers
2782 Photojournalists
2890 Press Secretaries and Political Consultants
2787 Physical Education Teachers
2894 Printing Press Operators and Assistants
2792 Physical Therapists
2899 Process Servers
2795 Physical Therapy Assistants
2903 Production Assistants
contents
2906 Professional Athletes—Individual Sports
3013 Receptionists
2911 Professional Athletes—Team Sports
3016 Recreation Workers
2916 Property and Casualty Insurance Agents
3019 Recreational Therapists
and Brokers
2921 Property and Real Estate Managers 2925 Protestant Ministers 2929 Psychiatric Nurses 2932 Psychiatric Technicians 2936 Psychiatrists 2940 Psychologists 2946 Public Opinion Researchers 2949 Public Relations Specialists 2953 Public Transportation Operators 2956 Purchasing Agents 2960 Quality Assurance Testers 2964 Quality Control Engineers and Technicians 2968 Rabbis 2971 Radiation Protection Technicians
3023 Recycling Coordinators 3028 Reflexologists 3032 Refuse Collectors 3036 Regional and Local Officials 3039 Registered Nurses 3045 Rehabilitation Counselors 3048 Renewable Energy Careers 3056 Reporters 3060 Reservation and Ticket Agents 3064 Resort Workers 3068 Respiratory Therapists and Technicians 3073 Restaurant and Food Service Managers 3076 Retail Business Owners 3079 Retail Managers
2976 Radio and Television Announcers
3082 Retail Sales Workers
2981 Radio and Television Program Directors
3086 Retirement Planners
2985 Radio Producers
3088 Risk Managers
2988 Radiologic Technologists
3091 Robotics Engineers and Technicians
2993 Railroad Conductors
3098 Roman Catholic Priests
2996 Range Managers
3101 Roofers
3000 Real Estate Agents and Brokers
3104 Roustabouts
3003 Real Estate Developers
3108 Rubber Goods Production Workers
3008 Real-Time Captioners
3112 Sales Representatives
xix
xx
Contents
3116 School Administrators 3121 School Nurses
3230 Special Procedures Technologists 3233 Speech-Language Pathologists and
Audiologists
3123 Science and Medical Writers 3237 Sporting Goods Production Workers 3127 Screenwriters 3132 Secondary School Teachers 3136 Secret Service Special Agents 3141 Secretaries 3145 Security Consultants and Guards 3151 Semiconductor Technicians 3154 Senior Care Pharmacists 3159 Sheet Metal Workers 3163 Sign Language and Oral Interpreters 3168 Signal Mechanics 3171 Silverware Artisans and Workers 3177 Singers 3183 Ski Resort Workers 3186 Social Workers
3241 Sports Agents 3244 Sports Broadcasters and Announcers 3249 Sports Equipment Managers 3251 Sports Executives 3253 Sports Facility Managers 3257 Sports Instructors and Coaches 3261 Sports Photographers 3263 Sports Physicians 3268 Sports Psychologists 3272 Sports Publicists 3275 Sports Scouts 3277 Sports Trainers 3281 Sportswriters 3285 Stadium Ushers and Vendors
3192 Sociologists
3287 Stage Production Workers
3195 Software Designers
3292 Stationary Engineers
3200 Software Engineers
3296 Statisticians
3204 Soil Conservationists and Technicians
3299 Steel Industry Workers
3209 Soil Scientists
3303 Stenographers
3212 Songwriters
3306 Stevedores
3217 Spa Attendants
3309 Stock Clerks
3222 Special Education Teachers
3312 Stunt Performers
3225 Special Effects Technicians
3316 Supermarket Workers
contents
3320 Surgeons
3417 Traffic Engineers
3323 Surgical Technologists
3420 Transplant Coordinators
3327 Surveying and Mapping Technicians
3423 Travel Agents
3332 Surveyors
3428 Truck Drivers
3335 Swimming Pool Servicers
3433 Typists and Word Processors
3339 Systems Setup Specialists
3436 Umpires and Referees
3343 Tailors and Dressmakers
3440 Urban and Regional Planners
3346 Talent Agents and Scouts
3444 Urologists
3351 Tax Preparers
3447 Veterinarians
3355 Taxi Drivers
3451 Veterinary Technicians
3357 Taxidermists 3360 Teacher Aides 3364 Technical Support Specialists 3369 Technical Writers and Editors 3375 Telemarketers 3379 Telephone and PBX Installers and
Repairers
3382 Telephone Operators 3386 Temporary Workers 3390 Textile Manufacturing Workers 3394 Tire Technicians 3397 Title Searchers and Examiners 3400 Tobacco Products Industry Workers 3403 Toll Collectors
3454 Video Game Art Directors 3458 Video Game Producers 3462 Video Game Testers 3466 Wastewater Treatment Plant Operators
and Technicians
3471 Watch and Clock Repairers 3474 Webmasters 3479 Wedding and Party Consultants 3483 Welders and Welding Technicians 3488 Wireless Service Technicians 3492 Wood Science and Technology Workers 3497 Writers 3502 Yoga and Pilates Instructors 3506 Zoo and Aquarium Curators and
3405 Tour Guides
Directors
3409 Toxicologists
3513 Zookeepers
3413 Toy Industry Workers
3518 Zoologists
xxi
Acknowledgments The editorial staff of Infobase Publishing/Ferguson Publishing would like to express its appreciation to all of the companies, associations, and organizations that responded to our inquiries for their assistance in providing statistics, data, and descriptions for their fields. We would also like to thank all of the individuals who shared their time, knowledge, and experiences regarding their careers. This help has been enormously valuable in the preparation of the Encyclopedia of Careers and Vocational Guidance.
ix
Introduction The Encyclopedia of Careers and Vocational Guidance (ECVG) has been in print for more than 30 years. The original goal of the first edition was “to bring together the greatest possible amount of accurate information about occupations.” The ECVG has upheld this goal throughout its many years in print. Now in five volumes with revised and expanded coverage that includes 38 new career articles, 120 new photographs, and thoroughly updated career information throughout, the 14th edition continues in this tradition.
The third subsection, “Applying for a Job,” covers resumes cover letters ■ career portfolios ■ interviewing ■ ■
The fourth subsection, “You’re Hired!,” covers salaries fringe benefits ■ personnel management (probation, evaluation, raises, promotions, and dismissal) ■ employment laws ■ your rights as an employee ■ ■
What Will I Find and Where Will I Find It? Volume 1 includes the “Career Guidance” and the “Career Fields” sections; two appendices, “Career Resources and Associations for Individuals with Disabilities” and “Internships, Apprenticeships, and Training Programs”; the DOT, GOE, NOC, and O*NET-SOC government classification indexes; and two indexes, the “Organization and Web site Index” and the “Job Title Index.”
As the “Career Guidance” section is meant only as a brief introduction to these topics, each chapter contains an annotated list of Web sites for the reader to further explore areas of interest.
Career Fields “Career Fields” provides overviews of 93 career fields. Each article has been thoroughly updated and revised with the latest information available. The first section of each article, “Background,” covers general information and historical background. The historical information enables the reader to understand how that industry or field has developed over time. Although historical notes on each job are included in the job descriptions throughout the ECVG, the career field histories paint a broader picture of development. Also included in the “Background” section are statistics on current employment, production, and a brief discussion on the current status of the industry or field. In order for readers to understand how a particular job or career fits into a field or industry, they should have some understanding of that industry or field. The next section, “Structure,” provides an overview of how that industry or field works. The section describes the industry or field from the beginning of the process through the
Career Guidance The purpose of the “Career Guidance” section is to provide a brief overview of all aspects of career guidance. The first subsection, “Preparing for Your Career,” covers choosing and starting a career making career transitions ■ assessment tests ■ soft skills ■ government classification systems ■ information interviewing ■ job training and education ■ the future world of work ■ ■
The second subsection, “Finding a Job,” covers school placement offices on-campus recruiting ■ job fairs, networking ■ job searching on the Web and in the classified ads ■ ■
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completion of the end product—be it an actual product or a service. As it describes the process, this section discusses specific careers and their role in the process. The next section, “Outlook,” assembles information from the Occupational Outlook Handbook, the Career Guide to Industries, statistics from various associations and agencies, and other evaluative data to provide the best estimate of future performance and success of the industry or field. Following the “Outlook” section is “For More Information,” a listing of organizations that can provide career information on training, education, internships, scholarships, and job placement. As mentioned above, a brief line or paragraph describes each source and the information that can be obtained by contacting it. All of the contact information in this section has been thoroughly revised and updated since the last edition. The final section of each “Career Field” article directs the reader to related articles in the ECVG.
Appendix Following the Career Fields section are two appendices. “Career Resources and Associations for Individuals with Disabilities” lists organizations and associations that assist in training and job placement for people with disabilities and other special groups. “Internships, Apprenticeships, and Training Programs” includes books and organizations on these topics, as well as national, regional, and state bureaus of apprenticeship and training and state apprenticeship councils. These appendices have been completely revised for the 13th edition of the ECVG.
DOT, GOE, NOC, and O*NET-SOC Indexes Following the appendices are four indexes based on commonly used government classification systems: the Dictionary of Occupational Titles (DOT, 4th edition), the Guide for Occupational Exploration (GOE), the National Occupational Classification System (NOC, 2001); Canada’s framework for the classification of occupations), and the Occupational Information Network (O*NET)-Standard Occupational Classification (SOC) Index. The DOT index lists careers by their three-digit DOT Occupational Group number. The first level of the index lists the one-digit DOT Occupational Categories. The second level of the index lists the two-digit DOT Occupational Divisions. The third level of the index lists the three-digit DOT Occupational Groups. The last level of the index lists the ECVG career articles and their corresponding page numbers. The GOE index lists careers by their six-digit GOE Subgroups. The first level of the index lists the two-digit
GOE Interest Areas. The second level of the index lists the four-digit GOE Work Groups. The third level of the index lists the six-digit GOE Subgroups. The last level of the index lists the ECVG career articles and their corresponding page numbers. The NOC index lists careers by their four-digit NOC Unit Groups. The first level of the index lists the two digit NOC Major Groups. The second level of the index lists the three-digit NOC Minor Groups. The third level of the index lists the four-digit NOC Unit Groups. The last level of the index lists the ECVG Career articles and their corresponding page numbers. The O*NET-SOC index uses an organizational system that is based on the most current version of the Standard Occupational Classification system (SOC). SOC sorts occupations by four levels: major group, minor group, broad occupation, and detailed occupation. Each occupation is assigned a unique 6-digit code. The first two digits represent one of 23 major groups; the third digit represents the minor group; the fourth and fifth indicate the broad occupation; and the sixth, the detailed occupation. Two additional digits are used when an occupation is divided into further subdivisions. The last level of the index lists the ECVG career articles and their corresponding page numbers. At the end of Volume 1 the “Organization and Web site Index” lists all of the organizations and Web sites listed in all four volumes. The “Job Title Index” lists all the major job titles discussed in all five volumes.
Career Articles This edition of the ECVG contains new coverage of 38 career articles for a total of 747 career articles. These articles are found in Volumes 2, 3, 4, and 5. The “Quick Facts” sidebar in each career article provides a brief summary of the career, including recommended school subjects, personal skills, work environment, minimum educational requirements, salary ranges, certification or licensing requirements, and employment outlook. This section also provides acronyms and identification numbers for the various government classification indexes (described in the previous section). The first section of each article, “Overview,” contains a full definition of the career and any alternate job titles that may be associated with the career. The “History” section describes the history of the particular career as it relates to the overall development of its industry or field. The next section, “The Job,” describes the primary and secondary duties of the career.
introduction
The “Requirements” section discusses high school and postsecondary education and training requirements, any certification or licensing necessary, and any other personal requirements for success in the career. “Exploring” offers suggestions on how to gain some experience in or knowledge of the particular career before making a firm educational and financial commitment. The focus is on what can be done while still in high school (or in the early years of college) to gain a better understanding of the career. The “Employers” section gives an overview of typical places of employment for the career. “Starting Out” discusses the best ways of landing that first job, be it through the college placement office, newspaper ads, or personal contact. “Advancement” describes what kind of career path to expect from the career and how to get there. The “Earnings” section lists salary ranges and describes the typical fringe benefits. The “Work Environment” section describes the typical surroundings and conditions of employment—whether indoors or outdoors, noisy or quiet, social or independent, and so on. Also discussed are typical hours worked, any seasonal fluctuations, and the stresses and strains of the career. The “Outlook” section summarizes the job in terms of the general economy and industry projections. For the most part, Outlook information is obtained from the U.S. Department of Labor and is supplemented by information taken from professional associations. Job growth terms follow those used in the Occupational Outlook Handbook: Growth described as “much faster than the average” means an increase of 27 percent or more. ■ Growth described as “faster than the average” means an increase of 18 to 26 percent. ■
Growth described as “about as fast as the average” means an increase of 9 to 17 percent. ■ Growth described as “little change or more slowly than the average” means an increase of 0 to 8 percent. ■ “Decline” means a decrease of any amount. ■
“For More Information” is the final section of each article and is a listing of organizations that can provide career information on training, education, internships, scholarships, and job placement. At the end of Volumes 2, 3, 4, and 5, the “Job Title Index” lists all the major job titles discussed in all five volumes. Some career articles are also marked with an icon denoting “Fastest Growing Careers” and “Most New Jobs.” These determinations have been made based on statistics from the U.S. Department of Labor and represent some of the most promising sectors of the job market through 2014. Throughout the career articles you will also find interviews with professionals in the field, sidebars containing facts about the career, profiles of pioneers in the field, and books and Web sites for further information. There are also more than 500 photos of careers and careers fields throughout the ECVG. As always, we have endeavored to make this career reference as complete as possible in its depth and breadth of coverage. We include general career guidance information in an effort to be a first-stop career source. Whether the reader is just beginning to explore career choices or deliberating over a career change, this book is intended as a stepping stone to the decisions the reader needs to make to accomplish those career goals. —The Editors
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Preparing for Your Career Whether you are just beginning your quest for a first career, or you are researching possibilities for a second or third career, this section provides you with a brief overview of ways to begin, questions to ask, and points to consider.
Choosing a Career
people enjoy greater opportunity of choice throughout their careers. Today’s technologically advanced society offers both more occupations and more flexible ways of doing work. People face career choices throughout their lives. These choices may involve decisions such as enrolling in educational programs, enlisting in the military, gaining paid employment, being a volunteer or intern, starting a business, and moving to accept a new job position. Of course, it is impossible to know what is going to happen throughout your life, so you may wonder how you can choose and plan your career. Career counselors suggest you can be personally empowered to guide your own career through vocational guidance. Career guidance promotes the process of career development by providing pertinent information and helping you build skills to manage a career. One of these skills is knowing the vocabulary of careers.
Many people think that choosing a career means choosing their employer or choosing what type of job they would like to do. But choosing a career means more than just getting and working at a job. Every person has a career whether or not he or she is ever involved in paid employment because career means path. The idea of career management is to choose and direct your own path in life, particularly the part of your life that has to do with work. Career guidance helps people manage their careers. In modern society, most people spend major parts of their lives working in some capacity. Throughout history, both philosophers and psychologists have noted that the ability to successfully integrate working into your life is an important aspect of fitting into society and maintaining mental health. Not only do you obtain economic benefits from working, you also meet psychological needs, such as developing a sense of competency and finding meaning in your life. The type of work you do often affects both the way you see yourself and the way others see you. When they first meet someone, Americans frequently ask, “What type of work do you do?” How you fit work into your life and what type of work you choose to do influences both your lifestyle and other important social roles in your life. In the past, most people did not exercise a great deal of choice when deciding what type of work to do. People frequently did the same type of work that their parents did, or chose their employment based on job openings geographically near their homes. In the past, people did not change jobs as frequently as they do today. In the early 20th century, for example, it was not uncommon to have the same job for one’s entire working life. Now
■ The Vocabulary of Careers Work: Putting forth effort to achieve benefits for yourself or others. Work involves the constructive and systematic pursuit of objectives. People in most modern societies differentiate between the activities of work and play, or leisure, although there are cases in which the distinction may not be clear; for example, professional athletes work in activities that most people engage in as play. Most experts agree that the concept of play or leisure suggests a greater freedom of choice regarding the outcome of the activity, whereas working implies that you are expected to produce some specific outcome or results. Work skills: The combination of knowledge and abilities, developed through education and experience, needed to perform well in a particular job.
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Employment: Being engaged in work activities. People who are employed by others to work are referred to as employees. Employment may either be compensated (as in receiving wages or a salary for doing a job) or uncompensated (as in volunteering to complete a specific set of duties). Position: The required duties and responsibilities in a specific work situation. Not every organization fills all of its positions. Typically, a single person fills each position, but positions may include only part of the duties of a single job or may encompass the duties of multiple jobs. Job: The basic skills required to fulfill the duties and responsibilities of similar positions across different work situations. The term job is used more generally than position; for example, a person who wants to work in a job will usually apply to many different employers who are seeking an employee for their specific positions. Traditionally in the labor market, one person has held a single job, but recently some employers offer job sharing, in which two or more employees have positions fulfilling the duties and responsibilities of a single job. Occupation: Group of jobs requiring similar skills to fulfill their duties and responsibilities. Occupations tend to be specific to the differing industries. For example, management jobs may require similar skills but, while there are similarities in the work of either a hotel manager or a hospital administrator, these occupations are found in different industries. Career: The integration of work in your life considered across your life span, and the influence that engaging in work exerts on all other aspects of your life: psychological, sociological, and economic. Each person’s career is specific and unique to that individual. Career development: The process of considering what you can and can’t control, as well as the parts of your own personal experience that relate to fitting work into your life. Career development includes (1) identifiable process stages, such as entry, progress, and disengagement; (2) psychological characteristics, such as professional identity, career maturity, and work values; and (3) skills, such as self-awareness, applying information, decision-making, and short- and longrange planning. Career development is the object of intervention for career counselors. Career management: Acceptance of responsibility for your own career by being aware of the choices you make and the activities you pursue to direct your personal career development. Career counseling: Collaborating with an expert in the area of career development to enhance your career.
Career counselors may be licensed by the states in which they practice. The National Career Development Association (http://www.ncda.org) provides guidelines to consumers and job-seekers looking for a career counselor. Career guidance: A systematic approach to career development; career guidance facilitates self-direction by providing information and fostering career-development skills.
■ Identifying Skills for Career Development There are many different theories in the field of career development. Current thinking in the field suggests that a variety of things influence individual careers; however, you can and should be responsible for your own career by practicing career management. Career management is the process of developing skills that you use throughout your life to direct your career development. The following list summarizes the skills that various theorists in the field believe are important to career management. Not all of these skills, or their components, will be important for all people.
Self-Awareness If you want to become a competent career manager, you must be aware of your various personal attributes. These attributes may change, becoming more or less prominent throughout your life. They include the following: Self-identity: Your view of yourself. For many people this is greatly influenced by their work. Values: The specific set of core values that influence the types of work you choose to do and if you will be satisfied in your work. Career-development theorists suggest that work situations provide arenas in which you enact their values. Working may often provide you a sense of meaning in your life. Interests: You will be better satisfied working in occupations that match your interests. Aptitudes and abilities: Your aptitude is the potential you have to learn any specific skill. Prior to being accepted into a training program, you may be asked to complete a test that measures aptitudes, such as the Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT) or the Armed Services Vocational Aptitude Battery (ASVAB). You will perform better and are more likely to be retained in jobs that appropriately match your abilities or the skills you possess.
Planning Ability The ability to plan is an important career-management skill. Planning skills include:
Identification of long-term goals: Since career development is a lifelong process, and since many career goals take years to achieve, it is important to identify long-term goals. Many career counselors advise their clients to devise one-, two-, five-, and 10-year careermanagement plans. These plans are typically reviewed and updated yearly. Identification of short-term goals: Career counselors frequently refer to the adage, “a journey of 1,000 miles begins with the first step.” You must be able to relate short-term goals to long-term goals and to carry them out. Decision-making: Many theorists see decision-making skills as crucial to career management. Decision-making skills include being able to: (1) identify your choices, (2) identify the likely outcomes of your choices, (3) consider the pros and cons of your choices and their outcomes, (4) identify alternative outcomes, and (5) choose the option that is not only doable but most likely to get you what you want. Flexibility/adaptability: Situations over which you have no control often arise and influence careers. You must have the skills to be able to modify your career plans to adapt to such situations. Resilience: The ability to apply career-development skills throughout your life to meet changing needs in your career development and to exert career management.
Personal Management Skills Personal management skills address those aspects of your life that affect, and are affected by, working. Personal management skills include the following: Lifestyle decisions: How and where you choose to live. Role integration: How you balance the demands of your various life roles—child, parent, spouse, citizen—with your role of worker. Work/leisure integration: How you choose to spend your time when you are not working and how these choices affect your work. Interpersonal skills: How you manage your interactions with other people. Job-keeping or job-survival skills: Your abilities to meet job requirements that do not require technical skills.
Personal Marketing Skills In today’s labor market, you may have to get many different jobs throughout your working life. The skills to find desirable jobs and be hired for them include: Identification of skills and strengths: The ability to point out and discuss, both on a resume and in an interview, your specific skills and experiences that will make you successful in the job you are applying for.
choosing a career
Finding job openings: The ability to identify vacant positions or to create a desired position. Using tools and methods of the job search: Getting a job is a task that requires the use of specific tools. The resume and the job interview are two examples of tools used in the job search. It is much harder to get a job when you are not skilled in using the tools required to get it. Personal marketing strategies: There are many ways to get jobs. To be a successful career manager, you need to know what strategies work best for you.
Knowing about the World of Work Career management requires you to be aware of labor markets and opportunities to improve your skills to become more marketable. Occupational awareness: In order to know what types of jobs are available, you must be aware of the occupational opportunities in the different industries of the economy. Career management requires that you be able to research various aspects of a job, including the nature of the work, the typical salary, advancement possibilities, the employment outlook, the skills required for entry and advancement, how to train for entry, and other pertinent information. Labor market trends: Career development often spans several decades. Skills in understanding and using labor market trends (for example, knowing which industries and careers are growing and which are in decline) can aid in career resilience. Training opportunities: You must be aware of the many different ways to obtain training and improve skills to become more marketable.
■ Conclusion You will develop and use the skills outlined in this chapter throughout your life. Typically, career-development counselors suggest that you approach career decisions by engaging in self-exploration, that is, using self-awareness skills, and by learning about the world of work. Planning ability and personal management skills are used to select occupations and jobs appropriate to your career goals and to determine how to get the training and experiences you need to enter these jobs. To get a job, you must use your personal marketing skills. To keep a job or to determine if another job will offer greater satisfaction, you use your personal management skills and planning ability. The idea of career resilience is improving these skills and using them as needed throughout your life to manage your own career development. While many skills are required for career management, many of the same skills are required for success in both
preparing for your career
formal and informal educational experiences, and many are transferable from other settings. These skills can be developed either on your own or with the help of a professional. References such as the ECVG provide information on both the world of work and on the development of career-management skills. The remaining parts of the “Career Guidance” section focus on specific aspects of career management and how to apply these skills.
■ For More Information Many sites on the Internet offer information on various aspects of career management. While much information is available, there is limited free information as most of the sites are commercial in nature and exist to promote services, such as career counseling and assessments, or products, such as books. The “Career Guidance” section of the ECVG offers direction to some Internet sites, but does not endorse any of these sites or their services. Readers should be careful to thoroughly research any site prior to purchasing services or products and should remember that rapid change is inherent on the Internet, so site addresses may have changed since publication. College and University Career Offices http://dir.yahoo.com/Education/Career_and_Vocational/ Career_Planning/College_and_University_Offices/
The Web sites of career centers at colleges and universities are excellent resources for reliable information on the career planning process. They typically offer information on career planning and job searching and many links to other career-related Internet sites. This site provides links to the career resource centers of many institutions of higher education in the United States and abroad.
Career Development Manual http://www.cdm.uwaterloo.ca
This is another example of a university career services center that provides an excellent career resource on the Internet. Here the University of Waterloo, Ontario, Canada, presents detailed information on self-assessment and career exploration. Six steps to career/life planning success are outlined. They are self-assessment, occupational research, decision-making, employment contacts, work, and life/work planning. Each step has substeps you should read and work through for a better understanding of the process. For example, in self-assessment you will first determine your personality and attitudes before moving on to a discussion of skills and achievements. Then you can go on to knowledge and learning style, values, and so on. For the work step, you will learn something about job offers and acceptance, as well as work success.
Career Planning Process http://www.bgsu.edu/offices/sa/career
An example of a university career center that provides good information on the Internet is Bowling Green State University Career Center. Their major/career planning model (under the Students link) takes you through several steps: self-assessment, academic/career options, relevant/practical experience, job search/graduate school preparation, and career change. Each step specifies competencies for the area and provides ideas and strategies on how you can build competencies. How to Decide What to Do with Your Life http://www.rockportinstitute.com/pathfinder.php
Do you know what you want to be when you grow up? Do you know where to even begin when you’re trying to determine what might be the career of your dreams? If your answer to either of these questions is less than an enthusiastic “yes,” then check out this Web site, which contains excerpts from Nicholas Lore’s book, The Pathfinder: How to Choose or Change Your Career for a Lifetime of Satisfaction and Success. The author recommends that you commit yourself to making necessary decisions; break the big questions down into smaller, more manageable questions, and take it from there; put together your career plan one step at a time; take risks rather than settling for comfort; persist no matter what; and finally, celebrate your career.
Starting a Career and Making Career Transitions A common theme of theories that examine how people integrate work into their lives is development. These theories refer to career development, meaning that having a career is a process that occurs over a lifetime and that has identifiable stages. Typical stages include (1) exploring what occupation to pursue, (2) entering an occupation and establishing a pattern of working, (3) maintaining a pattern of work, and (4) disengaging from the role of work. One criticism of career-development theories has been that people no longer experience work as a stage-ordered developmental process. Experts observing today’s labor market have noted there is a growing trend for people to change not just
Starting A Career and Making Career Transitions
their job position, but also their occupations several times during their working life. This trend is due to factors outside of individuals’ control, such as losing a position through an employer’s downsizing, and factors within individuals’ control, such as deciding to temporarily step out of paid employment to engage more actively in other life roles, such as parenting. You will find that throughout your life you are faced with career transitions as you move into the workforce, out of the workforce, and then reenter the workforce. You may select an occupation to enter at the beginning of your career, but you will probably experience career transitions that require you to move not only from job to job but sometimes from occupation to occupation. Career-development experts suggest that the skills used in selecting an occupation do not vary whether you are 16 or 60; however, when it comes to making career decisions, the type of information that is helpful differs from person to person. For the most part, however, it is best to begin by learning a little something about yourself, and then learning a little something about the various occupations that interest you.
Interests
■ Self-Awareness
Abilities and Aptitudes
Starting a career means starting to integrate work into life. Most people start their careers without a great deal of awareness that they are doing so. Theorists have suggested that children develop their attitudes toward work and productivity when they are as young as six or eight years old. Aside from being careful observers of their parents’ attitudes toward work, many children experience work firsthand when they are expected to do chores at home. Starting formal schooling and being a student is one of the first career roles that people undertake. Your degree of success at school usually has a critical effect on your career, and understanding the relationship between success in school and work options is important for good career management. At the end of their first six years of formal schooling, most students must make career decisions in the form of the courses they choose: vocational or college preparatory. Before graduating from high school, many young people have already entered the workforce, either as partor full-time employees. Leisure also plays a role in the development of young peoples’ careers as their involvement in clubs, organized sports, or volunteer activities helps them find role models, learn about adult work, and clarify their self-concepts. Research suggests that, with all of these experiences, by adolescence most people have developed interests, abilities, aptitudes, and values that are relevant to their decisions about careers.
Young peoples’ concepts of their abilities are often related to their academic achievements. Young people may underrate their abilities if they have not achieved the academic successes that lead to admission to programs of continuing education. It is unfortunate that many people perceive their abilities and talents to be second-rate because their first educational endeavors have not prepared them to enter a higher educational institution. The formal educational system is only one of many different ways to develop abilities. Many people who have made major contributions to society did not achieve success in their early school years. It is important to emphasize that aptitude, that is, the potential to develop ability, may be a useful indicator of a person’s likelihood of success in the world of work. People often rule out occupational options because they do not believe they will succeed in the academic preparation required to enter the occupation. Completing certain academic course work is often required for admission to institutions of higher education, but the skills required in the classroom may be very different from the skills required on the job. It is important that you do not foreclose occupational options due to a lack of confidence in your ability to learn new skills.
Young people starting a career are traditionally told to choose an occupation that involves something they like and are good at doing. This advice focuses on interests and abilities. There are, however, various difficulties with an overemphasis on interests. While interest does relate to job satisfaction, most people have multiple interests that can be met in a variety of jobs. Some interest areas offer fewer occupational opportunities than others (for example, scuba diving). Furthermore, interest in an area does not guarantee that you have the skills or the ability to succeed in jobs related to that interest (while you may enjoy helping people, you may lack the ability necessary to be a doctor, for example). Nor does having an interest in an area necessarily mean that you would be happy using that interest in a job (for example, while you may enjoy sewing for yourself as a hobby, sewing eight hours a day for other people might not be that fun). The important thing about exploring your interests is that this typically produces a list of occupations that employ those interests. This helps to expand your awareness of the variety of possible occupations.
Values Young people are often simultaneously making occupational choices, attempting their initial endeavors at
preparing for your career
establishing work in their lives, and creating a lifestyle as independent adults. They are often not aware how values affect both lifestyle choices and satisfaction in occupational choice. People beginning their careers are often very concerned with typical occupational earnings but fail to realize that, among widely different occupations requiring similar levels of training to enter, there is a great similarity of income levels among workers. Financial reward is an important factor in occupational choice, but factors such as working conditions are equally important. It is not uncommon to hear adults who have experience in the workforce say, “You could not pay me enough to do that job.” Such a statement has to do with value conflicts they know they will encounter in the working conditions of the occupation. Values conflicts can also arise between work demands and other areas, such as desired life roles or spiritual convictions. One method of enhancing self-awareness is through assessment with standardized testing instruments. These instruments can aid in revealing your strongest interests, abilities, and values. Other ways of enhancing self-awareness include (1) making lists of strengths and weaknesses, (2) writing the scenario of a “perfect” day that includes work, (3) writing about what you want to be remembered for at the end of your life, and (4) discussion with friends and family.
■ Learning about the World of Work To many people, the identification of an occupation is the end of the career-selection process. They select an occupation and want to know how they can either get training to qualify to enter the occupation or how they can get their first job. Other people go on to college after high school because they cannot decide on an occupation to pursue. They think that getting a bachelor’s degree will prepare them for entry into many occupations and so they delay career decision-making. The initial challenge of starting a career seems so overwhelming, many people have a tendency to concentrate on what they need to know to take only the first step. They think if they can get their first job or if they get their undergraduate degree, then they can begin to figure out how to get what they want from their work lives. Whether you choose to begin full-time work immediately upon high school graduation or continue with education, starting your career will be easier if you learn as much as you can about occupations and how people enact their working lives. By thinking of a career as the integration of work throughout your life, and realizing that you will probably work in multiple occupations during your life, you expand your perspective beyond your
initial entry into work. Most people’s careers include (1) continued efforts through education, training, and experience to develop skills; (2) varied periods of employment; (3) multiple searches for jobs; and (4) transitions from different jobs and occupations. Information important to people starting careers includes (1) work requirements describing the skills needed to be employed in the occupation, (2) opportunities for developing employment skills, (3) licensing or certification needed for employment and types of jobs available for people who have limited experiences, (4) advancement opportunities for people who are experienced in the occupation, and (4) related jobs and occupations. You should envision yourself as developing a repertoire of skills that you will market in various occupations during your working life. Consider both educational and working experiences as ways to document the attainment of those skills. For example, high school diplomas and bachelor’s degrees are documents that represent the completion of academic course work that involves the mastery of specific skills. Work experiences, whether paid employment, internships, or volunteer activities, suggest that certain skills have been gained and used in those experiences. When starting a career, you need to be aware of the requirements to enter the occupation, including not only the educational training required but any licensing or certification requirements. It is important to understand the time frame usually needed to get the training and experiences for occupational entry. When considering an occupation, try to develop a perspective extending beyond entry by talking with people employed in the occupation. What other occupations have they been employed in during their careers? What skills do they identify as being significant to their employability? What advancement options or career transition options do they see as available to them? Consider career paths of advancement in an occupation or how the relationship between occupations of interest may lead to later career transitions. For example, an auto mechanic’s career might start with employment with a major retail chain, followed by positions in various garages of different employers, a transition to opening a garage, and then employment with an automobile dealer. A nurse might start a career working in a hospital and make a transition to become a professor of nursing at a university. A lawyer might start out working for a large law firm and after years of experience become a judge.
■ Career Transitions It is not unusual for people who have entered the labor market in one occupation to change to another or to
drop out of the workforce for a time and then reenter. The realization that career transitions are increasingly common in the modern marketplace helps most adults better deal with changes in their working lives. Career transitions can be either circumstantial or self-initiated, such as when a person loses a job or needs to leave the workforce for a time to attend to other life roles, such as parenting. The type of transition, and your feeling of control over the transitions, will depend on your individual experience, but coping with career transitions requires engaging all the career-management skills of self-awareness, personal management, planning ability, knowing about the world of work, and personal marketing.
Self-Awareness and Personal Management Self-awareness and personal management skills can lessen your chances of being overwhelmed by career changes. Many career-development experts acknowledge that your view of yourself is greatly influenced by your work. Thus career changes can be psychologically challenging, affecting your self-esteem and how you see yourself and your role in life. Mainstream American society tends to undervalue people who are not in the labor market. If you are not in the workforce, you may need to resist internalizing this attitude and suffering a loss of self-esteem. If you are making career changes, you need to consider lifestyle decisions, role integration, and work/leisure integration. Consider the many roles you play in your life as having equal importance with your work. During career transitions, it is often useful to do activities, under individual control, that build selfesteem, such as volunteering to help others or routinely exercising. These activities may serve dual purposes, both increasing self-esteem and building networks. Values tend to be clarified through life experience. The prominence of different values also varies developmentally. For example, career advancement may be more important to people beginning their work life than to those who feel stabilized in their work and desire to devote more time to their families. Values affect lifestyle decisions. For example, people often limit their career options to those available in their geographic area because of family ties. Work/leisure integration may influence where people choose to live because certain leisure activities are readily available. Value conflicts on the job often cause many adults to want a career change. As they confirm their interests, it becomes apparent that they are suited in their occupation but ill suited in their jobs because of values conflicts in the workplace. Most adults are able to identify their interests, and they have a better grasp of available jobs that appeal to
Starting A Career and Making Career Transitions
them than younger people. Typically, when adults are presented with a list of occupations generated from an interest inventory, they comment that they have held jobs in those occupations. Adults who say that they are no longer interested in their work may be underemployed and not challenged by their work duties or suffering from job burnout because of stress induced by working conditions. The use of leisure time to explore and develop expressed interests may sometimes help adults cope with job stress. The possibility of pursuing leisure activities as viable occupational opportunities through entrepreneurship should be considered when looking at personal interests. Rapid developments in modern technology have resulted in changes in the skills required for many occupations. Lifelong learning is needed for occupational survival. Experienced workers may have feelings of resentment and frustration because many young people entering their occupations have more up-to-date skills. Research has shown that people typically do not rate their abilities very accurately. Adults may lack self-confidence regarding their abilities to learn new skills. Assessment of ability and aptitudes should include consideration of attitude toward learning, since people who are highly motivated to learn may exceed the expectations suggested by assessments. Adults need to be aware of the learning situations that form the best ways for them to receive instruction and training in new skills.
Knowing about the World of Work, Personal Marketing, and Planning Ability Career management is focused on helping people integrate work into their lives in ways that are personally satisfying. Career transitions, then, are not seen as crises but as challenging opportunities to clarify how work fits into your life at any given time and to plan how you want work in your life in the future. The best approach to starting a career may be to identify occupations that match your interests and then try to develop the skills to enter a specific occupation. If you are in a career transition, however, you have a variety of strategies to use to change careers or reenter the workforce. If there are many occupational opportunities available, you do not want extensive retraining, and you are willing to seek work similar to positions you have had in the past, you might benefit from identifying your skills and targeting occupations that require similar skills. If there are limited occupational opportunities available, or if you have chosen to look for a job in a specific field, you may need to determine what skills are required for that field and seek training in those skills. Occupational availability
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will depend on the geographic region in which you are looking, so knowledge of the labor market in that area is essential. Self-awareness and personal management skills should be used to help identify individual short-term and long-term goals. Planning ability and knowledge of the world of work are used in decision-making to develop long- and short-term plans for meeting goals. Knowing about the world of work, labor market trends, and the relationships among occupations will help you maintain flexibility and adaptability in your career goals.
■ For More Information Manage Your Career http://www.careerjournal.com
The Wall Street Journal’s Career Journal is for the sophisticated career manager. It offers reprints of experts’ articles on career-related topics such as career management, occupational opportunities, job survival skills, job hunting, salary negotiation, and frequently asked questions. JobProfiles http://www.jobprofiles.org/index.htm
Steve Hay runs the nonprofit organization that sponsors JobProfiles. To learn about the world of work, take a look at this compilation of occupational profiles written by workers themselves. Individuals working in various occupations filled out questionnaires in which they summarized their job duties, explained how they entered the field, listed job stresses and rewards, projected the kinds of problems they expect to encounter in their industry within the next five years, identified skills necessary to do their job, and offered tips for newcomers to their profession. Among the wide variety of occupations described are those of park ranger, animator, sports manger, hydrogeologist, and boatbuilder. Advice is given to assist you in interpreting the profiles. A section covering general information on career management and a small collection of related links round out the site. Transition Assistance Online http://www.taonline.com
This military transition Web site assists military personnel with making the transition to civilian employment. Service members and veterans can submit resumes and search or browse job postings. Topics pertaining to career exploration and the process of reentering the workforce include self-assessment, developing goals, devising a plan of action, general job hunting and “second career strategies,” relocation, and financial considerations. Links to military, career, education, and community assistance sites are available.
Assessment Tests Assessment tests are a type of tool used in career counseling that can help you enhance your self-awareness. They clarify values, identify occupations that match personal interests, suggest aptitude areas, and identify abilities. Assessment tests also can provide a measure of your career maturity, that is, how ready you are to undertake your career management. There are many assessment tests, also called standardized assessment instruments or inventories, used in career counseling. They come in either the pencil-andpaper or computer variety and are typically given by professionals, such as career counselors who are trained in administration, scoring, and interpretation. The results frequently show how people taking the test compare to other people of their age and backgrounds. Extensive career testing is usually not recommended for students below the high school level because values and interests are not set until one reaches the mid-teens. To be effective as a tool in career counseling, the purpose and results of assessment tests must be made clear so that the test taker understands how these fit into the process. Assessment tests are not crystal balls. They are not designed to find you the “perfect” job any more than they can reveal the “true” you. They are usually done in a battery of tests. For example, you may be given inventories measuring your interests, values, and personality traits so that results from the different inventories can be compared. In this way, the results of the tests as a whole can best be weighed and discussed.
■ Values Inventories Values inventories focus primarily on work values or on lifestyle values. Their results are often related to occupations, so that after you take a values inventory you can identify jobs you might want to explore. Usually you are asked to use a scale from one to five to express your view of the importance of statements such as, “It is now, or will be in the future, important for me to be with friends” or “. . . to have good space and light in which to work.” There are no right or wrong answers. Your responses are scored to determine how they compare to others on values such as achievement, altruism, autonomy, creativity, economic rewards, independence, intellectual stimulation, physical activity, prestige, risk, security, social relationships, and variety. The scaled results of values inventories alone frequently do not reveal values that might be very important to individual career decision-making, however. For best
Assessment Tests
results, you must discuss the inventory with your career counselor. For instance, the career counselor might note that you scored high on a scale for independence. You may be asked to clarify what that means in your life. It may mean many different things for you. Perhaps you want to work without direct supervision or perhaps you want to be able to have time off from work to spend with your family. Profile scores that seem to conflict should also be discussed. For instance, “I see you scored high on altruism, prestige, and economic reward. What do those things mean to you?” There are a wide variety of instruments that measure values. Some examples include: The Work Values Inventory The Values Scale n The Survey of Interpersonal Values/The Survey of Personal Values n Study of Values n Work Environment Preference Schedule n n
■ Interest Inventories Matching personal interests to occupations has been a hallmark of career counseling. You are asked to indicate if you like, dislike, or don’t know if various activities such as “rewiring a toaster” or “writing plays” interest you. Some interest inventories ask you to indicate your interest in specific occupations. Interest inventories usually have many items. Results may take the form of lists of specific occupations or clusters, or groups, of occupations. Some interest inventories compare your responses to interest themes of people employed in specific occupational groupings. There are also inventories that ask you to indicate your level of interest in various leisure activities, which are then related to occupations. Interpretation of interest inventories includes soliciting your feedback regarding occupational areas of both high and low interest to confirm and explore the reasons behind your interest pattern. People who have not had opportunities to engage in specific activities may rate them as “don’t know,” resulting in low interest patterns. Younger people may generalize from limited experiences; for example, a student who does poorly in one science class might reject items like “working in a laboratory.” Interest inventories are not designed to find the occupations that are “right” for you, but to identify occupations that match your interests. The use, or lack of use, of interest inventory results causes difficulties in career counseling. Test takers may see an occupation on the list as confirming one they had previously chosen and thus not pursue thorough exploration of other options. Other test
takers may reject the results, stating they are not really interested in any of the occupations or that they know that the occupations are not “right” for them. This often happens when the jobs on the list are nontraditional for the gender of the test taker. You must understand that the resulting list of occupations is not the end of the career counseling process. To get the most out of the test, you must get more information about the occupations that are identified by the results. Frequently used interest inventories include the following: The Self-Directed Search The Strong Interest Inventory (formerly the Strong Campbell Interest Inventory) n The Kuder Occupational Interest Survey n USES (the U.S. Employment Services Interest Inventory) n Career Assessment Inventory (yields only occupations that can be entered with a high school diploma) n n
Check with your guidance counselor or a career counselor to see about taking one of these tests.
■ Achievement and Aptitude Tests Achievement tests measure skills that you have acquired. Aptitude tests measure both acquired skills and the potential you have to acquire a skill. Achievement tests, given in batteries that test a variety of academic areas, such as spelling, reading, math, and science, are frequently used in educational settings. Achievement tests focused on a single subject are used both by employers and by boards that issue professional licenses. Aptitude tests are used to predict the likelihood of the test taker being successful in an educational program or in the military forces. Aptitude tests typically include broader samples of domains than achievement tests, such as space relations, mechanical reasoning, form perception, motor coordination, and finger and manual dexterity. There are right and wrong answers on both achievement and aptitude tests. There are often time limits to complete sections. Results are frequently given in standardized scores that compare your performance to similar individuals. Both achievement and aptitude tests are used in American society as gatekeeping mechanisms, that is, failure to meet certain standards on these tests may keep you from pursuing certain career paths, such as entering an educational program or the military services or from receiving a professional license. Interpretation for people who do well usually consists of confirming their likelihood of success in an educational or occupational
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endeavor. It should be noted, however, that performance on the test does not guarantee success but suggests that with appropriate application you are capable of achieving success. Interpretation for people who do not do well requires exploration of possible reasons. Interpretation should focus on identifying both the areas of strength and weakness and on test-taking strategies. Some people do not do well on these types of standardized tests because of anxiety or a lack of familiarity with the test format. People who have specific learning disabilities may have difficulty with the timed aspect of the tests. If you are one of these people, you should understand your right to request needed accommodations. For many of these standardized tests, there are specific commercial programs of study available in book, software, and online formats. You may need to study a specific area by retaking a class or getting private tutoring. There is nothing wrong with studying to improve areas of deficit. If there is a serious question about your ability to perform on these tests, an individually administered intelligence test may provide a better assessment of your capabilities. Commonly used achievement and aptitude tests include: Metropolitan Achievement Test California Achievement Tests n Iowa Tests of Basic Skills n Stanford Achievement Tests n The Scholastic Assessment Test n American College Testing n Graduate Record Examinations n General Aptitude Test Battery n Armed Services Vocational Aptitude Battery n n
■ Personality Assessments Some career counselors use personality-assessment instruments to explore an individual’s preferences and relate them to occupations. These instruments are especially useful, however, for adults who are having trouble with both career and personal concerns. Sometimes employees who work closely with other employees can better understand each other’s styles through the use of these instruments. A typical test item is, “I prefer to stay home and read a book than go to a party,” and requires a true or false answer. There are no right or wrong answers. Results may be reported in terms of traits such as achievement, affiliations, autonomy, conformity, dominance, emotional stability, friendliness, nurturance, and social adjustment. Results typically compare people to others based on a particular category. While not a requirement, counselors sometimes sit with test takers while they take the test to listen to their comments as they decide how to respond to items. It is
not unusual to want items to specify situations or to want to “argue” with items. Test takers’ comments can provide insights into their values and identify areas for further discussion in interpretation. Interpretation in career counseling usually involves relating personality profiles to occupation choices and is similar to interpretation of interest inventories. Personality instruments used in career counseling include the following: Myers-Briggs Type Indicator Edwards Personal Preference Schedule n California Personality Inventory n California Test of Personality n Sixteen Personality Factor n n
■ Career-Maturity Testing Career-maturity testing, or career-development inventories, measures readiness to undertake career management. Results yield scores for attitudes toward work, planning ability, readiness for explorations, and knowledge of the world of work. Usually, these instruments are used with young people in a school setting to measure the effectiveness of guidance programs; however, there are versions appropriate for use with adults. Interpretation focuses on areas of both strength and weakness, with the aim to increase understanding of career development and management. Career maturity instruments include the following: Career Development Inventory Career Maturity Inventory n Career Beliefs Inventory n Adult Career Concerns Inventory n The Salience Inventory n n
■ For More Information Completing standardized assessment instruments can be some of the most expensive aspects of the career-management process. Fortunately, it is not necessary for everyone to be tested or to complete standardized assessment instruments. Some people are able to successfully manage their careers without ever being tested, while others find testing necessary to help them learn more about themselves and to provide guidance in decision-making. Many people enjoy taking standardized tests to determine if their results agree with their own self-assessments. Sometimes high school students and students at colleges and universities can take career tests for free or for minimum fees at their schools’ career counseling centers. Adults can sometimes find some testing available at minimal cost through government sponsored one-stop career centers.
assessment tests
There are many sites on the Internet that offer career testing for payment. Be a careful consumer and comparison shop before committing to any financial obligation over the Internet. The following sites offer some information and some tools for self-assessment over the Internet.
type, you find lists of pertinent personality traits, likes, and hobbies, as well as career possibilities. In the ASI example, one of the career possibilities listed is writers and editors. If you click on that link, you discover a job description plus useful information on education and training, employment outlook, and salaries. You will find similar coverage for numerous other job types.
The Princeton Review Career Quiz http://www.princetonreview.com/cte/quiz
The Princeton Review offers a 24-question career quiz based on the Birkman Method, which you can learn more about at this site. The brief career quiz yields results in terms of your personality on the job and a list of occupations that may interest you. The site also provides further information on careers and topics such as interviewing, resumes, and career planning. The career quiz is available at no charge to you. Holland Codes Self-Directed Search http://www.self-directed-search.com
John Holland is a career-development theorist who suggested that people tend to have interests that align with one to three of the follow types: realistic (R), investigative (I), artistic (A), social (S), enterprising (E), or conventional (C). This has become known as the RIASEC model. A person’s three-letter Holland code helps identify occupations that might be of interest to them. The Self-Directed Search (SDS) is an interest inventory that results in the taker’s Holland code. This site, from Psychological Assessment Resources, provides an overview of SDS, a career interest test, plus information on John Holland. There are pages for each of the six types. Personality traits are listed for each type, along with related occupations. You can actually take the test at the site, but you must pay a fee (under $10) if you want the results. The Career Interests Game http://career.missouri.edu
University of Missouri’s Career Center brings you this game based on John Holland’s RIASEC model of occupations. (There is a link to the game on the Career Center homepage above.) To play you need to rank the top three groups that appeal to you out of six groups of people, each group representing realistic (R), investigative (I), artistic (A), social (S), enterprising (E), or conventional (C) types. Descriptions of each type are provided. Your ranking of your group preference gives you a three-letter Holland code. For example, if you select the artistic, social, and investigative groups (in that order of preference), your Holland code is ASI. Your Holland Code can help you to identify what career path might be suitable for your personality. When you click on each RIASEC
The Career Key http://www.ncsu.edu/careerkey
Lawrence Jones’s Career Key is a vocational test designed to help you explore what career fields you may be suited for. The test can be taken online. You are asked to indicate career fields that appeal to you as well as to rate yourself in various skills, interests, character traits, and values. After you respond to all the statements, you are scored in regard to the six Holland types: artistic, conventional, enterprising, investigative, realistic, and social. Select your top personality type(s) to discover representative occupations, and then choose those jobs that seem most attractive. Advice is offered on making career decisions, and links to further information are listed. The Personality Page http://www.personalitypage.com/home.html
The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) is another standardized instrument frequently used in career counseling. It identifies personal preferences in receiving and using information. Test takers are classified into one of 16 personality types depending on their preferences on the bipolar scales of (1) introversion (I)/extraversion (E); (2) sensing (S)/intuition (N); (3) thinking (T)/feeling (F); and (4) perceiving (P)/judging (J). The personality types are referred to by four letter codes, for example, ESFP or INTJ. The instrument is available online but is quite expensive. This site does not offer the MBTI but does offer a Personality Type Indicator that provides results in the four letter codes used by the MBTI. There is a $5 fee for taking the assessment online one time and receiving the results. It also provides considerable information on the personality types at no charge. Another site that offers results similar to the MBTI is the Jung Typology test at http://www. humanmetrics.com/cgi-win/JTypes2.asp. Team Technology http://www.teamtechnology.co.uk/home.html
Team Techology presents detailed information about each of the Myers-Briggs types. The site contains a sophisticated discussion of the dominant and auxiliary functions of each type, including notes on the ways in which each type might contribute to a team environment, attain personal growth, and respond in a moment
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of crisis or when under stress. You cannot take the Meyers-Briggs Type Indicator test at this site.
for a fee. There’s also lots of information on finding and applying for admission to college and financial aid for college.
Keirsey Temperament and Character http://www.keirsey.com
This Web site about personality typing contains a lot of information from the books Please Understand Me and Please Understand Me II, written by David Keirsey with Marilyn Bates and Ray Choiniere. You will find descriptions of temperament and character as well as two tests used to identify personality types. These are the Keirsey Character Sorter and the Keirsey Temperament Sorter II. Similar to the Myers-Briggs personality inventory, these tests sort individuals into one of four temperaments: the rationals, the idealists, the artisans, or the guardians. Each category is broken down even further into variants, 16 in all. For example, the idealists group is made up of teachers, champions, counselors, and healers. You can take the tests online. Just answer the questions and submit your responses electronically, after which you’ll be presented with a rough indicator (that is, a good idea) of your temperament and the specific variant. Famous people representing each temperament type are listed: Albert Schweitzer is identified as a healer idealist, while Eleanor Roosevelt is a counselor idealist.
Test Publishers Pearson Assessments http://www.pearsonassessments.com/career
Pearson Assessments provides assessment tools to professionals in the fields of career counseling, education, mental health, medicine, and workforce development. This is a commercial company resource where industry professionals can order assessments. The site also offers descriptions and background information on several tests pertaining to career choice, personality, or other related issues. Visit the site to learn more about the Career Assessment Inventory (vocational and enhanced), Campbell Interest and Skill Survey (CISS), Interest Determination, Exploration and Assessment System (IDEAS); Sixteen Personality Factor (16PF), and other assessment tools.
ACT http://www.act.org
ACT used to be called the American College Testing Program. Today it is a multifaceted organization involved with all aspects of career planning. This site presents materials on career exploration, planning for college, and various assessment tools, including the ACT Assessment, a college-admissions test administered to high school juniors and seniors. It also provides some information on applying to college and sample ACT questions. There are also descriptions of other career-related assessment tools such as Counseling for High Skills (CHS), DISCOVER, and WorkKeys. GRE http://www.gre.org or http://www.ets.org
Scores from GRE (Graduate Record Examinations) are required to gain entrance to many graduate schools. Whether you’re interested in taking the paper-based or the computer-based test, you’ll find plenty of information about registration, fees, test structure, scheduling conflicts, and so on. Sample questions testing your verbal, quantitative, and analytical abilities, along with instructions, are also presented. There are sections specifically of interest to educators and researchers as well. Kaplan http://www.kaptest.com
Kaplan has long been known for its test-preparation courses for college-admission tests such as the PSAT, SAT, and ACT (undergraduate); the LSAT, MCAT, GMAT, and GRE (graduate); and various licensing and specialized examinations. This site contains a wealth of information pertaining to these exams as well as other career topics. Among the site’s numerous features are test descriptions, test dates, and background information. As a registered site user, you can take practice tests and, for a fee, various advanced preparation courses.
SAT and PSAT/NMSQT http://www.collegeboard.com
The College Board (College Entrance Examination Board) created the SAT (originally known as the Scholastic Aptitude Test, later called the Scholastic Assessment Test) and the Preliminary SAT/National Merit Scholarship Qualifying Test (PSAT/NMSQT). This site explains all about both tests and provides information for registering for the SAT, including the option to register online. Study guides for the SAT are also available
ASVAB Career Exploration Program http://www.asvabprogram.com
The U. S. Army sponsors the Armed Services Vocational Aptitude Battery (ASVAB) 18/19 Career Exploration Program. The ASVAB assesses verbal, mathematical, and technical ability in 10 areas. This site provides information on the ASVAB and sample questions from each area. Information about military services in the army is provided along with a search option to locate a recruiter.
Soft Skills
FairTest http://fairtest.org
The National Center for Fair and Open Testing (FairTest) is an organization concerned with making sure that standardized K–12, college admission, and employment testing is fair to all participants, regardless of race, ethnicity, gender, or income. A large collection of sample articles from Examiner, FairTest’s newsletter, is available. If you want to find other similar resources, browse through the related links page.
Soft Skills There are many skills required for work that are not in job descriptions. These are skills other than the technical skills required to do the job. They are sometimes called soft skills, basic skills, personal/interpersonal skills, or job-keeping skills. Many employers consider these skills to be “givens,” that is, they expect anyone applying for a job to have them, which is why they are usually not mentioned in job descriptions. But when employers are asked what they find most desirable and most difficult to find in employees, their answers usually include some or all of the soft skills. Because soft skills apply to any job, developing them promotes your abilities to do well in your job, be marketable when seeking a new job, and manage your career. Soft skills are interrelated and overlapping. You should be aware that discretion is required in applying soft skills in different jobs. For example, some organizations do not welcome creative input from low-level employees. So a clerk who proposes a new system for handling information may be ignored, but a manager who proposes that same idea may be rewarded. Not everyone can excel in all soft skills. Not everyone would be happy in all work environments. Career management involves (1) identifying which soft skills are areas of strength that are enjoyable to use, which are desired to be developed, and which are not and (2) finding employment that provides a good fit for soft skills you already possess and for developing desired skills.
■ Basic Skills Modern employers often claim to have difficulty finding workers with the basic academic skills they require. Your competence in these skills is usually demonstrated by having a high school diploma. There are very few positions available in the job market that do not require the mastery of basic academic skills. The following are some, but not all, of the basic skills.
Communication. These are skills that involve sending and receiving messages. Communication can be oral or written. Oral communication includes verbal and nonverbal components. Examples of verbal communication include speaking on the telephone, leaving voice-mail messages, speaking to your coworkers or supervisor, and making presentations to a group. Good verbal communication demands a clear speaking voice that is loud enough for your audience to hear. Do not use slang and avoid excessive gesturing with hands. Examples of nonverbal communication include the amount of space between people who are talking, eye contact, and body language. While oral communication skills are needed in all work situations, they are very important in jobs such as sales, teaching, and counseling. Written communication includes email messages, faxes, memos, and reports. Mastery of basic literacy skills of spelling and grammar is the foundation for written communication skills. Successful written communications are clear, concise, correct, and compelling. Computation. You must be able to add, subtract, multiply, divide, and understand the conversion of common measurement units. Technology and information management. There is more easily accessible information available today than at any other time in history. Technology and information management deals with selecting, organizing, and storing relevant, credible information for later retrieval and use. Information management also deals with how information is prepared for presentation. Informationmanagement skills include (1) familiarity with both traditional and electronic references, (2) understanding of both traditional filing systems (files kept in filing cabinets, usually in alphabetical order) and electronic databases, and (3) communication skills. Understanding social systems. You must grasp how your employer is affected by political and economic institutions and competing businesses.
■ Job-Keeping Skills Job-keeping skills have to do with understanding the normal behaviors your employer expects from you. Different behaviors are often expected from employees whose positions differ. Many of the rules that govern what an employer expects may not be written down. You should observe what seems to be accepted and what is rewarded in people whose positions are similar to yours. It is best to discuss any areas about which there are questions with direct supervisors. Attendance and punctuality. Organizations that keep regular working hours usually expect employees to arrive at work on time and remain at work throughout working hours. Your boss wants to know he or she can count on
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you being at work. Policies are usually established to govern how you can arrange to take time off for sicknesses or emergencies or to schedule earned vacation time. You are expected to stay on the job at work. Breaks may be scheduled and you should adhere to those schedules. Some workplaces offer flexible work hours. You may be expected to work extended hours for the completion of projects, but may be allowed to take time off irregularly. It is extremely important to find out what working hours are expected from you and to anticipate any difficulties in meeting those expectations. Failure to be at work when scheduled may be reason for dismissal. Timeliness. When deadlines are assigned, you are expected to meet those deadlines. It is best to anticipate any difficulty in meeting deadlines and discuss it with supervisors before being late. Repeated failure to meet deadlines is viewed as a lack of competence to meet the requirements of the position. Appropriate attire/personal hygiene. Presenting a professional appearance is an important element of job success. Because grooming routines are extremely personal, supervisors often feel awkward having to bring deficits to your attention, which means sometimes they would rather fire you than tell you that you are lacking these skills. Personal hygiene means practicing basic cleanliness, eliminating body orders, and maintaining your hair in a neat fashion. Personal hygiene concerns can also arise regarding the use of scents and having various body adornments, such as unusual haircuts, jewelry worn in body piercings, fingernail sculpting, or tattoos. Concerns can also arise regarding clothing that is appropriate. In most work environments, employers prefer you to present a conservative appearance. Employers may require that you not wear clothing, jewelry, or symbols indicating personal preferences in matters such as religion or politics. Employers may require you to wear a uniform. If your dress code is not as strictly specified, you must be careful not to underdress or overdress for your position. Again, it is wise to determine what other employees who are successful in similar positions are wearing and adopt similar attire and styles. Organizational culture. Every working environment has its own culture and ideas of what are desirable behaviors at work. For example, the gathering for coffee each morning may seem to be for socialization that is not job-elated, but important job-related information may be exchanged at that time. To fail to join in this informal meeting may result in both missing information and the perception that you are not a team player. On the other hand, that friendly gathering each morning may be just time-wasting by employees who are seen by their
supervisors as not being on-task. Some organizations are very informal. Supervisors may socialize with employees and employees may speak to them as if they were equals. In more formal organizations, supervisors may not socialize with employees. Employees must be careful to use proper channels when communicating with supervisors. It is vital to learn the organizational culture quickly and to behave appropriately. You need to pay attention to whether supervisors are supportive of the culture that is current in the organization. Supervisors sometimes desire to change organizational culture, but rather than trying to change existing employees’ behaviors, they will hire new employees. Supervisors are then frustrated when the old employees indoctrinate the new employees into the undesirable organizational culture. Asking supervisors when in doubt is a good idea.
■ Personal/Interpersonal Skills Personal/interpersonal skills have to do with self-development and with getting along with others at work. Character. Having a personal code of ethics and trying to live up to it may make you more employable. Employers prefer to hire people who will not steal from them or lie to them. Having character means having high personal standards of honesty and dependability. When you govern your own behavior from a code of ethics, and when you expect that others also will do so, you gain a reputation for being truthful and reliable, which makes you desired for positions of trust. People who have good character demonstrate that they are eager for self-improvement. They seek out situations in which they can learn new skills and practice new roles. They demonstrate self-discipline. When they make mistakes, they acknowledge them, accept criticism, and learn from them by analyzing how different actions would yield different results. Manner. How you convey your personality to other people is through your manner, that is, your usual way of behaving and overall demeanor. Employers, and most people, prefer people who are cheerful, energetic, enthusiastic, good natured, and pleasant. Having a professional manner means that you keep your work and personal lives well separated. You are friendly with your coworkers, supervisors, and customers but do not tell them the intimate details of your personal life. Even when you are sad or in a “bad mood” at work you should try to act as if you had no troubles. Initiative. Employers often advertise for employees who are “self-starters” or “motivated,” that is, employees who will undertake responsibilities on their own initiative. Having initiative means that you do not need the constant attention of your supervisor to tell you what to
do and to make sure you do it right. It means you ask questions to be sure you understand the tasks you are given and then work appropriately to complete them with the desired results. When you have completed assigned tasks, you ask for more work. You do not waste your boss’s time by being idle but look for tasks that need to be done or seek out ways in which you can help others. Diplomacy. There will be times when you do not agree with your supervisor or find one or more of your coworkers difficult to work with. Being diplomatic means that you can express your concerns without hurting others’ feelings and can disagree with others while letting them know that you still respect them. Diplomacy suggests that when one person loses, everyone loses. Diplomacy seeks to resolve conflicts by listening to every viewpoint and seeking solutions to problems that are acceptable to all. Teamwork. People who can work cooperatively with others, assuming both the roles of leaders and followers, are valued employees in modern work settings where many different projects are undertaken by teams whose members frequently change. To work well on a team you must be willing to put accomplishing the team’s goal ahead of getting personal recognition. It may mean being willing to complete tasks that are not specified as responsibilities in your job description and that may be below your capabilities. Working well on teams means being able to accept, understand, and value diverse people who have differing backgrounds, values, and ways of perceiving and thinking. Leadership. People are willing to take direction from leaders who have character and initiative and who understand teamwork. Leadership requires being both sensitive and considerate to others. Leaders model the types of behaviors they desire in their followers; for example, if working extra hours on a project is required, the leader should model dedication by arriving first and being the last to leave. Leaders generate trust in their team members by being dependable, crediting team members’ efforts in success, and accepting blame for both their own and their team’s mistakes. Leaders do not pretend be experts in all areas. They assemble teams of experts, listen to and act upon their suggestions and let team members know their input is useful and valued. Leaders are information managers, keeping their team members informed of the “big picture” and the part each of them will play in achieving the desired goals. Leaders use input from team members to help them devise plans for reaching the desired results in a timely way. Leaders secure resources for the team’s use and coordinate their efforts. Leaders are flexible, knowing that the best leadership is often based on the leader role being shared with the team members.
Soft Skills
Organization. A well-organized work area appears neat and allows for good information management. Organization promotes timeliness, that is, meeting deadlines appropriately, because organization means understanding the necessary steps required to getting something done, setting goals, and meeting them. Good organizers have good time-management skills and are able to work on several projects simultaneously by setting their priorities. Problem solving. Employers want employees who can identify problems, analyze them, hypothesize cause-andeffect relationships, think both creatively and logically, suggest alternative courses of action, and plan and carry out courses of action. Solving problems that come up as you are doing your job will more than likely be expected of you; however, solving problems that you notice in other people’s jobs, or in the company as a whole, may or may not be welcomed. Knowing the culture of your company is important when considering approaching supervisors with solutions to others’ or company problems. You must be diplomatic when suggesting change, so appropriate supervisory channels are acknowledged and so there is no appearance of being critical of the thinking that implemented the current systems.
■ For More Information There are many Web sites that offer businesses consultation and training in soft skills, usually for managers. Following are a few sites related to soft skills and a few with informative articles on the subject. The Seven Challenges: Cooperative Communication Skills Workbook & Reader http://www.newconversations.net/communication_skills_ workbook_summary_and_toc.htm
Good communication is an essential aspect of workplace relationships. This workbook from Dennis Rivers affords a guide to learning healthier, more respectful communication. Points covered can be applied to any life situation: with family or friends, in the community, and in the workplace. Some of the skills highlighted include responsive listening, conversational intent, clear expression, and acknowledging appreciation. Several exercises enable you to practice the skills outlined. A list of recommended titles for further reading is available. Mind Tools http://www.mindtools.com
This company, located in England, makes software products intended to provide customers with the skills necessary to use their minds to a greater extent than before.
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This site provides several tips and techniques for skills such as brainstorming, decision making, speed-reading, memory techniques, stress management, time management, effective planning, and communication.
learn about career opportunities the occupation offers n
If you are managing a career transition, you can check the potential for job openings in an occupation n determine if the skills you possess can transfer to another occupation n identify specific job openings n
Management and Teams http://content.monster.com/career/team
Do you have what it takes to be a manager? If you don’t already know, you may find out after visiting this section of the Monster.com site. Here you can read about time management, teamwork, communication, mentoring, and discipline.
Occupational Classification Systems The economy of any country is dependent upon the work its citizens perform. The labor market consists of how many people are employed and in what occupations. Labor-market information includes information about specific occupations, such as n the industries that employ people in the occupation n typical responsibilities and duties of workers in the occupation n the work environment and tools used on the job n the skills required, the level of education associated with these skills, and any special requirements such as licenses or certifications n typical compensation such as wages, salaries, and benefits n employment outlooks n ways to obtain training and ways to enter the occupation n sources of further information
You can use labor-market information in many ways. If you are starting your career and seeking to enter an occupation, you can n identify occupations that match your interests, aptitudes, and abilities n determine if working conditions in specific occupations match your values n find out how to get training to obtain skills to enter an occupation
There is so much occupational information available it can be difficult to determine what is relevant to any specific career challenge and to understand what it means. Career counselors are experts in finding and interpreting labor-market information. They are familiar with the variety of systems commonly used to organize labor-market information by classifying similar occupations together. In the United States, data on the labor market is collected and disseminated by the U.S. Department of Labor (DOL). In 1999, the DOL replaced its long-time standard Dictionary of Occupational Titles with the online O*NET, which uses the Standard Occupational Classification System (SOC). In compliance with the Office of Management and Budget initiative for use of the SOC by all federal agencies that collect and disseminate occupational information, O*NET 7.0 uses SOC codes for its occupational classification system.
■ The Standard Occupational Classification System (SOC) SOC sorts occupations by four levels: major group, minor group, board occupation, and detailed occupation. Each occupation is assigned a unique six-digit code. The first two digits represent one of 23 major groups, the third digit represents the minor group, the fourth and fifth digits indicate the broad occupational group and the sixth digit indicates the detailed occupation. (Note: O*NET 7.0 adds a two-digit extension [sequentially numbered beginning with “.01”] to the standard six-digit code to differentiate unique O*NET 3.1 occupations within the SOC.) Following are the 23 major groups in the SOC: 11-0000 Management Occupations 13-0000 Business and Financial Operations Occupations 15-0000 Computer and Mathematical Occupations 17-0000 Architecture and Engineering Occupations 19-0000 Life, Physical, and Social Science Occupations 21-0000 Community and Social Services Occupations
Occupational Classification Systems
23-0000 Legal Occupations 25-0000 Education, Training, and Library Occupations 27-0000 Arts, Design, Entertainment, Sports, and Media Occupations 29-0000 Healthcare Practitioners and Technical Occupations 31-0000 Healthcare Support Occupations 33-0000 Protective Service Occupations 35-0000 Food Preparation and Serving Related Occupations 37-0000 Building and Grounds Cleaning and Maintenance Occupations 39-0000 Personal Care and Service Occupations 41-0000 Sales and Related Occupations 43-0000 Office and Administrative Support Occupations 45-0000 Farming, Fishing, and Forestry Occupations 47-0000 Construction and Extraction Occupations 49-0000 Installation, Maintenance, and Repair Occupations 51-0000 Production Occupations 53-0000 Transportation and Material Moving Occupations 55-0000 Military Specific Occupations
■ The Guide for Occupational Exploration (GOE) The Guide for Occupational Exploration was developed in the 1970s by the U.S. Department of Labor to help people explore occupations that matched their interests. The U.S. Employment Services developed an interest inventory (USES inventory) that yields results in terms of GOE interest areas. The GOE classification system organizes occupations into interest areas, work groups, and subgroups. GOE codes are six digits. For example, the GOE code for guidance counselors is 12.03.01. The first two digits match one of 14 interest areas. The GOE system classifies occupations into one of 14 interest areas as follows: 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10
Arts, Entertainment, and Media Science, Math, and Engineering Plants and Animals Law, Law Enforcement, and Public Safety Mechanics, Installers, and Repairers Construction, Mining, and Drilling Transportation Industrial Production Business Detail Sales and Marketing
11 12 13 14
Recreation, Travel, and Other Personal Services Education and Social Services General Management and Support Medical and Health Services
The next two digits of a GOE code reflect the work group to which the occupation is assigned. These groups are based upon the levels of workers’ capabilities (job knowledge, skills required) and adaptability to work situations for that occupation. The next two digits reflect the subgroup, or specialty area, of the occupation. For example, guidance counselors are classified as 12.03.01, which means that workers in this occupation have interests in education and social services (12), educational services (03), and counseling and evaluation (01). Occupations that are similar share the same GOE code. For example, other occupations in the 12.03.01 group are personal financial advisors and educational psychologists. The GOE is only available in book form: The Guide for Occupational Exploration. 3rd ed. Indianapolis, Ind.: JIST Works, 2001.
■ The Dictionary of Occupational Titles The Dictionary of Occupational Titles (DOT) is an occupational classification system that the DOL created in the 1930s. It was replaced in 1999 by the O*NET system, but it is defined in this encyclopedia as a courtesy to those who may not be able to access the O*NET 7.0 system online. The fourth edition of the DOT provides more than 20,000 descriptions of specific occupations, each of which is assigned a unique nine-digit code number. The nine-digit number is always given with a period between the first six digits and a hyphen separating the last three digits from the first six. For example, the DOT code for career counselor is 045.107-010. Each DOT number provides information about the occupation, indicating its industry and its worker functions. The first three digits relate the occupation to industry by assigning an occupational category, division, and group. The first digit indicates into which of nine occupational categories the specific occupation is assigned. These categories are 0/1 2 3 4 5
Professional, Technical, and Managerial Occupations Clerical and Sales Occupations Service Occupations Agricultural, Fishery, Forestry, and Related Occupations Processing Occupations
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6 7 8 9
Machine Trades Occupations Bench Work Occupations Structural Work Occupations Miscellaneous Occupations
The first digit of the DOT code for the occupation career counselor (0) indicates it is a Professional Occupation. The second digit refers to the division into which the occupation is assigned. There are many divisions in each occupational category. For example, some of the divisions with the 0/1 occupational category include 00/01 02 04 05
Occupations in architecture, engineering, and surveying Occupations in mathematics and physical sciences Occupations in life sciences Occupations in social sciences
The second digit for the occupation career counselor (4) shows it is in the life sciences division. The third digit refers to the group to which the occupation is assigned. For example, the occupational division 04, occupations in the life sciences, includes group 5, occupations in psychology. So the first three digits for the occupation of career counselor, 045, indicate it is a professional occupation (0), in the life sciences (4), in psychology (5). The middle digits relate the occupations to the worker functions of data, people, and things. The lower the number, the greater the involvement of the worker in the occupation with data, people, or things. The fourth digit refers to using data in jobs in the occupation. Functions involved with data range from comparing (6) to synthesizing (0). Career counselors are usually most involved with coordinating (1) data. The fifth digit refers to interactions with people in jobs in the occupation. Functions involved with people range from taking instructions/helping (8) to mentoring (0). Career counselors work at mentoring (0) people. The sixth digit refers to things. Functions involved with things range from handling (7) to setting up (0). The career counselors handle (7) things. Because different occupations in the same industries may have the same levels of involvement with data, people, and things, the last three digits indicate the alphabetic order of titles within the six-digit code. When occupations have the same first six digits, they are very similar, which means people engaged in exploring occupations that might be right for them should look carefully at all occupations having the same first six digits in their DOT codes.
■ The National Occupational Classification (NOC) System In Canada, the Human Resources Development Canada uses the National Occupational Classification system to provide descriptions for more than 25,000 occupations in the Canadian labor market. The original system was created in 1992, and a new, expanded version was introduced in 2001. It is a hierarchical system in which occupations are assigned to one of 26 major groups, 139 minor groups, and 530 unit groups. Each unit group is designated by a four-digit code. NOC classifies occupations using the two criteria of skills type and skill level. Skill type refers generally to the type of work performed, but industry and educational field of study required for entry are factors considered in classifying occupations by skill type. The skill type categories include
0 Management Occupations 1 Business, Finance, and Administration Occupations 2 Natural and Applied Sciences and Related Occupations 3 Health Occupations 4 Occupations in Social Science, Education, Government Service, and Religion 5 Occupations in Art, Culture, Recreation, and Sports 6 Sales and Service Occupations 7 Trades, Transport, and Equipment Operators and Related Occupations 8 Occupations Unique to Primary Industry 9 Occupations Unique to Processing, Manufacturing, and Utilities
Skill level is the amount and type of education and training usually required to enter the occupation. Each minor and unit group is assigned to one of four skill levels, which are as follows: Skill level A University degree Skill level B Two to three years of community college or technical school or two to four years of apprenticeship Skill level C High school diploma and on-the-job training Skill level D On-the-job training
■ For More Information
Standard Occupational Classification You can search or browse through the major groups or the index of detailed occupations to arrive at occupational definitions at
Information Interviewing
http://www.bls.gov/soc http://online.onetcenter.org
The first site comes from the U.S. Department of Labor’s Bureau of Labor Statistics. The site contains a user’s guide to SOC and links to the major SOC classifications. The second site is the online O*NET, where users can find occupational descriptions and search for occupations by name or using their own skills profile. This site also enables you to search careers that match your skills, as well as Crosswalk, which enables you to match O*NETSOC jobs with jobs in other classification systems.
it is in a job interview. Information interviewing is more than just talking to people who know something about an occupation, however. In order to get the best results you must carefully prepare and use strategies to get interviews and to get the most from them. Look at information interviewing as a process rather than as a one-time thing. To do it effectively, you must do research to determine what you want to find out and to identify people likely to lead to finding that information; you must do interviews, and you must follow up with what you have learned by making more contacts and doing more research.
Dictionary of Occupational Titles http://www.oalj.dol.gov/libdot.htm
Last revised in 1991, the fourth edition of Dictionary of Occupational Titles (DOT) is presented here by the U.S. Department of Labor’s Office of Administrative Law Judges Law Library. You will find introductory material, detailed explanations of how occupational definitions are created and how occupational titles and codes are arranged, and lists of occupational categories, divisions, and groups, as well as occupational definitions. Certain information is offered in files that can be downloaded and opened using WordPerfect or Word. National Occupational Classification System http://www23.hrdc-drhc.gc.ca/2001/e/generic/welcome. shtml
Human Resources Development Canada offers an updated edition of the NOC system created in 1992. This Web site features an improved search engine and an online training tutorial to assist new users and NOC trainers.
Information Interviewing The purpose of information interviewing is to get information about possible jobs or career fields you are interested in. While there is a wealth of occupational information available in print, on video, on software, and through the Internet, interviewing someone who works in a field you are interested in can give you a new perspective and more detailed understanding of what it takes to succeed in a job. Information interviewing also helps you develop a network of contacts, which can be important later on when you are ready to look for a job; thus it is just as important to make a good impression in an information interview as
■ What Do You Want to Know? Most people enjoy telling others about their careers, but most successful people are very busy. Not being prepared with questions to ask, or asking questions that could be answered by doing a little research, is not going to make a very good impression. The first step in preparing for information interviewing is doing in-depth research on the occupation of interest. The questions asked in the information interview should show that you have a good grasp of the basic requirements of the occupation. Presumably you are interviewing someone because he or she has specific expertise or knowledge about the occupation that you could not readily learn from your basic research. Therefore, you should ask questions that only your interview subject could answer. For example: A poor information interview question: What level of education is required to enter this occupation? n A good information interview question: What universities on the East Coast have the strongest programs in civil engineering? n An even better information interview question: I am considering these three universities in the New England area . . . [name specific universities] . . . that have accredited programs in civil engineering. Which do you think will be the best for a student like me who prefers to learn by hands-on experience? n
How can you be sure you are asking good questions? Read all the information you can about the occupation. Make a list of questions you have after you’ve finished reading. Follow up by asking a career counselor or reference librarian how you can get answers to those questions. (One good reference for continuing research on an occupation is the “For More Information” section listed at the end of each career article of Encyclopedia of Careers and Vocational Guidance.) Knowing what questions to ask can be very difficult. Remember that you are trying to find out if the job or
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field you are researching would be right for you. Think about your interests, values, aptitudes, and abilities and ask questions that relate to those. One good question is always “What was one thing that you did not know when you entered this occupation that you wish you had known?” Also, the last question you ask should always be “Can you recommend anyone else I should talk to?”
■ Whom Do You Want to Interview? The questions that need to be answered and the research you do to find answers often suggest who might be good to interview. People who might be good to start with include people working in the occupation teachers and professors preparing people to enter the occupation n leaders of local professional organizations n members of state boards that issue professional licenses or certificates n n
Sometimes it can be difficult to identify the right person to interview. In the process of information interviewing, you usually have to ask others to help you identify the people who can best answer your questions. Some people who might be able to help you include career counselors librarians n members of local chambers of commerce n friends and family members n n
Information interviewing often requires contacting someone you do not know. It is much easier to speak to a stranger when you can begin by saying, “So-and-so suggested I call you,” rather than simply, “I found your name in the phone book.” This gives you a foot in the door. Sometimes, however, it is not possible to get a referral. In these cases, do not hesitate to identify potential people for information interviewing by using resources such as business directories n the yellow pages n the Internet n registries of industries and corporations n
■ Getting the Interview Many people would find it difficult to contact a stranger and ask for help, but that is often what it takes to get an information interview. Remember, most people like to have their expertise acknowledged and their opinions solicited. Whether you make the initial contact by letter or by telephone, it is important that you do the following:
n n
Tell the person how you got his or her name. Make it clear who you are. Explain your purpose. Describe how he or she can help you, including putting a limit on the time you are asking for. n Thank the person for being willing to help you. n Follow up as suggested, whether it be by calling in a few days, promptly showing up for the scheduled interview, doing further research, or calling another person suggested by your contact. n n
It is important to be explicit and honest when explaining your purpose and that your purpose confers only limited obligation on the person you want to interview. For example, “I have been researching the best way to start a career in retail purchasing. I know various college majors can prepare me for this occupation. Before I start specializing my studies, I would like to meet with you for 15 minutes to get your opinion on the best academic and experiential knowledge I can obtain to be a success in this field after I graduate.” It is best not to have hidden agendas such as wanting the person interviewing you to hire you or wanting him to refer you for a job opening. Remain courteous even when told “no.” Some people simply are too busy to meet with you. Or they may not think that they can be most helpful to you. Always ask if they know someone else who might be able to help you. Count it as a success if they refer you to someone else. Be flexible. Be willing to meet with people during their nonbusiness hours or during times, such as early in the morning or late in the afternoon, when they may be more likely to have time to be interviewed. It is best to meet with people at their places of business, since that will give you an opportunity to observe their work setting.
■ During the Interview Arrive promptly and prepared for the interview. Dress appropriately as if you were a professional in the interviewee’s organization. Be ready to briefly tell about your academic and work experiences and why you are interested in the occupation. It is a good idea to provide a card with your name and address or a single-sheet resume so the interviewee can easily contact you or provide your name as a referral. Have your list of questions ready and paper and pencil to take notes of the interviewee’s responses. Be ready to get to the business of the interview and be alert to keeping the interview within the promised time limit. Always be courteous and attentive.
Training for Job Entry and Career Development
■ Following Up the Interview Manage the information interview process by keeping records that track the contacts you have made and the results of interviews. It is important to follow through on the interview, whether it is by doing any further suggested research or contacting another person. It is also important to follow up with interviewees by sending a note thanking them for the time spent with you. It is a good idea to tell interviewees the results you obtained from the interview. For example, if you did suggested research, what did you learn? Tell interviewees if you called anyone they referred you to and obtained another information interview.
■ For More Information Informational Interviewing Tutorial http://www.quintcareers.com/informational_interviewing. html
This Quintessential Careers tutorial presents a thorough discussion of the process of information interviewing. Here you will find some of the reasons for conducting this kind of interview, suggested guidelines to follow (for example, don’t ask for a job when you’re on an information interview; wait for the actual job interview), a list of the types of questions you might want to ask, advice on appropriate follow-up and what to do with the information you’ve gathered, and much more. The step-by-step format is straightforward and will surely give you a good head start on preparing for your information interview. Want to know more? Check out the links to other related resources. Informational Interviewing http://danenet.wicip.org/jets/jet-9407-p.html
A neat fact sheet by the Wisconsin Department of Labor, Industry, and Human Relations, this site gives you a stepby-step outline for conducting an information interview and a list of questions appropriate to ask at an information interview.
Training for Job Entry and Career Development Employers want to hire workers who are able to carry out their job duties and achieve desired results. Every job has a minimum training requirement based on the complexity of the duties workers in that job are expected
to perform. If you want to be competitive in the labor market, whether you are just entering a job, looking to advance, or trying to change jobs, you need to know the required training for the jobs that interest you and look for ways to get that training. Those whose training best matches job-training requirements have a competitive edge in the labor market because they are the workers employers want to hire. Training includes course work at educational institutions and work/learning experiences such as apprenticeships, internships, and on-the-job training. Other ways to get training can be through volunteering and service learning. You can show proof of your training with certificates, diplomas, and documentation of experiences. You should realize that just getting the minimum level of training is usually not sufficient to be competitive in the labor market. Getting a certificate, diploma, or degree does not guarantee getting a high-paying job. It is usually a combination of academic preparation and experience that makes a person most competitive in the job market. You can enter many jobs in the U.S. labor market with a high school diploma and receive short-term, onthe-job training. However, these positions generally offer the lowest pay and benefits. As a rule, the more training required to enter a job, the higher the pay. Other factors, such as the specific job, the worker’s occupational experience and length of time on the job, and the type of employment setting, also influence earnings. Some occupations, such as plumbers, automotive mechanics, and carpenters, do not require a college degree but have higher-than-average earnings. It is also possible to earn a higher-than-average income in some sales occupations that do not require advanced training to enter. However, in today’s labor market, most of the jobs that pay aboveaverage earnings require postsecondary training. Generally, higher-paying occupations that require much training to enter also require successful completion of specific, accredited training programs, while occupations that require less training to enter offer more options in obtaining training, frequently including on-the-job training. You should be certain that the training programs in which you enroll fulfill requirements for your occupational goals. If you are seeking postsecondary training, you should consider the following questions: n What training is considered appropriate for entry into the occupation? n What are the various options to obtain training for this occupation? n If there is a license or certification require ment, does the academic program provide the
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appropriate course work and have the appropriate accreditation? n Is any further training required to obtain the license or certification beyond the academic degree or certificate of completion of the training program? Consulting with a career counselor is often an excellent way to learn about training options and financial resources for obtaining training. A career counselor can help determine if any given program is likely to provide the appropriate training required by employers in the occupation.
■ Two- and Four-Year Programs Higher education is educational programming beyond high school. It includes course work from two- or fouryear institutions and from graduate schools. People who successfully complete these educational programs receive degrees, either associate’s, bachelor’s, master’s, doctoral, or professional. On average, workers who have earned bachelor’s, master’s, doctoral, or professional degrees have higher incomes and lower unemployment rates than workers with less education. Some occupations that require a college degree for entry also require people entering the occupation to obtain a license or certification.
Associate’s Degree An associate’s degree is considered a two-year degree, which means that it normally takes two years of fulltime enrollment to complete. Currently, the majority of the fastest growing occupations in the U.S. labor market require an associate’s degree for entry. Some of the fastest growing occupations that you can enter with an associate’s degree include cardiovascular technologists and technicians diagnostic medical sonographers n forensic science technicians n paralegals and legal assistants n dental hygienists n occupational therapy assistants n physical therapists assistants n veterinary technologists and technicians n n
An associate’s degree may be conferred in arts (A.A.) or in science (A.S.) and is sometimes referred to as a technical degree. The course work to earn an associate’s degree typically is focused on specialized knowledge needed for occupational qualification. It is not unusual for associate’s degree programming to include an experiential requirement, that is, course work that requires performing job duties in a work setting. Two-year colleges usually award associate’s degrees. Some four-year colleges also offer associate’s degrees.
Two-year colleges are often called community colleges, technical colleges, or junior colleges. Tuition and fees are typically lower at two-year colleges than at four-year institutions; however, most two-year institutions do not offer students on-campus housing. Many two-year colleges have open admissions policies. This means that if your high school academic performance would not qualify you for regular college admission, you may be admitted to a two-year college if you satisfactorily complete remedial courses. Two-year colleges often have transfer agreements with four-year colleges so that students can enroll in a two-year college to complete their first years of college course work and then transfer to a four-year institution to complete their bachelor’s degrees.
Bachelor’s Degree A bachelor’s degree is a four-year degree and is often referred to as an undergraduate degree. It is usually designated as either a bachelor of arts (B.A.) or a bachelor of science (B.S.) depending upon the area of academic study and may be conferred with honors, that is, magna cum laude or summa cum laude, if the student maintains a high grade point average (GPA). While it is possible to complete a bachelor’s degree in four years of fulltime enrollment, on average, today’s students are taking between four to six years to complete their undergraduate degrees. One reason for this is because, while not typically required in undergraduate studies, many students have realized internship experiences make them more competitive in the job market and prolong their studies to include them. Currently, in the United States, occupations that usually require a bachelor’s degree or more education to enter are experiencing a faster than average rate of growth. Some of these include biomedical engineers computer software engineers, applications n computer software engineers, systems software n database administrators n employment, recruitment, and placement specialists n environmental engineers n network systems and data communications analyst n physician’s assistants n n
Four-year colleges and universities award bachelor’s degrees. There are a wide variety of these institutions and they offer a wide variety of educational experiences. High school students who are planning to attend college often find weighing the different options makes selecting a college or university a difficult choice. Two important considerations in choosing a college or university are the
degrees offered and the size of the student body. Each college and university offers degrees in specific areas and may not offer a program of studies or a degree in other areas. Universities are usually bigger than colleges, having more educational resources and bigger student enrollment. In addition to undergraduate degrees, they often award graduate degrees at all levels: master’s, doctoral, and professional. They do not necessarily offer all levels of graduate degrees in all program areas. Colleges may or may not offer graduate degrees, and if they do offer graduate degrees, they typically do not do so at all levels. Colleges and universities may be either private or public. Private schools may be affiliated with religious groups. Public schools are state sponsored. Typically, tuition is less at public schools than at private schools, and even less for residents of the school’s state. Most, but not all, four-year colleges and universities offer on-campus housing. Some schools are widely recognized for excellence in their educational programming, either generally or in specific areas of study. Because of this recognized excellence, some schools are considered prestigious and getting a degree from one of them confers some of its prestige onto the graduate. Ivy League, for example, is a term used to refer to eight universities and colleges in the northeast United States: Brown, Columbia, Cornell, Dartmouth, Harvard, Princeton, University of Pennsylvania, and Yale. The prestige associated with one of these schools (and many others recognized for their excellence in programming) can provide an advantage in the job market, not only because of the school’s distinction but also because of the potential for developing networks both with current employers and with others who will be working in the occupation. Thus it makes sense when selecting a school to consider those that are widely recognized as being at the top of the list for the field you want to study. Many students have difficulty deciding on a major field of study when they begin undergraduate studies. They think that because occupations that pay more than average require a bachelor’s degree that they will be able to find a high-paying job when they graduate no matter what they study. They may think a degree that indicates a broad field of studies, such as general studies or liberal arts, will prepare them to enter a number of occupations. While it is true that it is possible to enter many occupations with a liberal arts degree, the people who are most competitive for jobs seek out specific courses and experiences to prepare for occupational entry. Some occupations, for example, buyers, insurance claim representatives, and interpreters, employ workers who have bachelor’s degrees but their major fields of study may not be specific. If you are uncertain what major area of study will best prepare you to enter the occupation you want,
Training for Job Entry and Career Development
you might benefit from doing information interviewing with employers to inquire what course work and experiences they consider most important when they hire. Internships. To enter into some occupations with a bachelor’s degree requires completing an internship. For example, people who want to become dietitians need to complete a one-year dietetic internship in a program approved by the American Dietetic Association. Although many areas of study do not require any experiential components to earn a bachelor’s degree, students who intend to enter an occupation requiring a bachelor’s degree and who want a competitive advantage in the job market after graduation should seek out opportunities to include experiential learning, such as practicums and internships, in their degree programs. A practicum or an internship is an opportunity to perform the job duties expected of an employee in an actual work setting. It provides two advantages: (1) you can determine if you are on the right career path by seeing if you enjoy working in the occupation and (2) you can start developing a professional network of contacts who may be able to help in finding employment after graduation. College- and university-sponsored experiential learning programs often have a very high rate of placement of their graduates. You can learn about the possibilities of completing an experiential learning component, either with or without academic credit, by visiting the college or university career and placement office. Students who enroll in a four-year institution knowing that the occupation they seek to enter requires a graduate degree should plan to earn that degree after receiving their bachelor’s degree. While some institutions offer programs of study that allow you to progress from bachelor’s degree studies to graduate studies, it is more typical that you must apply for admission into a graduate program. That program may or may not be offered at the institution from which your undergraduate degree was awarded. The institution that awarded you an undergraduate degree may not admit you into its graduate program. If you are enrolling in an undergraduate program and anticipate that you will attend graduate school, you should ask faculty where their program’s graduates have continued their education. Acceptance into graduate programs often depends on factors such as the field of study in which the bachelor’s degree was awarded, the grade point average earned in undergraduate studies, and recommendations from undergraduate faculty members.
■ Graduate Studies Master’s, doctoral, specialist, and professional degrees are awarded as graduate degrees. Typically, it requires
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two to six years of studies after the undergraduate degree to earn a graduate degree. Some colleges, universities, and institutes of specialized study are accredited to award graduate degrees. Some programs of graduate study require students to be awarded a master’s degree and then seek a doctoral degree, while others admit students with the intention that they will complete their studies with the award of a doctoral or professional degree. Programs of study for entry into specific occupations or professions may need to be accredited by professional associations’ accrediting bodies. For example, the National Architectural Accrediting Board accredits architectural programs, the American Bar Association accredits law programs, and the American Psychological Association accredits psychology programs. Professional associations provide lists of colleges and universities that offer accredited programs of study. To be competitive in the job market, and often to be eligible to obtain licenses or certificates to practice in an occupation, it is essential that you have degrees from programs of study accredited by appropriate professional bodies. Completing a graduate degree from an accredited program is often only one requirement in the process of obtaining a professional license or certificate. Other requirements may include passing of competency tests after graduation and working under supervision in the occupation. If you are seeking entry into a graduate program, you should see yourself as a consumer seeking the best graduate program to meet your occupational goals. It is appropriate to inquire where graduates obtain employment and if the graduate degree is useful in obtaining occupational licensure or certification.
Master’s Degree Master’s degrees usually require you to earn between 36 and 64 or more graduate semester credit hours and usually to complete them in not less than two years of full-time study. Some of the fastest growing occupations that can be entered with a master’s degree include hydrologists occupational therapists n physical therapists n n
Master’s degrees are generally conferred in either arts (M.A.) or sciences (M.S.) depending on the field of study. Master’s degrees may be very specialized toward entry into a specific occupation; others may be awarded after studies that qualify graduates for entry into a variety of occupations. Some course work may be specified by accrediting bodies or by licensing or certifying boards. Experiential learning components may or may not be
required. Completion of either a comprehensive examination or a master’s thesis is usually required before graduation. Admission into master’s programs is selective. Undergraduate transcripts and scores on standardized tests are usually considered. Often, program faculty will interview people applying for entry into master’s-level programs. Faculty members are usually trying to be certain that graduation from the program will meet the applicant’s career goals. If you are knowledgeable about the occupational opportunities available to graduates, aware of any accrediting, licensing, or certifying body requirements, and familiar with any professional associations, you are considered a better candidate for graduate studies than someone who is less informed.
Advanced Graduate Studies: Specialist, Doctoral, and Professional Degrees There are a variety of degrees that may be earned in graduate studies beyond the master’s level, such as a specialist degree, as in education specialist (Ed.S.); a doctoral degree, as in philosophy (Ph.D.), education (Ed.D.), or psychology (Psy.D.); and a professional degree, as in doctor of medicine (M.D.), doctor of dental science (D.D.S.), juris doctor (J.D.), or bachelor of laws (L.L.B.). Doctoral studies usually require you to earn 90 graduate semester credit hours beyond the undergraduate degree. They often take four to six years to complete. Typically, both academic course work and experiential learning components are included in programs of study. Evaluative components may include comprehensive examinations and a research project that includes writing a doctoral dissertation. Admission into advanced graduate programs is usually highly competitive. Applicants may be evaluated on undergraduate and graduate course work completed, on standardized test scores, and through personal interviews. It is helpful to be knowledgeable about the occupation for which you are seeking further training, to be able to clearly articulate how this training will further your personal career path, and to suggest how you intend to contribute to the profession. Some of the fastest-growing occupations that can be entered with specialist, doctoral, and professional degrees include lawyers medical scientists, except epidemiologists n physicians n postsecondary teachers n psychologists n surgeons n n
Training for Job Entry and Career Development
■ Other Postsecondary Training Options Currently, the U.S. labor market provides a wide variety of occupations that you can enter without a higher education degree. Sometimes training is provided on the job. Training may also be available from a wide variety of programs. Some may provide academic course work and experiential components. Some may combine both academic and on-the-job training. For instance, training to become a hairstylist or cosmetologist is available in high school vocational classes, in postgraduate adult education, in private career schools, and in apprenticeships. Different program options have varied requirements in terms of tuition and length of time spent in training. The length and expense of a training program are not necessarily indicators of its quality, nor does having a certificate or diploma from a program necessarily make you more competitive in the job market. Think of yourself as a consumer of educational programming and carefully examine the training options available to help determine what training program best matches your time commitment, financing, learning style, and career goals. It may be helpful to do information interviews with local employers to determine what sort of training programs they prefer their employees to have completed.
Adult Education Courses Many public school systems sponsor adult education classes that offer course work both to obtain General Education Development (GED) certification and to get vocational training. GED certification is the equivalent of a high school diploma. Students who successfully complete vocational classes usually receive a certificate. These training programs generally can be completed in a year or less. Classes are frequently offered in the evenings and on weekends. The cost of training is usually moderate. The specific vocational classes vary from school system to school system, but it is possible to obtain training for a wide variety of occupations including dental assistants n hairstylist or cosmetologists n automobile mechanics n heating and air-conditioning technicians n secretaries n
Trade and Technical Schools or Colleges Trade and technical schools or colleges are usually private, for-profit, institutions that offer vocational training. Sometimes they are referred to as private career schools, vocational schools or colleges, or proprietary schools. These schools may be accredited by agencies recognized
by the U.S. Office of Education or by the Council on Post-Secondary Accreditation, such as the Career College Association. They may be licensed or registered by state boards of education. Typically, their programs of study emphasize training for a specific occupation. Training is commonly offered to enter occupations such as automobile mechanics data processing equipment repairers n dental assistants n desktop publishing specialists n food service preparation and management workers n hairstylists and cosmetologists n licensed practical nurses n heating and air-conditioning technicians n secretaries n n
These schools may offer course work similar to that available through adult education courses or at community colleges. Private career schools may also offer instructional programs in occupations, such as bartender or child care worker, which are possible to enter without specialized training. If you are considering these courses you should carefully consider their usefulness in improving your competitiveness in the labor market. Training programs may be completed in a year or two years. Students who successfully complete course work usually receive certificates, but some private career colleges are accredited to award associate’s degrees. Tuition costs may be equal to or exceed that of community colleges. If the school is approved, it may be possible to receive financial aid in the form of loans to pay for tuition. You should understand that you are expected to repay student loans. Many private career schools are accredited and offer both professional instruction and job placement that help their graduates advance on their career paths. However, because offering of educational programs and vocational training is not a highly regulated industry, you must be a cautious consumer. Typically, these schools cannot guarantee that after graduation their students will be hired in positions suitable for their training. State Boards of Education and Better Business Bureaus can often provide information to help you choose a private career school. It is appropriate to ask school representatives to tour instructional facilities and to ask questions such as What accreditation does this school have? How many people graduated from the educational program in the past couple of years? n What are the credentials of the instructors teaching the course work? n Is job placement service available? n n
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How long does it typically take graduates to find jobs in their field? n How many graduates have found jobs in the occupations for which they were trained? n Where are graduates currently working? In what positions? n
Care Facility Training Programs Hospitals and other care facilities, such as nursing homes, may offer opportunities to train to enter health care occupations. This training may combine academic course work and on-the-job training, or it may be onthe-job training only. Training programs usually can be completed in six months to two years. People completing care facility training programs usually are awarded a certificate. Costs for such programs are usually modest, often limited to fees for textbooks. Typically, you are paid lower wages while engaged in on-the-job training and receive higher wages when you have completed the program successfully. Occupations that you can enter with this kind of training include nurse’s aides n licensed practical nurses n physical therapy assistants or aides n occupational therapy assistants or aides n psychiatric assistants or aides n
Apprenticeships Apprenticeships have been a traditional way to enter the occupations referred to as “skilled trades” or “blue collar.” These include occupations in building trades and construction, such as carpenter, electrician, floor layer, painter and paperhanger, and plumber. They also include machine trades or industrial trades that employ boilermakers, ironworkers, machinists, tool programmers, millwrights, and tool, die, mold, and pattern makers. It is possible for experienced workers in many of these occupations to earn higher-than-average wages, so entry into apprenticeships in these occupations is often very competitive. Apprenticeships have also been a traditional way to learn artisan occupations that are sometimes referred to as crafts. These include occupations such as musical instrument maker, jewelry crafter, glassblower, and various folk arts. Apprenticeship training can also be available to enter a broad variety of other occupational fields, such as farm and animal workers, health care workers, and human services workers. Apprenticeships are based on the idea that a skilled worker teaches an apprentice occupational skills and, in exchange for this training, the apprentice agrees to work for the trainer at lower wages for a certain
period of time. Traditionally, people working in the skilled trades and arts are classified by their level of expertise: Apprentice: A beginner who is learning the craft. Journeyworker: A skilled worker who has successfully completed an apprenticeship. n Master craftsworker: A high-skilled worker who is an expert in the craft. n n
An apprenticeship is a training program based on a contract made between the trainer and the trainee, usually either between an apprentice and a master craftsworker, or an apprentice and a business that employs workers at all skill levels. The contract should include length of training required of the trainee length of work required of the trainee n on-the-job and academic training and its scheduling n wage schedules and associated costs n length of probationary periods n n
Apprenticeships often combine academic course work with on-the-job experience. The majority of apprenticeships to enter the skilled trades pay apprentices wages that are lower than those of more-skilled workers. As the worker progresses in the apprenticeship and gains skills, the wages are raised. Apprentices may be expected to pay for academic instruction and for associated costs such as textbooks, tools, and union membership. Apprenticeships for entering other occupations, such as the arts, may require apprentices to pay for their training and do not provide any wages for the trainee. The length of apprenticeship training programs varies, but those in the skilled trades may require up to four years or longer. Those who successfully complete an apprenticeship are conferred journeyworker status and receive a journeyworker’s card. Apprenticeships in sought-after training opportunities are usually competitive to enter. Think of entering an apprenticeship as similar to asking an employer for a job. Having good basic academic skills and being able to talk about why completing the apprenticeship is important to your career goals will make you more attractive to program administrators. Each apprenticeship usually includes a probationary period during which your ability to benefit from the training is evaluated. The probationary period is a trial period during which either you or your trainer may decide to end the apprenticeship. After the probationary period, the apprenticeship contract binds both the trainer and trainee in obligation to each other, and it becomes more complicated to end the apprenticeship.
Service Learning and Volunteering Service learning means working as a volunteer in a community service agency. Service learning helps you gain a sense of civic and social responsibility as you develop personal, professional, and academic skills by applying classroom learning in a work environment. There are volunteer opportunities in all occupational areas. Volunteers learn about jobs in different occupational fields and can participate in activities that develop skills. Some high schools make service learning a requirement. Their students must do up to 40 hours of volunteer work before graduation. Many community colleges and some undergraduate colleges are including service learning as experiential components in their course work. Service learning positions usually require you to identify organizations or agencies that provide opportunities of interest to you. You usually do information interviews with representatives of the organization to learn more about the activities in which you might be involved as a volunteer. Frequently, you enter into a service learning contract with the organization. This contract outlines the objectives of the service learning experience and the schedule for learning activities. You may be asked to keep logs or journals of your participation and observations. If the service learning experience is part of academic course work, you may be expected to make a presentation to your classmates on the services and activities of the organization or agency in which you completed your service learning. Service learning often allows volunteers to work with employees in their work environments. Volunteers learn about the job duties of people in specific occupations and observe people employed in different occupations working together. For example, volunteers who work in shelters for homeless or abused people will see food preparation workers, such as cooks and kitchen helpers; administrative workers, such as secretaries, janitors, and maintenance workers; helping professionals, such as social workers and counselors; and law enforcement officials. Volunteers may also get opportunities to learn how specific activities, for example, a political campaign, a criminal trial, a community festival, or a fund-raising event for charity, are organized and carried out. Volunteers can develop skills that make them more marketable, such as learning to greet and assist customers, assisting in clerical duties, running meetings, and dealing with the media. If you are not a student, you may find that volunteering in a service learning position provides experiences that aid you in career transitions or job advancement. Volunteer work may offer an opportunity to demonstrate skills and abilities that you can use in employment.
Training for Job Entry and Career Development
Achievements and activities done in unpaid volunteer work can be legitimately reflected on resumes and job applications. Volunteering can be used as a career-management strategy. Specify what learning objectives and skills development experiences are desired, such as learning how to put together a newsletter using desktop publishing. Use the local resources, such as United Way offices or Community Services Boards, or learn about organizations and agencies that use volunteers and that employ people in occupations that interest you. Interview the representative who coordinates the organization’s or the agency’s volunteers to determine if there are opportunities to meet your desired learning objectives. Document your activities and experiences in terms of job skills and ask volunteer coordinators to provide letters of recommendation specifying achievements.
Distance Learning or Distance Education Distance learning or distance education offers the availability of educational programming close to home. You do not have to go to the educational institution to take courses; instead the academic faculty comes to you via electronic media. There are many different forms of educational opportunities that are called distance learning. The oldest form of distance learning is the traditional correspondence courses in which academic course work is transmitted by mail. Educational institutions typically provide home-study materials such as workbooks, which may be supplemented by texts that you must provide. You mail completed homework assignments to the educational institution for grading. Correspondence courses are usually purchased at a set fee per course. You study on your own and complete courses at your own pace. Completion of a series of correspondence courses usually results in your being awarded a certificate. Today, the availability of a variety of media has broadened the delivery methods and scope of distance learning. Distance learning course work is offered via video conferencing, Internet, email, or a combination of all. Video conferencing sends audio and video images from a transmission station to receiving stations. This means you may have to go to some facility in your community, usually an educational institution or convention center, to attend distance learning classes. Video conferencing is usually two-way, allowing students and teachers to interact. Many educational institutions supplement course work delivered via video conferencing with Internet instruction. You access course work information and assignments via the Internet and you correspond with the instructor and other students by email. Some distance learning is offered via Internet, where you access
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course work and take tests online, join in class discussions in chat rooms, and correspond with your instructor and classmates via email. Distance learning opportunities are offered by a wide variety of sponsors including U.S. government agencies, professional associations, and institutions of higher education. Many colleges and universities offer some course work via distance learning formats. While it is possible to complete specific courses via distance learning, many colleges and universities require students to attend some on-campus classes in order to complete degree programs that include distance learning components. There is great variance in the quality of course work offered via distance learning formats. More and more accredited institutions of higher education are providing opportunities for distance learning. Other opportunities for education, particularly on the Internet, are scams. It is vital that you be an informed consumer and determine if the source of distance learning is legitimate and if the educational program offered will be useful in your personal career development. How do you know if your online educator is on the up-and-up? Distance learning offered by state and national universities is your best bet. Consider contacting the Accrediting Commission of the Distance Education and Training Council (http://www.detc.org) for a list of accredited institutions. There are also many Internet discussion groups that focus on distance learning. Get involved with one and learn more. Finally, consider visiting the Council for Higher Education Accreditation’s Research and Publications section (http://www.chea.org/ Research/index.cfm) to learn more about the challenges that distance learning poses for higher education.
■ For More Information Colleges and College Majors My Future http://www.myfuture.com
Sponsored by the U.S. Military Services, this site has a variety of interesting information. There are several sections devoted to military career options and military lifestyles, and there is also advice ranging from finding financial aid to buying a used car in the Personal Finance section. Career Help provides guidance on various steps of the job search process. Take the Interest Finder Quiz to determine the type of career you might be best suited for. A resume builder, cover letter dos and don’ts, interview tips, and materials on hot jobs round out the site. The information is concise, fun, and quick to read through.
What Can I Do with a Major In . . . ? http://www.uncwil.edu/stuaff/career/Majors
This University of North Carolina at Wilmington Career Services department hosts this informative Web site. Here you can discover what types of careers are associated with more than 40 popular majors. All About College http://www.allaboutcollege.com
This site contains links to the home pages of thousands of colleges and universities in the United States and abroad. You can browse through the listings by state or country. Your non-U.S. choices are Africa, Asia, Australia, Canada, Europe, Mexico, and South America. Not only are you given easy access to these home pages, but where available you will also have at your fingertips the email addresses for admissions offices at many of these institutions. This sites also offers information on graduate schools and many aspects of college life such as test preparation, study abroad, fraternities and sororities, financial aid, and job searches. There’s also a chat room where students can discuss topics of interest. Compare Colleges http://www.usnews.com/usnews/edu/college/rankings/ rankindex_brief.php
U.S. News & World Report offers a site where you can review college rankings, search for colleges by different criteria, compare colleges, and research topics like of location, affiliation, number of students, cost, financial aid, admissions, student satisfaction, faculty/student ratio, and other interesting facts of campus life. The site also provides information on topics such as conquering college admissions and considering two-year and fouryear college options. Study Abroad Directory http://www.studyabroad.com
If you’re interested in attending college outside the United States, then check out this site. You’ll find a handbook covering general information pertaining to living abroad, such as cultural differences, safety, how to deal with emergency situations, the costs of studying abroad and other money-related issues, and the necessary documents to bring along. A search tool allows you to look for schools that offer international study programs. Select the criteria you want to search by (for example, country, subject, summer programs). Your results page will include links to Web sites, contact information, and/or program descriptions. The Marketplace suggests sites where you can learn about financial aid, health insurance, travel agencies, student IDs,
Training for Job Entry and Career Development
and more. There are also a few listings for study abroad opportunities for high school students.
Community Colleges and Vocational Training Community College Web
ments, and what to do in case of an equal opportunity employment complaint. There are also basic facts on apprenticeship programs and links to other important government-sponsored Web sites important to career managers.
http://www.mcli.dist.maricopa.edu/cc/index.html
If you’re thinking about attending a community college, visit this site, where you’ll find links to home pages of more than 1,200 community colleges in the United States and a few other countries. You can search geographically, alphabetically, and by keyword. Also useful is the site’s wide assortment of annotated links to other Web resources. Some of the categories are students, employment, organizations, and journals. RWM Vocational School Database http://www.rwm.org/rwm
Addresses and phone numbers of private postsecondary vocational schools in the United States can be found at this site. First select the state you’re interested in and then choose the category. Among the fields represented are automotive, barbering, business, fashion design, plumbing, telecommunications, and welding. More specific occupations are included under these headings; for example, the business category includes accounting, administrative, general office, marketing, secretarial, and so on. Links are also offered for sites with financial aid information and the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics’ Occupational Outlook Handbook.
Graduate School Graduate School Guide http://www.graduateguide.com
Find a grad school with this searchable directory to U.S. schools offering doctoral, master’s, and professional degree programs. Search the database by entering a particular school name or by indicating state and major. Listings include institution name, address, phone number, and where available fax number, email address, and Web site address. Before making your final decision, read the Graduate Questions section to learn the types of questions to ask on your search for the right grad school. Links to related sites are also provided.
Service Learning and Volunteering Nonprofit Career Network http://www.idealist.org
If you are interested in researching jobs, internships, or volunteer opportunities in the nonprofit sector, this resource from the organization Action Without Borders is a great one. The Nonprofit Career Center features an international directory of information on more than 58,000 nonprofit groups worldwide, with links where available. The database is searchable by many variables, including country, area of focus, and mission keyword. If you don’t want to use the search form, you have the option to view everything. You also can browse through the links to other Web sites that contain tips for nonprofit job hunters and details on academic programs that can lead to a career in the nonprofit sector, along with much more. Global Volunteers http://www.globalvolunteers.org
Global Volunteers is a nonprofit organization developed to promote and maintain world peace through humanitarian services. Volunteers sign on for stints of as many as three weeks to work on human and economic development projects in Africa, Latin America, Europe, the United States, or Asia. This might entail teaching English, digging wells, planting community gardens, or providing professional services. (Don’t worry, you won’t be asked to extract teeth unless you’re really a dentist.) You can read volunteer testimonials, project descriptions, and the philosophy of Global Volunteers, plus you can download an application form at the site. You do have to pay a program fee, but it is tax-deductible and covers most of your expenses.
Distance Learning Distance Learning on the Net http://www.hoyle.com
Apprenticeships U.S. Department of Labor Bureau of Employment and Training Administration Registered Apprenticeship Web site http://www.doleta.gov/OA/eta_default.cfm
This sites offers information on benefits of apprenticeship, finding a program, eligibility and require-
Glenn Hoyle has created this site that provides a great overview of distance learning. Starting with definitions, he has created links and provided information about adult education, national and international colleges, courses and classes, technical and vocational education, organizations, conferences and events, and portals to the most popular distance learning sites.
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United States Distance Learning Association http://www.usdla.org
Primarily a professional group, the USDLA’s Web site offers a lot of information about distance learning that is useful to the public. The site also offers a glossary of distance learning terms and a scholarly journal devoted to articles on distance learning that includes a section written by students. Learning about E Learning http://www.usnews.com/usnews/edu/elearning/elhome.htm
This site provides a comprehensive view of distance learning and includes a directory of more than 2,800 traditional colleges and universities that provide distance learning opportunities. It also provides tips on the type of computer hardware that makes distance learning easier, a discussion forum, profiles of distance learners, tips on choosing the distance learning program that meets your needs, and financial aid for distance learning. Peterson’s Distance Learning http://www.petersons.com/distancelearning/code/search. asp?path=ug.fas.distance
Peterson’s, publisher of educational books, offers this database of distance learning opportunities. According to your interest, you can search by program, course, or school. There’s also an assessment to determine if distance learning is right for you, an article on distance learning that will help you learn more about topics like accreditation, and information on financial aid. The Distance Education and Training Council (DETC) http://www.detc.org
The DETC is a nonprofit association responsible for maintaining a storehouse of information about distance learning. The council sponsors the Accrediting Commission of the Distance Education and Training Council, a nationally recognized accrediting agency. There is a directory of accredited institutions by type, such as degree granting, high school, postsecondary, federal, and military. Or you can browse for an institution by subject taught. Contact details (including Web site addresses where available) and notes on courses and degrees are featured. The Free Publications section includes information on accreditation and evaluating the usefulness of a distance learning degree. The Useful Resources section provides links to educational resources, libraries, reference services, and educational agencies that focus on distance learning.
Western Governors University (WGU) http://www.wgu.edu
WGU compiles distance learning course and program listings from a variety of colleges and universities and presents them in a single course catalog.
The Future World of Work One of the most difficult aspects of career management is that it includes planning for an unknown future. Career managers consider questions such as “If I invest my time and money in training for an occupation, am I likely to get a job that will pay me back?” There are many events in life that you cannot anticipate but that influence your career. Even when you train for and enter an occupation for which you are well suited, your career path may be interrupted by events such as losing a job through downsizing or an accident that disables you from performing your job. An element of uncertainty is always part of career planning. Awareness of what the job market is now and what it might be in the future helps to take some of the uncertainty out of career planning.
■ Assumptions for Prediction Most forecasters make predictions about the future by looking at the past and at the current state of things, by analyzing trends, and by extrapolating the trends to make projections. They base their forecasts on several assumptions: Human beings and the societies they create act to achieve goals. For example, people have as a goal to live together in an orderly fashion and pass their knowledge on to the next generation, so societies create systems for government and education. n People and social systems are more alike than different. For example, most educational systems involve someone who has more knowledge (in role of teacher or trainer) instructing someone who has less knowledge (the student). n There will be a continuity of events so that social changes occur gradually rather than rapidly. Major social roles and social institutions change relatively slowly. For example, the role of a teacher standing in front of a class to deliver a lesson has not changed greatly throughout modern history. n
The Future World of Work
Changes can be attributed to cause-and-effect relationships, and trends must be viewed holistically, that is, on how they interact, influencing each other and the world. n
The likelihood of a forecast being accurate is based on probabilities. The number of people involved in the prediction and time frame of the prediction influence the probability of the forecast coming to pass. Forecasters focus on mega, or large, trends in society. It is easier to be accurate about the number of cooks that are going to be employed in the year 2014 than it is to accurately predict if any given individual is going to be a cook in the year 2014. The time frame for which the prediction is made is also important. For example, if you are currently employed as a cook, a forecast that you will be employed as a cook next year would be more probable, that is, more likely to be accurate, than the forecast that you will be employed as a cook in the year 2014. The more distant the future, the more difficult it is to predict with any accuracy. Technological developments in the last half of the 20th century resulted in the creation of jobs that were unknown in the 1970s. Forecasters concerned with the future of work usually make their predictions based on the entire U.S. economy and limit their forecasts to 10 years. Sometimes even short-term predictions can be wrong. Events such as natural disasters, disease, war, and technological developments can have drastic impacts that upset the assumption of continuity.
■ Changes in the Economy In the economy of the United States, who is working or looking for work, occupations, and job opportunities are always changing for many reasons. Changes in people’s life roles result in both changes in the labor market and changes in the demand for workers in some occupations. For example, since the mid-1970s, there has been a trend changing American women’s roles from homemakers to wage earners. Since 1976, increasing numbers of women have been joining the labor force. It is projected that by 2014, 46.8 percent of the labor market will be women. With more women in fulltime employment, there has been a steady demand for child care workers. The increase in numbers of women employed full time has also resulted in an increased demand for workers in personal care occupations, such as manicurists. Women’s return to the labor market has been paralleled by rapid growth in both packaged, precooked foods industries and fast food restaurants and services such as housecleaning, laundry, and dry cleaning.
Another reason for changes in the types of jobs available is new technologies. For example, in the 1980s and 1990s, when technological developments made computers commonly used tools, demands for workers having technical skills increased. While some occupations were created, others have employed fewer and fewer people, and some became obsolete. For example, many people used to have jobs as typists, but today’s job market demands that workers in a wide variety of occupations have keyboarding skills to do both word processing and to run computer programs. Similarly, switchboard operators became an obsolete occupation as technology developed complex telephone systems that did not require human operators. Two perspectives on the future of work come from information about the composition of the labor force and the types of occupations in demand and the number of openings these occupations are likely to offer. The best source of accurate projections of the U.S. labor market and the occupational opportunities for the labor market is the U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics.
■ Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) The BLS looks at the future of work in the United States by making projections about the labor force and about occupational opportunities. It updates its projections of the future of work in the United States every two years. The BLS makes these projections available in a variety of publications including Monthly Labor Review, Occupational Outlook Quarterly, and Occupational Outlook Handbook (OOH). The OOH is printed biannually in years that end with an even digit. OOH information is available on the Internet at http://www.bls.gov/oco.
■ The Labor Force The labor force, or the labor market, consists of people in the United States who are working or looking for work. It does not include people who are in the military services or who are in institutions, such as mental hospitals and prisons. Labor force projections look at the workforce participation rate of portions of the U.S. population. For example, typically labor force participation of people aged 16 to 24 is low because they often have school or child care responsibilities. This age group’s share of the labor force is expected to be 13.7 percent by 2014. The labor force share composed of workers age 25 to 54, the primary working age group, is expected to decline to 65.2 percent in 2014 from 69.3 percent in 2004, while workers 55 and older is projected to rise from 15.6 percent to 21.2 percent during the same time period. This is mainly due to the aging baby-boom generation.
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Current BLS projections look at the U.S. labor market for the years 2004 to 2014. You can use labor market trends to learn who will be competing for available jobs. General labor market trends include these: The labor force is projected to increase by 10 percent, or by 14.7 million workers, through 2014. The U.S. workforce will become more diverse. Asians are expected to rise from 4.3 to 5.1 percent of the labor force, and African Americans should increase from 11.3 to 12.0 percent. Hispanics are predicted to be the fastest-growing group, increasing their share of the labor market by a projected 33.7 percent. By 2014 Hispanics will make up a larger portion of the labor force than African Americans. White, non-Hispanics are expected to decline slightly from 70 percent to 65.6 percent of the total labor force. While the majority of workforce participants will be between the ages of 25 and 44, the aging of the baby boom generation means the median age of the labor force will continue to rise. The greatest changes occur at the extremes of the age ranges in the labor force, with the most rapid growth being among workers over 45 years of age and among workers 16 to 24 years of age. Male participation in the workforce is expected to grow by 9.1 percent, a rate projected to be outstripped by 10.9 percent growth for women. The number of men in the workforce is predicted to drop from 53.6 to 53.2 percent, compared to an increase from 46.4 to 46.8 percent for women.
■ The Job Market The job market consists of the types of occupations in demand and the number of job openings these occupations are likely to offer. It is important to distinguish between occupations that are rapidly growing and those that employ large numbers of people. It is often suggested that rapidly growing occupations are “hot” careers, that is, occupations that will be in demand in the future. Rapid growth indicates more workers are finding employment in the occupation, but it does not mean that large numbers of people are employed in the occupation. In fact, occupations with the greatest growth are occupations that have employed fewer numbers of people. Compare the occupational projections between 2004 and 2014 for two occupations with similar earnings: computer software engineers (applications) and registered nurses. Computer software engineers will have a 46 percent growth rate from 2002 when there were 394,000 jobs, to 2012 when there are projected to be 573,000 jobs. This amounts to a little more than 170,000 job openings due to both job growth and a need to replace workers who retire or leave the profession. Registered nurses will experience only a 27 percent growth rate between
2002 and 2012; however, there were 2,284,000 jobs for registered nurses in 2002 and there are projected to be 2,908,000 jobs in 2012, an increase of more than 600,000 job openings due to both growth and replacement of workers. A growing demand does not necessarily indicate a larger number of job openings than an occupation with less growth. If many people are training to enter an occupation in response to a growing demand, a very competitive job market will result. The BLS’s 2004 to 2014 projections use the Standard Occupational Classification (SOC) system. Occupations are classified into 23 major categories. For a listing of these categories, see the section on the SOC in the earlier section “Government Classification Systems.” The BLS forecasts for the American job market from 2004 to 2014 include the following: By 2014, the BLS projects 18.9 million new jobs will be added to the economy for a total of 164.5 million jobs. This represents a 13 percent increase in employment. The new jobs, however, will be distributed unevenly across major industries and occupations. n Nearly 18.7 million of the 18.9 million new wage and salary jobs through 2014 will be in service providing industries, continuing a shift away from goods-producing occupations. n Approximately 3 out of 10 new jobs created by 2014 will be in education and health services, giving this industry supersector a faster projected growth rate (30.6 percent) than any other. Health care and social assistance occupations, child care services, and private educational services are among the areas expected to see the greatest increase. n Employment in professional and business services is projected to grow by 27.8 percent, adding 4.5 million jobs in business administration, science, and technical services. This includes some of the fastest-growing job fields, such as computer systems design and waste management. n Employment in information occupations is predicted to rise by 11.6 percent, with major gains coming in software publishing (67.6 percent); Internet publishing and broadcasting (43.5 percent); and Internet service providers, Web search portals, and data services (27.8 percent). n Overall growth of 17.7 percent is projected for leisure and hospitality occupations, with a 25 percent increase in the arts, entertainment, and recreation subsector. n Trade, transportation, and utilities employment is expected to grow by 10.3 percent. n
The Future World of Work
Computer and health care occupations are expected to experience the fastest growth rate, while much larger occupations like retail salespersons, postesecondary teachers, and customer service representatives are expected to add the largest number of jobs. n
Use information from professional associations and do information interviewing to learn about future trends in specific occupations. n
■ For More Information Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) http://www.bls.gov
■ Interpreting the Data These general trends represent only a fraction of projections for the future of work in America available from the BLS. Different forecasters interpret this data to reflect varying perspectives on working in America in the future. For example, one forecaster might reflect that the labor market’s growing number of people who have diverse origins and who will be in extremes of age groups means the future workplace will need experts in human relations who can help people work better together. Another forecaster might suggest that, since 56 percent of all jobs do not require postsecondary education but generally offer lower pay and benefits, the quality of work life is deteriorating. Since experts in forecasting can validly argue for different interpretations, it can be confusing to apply it to personal career development plans. Here are some general guidelines to follow: Making career decisions requires weighing multiple factors such as (1) personal job satisfaction, (2) training required to enter the occupation, (3) typical earnings in the occupation, and (4) opportunities for employment in the occupation. n The number of job openings, rather than the growth rate, will indicate how plentiful or scarce jobs are in an occupation. n Even occupations employing fewer people will have openings to replace workers who leave their jobs, which creates opportunities for employment for competitively trained workers. n Large numbers of openings available in occupations requiring short-term training to enter make it possible to have employment while obtaining further training. n Jobs in an occupational area across different industries have many skills in common, referred to as transferable skills. For example, employment of managers in manufacturing, construction, and government is expected to be reduced, but there will be a large number of jobs for executive, administrative, and managerial workers in the services industries, finance, insurance, real estate, wholesale and retail trade, and transportation, communications, and public utilities. n Consider self-employment. n
The U.S. Department of Labor provides a vast number of online resources pertaining to national and regional labor economics and statistics of the past, present, and future. Reports, surveys, and statistics offered here deal with such topics as the cost of living, the consumer price index, employment and unemployment, as well as projections, safety and health, foreign labor, and much more. You can order BLS publications from the Web site or you can read selections online. Some choices are abstracts, excerpts, and full texts of articles and chapters from Monthly Labor Review, Compensation and Working Conditions, Issues in Labor Statistics, BLS Handbook of Methods, and Occupational Outlook Handbook. Other site features include a list of links to federal and international statistical agencies, a keyword search page of the entire BLS site or portions thereof, and regional economic analyses. National Current Employment Statistics http://www.bls.gov/ces
The National Current Employment Statistics surveys approximately 160,000 businesses and 400,000 workers to provide detailed industry data on employment, hours, and earnings of workers. The site presents data in several different forms, including news releases, tables, and data sets. You’ll find reports addressing such issues as real earnings, the employment situation, and labor strikes and work stoppages. You can access statistics dealing with average hourly and weekly earnings, weekly hours, and overtime in various industries. Occupational Outlook Handbook http://www.bls.gov/oco
Many career research sites refer to Occupational Outlook Handbook and even use its data. Brought to you by the Bureau of Labor Statistics, this resource has all sorts of information to help you determine a career path. For particular occupations, you can learn about the nature of the work, working conditions, training required, job outlook, and earnings. If you need help, there’s a section that explains how to interpret the BLS projections and data. U.S. Department of Labor (DOL) http://www.dol.gov
The DOL deals with practically anything work related: wages, unemployment, health and safety,
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equal employment opportunity, child labor, and more. The Quick Guide gives you a table of contents, and there is also a site map with an alphabetical list of contents, either of which should help you figure out where you want to go in this vast resource. Along with background material and a history of the DOL, there is information on laws and regulations, press releases, access to federal statistics and data, and images of workplace posters. Links to the Web sites of the DOL’s many agencies are available as well. America’s Career InfoNet http://www.acinet.org
Here you can find information on the employment outlook and trends in the U.S. job market and wages. You can get data on occupations that are the fastest growing, have the most openings, have the largest employment, are declining in employment, or are the highest paying. For any of these categories, you can specify the level of experience required (work experience, postsecondary training, bachelor’s degree). Employment statistics are given for a recent year and then projections are made for a future date. Once you select a particular occupation (for example, maybe physical therapists, child care workers, cashiers,
photoengravers, or optometrists), you can then indicate a state in order to get data comparing the job market in that state with the national median and midrange. This is supplemented by descriptions of necessary knowledge and skills, prerequisite training and education, and tasks to be performed, as well as numerous links to relevant Web sites where you can get further information. Gary Johnson’s BraveNewWorkWorld and NewWork News http://www.newwork.com
This extensive resource features a wide assortment of international news, essays, and book reviews pertaining to employment and the economy of the future. Brief synopses are given for current and archived headline news stories, with links to full texts from major news providers. Topics deal with the current economic situation, job searching, mentoring, evaluating job search Web sites, and more. As you peruse the site, you will run across numerous recommendations for other sites where you can find additional information similar to that in the news stories and essay. Some of the best sites are highlighted in Web Tips.
Finding a Job Many people view looking for a job as a scary process. Other people enjoy the challenge. Whatever your outlook, the articles in this section will give you an overview of the many different ways you can approach your search.
Placement Offices
Government The U.S. Department of Labor (DOL) Employment and Training Administration (ETA) sponsors a number of programs in every state that offer placement services. These programs include, among others, Employment Services, One-Stop, Job Corps, and Job Training Partnership Act. Employment Services offices offer services at no cost to any person who can be legally employed in the United States. There may be eligibility criteria to qualify for other government programs. To use Employment Services it is usually necessary to go to its offices. It is possible to learn the location of DOT/ETA programs in any state through the Internet at http://www.servicelocator. org/nearest_onestop.asp. At these placement offices, you typically find a number of resources for the job search. Some of these might include
Placement offices offer many different services to help people find jobs. Employers who are hiring notify placement offices of their openings. Placement offices may also help you assess your skills and abilities and identify jobs for which you qualify. Services may be offered to help build job-seeking skills, such as dealing with job-search paperwork and correspondence, preparing to interview, organizing a job search, and developing personal marketing strategies. Some offer services such as keeping your resume and transcripts on file and sending them out to employers when you request it. The type and quality of services placement offices provide vary widely. Some offer a full range of career counseling while others do little more than list job openings.
n printed materials that provide general information about occupations and the skills needed to enter specific occupations n workbooks to help with the career-management process n standardized assessment instruments to identify abilities and aptitudes n Internet access and computer-delivered occupational and educational information n training seminars and workshops on specific career management and job search topics n support and networking groups for job hunters
■ Nonprofit Placement Offices Education Most educational institutions that offer training for occupations have placement services. The services offered by the institution’s placement office should factor into your decision to enroll in a training program, whether at a private career school, a community college, or a four-year college or university. An active placement office can be a critical asset in transitioning into an occupation after completing training. To use these placement offices, you usually must be enrolled as a student or be a graduate of the institution. Adults making career transitions sometimes do not realize they can often use placement offices of higher educational institutions from which they graduated. Sometimes community college placement services are offered liberally to local people or operate in conjunction with government-sponsored programs, so it is a good idea to check them out.
Be aware that it is unlikely that you will walk in and be told where to go to get hired for a job you want. Visits to these offices usually are most helpful if you initially can spend an hour or more without distractions. Bring paper on which to make notes. It may be necessary to visit the office more than once. It is helpful to have thought of career-management objectives to accomplish using the placement service’s resources. These might include
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assessing personal skills and identifying matching occupations n creating a list of skills developed in previous employment n exploring occupational opportunities and learning how to get training n identifying local employers and learning about their job openings n learning how to complete a job application n creating a resume n testing to be screened for employment openings n improving interviewing skills n
link to discover the kinds of career and job services that are offered to students and alumni of that institution, to see a list of upcoming on-campus career-related events and job fairs, or to learn about the school’s on-campus recruiting. Additionally, some of these sites contain information that can be valuable to you in your job search even if you don’t plan to attend the school. You’ll find, for example, descriptions of conducting career research, information interviews, resumes, cover letters, and much more. Your Career Placement Office http://www.collegegrad.com/book/
■ For-Profit Placement Offices Finding jobs for people is also a for-profit business. Sometimes employers pay for-profit placement services to find employees. These for-profit placement services are often called “headhunters.” They seek out highly experienced workers and try to find them positions with hiring employers. Workers who have little experience or who do not have advanced training are not likely to be placed by this sort of for-profit placement service. Often the profits are obtained from job seekers. There are several ways this can work. The for-profit placement service acts as a temporary employment agency that charges the temporarily placed workers. The fees may be a percentage of hourly earnings for as long as the worker is on the job. This can be a good way for newly trained workers to get work experience as they try to establish themselves in an occupation. Another way for-profit placement services to make money is by contracting for a percentage of the first year’s earnings of any employee who is placed. When these for-profit agencies are paid for by the job seeker, they are motivated to find a placement, but collecting their fees does not depend on the job being satisfactory. Job seekers who enter such a contract are obliged to pay this percentage whether or not they remain with the employer for a year. Job seekers should be cautious when entering into contractual agreements with for-profit placement agencies. Remember it is a common career dilemma to be in the right occupation but in the wrong job.
Brian Krueger’s book College Grad Job Hunter provides abundant information to help you in your job search. This site presents a particular chapter intended to help you better utilize your college career-placement office. Its main functions (career planning and career placement) are described. What job search related materials might you find in your career placement office? There is a list of services typically offered. You’re advised to develop an ongoing relationship with a placement counselor at your school. Then you will not only reap the benefits of the resources at hand, but you’ll have access to the counselor’s professional expertise and knowledge. Recruiters Online Network http://www.recruitersonline.com
Thousands of recruitment and employment firms are members of Recruiters OnLine Network. There are many ways that you, the job seeker, can use this extensive Web site. You can search for jobs by keyword, post your resume, seek out a particular recruitment firm, and browse the member firm listing by category and location. Most matching services look for jobs that might match your skills and needs, but Recruiters Online Network finds companies that may be able to help you find a job. Start tracking these companies today and improve your chances of landing a job in the future. Employment and Training Administration One Stop http://www.doleta.gov/usworkforce/onestop
■ For More Information JobWeb College Career Centers Page http://www.jobweb.com/Career_Development/collegeres.htm
Part of JobWeb, a huge career resource from the National Association of Colleges and Employers, this page contains a directory of links to the placement offices and career development centers of hundreds of colleges and universities in the United States, as well as a handful in Australia, Canada, and the United Kingdom. Follow a
This site provides links to many government-sponsored resources for the individual job seeker, including America’s Career Kit, a suite of four electronic tools including America’s Job Bank, America’s Career InfoNet, America’s Learning eXchange, and America’s Service Locator. There’s also information on looking for work with links to other sites and information on Apprenticeship, Job Corp, Welfare to Work, and other government-sponsored initiatives.
On-Campus Recruiting One of the services of college and university placement offices is to arrange for employers to come to campus to recruit new graduates. On-campus recruiting efforts typically include job fairs and on-campus interviewing. Job fairs, although they are sometimes organized around employment for specific academic majors, are usually open for anyone to attend. Sometimes campus recruiting efforts are aimed at specific academic majors or colleges. For example, all recruiters interested in hiring architecture majors may be scheduled to visit in a week or two-week block. Campus recruiting is very heavy in the spring when many students are graduating, but if the labor market is tight, and there is a shortage of qualified workers, recruiters will sometimes be on campus in both fall and spring terms. Usually, only students who are nearing graduation can participate in on-campus interviewing. Each placement office has slightly different procedures for students to meet interviewers on campus. Generally, you must file copies of your resume with the placement office. Lists of recruiters who will be coming to campus are made available, and you indicate to whom you want your resume sent. Because employers choose whom they wish to interview by looking at applicants’ resumes, it is important to have prepared a resume that gives a good impression of your skills and experiences. After reviewing the resumes, the recruiters notify the placement office of the names of students they want to interview. Recruiters come to the campus for interviews on specific days. The placement office contacts the students whom the recruiters want to interview and makes interview appointments. On-campus recruiting offers several advantages. Employers are glad to recruit on campuses because they find a pool of qualified, competitive applicants. As a student, being interviewed on campus gives you an “implied referral,” that is, recruiters who have had positive results hiring employees from an educational institution tend to look favorably at other applicants from that institution. You also save time and money by being able to interview for several jobs without having to travel to individual employers’ offices. You have the support of your placement services throughout your job search. Placement service staff should be able to help you identify jobs for which you might qualify, help you write your resume, and help target appropriate employers to apply for employment. Frequently, placement service staff can help you prepare
On-Campus Recruiting
for interviewing by making you aware of the types of interview questions you are likely to be asked and by doing practice or mock interviews with you. Before the interview, placement service office staff can help you learn about the businesses of employers with whom you will be interviewing. Placement services usually have copies of annual reports and promotional literature. You should come to the interview already knowing about some opportunities the employer offers its workers. Placement services staff usually know about the types of job offers that the employer has made to recruits in the past, so you can go into interviews having realistic expectations regarding job titles and salaries. On-campus recruitment may offer you the opportunity to interview with several potential employers. Interviewing is an art that must be practiced to develop skills. Each interview should be viewed as an opportunity, even if it is unlikely you would accept an offer from the employer. Never turn down an opportunity to interview. Always prepare for, and conduct yourself in, each interview as if you really wanted a job offer. Each interview will be a learning experience if you analyze your performance and its results. It is a good strategy to try to schedule interviews so those with employers who really interest you occur after you have had the chance to build interview skills by interviewing with employers of less interest to you. An on-campus recruiting interview is just like any other interview for a job. It is vital to come to the appointment on time and to be dressed professionally. A final advantage for students is that usually you will know several of your peers who are also participating in the oncampus interviewing. Not only can you offer each other support, but you can exchange information regarding the types of questions that interviewers are asking, the most favorable responses, what to avoid, and what seemed to work during the interview process.
■ For More Information There are many Web sites sponsored by specific businesses that provide information about their campus recruiting efforts and by colleges and universities that provide information about recruiting efforts on their campuses. Both types of sites are worth visiting as both frequently include tips for the student seeking a job through campus recruiting. Tips for Surviving Campus Recruiting Interviews http://www.campusaccess.com/campus_web/career/ c3job_onc.htm
Campus Access.com is sponsored largely by Canadian colleges and universities. It provides some tips for
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surviving your on-campus recruiting experience. This site also provides industry profiles, other job search tips such as on resumes and interviewing, and links to job search sites and to Canadian college and university college career centers. Online College Recruiting http://www.campuscareercenter.com
Students and employers can meet at this online campus career center. This site offers free registration for students who can use it for job seeking with the many businesses that register with it. There are many pages devoted to job seeking tips in detail, such as how to give a good handshake and what employers look for in candidates. Insider’s Perspective http://www.recruiter.com/campusrecruiting.cfm
Recruiter.com is a site for providing information for professional recruiters. The site includes a section devoted to recruitment on colleges and universities that provides an insider’s perspective.
Job Fairs Job fairs usually bring together many of a community’s employers. Schools or colleges, Chambers of Commerce, or employers themselves often sponsor job fairs. Employers each have a display booth staffed by representatives who talk about their job opportunities. People staffing the job fair booths are often responsible for the recruitment of employees. Job fairs are a good way to learn about the jobs available in occupations in various industries. You can also use job fairs to make the first contact with employers and to start to network. You should prepare yourself before going to a job fair with the personal marketing tools of business cards, resumes, and paper and pen. Business cards should indicate, at minimum, your name and contact information, such as mailing address, email address, and phone numbers. If you have been established in the occupation in which you are seeking work, use the occupational title on the card and indicate licenses or credentials you have. If you are not experienced, you should prepare cards for the job fair with a handwritten note indicating the type of job you are looking for. As a networking tool, business cards should be handed out liberally. Whether or not an employer offers jobs in your occupational area, you should give every employ-
er’s representative you speak with your business card. It is a good idea to bring copies of your resume to give to employers who have jobs similar to the one you are seeking. A drawback of this is that this resume can only represent your general skills and experiences rather than being tailored to a specific job description. Bring a small notepad and a pen to note the names and phone numbers of people you might want to contact later. Job fairs give you a chance to market yourself to employer representatives face-to-face. Marketing yourself at a job fair requires making a good first impression. In many ways, the job fair presents an opportunity that is similar to an interview. Attend the job fair dressed neatly and professionally: Look like someone an employer would want to hire. How you meet the people staffing the booth will be a big part of making a good impression. You cannot afford to be shy. Notice the name of the company before you approach the booth. Smile, give an appropriate greeting, and offer to shake hands, while stating your name and saying you are interested in learning more about employment opportunities with the company, using the company’s name. For example, “Good morning, my name is John Slingsby. I would like to know more about employment opportunities at Biltmore Industries.” The representative will probably tell you the nature of the business and the occupations in which its employees work. If the occupation in which you are looking for work is not mentioned, ask specifically if the company has any need for workers in your field. If not, ask if the representative knows of companies who hire workers in that occupation. It is important to listen carefully to answers to questions and to show attention. Representatives cannot allow one person to take too much of their time as they need to attend to all the people interested in their company. It is appropriate to return to booths when representatives are less busy. Be sensitive to the needs of the representative. No one ever made a good impression by detaining someone who may urgently require a break time. Job fairs are not times for information interviews. You must be sure you are asking questions that are pertinent and that you are asking the right person. If there is no time for an extended conversation, and you still have questions, ask if the representative can be contacted later. If the answer is yes, get a business card with contact information or make a note of the representative’s name and phone number. Job fairs are good opportunities for making that first contact and for networking. Do not expect that you will be able to sell yourself to employers during the short time you will be able to talk at the job fair. If you leave the job
Networking and References
fair with a better knowledge of employers who hire workers in your occupation, you have been successful. If you leave with four or five names of employers’ representatives to contact later, you have begun to network and have been very successful.
■ For More Information The 10 Keys to Success at Job and Career Fairs http://www.quintcareers.com/job_career_fairs.html
How should you prepare for that upcoming job or career fair you’re planning to attend? This Quintessential Careers site explains what you need to know in order to make the most of your job or career fair experience. This site provides tips on dress and preparing job search marketing paperwork, such as resumes and portfolios. There are also links to major organizers of career fairs. Job Fair Success http://www.collegegrad.com/book/11-0.shtml
Before you go to your next job fair, take a look at this chapter from Brian Krueger’s book College Grad Job Hunter. You’ll find job fair strategies and tips to help you stand out from the crowd and make a lasting impression. What is the one mistake that most job fair attendees make? They stand in line. If you’re wondering what to do instead, you’ll have to go to the site to find out. Information is also offered on the various types of job fairs you might attend and what you should bring along. For example, have you ever considered going to another college’s job fair?
Networking and References Every job seeker has probably heard that many job openings are not advertised but are filled by means of networking, sometimes known as “the hidden job market.” Networking, sometimes called personal networking, is a system of contacts for information and for support. Network contacts can help you by n giving personal and emotional support through difficult career transitions and job searches n sharing resources and ideas about personal marketing strategies n giving you letters of recommendation n being references
helping you contact other people who might be able to provide information n exchanging information about opportunities and job openings n
Networks are assets for career management throughout your life. Most people are involved in networks of some kind. They consist of acquaintances, friends, relatives, and family members. Networks that just naturally exist in most people’s lives are called informal networks. Networks that are most helpful in career development are referred to as professional networks. Career managers actively develop and cultivate members for their professional networks. It is never too late to start developing or expanding your network. Developing a network requires strategically applying psychological principles in your interactions with people consistently over time.
■ Principles of Networking Identify Your Motives and Your Mission Your network activities will be directed by the motives you have for networking. Your motives must be consistent with your entire career-management plan. That means if you want your networking to get you a job, you had better prepare for that opportunity by getting the best training and experience to qualify yourself. Networking can be useful when searching for a job, but networking can also help your career development even if you are not specifically looking for a job. Networks are a great way to learn because networks share information. Networking is a tool for information interviewing as well as a career developing activity that encompasses work and leisure aspects in life. Networking opportunities can be found in organizations formed for all sorts of purposes: political and social action, historical preservation, education, leisure activities, and job clubs. Libraries and Chambers of Commerce are good resources to use to identify groups that have purposes that interest you.
Give Back What You Get Networks operate on the principle of reciprocity. That means you must be willing to give as well as to get. Networking requires that you invest both time and money to develop and to maintain your network. Be prepared to volunteer your time to help the efforts of organizations when you are networking. Keep in mind the interests of people you meet who you want to be part of your network. Be alert to those topics and share any related information you come across. This means you take time to send a newspaper clipping or information about a conference to the person you know it will interest. Networking means you must give time to returning phone
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calls, responding to emails, going out to lunch, and going to meetings. To be part of a network, your actions must let people know you are a good networker. That is, you will look out for their interests and will be a good reference point, passing their names along when it is appropriate to do so.
Be Positive Networking is based on positive personality characteristics and attitudes. Be nice to everyone. Think of every stranger as a potential friend. Treat everyone with respect. Develop the habit of calling the person you are speaking with by name. People want to help people that they like, so be likeable. Try not to speak badly of anyone; negative gossip and rumors can hurt. Spread good news. Speak well of other people’s accomplishments and modestly of your own. Let people know you are thinking of them by contacting them at least once or twice a year. Let them know what you are doing and what you are interested in doing.
■ Networking Tools Business Cards Business cards are one of the most important tools for networking. Distribute them liberally. You want people to remember you and to contact you. You want them to pass your card to others with whom you share interests. A business card should provide, at minimum, your name and contact information, such as your mailing address, email address, and phone numbers. Because you want your cards to last when they are passed around, they should be printed on good quality durable paper. Standard size cards will be the easiest for other people to keep in their card cases or card files. There are many varieties of acceptable business cards. Your business card represents you and creates an impression of you. You might want to use different cards for different purposes. For example, if one of your leisure interests is science fiction, it might be appropriate to have a card with a space theme, but that card would not be appropriate for business contacts. Try to make your cards personalized expressions of yourself. That means you probably should not use clip art, but if you are an artist, one of your own designs would represent your unique talents. When in doubt, simple, easy-to-read lettering on high-quality paper is always in good taste.
Availability Email, answering machines, and answering services are ways for people to be able to leave you messages when you are not able to talk to them. Networking means you
need to make yourself available to other people. Email is particularly useful because it lends itself to quick and easy responses. Answering machines and voice mail are so commonly used today that people get annoyed when there is no way to leave someone a message. There is some monthly cost involved to maintain these tools, but their support of network activities makes them well worth it.
Cards and Letters The U.S. postal system is a vital networking tool. To let people know you are thinking of them, there is nothing like sending a quick note by mail. Mailing notes and letters is a great way to maintain your network. For example, sending a note to a speaker you heard at a meeting is a good way to recruit that person into your network. Mail newspaper articles and clippings to people you know are interested in the topics covered. Sending people cards on their birthdays and on holidays is good networking. Occasionally mail notes to let people know you are thinking of them. Tell them what you are doing and what you are interested in.
Organization It helps in your networking efforts if you are organized. Most people regularly keep up with fewer than 50 people. A good network should be as big as possible. That means keeping up some sort of regular contact with hundreds of people and treating each one as an individual. A computer database or old-fashioned index cards is a good tool to help keep track of every person in the network. Records of each person might include contact information information on family members n employment details n birthday n interests n where you met them n friends you have in common n the last contact you had with them n any materials you sent them such as articles or clippings n anything you have received from them n any people you referred to them or any people they referred to you n n
■ For More Information Networking http://discussion.monster.com/articles/mistakes
Here are some ideas about networking from Monster. com, a major career resource on the Internet. This article
Job Searching on the Web
outlines 13 common networking mistakes and what you can do to avoid them. You can also participate in the monster.com discussion boards to actually begin networking with employers and job seekers. More Ideas and Networking Links http://www.rileyguide.com/netintv.html
Margaret F. Dikel has compiled the Riley Guide to job search sites on the Internet that includes networking, interviewing, and negotiating guidance. The networking section contains information on what is networking, how to network on the Internet, articles about online networking and where to network online, and even links to guides to netiquette, or correct behavior on the Internet.
Job Searching on the Web The World Wide Web contains many sites related to career management and job search. Career counselors, educational institutions, employers, and government organizations sponsor these sites. The Web is a dynamic place, so addresses may change as sites become defunct and new sites are added. The Web can be a useful tool both for exploring occupational options, learning about career management, and conducting a job search. The Web offers sites that can help with self-assessment n matching occupations to your interests and requirements n exploring opportunities in a field n learning about the future of work and specific occupational outlooks n finding out where to get training for an occupation n determining if licenses or certificates are necessary to enter an occupation n identifying professional associations n finding job openings and learning more about individual employers n
To find job search sites on the Web, use any of the major Internet search engines, such as AltaVista, http://www.altavista.com n Google, http://www.google.com n Yahoo, http://www.yahoo.com n
Excite, http://www.excite.com n HotBot, http://www.hotbot.com n
You might even want to check out which of the search engines will service you best by looking at Squirrel.Net’s search engine comparisons (http://www.squirrelnet. com/search/ratings.htm). Keywords to search include “resume,” “jobs,” “career,” and “work.” Another strategy is to try searching on a specific field that interests you, such as “computer animation.” Or look for a particular company, such as “Disney.” There are also directories that list Web site addresses and provide descriptions of the site.
■ Guidelines There is an overwhelming amount of information on the Internet. If you do not know specifically what you are looking for, you can become bogged down looking at lots of sites without learning what you want to know.
Be Selective You do not have to go to every site to get a good picture of career-management information from the Web. If you enjoy surfing the Net, go ahead and do it. You will find there are many interesting places to visit. However, do not think that you need to explore every career site on the Web because you might miss that piece of information that will be magic to your career. Unfortunately, there is no magic in career management. Most career sites give you the same career guidelines: Know yourself. n Find an occupation that matches your interests, abilities, and skills. n Know the world of work, especially the occupation that interests you. n
Consider the Source and the Motivation of the Producers of the Sites Anyone can post information on the Internet. Thus, you can’t always be sure that what you’re reading is from a reliable source. Information from sites sponsored by government agencies, colleges and universities, and large employers is usually considered more reliable than information from a single individual. However, because many sites provide links to other sites, it can be easy to move from site to site and become confused as to where information originated (or what site you are on). Doublechecking any information with sources outside of the Internet is a good idea. Remember: Even though a site may use a name that sounds reputable, that does not mean it is necessarily credible.
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While there is a considerable amount of valid information that can be obtained on the Internet, most sites exist based on the profit motive. Producers of the sites either want to sell you a product or service or they want you to visit their site because they are selling advertising space on the site to other producers of goods and services. Be a careful consumer and comparison shop your local markets for products and services offered on the Web. You may be able to find them both closer at hand and cheaper in your own community.
Protect Yourself and Your Privacy Even on the Internet there are people who are looking to take advantage of others. When you are job seeking, you are looking for an opportunity, and that can make you vulnerable. Before you allow charges to be put on your credit card, you should always check the legitimacy of the claims, products, or services being offered. For example, a common Internet scam has been selling information about high-paying, hot job openings; that is, for a charge on your credit card, you will be emailed a listing of 20 to 30 job openings. Of course, there is no way for you to be sure these are legitimate openings for which workers are being sought. Other claims to be wary of are those of so-called “experts” who, for a fee, offer to post your resume or re-do your resume. It is often the case that you could post your resume yourself for no charge or that the resume will be no better than one you could create yourself. Chat rooms on the Internet provide forums for discussion and support about careers and job search experiences. It is again important to protect your privacy and to carefully consider what you are being offered. For example, there is a big industry that exists in America to sell sexually oriented materials. People who are young, attractive, and naive are liable to be recruited and exploited as workers in this industry, which claims to offer opportunities for careers in movies or modeling. It is a good idea to look for a job when you already have one, but at the same time, there are reasons not to let your current employer know you are looking for another job. Remember that Internet postings are not private. Frequently you have no way to control the many possible destinations of information that you list.
Know Your Field Consider how employers in your occupational area advertise their openings. It is unlikely you will have much success if you think you will log onto the Internet and find the right job for you without being aware of where job listings in your occupational field are best located. Many occupational fields have very traditional media through
which openings are advertised, and some of these charge fees for Internet access. For example, if you are looking for a position in higher education as a professor, or even as a residence life director, you could try accessing the personnel area of home pages for each college and university. It would be much easier to access the job listings of The Chronicle of Higher Education (http://chronicle.com). If you are a counselor, you might want to look at the American Counseling Association’s Web site (http://www.counseling.org), but to access listings of job openings, you must pay dues to become a member of the association. Using the Internet, you can research many companies that are big employers. Getting a job with one of these employers might well require you to make a geographic move. If you are unwilling to leave the area you are currently living in, it will probably be a more fruitful use of your time to go to your local chamber of commerce and learn about local employers than to explore job opportunities or to post your resume on the Internet. If you are willing to relocate to work for a particular employer or if you want to live in a particular city, you can use the Internet to learn about openings with that employer or look at the classified ads in a city’s major newspaper.
Use the Internet with Other Resources The Internet is a good place to explore and to use periodically as one of the tools of career management. Job openings on the Internet are bound to be very competitive because the Internet is a worldwide tool. You may be one among thousands of applicants, whereas a job opening advertised even in a major metropolitan newspaper may attract only hundreds of applicants. So it is important not to neglect other job search tools, like your personal network. Information posted about businesses and employers on the Internet is self-generated, so naturally it will have a positive slant. Looking at a business’s Web site before interviewing with that employer is valuable, but before accepting an offer with that employer, it would be more valuable to talk to some of their other employees than to read their Internet information.
■ For More Information Guide to Job Hunting on the Internet http://www.quintcareers.com/jobhunt.html
You will discover that the Web has a lot to offer in the way of job search–related resources as you explore this Quintessential Careers guide, which walks you through the process of conducting an online job search. Follow the steps to get information or go to recommended sites that deal with such topics as general career exploration, company
searching the classified advertisements
research, online networking, internships and summer jobs, posting a resume on the Web, job offer negotiations, salary calculators and surveys, and relocation. The Newspaper for Internet Job Hunters http://www.interbiznet.com/hunt
Interbiznet.com offers lst Steps in the Hunt, a frequently updated (almost daily) newspaper for job seekers on the Internet. You can get daily inspiration while searching for a job and find many tips on job searching in the archives. You might want to try one of their job search links. University Sites for Internet Research and Job Hunting The University at Albany Libraries site (http://library. albany.edu/usered/) can help you learn several different ways to find information, including on the Internet, via email discussion groups and newsgroups, URLs, browsing, subject directories, and search engines. You can learn how to compose queries using Boolean logic and get some advice on fine-tuning a search. Access is provided to other University at Albany Internet tutorials. The University of Wisconsin offers a site (http://steenbock.library.wisc.edu/ instruct/jobhdout.htm) that provides many links to job hunting resources on the Internet. These are just two examples of the many career sites sponsored by college and university libraries. Check with your own school or with schools that interest you to see what kind of information they offer. CDT’s Guide to Online Privacy http://www.cdt.org/privacy/guide
The Center for Democracy & Technology (CDT) has compiled this guide to online privacy issues. “Top Ten Ways to Protect Privacy Online” (http://www.cdt.org/ privacy/guide/basic/topten.html) describes several things you can do to ensure greater online privacy. Among the suggestions offered are making sure that your online forms are secure, rejecting unwanted cookies, and using encryption. Privacy (as described in the U.S. Constitution) fair information practices, and legislative protection are covered in other sections. Several legal and Internet terms are defined in a glossary. This is just a small part of the CDT site. If you want to find out more about the organization’s goals and activities, click on the home page link and browse from there. Privacy in Cyberspace http://www.privacyrights.org/FS/fs18-cyb.htm
This fact sheet, from Privacy Rights Clearinghouse, a Utility Consumers’ Action Network program, examines
various forms of online activities and services (private, semiprivate, and public). Email and Web site privacy issues are discussed. Recommendations are given for protecting your privacy. This includes advice and/or cautions concerning newsgroup participation, selecting a password, anonymous emailers, and encryption. Other site features are a glossary of Web terminology, contact information and URLs for organizations involved in online privacy issues, and links to relevant sites where you can find further information on some of the topics covered. Job Hunter’s Bible http://www.jobhuntersbible.com
This site is designed as a Web complement to Richard Bolles’s ever-popular guide for job hunters, What Color Is Your Parachute? You can take a test to learn about yourself and what sites are best for obtaining career counseling, read articles on the best way for job searchers to use the Internet, create and post your resume, look at sites that advertise job openings, and learn what to do when you exhaust the Internet and still haven’t found a job.
Searching the Classified Advertisements Classified advertising appears in many different contexts in the job search. The classified advertising sections of local newspapers are a source for thousands of job openings. Local medium and small employers seeking entrylevel employees are the most frequent users of classified advertising. Newspapers, such as those published by professional organizations, aimed at members of specific occupations may offer classified advertising sections also. Although these ads may appear in larger metropolitan area papers, they seldom appear in small local newspapers. Some Internet postings may appear as “classified advertising.” Sometimes these are, indeed, the same listings as those that appear in a newspaper and sometimes they are specific to the Internet. Traditional classified advertising and its use in the job search is covered in this section. Classified ads vary depending on the newspaper in which they appear. Large metropolitan areas have large classified sections. If you live in a rural area with several
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competing small newspapers, it may be necessary to check each one. Sunday papers have the greatest number of listings, but listings that appear during the week may represent an employer who really needs workers. Classified ads are usually presented in occupational categories such as Accounting & Bookkeeping, Clerical/Office, Computer/Data Processing, Food Services, Medical/Dental, Sales, Technical/Trade, and General Help. It may be wise to check various sections because the section of the papers in which an ad runs may indicate an employer’s type of business rather than the job’s occupation. For example, under Medical/Dental, you may find listings for receptionists and cashiers to work in medical offices.
■ What Are They Saying? Traditional classified advertisements use abbreviations that need to be decoded to understand what the employer is seeking. Here are examples of some commonly used abbreviations: FT: Full-time work, traditionally a 40-hour workweek. PT: Part-time work, meaning less than 40 hours per week. Most part-time work does not include benefits (abbreviated benes.), such as health insurance or paid vacation time. To avoid paying benefits, many employers will offer entry-level employees part-time work that is just a few hours short of a 40-hour week. Flex. hrs./some weekend: Means workers should expect to work irregular schedules, Saturdays, Sundays, and on holidays. In production jobs, 2nd shift or 3rd shift indicates late afternoon to evening and night working hours, respectively. Exp. pref.: Experience preferred. This is not an entrylevel position. The employer is seeking an experienced worker. Sometimes ads will specify qualifications such as, “type 80+ WPM,” which means, “must type at least 80 words per minute.” Expect that a speed test for typing will be required when you submit an application. Employers often indicate specific skills they are seeking, such as “Good phone, typing, data entry, listening skills required.” This suggests the workers in this position will be dealing with customers, possibly by taking orders over the telephone. Applicants interested in this position would do well to emphasize previous experiences in which they used these skills. Employers usually list any other requirements, such as licenses, certificates, or registrations, the worker must have. A good driving record, that is, one without moving violations, is often required for workers in delivery jobs. Drug test or drug free means applicants
will be screened for use of illegal substances. Clues to interview questions can be found in phrases such as “dependable transportation required,” which suggests applicants will be asked how they intend to travel to work each day. Sal. low teens: This means the job will pay between $11,000 to $15,000 per year. Sometimes yearly salaries will be given with a K behind them, such as 20K, meaning the job will pay $20,000 per year. Min. wage: Means the current minimum wage ($5.15 per hour), often offered to entry-level workers. Commission: Workers in sales jobs are often paid by commission, meaning the salesperson earns a percentage of each sale. Sales workers’ incomes may depend entirely on their commissions or they may be offered salary plus commission. In these cases, ads sometimes indicate a figure with a plus sign behind it, such as “$15,000+,” meaning it is possible, but not guaranteed, to earn this wage. Pay negotiable, depending on experience: Means that to obtain the best wages, you should be aware of the current rate of pay for people in this occupation who have similar jobs, and you should be ready to emphasize your experiences that increase your value as an employee. It is important to know how workers in the job are paid. Many people think that all jobs must pay at least minimum wage, but this is not the case. For example, waiters frequently receive an hourly pay much lower than minimum wage because they are expected to make tips. Good benes.: The employer offers benefits in addition to wages or salary. Benefits can include paid holidays and/or paid vacations, health insurance, tax deferred savings and/or retirement accounts, which are indicated by 401(k). A good benefits package can increase the value of the income from a job by 33 percent. Since most benefits are offered based on the employer’s package, they do not tend to be negotiable, but that doesn’t mean you can’t try. However, when an employer does not offer benefits, it could be a factor in negotiating for higher wages.
■ Who Is This Employer? Some ads give the name of the employer and specify “no phone calls.” This means the employer expects workers to apply at the place of business, often on a specified date during given times. In these cases, show up as early as possible, dressed for and prepared to work. Be ready to fill out a job application. To be able to prove you can legally work in the United States bring two forms of identification, such as your driver’s license and social
security card. You may be hired on the spot if you can start immediately. Some ads indicate the employer desires workers in many different occupations. They may or may not note “fee paid.” Often these are ads of temporary employment services seeking workers. When you respond to such an ad, you should clarify immediately if there is a fee for job placement and, if there is, who pays it. Temporary employment agencies can offer entry-level job seekers a way to begin to build work experience. If you are applying at a temporary agency, you can expect that you may need to successfully pass some form of testing of your abilities, such as demonstrating you can perform common clerical tasks like alphabetizing. Often the agency will charge the worker they place in a temporary position a percentage of the job’s hourly wage. Sometimes the employer requesting the worker will pay the temporary agency’s fee. Other ads are referred to as blind ads, that is, they ask the applicant to respond by sending a resume to a post office box. Giving the box number hides the name of the employer. Post office rules require the postmaster to identify any box holder who is not an individual to anyone who asks; however, often the employer will require a response in care of (c/o) a box held by the newspaper. It may be impossible to determine to whom you are applying for a job, so responding to blind ads should be undertaken with caution. Sometimes there is no job at all behind the blind ad. It may be a means to get you to send information about yourself to someone who is running job search scams. Even if there is a job opening, it can be awkward applying for a job when you do not know the employer. What if you end up applying to your current employer who does not know you are looking for another job?
Searching the Classified Advertisements
Other ads may urge you to call a representative at a local hotel or motel on a certain day, or to call a certain person at a certain number. Be wary because most employers do not encourage applicants to call. Sometimes these are not advertisements for job openings at all. They may be ads to recruit for training programs. Or you may find yourself facing a high-pressure pitch to use this opportunity to buy into selling a product by investing in a start-up inventory. There may be a section in the classified ads headed Job Information. While these ads may appear to be offering work opportunities, they are usually trying to sell a service, such as providing you with job listings, for a fee. Watch out for scams. For example, you may see an ad that states “Federal Employment Information Is Free” and lists a 900 telephone number, which costs more than $2 per minute, to call for this free information. Many classified ads indicate that applicants should send resumes to a specific employer and give the business address. Employers who identify themselves give people applying an opportunity to find out about the business before applying.
■ For More Information Using the Classifieds The Alameda County Library Look Smart Job Search, http://www.aclibrary.org/jobsearch/default.asp?topic= JobSearch&cat=FindaJob, provides an interesting site that points out the advantages and disadvantages of classified advertising for both the employer and job seeker. It discusses what happens when you respond to an ad and provides links within the site for information on writing better job search correspondence to increase your chances of being selected for an interview.
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Applying for a Job Applying for a job is the quintessential first-impression experience: You don’t get a second chance. To help you make the most of it, the articles in this section give you an overview of the basics.
The Resume
to work on it over a period of time, usually several weeks to a month. Keep a file. Keep a resume-writing file. As your career develops, your resume will change. You can make the process of redrafting your resume easier by keeping a file of references to remind you of academic course work, job descriptions, and projects you completed in both work and volunteer experiences. Specific skills. Write descriptions of the specific skills you have gained in educational, work, and volunteer experiences. You need to both summarize skills and generate broad skill categories. See the “Describing Job Skills” section that follows for help in this area. Format. Decide on the best format after reading about formatting the resume. Content. Decide on the content areas you want to use. Layout. Design a layout. Critique. Let other people critique your resume for you. They can double-check for grammatical and spelling errors. They might make suggestions for layout or even how you can better emphasize skills. Redo. Keep recreating your resume. Tailor it for specific job openings. Change or rearrange headings of job skills categories. Redesign the layout. Keep it up to date, reflecting current information about your career.
Most people find writing a resume one of the most difficult aspects of the job search. Either they do not think they will do it right or they are not confident they can represent their skills on paper. Career counseling experts say, “The best resume is one that gets an interview.” Employers want to interview the applicants they think have the skills to do their jobs. Smart job seekers tailor their resumes to highlight their skills that match those the employer is seeking for the position. The best resume conveys your skills to an employer and reflects your experiences to document how those skills were acquired and have been used. There are many books on writing resumes, and you can also find tips on the Internet; however, there is no one right way to do it. Different references provide different slants on what should be on a resume. It is more important to know the practice of the occupation, that is, what the resumes of other people applying for the same sort of jobs look like. You want your resume to stand out because your skills make you the most competitive, not because your resume looks different from others.
■ The Process of Writing a Resume You are the person who is best able to create your own resume because no one knows your abilities and your work experiences better than you do. Although hiring a resume writing service may seem appealing, remember that your resume can only work with the information you provide. Many people find it difficult to translate what they have done in a job into the language of the resume. It is helpful to approach this task in a step-bystep process.
■ Describing Job Skills Begin drafting your resume by reviewing your work and volunteer experiences. List them by dates and details such as organization name, address, job titles you had, and major projects in which you were involved. Then go back and, under each experience, brainstorm, visualizing what you did in your work there. Write step-by-step lists of what you did in each experience. For example, a list describing working in a restaurant as a waiter might look, in part, like this:
Take your time. Allow time to write a resume. This is not a project that can be completed in a couple of hours. It usually takes several drafts before a usable resume is produced and several more attempts before it is fine-tuned to communicate what you want. So plan
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greeted customers took orders from customers, gave orders to kitchen and bar
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Applying for a Job
prepared salads n served salads and bread n picked up drinks from bar n served drinks n picked up salad bowls and carried to dishwasher n picked up food ordered from kitchen n served food n presented bills and took payment to cashier n picked up dishes from table and took to dishwasher n
Do not worry right now about the language you are using to describe what you did. The idea is to remember as completely as possible all the work activities in which you have been involved. Go to the library. When you have lists of what you did that show job skills, it is time to start using references. Identify your work by the occupational titles appropriate for each job. Also identify the occupational title of the job you want. Check references, such as Occupational Outlook Handbook (OOH) and Encyclopedia of Careers and Vocational Guidance (ECVG) for their descriptions of job duties you can use to model your resume. For example, the ECVG article “Food Service Workers” says waiters seat the customers, present them with menus, suggest choices from the menu, inform the customers of special preparations and seasonings of food, and sometimes suggest beverages that would complement the meal. Waiters take customers’ orders, serve food and beverages, calculate bills and collect money, clear and clean tables and counters, replenish supplies, set up table service, and clean service area and equipment. You can use these descriptions of job duties to help you make your own lists of action verbs and descriptions of duties. Look at real job descriptions. These can be found in personnel offices of large employers and on the Internet. Classified ads also provide brief descriptions of job skills employers seek. Ask employers who have an opening if you can have a job description of the position for which you would like to be hired. Summarize. Summarize the work activities from your own list into categories and write a sentence starting with an action verb describing them. For example, in the waiter’s list, it can be summarized that the waiter “served food and drinks customers ordered.” These summaries are the basis for your resume. A chronological resume uses summaries of job duties for each job held. A functional resume requires the job duties be sorted into broad job skill categories. It is easy to generate job skill headings when you know the job description that the employer is trying to fill. Look at the skills that are being emphasized and tailor your headings appropri-
ately. Consider different headings that might describe your skills. If you get stuck, think of sorting your jobs skills into the headings that deal with data, people, and things. For example, sorting the job duties of the waiter results in major skills categories such as customer service, food preparation, facility maintenance, and cash handling.
■ Formatting the Resume There are two basic formats for resumes and lots of variations on these formats. The formats are different ways of presenting the same information: the basic content of job skills. Which format is best for you depends on factors such as the common usage in your occupational area and your own work history.
Chronological This format presents the work history in the order of occurrence from most recent to earliest. At the end of the basic drafting process, you should have a listing of the jobs you have held, the dates you held them, and where you were employed in each one. This, with the job description, is the basis of the chronological resume. Advantages of the chronological format are as follows: n It is traditional and most familiar to employers. It is the easiest to create. n It can convey the impression that you are both dependable and an achiever if you show continuous employment in positions of increasing responsibility.
Reasons chronological format may not be the best choice are as follows: n If you have held many jobs with similar duties in the occupational area in which you are seeking employment, your resume can become quite long and repetitive. n If you have not had a history of continuous employment in an occupational area, it is easy to see when you have not been employed or when you were employed in an occupation other than the one in which you are seeking employment.
Functional This format groups work experiences together to emphasize job skills by categories or headings. For example, a person who has had various positions in computing jobs might use these skill headings: database management, systems analysis, network maintenance, and programming. A college professor might use these headings: teaching, research, and project management and program evaluation. An executive secretary might use: com-
The Resume
puter operations, convention and conference planning, and administrative management. When people first started using functional format resumes, they only described job skills without detailing work experiences. Most employers want to know where and when job skills were gained, so contemporary functional resumes usually include a listing of employment experiences. Sometimes this is referred to as a combination format. Functional resumes are best for workers who have substantial skills in certain areas and who have had considerable job experience. Functional resumes offer the following advantages: Skills headings emphasize job qualifications. Applicants can tailor skills presentation to job openings. Employers do not have to look at each job title and work experience to try to determine if the applicant has the skills being sought. n Descriptions under skills headings put major accomplishments first and more routine job duties last. n Workers who want to transfer skills from one occupation to another benefit from using a functional format that emphasizes skills rather than job titles. n Interruptions in employment are not as obvious when a functional resume is used. n
Reasons why the functional format may not be the best choice are as follows: n Entry-level employees may not have enough work experience to have developed skills in several broad areas. n Employers like to see where and when you have held employment. This objection can be overcome by including a listing of work experiences. n You know the employer is hiring for a job title you have held in previous employment but you do not know the specific skills the employer wants.
■ Contents of the Resume What to Include Contact information. If employers cannot contact you, they cannot interview you. To be of any use, your resume must clearly provide your name and ways of contacting you: traditionally, your mailing address and phone numbers (be sure you have provided a number to an answering service or machine when you are not available to respond to calls). It is also helpful to include a fax number and email address. Because this information is most important, it should be at the top of the resume.
Objective. An objective states what your employment goal is, such as “to obtain an entry-level administrative assistant position requiring database skills.” Some experts suggest including an employment objective. Others suggest that it is obvious that your objective is to get the job for which you are applying. An objective might work for you if it closely matches the job duties and will definitely work against you if it does not. The job skills you present will have greater weight in your fit with the duties than your objective. An objective is not mandatory. Using an employment objective may be considered a trend that is passé. Job skill content. A chronological resume presents job skills as they were acquired in work and volunteer experiences in order from most recent to least recent. Traditionally, a chronological resume describes each experience in the following order: dates of employment, job title, employer’s name and address, and summary of job duties. A functional resume presents specific job duties under broad skill headings. Work experience. When you use a functional resume, a work experience section listing dates of employment, job titles, and employers’ names and addresses comes after the job skills content. There may be variations of work experiences such as volunteer experience, internships, or community service. In every case, the dates of involvement, the organization’s name and address, and job titles or projects are indicated. Education. The list of educational experiences includes dates attended, names of the educational institutions, major courses of study, diplomas or degrees earned, and any honors earned. Professional credentials. These include any licenses, certifications, or registrations you hold. This section may also include affiliations with professional organizations. Other relevant information. If you have had an article published in a professional journal or have received awards from professional organizations, it is appropriate (and it may be important) to note it on your resume. Keep in mind your resume is a tool to market yourself. You want to list any information pertinent to your work achievements.
What Not to Include Resume writing is a dynamic art form. What is trendy and promoted one year falls out of fashion and is not used the next. Including an Employment Objective section is a good example of a fashion that was used in the 1980s but is not current today. Today’s resumes do not usually include the following: Personal information. Much personal information is in the category of protected, that is, characteristics or
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preferences on which individuals cannot be discriminated against. Other personal information is simply not relevant. If you believe personal information is pertinent to the job, such as your participation in a variety of sports if you are applying for a job at a sporting goods store, you have the option to include it, but remember resumes are tools employers use for screening, so volunteering personal information may work against you. References. Employers will specify if they desire the names and contact information of references. It is assumed that you will be able to provide references, so it is gratuitous to note “References available by request.”
■ Resume Layout There is considerable leeway in resume layout and design. Design considerations may be occupationally specific. For example, a design appropriate to applying for jobs in creative occupations, such as the arts or advertising, might not be acceptable to applying for jobs in finance or management. Resume layout and design issues probably generate the greatest variance in experts’ opinions, yet layout and design changes are easy to make. Remember that there is no one right way to create a resume. Applying for different types of jobs may require different types of resumes. If the resume gets the applicant an interview, it is a good resume. Following are some suggested guidelines. Shorter is better. Employers are busy people whose screening may be no more than a glance at many resumes. This is one reason why functional resumes are popular; their headings highlight job skills. A chronological resume can have a similar effect by highlighting job titles. Resumes need to get the message across quickly. Some experts swear by one-page resumes, others allow not more than two. But when applying for some positions, longer resumes are acceptable; for example, colleges and universities request applicants who want to be professors to submit a form of resume called a curriculum vitae that typically is more detailed and, consequently, much longer. Paper. Use high-quality paper that is conservative in color, usually white, ivory, buff, or gray. It is usually recommended that all job search correspondence—cover letters, resumes, and thank-you notes—be on matching paper and have matching envelopes. White space. Keep a balance between print and white space. It is good for a resume to look substantial, as opposed to scant, but it is not desirable for a resume to look crowded. Standard, easy-to-read fonts are preferred. Avoid italics and script, gothic, or block fonts. Some variation in type size and the use of bold and underline type is usually considered appropriate to emphasize headings or job titles.
■ Submitting the Resume There are several choices for delivering your resume to prospective employers. Most job seekers use regular mail, but more and more employers are accepting and encouraging email and fax transmissions. It is recommended that if you use electronic transmission, you also send a printed copy by regular mail. Place your cover letter on top of your resume and, if samples are requested (such as writing or design samples), place them at the bottom of the pile. Stapling or taping sheets together is not recommended, so make sure your name appears on each page. Use an envelope that is the same size as your paper so that you don’t have to fold it. Some experts recommend that you hand deliver your resume to ensure that it arrives undamaged. If you choose this method, however, don’t ask to speak directly with the person to whom you are delivering your package. You most likely will be denied, and you may make a negative impression by interrupting the schedule of a busy person. Leave your envelope with the receptionist or front office personnel. When working on your resume, it’s best to prepare both print and electronic versions. Although most employers accept resumes via email, there are many that prefer a print copy. For the electronic version of your resume, use a standard word processing application and a plain text format. Set the margins so that lines are no more than 65 characters (to stay within email length-of-line restrictions). With plain text you will not be able to use bullets, boldface type, or italics, so make sure the layout of your resume is readable without these features. Save the file as an ASCII or plain-text (.txt) document and name it using your last name. Don’t label it “resume,” as it could become lost among the dozens of email applications a company receives that are all labeled resume. Include the cover letter with the resume in one file. An employer may indicate that you can send an email resume as an attachment and specify which programs are acceptable, such as Word or WordPerfect. It is recommended that if you send your file as an attachment, you also copy and paste it into the text of your email message. In the subject line of your email message, include the job title and/or reference number. Follow up a week later with an email or a phone call.
■ For More Information Best College Resumes http://collegegrad.com/resumes/resumes.shtml
This step-by-step resume guide helps you develop a resume. It presents topics such as “A New Perspective on
Cover Letters
Resumes,” “The Very Best Way to Create a Resume,” “Two Words Never to Use on Your Resume,” and lots of tips on proofing your resume and making it irresistible. There are resume writing checklists and even a free critiquing service. Resume Tutor http://www1.umn.edu/ohr/careerdev/resources/resume/
This tool helps you create a resume through an online workbook setting. You are given a choice of resume formats: traditional (or reverse chronological), functional, or combination. (If you don’t know what they look like, check out the examples.) For whatever the topic or question posed (regarding career objective, qualifications summary, work experience, etc.), you fill in specified fields with the relevant information, which is then gathered into a sample resume to be presented in your browser window in the format you selected. In an attempt to further clarify the process, advice is given and/or comments are made in response to the information you placed in the various fields. This is a straightforward and relatively painless way to begin assembling a resume. eResumes & Resources http://www.eresumes.com
Rebecca Smith, author of Electronic Resumes & Online Networking, explains the pros and cons of various types of electronic resumes: ASCII (plain text, rich text, or hypertext), keyword, and scannable. The site contains samples of good resumes and cover letters, as well as many articles and tutorials on writing these important job-search documents. How to Write a Masterpiece of a Resume http://www.rockportinstitute.com/resumes.html
Rockport Institute’s founder, Nicholas Lore, provides this excerpt from his book, The Pathfinder: How to Choose or Change Your Career for a Lifetime of Satisfaction and Success. This site provides tips on what a resume is and isn’t, guidelines for creating a visually appealing resume, and what should and should not appear on the resume.
Cover Letters Cover letters are also called letters of interest. They are business letters that enclose resumes for consideration for hiring. No resume should be sent without a cover letter that specifies the position for which you are applying. The cover letter tells why you are interested in the
job. It is another opportunity to market yourself to the employer. Remember, most employers receive many applications for each job opening. Usually, employers only want to interview the top three to five job applicants. In the first glance at a cover letter the decision is made to reject it or to look at the resume. The best cover letter works with the resume to get you an interview. As with resumes, there is no one right way to write a cover letter. Generally, the format of cover letters must be neat, business like, and without errors. The content must be succinct, persuasive, and relevant to the employer. Usually, the letter of interest in the job, or cover letter, is a single page that covers an enclosed resume. Like the resume, you can find many books and Web sites that offer tips on how to write a cover letter. Following are some suggested guidelines for the content and format of the cover letter.
■ Format of the Cover Letter The cover letter is a business letter. That means it should include the basic elements of the business letter: return address or letterhead address date of composition n title (Mr., Mrs., Ms., Miss, or Dr.) and name of the addressee, that is, the person to whom it is being sent n job title of the addressee n name and address of the business or company n salutation line, such as Dear [title and name of addressee] n body of letter n closing n signature of the sender and typed name of the sender n n
It is a good idea to have some stationery printed for your job search. The same stationery (or high-quality paper) should be used for all job search correspondence (resumes, cover letters, thank-you notes) and envelopes should all match. Printed stationery should be personalized with your name and address at the top. You may prefer that your cover letter indicates the return address of your current place of employment, but put all job search correspondence on your own stationery or paper. When you apply for jobs on your current employer’s letterhead stationery, it creates the impression you will take an employer’s property for personal use. You may use either the block or indented form of the business letter but be consistent throughout. Use the type font that matches your resume. It is preferable to address the cover letter to an individual. Sometimes it is necessary to make a phone call
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to inquire to whom the letter should be addressed. Make sure you get the spelling of the person’s name correct, along with his or her correct job title. At times, it is impossible to find out the name of the person who will get and screen the cover letter and resume. In those cases, it is best to use either gender neutral or gender inclusive salutation lines, such as Dear Search Committee Chairperson, Dear Personnel Manager, or Dear Sir or Madam. To Whom It May Concern is usually considered too impersonal. The language of the body of the cover letter is formal. Do not use abbreviations. Proofread the cover letter to be sure it does not contain grammar or spelling errors. The closing line of the letter should be one of those commonly used for business correspondence: Very truly yours, or Yours very truly, or Sincerely.
■ The Contents of the Cover Letter You want to market yourself in the cover letter, so what you say should be specific to the position you are applying for and the skills you can bring to that job. A general rule is that the cover letter should be used not to tell what you want but to tell what you can do for the employer. If you are responding to an advertisement, emphasize your experiences and skills that match the described job’s qualifications. The marketing strategy you use depends on your skills, on what you know about the employer’s business, and on the usual practices of the occupation in which you are applying. Content considerations for the cover letter include the following: Position. Specify the job opening for which you are applying and where you heard about it. This is usually the first line of the cover letter. You want to immediately create a favorable impression with the reader. One strategy is to use the name of a person the reader knows and respects. For example, “Mr. Frank Jones, the marketing director at [name of employer’s business], told me that you will be launching a major campaign this spring and will need experienced, motivated salespeople.” Another strategy is to create a pleasant feeling of obligation in the reader, such as “Thank you for considering my application for the position of executive secretary that was advertised in today’s Morning News.” Some experts suggest using hard-sell or exciting approaches, such as “You can stop looking at applications for that take-charge restaurant manager because here she is.” Approaches of this nature had some popularity in the past but are not currently in vogue. References. Use the name of any reference that creates a commonality between you and the employer. This is when your personal networking comes into play. People like people who know people they know and like. For
example, “Ms. Elisabeth Blesamy, whom I have been working with to arrange the Red Cross’s charity ball, told me you need a conference organizer with my skills.” Job description. Restate the language of the job description. Do not be afraid to use the same words. For example, an ad might specify “must be skilled in desktop publishing and graphic design including familiarity with Quark XPress and Photoshop.” Respond specifically, “I use Quark XPress to lay out the monthly newsletter for the North Mountain Photo Club. Scanning and using Photoshop lets me format all the members’ photographs, including some that need restoration and touch-up. I also use Illustrator to create original graphics for the newsletter.” Vary structure. Since you are marketing your own accomplishments, it can be challenging not to start all the sentences in the body of the cover letter with I. But note the example above interspersed a sentence beginning with an action verb between two sentences starting with I. Try to vary the sentence structure to avoid seeming egotistical or repetitive. Ask for a meeting. End by expressing your desire to meet to further discuss your qualifications and provide contact information such as your phone numbers and email address. Some experts advise you to say when you will follow up with a phone call. If you say you are going to call, you should do so as stated to show you are dependable. But unless you think you can further sell yourself, it is probably best to let the employer contact you. Most people do not like to have to give bad news. Most employers do not like to tell applicants that they are not interested in interviewing them and will usually tell you other candidates were more competitive. Few employers have the time to tell you what you should have done to get an interview, that is, how you should revise your cover letter or resume or what skills you need to present or develop. Nor will employers generally refer you to someone else who might be interested in hiring you. So unless you are the type of person who can make a very positive impression during a phone call, let the employer call you.
■ For More Information Cover Letter Tutorial http://www.quintcareers.com/cover_letter_tutorial_map.html
This detailed tutorial is from Quintessential Careers. You can start from the very beginning and learn about cover letter basics (why and when to use one and what kinds there are) and work your way through to the very end (writing tips and letter formatting). Or you can skip around the various topics listed in the outline. A brief step-by-step explanation tells what to discuss in each paragraph of your letter. But what do you do if
The Career Portfolio and Credentials
you have little actual job experience? You’ll learn how to make the most of college experience in your cover letter. Having college students in mind, guidance is offered on how to present academic and extracurricular activities as being relevant to a work situation. This material will come in handy down the road if you decide to switch career paths and don’t feel as if you have any related experience. And there’s still more, including examples of what to avoid (negativity, rambling), what to stress (your knowledge about the company, your skills and qualifications), and ideas for opening and closing paragraphs. Descriptions of commonly made mistakes and poor cover letters, along with suggested corrections, are also included. 200 Letters for Job Hunters http://www.careerlab.com/letters
This site has more than 200 cover letters and other jobrelated correspondence samples for you to dig through. Categories of letters include letters of introduction (or sales letters), letters in response to want ads, followup letters, letters asking for a reference, letters seeking a salary increase, and much more. Go to the section that interests you (say, for example, the one on cold calls) and you’ll find plenty of advice about how to get your foot in the door, plus those cover letters! The letters in this particular section demonstrate how to sell yourself by focusing on your skills, how to approach a company you’re especially interested in working for, and how to put together a blitz campaign (when you send a series of letters to a specific employer). Many letters are supplemented by suggestions for improvement or explanations of how they can be used in different industries. Note, however, that you will have to pay a registration fee to gain full access to all of the letters on the site. In addition to the site’s wide assortment of sample letters, you will also discover some useful advice about conducting a job search when you’re in a hurry, organizing your ideas before you write, and how to follow up your letter, along with a list of commonly made mistakes in letter writing. More Tips for Writing Cover Letters http://www.career.fsu.edu/ccis/guides/write_eff.html
Florida State University’s Career Center provides this excellent tip sheet on writing cover letters. It includes do’s and don’ts, how to format letters, and sample letters. There is also information on how to respond to a classified ad, thank you letters, letters of acknowledgement, and letters to accept or decline a job offer. There’s also a list of bibliographic resources at the end.
The Career Portfolio and Credentials A career portfolio is a collection of documents that prove your skills, abilities, and achievements. It is a record of your personal career development. It is like a resume in scrapbook form. A portfolio can be a useful job search marketing tool because it provides examples of what you have achieved with the skills you are selling. Portfolios have a long history of use by people in creative arts, engineering, and education occupations. Portfolios of actors and actresses include playbills from productions in which they had roles and photos of them in costume for various parts. Models use portfolios to show pictures of their employment in advertising campaigns or in fashion shows. Journalists and writers put article series, short stories, and lists of their publications in their portfolios. Portfolios allow artists and photographers to show samples of their work. Today’s computer graphic designers sometimes present their portfolios on disk. In today’s job market, using a portfolio can give job applicants in any occupational area a competitive edge. Many high schools and some colleges require their students to assemble portfolios as a graduation requirement. Developing the portfolio can help you in the following ways: It serves as a reminder of what you accomplished in previous jobs or in volunteer experiences. People making career transitions may know they have the ability and skills to enter a new occupation but lack documentation. A portfolio captures what abilities were used and when skills were developed. n It shows how your skills and abilities have resulted in achievements and accomplishments. n It builds confidence as you prepare for an inter view. n
■ Materials for a Portfolio What you finally put in your portfolio depends on what skills and abilities you want to emphasize. Examples of materials that should be saved for a portfolio include transcripts of educational course work completed diplomas, certificates, and degrees earned n certificates of achievement and other awards n thank-you letters and letters of commendation n n
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job evaluations and work performance records programs from conferences and conventions that you helped organize n newspaper articles covering your achievements n promotional materials of any workshop or seminar you conducted n work samples, such as pages showing database setup, homepages designed, desktop published newsletters, lesson plans, and writing samples n professional licenses, certificates, and registrations n letters of recommendation n n
Get in the habit of taking and keeping lots of photos. Take photos of products built, presentations, events such as fund-raisers organized, bulletin boards created, or interiors that you decorated. Also collect photos of you on the job and with coworkers. Putting photos, such as one showing you receiving an award, next to the actual award certificate makes your portfolio more alive as it captures the moment. Photos can make a portfolio interesting by showing how you have matured throughout your career development. Photos can also reflect qualities employers desire, such as working successfully with people from diverse backgrounds.
■ Assembling a Portfolio Portfolios should be easy to customize for the job interview and to carry to the interview. Portfolio materials must be preserved in a format that allows them to be used flexibly. There are a variety of packages you can use for your portfolio. The materials to be presented, occupational practices, and your personal preferences will influence your choice of packaging for your portfolio. Some options are self-mounting photo albums, two or three ring binders, and accordion folders. It is a good idea to decide that your materials must be no bigger than a certain size, such as 8 1/2" 5 11". Most certificates will be this standard size. Prepare your materials for presentation. It will not make a good impression if you show up with a disorganized bundle of ragged and worn scraps of paper and clippings. Copying materials is a good way to preserve the originals. Most duplicating machines permit reduction and enlargement of copies, so you can size materials appropriately. Make several copies of some materials, such as writing samples, which you will include in a mini-portfolio packet to leave with the interviewer. Copies tend to be flimsy. Presentations of papers and photographs can be nicely made on the adhesive mounting pages that are available for photo albums. Or you might want to use clear plastic sheets that can be inserted in a binder.
Computer disk. This format may be a good choice if you are applying for a position requiring computer skills. Plan on bringing your own laptop to the interview and be sure the battery is charged because you cannot depend on an employer to provide equipment or electrical support. Copy a self-running version of the presentation on a disk to leave with the interviewer. Captions. Write captions for each piece of material contained in the portfolio. The captions should be statements that describe the material and the context, such as “This certificate for volunteer of the year was awarded to me in 2000 by the United Way for my work with fund-raising.” The caption should also specify skills used and results achieved, such as “I trained over 100 volunteers to answer the phones and enter bids into a computer program for the call-in auction on public access TV. We raised more than $65,000 to adapt the local playground to accommodate children with disabilities. I recruited more volunteers to help on that and did some carpentry, too.” Spotlight achievements. Decide which skills and abilities are important to get you the job you are applying for and assemble the portfolio for the interview to spotlight achievements that resulted from using these skills and abilities. Organize the portfolio so you can easily access the different materials. One way to do this is similar to creating a functional resume. If you are using a functional resume, make your portfolio in a parallel format using the same skill headings. Consider the broad skill areas you want to market in the job interview as headings. For example, a person applying for a managerial position might use headings such as organizational skills, personnel management, and computer skills. A fund-raiser might use education, publicity, and program development. Select the materials that best display your achievements, skills, and abilities in each heading area. Prepare a table of contents that is headed by your contact information. Customize. Tailor your portfolio for each job interview based upon the research you have done to determine what skills and abilities the employer wants in applicants for the position. You probably will not use all of your materials in every portfolio you create. Create a mini-portfolio. Use your table of contents, with your contact information at the top, and attach copies of some of the portfolio materials, such as work samples, to make a mini-portfolio packet that you can give to the interviewer.
■ Using the Portfolio in the Interview Remember the portfolio is a marketing tool to get the job. It should be used to demonstrate achievements in
Interviewing
areas relevant to the qualities the employer is seeking in a worker to fill the job. If the portfolio is not relevant to the skills and abilities needed on the job, it will not work for you. Some experts suggest stating at the beginning of the interview that you have brought a portfolio, which is fine, provided you have accurately assessed what is desired for the job. However, if your portfolio is not on target, you have hurt yourself by needlessly introducing it. Another approach is to make it obvious that you have it, such as carrying it in and putting it on a table. This could be a problem because there might not be a table and you do not want to intrude on the interviewer’s desk space. So if you carry it in anything but a briefcase, you may end up with it in your lap throughout the interview. Again, if you are not going to use it, it may be best not to let the interviewer know you have it. What if you decided during the interview that your portfolio highlighted skills that were not needed for the job, but the interviewer asked to see it? The best approach is probably to introduce the portfolio in response to a question about the skills or abilities that you know are highlighted in the portfolio. While displaying the portfolio page, you can state how the achievement was a result of your use of the requested skills and abilities.
■ Advantages of Using the Portfolio Following are some of the advantages of using a portfolio. It shows you can assimilate experiences, drawing parallels from what you have done to what will be desired on the job, and that you are aware of the skills and abilities that helped you achieve your goals. n It suggests creditability of your qualifications. The portfolio provides documentation that backs up your resume. n It shows you took effort to prepare for the interview by considering the skills and abilities required for the job. n It can demonstrate your organization, neatness, and creativity in presentation of the materials. n It can help you to guide the interview to be certain your best qualifications are mentioned. When you are interviewing for a position where leadership is sought, it may help show that you can take charge of a situation. (Be careful, though, how you exert control in the interview. Some interviewers, rather than trying to screen applicants, are happy to let applicants take over the job of selling. Other inter viewers may have very specific interview questions they want to ask.) n
It provides a tool that can help you jog your memory during the interview should anxiety impede your ability to verbalize experiences that demonstrate your skills and abilities. n
■ For More Information Portfolio Library http://amby.com/kimeldorf/p_mk-toc.html
Author and teacher Martin Kimeldorf offers much helpful advice to assist you in determining what to include in a portfolio and how to compile those materials. Step-bystep instructions are given for putting together personal, professional, and high school portfolios. As you will discover, this resource will come in handy no matter what stage you’re at in your career search. There are discussions of reasons for college students to use portfolios and how the author has used portfolios through the years. The article “Using Job Search Portfolios in an Uncertain Labor Market” presents suggestions of various samples you might want to include in your career portfolio. To get a clearer picture of what a portfolio looks like, check out the portfolio samplers. They show examples of how to creatively document and display testimonials and achievements. References are made to a number of books where you can find additional information. Steps in Creating a Career Portfolio There are several good Web sites for developing a career portfolio that are sponsored by university career centers and major Web sites for job seekers. The University of Wisconsin-Eau Claire (http://www.uwec.edu/Career/ Online_Library/Portfolios.htm) provides a good comprehensive look at starting a portfolio as does Washington State University (http://www.careers.wsu.edu/content/ resourcecenter/portfolios.asp). Net-Temps (http://www. net-temps.com/careerdev/index.htm?type=topics&topic =working&id=59) has a good site on how more experienced job seekers can use portfolios.
Interviewing Interviewing is when a potential employer meets with you to discuss your job qualifications. In an interview, the people interviewing you ask questions and, usually, you will have the opportunity to ask them questions. You will be evaluated on your professional appearance and manner, as well as on your responses to questions, and on any information you provide.
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There is great variation in the way interviews are conducted by different employers in different occupational areas. Interviews may be at the employer’s place of business or elsewhere, such as on campus or during professional conventions. There may be one interview or you may be asked to additional interviews before a hiring decision is made. Many interviews are one on one between the candidate and the employer, often the person who will be directly supervising the employee. Often candidates will be interviewed by a group of supervisors and coworkers. Interviews of this type are usually scheduled to last an hour or two. Large employers in some occupations interview a candidate over several days. The candidate meets with many people in different positions in the organization, dines with interviewers, may attend receptions to meet coworkers, and may be asked to make presentations or work on a project. Candidates who are expected to participate in an interview of this nature usually furnish an agenda for the interview in advance. When an employer calls to ask you to an interview, it is appropriate to ask questions about the interview format. Every interviewee needs answers to the first three questions listed below. The rest of the questions are applicable for interviewees in specific occupations. It is important to be familiar with the interview practices of your occupation to know what to expect. To help you prepare for the interview, ask the following questions: Where will the interview be conducted? When will the interview be conducted and how long it will take? n Who will you meet in the interview? n What activities will be part of the interview process? n Will you have to make a presentation or participate in a work sample? n Are there travel expenses associated with the interview and will the employer pay any costs? (This is only relevant if you have to travel a great distance to get to the interview. Do not ask your interviewer to reimburse you for cab fare or commuter train fare.) n n
■ Dressing for the Interview One of the criteria on which you will be evaluated as a potential employee is your appearance during the interview. Employers hire people whose appearance matches the standard set for their own employees. It is customary to interview in the type of outfit that would be worn at work. Each occupation has its own practices. For example, skilled-trades workers interview in less formal work clothing than workers in banks or business offices. In all cases, interview clothing should be neat and clean. The following are a few tips for dressing for the interview:
If you have an opportunity before the interview to go to the employer’s place of business and see the types of outfits employees are wearing, do so, and model your interview dress accordingly. n If you are applying for a position where specific clothing, such as safety boots, is required, wear it to the interview. n Traditional, conservative, classic styles are usually preferred over the latest fashion. Tailored, well-fitting clothing is preferred over styles that are either very loose and baggy or very tight-fitting. n The total outfit is important. Wearing athletic shoes spoils the good impression of a great-looking business suit. Footwear should be clean, shined, and appropriate, which usually means oxfords for men and pumps for women. Preferred colors in men’s shoes are brown or black. Women should avoid heels that are overly high or clunky. As a rule, conservative is preferred over stylish. n Accessories should contribute to, not detract from, the outfit. Jewelry should be traditional, conservative, and not excessive for the employment sought. For example, a very expensive watch might be appropriate for a person applying for a bank manager’s position but not for someone applying to be a dishwasher. n Any aspect of an interviewee’s appearance that is nontraditional may make an unfavorable impression on a potential employer. Again, it is helpful to be aware of what the employer desires and to prepare for the interview accordingly. For example, retail salespeople in a specialty boutique that caters to young people might be encouraged to wear sport fashions and styles that would not be acceptable at a more mainstream retailer. Sometimes clothing or accessories that are nontraditional are important to interviewees’ religious beliefs or personal sentiments. While many employers must obey federal nondiscrimination guidelines, not all must, and even among those that do, wearing of clothing and accessories as an area that is protected against religious discrimination has not been upheld. For example, Muslim women, whose beliefs include hijab or khimar, that is, wearing a headscarf, have been refused employment by many major companies in a variety of industries. n
A briefcase is a very important interview accessory. It permits interviewees to carry items that may be needed or useful in interviews. When carrying a briefcase, do not carry a purse. Put the items you would carry in the purse in the briefcase. Items to carry in the briefcase include:
Interviewing
Two forms of identification, such as driver’s license and social security card, which can be used to verify your legal employment status in the United States. n Bills and coins in a wallet or change purse. You do not want to be late for an interview because you could not find free parking for your car. n A notepad and pen. The interviewer may provide information that you want to make a note of, such as the name of a contact for your network. Bring your date book or appointment planner. You may be asked to schedule a second interview. n A handkerchief or tissues. There is nothing more embarrassing than a sudden sneeze that leaves you needing a tissue you do not have. n Your business card and extra copies of your resume. It is possible an interviewer may want to look at your resume again and not have a copy handy. It makes a good impression when you can promptly furnish one. n Your portfolio with copies of materials to leave with interviewers, such as writing samples, your miniportfolio packet, or computer disks with presentations you have prepared. n
■ What Not to Bring to an Interview It is amazing what some people consider appropriate to bring to an interview. The following items are not recommended for any reason. Anyone else, neither friend, relative, spouse, nor guardian. You do not want to have anyone even waiting in the lobby because they gave you a ride to the interview. It is important to create the impression that you are capable of autonomous functioning, that is, that you can get to work on your own. n Cell phones or loud pagers. You do not want to create any interruptions in the interview. You certainly do not want to receive phone calls. Be sure you are not bringing in any equipment, such as a pager or a watch, that has alerts that might go off and beep. Even glancing at a vibrating pager or at a watch suggests you are not attending to the interviewer. n Food, drink, or chewing gum. n Entertainment equipment such as radios or portable headsets. n
■ Preparing for the Interview You should have researched a fair amount of information about this employer when you applied for the job. Review materials, such as the job description and annual reports, before the interview. Now is the time to use your personal network by asking your contacts if they know anyone employed by the business, so you might obtain an
insider’s slant. Be careful of your source and remember you are getting one person’s perspective when talking to an employee or someone who does business with the company. Consider what you can say to show you have the skills and abilities to do the duties on the job description and the typical job duties in the occupation. Practice your responses to commonly asked interview questions, such as the following: Tell me about yourself. n What are your strengths? n What are your areas of weakness? n What do you want to be doing in five years? n What is the one significant contribution you can make on this job? n
Experts suggest the more you practice interviewing, the better you will be able to present yourself during interviews. Mock interviews with others is a good way to practice, particularly if they can be videotaped and you can critique your own performance. Other techniques to prepare for interviewing include: practicing relaxation to reduce symptoms of anxiety, such as tense muscles, hands shaking, or a highpitched voice n visualizing yourself being interviewed and thinking of different ways you might respond to questions n
■ During the Interview Conduct yourself according to standard business manners. Stand to greet people and respond to their offer of a handshake, and smile. Traditional protocol provides guidelines for who initiates handshakes, but today’s common practice makes it acceptable to greet an individual, state your name, and offer a handshake. Wait to be seated until you are asked to do so. This provides an advantage in that the interviewer will usually desire you in a particular seat and will indicate which one you should take. Do not intrude on the interviewer’s space; for example, do not put anything on the interviewer’s desk. Let the interviewer initiate the conversation. Make appropriate eye contact. Speak in moderate tones. Attend to the interviewer or interviewers. Do not interrupt when they are speaking. Sometimes interviewers ask more than one question at a time. It can be difficult to remember many questions in a row while thinking how you will answer them. Some experts suggest making notes of the questions asked, but most interviewers, like most people, are uncomfortable when the person they are speaking with makes notes. It may be best to focus on remembering the first question and responding to it.
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When you have answered, if you need to, you can ask to be reminded of the other questions by saying, “Did you have another question?” People like it when you use, but not when you overuse, their names. Try to use the name of the person who asks a question when responding: “Mr. Jones, I am a modest person, but I pride myself in doing a job right. When I get involved in a project, regular working hours does not mean quitting time to me.” You will usually be given an opportunity to ask questions. It is often difficult to think of good questions to ask. You do not want to ask about wages, salaries, or benefits. Those will be discussed when and if the employer makes a job offer, or if the employer approaches the subject first during an interview. Since you will usually be given your chance to ask questions at the end of an interview, you usually cannot make much use in that interview of information you learn from questions. So questions such as “What would you say are the most important characteristics of the worker you want to hire?” will not help you if you will not be given the time to address how you have those characteristics. When you are given the opportunity to ask questions, it is an opportunity to try to determine if employment in this job would be desirable for you. To see if you can work with your potential boss, you might ask, “Mrs. Jones, I understand I would be working under your direct supervision. How would you characterize your leadership style?” You might learn about how the company sees its employees: “What would you say is the most important reason people like to work for XYZ company, Mr. Smith? Or “What opportunities are there for skills development for a person who accepts employment in this position?” Note the question is about skills development, not advancement. Many positions offer no opportunity for direct advancement, and if employers perceive advancing as important to you, they may think you would not be a good fit in their job. Politely refusing offers of refreshment (a simple, “No, thank you” without explanation) enables you to maintain your good impression while avoiding the distraction of, for example, drinking coffee while you are being interviewed. At the end of the interview, remember to thank interviewers for meeting with you and reemphasize your desire to work with them.
Keep records of who you interviewed with and for what position. Even if you do not get an offer, if you made a good impression, this may be someone you could contact later as part of networking.
■ For More Information Job Interviewing Resources http://www.quintcareers.com/intvres.html
Quintessential Careers offers this guide to job-interviewing resources that includes links to many sites pertinent to interviewing. The strength of this site is in the many different interview questions provided for consideration and in the information on behavioral interviewing. Look for interviewing do’s and don’ts, the STAR Interviewing technique, tips on phone interviewing, and questions you can ask at the interview. There is also a cover-letter tutorial. Successful Interviewing http://www.dac.neu.edu/coop.careerservices/interview.html
If you are looking for straightforward information about job interviews, take a look at this handout from Northeastern University in Boston. It begins by listing the goals of both the candidate and the interviewer. Next is a description of how you should prepare for the interview, which is followed by an explanation of the four basic stages that make up the interview process. This leads to some notes on the different types of interviews you are apt to encounter. These include screening, one on one, and group, to name a few. Advice is offered on how to answer questions like “What are your strengths and weaknesses?” and “Why do you want to work here?” Finally, a few pointers are given for negotiating salary. Job Interview Success http://www.job-interview.net
Job-Interview.net provides a good site with articles on all aspects of interviewing. Topics covered include nonverbal signs to look for during an interview and interview questions and answers listed by job function. There are sections for interviewers, so you can get a feeling for what they are looking for on the other side of the table. Lots and lots of suggestions on good answers to specific interview questions. Virtual Interview
■ After the Interview Write a thank-you note to the interviewers emphasizing your desire to work for them and using whatever you learned in the interview to put a marketing slant on your skills and abilities. Mentally review and evaluate your own performance. What questions did you respond to well? Which ones do you need to research further or answer better?
http://interview.monster.com
Monster.com offers a virtual interviewer for a variety of fields including administrative support jobs, human resources, health care, marketing, Internet, retail and more. You will be asked an interview question and given the opportunity to select the best answer from several alternatives. An explanation is provided on which answer is the best and why.
You’re Hired! Congratulations! You got the job! Now what do you do? The articles in this section inform you about some important aspects of being employed.
Salary/Wages
average earnings are calculated, earnings of a small number of highly paid workers inflate the figure. This leads to the reported average earnings actually being higher than what most people make in the occupation. The median is the figure that best reflects what a worker with some job experience can expect to make. The median salary is the amount in the middle when earnings of all workers in the occupation are considered. The way workers receive their earnings depends on the business practices common in the occupation; for example, an employer may or may not issue paychecks from which taxes have been withheld. In the United States, all workers must pay taxes on money they earn. Taxes are paid to the federal government for programs such as Social Security and Medicare and to state governments. Some employers pay the taxes owed on the earnings before they pay workers. On payday, workers receive a statement of earnings for the pay period. This statement reflects the gross amount of earnings, that is, how much was earned before deductions. Deductions include money that was withheld to pay taxes and any contributions the employee makes to pay for benefits, such as health insurance. The actual amount of the check is the net earnings, that is, the earnings after taxes and benefits have been paid. In some occupations, such as outside sales, workers may be considered independent contractors, and employers do not withhold money from their earnings for taxes. Workers who receive tips may not have taxes withheld on this income because employers usually do not know the amount of tips workers receive. Federal and state governments expect workers to pay taxes on income earned annually. It is important to save money from income not taxed throughout the year to be able to pay taxes on the due dates.
Many people think that all workers receive a weekly paycheck, that the minimum wage (currently $5.15 per hour) is the least employers can pay workers, and that no employer can require a worker to be on the job for more than 40 hours a week without paying overtime. These are all myths. Pay for work may be given weekly, biweekly, monthly, or when the job is completed. When and how much workers are paid depends upon the practices in the occupation. For example, workers who receive tips usually take home tips received on the job at the end of each work shift. They may get a weekly paycheck but are often paid less than minimum wage. Their tips are expected to make their hourly earnings greater than the minimum wage. In some sales occupations, workers are paid, entirely or in part, by commission, which means their income depends on making sales. Workers who earn a salary, that is, a set amount per year instead of an hourly wage, may be required to work more than 40 hours a week but receive no overtime pay. Before starting to look for a job, it is useful to understand both how much workers in the occupation earn and how workers in different jobs are usually paid. References, such as this encyclopedia and the Occupational Outlook Handbook, provide information on the earnings in a wide variety of occupations. When looking at earnings, it is important to understand the difference between entry-level, average, and median earnings. Entrylevel wages, or starting salaries, are the amounts usually paid to workers who are new to an occupation. These workers, who are often recent graduates from training programs, do not have much experience on the job. Average wages are the mean of all the earnings of all workers in the occupation from entry level to the most experienced. Because some experienced workers also have longevity on a job, they may be paid much more than workers who have some job experience but who have not worked a long time in one position. In some occupations, a very few star players make very large salaries while most of the workers in the occupation earn more moderate amounts. The way
■ For More Information Salary Negotiation and Job Offer Negotiation Tutorial http://www.quintcareers.com/salary_negotiation_tutorial. html
Quintessential Careers offers practical advice in this step-by-step tutorial on salary negotiation. Some of the 61
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issues covered are when and how to talk salary, how to determine your competitive market value, what kinds of questions you should ask and the things to consider after an offer’s been made, how to respond to an unacceptable job offer, and suggestions specifically aimed at new college graduates. Much of the advice is presented in the form of sample responses of what to say when you are asked certain salary-related questions. This should give you a good head start on how to handle a variety of situations. Links to salary surveys, salary calculators, and cost-of-living resources are also featured. JobStar Salary Information http://jobstar.org/tools/salary/index.php
JobStar has compiled links to many Web sites dealing with salaries and wages. Look for more than 300 salary surveys and features on negotiating starting salaries. As JobStar is a California-based project, some of the information or links deals specifically with California. Salary Survey Data http://www.wageweb.com
Wageweb offers salary survey data on over 170 positions by employers in industries such as finance, engineering, marketing, administration, human resources, management, health care, and manufacturing. This site offers not only salary information but also job descriptions that provide useful action words when preparing a resume.
Fringe Benefits Some employers offer no fringe benefits and others offer a wide variety of benefits. What benefits are offered usually depends on both different occupational practices and the size of the employer. Generally, larger employers offer more benefits than smaller employers. Benefits packages, that is, the different types of benefits employers offer and the amount of payment they contribute toward those benefits, add compensation value comparable to actual earnings. Benefits packages can increase the value of earnings by 33 percent. For example, a paid holiday gives employees a day’s pay without working. Benefits can help employees save money; for example, an uninsured person might have to pay $60 to go to a doctor’s office, but a person who is covered by an employer’s health insurance might only pay $15. If the employer pays the cost of the health insurance, that is like the employer giving the worker $45. Following are descriptions of some of the benefits commonly offered by employers.
■ Paid Holidays, Sick Leave, Personal Days, and Vacations Paid holidays are days off for which employees are paid. Sick leave, personal days, and paid vacation time are benefits that are often offered on an accrual system, that is, as employees work a certain period of time for the employer, they earn paid time off in case of sickness or personal needs. These benefits are often earned on a schedule; for example, one sick day may be earned a month. Usually, sick leave and personal days accrue if they are not used, that is, if not used in the month earned, the time off can be saved for use later. Sometimes there is a cutoff of how many days can be saved. Some employers pay for accrued days when workers leave their employment. Often employees must work a certain period of time, usually a year, before they begin earning paid vacation time.
■ Insurance Because some employers hire large numbers of workers, it is possible for them to negotiate with insurance companies to have their employees covered at a cost lower than individual policies. This is called group insurance. Employers pay all or part of various types of group insurance policies for their workers. Health insurance is commonly offered, and employers also may allow employees to insure their dependents at reduced cost. Other insurance packages offered include disability, which pays employees who suffer impairment and become unable to work, and life, which, in the case of an employee’s death, makes payments to designated survivors. For workers in some occupations, employers pay the costs of professional insurance that protects against malpractice lawsuits.
■ Retirement Employers often put money into retirement accounts, such as IRAs or 401(k) plans. Sometimes the employer matches the amount employees choose to save toward retirement. Many times, money that employees put into a retirement account is not taxed. By contributing as much as possible to retirement accounts, employees save money by avoiding paying taxes on those earnings. In some cases, employees must work for the employer for a certain period of time before they are eligible for retirement accounts. When they have completed this period, they are referred to as being vested. Some retirement accounts can be converted to cash when a worker leaves the employment. Taxes must be paid on such cash payments received.
■ Other Benefits Employers sometimes offer a variety of other benefits. What is offered often depends on the occupation. For
Personnel Management: Probation, Evaluation, Raises, Promotion, and Dismissal
example, food service workers are often provided a meal on the job. Some jobs, such as apartment manager, provide the worker housing. Workers required to wear uniforms may have both uniforms and laundry services provided by employers. Some employers pay fees for renewal of professional licenses or for memberships in professional organizations. Some employers offer their workers shares of their business’s stock so when the company’s value increases, the employee gains a profit. When negotiating a job offer, it is important to know usual benefits offered by similar-sized employers in the occupation. Benefits packages are generally non-negotiable: Employers either offer them or they do not. But the value of a benefits package to the employee should be considered part of the total earnings gained by working for the employer. The total compensation a worker gains may be greater working at lower pay for an employer who offers a comprehensive benefits package than working at higher wages for an employer who does not offer benefits.
■ For More Information Successful Job Offer Negotiation http://www.collegegrad.com/book/21-0.shtml
This site presents a chapter from Brian Krueger’s book, College Grad Job Hunter. Once you have been presented with a job offer, there are different techniques to use in determining whether or not you want to accept it. Read about these techniques here and learn some of the important questions to ask. Remember that salary is not the only thing to consider when deciding whether or not to accept a job offer. Be sure to look at all the perks of the job: insurance (medical, dental, life, and disability), vacation, holidays, sick days, retirement plans, tuition reimbursement, overtime and comp time, and so on. Some benefits are more open to negotiation than others, depending on company policy, so it is important that you find this out before getting too far along in the negotiation process. Advice is also given on how to handle counteroffers made by your current employer, how to give notice when you want to quit your job, and how to leave without burning bridges. Another site offering information on negotiating for job benefits is Stephanie Sanborn’s brief article at http://www.infoworld.com/ articles/ca/xml/00/09/18/000918calist.xml.
Evaluating Your Employee Benefit Package About Financial Planning (http://financialplan.about. com/mbody.htm) is a Web site that gives information about money management; here it provides an article on maximizing your benefit through using flexible spend-
ing accounts (http://financialplan.about.com/library/ weekly/aa111200a.htm). Employee Benefits Survey http://www.bls.gov/ncs/ebs
This Bureau of Labor Statistics survey provides data and information about employee benefits offered in the private and federal sectors. Some 6,000 private companies (large, medium, and small) as well as state and local government establishments are represented in the report, which documents employee participation in various employer-sponsored plans and includes tables that cover paid leave, health care and disability benefits, retirement plans, employee contributions, coinsurance rates, and more. BenefitsLink http://www.benefitslink.com
While this site will probably be of most use to employers and plan advisers and administrators, employees and job seekers will find a wide range of interesting benefits-related subjects to explore. The site features synopses of current news items dealing with such issues as sick pay, pensions, and health care costs, with links to full stories; several Q&A columns discussing retirement plan distributions, 401(k) plans, COBRA coverage, and more; an employee benefits library of links to government sites offering documents concerning employee benefits plans; a wide array of Benefits Links articles and annotated links pertaining to disability benefits, government plans, managed care, social security, and stock options; and job listings. There are also links to health and retirement plan information for employees.
Personnel Management: Probation, Evaluation, Raises, Promotion, and Dismissal Hiring workers, evaluating how well they are doing their jobs, keeping them as employees, promoting them, or firing them are all personnel-management actions. Employers who have many workers usually have written personnel policies explaining
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the way workers are hired n what is expected for satisfactory job performance n how performance is evaluated n earnings for each position and how earnings increase n what promotion opportunities exist and how to be promoted n what can be expected when performance is not satisfactory n
New employees may attend an orientation session during which these policies are explained. Employees working for employers who have personnel policies are given a handbook with the written policies. Personnel policies protect both employers and their workers by providing rules on how the employer handles actions that affect its employees. Federal laws against discrimination have influenced the development of personnel policies. Unions and other bodies representing employees try to influence personnel policies to protect employees’ rights. Usually only larger employers have formal, written personnel policies. This is because the number of workers employed is a factor that determines what laws protecting workers are applicable to the employer. Employers who hire only a small number of workers do not have to meet the same legal requirements as larger employers. This means the employment rights of workers in small businesses are usually less protected than those of union workers, of government employees, or of workers in corporations doing business nationwide. Written rules or procedures help protect workers because if an employer does not follow these rules, it is grounds for an employee to file a grievance. Personnel policies provide procedures for filing a grievance, that is, making a complaint that the employer is not following the personnel policy rules in dealing with the worker. Smaller employers who are not subject to federal regulations often have no written personnel policies. There is often no procedure to follow if workers think their employer is not treating them fairly. Often the only option for an employee who thinks an employer has not been fair, or perhaps has even broken the law in their treatment of the employee, is to sue the employer in court to prove the employer’s actions were damaging. Suing can be an expensive and time-consuming procedure. Employers who do not operate under formal written personnel policies or who do not enter into a contract with employees are sometimes referred to as offering employment at will, meaning they may hire or dismiss employees as they choose, with or without reason. Personnel policies usually make employment more secure for the employee by clarifying procedures for actions
between employers and their employees. When considering a job offer, it is important to learn what personnel policies, if any, the employer follows. Following are some issues covered by personnel policies.
■ Probation Sometimes employees in a new job are informed there is a probationary period during which their suitability to perform satisfactorily will be evaluated. Should they fail to perform to satisfaction during the probationary period, they will be asked to leave the position. After employees have satisfactorily completed a probationary period, they are owed due process before they can be dismissed from a job. (See more about due process under “Dismissal.”) The probation period is a time of trial for the new employee, but after probation the employee has better protection against being let go or fired than do workers whose employers do not offer probationary periods. Workers whose employers are not required to have formal personnel procedures are actually on probation no matter how long they have been working for an employer. Their employment is at will, meaning their employer may dismiss them without having to follow any formal procedure.
■ Evaluation Employers with personnel policies have formal procedures for evaluating workers’ on-the-job performance. Adequate or satisfactory performance ratings may be necessary for retention. Retention means being kept on as an employee. To be considered for promotion or to receive more pay, it may be necessary to receive performance ratings that are better than adequate. Usually, immediate supervisors are responsible for rating workers’ job performance. Policies for evaluation usually specify that employees are told, prior to the rating period, what duties they are expected to fulfill and the performance criteria or standards for ratings. Rating periods are usually every six months or every year, in which case the evaluation is called an annual review. At the end of each rating period, a supervisor provides an employee with feedback regarding the employee’s ratings. If the evaluation is that the job performance is unsatisfactory, recommendations for improvement or remediation are given and must be followed for retention. These recommendations are part of what is considered due process. Failure to follow up on them could be considered sufficient reason for dismissal. Workers whose employers do not have formal procedures for evaluation may find it difficult to get feedback regarding how well their supervisors think they are doing their jobs or how they can improve. Most people do not
Personnel Management: Probation, Evaluation, Raises, Promotion, and Dismissal
like to give bad news. Without procedures to follow, and without rating scales, many supervisors find it awkward to tell employees that their work is not satisfactory. Employees who desire feedback should ask for it. Ask for a private interview with the supervisor. Show you are open to, and can handle, criticism. For example, “I know I handled that customer poorly. I get really upset when a customer yells at me, particularly if I did not know I was doing anything wrong. I should not have responded to her with that snippy comment. Please tell me what I could do to better deal with irate customers.” Follow through on any recommendations and show that you are using them. Continue to ask for feedback again, either after a similar incident or after a couple of months have passed and you think the supervisor should have noticed improvements. Sometimes supervisors tell workers they are doing fine and do not offer recommendations for improvement. Excellent work may not be appropriately recognized unless the worker takes the initiative to record, or document, superior performance. Keep records of achievements, such as completing a project with highquality work before a deadline, receiving high compliments from customers, or troubleshooting a system flaw to save time and money. Documenting achievements is important, either to get a raise or to start looking for another job.
■ Raises and Promotion As they gain experience in a job and learn to perform the duties better, most workers expect that they will earn an increased amount of money. One way employers keep good employees is offering pay that is competitive with other employers. To keep their pay rates competitive, some employers offer cost-of-living raises. Many employers base pay rates on both length of time on the job and on work-performance ratings. Personnel policies provide information on pay schedules and when raises will occur. Usually, pay increases are offered for each year spent on a job. Some employers also offer merit increases to reward employees who get excellent job-performance ratings. Bonuses are a lump sum of money that are not part of earnings, that is, employers do not owe bonuses to workers. Some employers offer bonuses either through tradition, like a gift Christmas bonus, or as a motivation to strive for achievement. Bonuses are frequently offered in sales occupations for making more than a certain volume of sales. Employers are not obliged to offer raises. Many employers have no schedule for raises and no policy for increasing workers’ pay. Workers often have to ask for raises. Asking for a raise requires the same sort of per-
sonal marketing skills that got you the job. A record of work achievements provides a convincing reason why a raise is deserved. Before you ask for a raise, you need time on the job to accomplish achievements that show you are valuable to your employer. It is seldom wise to ask for a raise prior to having spent six months on the job. A good strategy is to schedule an interview with your supervisor to ask for evaluative feedback. If your supervisor has many recommendations to improve your work performance, do not ask for a raise. If you are told you are doing an excellent job, it may be a good time to ask for a raise. Be aware of the profit climate of the business, however, before asking for a raise. If the business is not doing well, even deserving employees will not be given raises. Asking for a raise means asking respectfully, not demanding, and being able to accept no for an answer. Base your request for a raise on your own performance and achievements on the job, not on any comparison with other workers. Promotion has traditionally meant being rewarded for excellent job performance by being able to move up an organization’s hierarchy to a new job with increased responsibilities, higher pay, and more prestige. This traditional meaning of promotion has changed in modern businesses. Corporate ladders are seldom part of today’s organizational structures. Very few businesses offer promotion-from-within programs to identify and train promising employees to meet anticipated organizational openings. It is often more cost efficient for companies to hire from outside than train employees to meet job qualifications for promotions. Conducting job searches that invite applicants from outside of the organization also helps employers adhere to federal guidelines for equal opportunity, nondiscriminatory hiring. So employees who wish to be considered for a job that offers more responsibilities and higher pay usually have to go through the same process for hiring as a person who is not currently working for the business. In today’s world of work, supervisors and employees are often trained in totally different occupational areas. Doing your job well does not necessarily mean you are qualified to do, or would want to do, your supervisor’s job. To get promoted, it is often necessary to become better qualified through more training and taking responsibility for more job duties. Businesses may offer programs to enhance employees’ awareness of the qualifications needed for positions in the organization and may offer some help for employees seeking training. Some organizations offer employees opportunities for lateral promotions, that is, moving to different departments within the organization, but usually these are positions with similar job titles. The idea is to get some new job responsibilities.
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Workers who want to be promoted take advantage of every opportunity to obtain more training and to work on projects that expand their skills. The idea of lifelong employment with an organization that offers excellent employee-advancement opportunities is outmoded in today’s job market. Career managers know that promotion usually means leaving one job to take another with another employer. Being able to document more skills and more achievements on your resume and in your job portfolio prepares you for promotion by making you competitive for the next job.
■ Dismissal “You’re fired” are two words no employee wants to hear. Some employees’ tenure on their jobs is somewhat protected by personnel policies offering due process. Due process means that an employee cannot be immediately dismissed for unsatisfactory performance but that certain steps must be taken to try to help that employee meet job performance standards. Most workers do not realize that employers have no obligation to provide them employment or to keep them on the job. Without due process policies in place, employment is at will, and employees can be immediately dismissed from a job with or without cause. Without cause means that employment was terminated through no fault of the worker. For example, the employer lays off employees because it is no longer the busy season or an employer decided to downsize, restructure the organization, and eliminate employees’ positions. With cause means the employer found some fault in the employee’s performance either on or off the job. Some with cause reasons for firing a worker include: failure to show up for work repeated absences without leave n failure to satisfactorily perform duties n sleeping on the job n drinking or using illegal substances on the job or reporting to work under the influence of alcohol or illegal substances n stealing from the employer n refusing to perform expected job duties n destroying the employer’s property n n
Employers can terminate workers for incidents that occur off the job, for example, being convicted of drunken driving, the use of illegal substances, and felonies. Even behavior employees might view as within their rights, for example, participating in a public rally for an unpopular group, might be cause for dismissal to employers who do not wish to seem associated with that group. If you think you have been unjustifiably dismissed from a job, the course of action available depends upon
a variety of circumstances. For example, what you can do depends on if you have a contract with the employer or if there has been a violation of any laws the employer is obliged to follow. As most small employers are at-will employers, the only course open may be suing in a court of law. It would be necessary to consult with a lawyer to determine if there are grounds for a suit and if it is likely a lawsuit would result in a conclusion favorable to the worker. If an employer has violated personnel policies, there is usually a grievance procedure that can be pursued. If the worker has been employed under a union agreement, there will be grievance procedures that can be followed. If the employer is bound by federal regulations and has violated them, the worker can file a complaint with the appropriate federal agency.
■ For More Information Ethan Winning’s Articles http://www.ewin.com/ewarts.htm
This large collection of articles dealing with personnel issues comes from California-based human resources professional Ethan Winning, author of Labor Pains: Employer and Employee Rights and Obligations. The articles cover a wide range of topics: at-will employment, dress codes, resignation and severance, employee contracts and more. Additional articles are available if you pay for a subscription. Performance Appraisal http://www.performance-appraisal.com/intro.htm
The Archer North System is a performance-appraisal system developed by Archer North & Associates. This Web site, advocating the use of performance appraisals in the workplace, is based on it. Content is aimed toward human resources personnel, but it will serve to give a glimpse of what all could be involved in an employer’s performanceappraisal process. First there is a brief introduction to the history of workplace performance appraisals. This is followed by an overview of the purposes for conducting them. Then three different types of performance appraisal are described. These are rating scales, the essay method, and the results, or MBO (management by objectives), method. Pros and cons of each approach are outlined. Additionally, benefits to conducting a performance appraisal are explored, reasons are given for why to use, or not to use, a reward system based on appraisal results, and suggestions are offered on how to avoid or deal with conflict and confrontation during the review process. Getting Fired The ‘Lectric Law library (http://www.lectlaw.com/files/ emp43.htm) provides frequently asked questions about
employee rights when being faced with dismissal from a job. Askmen’s Armando Gomez writes on how to deal with getting fired (http://www.askmen.com/money/ career/31_career.html) and Quintessential Careers (http://www.quintcareers.com/getting_fired.html) also provides some tips on what to do when dismissed from a job. Monster.com’s Paul Barada tells how to explain to your next prospective employer that you were fired (http://hr.monster.com/articles/fired).
Employment Laws There are a variety of employment laws that the U.S. government has enacted to protect the welfare and rights of workers. The area of employment law is very complex. Some laws apply only to workers in specific occupational areas, such as agriculture or mining. Other laws are more general, but certain businesses, such as those employing few workers, may not have to comply with these laws. Some of the major employment laws are listed below. Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964. This federal statute forbids employment discrimination based on race, color, sex, pregnancy, national origin, or religion. It applies to federal, state, and local government employers and to private employers with more than 15 employees if their business affects interstate commerce. The Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) enforces Title VII. When employees who believe they have been discriminated against file their complaints, the EEOC investigates, seeks conciliation, or brings a suit against the employer. Employers who are found to have been discriminatory have been ordered to perform remedies such as pay back wages or rehire, reinstate, or promote employees, and pay attorneys’ fees and damages. The Immigration Reform and Control Act of 1986. Forbids discrimination on the basis of national origin or citizenship. This means people who may legally work in the United States but who are not citizens cannot be discriminated against because they are not citizens. People who may not legally work in the United States, such as illegal aliens, are not protected under this act. Equal Pay Act of 1963 (EPA). Requires men and women to be compensated equally for equal work. Equal work is not necessarily identical job duties. Equal work addresses the working conditions, skills, effect, and responsibilities among the jobs done by an employer’s male and female employees. The Age Discrimination in Employment Act of 1967 (ADEA). Forbids employment discrimination,
Employment Laws
including mandatory retirement (in most cases) against workers above age 40. It applies to employment agencies, labor unions, and employers with more than 19 employees. The Family and Medical Leave Act of 1993 (FMLA). Requires employers who have 50 or more employees to provide eligible employees up to 12 weeks of unpaid, jobprotected leave for family or medical reasons. Occupational Safety and Health Administration Compliance Assistance Authorization Act of 1998. Requires certain safety standards, such as having fire escapes and adequate ventilation systems, be met in employers’ physical plants. The Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990. Forbids discrimination against workers who have disabilities but who are qualified to perform a job. Fair Labor Standards Act (FLSA). Deals with payments of the minimum wage and overtime for more than 40 hours of work performed per week by workers covered by this act. It requires employers to keep records of hours worked and wages earned. It restricts the employment of young people in hazardous occupations and the number of hours people under 16 years of age can work.
■ For More Information Answers to Employment Law Questions http://www.dol.gov/elaws
The U.S. Department of Labor provides this e-laws Web site that can help you learn more about the labor laws outlined above. This is a user-friendly site where you can learn more about specific legal issues in employment. Information on employment laws is presented in easyto-understand text with links to more details in specific topic areas, so it is possible to do in-depth research at this site. There is also a search function on keywords to make it easy to find specific topics in the site. Labor Laws Law Library http://www.law.cornell.edu/topics/topic2.html
Cornell University’s Legal Information Institute created this page that takes you to specific federal statutes, federal agency regulations, and federal judicial decisions on specific employment law topics such as employment discrimination, unemployment compensation, collective bargaining, worker’s compensation, pensions, and workplace safety. Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 http://www.eeoc.gov/policy/vii.html
Text of U.S. legislation prohibiting employment discrimination, as amended by the Civil Rights Act of 1991, from the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission.
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It addresses issues of discrimination based on race, color, religion, sex, and national origin. Equal Pay Act of 1963 http://www.eeoc.gov/policy/epa.html
Text of U.S. legislation forbidding gender-based wage discrimination among employees having similar positions and responsibilities who are employed at the same place of work, from the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission. EPA amendments from volume 29 of the U.S. Code are noted.
on ADA myths and facts and one devoted to the ADA in regard to individuals with HIV/AIDS. For even more materials, check the link to the ADA home page, which offers related publications for sale, status reports pertaining to ADA enforcement, texts of select DOJ settlement and consent agreements, and information on new and proposed legislation. Fair Labor Standards Act http://www.dol.gov/esa/regs/statutes/whd/allfair.htm
Text of U.S. legislation (plus ADEA amendments) prohibiting employment discrimination against workers aged 40 or older, from the U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission.
Text of U.S. legislation dealing with minimum wage, overtime compensation, maximum workweek hours, and child labor provisions, originally dating from 1938 and later amended, from the Wage and Hour Division of the U.S. Department of Labor’s Employment Standards Administration. FLSA history and other provisions are also included. You will need Adobe Acrobat Reader to view the files.
Family and Medical Leave Act of 1993
The Minimum Wage
Age Discrimination in Employment Act of 1967 http://www.eeoc.gov/policy/adea.html
http://www.dol.gov/esa/whd/fmla
http://www.dol.gov/esa/whd/flsa
This U.S. Department of Labor site presents the text of the U.S. legislation whereby eligible workers are entitled to unpaid leave under certain circumstances, during which time the worker would receive health benefits and after which time the worker could return to work. Also available are an FMLA fact sheet, a compliance guide, poster images, and further explanatory materials.
This Web site describes in detail the Fair Labor Standards Act. In addition to being able to read the complete text of the act, you can find out more about federal minimum wage guidelines under the “General Information” heading of the “Compliance Assistance Materials” section.
Occupational Safety and Health Administration Compliance Assistance Authorization Act of 1970, as Amended through 2004
Your Rights as an Employee
http://www.osha.gov/comp-links.html
Click on the “OSH Act” link on this page to read the text of the U.S. legislation that requires certain standards of safety at the workplace. The OSH Act originally dates from 1970 and has been amended through 2004. You can view the text in full or in parts. If you’re looking for a particular section or topic, use the search function. Americans with Disabilities Act Information on the Web http://www.usdoj.gov/crt/ada/adahom1.htm
This page contains a collection of links to U.S. Department of Justice (DOJ) resources pertaining to the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) of 1990. You can read the statute itself or find answers to select questions about the ADA (for example: Does an employer have to give preference to a qualified applicant with a disability over other applicants? and Must an employer modify existing facilities to make them accessible?). There is also a section
There is no one blanket law or document that defines the rights of employees. Various federal laws cover some workers. State laws provide some protections to other workers. Employees do not normally cede any of the usual protections of penal codes; for example, employers cannot assault workers, because such behavior is illegal. While there is no Bill of Rights for Employees, workers should generally expect the following: Safe working conditions. Workers should not be asked to perform duties or be expected to work in conditions that flagrantly endanger their physical wellbeing. Workers in some occupations, such as firefighters or police officers, are required to perform some duties that have a measure of jeopardy. Other occupations, such as medical personnel, require workers to be in environments, like hospitals, that may put them at risk. However, even in occupations where some hazards can
Your Rights as an Employee
be expected, there are prescribed safety measures. In all occupational areas, employers must provide reasonably safe working conditions and not require the performance of duties that pose a potential for harm to the worker. Safe working conditions also include not requiring an employee to perform duties that are against the penal code, that is, employers cannot ask employees to break the law. Pay for performance as scheduled. Employers must pay workers for work performed at the agreed-upon rate of compensation and at the agreed-upon time. A non-hostile working environment. Employers must insure that workers are not subject to harassment in their place of work or in their normal performance of duties. Harassment is a persistent condition of abuse: physical, verbal, or sexual. Employers must protect their employees from on-the-job harassment by either supervisors or other employees. Anyone can be subjected to harassment. For example, people often think sexual harassment is limited to female employees being abused by male supervisors or coworkers. It is important to recognize harassment regardless of the gender of the people involved. Do not think that a person’s status in the organization or his or her age or gender precludes him or her from being a harasser. Females may harass males, and harassment may occur between people of the same gender. Harassment can occur in one-to-one situations, when a group singles out a person, or when one group is harassed by another group. Harassment can take many forms. Some are quite obvious; others are more difficult to recognize. Some examples of physical harassment include being pushed or shoved being struck n being poked or jabbed n being grabbed n being restrained or physically intimidated, such as blocked from movement by another person’s body n n
Some examples of verbal harassment include being teased about personal physical characteristics being called names or being subjected to racial slurs n being subjected to comments or jokes that are derogatory to diverse peoples n being threatened n n
Some examples of sexual harassment include n being subjected to offensive comments, jokes, or gestures of a sexual nature
being ogled, jeered at, whistled at, or subjected to catcalls n being told certain body parts are sexy or that certain clothing looks sexy n being touched inappropriately, ranging from frequent brushings or patting to fondling and groping n being told that sexual acts are required to be hired, as job duties, or to be considered for promotion n
An important concept in the definition of harassment is that it is persistent, that is, a recognizable pattern of behaviors that occur over time. Most workers do not expect to be in a hostile environment, so they are slow to recognize harassment. It typically takes a while to recognize the pattern. Many workers overlook the first signs, thinking the inappropriate behavior is an aberration, a one-time occurrence, a slip in manners or good taste on the part of the offending person. Harassment is also difficult to recognize because it can occur in so many different forms. Typically, harassment behavior patterns increase over time. Harassment may be verbal comments that are inappropriate, but perhaps not intended to offend, and develop over time to intentionally offensive comments and physical acting out. Often workers feel stress caused by harassment before they recognize the pattern of behavior. Dealing with harassment on the job requires confrontation. Many people find it difficult to confront others because they have not developed assertiveness skills. Employees sometimes find it easier to quit their jobs than to confront harassers, particularly if they are harassed by supervisors or if harassers outnumber them. Harassers accelerate their behavior when they are not confronted, so it is important to be sensitive to the signs of harassment and to try to stop the pattern before it begins. The following are some tips for dealing with harassment: Recognize and be sensitive to “trial balloons” of harassment. It usually begins with the person being harassed overlooking the first several offenses. This casts the person into the victim role. It is important to be appropriately assertive and confront potential harassers at the first incident. Harassers often offer the first offending remark in a group. It is difficult to be assertive and say you find a remark offensive when other members of the group appear to accept it. Confronting a harasser is an opportunity to establish yourself as a leader as opposed to a victim. n Inform the person making the remark that it is offensive to you. Do this even if the person is a supervisor. Ask him or her to desist without being n
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judgmental about their behavior. For example: “I do not like to have language like that used in front of me. Please do not tell jokes like that. I don’t think I am the only one here who thinks they are not appropriate for work.” Suggest appropriate behavior: “I know you think it is pretty funny to call me honey, but I do not. I would rather you call me by my given name.” Typically, trial balloons are comments that the potential harasser can say were not made seriously and were not intended to offend. Do not respond with “that’s all right.” Reinforce your message: “Yes, but now you know it does offend me, so please do not do it again.” n Record the incident. Write it down. The first time someone says something that really annoys you and you feel annoyed and stressed, those feelings should be your clue that it is harassment. Record the date, the time, who said what, how you responded, and how you felt. Keep a record of all such incidents. Most people do not begin documenting harassment until it has reached a point where they hate their jobs and are sick from stress. Start with the first petty annoyance. Perhaps it was just one off-color remark that will never happen again. But perhaps it is the first incident in what will become a pattern of harassment. Keep your record of these incidents at your home, not at your place of work. n Tell the harasser’s supervisor. Do this nonjudgmentally, focusing on facts and your desire to perform your job duties effectively. For example: “I want you to be aware that Bob Jones told a joke with sexual content yesterday. I told him it offended me and asked him not to repeat jokes like that at work. I want to be able to do my job here well. I know you want this workplace to be an environment where people show appropriate respect for each other.” n Inform yourself about your options. Learn early what you should do when harassed on the job. You may be able to file a grievance. You may have to consult a lawyer and file a lawsuit. Currently, there is no law that specifically forbids harassment, but there is a body of various laws that have successfully been used to sue for damages against harassers and employers who have allowed their work places to be hostile environments. n Keep the big picture of your career management in your own mind. Work should be a fulfilling part of your life, not an area of high stress that makes you sick. Be realistic about your rights and the recourses available to you. It is unfortunate when you encounter an employment situation that does not work for
you, whether it is because of a bad work climate or because of bad supervisor. It is important to recognize that there are such situations, where, through no fault of your own, it is impossible for your career to flourish. A good career manager considers the possible outcomes of alternatives and the effort necessary to achieve them. It may be a better personal choice to seek new employment than to remain in an intolerable situation and try to fight injustice.
■ For More Information Recognizing Harassment http://www.worktrauma.org
Workplace harassment can be so insidious or so unexpected that sometimes employees have difficulty first recognizing what is occurring. This site is committed to stopping bullying, abuse, mobbing, harassment, and trauma in the workplace. Here you can read articles on inappropriate harassing behaviors at work and how to stop them. Topics include surviving the bully, strategies for success, empowerment and support. While the site has the commercial purpose of selling books and workshops on the topic, there is still much good free information on this site. Information about Sexual Harassment http://www.de.psu.edu/harassment/webpages
This site also contains much free information about sexual harassment generally and sexual harassment in the workplace specifically. There are links to many other sites that provide information about sexual harassment. Employment: Workplace Rights and Responsibilities http://www.nolo.com
Nolo Press, staffed by a team of in-house lawyers and having close affiliations with others in the legal profession, is a publisher of self-help law books and software. This section of the Nolo Web site features essays on topics having to do with what you are entitled to and held accountable for in the workplace. Articles cover such issues as job hunting, discrimination, sexual harassment, wages, workplace safety, job termination, privacy, and self-employed workers. Contact addresses and links for organizations providing additional information are offered. If you want to purchase any Nolo Press titles, you will find order details at the site. DiscriminationAttorney.Com http://www.discriminationattorney.com
This collection of articles and resources relating to employment law is from the California-based Law Offices
Your Rights as an Employee
of David H. Greenberg. This site is intended to inform both consumers and lawyers. There are summaries of cases involving sexual harassment, different kinds of discrimination (for example, age, disability, pregnancy, race, and sexual orientation), wrongful termination, and breach of contract. Whistle-blowing, class action lawsuits, and damages are also briefly described. After you visit this site you will have gained a good overview of various aspects of employment law, but if you require legal assistance with an actual case, the site advises you to contact a lawyer directly. Tips are offered on doing just that.
1998. This site contains the text of that act and assorted other materials pertaining to the agency, its history, and its functions. Among the many resources offered at the site are compliance guides; information on OSHA training and state programs; fact sheets, press releases, and other publications concerning ergonomics and other workplace safety issues; guidelines discussing health hazards of numerous chemicals, protective equipment to be used, what to do in the event of spills or leaks, and so on; and answers to frequently asked questions.
Equal Employment Opportunity Commission
National Labor Relations Board
http://www.eeoc.gov
The EEOC, a U.S. government agency, is responsible for enforcing various employment-related legislation, including Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, the Age Discrimination in Employment Act of 1967, the Equal Pay Act of 1963, Titles I and V of the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990, the Civil Rights Act of 1991, and Sections 501 and 505 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973. EEOC press releases will help you keep up to date on court rulings and other matters. Read fact sheets to find out more on racial, age, and religious discrimination as well as on sexual harassment. Learn about rights of an individual with a disability. There are sections devoted to filing a discrimination charge, the EEOC mediation program for resolving workplace disputes, small business concerns, enforcement and litigation, enforcement statistics, and EEOC’s Technical Assistance Program Seminars. Additionally, the text of the Freedom of Information Act is presented, along with a reference guide and other pertinent documents. Occupational Safety and Health Administration http://www.osha.gov
OSHA, an agency of the U.S. Department of Labor, is responsible for enforcing worker safety guidelines according to the Occupational Safety and Health Administration Compliance Assistance Authorization Act of
http://www.nlrb.gov
NLRB, an independent U.S. federal agency, is responsible for enforcing the National Labor Relations Act, which deals with the relationship between labor unions and private-sector employers. Through this act employees are given the right to organize and conduct collective bargaining negotiations with their employers, as well as the right not to do so. In addition to the text of the act, the site features NLRB facts, summaries of current cases, case decisions, press releases, rules and regulations, and manuals and other publications. There is a section devoted to the NLRB and the Freedom of Information Act. To read some of the materials, you’ll need to use Adobe Acrobat Reader. Certain selections are also available in Spanish. Your Rights as an Employee http://www.nerinet.org
Workplace Fairness sponsors this site to provide workers information regarding employee rights. You can view fact sheets on topics such as health and safety, discrimination, harassment, hiring, termination, pay and hours, unemployment insurance, privacy, and more. Each topic is presented in detailed sections; for example, privacy issues include drug testing, searches, surveillance, computer monitoring, medical information, background investigations, and more.
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Accounting
Accounting n Background Even before the introduction of the first coins in about 600 b.c., farmers kept track of their livestock and other valuable possessions in order to have an accurate financial record. Having 16 sheep, for example, meant the ability to trade up to 16 sheep for something else of equal value. The farmer needed to know how many sheep to keep to ensure continued offspring, and how many he could trade. This was the first, most basic, type of accounting. Financial records have been found in the ruins of ancient Greek and Roman towns showing that accountants and bookkeepers were at work balancing the financial records of businesses. Once currency in the form of paper money came into play—about a.d. 600 in China, but not until the 1600s in Europe—more advanced accounting skills were needed to keep track of where the money went. In 1494, Luca Pacioli, an Italian mathematician, wrote a treatise on accounting and bookkeeping that established the foundation for modern bookkeeping methods. One of these was the double entry method of bookkeeping, in which each transaction is recorded twice in a financial ledger, once to the debit of one account and once to the credit of another. This method allowed businesses to keep track of the movement of their funds. Throughout the 15th and 16th centuries, how-to books on bookkeeping were printed in Italy. Since printing presses made reproductions relatively inexpensive, the disbursement of information on the new bookkeeping methods was swift. Presses in major cities in Italy were able to write and print their own manuals on bookkeeping and accounting. As property investment, taxation, and tax write-offs made running a business more complex, there was a growing need for flexible, comprehensive bookkeeping methods. In the late 18th century, the industrial revolution gave birth to large businesses that were involved in a vast array of production and manufacturing services. The heads of these companies needed accurate financial records to determine the cost and effectiveness of doing business. The accounting profession in the United States dates back to the 1880s, when English and Scottish investors began buying stock in American companies. Needing experts to keep an eye on their investments, they sent over accountants. Many of these accountants stayed on to establish their own accounting businesses. Federal legislation, including the introduction of the income tax in 1913 and the excess profits tax in 1917,
Edward Flocco, left, a tax preparer for Holtzman Tax Services in Philadelphia, prepares a last minute tax return for a client. (Associated Press/Mark Stehle.)
helped bring about an accounting boom that has made the profession one of the largest in business today. In order to establish standardization and identification of qualified public accountants, the certified public accountant (CPA) examination was developed in 1917. The Uniform CPA Exam measures professional competence and earning the CPA certificate is evidence of professional qualification. The American Institute of Certified Public Accountants grades and prepares the nationally recognized four-part CPA examination, which is administered by the state boards of accountancy. Other qualifying tests have also been developed over the years. Some of them include the licensing exams for the Certified Management Accountant (CMA) credential for professionals who work primarily for corporations, Certified Internal Auditor (CIA), and the Certified Information Systems Auditor (CISA). These credentials help to establish an accountant’s expertise and help potential clients to identify the accountant that meets their needs. Until the 1980s, eight large, conservative, and stable firms known as the Big Eight dominated the industry. Accounting jobs tended to be predictable and dependable. But that changed as accounting firms became “lean
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Types of Accounting ■ Financial,
or general, accounting deals with the financial position of an enterprise and with the results of its operations.
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Tax accounting is concerned with determining the taxes owed by individuals, enterprises, and states and trusts.
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Governmental accounting is concerned with identifying and tracing the use of public funds rather than determining profit.
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Fiduciary accounting deals with financial entities held in trust, such as estates and insolvent or bankrupt concerns.
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Cost accounting is concerned with the costs of a particular product, process, job, or division of an organization.
and mean,” consolidating and diversifying to become more competitive. Some, like Arthur Andersen, added new services such as management and computer consulting. Others bought out rival companies. The Big Eight was reduced to the Big Six as companies were hit by the recession and the savings and loan crisis. Accounting firms were blamed as savings and loan institutions went bankrupt and were sued for faulty audits. Facing costly lawsuits while in the midst of a recession, firms began to cut jobs in an effort to lessen costs. Salaries were reduced, training programs cut, and the days of guaranteed employment, promotion, and job security came to an end. However, the number of large corporations continues to increase as mergers and acquisitions dominate the marketplace, and accounting continues to grow in complexity. Smaller companies are experiencing transitions as well and are outsourcing their accounting work, as well as other back office services, to outside contractors in an effort to cut costs. Accounting now involves more than “bean counting” and more than simply balancing daily financial journals and account ledgers for a business. Accountants must be able to draw pertinent financial data from a variety of sources and analyze complicated transactions, often involving huge sums of money. New technologies flourished during the 1990s, and much of the work that was done by hand is now computerized. Firms are utilizing new electronic systems for submitting and preparing financial statements, and new ways of tracking costs have been developed. Online services and CD-ROMs now provide a framework for
financial planning and allow individuals and small businesses to manage their own accounting and prepare and file their tax returns. The accounting industry will always face new challenges. Working within the global economy and integrating new technologies such as e-commerce are just a few of the issues that are changing the face of the industry. In 1998, the Big Six became the Big Five with the merger of two of the industry’s powerhouses. To better compete in the global marketplace, Price Waterhouse and Coopers & Lybrand joined to form PriceWaterhouse Coopers. In 2002, the Big Five became the Big Four as a result of Arthur Andersen’s indictment for obstruction of justice for its role in the bankruptcy of Enron Corporation, which defrauded investors and energy consumers on a massive scale. Today, the four largest firms are Deloitte Touche Tohmatsu (now doing business as Deloitte), Ernst & Young, KPMG, and PriceWaterhouseCoopers. In response to this recent financial crisis, the federal government passed the Sarbanes-Oxley Act in 2002. This law requires higher levels of financial accounting and disclosure from all publicly held companies.
■ Structure Accountants and auditors prepare, analyze, and verify financial reports for businesses and government organizations. The accounting department figures profits for the company, prepares its taxes, and keeps track of the cost of running the company. The auditors check those calculations to verify their accuracy. Accountants develop bookkeeping methods that allow a company to keep track of assets and liabilities at any given time and monitor any changes that occur over a period of years. Accountants and auditors may be required to establish a system that breaks down debits into categories of expenditure (money going out of the company) or periods of expenditure. The bookkeeping system depends on the goals of the business and the needs of its management. Budgeting is another major responsibility of most accountants. Using past and current financial records, accountants forecast what a company can afford to spend in a particular area. This plays a vital role when company executives decide how financial resources should be allocated. Because each company has very specific needs, most managers, especially in larger firms, prefer to hire accountants to work exclusively for them. Some large companies are so complex that they have several different accounting divisions. A full-time accountant may be referred
to as a management accountant, private accountant, or industrial accountant. Smaller businesses may hire a permanent accountant as part of the staff, or they may hire one who will work with them on a freelance basis. Some small companies may hire a specific accountant to work with them on a particular project, especially if that accountant is an expert in that area. The auditing department also works on the books for the company. Internal auditors keep track of company expenses to make sure that financial information is reported correctly. They are responsible for evaluating financial information to determine possible fraud or waste. They may also be responsible for developing more efficient methods of operation or new safeguards to ensure that the company is operating efficiently. Auditors monitor the company’s operations and bookkeeping procedures to maintain compliance with tax and business laws. When experts set up an accounting system for a business or individual, the needs of the client must be assessed before the system is designed. Sometimes more than one accounting system is required to keep accurate track of the company’s transactions, particularly in large businesses. A balance-sheet system lists assets and liabilities, as well as other financial data. This gives stockholders and company officials insight into the well-being of the business on a regular basis. An income statement provides an account of operative costs and cash intake, so the overall cost of doing business can be appraised regularly without calculating in other company investments. Accounting systems can also be set up to list earnings paid to stockholders and earnings reinvested in the company. The flow of funds can be tracked to determine where and when company funds are paid out. If there are periods when a large amount of cash leaves the company, then arrangements may be made to reschedule payments to remove high and low points in the cash flow. In a larger company, a staff of accountants shares the responsibilities of tracking the business. Accounting firms handle the complex finances of large corporations that require external assistance with financial management. During the late 1980s, several accounting firms merged into larger corporations. The trend continues today as accounting firms condense into larger groups covering a broader geographical area and offering clients a wider range of services. As the world shrinks, the field of accounting continues to grow. The single largest employer of accountants and auditors is the U.S. government. Government accountants
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maintain the enormous quantity of financial records of government agencies. They also have the same responsibilities as private accountants but, for some agencies, the budgets are immensely larger than those of private corporations. Accountants also have the opportunity to work independently as financial consultants; others run their own business or work part time during tax season. Some also work as teachers or school administrators.
■ Outlook Overall the accounting industry is expected to grow faster than the average through 2014; however, the composition of the industry may change substantially. In 2002 the federal government indicted Arthur Andersen for obstruction of justice for its role in the bankruptcy of one of its clients, Enron Corporation. As a result, Andersen lost many major clients, fell from its Big Five position, and underwent prosecution. In response, the federal government enacted legislation that increase penalties for financial malfeasance, as well as making accounting executives personally responsible for the reporting of false financial information. The Sarbanes-Oxley Act requires companies to adhere to stricter accounting measures as a result of public mistrust of corporate and accounting procedures resulting from the bankruptcy of Enron and other corporations. Increased scrutiny of accounting procedures should increase opportunities for accountants, especially CPAs. It seems reasonable to expect that technologies will continue to change the face of the industry, with the invention of complex computer systems, software, and artificial intelligence. Number crunching jobs will be eliminated, while those that require computer experience and analytical skills
Accountants can spend several hours checking and rechecking their figures. (Don Smetzer, Tony Stone Images.)
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should become more numerous. The best positions will go to those with proficiency in accounting and auditing computer software or expertise in specialized areas such as international business, specific industries, or current legislation. In addition, employers increasingly seek applicants with strong interpersonal and communication skills. Internal auditors and forensic accountants and auditors will increasingly be needed to discover and eliminate waste and fraud. There will be a shift away from tax preparation because of the increasing number of taxpreparation firms and software. Firms will continue to merge in order to remain competitive, and they will specialize in an effort to find their niche in the marketplace. Accounting firms will find themselves competing against other non-CPA companies for the same business and ultimately will seek alliances to build a stronger business. While mergers continue, staff, including partners, are cut back, smaller firms will flourish. The AICPA expects higher work standards to be established and more rigorous training and hiring of lower and mid-level workers. High-level employees will be phased out, and paraprofessional accountants will step in. According to the Chicago Tribune, more than 2,300 small accounting firms have been created in the United States since 2001. The outlook for accounting will be strong despite a radically changed banking industry and the continuing increase in the number and complexity of financial transactions. Expect the accounting industry to grow in the following four key areas: International accounting. International trade is on the rise, and accounting firms are expanding rapidly into Eastern Europe, Russia, China, East Asia, and Latin America. Future expansion is predicted to occur in Mexico, Chile, Venezuela, Argentina, and Brazil. Investigative accounting. This will be a large growth area given the scope of fraud committed in recent years and the likelihood of future fraud as business transactions become more intricate. Financial/estate planning. The number of Americans aged 65 or older is rising, and many members of this group will seek accounting assistance to make investment decisions and manage their finances. Environmental accounting. This specialty is emerging as accountants consult with corporations to ensure compliance with rapidly evolving environmental policies and avoid lawsuits.
n For More Information For information on accreditation and testing, contact Accreditation Council for Accountancy and Taxation
1010 North Fairfax Street Alexandria, VA 22314-1574 Tel: 888-289-7763 Email:
[email protected] http://www.acatcredentials.org
For information on the Uniform CPA Examination and student membership, contact American Institute of Certified Public Accountants 1211 Avenue of the Americas New York, NY 10036-8775 Tel: 212-596-6200 http://www.aicpa.org
For information on accredited programs in accounting, contact Association to Advance Collegiate Schools of Business 777 South Harbour Island Boulevard, Suite 750 Tampa, FL 33602-5730 Tel: 813-769-6500 http://www.aacsb.edu
For more information on women in accounting, contact Educational Foundation for Women in Accounting PO Box 1925 Southeastern, PA 19399-1925 Tel: 610-407-9229 Email:
[email protected] http://www.efwa.org
The FAE supports continuing education for current accountants. Foundation for Accounting Education (FAE) 64 Pleasant Street PO Box 458 Wenham, MA 01984-1319 http://www.fce.org
The IFAC is a worldwide organization that promotes accountancy. International Federation of Accountants (IFAC) 545 Fifth Avenue, 14th Floor New York, NY 10017-3609 Tel: 212-286-9344 http://www.ifac.org
n Related Articles Banking and Financial Services; Insurance; Accountants and Auditors; Actuaries; Bank Examiners; Billing Clerks; Bookkeeping and Accounting Clerks; Credit Analysts; Economists; Financial Analysts; Financial Institution
Tellers, Clerks, and Related Workers; Financial Institution Officers and Managers; Financial Services Brokers; Forensic Accountants and Auditors; Statisticians; Tax Preparers
Advertising and Marketing n Background From the street cries of merchants selling their wares to today’s sophisticated electronic means of reaching customers, advertising has experienced a dramatic evolution. In its earliest days, advertising allowed merchants to go from street to shop, adopting symbols and later written signs to show the goods and services they offered. With the invention of paper and advances in education that enabled more and more people to read, tack-up signs became common. It wasn’t until printing was introduced in the 15th century, however, that advertising was truly revolutionized. Merchants began printing and distributing handbills by the hundreds. Advertisements in newspapers became a familiar sight by the 17th century. By the end of the 1800s, magazines were carrying ads of all kinds. The advertising industry formally emerged in the 1840s, when newspaper-advertising solicitors began representing groups of newspapers. In 1865, a new system was introduced: buying newspaper space and dividing and selling it to advertisers at higher prices. Other forms of advertising also came onto the scene. By the early 1900s, for example, outdoor posters developed into the billboard form, and the merchants who used them were the principal advertisers. In 1922, radio station WEAF in New York City offered program time to advertisers. The use of television advertising began just before the end of World War II. Today, the Internet is catapulting the world of advertising into a whole new realm, allowing vendors not only to target and reach customers but to interact with them as well. Modern advertising is defined as mass communication paid for by an advertiser to persuade a particular segment of the public to adopt ideas or take actions of benefit to the advertiser. Today, most national advertising, and much local advertising, is prepared by advertising agencies. Marketing is anticipating customer needs and directing a flow of need-satisfying goods and services from producer to customer. A combination of events led to the creation of the marketing industry as it exists today. After the Roaring
Advertising and Marketing
Twenties, which produced an abundance of products, it was no longer true that a good product would sell itself. Competition for customers increased, and producers sought ways to boost awareness of their products in order to remain viable in the market. When radio broadcasting flourished in the United States during the 1920s, advertisers quickly capitalized on the new medium. A second major influence on the development of the marketing industry was the Great Depression of the 1930s. As money became scarce, an increased number of producers competed for dollars in an ever-shrinking marketplace. Up until then, producers had been willing to market anything with the assumption that someone out there somewhere would buy it. But businesses soon discovered otherwise. Sales began to drop. If there was no interest in or need for a product, an advertising campaign might carry the company through the first wave of purchases. After that, however, there would be little chance of improving sales. The business discipline of marketing began to take shape as sellers realized that if a group of potential buyers could be found for a product, the product could be better designed to suit the needs of those buyers. Sellers also discovered the importance of identifying a group of buyers before starting an advertising campaign. By doing so, the producer could style the campaign to reach that specific group and would have a better chance of launching a successful product. Marketing, therefore, provided a service for both sides of the business world, the seller and the buyer. This market-driven thinking is now a major part of business decisions and begins long before product development, manufacturing, and sales. In fact, the market is the central focus of both today’s advertising and marketing trends and those that will take industries into the next millennium. Database marketing, for example, allows companies to identify their current and potential markets and provide customer service—before, during, and after the sale. Relationship marketing—developing long-lasting relationships with customers—requires companies to examine customers’ needs, offer products and services that satisfy those needs, supply products and services quickly, and offer customers choices with respect to the products as well as ways to purchase and pay for them. In order to reach and keep their customers, advertisers and marketers are capitalizing on the newest technologies. The number of Internet users worldwide was estimated at 1.04 billion in 2006, and companies are responding by placing advertising on the Web and creating Web sites that allow customers the ease and convenience of online shopping. From flowers to antiques, clothing to furniture, virtually everything can be pur-
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Words to Know Advertising: Mass communication paid for by an advertiser to persuade a particular segment of the public to adopt ideas or take actions of benefit to the advertiser. Advertising agency: A group of researchers, writers, artists, buyers of space and time, other specialists, and account executives who design and execute advertising programs for clients. Copywriter: Idea generator who writes the text and creates the basic framework of advertisements. Database marketing: The use of databases to identify current and potential customers according to demographics and preferences. Electronic banners: The Internet’s equivalent of billboard advertising, which accounts for 80 percent of online ads. Five-second flash: The term used to describe the estimated amount of exposure time of an outdoor poster to the average motorist. Integrated services: Advertising, marketing, sales, and promotion services all in one package. Interactive marketing specialist: A person who specializes in online advertising and marketing. Marketing: Activities that identify customer needs and accordingly direct the flow of goods and services from producer to customer. Media: The avenues through which advertisers can place ads, including the Internet, television, radio, magazines, newspapers, and outdoor signs. Niche market: A specialized group of customers to whom advertisers often target campaigns. Nielsen ratings: National audience percentages based on the television viewing habits of a select number of families chosen to reflect as closely as possible families from across the country. Package research: Research that studies customer response to how a package looks on the shelf. Relationship marketing: Marketing that aims to develop long-lasting relationships with customers. Sample: A group that reflects the entire population from which it is selected.
chased online. Other technology-related trends include fax-on-demand services, phone shopping via voice mail, and 24-hour interactive communication.
■ Structure In 1975, $27.5 billion was spent on advertising in newspapers, magazines, business publications, medical journals, and telephone directories; on billboards and buses,
the radio, network television, and cable. In 1998, with the addition of online advertising, that figure had risen to more than $180 billion. Ad spending in 2003 dropped to $128.3 billion, according to TNS Media Intelligence/ CMR (Competitive Media Reporting), a provider of marketing communication and advertising expenditure information. Advertising expenditures have increased since then, however, and TNS Media predicted that total U.S. advertising spending would reach $150.3 billion in 2006. Today, most national advertising and much of local advertising is prepared by advertising agencies. A modern advertising agency is composed of researchers, copywriters, artists, telemarketers, buyers of space and time, other specialists, and account executives who represent the agency to its clients. The size of an agency is determined by the amount of advertising it bills to its clients. Many agencies are small, billing less than $10 million a year. Part of an agency’s income results from commissions that are equivalent to 15 percent of the advertiser’s cost of placing the ads. While some agencies bill clients on a fee basis, others use a fee/commission combination. Large advertising agencies usually handle a variety of accounts, while some of the smaller agencies specialize in a single field. They may handle only financial accounts, for example, or hotels, book publishers, or industrial clients. Some agencies are known for their expertise in selling package goods. Others excel in retail and department store promotion or selling on the Internet. Almost every agency develops some distinctive quality to help sell its services. Along with targeting a well-produced message to its intended audience, the placement of ads in the most effective media is extremely important to the success of an advertising campaign. The newest mass medium to hit the scene, the Internet, is a worldwide, computer-based network consisting of online services, Web sites, newsgroups, and more. The Internet allows advertisers and marketers to precisely target customers, accurately measure response, and clearly identify consumer needs. Through the Internet’s Web sites, consumers themselves provide companies with information about their interests, demographics, preferences, and needs, either through registration surveys or indirectly by the choice of Web sites they visit. With more than 600 million users, the Internet is drawing advertisers in droves. In the first quarter of 2006, companies spent about $2.3 billion on Internet advertising, and increase of 19.4 percent compared to the first quarter of 2005. Internet advertising’s mainstay is the banner, a narrow rectangle across the top of the screen that can blink, flash, or be static. An offshoot of the banner is the skyscraper,
which is the vertical equivalent and runs in a narrow margin on either side of a Web page. Since surfers have become used to banners and skyscrapers, they get less attention, so some advertisers place their messages in large boxes that are hard to ignore. Another trend in Internet advertising is the pop-up window, a separate window that opens while a Web page is loading. Many other media also allow advertisers to showcase their offerings. Television, for example, provides opportunities to show products in actual use. Through a TV ad, an advertiser can design a message that appeals to both the eye and the ear at the same time. Advertisers usually include their messages during the course of various television shows to achieve the desired reach and frequency. Rating services like A. C. Nielsen and Arbitron measure the sizes of audiences through the use of home meters and diaries. According to the Television Bureau of Advertising, 98.2 percent of U.S. households had a TV set in 2006 and the average time per household spent viewing TV was eight hours a day in 2006. The reach and frequency of a TV commercial are determined from this raw data. The newest trend in advertising and marketing is the placement of products or mention of services in actual television shows and films. For example, advertisers interested in promoting a specific soft drink might arrange to have it placed in the background of a scene or have a main character drink it. In addition to network television, advertisers are increasingly turning to cable TV. Developed in the late 1940s simply as a means of improving reception, cable television today reaches more than 67 percent of all American households, with almost 74 million current subscribers. Appealing to specific audiences, such cable channels as MTV, HBO, The History Channel, Cable News Network, and ESPN, allows advertisers to target specific audiences with ease. There are more than 575 million radios in the United States, according to the CIA: The World Factbook. Radio commercials are designed to deliver messages on behalf of local and national advertisers. While radio production techniques are relatively inexpensive and a radio commercial reaches large audiences, listeners conjure up different pictures in response to radio ads than they do with visual ads. Magazine advertising offers special values not found in other media. Magazines are kept longer than daily newspapers, for example, and may be picked up and read several times or passed on from one reader to another. Thus, the actual number of readers may be considerably higher than circulation figures indicate. Many advertisers send direct mail to prospects from carefully maintained lists. Such lists can be bought from
Advertising and Marketing
Designers in an advertising firm discuss storyboards for a new TV commercial. (Kalunzy/Thatcher, Tony Stone Images.)
firms that compile information about buyers with specific interests and income levels. As a rule, the more specialized the list, the higher the price. Nearly all direct mail seeks to encourage some kind of buying action, often with return cards or coupons, and is frequently used in conjunction with other types of advertising. Outdoor advertising, such as billboards, posters, and electric signs, is favored by national advertisers, as well as local businesses that want to attract passersby. Those who create outdoor posters design them with the five-second flash in mind, since that amount of time is the estimated exposure of the message to the average motorist. This means that the message must be very short and instantly understood. Transit advertising is displayed in or on such public vehicles as subway cars, buses, and commuter trains. The messages in transit ads can be longer than those on outdoor signs, because passengers have more time to look at these ads. Some companies have in-house advertising departments, while others work with agencies. Similarly, many large companies have their own marketing departments, with smaller organizations often using outside marketing services. How a product is marketed can determine its success or failure. Advertising plays a key role in this process. Marketers work with advertising professionals to determine how ads should look, where they should be placed, and when the advertising should begin. The look and message of an ad are researched by employees in advertising and marketing to make sure that the ad effectively interests the targeted audience. Timing of advertising is extremely important to the success of a marketing strategy as well; launching an advertising campaign too
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early may create interest well before the product is available. In such cases, by the time the product is released, the public may no longer be interested. Research usually starts long before a product is developed. Since competition is often intense, marketing department personnel go to work compiling data about similar products in the marketplace. If there is some chance that a product will sell well enough to cover initial expenses, the cost to manufacture and launch the new product is determined. The price of the product to consumers will then equal the overall cost of production plus the desired profit. The marketing department is also responsible for developing a distribution plan for products. If a product is expected to sell well to a certain group, for example, then marketing professionals must decide how to deliver to members of that group based on when and where they shop. Large companies often handle sales and distribution from inside the company, while smaller companies may sell through wholesalers, who supply retail stores with products from many different manufacturers. Once markets are evaluated and merchandise is designed, the actual production begins. The marketing department’s work, however, is not yet done. Along with the public relations department, marketing professionals contact members of the press with the aim of getting product information out to the public. The failure rate for new products is very high. Once a product is released, marketers evaluate sales and look for ways to make improvements in features and designs. Package research studies show how a product looks on the shelf. Designers explore new color combinations, more appealing shapes, interesting patterns, and new materials. If problems can be easily corrected, a company may decide to launch an improved version of the product. If, however, the target audience is not being reached or is not interested, the company might redesign the product or the advertising or discontinue production altogether. Although it is not an exact science, marketing uses a scientific and statistical approach in answering a client company’s questions about selling a product to the public. The advertising aspect of a marketing campaign must get attention, arouse interest, secure belief, create desire, and stir action. Beauty, comfort, convenience, and quality are the promises that sell all kinds of products, from consumables to cars.
■ Outlook Advertising and marketing grow in direct proportion to the national economy. As a result of the favorable economic climate in the United States during the late 1990s, both
industries enjoyed considerable growth. In the early 2000s, employment growth in these industries slowed as a result of a weaker economy. Economic conditions are expected to improve, and the U.S. Department of Labor predicts that the advertising and marketing industries will grow faster than the average through 2014. Such growth will be accelerated through the development of new products and services and the resulting increase in competition among producers of both industrial and consumer goods. Greater competition among producers will, in turn, spur more intense advertising and marketing efforts for their products, and competition for these advertising and marketing jobs will be fierce. Creative college graduates who communicate well will have the best job prospects. Those who have knowledge of and experience with cutting-edge technology will have an enormous edge. People who know how to create Web sites, for example, are hotly pursued in the advertising and marketing arenas, as are Web professionals, graphic designers, and interactive marketing specialists. As the global economy continues to expand and opportunities to market foreign products increase, those who speak a foreign language also will be in demand. More than half of all advertising firms employ fewer than 20 people. These small shops will offer strong employment opportunities for people with experience, talent, and flexibility, but competition is especially intense and jobs—which depend on attracting and keeping clients—are often not guaranteed. In addition to smaller agencies, self-employment and home-based businesses are on the rise. Marketing and advertising professionals with an entrepreneurial spirit are starting their own marketing and advertising firms or offering consulting services to a growing number of small businesses and services that have opened in recent years in response to cutbacks and salary reductions. On the other side of the coin, the mega-agencies— multinational agencies created from mergers and acquisitions—still dominate the advertising industry. Of the approximately 47,000 advertising agencies and public relations firms in the United States, most of the large firms are located in New York, Chicago, and Los Angeles and offer higher pay scales than smaller agencies. About one in five firms and more than one in four jobs are in New York or California. One way these advertising giants attract and keep clients is by offering integrated services: advertising, marketing, sales, and promotion services all in one package. As a result, many agencies seek employees with not only advertising experience but public relations, packaging, and/or sales promotion experience as well. Another important trend that continues to affect employment opportunities in the advertising industry is
specialization. Many agencies are increasing their focus on niche markets, and they will continue to specialize. Expected high-growth areas include foreign-language programming, advertising aimed at specific ethnic groups, advertising targeted at the over-50 market, special events advertising and marketing, and direct marketing campaigns for retailers and technological companies. Many nonindustrial companies will create advertising jobs as a result of the growth of the managed health care, nutrition, and fitness industries. And banks and local governments will use both marketing and advertising techniques in order to deliver services more cost effectively. Banks, for example, will require researchers to guide them in creating more competitive consumer investment tools. In addition, local governments will use marketing research techniques to locate the best sites for schools and hospitals and advertising techniques to promote special events and new services. Part of the satisfaction of advertising work is in the sense of creative accomplishment, such as seeing and hearing your own ideas as they appear before millions of people. But there is less glamour than is commonly supposed and much more of the day-to-day routine that requires painstaking attention to detail. In addition, advertising employees need to have people and communication skills, common sense, and the ability to solve problems. Most entry-level positions require a bachelor’s degree, preferably with a concentration in the liberal arts. Employment in the marketing industry is projected to grow faster than the average through 2014. There will be more emphasis on selling quality products, increased marketing segmentation, shorter life cycles for products, and increased demand for new and better-quality products. In addition, many chief executive officer positions in businesses of all kinds will be filled by those with marketing experience, because marketing will play an increasingly important role in differentiating and creating need for products. This is good news for managerlevel marketers. As for those just starting out, the ability to anticipate trends will become more valuable than the traditional skills in technical marketing. On the downside, many marketing jobs will be temporary. In addition, the hours of the marketing worker can often be quite long, with overtime a frequent requirement in every level of the marketing profession. Stress is a continual element of the job, since inaccurate product estimates can mean the difference between survival and failure for a small company. Employees who fare the best in marketing are detailoriented people who work well under pressure and enjoy the challenge of developing a new product for sale. Human resource professionals recommend refresher
advertising and marketing
courses at local colleges and universities to stay abreast of new trends and processes.
■ For More Information For profiles of advertising workers and career information, contact Advertising Educational Foundation 220 East 42nd Street, Suite 3300 New York, NY 10017-5806 http://www.aded.org
For information on college chapters, competitions, and internships, contact American Advertising Federation 1101 Vermont Avenue, NW, Suite 500 Washington, DC 20005-6306 Tel: 202-898-0089 Email:
[email protected] http://www.aaf.org
The AAAA is the management-oriented national trade organization representing the advertising agency business. American Association of Advertising Agencies (AAAA) 405 Lexington, 18th Floor New York, NY 10174-1801 Tel: 212-682-2500 http://www.aaaa.org
For career resources and a job bank, contact American Marketing Association 311 South Wacker Drive, Suite 5800 Chicago, IL 60606-6627 Tel: 800-262-1150 Email:
[email protected] http://www.marketingpower.com
Visit the following Web sites for advertising and marketing glossaries: Glossary of Terms Used in Advertising and Marketing Communications http://www.garyeverhart.com/glossary_of_advertising_ terms.htm
The University of Texas at Austin: Department of Advertising http://advertising.utexas.edu/research/terms
■ Related Articles Business; Public Relations; Advertising Account Executives; Advertising and Marketing Managers; Advertising Workers; Art Directors; Business Managers; Demographers; Graphic
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Designers; Marketing Research Analysts; Media Planners and Buyers; Public; Opinion Researchers; Statisticians; Telemarketers; Writers
Aerospace ■ Background Despite a slowdown in recent years, aerospace is a career field that continues to attract many people because of its cutting-edge technology and wide range of career opportunities. Aerospace technology has made our world a smaller place. The ability to move humans in flying machines has changed our culture, from the way we travel to the way we wage wars. One hundred years ago, multinational companies were nonexistent; today, air travel and satellite communications have made them the trend. Air travel has also expanded the threat of foreign attack for every country in the world; today, citizens of all countries live with the knowledge that they are vulnerable from their skies. Ironically, the same technology that brought about bomber planes and missiles also has more benevolent benefits. Air travel has made it easier for people of widely different cultures to gain a better understanding of each other, thus reducing the threat of war. Aerospace also encompasses travel outside our atmosphere. This field, astronautics, also has benefited humanity in many ways. Research in outer space has produced medical breakthroughs, improved manufacturing processes, and allowed for earlier, more accurate weather prediction, among other benefits. The aerospace industry was born in the early part of the 20th century and literally took off shortly after Orville and Wilbur Wright’s first flight in 1903. Orville made the first flight, flying their wood, wire, and cloth airplane 120 feet. What had begun as a curiosity gathered intense interest as pilots and inventors worked to improve the Wright brothers’ design. By 1911, airplanes were being used in war. At first, airplanes were used mainly for reconnaissance missions, but they were soon adapted for dropping bombs. The recognition of the value of aircraft for warfare led to intense efforts to develop the aerospace industry, and technological advances in aviation design developed at an incredible pace. In 1915, the aerospace industry in the United States was stimulated by the creation of the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics, which would later become the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). After 1925, pri-
vate companies began carrying airmail. Engineering improvements, such as the use of wind tunnel testing and engine and airframe design, provided faster, larger and more durable airplanes. World War II brought further developments in aircraft. Factories and workers all over the country were mobilized to build the planes needed to fight the war, and the United States developed great expertise in building aircraft. An important innovation to modern air travel, the jet engine, had been developed by the end of the war. By the end of the 1950s, jet travel had revolutionized the airline industry, opening air travel to millions of people around the world. However, the industry couldn’t continue to develop at such a breakneck pace. The end of the Cold War and increased cooperation in space exploration reduced the need for the federal government to pour great amounts of money into the aerospace industry. Beginning in the 1980s, orders for new aircraft, both military and commercial, began to drop dramatically. The focus of the U.S. aviation industry shifted to developing markets in foreign countries that lagged behind the United States in production and technological capabilities. Research concentrated on safety improvements and quieter, more efficient aircraft. The beginnings of astronautics, which later would become NASA’s focus, followed closely on the heels of the airplane in the early part of the 20th century. Astronautics, the science of space flight, soon revolutionized not only modern warfare but also humanity’s vision of its place in the universe. Beginning with the ideas of Konstantin Tsiolkovsky, a Russian schoolteacher who theorized that a rocket fueled by liquid propellants could be operated in space, the American Robert Goddard and the German Hermann Oberth developed the first liquid-propellant rockets. Goddard launched the first such rocket in 1926, with a flight that reached about 41 feet, landing 184 feet from its launch site. Soon after the war, the Soviets launched the first successful spacecraft, Sputnik, in 1957, and the space age began. The United States responded by creating NASA and stepping up efforts to develop craft capable of carrying humans into space. Throughout the Cold War, the space race continued, leading to the landing of the first man on the moon in 1969. The two countries saw the dedication of enormous amounts of resources to the development of ever more sophisticated technology, including conventional, nuclear, biological, and chemical weapons, air and naval craft, and surveillance, intelligence, communications, and computer technology. Much of the technology developed initially for defense has been adapted for commercial and civil use. Today, much of the work performed by NASA in space is
Aerospace
directed at improving our understanding of many biological, chemical, meteorological, and other scientific processes that can then be implemented for promoting the health and welfare of all. Developments such as the reusable space shuttle and the space station, a permanent orbiting laboratory in space, have renewed ambitions toward living and working in space. Today, two countries that distrusted each other for much of the 20th century are working together on an ambitious aerospace project, the International Space Station (ISS). The United States, Russia, and 14 other countries have combined technology and manpower to build, expand, and maintain an international space station. The ISS has become the largest, most sophisticated, and most powerful spacecraft ever built. (For information on the experiments being
Words to Know Aerodynamics: The study of gases in motion, principally applied in the design of airplanes. Aeronautics: The design and construction of aircraft. Aerospace: The science and technology of flight; also the atmosphere and the regions of space around it. Air pressure: The weight of the atmosphere over a particular point. Average air exerts 14.7 pounds on every square inch at sea level. Airplane: A winged vehicle capable of flight, generally heavier than air and driven by jet engines or propellers; the six main parts of an airplane are the fuselage, wings, stabilizer, rudder, engines, and landing gear. Airspace: The FAA designates six areas of Special Use Airspace. Air traffic controllers and pilots are responsible for knowing what type of airspace they are flying in and acting accordingly. They are: Alert Area: Airspace that may contain a high volume of pilot training or unusual aerial activity. Controlled Firing Area: Airspace where firing activities are controlled to eliminate hazards to passing aircraft. Military Operations Area: Airspace in which nonhazardous military activity may take place. Prohibited Area: Airspace in which no person may operate an aircraft without special prior permission.
conducted, crew members, and other facts about the ISS, visit http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/main/ index.html.)
■ Structure Various technologies, sciences, and industries are necessary to produce the products, services, and scientific understanding that make up the modern aerospace industry. The industry requires the talents of an extraordinarily diverse range of careers. Engineers, scientists, technicians, computer programmers, pilots, mechanics, graphic artists, and administrators are some of the different professionals who work in the field. A look at how research is conducted in the aerospace industry provides an example of how these profession-
Restricted Area: Airspace where the flight of aircraft is not prohibited, but is subject to restrictions, such as certain specified flight levels. Warning Area: Airspace extending three nautical miles outward from the coast of the United States that may contain hazardous activity. Astronautics: The science and technology of space flight. FAA: The Federal Aviation Administration. The FAA regulates air travel in the United States. Gravity: Natural force that pulls objects on or near Earth toward Earth. NASA: National Aeronautics and Space Administration. NASA oversees the United States space exploration program. Orbit: The path of a satellite in relation to the object around which it revolves. Payload: The instruments that are accommodated on a spacecraft. Satellite: A free-flying object that orbits Earth, another planet, or the sun. Space: Begins where Earth’s atmosphere is too thin to affect objects moving through it, about 100 miles above Earth. Thrust: The push given by a rocket to its engines; thrust is required for an object to escape the pull of gravity. Trajectory: Flight path.
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als work together to advance the field. From the highly theoretical nature of basic research (such as understanding the law of gravity) to the applied research resulting in new materials, components, systems, products, and technologies, research scientists continually refine and expand aerospace technology. Physics plays an important part in the development of new types of aircraft, weapons, and missiles; chemistry research provides new materials for use not only on Earth but also in space. Biologists explore the effects of such factors as speed, gravity, and space on the human body, and also develop vaccines and other defenses against chemical or biological weapons. Engineers and other scientists work on the development and production of safe, efficient equipment. Their work includes studies of the atmosphere and space; the improvement of the usefulness, performance, speed, safety, and efficiency of combat, aeronautical, and space vehicles; and the development and operation of vehicles capable of carrying instruments, equipment, supplies, and living organisms through space and through the atmosphere. Defense research also involves creating and refining communications, surveillance, tracking, and other systems that allow pilots, soldiers, and other personnel to maintain visual, audio, and long-range contact, among members of their own or opposing forces, through a variety of conditions. Products of the aerospace industry can be separated into three sectors: space, military, and commercial. Space. Space challenges the frontiers of higher speeds and safer, more efficient operations of air and spacecraft. Questions that researchers try to answer through experimentation and computer simulation involve a variety of aspects of space exploration and travel. Some fundamental questions are: How long can humans live in a weightless condition? Is there other life in our galaxy? Practical questions concerning both the research scientists and the engineers are: Will the engine fire as planned? Will the power source continue to produce electricity? The aerospace industry conducts research to answer these questions, solve technical challenges and problems, and develop new, more powerful, safer, and efficient technologies. Military. Aerospace technology is a vital part of the national security of the United States. The military relies on aircraft and satellites during war and peace for surveillance, defense, and as an accurate means of carrying weapons such as bombs and missiles to their intended targets. The Department of Defense (DOD) operates from the Pentagon in Washington, D.C., overseeing the activities of our armed forces. The DOD contracts with private aerospace companies to procure the manufacturing, scientific, research, and
engineering resources to promote national security. The DOD may provide specifications for a new type of weapon or aircraft, then contract with a commercial manufacturer to design and produce it. The DOD may fund the research of scientists from a variety of backgrounds: mathematics, physics, chemistry, biology, astrophysics, and others working at colleges and universities and private companies. Commercial. Commercial aircraft, whether for passenger or freight use, constitutes the largest portion of the aerospace industry’s sales. Flying on an airplane became more accessible to average Americans during the 1960s and 1970s and the volume of passenger travel has had healthy growth. The terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, along with the concurrent economic recession, caused significant declines in passenger travel, but industry experts believe that travel will rebound quickly. Business, too, has increased its reliance on airplanes. For customers all over the world, speedy air mail and package delivery is not an innovation, but an expectation. Large multinational companies fly employees all over the world to conduct business. The demands of business and the traveling public fueled the growth of the industry in the second half of the 20th century, balancing, or at least reducing, the effects of military and space cutbacks during that same time period. The way aircraft and spacecraft are manufactured has also evolved, largely for economic reasons. It is often cheaper for a smaller company to specialize in building a few parts than it is for a large company to build an entire airplane, for example. Some companies specialize in manufacturing or managing the manufacturing of the entire system, usually by subcontracting various phases of the operations, while other companies specialize in certain components or materials. There are only 50 or so major aerospace manufacturers, but thousands of subcontractors, from very large to very small companies, supply parts, supplies, materials, and subassemblies to the principal contractors. Manufacturers generally compete for contracts for military, commercial, and space aircraft. One craft may have been built by several different manufacturers. The space shuttle provides an example of this. The shuttle’s orbiter was placed under the responsibility of the Johnson Space Center in Texas, and its principal contractor was Rockwell International. The Marshall Space Flight Center in Alabama, meanwhile, contracted with both Morton Thiokol Chemical Corporation and Martin Marietta Aerospace for the shuttle’s solid-fuel booster and liquid-fuel propellant. The development of a new type of aircraft may take many years from its initial design to final production. In the initial phases, computers are used to create theoretical models to test the design under a variety of simulated
conditions and flight patterns. Next, scale models of a successful design are subjected to a barrage of tests, such as wind-tunnel testing, to refine the design still further. A full-scale model of the aircraft is built and its various components—the wings, fuselage, landing gear, etc.—are subjected to further testing. Finally, test craft are built to see how well the aircraft and its various systems operate under actual flying conditions. Full-scale manufacture of the aircraft begins only after an aircraft has successfully completed the testing phase. The process from initial design to final production may take as little as a few months for commercial aircraft; a military project, however, can take many years before completion. According to the U.S. Department of Labor, aerospace manufacturing provided more than 444,000 wage and salary jobs in 2004. The aerospace industry offers a wide variety of jobs requiring workers with different educational backgrounds. Scientists and engineers are generally expected to have completed advanced degree programs, including doctoral and post-doctoral work, often while gaining on-the-job experience. Technologists in the industry generally complete a bachelor’s degree program in aerospace technology or a related field, while technicians generally hold an associate’s degree. Employers often offer, and even require, additional on-the-job training. People with a high school diploma can find employment in many areas of production and manufacturing. Due to the highly technical nature of much of the work, those with less than a high school diploma may find it difficult to enter the field. Even support personnel are generally required to have a high school diploma.
■ Outlook In the decades following the Second World War, the aerospace industry was one of the most important in the United States. Apart from the international prestige to be gained by winning the space race, the ongoing threat presented by the Cold War between the United States and the Soviet Union drove the industry’s growth. Aerospace contractors could be assured of billions of dollars of new contracts each year; interest in space travel and research was also high. The collapse of the Soviet Union and the end of the Cold War in the late 1980s and early 1990s created a new reality for the aerospace industry. The immediate threat to national security disappeared, and with it, the need for high levels of spending. Other factors also combined to depress the aerospace industry. After the Challenger disaster of 1986, the space program entered a decline. Decisions were made to reduce the reliance on the space shuttle through the 1990s, and NASA’s budget was cut. (In 2003, a second space shuttle disaster occurred when
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This technologist is working on a 747 engine at an aerospace plant. (Stewart Cohen, Tony Stone Images.)
the Columbia disintegrated in mid-air while reentering the Earth’s atmosphere. This created further stress on the industry and led to renewed calls for decreases in NASA’s budget.) The recession of the early 1990s, coupled with the Persian Gulf War, severely reduced the level of air travel. Meanwhile, a wave of corporate downsizing swept the country, and by the mid-1990s, more than one million management jobs had been eliminated. Because business travel has always been one of the mainstays of the airlines, the aviation industry saw even further reductions in air travel. The deregulation of the airline industry in the early 1980s had also led to the failure of a number of airlines. All of these events meant that fewer orders for new commercial aircraft were being placed with the major aerospace manufacturers. Between 1989 and 1995, more than 500,000 jobs were eliminated. The aerospace industry recovered slightly in the late 1990s, with 898 jetliner orders in 1996, 940 in 1997, 1,124 in 1998, 776 in 1999, and 1,081 in 2000. Employment also recovered somewhat, but peaked in 1998. The industry began to experience another decline due to several factors, including the Asian financial crises, foreign outsourcing for engines and parts, competition with the European manufacturer Airbus, and a struggling economy. Airlines began to lose money as air travel declined in the first half of 2001. Orders for new aircraft severely declined and layoffs affected thousands of workers. The September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks caused a steep decline in commercial flight and orders for new commercial aircraft. Since then, travel has rebounded gradually, and the U.S. Department of Labor predicts that the industry will return to its pre 9/11 condition over the next sev-
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eral years. Industry experts say that the war on terrorism could provide an opportunity for the aerospace industry to restructure itself and regain strength. To fight terrorism, protect the United States, and continue to support its troops in Iraq, Afghanistan, and other locales, the U.S. government has increased its spending on aircraft, shipbuilding, ballistic missile defense, intelligence, surveillance, reconnaissance, and other defense-related programs. The U.S. Department of Labor projects that employment in the aerospace products and parts manufacturing industry will grow more slowly than the average career, with higher growth predicted for the military aircraft and missiles portion of the industry. The employment percentage could increase further depending on government decisions to increase military spending. As a result of the Columbia disaster, there was considerable debate concerning NASA’s budget, the necessity of human travel in space, and the future of the U.S. space program. Congress increased NASA’s budget slightly, and NASA announced plans to create a new crew exploration vehicle by 2008, retire the space shuttle and complete the International Space Station by 2010, and send a return manned mission to the Moon by 2020 as a first step to a manned mission to Mars. As part of its overall plan, NASA is expected to continue its research in aerospace technology, aviation, and space transportation, including military and commercial applications.
■ For More Information For information about scholarships, colleges, and career opportunities, contact Air Force Association 1501 Lee Highway Arlington, VA 22209-1198 Tel: 800-727-3337 Email:
[email protected] http://www.afa.org
Contact AIA for publications with information on aerospace technologies, careers, and space. Aerospace Industries Association of America (AIA) 1000 Wilson Boulevard, Suite 1700 Arlington, VA 22209-3928 Tel: 703-358-1000 http://www.aia-aerospace.org
For career information and details on student branches of this organization, contact American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics 1801 Alexander Bell Drive, Suite 500 Reston, VA 20191-4344
Tel: 800-639-2422 http://www.aiaa.org
■ Related Articles Airlines; Defense; Space Exploration; Aeronautical and Aerospace Technicians; Aerospace Engineers; Astronauts; Astronomers; Astrophysicists; Electrical and Electronics Engineers; Engineers; Industrial Engineers; Mechanical Engineers; Robotics Engineers and Technicians
Agriculture ■ Background Rudimentary farming developed approximately 10,000 years ago. Archeological records reveal that people first planted seeds about 9000 b.c. However, it would be another thousand years before farming produced crops as a primary source of food. As the skills of farmers increased, food production improved. Animal husbandry, fishing, and planting skills became more sophisticated. The inventions of machines and tools had an important impact on agricultural advancement. Prehistoric people crafted the sickle for harvesting, the Egyptians developed irrigation, and the Mesopotamians developed the plow pulled by oxen. In the Middle Ages, horses replaced oxen, increasing the speed of the plow. In the early 1700s, Jethro Tull designed and built the first mechanical seed planter. The agricultural revolution, roughly from 1700 to the mid-1800s, revolutionized crop production. Crop rotation allowed farmland to be used continually, and animal breeding improved dramatically. Farms were thus able to yield crops that far exceeded the needs of the communities that worked on them. This surplus of food was exported to other towns where it was bought and sold by merchants. Hence the development of the marketplace, which became central to the rapid growth of cities. Steamboats, railroads, and improved routes of transportation allowed for agricultural commodities to be distributed wider and easier, opening up the marketplace for farmers. Canning, refrigeration, and other developments in food processing in the mid-1800s also resulted in better sales. In the early 20th century, a number of new developments helped improve and radically reshape the agricultural industry. The gasoline tractor led the way for new machine technology, while scientific advancements in the areas of plant breeding and soil conservation allowed farmers to specialize and make full use of
natural resources. The 20th century was also a period of active federal government involvement in farm production. The Agricultural Extension Service, formed in 1914, brought agricultural education to farmers all across the country. New Deal legislation in the 1930s helped farmers deal with the devastation brought on by the Dust Bowl. The Agricultural Marketing Act of 1937 allowed the federal government to buy crop surpluses and donate them to the poor and to schools. The government remains involved in agriculture today, most recently through the Farm Security and Rural Investment Act of 2002. A drought in Texas in the late 1990s, a drop in hog prices, and the migration of populations from rural communities to urban areas have all contributed to insurmountable problems for farmers and agricultural counties throughout the country, calling for more government assistance. Farms have increased considerably in size since the end of World War II, while the number of farms in the United States has declined. This is partly because technology has allowed for the operation of a much larger farm than it did during the time of horse-drawn equipment and partly because of the growth of large-scale farms run by corporations. It has become increasingly difficult for new farmers to invest in the industry. The rising cost of equipment and labor and the dropping prices of commodities make it very difficult for even established farmers to maintain their land and crops. As a result, many small farm communities are evaporating. More people are migrating to urban and suburban areas, resulting in the closings of schools, hospitals, and other community institutions. For years, farmers have relied on other forms of income, such as off-farm business revenue and salaries from off-farm jobs, for the bulk of their living expenses. Some surveys show that 90 percent of farm household income is from off-farm sources. Despite some of these grim figures for the American farmer, the agricultural industry and agriculture-related careers thrive. According to the U.S. Department of Labor, agricultural production employed approximately 2.1 million workers in 2004, making it one of the largest industries in the country. According to the U.S. Department of Agriculture’s National Agricultural Statistics Service, women made up 27.2 percent of agricultural producers as of 2002—up from 12.6 percent in 1997. Minorities have also made significant strides. The percentage of agricultural operators of Hispanic, Latino, or Spanish origin increased by 50.8 percent from 1997 to 2002, and the percentage of African-American agricultural operators increased by 8.8 percent during this time span. Farmers still feed the nation and the world, and new uses for commodities are opening new markets.
Agriculture
Agriculture Online We’ve come a long way from the Old Farmer’s Almanac and barn-top weather vanes; today’s farmer can check the weather and commodities prices and chat with other farmers without even stepping from the house. The following Internet sites provide farmers and others in agriculture with up-to-the-minute information about their industry: ■ Agweb.com (http://www.agweb.com/farmjournal.asp). Agweb.com is the online version of Farm Journal and includes daily news reports, market prices, and live chat and discussion groups. Free registration gives you access to in-depth articles on a well-designed, easy-tonavigate site. ■
AgriBiz & Associates (http://www.agribiz.org). The reports at this site touch upon diverse agricultural concerns, including information about international commodities, daily news about biotechnology, and other Internet resources.
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Grainnet (http://www.grainnet.com). Many articles from the print magazine Grain Journal are included on this site along with classifieds, lists of suppliers, and a Web site directory.
Advances in science and technology have made agricultural production much more efficient, but also more complex, calling upon the skills of farm managers, technicians, consultants, and agribusiness professionals.
■ Structure The American agricultural industry is vast and diverse. It is made up of the farmers who cultivate the land, raise livestock, and grow plants; the industries that purchase, process, distribute, and transport farm products and farm supplies; and the organizations that supply services to the farmer and the consumer. This whole complex network of activities is often called agribusiness. The base for all agricultural work is the farm. The average farm is run by a farm operator or a farm manager, who in most cases has attended college and earned an agricultural degree. Farms usually employ both permanent and seasonal workers. Part-time employees work during the harvest and planting seasons, and permanent employees are responsible for the day-to-day operations of the farm throughout the year. Single crop farms are commonplace. On these farms, the cash crop (the crop that is grown for sale) is the only thing produced. Wheat and corn single crop farms are widespread throughout the Midwest and Plains states.
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An agricultural worker prepares freshly picked organic strawberries for shipping and distribution. (Rubberball Productions.)
Specialized livestock production is mainly centered on cattle, hogs, and poultry operations in the United States. Sheep, goat, turkey, and aquaculture (fish) farms are examples of single livestock operations. Diversified farms produce several different crops or animals, or a mixture of both, for sale. The old-style family farm was often a diversified farm. These farms are less common now, partly because of the simplicity of specialized production, but mainly because the profit margin is often higher with single-crop production. Land is normally well suited to only a few types of plants or animals, which makes diversification difficult. However, the diversified farm is less dependent on the success of a single item. Drought, disease, and other natural disasters may take less of a toll on the farm that produces many different products. Farmers depend on other industries to provide seed, fertilizer, and machinery. After the crops are harvested or
livestock are bred, output industries process and market the farm products. Storage, shipping, processing, packaging, and canning are just some of the industries that assist the farmer in the sale of goods. For example, a shipping company makes sure that a farm’s produce reaches the customer in the best condition for sale. A storage company makes sure that all of a farm’s apples produced in September do not arrive at the store on the same day. It will store some of the apples for future sales, schedule future deliveries, and can some produce for off-season sales. These are all important aspects of agribusiness. To ensure sales of their produce, farmers can arrange to sell their crops before producing them. This is known as contract farming, and it has benefits for both the buyer and the farmer. It is an arrangement between a farm and a buyer, such as a food processor or marketer, to ship the produce to the buyer upon harvesting. The farmer must agree to a price at the time of the contract. If there are a lot of successful crops of the type the farmer sells, the farmer may get a higher price for the crops in a contract than if he had waited for the harvest and bid with many other farmers waiting to sell their goods. However, if crop production is low, then the buyer may get a cheaper price on a product if the buyer arranged the contract early in the season, before the farmer knew that there would be fewer of the items produced than normal. In an open sale, the farmer would be able to raise the price, because there would be more people trying to buy from him. The off-the-farm portion of the agricultural industry, in addition to offering goods and services, also provides an opportunity for many diverse and interesting careers. Of the approximately 24 million people working in various areas of agriculture, only about 2.1 million are located on farms, whereas about 21.9 million work in jobs related to agriculture, but off the farm. In 1862, the U.S. Congress gave each state a land grant that consisted of 30,000 acres of land for each senator and representative in Congress. The state was to sell the land and use the proceeds to build a college that would specialize in education for agriculture and engineering. Some states created new universities, and some funded colleges in universities that were already established. The University of Illinois and the University of California are two well-known land-grant universities. State universities with agricultural schools are usually affiliated with research centers called agricultural experiment stations. Experiment stations conduct research on farming techniques to develop the most effective methods of farming for each region. Scientists at the stations work with soils, crops, feed rations, animals, plant variations, and genetic strains to devise the best farming method for the climate and the zone in which they work. Some
states have several stations working in different areas to account for regional differences.
■ Outlook Employment in the agricultural industry is expected to decline through 2014, according to the U.S. Department of Labor. Overproduction, increasing productivity, and industry consolidation have reduced opportunities in the industry—especially for self-employed farmers. Opportunities for agricultural managers, farmworkers, and graders and sorters will be slightly better. The U.S. Department of Labor predicts that several trends should help farmers and other specialized workers in this industry. Some farmers are prospering by focusing on growing specialty crops, participating in farmer-owned and -operated cooperatives, or switching to all-organic farming practices in response to public fears about the effects of pesticides and fertilizers used in traditional agriculture. Fish farming and aquaculture will also become more important and more profitable in the next decade. Growth in aquaculture is spurred by declining ocean catches due to overfishing and the growing demand for seafood items, such as shrimp, salmon, and catfish. Another important development in agriculture involves methods of processing grains to make new products and helping farmers to deal with crop surpluses. In many agriculture-based states, adding value to agricultural products is the largest creator of wealth and jobs. The pursuit of new uses for farm crops will provide many jobs for those involved in processing and will also provide farmers with new markets for their crops. For example, corn is used for ethanol, sweeteners, feed products, corn oil, and lactic acid. Studies are underway that will expand corn’s uses to include adhesives, paper and packaging, nonprescription medical products, and even plastic. Food safety is an important issue that will impact jobs for food scientists, agricultural scientists, and inspectors. Recent outbreaks of mad cow disease and foot-andmouth disease in livestock in Europe have prompted heightened efforts to detect and prevent these problems in the United States. There are also concerns about the West Nile virus, anthrax, E. coli bacteria in livestock and meat products, and residual pesticides in plant products. Efforts are also being made to protect this industry from agri-terrorism. Genetic engineering in both plant and animal agriculture is being hotly debated in the agricultural and political communities, as well as among consumers. Some proponents of genetic engineering believe that engineering crops and livestock to be more resistant to disease, insects, and other problems and to have longer shelf
Agriculture
lives will greatly benefit farmers. However, the effects of genetic engineering on the environment and on humans, as well as the long-term effects on the agricultural products themselves, have not yet been determined. Research, experimentation, and debate are likely to continue well into the 21st century. Some analysts are predicting that farmers of the future may earn more income by dealing in renewable energy, particularly selling wind power. There are also possibilities for ethanol, biodiesel, and the generation of electricity from the methane produced by livestock feeding operations. More diverse career opportunities are available for those with advanced degrees in agriculture-related fields. Agricultural scientists, agribusiness professionals, and equipment technicians will see their jobs expand to involve high-tech methods of conservation, planting, tilling, and treating farm crops.
Words to Know Acre: An area that measures 43,560 square feet; 640 acres equals one square mile (or section). Agronomy: The science of soil management and the production of field crops. Biotechnology: The use of live organisms (plant and animal cells) to manufacture new products. Bushel: A unit of dry measure equivalent to four pecks or eight gallons. Center pivot: An irrigation system composed of a pipeline supported on towers that rotate, self-propelled, around a central point. Combine: A grain harvester that combines cutting and threshing into one operation. Commodity: Any partially processed or unprocessed good, such as grain, fruits, and vegetables. Crop rotation: The system of alternating crops planted in the same ground, to protect the quality of the soil. Forage: Food, such as hay, for horses and cattle. Industrial crops: Crops used for industrial purposes rather than for food or livestock feed. Livestock: Cattle, sheep, and other animals raised on a farm. Market price: The worth of a farm commodity, per bushel. Oilseed crops: Crops, such as canola, soybeans, and sunflower seeds, used for the production of cooking oils. Organic farming: Producing crops without synthetic fertilizers, pesticides, or other chemicals. Tillage: Plowing or harrowing land for the planting of crops.
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For a variety of information on such topics as agriculture, conservation, food and nutrition, weather, and employment, contact U.S. Department of Agriculture Higher Education Program 14th Street and Independence, SW Washington, DC 20250-0002 Tel: 202-720-2791 http://www.usda.gov
■ Related Articles
This farmer is working with irrigation and weather sensor systems to track the progress of his crops. (Mitch Kezar, Tony Stone Images.)
Farm managers and operators will need extensive understanding of new farming methods and equipment as well as computer-aided operations. In the past, fields were treated as if every acre had the same needs; scientists and farmers have discovered that the soil and plants are better treated as individually as possible. Precision farming through computers, satellites, and sensors treats each acre of soil and each plant for its own specific needs. With computers in tractors, farmers are able to determine exactly how much fertilizer, herbicide, etc., is needed by the soil and plants. Farmers can then treat the soil and plants with even more effective fertilizers and pesticides, and their genetically engineered crops will be more resistant to drought and disease.
■ For More Information The Farm Bureau hosts youth conferences and other events for those interested in farming; its Web page includes articles of interest to farmers and the public. American Farm Bureau Federation 600 Maryland Avenue, SW, Suite 800 Washington, DC 20024-2520 Tel: 202-406-3600 http://www.fb.org
For a career resources booklet, contact ASA or visit its Web site. American Society of Agronomy (ASA) 677 South Segoe Road Madison, WI 53711-1086 Tel: 608-273-8080 http://www.agronomy.org
Agribusiness Technicians; Agricultural Consultants; Agricultural Equipment Technicians; Agricultural Pilots; Agricultural Scientists; Animal Breeders and Technicians; Aquaculturists; Beekeepers; Dairy Products Manufacturing Workers; Farm Crop Production Technicians; Farm Equipment Mechanics; Farmers; Grain Merchants; Horticultural Technicians; Range Managers; Soil Conservationists and Technicians; Soil Scientists
Airlines ■ Background The first recorded flight of a human being took place in 1783 when French inventors Joseph and Etienne Montgolfier inflated a large balloon with hot air, reaching an altitude of 6,000 feet. Advancements in aeronautics, the science of flight, soon led to the development of successful glider designs. Two brothers, Orville Wright and Wilbur Wright, became convinced that the typical glider wing structure was fundamentally flawed. They built a wind tunnel to test the flow of air over a variety of new designs. At the same time, they developed specifications for an internal combustion engine powerful enough to lift its own weight and the weight of a plane. They consulted marine engineering texts and constructed a propeller for their plane. By the time the Wright brothers made their historic first flight on December 17, 1903, near Kitty Hawk, North Carolina, they embodied the basic structural components—engineering, manufacturing, ground crew, and pilots—of today’s airline industry. Technological advances followed rapidly. Spurred in part by the growing certainty of war in Europe, designers sought faster, more maneuverable, and more stable aircraft. Attempts to develop commercial air transport largely ended, however, with the outbreak of World War I. Efforts were now directed at developing the airplane’s military potential. By the end of the war, planes could
reach speeds nearing 200 miles per hour and could climb as high as 30,000 feet, while operating for many hours in the air. By 1919, a U.S. Navy plane made the first transatlantic flight of nearly 3,400 miles. Nonetheless, commercial use of the airplane would remain limited for some years after the war. Airplanes were not yet large enough or reliable enough to carry passengers at a profit, and they were not yet able to fly in bad weather. In 1919, companies in Germany, France, and England, with support from their governments and using converted surplus warplanes, began civil airline services. In the United States, civil airplanes were chiefly the props of stunt flyers and daredevils. However, the passage of the Kelly Air Mail Act of 1925, in which the transport of mail was turned over to private contractors, gave the airline industry the boost it needed. A series of technological advances in airplane and airplane engine design during the 1920s and 1930s gave a further boost to the airline industry. Increasing numbers of people were flying on commercial airplanes. The Air Commerce Act, passed in 1926, established licensing requirements for pilots and airlines, while creating an airway network with lights and radio beacons. This provided not only for greater safety in the air, but also for greater consumer confidence in the young airline industry. Then, on May 21, 1927, Charles Lindbergh completed the first nonstop flight from New York to Paris and set off a boom in aviation and air travel. Within six years, the United States boasted the busiest airport in the world, at Newark, New Jersey. Companies, such as Boeing, Douglas, and Lockheed, began devoting themselves to the manufacture and design of aircraft. In the 1930s, many of the small airlines from the decade before had merged to form what would become known as the Big Four airline companies: American, United, Trans World (TWA), and Eastern. By the end of the 1930s, the U.S. companies carried 30 million people per year. World War II interrupted the growth of the commercial airlines. All available resources and research were directed toward the war and to winning dominance in the air over the powerful German Luftwaffe. The development of the jet engine, a turbine engine more powerful than the internal combustion engine, occurred during this time. The jet engine had a dramatic impact on the commercial airline industry. Following the war, the industry underwent a rapid expansion. Planes could now carry larger numbers of people and transport far heavier payloads, with shorter travel times and fewer refueling stops. In the United States, the Federal Aviation Agency, later called the Fed-
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eral Aviation Administration (FAA), regulated the technical aspects of the airline industry, performing safety inspections of the aircraft, creating specifications for airport and runway design, and establishing a system of air traffic control to help maintain the safety of the increasingly crowded skies. The Civil Aeronautics Board regulated the economic aspects of the industry, dictating which routes each airline was allowed to fly and what fares they could charge their passengers. In 1952, British European Airways was the first to add commercial jet service and became the first foreign company to make a successful entry in the U.S. market. U.S. airlines were far slower to adopt jet planes into their fleets. It was not until 1959 that Boeing introduced its 707. But by the middle of the next decade, the United States dominated the international airways. By the end of the decade, manufacturers were building jumbo jet airplanes, such as the Boeing 747 and McDonnell-Douglas’s DC-10, capable of carrying from 300 to nearly 500 people per flight. These planes reached speeds of up to 625 miles per hour. In 1976, the supersonic Concorde was introduced. It was designed to fly at 1,350 miles per hour, and flew until 2003, when its commercial flights ended. Larger planes meant lower prices, and lower prices meant more passengers than ever before. Meanwhile, airplanes had long been put to other uses. Alongside the commercial airline industry, the general aviation industry included roughly 80 percent of all registered aircraft in the United States. Manufacturers such as Cessna and Piper created smaller, usually piston-engine planes, for such purposes as pilot training, aerial sports such as skydiving, and private pleasure flying. Later, the jet engine
A pilot reviews the flight checklist before take-off. (Associated Press/ Richard Patterson.)
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was adapted for general aviation use in executive and business transport services. Private mail and package delivery companies such as Federal Express and United Parcel Service began to build fleets of their own. Until 1978, the airline industry was strictly regulated by the Civil Aeronautics Board. Air travel was largely dominated by a handful of giant companies. In an effort to increase competition within the industry, the Airline Deregulation Act of 1978 removed these controls. The airline industry entered a chaotic period in which many airlines failed, while others merged and many new ones appeared. Ticket fares decreased for some larger, more frequently traveled destinations. But for smaller destinations, fares rose drastically. Nonetheless, the industry underwent an explosion in the number of passengers flying each year. As the industry entered the 1990s, a more profitable hub-and-spoke system began to emerge in which airlines based their operations in one or more cities. However, an economic downturn, coupled with the enormous competition of the last decade, took its toll on the airlines. The sudden end of the Cold War meant an end to unlimited government defense spending, causing a crisis among aircraft manufacturers. In the industry itself, fewer and fewer jobs were being created, and many were being lost. The end of the recession, however, brought renewed prosperity to the airlines and increases in the numbers
Words to Know Air Commerce Act of 1926: Established licensing requirements for pilots and airlines along with other safety and regulatory measures, giving consumers more confidence in commercial aviation. Airframe: The parts of an aircraft other than the engine, such as wings, fuselage, landing gear, etc. Avionics: From the words aviation and electronics, this is the application of electronics to the operation of aircraft, spacecraft, and missiles. FAA: Federal Aviation Administration, a federal agency. GPS: Global Positioning System, which allows airplanes to use computers and satellites to determine the fastest and most efficient flight paths; slowly eliminating the need for tight air traffic control. Kelly Air Mail Act of 1925: Legislation that turned the transportation of mail over to private contractors, providing a watershed opportunity for commercial aviation. NTSB: National Transportation Safety Board, a federal agency.
of people traveling. Airlines focused more on services such as electronic ticketing, frequent flyer programs, and in-flight telephones and videoplayers to increase their attractiveness to customers. Another trend was the formation of partnerships between U.S. and foreign companies, allowing them to extend the routes they could offer to their customers. Many aircraft manufacturers began to enter other areas of manufacturing and technology to replace revenues lost to the shrinking defense budget. The economy slipped into recession again in 2001, hitting the airline industry hard, primarily because of drastically lower numbers of business travelers. Then, the terrorist attacks of September 11 put the industry in real crisis. The attacks shut down air transport completely for four days and then new security measures and regulations were immediately instituted. Airlines were forced to reduce flight capacity and cut schedules. To persuade passengers to fly again, they had to offer cheaper fares. As a result, the industry reported losses of nearly $10 billion at the end of 2001. Close to 100,000 jobs were lost. In response, Congress passed the Air Transportation Safety and System Stabilization Act to help the airline industry deal with the financial ramifications of the terrorism. The bill provided direct cash grants, loan guarantees, compensation for increased insurance costs, and limits to liability for third-party damages resulting from terrorist acts. The U.S. Department of Labor predicts that increasing business and leisure travel and an improved economy will help the airline industry gradually rebound over the next decade.
■ Structure The aviation industry may be divided along three lines: commercial, general, and military. Commercial aviation includes the airlines, air taxi and charter operations, airplane rental, and aerial applications. Commercial aviation is further broken down according to the size of the company. National carriers are airlines that earn between $100 million and $1 billion per year. Regional carriers have revenues of less than $100 million each year. Other commercial uses for aircraft include forest fire containment, crop dusting, and aerial signage. Helicopters are used for police, emergency, rescue, and passenger services, and for traffic reporting. There are 540 commercial service airports in the United States. General aviation encompasses personal and instructional flights and business and executive aircraft. General aviation also includes smaller crafts, such as ultralights. Most of the airplane activity in the United States occurs in general aviation. General aviation aircraft fly over 29 million hours, nearly two times the commercial airline flight hours, and carry 166 million passengers each year.
There are approximately 2,764 general aviation airports in the United States, but general aviation craft fly into and out of most of the country’s more than 18,000 airports. Airports range in size from a single unpaved landing strip to complex sites of 20,000 acres or more. Large airports have often been compared to cities. Each has its own police force, fire department and emergency rescue service, retail stores and restaurants, maintenance crews, warehouses for cargo, and even its own transportation system. A large airport may employ thousands of people. Many airports are managed by fixed-base operators (FBO). The FBO is often responsible for the entire operation of the airport, including its management, fueling, hangar, and repair facilities. A feature at many airports is the control tower. Air traffic controllers regulate the flow of traffic into and out of the airport. Additional air traffic control centers are spaced along the airways, linking the entire system. Other important features of larger, international airports and airports located near the country’s borders are the customs and immigration departments. More than 100 airlines make use of these airports. The typical organizational structure of an airline includes operations, maintenance, marketing, and finance divisions. The operations division manages the day-to-day activities of the airline, overseeing the pilots and flight attendants, the flight dispatchers, flight scheduling, and ground crews. The maintenance division handles the avionics and mechanics of the airplane, performing daily inspections, and routine repairs and maintenance, such as filling the tires with air and fueling. The marketing department sells the airline’s services as well as creates new programs, services, and advertisements to attract customers. It also takes ticket reservations and purchases. The finance division is concerned with maintaining a smooth cash flow to ensure the airline’s continued success. Other areas of an airline may include an interior design staff to develop the passenger areas of a plane and clothing designers to design the uniforms of the pilots, flight attendants, check-in personnel, and others. Airlines carry more than just people. Transportation of cargo, from single packages to shipments such as 25-ton printing presses, complete oil well towers, and heavy construction equipment, is an important source of income. The use of airplanes to transport fresh fruits, vegetables, and seafood has had a great impact on the variety of foods available for people to eat. Other industries, such as the auto industry, transport parts and components by air so that they arrive at their factories just when they are needed. An added source of revenues is transportation of mail and packages, which may contribute as much as 15 percent to a major carrier’s earnings. There are now many companies that specialize in
Airlines
mail transport, some with their own fleets of airplanes. A typical airplane carries a variety of cargo, along with its passengers and crew. An important component of the airline industry is the aircraft manufacturer. The major carrier aircraft manufacturers in the United States are Boeing Aircraft Company and Lockheed Martin. They also build aircraft, weapons, vehicles, and components for the military and the U.S. space program. Much of their work involves the research and development of new technologies. Many features of the modern airplane were first developed for the military or the space program and were later adapted for commercial aircraft. A typical aircraft manufacturer employs people from nearly every field, from physicists, biologists, engineers, technicians, and mathematicians to accountants, lawyers, writers, and artists, as well as traditional manufacturing personnel. Many other manufacturers provide essential aircraft components and electronics. A number of manufacturers concentrate on supplying aircraft to the general aviation industry. Major general aviation manufacturers include New Piper Aircraft, Cessna Aircraft Company, Raytheon Aircraft Company, Learjet, and Gulfstream Aerospace Corporation. Still other manufacturers build helicopters. The growing popularity of ultralight aircraft, many of which are built by the purchaser from a kit, has created still more manufacturing opportunities. The popularity of skydiving also has increased the need for such equipment as parachutes and safety harnesses. The Federal Aviation Administration oversees the airline industry, performing a number of important functions. Aircraft and airports must meet rigid specifications for safety, performance, noise, and pollution standards. Routine inspections of each aircraft alert airlines to faults in their aircraft and keep unsafe airplanes from the sky. The FAA establishes training and licensing requirement for pilots, instructors, and other workers. The FAA also hires, trains, and assigns air traffic controllers to manage the traffic flow above airports and across the country. Most of the current air traffic control system in the United States has been in place since the 1960s. As its computers and other components have aged, and even become obsolete, the FAA has begun to rebuild the system, sponsoring research and development into new components that will be able to regulate air traffic for many years to come. The FAA also governs the design, construction, and operations of airports. Everyone who flies remains subject to the FAA’s rules and regulations.
Outlook The airline industry suffered during 2001, due to reduced air travel and a struggling economy in the early part of
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The Douglas DC-3, which first entered service in 1936, is credited with changing commercial air travel from a novelty to a practical means of transportation. Thousands were built during World War II and many are still flying. (New Standard Encyclopedia.)
the year and then because of the terrorist attacks in the fall. Airline industry losses for 2001 were nearly the same as during the Gulf War in the 1990s when the United States experienced somewhat similar economic and political conditions. The Air Transportation Safety and System Stabilization Act (dubbed “the airline bill”) has kept some airlines from bankruptcy, but the industry needs air travel to return to its pre-terrorism volume. Many major airlines implemented cost-cutting measures, including employee layoffs. Some airlines are talking to unions to renegotiate wages and cut other costs. Smaller airlines that were already operating at lower costs, such as Southwest Airlines, JetBlue Airways, and Frontier Airlines, have fared better and remained profitable despite the recession. Aviation experts predict that the airline industry will continue to suffer over the short term then begin to see a slow recovery as passengers get back on board. While the airline bill took care of the carriers, it didn’t offer any help to the almost 100,000 laid-off workers. Some airlines did not offer severance packages. Some options being considered include requiring airlines to pay severance as a precondition of receiving government aid or loan guarantees. This would help only those who are eligible for severance under the stipulations of their union contracts. About 55 percent of airline employees are not covered by union contract. Terrorism has also affected aircraft manufacturing. In recent years, the industry has been hurt by a decreased defense budget. However, the Defense Appropriations Bill for fiscal year 2005 provided $416.2 billion in new discretionary spending authority for the Department of Defense. The budget includes spending for weapons; aircraft; shipbuilding; ballistic missile defense; intelligence,
surveillance, and reconnaissance, military personnel pay raises and medical programs; troop readiness and sustainment programs; and other programs. Manufacturers that serve commercial airlines are laying off workers and some may close plants because new aircraft orders have been stopped or delayed. General aviation manufacturers were also affected, although the number of active general aviation aircraft was expected to remain about the same as in past years. Many small airports have gone out of business in recent years, and many more are expected to fail, especially those unable to keep up with advancements in technology as they become standard in FAA regulations. As the industry developed the hub-and-spoke services, some airports have seen dramatic decreases in air traffic; others, particularly larger airports, have seen a boom in the number of flights and passengers they handle each year. These airports will continue to require large numbers of employees. Airport employees will have to undergo security checks and complete more rigorous training in order to comply with new government safety and security regulations. The FAA is in the process of completing its transition to a new air traffic control system. Many of its computers, state-of-the-art in the 1960s, are less powerful than most personal computers today. With more and more airlines adopting global positioning system (GPS) equipment, the need for tight air traffic control will be eliminated. The role of the air traffic controller will be reduced to provide assistance during potentially dangerous and emergency situations. Strong growth will be seen in the number of jobs related to computer development and operation.
■ For More Information To read The Airline Handbook, visit the ATAA Web site. Air Transport Association of America (ATAA) 1301 Pennsylvania Avenue, NW, Suite 1100 Washington, DC 20004-1707 Tel: 202-626-4000 Email:
[email protected] http://www.airlines.org
For career information, contact Aviation Information Resources Inc. Tel: 800-247-2777 or 800-538-5627 http://www.jet-jobs.com
For information on licensing, careers, and aviation, contact Federal Aviation Administration 800 Independence Avenue, SW, Room 810 Washington, DC 20591-0001 Tel: 202-366-4000 http://www.faa.gov
Alternative Health Care
For information on career pamphlets, books, lists of schools, and scholarships, contact General Aviation Manufacturers Association 1400 K Street, NW, Suite 801 Washington, DC 20005-2403 Tel: 202-393-1500 http://www.generalaviation.org
For information on careers, lists of schools, and scholarships, contact National Air Transportation Association 4226 King Street Alexandria, VA 22302-1507 Tel: 800-808-6282 http://www.nata.aero
For information on regional airlines operating in the United States that employ pilots, flight attendants, mechanics, agents, and other personnel, contact Regional Airline Association 2025 M Street, NW Washington, DC 20036-3309 Tel: 202-367-1170 Email:
[email protected] http://www.raa.org
For a RealAudio and RealVideo experience of aviation, as well as information on aviation safety, becoming a pilot, and other information, contact Cyberair Airpark http://www.cyberair.com
■ Related Articles Aerospace; Defense; Military Services; Space Exploration; Transportation; Travel and Tourism; Agricultural Pilots; Air Traffic Controllers; Aircraft Mechanics; Airplane Dispatchers; Avionics Engineers and Technicians; Flight Attendants; Helicopter Pilots; Pilots; Reservation and Ticket Agents
Alternative Health Care ■ Background The United States has been involved in an escalating health care crisis since the 1980s. Alternative health care (also called alternative medicine) plays an increasingly important role both in stirring the conflict and in contributing to potential solutions.
What is the health care crisis? There is a growing feeling of alienation between patients and health care practitioners. Physicians and patients are losing confidence in the effectiveness of modern medicine to treat many conditions. In addition, many of the treatments that are effective have become so expensive that most people cannot afford them. What caused the crisis? It is the result of a combination of factors: the successes and failures of modern medicine and the American public’s acceptance of outside control of their health. All of these factors combined to lead to skyrocketing health care costs. Modern medicine has had many outstanding successes. During most of the 20th century, conventional modern medicine (also called allopathic medicine) waged a war on disease. It made great strides toward the control or eradication of many dreaded illnesses, such as smallpox, polio, and malaria, and it made great advances in the treatment of heart attacks, strokes, and cancer. Allopathic medicine has been especially successful in treating life-threatening diseases and trauma. As a result of the successes of modern medicine, many people began to believe there would eventually be a “magic bullet” for everything. All they had to do was find the physician with the right pill, treatment, or surgery, and they could conquer any medical problem. People in the medical professions, especially doctors and hospitals, were seen as having all the answers. Many, perhaps most, Americans became accustomed to considering the medical establishment to be in charge of their health. They believed that they could live any way they wanted, and when they got sick, the doctors could fix them. People seemed to think that could eat junk food, be couch potatoes, and subject themselves to enormous amounts of stress and then go to a doctor for a magic bullet to cure what ailed them. To a great extent, many individuals gave control of their health to the medical establishment. Health care providers accepted control and adopted an increasingly authoritarian attitude. Modern medicine developed more weapons to fight disease that were more specialized, mechanized, and expensive. With the increasing specialization and mechanization of health care, costs rose far beyond the means of the average individual. By the 1970s, it became increasingly apparent that modern medicine did not have all the answers. Many chronic (long-term) conditions did not respond well to allopathic medical treatment. Some side effects and cures proved to be worse than diseases. A sense of alienation was growing between patients and health care providers. Busy medical practitioners had little or no time to spend with their patients. Individuals were unable to communicate
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meaningfully with their health care providers, and they felt cut off and frustrated. On top of everything else, the cost of medical care skyrocketed. People began looking for different ways to meet their health care needs. They turned to practitioners of systems of health care that were not part of the mainstream medical establishment. In the 1980s, the term alternative medicine came into use. It was used to refer to medical
Words to Know Accreditation: Nongovernmental, voluntary process of evaluation for institutions, agencies, and educational programs. Acupuncture: System of medicine that balances the body’s vital energy (qi) by inserting fine needles into the skin at specific acupuncture points. Acute illness: Sickness characterized by sudden onset, possibly severe pain, and relatively short duration. Allopathic medicine: Name for conventional modern medicine that was first used by Samuel Hahnemann, the founder of homeopathy. He used the term in contrast to homeopathic medicine. Alternative medicine: Approaches not widely taught in medical schools, generally available in hospitals, or known or accepted by the majority of conventional medical practitioners. Biomedicine: Conventional approach to medicine, characterized by emphasis on the measurement of physiological, physical, and chemical processes. Botanical medicine: Drug made from part of a plant. Certification: Form of professional recognition that indicates that an individual has voluntarily met the standards established by a professional organization. Chronic illness: Sickness that lasts a long time or recurs frequently. Complementary medicine: Usually noninvasive, nonpharmaceutical practices such as massage therapy or nutritional counseling that an allopathic physician might prescribe along with conventional treatments. Conventional medicine: Also called modern medicine, allopathic medicine, and biomedicine;
systems, modalities, or treatments that were not generally taught at conventional medical schools in the United States. These approaches to healing were seen as “alternative” to conventional medicine, that is, they were used in place of allopathic medicine. Many of the alternative systems, such as traditional Oriental medicine, had histories that dated back hundreds of years. Other systems, such as chiropractic, were
an approach to medicine that typically views health as the absence of disease. DO: Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine. Herbal: Book about herbal medicine. Holistic medicine: Philosophy of medicine that focuses on treating the whole person—body, mind, and spirit. Homeopathy: System of medicine that treats disease with small doses of natural remedies that would produce symptoms similar to the disease if given to a healthy person. Integrative medicine: Approach that uses both alternative and conventional medicine. Licensure: Required process established by a governmental body that grants individuals the right to practice within the governmental jurisdiction, usually a state. Natural healing: Usually the use of noninvasive and nonpharmaceutical therapies to help heal a patient. NCCAM: National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine. N.D. or N.M.D.: Doctor of Naturopathic Medicine. NIH: National Institutes of Health. Osteopathic medicine: System of medicine that combines conventional medical education with a variety of manual treatments and a holistic perspective. Because of its unique combination, some consider osteopathic medicine to be allopathic medicine, while others consider it to be alternative medicine. Pharmacopoeia: Book describing medical preparations. Traditional medicine: System of health care that has been in existence in the culture of its origin for a long period of time—often hundreds of years. Trauma: Injury or wound to a living being.
of more recent origin. People were attracted to these systems because they talked with other individuals who said a certain approach had helped them. Alternative health care systems were able to help precisely because they were very different from modern medicine. Their strengths were in working with chronic illness, not with acute, life-threatening disease or injury. Their approach to clients was more cooperative, not authoritarian, and their therapies were more natural, not mechanized. As a result of these characteristics, alternative therapies were also comparatively cost effective. Because alternative systems helped fill the gaps left by the failures of conventional medicine, the public interest in alternative health care grew rapidly. Some conventional doctors also became interested and began to incorporate alternative therapies into their own practices. Over the years, a number of terms have developed to describe the relationships between conventional and alternative care. In the early 1990s, the expression complementary medicine came into use. Doctors and hospitals frequently used the term to reflect the fact that they used an alternative treatment not as an alternate to conventional treatment, but rather in addition to it. The conventional treatment was still considered to be primary, and the other systems of medicine played a secondary role. The most recent term used to describe the interrelationship between alternative and conventional medicine is integrative medicine. In integrative medicine, the focus is on the needs of the individual patient. No preference is given to conventional or alternative approaches. Both are used as indicated by the patient’s condition. Whether they called it alternative, complementary, or integrative, patients and health care providers are turning in increasing numbers to these health care approaches. Health care providers want to help people get well, and people who are ill want to get better, so the health care crisis is, indeed, a crisis for both health care providers and for individuals. Alternative systems address many of the issues of the health care crisis. Some people have lost confidence in modern medicine because it is not always effective in addressing many chronic diseases. Many alternative systems excel in alleviating chronic pain and illness. Practitioners and patients alike feel alienated as a result of the increasing mechanization and paternalism of conventional medicine. With its client-centered, whole-person approach, alternative health care bridges the gap between health care professionals and clients and establishes a sense of partnership. The high costs of specialization and mechanization have driven the cost of health care ever higher. Alternative systems focus on prevention, wellness, and natural
Alternative Health Care
remedies, all of which are less expensive than mechanized, high-tech, chemical strategies. Alternative health care approaches offer many potential solutions to the health care crisis. Prompted by the immense public interest and the skyrocketing cost of health care, the government created the Office of Alternative Medicine (OAM) in 1991. The OAM was originally established as a part of the National Institutes of Health. Its mission was to determine which alternative approaches were most effective and to distribute that information to the public. By 1998, the results of OAM studies, together with continuing popular interest and rising medical costs, encouraged the government to upgrade OAM’s status from an office to a center. The OAM was elevated to the National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine. This center has a much broader scope and more power to conduct research in the field of alternative health care than OAM did.
■ Structure The field of alternative health care is not actually an established industry with a defined structure and branches. Although it is sometimes referred to as alternative medicine, that term is too restrictive to describe the diversity of the field. Alternative health care is a collection of approaches to wellness, health care, and medicine. Its modalities can roughly be grouped into three categories: ancient traditional medical systems, more recent complete medical systems, and individual therapies. Traditional medical systems, such as Ayurveda (traditional Indian medicine) and traditional Oriental medicine, have been developed and practiced over hundreds of years in the cultures of their origin. These traditional systems are based upon complete philosophies regarding the origins and nature of life, human beings, wellness, and medicine. To successfully learn and practice such systems, you must be open to understanding and integrating a unique value system and worldview into your approach to life and the practice of health care and medicine. A number of alternative approaches are of more recent origin but also represent complete health care systems. Some, for example, homeopathy, originated in other countries. Others, like chiropractic, originated in the United States. Learning these health care systems does not necessarily require a change in philosophy, but many of them require an educational process that is as demanding as the study of conventional medicine. Other alternative health care approaches focus on a particular type of therapy. Examples of this group are
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A patient has acupuncture needles inserted into her face during an acupuncture treatment. (AP Photo/Jim McKnight.)
aromatherapy and massage therapy. These therapies are not complete systems of health care. Many of them can be incorporated into the practices of other health practitioners. The therapies generally require less intensive education, but they provide very meaningful opportunities to help people improve their lives. Helping individuals improve their lives is central to all alternative health care. In spite of their apparent diversity, these approaches have many essential principles in common, such as: Believe in the healing power of nature. Whatever approach alternative health care practitioners use, they have a strong fundamental belief in the natural ability of the body to heal itself when given the proper essential ingredients. These ingredients include clean air, water, nutritious food, proper rest, and exercise. Alternative practitioners work to help individuals learn lifestyle
changes that will provide their bodies with the natural elements that will help them heal. Do no harm. Alternative practitioners choose the therapy or remedy that will do the most good, while at the same time is the least invasive and has the fewest harmful side effects. Use natural remedies. Many alternative health care systems emphasize the use of natural remedies, such as whole foods, nutritional supplements, or herbs. Some alternative approaches also incorporate conventional pharmaceuticals and treatments in situations where more natural medicines are not effective. Natural remedies are usually much less expensive than modern pharmaceuticals. Consider the whole person. The whole-person approach to healing is an integral part of the belief system of alternative health care practitioners, and they have a deep respect for the dignity of humankind. Their healing treatments consider the entire human being—body, mind, and spirit. They also take into consideration the environment in which individuals live. What are their pressures and stresses? Their hopes and joys? Be client-centered rather than practitioner-centered. Practitioners of alternative approaches to health care work to develop a partnership between practitioner and client. They encourage questions and discussion. They involve the client in decisions about medications, procedures, and treatment strategies. Use a practitioner-as-teacher approach. This approach emphasizes helping clients learn to improve their lives through the development of healthier lifestyles, including nutrition and exercise. Health care practitioners serve as teachers, coaches, and examples. They present information clients need to learn to make healthier choices. They encourage and support their clients through their successes and failures in their efforts to improve their lives. And they live according to the principles they teach and provide examples that their clients can follow. Expect results to generally take time. Alternative health care approaches are frequently used for chronic ailments. Illnesses that have developed over a long period of time may take a while to show improvement. That is not always the case, though, and sometimes results can be so quick as to seem almost miraculous. Focus on wellness. Alternative approaches consider health to be much more than just the absence of disease. Prevention of disease is important, but the real goal is for people to reach increasing levels of wellness. Practitioners strive to help their clients achieve physical, mental, and spiritual balance in their lives. Building sound health reduces the incidence of illness and keeps health care costs down.
With its emphasis on wellness, cooperation, and the whole person, the field of alternative health care has brought a new sense of enthusiasm, innovation, and hope to patients, to health care, and to the medical profession. The rapid changes that have occurred in health care and medicine in recent years seem to have a life and momentum of their own. Where will all of this change and enthusiasm lead?
■ Outlook In late 1998, the U.S. government gave additional recognition to the field of alternative health care, elevating the Office of Alternative Medicine to the status of a center—the National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine (NCCAM). The U.S government has also dramatically increased NCCAM’s budget since its conception, from $20 million in 1998 to more than $127.7 million for fiscal year 2006. The center focuses on conducting clinical trials in a variety of alternative approaches. The lack of sufficient clinical data to prove the efficacy and safety of alternative approaches has long been a major criticism put forth by the medical establishment. Advocates of alternative medicine argue that health care systems that have been validated through centuries of use do not need scientific proof. In addition, they point out that hundreds of very good studies on many of the modalities already exist. Still, carefully controlled clinical trials may provide scientific data that will help legitimize alternative approaches in the eyes of more conventional practitioners and thus help pave the way toward more cooperation between alternative and conventional practitioners. In 2000, the White House Commission on Complementary and Alternative Medicine was established to help access and regulate the methods and practitioners of complementary and alternative medicine (CAM). According to a 2002 report from the commission, as many as 43 percent of the U.S. population has used some form of CAM. Medical professionals, hospitals, and other health care professionals are showing a growing interest in CAM. According to the report, “Although such prevalence of use and interest in CAM is not an indication that these practices are effective, it does suggest that those with chronic conditions and the physicians who treat them are looking for more therapeutic options than are widely available in conventional health care settings.” Growing coverage by the insurance industry is another significant indicator that the momentum of the alternative health care movement will continue. Some major
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insurance companies now offer coverage for certain alternative therapies. The state of Washington requires all insurance companies to cover licensed and certified alternative health care practitioners. The clinical trials conducted by the NCCAM and other agencies undoubtedly will have a profound impact on the areas studied. The results may help some alternative approaches and discredit others—justly or not. Alternative health care practitioners will be watching the clinical trials very carefully. The NCCAM trials and other studies will create more opportunities in research for practitioners of alternative approaches. Integration of alternative approaches into conventional medical education will continue to increase, creating more teaching opportunities for alternative practitioners. With all of its hope, excitement, and change, alternative health care is the most rapidly growing segment of the field of health care in general. Significant recent events indicate that the alternative health care explosion will continue well into the 21st century.
■ For More Information For information about complementary/alternative medicine and referral lists of physicians educated on the latest findings in those areas, contact American College for Advancement in Medicine 23121 Verdugo Drive, Suite 204 Laguna Hills, CA 92653-1339 Tel: 949-583-7666 http://www.acam.org
For articles on holistic health, self-help resources in a variety of alternative/complementary modalities, and a searchable database of practitioner members, contact American Holistic Health Association PO Box 17400 Anaheim, CA 92817-7400 Tel: 714-779-6152 Email:
[email protected] http://ahha.org
To learn about the national center that specializes in alternative medicine and for excellent resources on alternative health care approaches, visit National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine 9000 Rockville Pike Bethesda, MD 20892-0001 Tel: 888-644-6226 Email:
[email protected] http://nccam.nih.gov
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For a wealth of health care information, news and events, funding opportunities, and scientific resources, contact National Institutes of Health 9000 Rockville Pike Bethesda, MD 20892-0001 Tel: 301-496-4000 http://www.nih.gov
For comprehensive Internet information on alternative and conventional health care and extensive links, contact HealthWorldOnline http://www.healthy.net
For articles on holistic medicine and alternative medicine and more than 1,000 links to other sites, USENET groups listings, and more, check out Holistic Healing Web Page http://www.holisticmed.com
■ Related Articles Health Care; Acupuncturists; Aromatherapists; Art Therapists; Ayurvedic Doctors and Practitioners; Biofeedback Therapists; Chiropractors; Creative Arts Therapists; Ergonomists; Ethnoscientists; Herbalists; Holistic Dentists; Homeopaths; Horticultural Therapists; Hypnotherapists; Kinesiologists; Massage Therapists; Music Therapists; Myotherapists; Naturopaths; Nurse-Midwives; Oriental Medicine Practitioners; Osteopaths; Reflexologists
Animal Care ■ Background Animal care involves the care and maintenance of animals, both wild and domestic. The animal care field includes the training and breeding of animals, as well as promoting their health and care. It also includes the entire range of actions taken by humans to protect and preserve wildlife and ensure its continued survival, such as the regulation of hunting and fishing and the establishment of zoos and sanctuaries. Another important part of animal care is educating people about animals and their needs; for example, naturalists educate the public in a general way while veterinarians educate pet owners about specific concerns. The relationships among humans and other species are complicated and interdependent. Early humans hunted animals for food and killed animals that threatened their lives or their territory. Later, certain species were domesticated, to ensure an available supply of food, clothing, and tools. Other species were domesticated as pets.
Through the centuries humans have found ways to use and control animals for their own benefit, which has contributed to changes in the genetics of some domesticated species, transplantation into new or man-made habitats for some, and even extinction of some species. Since the 1600s, more than 500 species are known to have become extinct, mostly as the direct result of human alteration of habitat (because of the development of industry and agriculture) or excessive hunting. Hundreds of other species are in danger of extinction, including the tiger, Brazilian tapir, giant otter, gorilla, and numerous species of whales. A concerted conservation movement didn’t get started in the United States until the second half of the 19th century when the government set up a commission to develop scientific management of fisheries, established the first national park (Yellowstone), and set aside the first forest reserves. Theodore Roosevelt’s administration is noted for progress in saving natural resources, which included the establishment of the U.S. Forest Service and the appointment of a conservation commission. Progress in conservation was slow over the next 25 years until the 1930s when many conservation programs were started under Franklin D. Roosevelt’s administration as a part of the New Deal. Conservation is now an established activity of the federal government, which takes responsibility for soil, forests, grasslands, water, fish and other wildlife, and federally owned recreation areas. Since ancient times, many people, including the Greeks, Romans, Aztecs, and Incas, have kept collections of wild animals. Animals were collected for scientific study, and also for display, entertainment, and sport. Noblemen of the Middle Ages had private zoos. One of the first zoos designed for public exhibition and scientific research was the Jardin des Plantes in Paris, which opened in 1793. By the end of the 19th century there were zoos open to the public in several large European cities and in the United States. Today, some animal species exist only in zoos, and animal scientists attempt to breed rare animals in captivity, usually with limited success, and sometimes to return animals to the wild. The domestication of animals probably began as a herding process when early nomads moved from place to place according to the migrations of the animals that provided their food. Herders eventually developed ways to contain and control livestock production and then engaged in bartering and selling of animals. Livestock farming and animal husbandry grew over the centuries to become the big business it is today, not just for the production of food but also vaccines, antitoxins, hormones, and vitamins, as well as wool and hides. Animals are also domesticated for sport, particularly horses and dogs, and as pets. Horses, once raised pri-
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marily for transportation and farm work, now are bred for leisure activities, including equestrian competition, racing, rodeo, and for show. Pets have been kept since ancient times. Originally they were tamed wild animals, but today most dogs and cats, the most popular pets, have been kept in captivity for generations and have been modified by selective breeding. People also keep other small mammals, such as rabbits and hamsters, birds, amphibians and reptiles, fish, and insects, as pets.
■ Structure The animal care industry can be divided into two areas, although there are many jobs common to both. One area is the study and care of animals in the wild, which includes conservation, preservation of habitat, and research. The second area is the breeding and care of domesticated animals, including livestock, pets, and animals bred for sport and leisure. People who study and care for fish and wildlife are generally well educated and highly experienced. Biologists, zoologists, veterinarians, and ecologists are some of the scientists who work in the field, in laboratories, wildlife refuges, museums, and zoos. They observe animals in the wild and in captivity to better understand their behavior—what they eat, how they mate, their social structure, how they defend against predators, how they raise their offspring, where they travel and how they interact with other animals and their environment. This helps scientists not only understand a particular species, but contributes to overall knowledge of the intricate living world, including human life. Knowledge about wildlife also helps scientists to be able to preserve natural habitats with hopes of preventing extinction of threatened species. Captive animals are also studied, as their behavior is altered by living in unnatural habitats and having to interact with and depend on humans. Some zoos and research facilities try as best they can to recreate as natural a habitat as possible, and some have programs for breeding threatened species in captivity with hopes of returning them to the wild. Scientists are assisted by zookeepers, breeders, technicians, photographers, park rangers, caretakers, administrators, and other support workers with a wide variety of education and experience levels. Most positions in wildlife care are extremely competitive because of the large numbers of people interested in this field. More people will be attracted, too, as attention is drawn to the species and habitats that are being threatened by human population growth and industrialization. Many people choose to volunteer at zoos and parks while they pursue higher education. The care of domesticated animals also requires a wide variety of workers. The agricultural industry involves the
Veterinarians diagnose and control animal diseases, treat sick and injured animals medically and surgically, and advise owners on proper care of pets and livestock. (Corbis.)
care and handling of beef and dairy cattle, hogs, poultry, sheep, goats, and fish and shellfish. The people who care for livestock and poultry on a daily basis are the farmers, farm managers, and agricultural technicians who feed the animals and keep barns, pens, coops, and other farm buildings clean and in good condition. They oversee breeding and marketing activities. Aquaculture farmers raise fish and shellfish in marine, brackish, or fresh water, usually in ponds, floating net pens, raceways, or recirculating systems. They stock, feed, protect, and otherwise manage aquatic life sold for consumption or used for recreational fishing. Scientists and researchers are also involved with the care of farm animals, including experts in breeding, diet management, and the control of diseases and pests. They monitor meat and dairy quality and safety and develop vaccines and drugs to prevent viruses and bacteria. Some scientists develop new ways to use animals for human benefit besides food, for example, to provide vaccines, hormones, glues and resins, and other products. Genetic scientists have worked with farm animals for years, trying to develop breeds that are more resistant to disease, produce more milk or eggs, or produce meat that is leaner, for example. Pet care is a rapidly developing industry in the United States, where new pet sitting and pet grooming businesses
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Words to Know AAZK: American Association of Zoo Keepers. AHA: American Humane Association. Animal husbandry: The raising and breeding of animals. Aquarist: Zoo or aquarium employee who provides dayto-day care for fishes or marine mammals and birds in aquariums. ASPCA: American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals. AZA: American Zoo and Aquarium Association. D.V.M.: Doctor of veterinary medicine. Equestrian: Related to horses. Euthanize: To kill an animal in a humane manner. Farrier: Equestrian worker who cares for the horses’ hooves and shoes. HSUS: Humane Society of the United States. Naturalist: Professional who is responsible for preserving, restoring, maintaining, and protecting natural or seminatural habitats and educating the public about the environment. NPS: National Park Service.
are opening all the time. It is estimated that more than 60 percent of American households have one or more pets and Americans spend more than $23 billion a year on their pets, including food, veterinary care, grooming, and toys and supplies. Pet care businesses are becoming more regulated but still do not have very stringent certification or education requirements. They are open to enterprising animal lovers with good people skills and business sense. A new trend has been the opening of pet bakeries that make homemade biscuits and other treats for dogs and cats. Pet care workers include those who need extensive training, such as veterinarians and veterinary technicians. Breeders and trainers need less rigorous training, but more experience. Positions that require little formal training or on-the-job training include groomers, kennel workers, pet sitters, dog walkers, animal shelter employees, and pet store workers. A number of domesticated animals are raised for sport and leisure. Equestrian management is big business, with nearly seven million domesticated horses in the United States. Those who work with horses include farriers, horse breeders, horse trainers, jockeys, stable managers, riding instructors, ranch managers, racetrack managers, breeders, and groomers. Horses are raised for racing, showing, and riding. They are the only animals that participate in the Olympics, in events such as dressage, show jumping, and cross-country jumping. Horses are also bred and trained for polo, rodeo, and police work.
Most types of domesticated animals are raised for show competition, including cows, pigs, chickens, horses, dogs, and cats. Some domesticated animals as well as wild animals bred in captivity are used in circus and entertainment acts and in movies. These include horses, dogs, elephants, chimpanzees, bears, lions, and tigers. Animal rights activists have worked to ensure that these animals are well cared for and not mistreated in any way. As a result of stricter requirements for animal care, animals are used less and less in circuses and related entertainment venues.
■ Outlook The animal care industry in general is expected to grow over the next several years. Those occupations related to pets have an especially promising outlook because pet ownership is on the rise and many owners are willing to invest substantial amounts of money in the care and grooming of their pets. The outlook for occupations related to the care of wild animals is less certain. Popular concern for wildlife is high, but public funding for park rangers and other wildlife caretakers is limited. Furthermore, competition for such jobs is very high and turnover is low, resulting in comparatively low salaries and few job openings. As in all fields, animal care jobs can always be found by people with the right combination of education, experience, determination, and concern for animals; unlike many other fields, animal lovers can often create their own jobs. According to the American Horse Council Foundation, 1.4 million people work full time in the horse industry. There is not expected to be much change in horse-related employment in the next few years, particularly as the economy is uncertain. The U.S. Department of Labor reports that animal care and service workers held a total of 172,000 jobs in 2004. Almost 75 percent of this number worked as non–farm animal caretakers in boarding kennels, animal shelters, stables, grooming shops, animal hospitals, and veterinary offices. A significant number also worked for animal humane societies, racing stables, dog and horse racetrack operators, zoos, theme parks, circuses, and other amusement and recreations services. The department predicts that employment in this sector of animal care will grow faster than the average for all occupations through 2014. Employment for medical scientists is expected to grow much faster than the average through 2014. Employment for veterinarians, biological scientists, and agricultural scientists is expected to grow about as fast as the average through this same time period. The outlook is not as favorable for agricultural scientists, for whom employment will have slower than average growth.
Automotives
■ For More Information For career and small business information, as well as general information about animal rights, contact American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals 424 East 92nd Street New York, NY 10128-6804 Tel: 212-876-7700 http://www.aspca.org
For more information on careers, schools, and resources, contact the AVMA. In addition, check out the AVMA’s Web site for career and education information. American Veterinary Medical Association (AVMA) 1931 North Meacham Road, Suite 100 Schaumburg, IL 60173-4360 Tel: 847-925-8070 Email:
[email protected] http://www.avma.org
For information on careers, contact American Zoo and Aquarium Association 8403 Colesville Road, Suite 710 Silver Spring, MD 20910-3314 Tel: 301-562-0777 http://www.aza.org
Visit the Web site of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service to learn about such topics as migratory birds, law enforcement, endangered species, and training programs. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service U.S. Department of the Interior 1849 C Street, NW Washington, DC 20240-0001 Tel: 800-344-9483 http://www.fws.gov
■ Related Articles Animal Breeders and Technicians; Animal Caretakers; Animal Handlers; Animal Trainers; Aquarists; Biologists; Ecologists; Genetic Scientists; Naturalists; Pet Groomers; Pet Shop Workers; Veterinarians; Veterinary Technicians; Zoo and Aquarium Curators and Directors; Zookeepers; Zoologists
Automotives ■ Background The automotive industry plays a vital and powerful role in world economies, in terms of the value of its product,
the jobs it creates, the income it generates, and the taxes it pays. The industry as a whole employs people at all levels of the occupational spectrum, from highly skilled engineers and scientists to semiskilled assemblers. The modern automobile can be traced back to the 1880s, when German automobile pioneers Karl Benz and Gottlieb Daimler developed a gasoline-powered internal combustion engine. Before Benz and Daimler, inventors working independently all over the world had experimented with self-powered vehicles, but these early steam-powered automobiles were noisy, dangerous, and cumbersome. The gasoline engine proved more flexible than steam engines, as well as more reliable, smaller, and easier to mass-produce. The design and manufacture of gasoline-powered automobiles began to flourish in the United States. Charles Duryea and Frank Duryea built the first U.S. model in 1892–93. Other early American gasolinepowered automobile producers include John Lambert, Gottfried Schloemer, Elwood Haynes, Brady King, and Ransom Eli Olds, whose Oldsmobile became the first commercially successful American-made automobile, selling 5,000 cars in 1904. Three main factors in early 20th-century America signaled the automobile’s success in this country: the nation’s rapid population growth, its large and expanding middle class, and its geographic vastness. With such potential for demand, American automobile manufacturers needed an efficient and affordable new method of producing their cars. Henry Ford believed that mass-produced cars could and should be affordable to the average person. He wanted to build “a car for the great multitude.” This car was the Model T. It first sold for $950 in 1908 (a price tag most middle-class Americans could not afford), but went down drastically in price as Ford’s assembly line became more efficient; it sold at $360 in 1916 and as low as $290 in 1926. In his efforts to make the Model T more affordable, Ford developed a moving conveyor belt for his assembly line. Speed and efficiency of car manufacturing was greatly improved from this point on. Henry Ford was also a pioneer in employee management. He believed strongly that workers who were happy and successful at home could be more productive on the job. He implemented the five-dollar day in 1914, a high wage for the time, and lines of men seeking jobs formed outside his factories. The five-dollar day was a profit-sharing plan. In order for a worker to receive his share of the profits, the company required that “he must show himself to be sober, saving, steady, industrious, and must satisfy the staff that his money will not be wasted in riotous living.” Ford also encouraged his workers to purchase Ford vehicles.
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Ironically, it was Henry Ford’s good intentions that laid the groundwork for his trouble with unions. Many employees didn’t like the control Ford exercised over their lives and added this protest to already growing discontent over working conditions that often included long days, few breaks, and increases in assembly-line speed by management. The United Auto Workers (UAW) union was founded in Detroit in 1935 and through the years has lobbied the industry for benefits such as pensions, unemployment for laid-off workers, and cost of living wage increases. The largest and longest postwar strike was from November 1945 to March 1946, by the UAW against General Motors (GM). By the end of World War I, Ford was the dominant American automobile manufacturer with his Model T. Ford’s only potential U.S. competitor at the time was General Motors. General Motors was founded in 1908 in Flint, Michigan, by carriage manufacturer William Durant. By the mid-1920s, a new major competitor to Ford and General Motors joined the market. Walter Chrysler took over the failed Maxwell Motor Company in 1925 and founded the Chrysler Corporation, thus completing the so-called Big Three of the American automobile industry. During World War II the major automakers stopped producing cars and helped with the war effort by building military vehicles and weapons. After the war, the world output of automobiles skyrocketed from 10 million a year in 1950 to 30 million a year in 1970. During this period the United States lost its dominance in automobile production to the Japanese automakers, who soon became the world leaders. In the 1970s, Japanese automobile manufacturers made the next big advancement in the industry with their implementation of highly specialized computer automation to the assembly line. Automation had been used before by most manufacturers but not to the extent introduced by the Japanese. The new automation incorporated computer-controlled robotic mechanisms capable of simulating precise human hand and arm movements to a variety of tasks, such as welding, riveting, drilling, and painting. The mechanisms were programmed by physically moving them through each task and precisely recording each movement. The machine then stored this information and repeated it continuously without error. It was not until the 1980s that American manufacturers began employing similar types of automation in their assembly lines. Environmental regulations and the high price of gas in the 1970s and 1980s ushered a shift in American automobile preferences to the smaller, more fuel-efficient cars made by the Japanese and Europeans. Throughout the
1970s, 1980s, and early 1990s, the American and European manufacturers saw a general decline in the industry, while the Japanese manufacturers still managed to do quite well. After six years of consecutive growth, 1989 through 1991 were dismal years for the U.S. industry. Sales finally went up in the mid- to late-1990s. Today, the automobile industry’s success fluctuates on a quarterly basis, with some of the major manufacturers reporting quarterly losses in the millions of dollars, yet rebounding sharply the following quarter with significant earnings. In the 1980s, as the global economy became more prevalent and definable, the larger automobile manufacturers became multinational corporations by opening facilities, called transplants, in other countries. Transplant operations allow foreign manufacturers to bypass costly tariffs and unpredictable fluctuations in foreign exchange rates, which are reflected in a vehicle’s price. Further evidence of globalization can be found in Chrysler’s 1998 merger with the German company Daimler-Benz. Other recent mergers include Ford’s purchase of Jaguar, Volvo, and Land Rover; GM’s merger with Saab and other foreign automotive companies. In 2006, Toyota Motor Company surpassed Ford to become the second-largest carmaker in the United States, behind General Motors. Faced with rapidly rising gas prices, and having invested heavily in making SUVs and other larger vehicles, American car manufacturers have struggled to compete. Ford’s sales fell 32 percent and G.M.’s sales dropped by 19.4 percent from mid-2005 to mid-2006. Detroit remains the headquarters of the major U.S. automobile companies, but many of the manufacturing plants are located throughout the country. The majority of the industry’s employees work in the Great Lakes region, including Michigan, Ohio, and Indiana. Almost 25 percent of all jobs in the automotive industry are in Michigan. While aspects of motor-vehicle manufacturing take place in nearly every state in the country, most of the remaining workers are found in California, Kentucky, Tennessee, Missouri, and Texas. The U.S. Department of Labor reports that production workers employed by establishments that manufactured complete motor vehicles earned a median hourly salary of $22.45 in 2004—wages that are among the highest in all industries in the United States. For full-time work, this translates to a yearly salary of $46,696. In addition, many companies cover the cost of approved education courses in the industry. The major manufacturers also offer exemplary benefits packages to their employees. Benefits packages vary from business to business. Auto industry employees can expect health insurance and paid vacation from most employers. Other benefits may include dental and eye care, life and disability insurance,
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and a pension plan. Yearly bonuses or profit sharing can be added to salaries if the business does well.
■ Structure The modern automotive industry is massive, complex, and in a continual state of flux. The successful manufacturing of an automobile today—from drawing board to salesroom floor—depends equally upon the expertise of many different professions. There are numerous employment opportunities. If you really want to work in the automotive industry, whether it be in a business, technical, scientific, creative, financial, sales, mechanical, or assembly position, chances are there’s a spot for your specialty in or related to the industry. Approximately 1.1 million people were employed in the motor vehicle and parts manufacturing industry in 2004, according to the U.S. Department of Labor. About 63 percent worked in firms that produced motor vehicle parts. Twenty-three percent worked in firms that assembled complete motor vehicles and 13 percent worked in firms that produced truck trailers, motor homes, travel trailers, campers, and car, truck, and bus bodies. The largest automotive employers in the United States are the Big Three: General Motors (which includes Buick, Cadillac, Chevrolet, Oldsmobile, Pontiac, and Saturn), Ford Motor Company (which includes the Lincoln/Mercury division), and DaimlerChrysler (which includes Dodge, Jeep/Eagle, Plymouth, and Mercedes-Benz). The headquarters for each of the Big Three and their divisions are located in Michigan. The major Japanese and some European automakers also contribute to U.S. industry employment with plants in the United States. These include Honda (and its Acura division), Nissan (and its Infiniti division), Toyota (and its Lexus division), Isuzu, Subaru, and Hyundai from Japan. Automotive parts manufacturers are major employers in the industry. Parts makers employ engineers, scientists, and craftworkers. Parts industry engineers, designers, and scientists work with automakers in designing automobile assembly units in the original equipment manufacturing (OEM) markets. Craftworkers and assembly workers assemble the units and ship them to the automobile assembly plant. Some of the major OEM companies are Dana, Eaton, and TRW. Aftermarket (or replacement) parts makers employ engineers and scientists to design and develop smaller automobile parts, such as spark plugs, belts, batteries, and filters. Assembly workers and craftworkers assemble the parts manually or operate machinery that does the assembly. Replacement parts suppliers work with both manufacturers and repair shops to supply parts for new cars and for existing models. Some of the major compa-
This auto mechanic works with specialized tools to repair a faulty part. (Corbis.)
nies in the aftermarket industry include Genuine Parts, Pep Boys, and Federal-Mogul. Automobile service technicians and collision repairers are employed in repair and maintenance shops, dealerships, and service stations throughout the United States. Many specialty shops are privately owned and hire only highly trained technicians experienced in many types of repairs, equipment, and car models. Technicians working for dealerships specialize in the models their dealership sells and often benefit from free training courses sponsored by the manufacturer or dealer. Many companies that have a fleet of automobiles, such as cab, car rental, and delivery companies, employ full-time service technicians to work on their cars. Even before a car is manufactured, the manufacturer’s sales and marketing departments plan a promotional strategy. Sales and marketing workers must distribute information on the new cars well in advance of their public introduction. The vehicles built in pre-production pilot plants are used to introduce the new models to dealers and for other promotional activities. Along with the preparation of mass-media advertising, large quantities of product brochures are printed for distribution. Sales representatives suggest to dealers a variety of sales campaigns that center around styling, engineering, and production features of the new models. Service personnel
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Words to Know Aftermarket: All products and services available to consumers after a car is built and sold, such as replacement parts and services. Alternative fuel vehicles: Vehicles powered by energy other than solely gasoline or diesel, such as by battery packs with electric motors, fuel cells that generate electricity, ethanol, or natural gas. Big Three: General Motors, Ford, and DaimlerChrysler. Chassis: Underlying frame of an automobile. Crossover vehicle: An emerging class of automobiles that combine the softer ride of cars with the cargo capacity and versatility of sport utility vehicles. Durable goods: Products designed to last at least three years; automobiles are considered durable goods. Just-in-time: A system where auto parts and modules are delivered to the assembly line just as they are needed, rather than being stockpiled at the assembly plant. Lean production: Japanese production method that focuses on minimizing the amount of work in progress by using increased automation, quality control by line workers, and smaller just-in-time inventories. Mass production: Manufacturing process in which a product is manufactured in stages by moving from station to station on an assembly line; allows workers to make several products at once. NAFTA: North American Free Trade Agreement; pact that calls for the gradual removal of tariffs and other trade barriers on most goods sold and produced in North America, including automobiles. OEM: Original equipment manufacturer; a company that uses product components from other companies to build a product that it sells under its own name and brand, a common practice in the automotive industry. Prototype: Custom-built working example.
in the dealerships are trained for any new service and maintenance techniques. Some service shops (many franchised) specialize in one type of repair, such as mufflers and exhaust systems. There are many chain maintenance shops that specialize in oil changes and minor maintenance procedures. These jobs may require less mechanically skilled workers to do simple, repetitive tasks. The automotive industry relies on the coordination of four distinct operations: styling, where designers create new automobile looks and features in line with market surveys and acceptable to production engineers; engineering, where the intricacies of design are laid out, from
engine requirements to electronics, all under price and quality guidelines; manufacturing, where parts are made and the automobile is assembled according to engineering specifications; and sales, where the final product is marketed and sold. A new model must go through several steps before it is ready for production. They are market survey, modeling, prototype building, testing, evaluation, correction, design and production of the manufacturing machinery, and final assembly. The effect a new development plan has on the manufacturing operation of a particular model assembly line varies according to the extent of design change. Some models may keep the same body shape for many years and only have a minor mechanical or aesthetic retooling, requiring little change in the assembly process. Other models may change completely and require major modifications to the assembly process. Manufacturers strive for a seamless switch, called integrated build, from one model production to the next. The largest extent of change comes with the introduction of a new product. Currently, new-product cycles (the number of years until a new product is added to the market) for U.S. automakers is about every eight years; the Japanese automakers are on about a four-year cycle. Manufacturers use market surveys to forecast customer preferences in model design and features. They poll current owners of their automobiles, as well as people in demographically chosen areas, to collect public opinion of customer expectations, likes, and dislikes in their automobiles. Once a survey indicates a profitable market for a particular product, model makers build exact clay models of this proposed automobile. The models are made to resemble as close as possible the final product in order to give stylists, engineers, and executives the best feel for how the car will look. Clay models also provide the basis for engineering drawings and blueprints. To ensure that new products or models fit within company guidelines, cost estimators, in collaboration with manufacturing and engineering experts, determine if the proposed new model can be manufactured according to cost and quality standards. They determine whether the new model can be built with existing factory equipment. Cost estimators write proposals detailing the extent of change and costs for a new model. Some new car proposals may not warrant expensive retooling to the factory. In this case, the new model is shelved for later consideration or sent back to the designers and engineers to be redesigned to assimilate better with existing manufacturing equipment. From the approved model design (shape of car) and the specific dimensions design (dimensions of construction, such as inner panel supports, brackets, joints and flanges,
door thickness, and other specifications), factory engineers create blueprints and tools for production. Manufacturing test facilities (or pilot plants) are reworked to handle the new models, while production continues on current models in the main plants. Depending upon the extent of change, new equipment may be needed to accommodate design and manufacturing requirements or existing equipment may be altered for the same purpose. At pilot plants, mechanical prototypes are designed for early engineering, fabrication, and testing of chassis and engine components for new models and products. Once this basic foundation has passed rigorous engineering and safety tests, operational prototypes closely resembling the appearance and mechanics of the final car are built. Engineers use these prototypes to evaluate durability, functionality, safety, and serviceability of the car. Before a car is manufactured on the final assembly line, numerous preparatory operations take place. Each part of the automobile, from the side paneling to the gas tank, must be shaped accurately by one or more different forming operations. Nearly all these operations can be divided into four basic operational groups: foundry, machining, forging, and stamping. Foundry operations workers pour molten metal into a mold where it cools and hardens into a casting. Castings are made for such parts as the engine block, cylinder head, or camshaft. When the casting cools, it is removed from the mold and trimmed to remove excess metal. Machining operators, who form one of the largest metalworking groups in the industry, shape the castings even further with tools that cut away excess metal. Forging workers heat metal stock to shape parts such as crankshafts and connecting rods using forge hammers and presses. Paneling, such as car doors and hoods, is shaped in the stamping process. Sheet metal is placed between the punch (the upper form of the stamp) and the die (the lower form) and then pressed together at great pressure and velocity to form the panel. Stamping workers perform three basic operations: blanking, piercing, and forming. Blanking cuts the excess metal to the specified size, and piercing punches holes where needed. In forming, the part is given its final shape. This sometimes requires a series of operations that may be performed progressively by a row of presses, each one bringing the part one step closer to its finished form. At most assembly plants, manufacturing operations for many specific parts are contracted out to other firms. They fall into three main divisions: original equipment manufacturers (OEM), replacement (or aftermarket) parts, and rubber fabricating. OEMs, the largest of the three, work closely with vehicle manufacturers to design and supply frames, bodies,
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engines, axles, wheels, transmissions, bearings, valves, bumpers, brakes, fuel injectors, seats, seat belts, airbags, and cushioning. They often sign contracts with manufacturers to produce the specific part for the life of the car. Replacement parts companies produce those parts of an automobile that eventually will need to be replaced, generally within three to seven years. They supply these parts for both new cars and as replacement parts for existing cars. Most parts companies specialize in a particular part, such as shock absorbers, brake pads, exhaust systems, wiper blades, spark plugs, batteries, or oil and gas filters, among others. Rubber fabricating companies supply tires, belts, hoses, valves, and other small rubber parts used throughout an automobile. The basic assembly process is, for the most part, standard throughout the industry. Hundreds of workers and numerous machines perform thousands of essential tasks in the assembly of an automobile. There are two main assembly lines—body and chassis—and several smaller lines, all of which converge to one main line.
■ Outlook The automotive industry continues its slow recovery from the lean years of the late 1980s, when the Big Three laid off thousands of workers and closed entire factories, though it faces new challenges caused by rising fuel prices. The industry is expected to continue to evolve in the first decade of the new century and forecasts call for manufacturing jobs to continue to decline. The U.S. Department of Labor predicts that employment in the motor vehicle and parts manufacturing industry will grow by 6 percent through 2014, compared to an expected 14 percent expansion for all industries combined. Employment in the motor vehicle manufacturing segment of the indus-
Workers on a General Motors assembly line install parts on a car. (Danny Lehman/Corbis.)
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try is expected to increase by only 2 percent. Employment increases are expected in vehicle parts manufacturing (6 percent) and motor vehicle body and trailer manufacturing (8 percent). Much of the recent recovery attempts in the automotive industry have been characterized by cost-cutting measures, including further elimination of manufacturing jobs and consolidation of large companies. In 1998, the German company Daimler-Benz merged with the American Big Three automaker Chrysler in an effort by both companies to increase cost-efficiency. Such mergers often result in the elimination of jobs where efforts would be duplicated under the new organization. Further cuts have also come as American automakers implement lean production measures used by their foreign competitors. Lean production is characterized by increased automation, quality control by workers on the line, and smaller, just-in-time inventories. Today’s automotive industry workers work more hours for less pay than their predecessors did 20 years ago. Still, auto manufacturing jobs pay well compared to other manufacturing jobs: Most automotive production workers who are union members and employed by one of the Big Three automakers make more than $60,000 annually and receive excellent benefits packages. Competition among U.S. automakers and their foreign competitors will be fierce as the Big Three attempt to lure back aging baby boomers from their Japanese automobiles, while both battle over capturing younger markets. In efforts to level the playing field and to benefit from cooperative manufacturing (i.e., shared risk and technology), the Big Three have teamed up with their Japanese competitors in so-called joint ventures. Ford and Mazda teamed up to produce the Ford Probe. GM and Toyota worked together to produce the Geo Metro and Toyota Corolla. The Big Three have also joined forces among themselves to research and study technical challenges. Research and development (R&D) is one area where job prospects are expected to remain strong. Major industry players are currently funding billions of dollars each year in R&D and are likely to continue doing so. Fierce competition forces automakers to produce cars packed with new technology, from amenities to safety features, one step above their rival’s. One major area of competition is in the development of hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs)—automobiles that combine an electric engine with internal combustion. Hybrids have better fuel economy and create lower pollution emissions than conventional vehicles. Honda and Toyota both have HEVs on the market, and American manufacturers have begun to introduce hybrid systems into their vehicles.
R&D jobs will be mostly for engineers and scientists in the industry. Stricter air pollution laws are also spurring R&D to rethink how cars are powered. The automotive industry is strongly affected by the health of the economy. A 10- to 20-percent change in employment from one year to the next is not unusual. Increased fuel prices have had a major effect on automobile sales, so manufacturers will have to struggle to adapt. In general, there is less consumer demand for cars and trucks during economic recession, and manufacturers usually respond by firing or laying off workers. Declines will occur especially for machine setter, operator, assembler, and tender occupations. Employment of office and administrative support workers will grow slowly due to expanding office and warehouse automation. There will be some job growth for engineers, industrial production managers, business operations specialists, and computer specialists.
■ For More Information For education and industry information, contact Automotive Aftermarket Industry Association 7101 Wisconsin Avenue, Suite 1300 Bethesda, MD 20814-3415 Tel: 301-654-6664 Email:
[email protected] http://www.aftermarket.org
For information on accreditation and testing, contact National Automobile Dealers Association 8400 Westpark Drive McLean, VA 22102-5116 Tel: 703-821-7000 Email:
[email protected] http://www.nada.org
For information and books on careers, and a list of training programs, contact National Automotive Technicians Education Foundation 101 Blue Seal Drive, SE, Suite 101 Leesburg, VA 20175-5646 Tel: 703-669-6650 http://www.natef.org
For information on training and certification for automotive technicians, contact National Institute for Automotive Service Excellence 101 Blue Seal Drive, SE, Suite 101 Leesburg, VA 20175-5646 Tel: 877-273-8324
Banking and Financial Services
Email:
[email protected] http://www.asecert.org
■ Related Articles Manufacturing; Automobile Collision Repairers; Automobile Sales Workers; Automobile Service Technicians; Automotive Industry Workers; Diesel Mechanics; Engineers
Banking and Financial Services
Facts about the Banking Industry ■
The banking industry employed approximately 1.8 million people.
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More than 70 percent worked at commercial banks and 30 percent worked in credit unions and savings institutions.
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Approximately 66 percent of people in this industry worked at banking establishments that employed 20 or more workers.
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Only 2 percent of bank workers were unionized.
Source: U.S. Department of Labor, 2004
■ Background Banking Banking in the United States emerged immediately after the Revolutionary War. The First Bank of the United States was a federally chartered bank established to print money, purchase securities (stocks and bonds) in companies, and lend money. It also was responsible for establishing lending rules that state banks would have to follow. At the end of the 20-year charter, Congress refused to renew the First Bank’s charter because of concern about the power that the bank held. The bank was subsequently closed. Another federal bank followed but only remained operational for four years before it suffered the same fate as the First Bank. With the demise of the federal banks, state banks quickly grew in power and size. Each bank was allowed to issue its own currency, which created an enormous fluctuation in the number of dollars actually in existence. This, in turn, influenced the value of each dollar. If the bank produced too much money, or lent money and did not receive enough of it back, the bank would close and depositors would lose everything they had invested. This instability was a continual problem throughout the 1800s, but particularly from 1800 to 1863, an era known as the Wildcat Period. In 1863–64, the government took steps that would eventually drive the banks’ currency out of use. The National Banks Act was passed to charter state banks, issue national currency, and eventually tax the usage of bank currency. The taxation effectively killed all but the national currency. In 1913 Congress established the Federal Reserve. In response to a series of financial panics set off by the limited number of dollars being printed, the Federal Reserve was established to act as the government’s central bank. It was divided into 12 districts, with a board of governors to
determine policy, supervise the fluctuation of currency reserves for banks, and print currency.
Financial Services In 1792, the forerunner of the New York Stock Exchange was started, allowing investors to buy stocks (a portion or share of the company) and bonds (a loan note from a company or the government to an individual lending money). With few controls on the purchase of stocks and bonds, investors in the stock market were able to receive great profits from companies that performed well. Investors were able to buy stocks and bonds with as little as 10 percent down. From 1919 until 1929, more than $50 billion of new stocks and bonds was sold to the public. By 1932 almost half were worthless. Stock purchases had over-inflated the value of the company stocks. When panic set in, the prices collapsed. The market crash of 1929 marked the beginning of the Great Depression, a period of economic crisis and low business activity that lasted through most of the 1930s. The market crash also led to the passage of the Securities Acts of 1933 and 1934, which greatly strengthened previously established methods of self-regulation and public disclosure. Each provision in these acts was directed at a previous abuse. The far-reaching Securities Act of 1933 provides for the full disclosure of all facts relating to new issues and is known as “the truth in securities” act. Because of the market crash, the government and industry representatives jointly acted to restore investor confidence in the securities markets. In February of 1933, banks in Detroit failed. They had lent too much money without maintaining enough in reserves. The loans were risky and the amount paid back was too small to allow the banks to continue functioning. When news of this spread, people across the country
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lined up to withdraw their money before their banks failed as well. This created a bank run, in which people tried to withdraw more money than was available. There was not enough money in the banks to return every deposit to the depositor. President Franklin D. Roosevelt shut down the banks on March 3 of that year, declaring a bank holiday. The banks were not allowed to reopen until government inspectors had evaluated their books. The FDIC (Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation) was created in 1933 to establish government guarantees of the money deposited in banks. The 1934 Securities Act established the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC), a federal agency in charge of supervising the trading of securities and ensuring that self-regulation functioned properly. Under reform legislation, misrepresentation and manipulation of the financial markets became federal offenses. The securities industry itself accepted more fully the basic obligations and responsibilities for self-regulation. The 1938 amendments to the Securities Exchange Act of 1934 established the National Association of Securities Dealers (NASD). It was organized as the self-regulatory organization responsible for the over-the-counter securities market. The SEC oversees the self-regulation of NASD dealers, as well as members of the New York, American, and regional stock exchanges. Through these legislative measures, a new era in the stock and bond business began. The growth of this industry since 1939 would not have been possible without the reforms achieved in the preceding years. Other difficulties arose over time, however, as many inexperienced people entered the stock market and the market itself began to grow rapidly. A lack of sophistication on the part of new investors and a lack of qualifications among many new brokers combined to create problems. A small stock boom erupted in 1961, with the prices of many obscure electronics and spaceage stocks climbing to unreasonable heights, sometimes promoted by a few unscrupulous salespeople. The speculative boom of 1961 collapsed dramatically in the sharp market break of May 28, 1962. Unlike the crash of 1929, however, this decline did not have a similar deadening impact upon overall business conditions. Also, many more individuals had purchased their stocks for long-term investment and were not overly concerned with the decline, which later proved only temporary. In addition, a year before, Congress, realizing that important changes had taken place in the markets, had ordered what became known as the Special Study of Securities Markets. This review was conducted by a group of economists, lawyers, and brokers charged with taking a comprehensive look at the industry and suggesting ways in which investors might be better protected.
By the time several volumes of the monumental Special Study report were issued by the SEC, the brokerage community had already taken many important steps to improve standards and operations. The Special Study, with its 176 recommendations, did not uncover abuses such as were prevalent in the 1920s. Some of the findings, however, became the basis for new federal legislation. The 1964 Securities Acts extended disclosure requirements to thousands of companies not previously covered by federal and exchange regulations. Most of the important and large companies throughout the nation must now regularly publicize the pertinent facts about their sales and earnings. Previously, only those companies that had listed their securities on the exchanges were required to disclose and publish such information regularly. In addition, stricter standards were formally established for new people entering the securities business. One continuing problem for Wall Street in the mid1980s was stock manipulation based on insider information (information not known to the investment public). The SEC, however, conducted well-publicized investigations of violations of its rules, applying a system of safeguards that had been made more sophisticated and strengthened since the SEC’s beginning in 1934. (In the 2000s, financial malfeasance by corporations and the investment industry again prompted the SEC to institute reforms to increase public confidence in investment markets. One of the major reforms it instituted required corporate chief executive officers to sign off on financial reports produced by their companies.) On October 19, 1987, the New York Stock Exchange experienced a drop in stock prices far greater than the one in 1929. The Dow Jones Industrial Average had risen to a then all-time high level of 2,722 on August 25, having climbed almost 1,000 points in eight months. September saw a slight drop in the average, but nothing close to the drop that hit in October. Over a three-day period from October 14 to October 16, 1987, the Dow Jones lost more than 261 points. On October 19, this downward spiral reached almost panic proportions as the Dow Jones Average dropped 508 points. This reduced the overall value of the stock market by more than 22 percent. In actual cash value, the loss was estimated at more than $500 billion. Two government investigations and a New York Stock Exchange investigation looked into the causes of the crash and determined that, although no single flaw in the system was responsible, more safeguards against market fluctuations were needed. As a result of the investigations, the limit on movement of stock prices was set at 100 points. If prices move in a range greater than that, trading will be shut down for an hour. If there is larger
fluctuation after trading restarts, then other time restrictions are applied on trading. Also, new restrictions on electronic trading (where machines are programmed to trade automatically) were imposed so that the machines are shut off after a 50-point movement either up or down. The market built back up in value after the crash, but many people withdrew their investments from the stock market and put them in what they considered less volatile markets. A crisis also rocked the banking industry in the late 1980s. Savings and loan (S & L) institutions, also known as thrift institutions, once had the specific function of providing their customers with savings accounts and mortgages for home ownership. When banks were deregulated in the 1980s, however, investors began pulling their money out of the S & Ls because they could get better returns on their investments elsewhere. The S & Ls in turn tried to compete with commercial banks by investing their customers’ money in other potentially more lucrative markets, such as commercial real estate. But the bottom fell out of these markets, and the banks lost large quantities of money. Since customers’ deposits are insured by the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation, it was the taxpayers who had to foot the bill for the bad investments of the banks in order to pay back the customers whose money was lost. The S & L crisis has been blamed on Congress, on the Reagan administration, and on unscrupulous bankers. The result was the closure of many banks and greater regulation to prevent the same kind of thing from happening again. The early 1990s was a revolutionary period in banking as mergers and acquisitions swept the industry. Layoffs and mergers were rampant. While reorganization was necessary to keep up with emerging technology, major restructuring also was needed to face competition from investment firms and other financial companies. For example, AT&T entered the credit card market. Investment companies provided check writing and loan services. Even services central to traditional banks, such as payment processes, were invaded by nonbanking companies. The result is a fewer number of large banks offering diversified services and a larger number of small banks offering specialized services and products. New banking regulations also characterized this decade. Most importantly, the Gramm-Leach-Bliley Act (often known as the Financial Modernization Act) was passed in 1999. It repealed the 1933 Glass-Steagall Act, which separated banking from the securities business. The Financial Modernization Act allowed banks to begin selling investment and insurance products and insurance companies, securities firms, and banks to merge and provide one-stop shopping for financial services.
Banking and Financial Services
Mergers continued through the early 2000s with the banking landscape changing almost daily. Top banks merged to form larger corporations that are more competitive within the global and technological marketplace. Besides mergers, online banking is also changing the industry. Just a few years ago, only a few banks had Web sites; now all of the top 30 banks in the United States offer online banking in some form. More than 53 million people in the United States banked online in 2005, according to the Pew Internet & American Life Project.
■ Structure Banks and Savings Institutions Banks and savings institutions in the United States are financial businesses, chartered and supervised by either state or federal government agencies to provide financial services for the public. Banks collectively administer hundreds of billions in resources and millions of dollars more in trust funds and other accounts. Basically, individual banks act as intermediaries for the movement of money, credit, and capital to wherever they are needed within the economy. It is estimated that 90 percent of all payments in the United States are made by bank checks. There are billions of checks written in the United States each year, and the number is increasing steadily. In addition to checks, most banks today offer debit cards. Debit cards look like credit cards but draw from the user’s checking account. Today, most automobiles, home appliances, and houses are bought through bank consumer loans. Inventories, equipment, and machinery for business and industry are financed by term loans made through bank commercial departments.
ATM machines are a popular and convenient way to access bank accounts virtually anywhere. (Marianna Day Massey/ZUMA/ Corbis.)
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There are thousands of commercial banks, which are sometimes described as financial department stores because they offer all kinds of financial services, such as checking and savings accounts, loans, and trust services for the administration of estates, endowments, and pension funds. There also are several hundred savings and loan institutions in various states that specialize in savings and time accounts and the making of mortgage loans. In addition to large banks and savings and loan institutions, there are scores of private and specialized banks, such as investment banks and land banks. Under federal law, banks cannot underwrite stock or bond issues. They cannot engage in underwriting or investment banking. But they can take and fill orders, and in 1982 the government began approving requests from banks and bank holding companies to acquire or establish brokerages. These limited service firms either perform their own market operations or contract with carrying firms to handle stock and bond trades, registration and billing, and dividends and margin accounts. Credit unions and other institutions not legally defined as banks offer some comparable services, such as savings accounts and consumer loans. In the aggregate, banks operate thousands of offices located in practically every neighborhood and community in the country. Many of the larger banks maintain offices in principal foreign cities of the world. The banks are organized so that through correspondent relationships they perform services for other banks or for individual customers both in this country and abroad. The major service areas of banking are commercial banking, including corporate lending; consumer, or retail, banking; and trust administration and estate planning. Business banking is the major service function of the industry. Business bankers are involved in making loans to businesses and corporations. This includes providing credit assistance for such things as accounts receivable financing, leasing, energy financing, and equipment financing. Bank loans to commerce and industry total hundreds of billions of dollars. Corporate services also include foreign currency exchange and other trade-related requirements for companies that export their products. Such companies use special financing techniques, such as cross-currency loans and commercial letters of credit. International banking is one of the newer and interesting specialties within the industry. Retail banking offers consumers not only lending services, but also savings, investment, and payment services. Mortgage loans are made for the purchase of homes, and smaller amounts are lent for appliances, cars, vacations, and
the like through traditional installment loans or even a line of credit activated by a checking account or other means. Bank cards represent the fastest growing type of consumer credit in America. Commercial credit cards, as well as individual bank cards, offer customers flexibility in money management and convenient credit availability. Payment services for bank customers range from regular checking accounts to electronic bill-paying services, 24-hour-a-day automated teller machines, and direct deposit of Social Security checks and other checks. Most banks now offer debit cards. While they appear as credit cards and often are affiliated with a major credit card company, the debit cards draw from the user’s checking account. The major advantage to debit cards over checks is the ease of use (not having to show further identification). Savings services include statement and passbook accounts, as well as a variety of long-term deposits offering higher rates of interest. Bank trust services, which were originally for the administration and conservation of large estates, are now growing to include pension and retirement funds and a wide variety of smaller funds to meet the needs of people of moderate means. Through trust departments, customers may arrange for professional administration of their assets, estate planning, and a variety of personal financial services.
The Securities Industry The New York Stock Exchange, the American Stock Exchange, and the regional exchanges (for example, the Midwest Stock Exchange in Chicago and the Pacific Stock Exchange in San Francisco) provide central meeting places and supervised auction markets where member brokers buy and sell securities for their clients. The exchanges as such do not buy or sell securities nor do they set prices. Instead, they provide the facilities for trading and enforce a variety of rules and regulations designed to maintain fair and orderly markets. The exchanges require the listed companies to meet certain specified standards of size and earnings and to publicize important basic financial information regularly. Shares in companies that offer stocks are traded, along with other types of securities, every business day around the world. The over-the-counter (OTC) market is, after the New York Stock Exchange, the second largest U.S. market for stocks. It is served by a network of brokers; they are not in one specific place, as are exchange members. The electronic NASDAQ (National Association of Security Dealers Automatic Quote System) offers shares of new or smaller companies traded on the OTC. The business practices of the member brokers are governed by rules requiring certain amounts of financial
backing and strict standards of business conduct in their dealings with clients and with each other. Most exchanges are limited-membership associations, and admission is by election. Rules are established by a constitution and bylaws and are enforced by an elected governing board with the aid of officers and committees. At the New York and the American exchanges, the supervisory work is carried out by a paid professional staff. Specialists are those member brokers who deal only with other brokers and act for those brokers who cannot remain at a post on the exchange floor until prices specified by their customers’ buy and sell orders are reached. Part of the regular brokerage commission is paid to them when they act as a broker’s broker. The specialists also act as dealers, buying and selling shares for their own accounts. It is their job to sell stock when nobody wants to sell and to buy when there are no buyers. In this way they maintain a market and try to restrain wide fluctuations in price. The American Stock Exchange (AMEX) trades in the shares of smaller, growing companies. Formerly known as the Curb Exchange because trading used to be done out-of-doors on the street, AMEX served as the proving ground for trading in the shares of such companies as DuPont, General Motors, and RCA, all of which subsequently transferred to the New York Stock Exchange. The regional stock exchanges trade many of the same stocks that are listed on the two major exchanges. The regional exchanges also trade the shares of many smaller local companies. The American Stock Exchange is also a membership organization. The New York and American Stock Exchanges operate in a similar fashion. The president, selected by the board of governors, is charged with administrative responsibility, and under the president’s direction, a staff of several hundred people implement policy. The Surveillance Department follows the action of market prices and studies financial news, investment advisory service reports, and brokerage recommendations, watching for any signs of unusual activity. Self-regulation has characterized the securities markets in this country since their inception. The exchanges have always, in varying degrees, imposed upon their members certain rules of conduct. These self-governing activities were officially endorsed and strengthened by the first federal Securities Acts of 1933 and 1934, which set the current pattern of self-regulation supervised by the government. Before the passage of the legislation that created the Securities and Exchange Commission in 1934, the individual states had enacted a number of contradictory laws purporting to regulate the sale of securities. These varied
Banking and Financial Services
greatly and only a few provided for effective enforcement. Today, however, each state has some legislation governing issuance and sale of securities. Some have created smaller and somewhat similar versions of the Securities and Exchange Commission. They all require securities and brokers to be registered, and some have established qualification standards for salespeople. Certain selling practices are prohibited in some states, and the public sale of securities that do not meet strict standards can be prohibited by several state administrators. It is the federal agency, the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC), however, that bears the main burden of overseeing the operations of the securities industry. The SEC, an independent governmental organization located in Washington, DC, enforces the laws passed by Congress in the interest of protecting the investing public. It is composed of five commissioners, appointed by the president, with no more than three commissioners belonging to one political party. Its staff is responsible for registering, supervising, and investigating the operations of the securities industry. At the SEC headquarters, the Division of Corporation Finance examines the many detailed financial statements that must be submitted by companies that sell their stock to the public. If any statement seems misleading, inaccurate, or incomplete, the company is so informed and given an opportunity to file corrections or clarifications before the securities can be sold. The commission can prohibit the sale of securities if all the facts are not presented or if they appear misleading. The SEC, however, has no power to pass on the merits of a security. It cannot pass judgment on value or price. A company that might want to dig for green cheese on the moon could be permitted to sell its stock by the SEC, as long as all the facts about this venture were truthfully and completely stated. Congress left to individual investors the responsibility for appraising the actual value of particular securities offered for sale. Two out of three SEC employees are located in Washington while the others work in the regional and branch offices. College training is a virtual necessity, and the more important jobs require more specialized training. The SEC has been a noted training ground for many young lawyers who have subsequently gone into private practice. While the individual exchanges supervise the trading on the floor and many of the activities of their members, the main responsibility for self-regulation of the overthe-counter markets rests with the National Association of Securities Dealers. This self-policing organization is a private, nonprofit organization headquartered in Washington, DC, with 14 district offices. It enforces the rules
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of fair practice that govern the professional conduct of its member firms, and a uniform practice code that deals with technical methods for executing transactions and conducting a securities business. The bulk of its work is done by committees composed of brokers who serve without pay, acting on the principle that ethical standards can best be adopted and enforced by self-governing bodies of individuals rather than by direct government controls and regulations. Surprise examinations are made of all member offices at least once every three years. All salespeoples’ backgrounds are reviewed, and they must take special examinations in addition to those required by the major stock exchanges. Underwriting practices are watched, and excessive price changes are reported and analyzed. Disciplinary actions, such as fines, suspensions, and expulsion from the association, are taken against those who violate any rules.
The Commodity Futures Industry Commodity exchanges in various parts of the country provide facilities and equipment for commodity futures trading. Formed as membership organizations like the major stock exchanges, they fall under the regulatory authority of the federal Commodity Futures Trading Commission. They have trading floors with trading pits, or rings, where futures contracts are bought or sold. There are 11 domestic exchanges, with the major ones located in Chicago, New York, Minneapolis, and Kansas City, Missouri. Organized in 1848, the Chicago Board of Trade (CBOT) is the nation’s oldest and largest commodity futures exchange. It accounts for about half of all the futures trading volume in the United States. It provides facilities for trading in futures contracts (agreements to buy or sell commodities such as agricultural products, silver, gold, plywood, and energy sources) for its more than 3,600 members.
Facts about the Securities and Commodities Industry ■
The securities, commodities, and other investments industry employed 767,000 people.
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Approximately 75 percent of firms in this industry employed fewer than five workers.
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Nearly 25 percent of employees worked 50 hours or more per week.
Source: U.S. Department of Labor, 2004
The CBOT and another Chicago exchange, the Chicago Mercantile Exchange, account for most of all U.S. futures trading. Indirectly the two account for thousands of jobs in support and ancillary positions, from telecommunications specialists to brokerage house personnel. Other American futures exchanges include the Commodity Exchange of New York, the Kansas City Board of Trade, the MidAmerica Commodity Exchange of Chicago, the Minneapolis Grain Exchange, and the New York Cotton Exchange. Some exchanges specialize. For example, the New York Cotton Exchange focuses on cotton contracts, while the Minneapolis Grain Exchange specializes in wheat. Other exchanges may offer facilities for futures trading in live and feeder cattle, coffee, copper, and other commodities. Futures trading is a means of providing protection against changeable prices in the cash markets. Users of the futures market (buyers of grain, for example, or the farmers who grow grain) minimize the risk of adverse price changes by hedging, or buying or selling futures contracts at prices immediately available.
■ Outlook The U.S. Department of Labor predicts that employment for workers in the banking industry will decline by 2 percent through 2014. New mergers and job cuts in the banking industry are announced practically every week, and some analysts predict that consolidations will reduce the number of large national banks to a dozen in the next few years. More positions will be eliminated as banks automate more of their functions and shift toward electronic service in an effort to keep up with emerging technology and remain competitive. While the number of financial giants decreases, small niche-oriented and community banks will flourish. Banks will become more product-oriented as they try to develop a unique position in the market and distinguish themselves from competitors. Expect banking to become more automated and electronic. A bank in Oregon recently installed an automated loan machine. A customer can walk away with a check or direct deposit in 10 minutes. Security First Network Bank was the first “Internet bank” with highly secure computer banking technology. According to Online Banking Report, more than 40 percent of U.S. households now bank online and it is estimated that this number will increase to 50 percent by 2010. Positions in computer and information technology, sales and marketing, and research will grow while administrative and teller positions will decline. As banks aggressively pursue customers, ideal employees will be able to use network and database technology to collect and
analyze information on prospective customers. Employees with aggressive sales and marketing talents will be valuable assets. Order takers are characteristic of the old banking world. Bankers must now be a customer-focused sales force. As a result, employment for customer service representatives will increase as more of these professionals are needed to respond to customer requests via telephone or email. The deregulation of the banking industry has created a wide range of employment outlooks for workers in the field. Employment of securities and financial services sales representatives, financial analysts, and financial advisers will improve as banks begin to offer financial and insurance products to their customers. Competition from nonbank institutions for loans and credit services will create fewer employment opportunities for loan officers and more opportunities for financial services sales representatives who—in addition to selling loans—offer a myriad of services. American banking entities are going global and growing internationally, especially in Latin America and Asia. Many major banks, such as Citibank, actively hire U.S.educated Asians and Latin Americans to develop banking business overseas. The European Monetary Union (in which 11 European countries agreed to merge their individual currencies into a single new currency, the euro) was created in 1999; many feel it will encourage highly favorable business conditions and opportunities throughout Europe for American banking institutions. Today, according to the European Union, more than 300 million Europeans in 12 countries use the euro. Banking and financial services professionals who have specialized language skills, a desire to travel, and knowledge of these emerging markets will advance quickly. As banks continue to compete with investment firms, they will seek out finance professionals who can develop products for the corporate market. Investment products and mutual funds are a booming part of commercial banking. This will continue to grow as pending deregulations attempt to remove barriers between commercial and investment banking. The U.S. Department of Labor predicted that employment in the securities and commodities industry would grow about as fast as the average for all industries through 2014. Like the banking industry, the American securities and commodities industry is expanding to a global scale. The opening of new foreign markets will offer securities and commodities professionals many new opportunities. The aging of the baby-boom generation, and their resulting need for retirement planning and investment options, has also played a role in the impressive growth of this industry.
Banking and Financial Services
Even though online trading has grown rapidly over the past five years, it has not reduced the need for direct contact with an actual broker. Many investors still feel more comfortable using the expertise of full-service brokers and financial planners who can help them understand the complexities of trading. Employment in the securities and commodities industry, like most other industries, will continue to be influenced by advances in technology and telecommunications. The industry has become highly automated and, as a result, opportunities for computer professionals, such as computer software engineers, systems analysts, and computer scientists, will be very strong over the next decade. Conversely, employment of brokerage clerks, secretaries, and bookkeeping, accounting, and auditing clerks is projected to grow more slowly than the average occupation through 2014.
■ For More Information The ABA offers banking information as well as an overview of schools and their business programs. American Bankers Association (ABA) 1120 Connecticut Avenue, NW Washington, DC 20036-3902 Tel: 800-338-0626 http://www.aba.com
Contact this organization for information on continuing education and seminars in banking. BAI has joined forces with the Institute of Financial Education, which provides training for entry-level to middle management employees of financial institutions via in-house group workshops and courses, independent study, and self-training. Bank Administration Institute (BAI) One North Franklin, Suite 1000 Chicago, IL 60606-3421 Tel: 800-224-9889 Email:
[email protected] http://www.bai.org
The center provides information on workshops, home study courses, educational materials, and publications for futures and securities professionals. How to Become a Futures Broker is an informative 24-page booklet (cost: $3) that discusses the National Commodity Futures Exam, how to become an associated person or introducing broker, and industry contact information. Center for Futures Education PO Box 309 Grove City, PA 16127-0309 Tel: 724-458-5860
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Email:
[email protected] http://www.thectr.com
FWI offers career support for women in finance as well as a job bank. Financial Women International (FWI) 1027 West Roselawn Avenue Roseville, MN 55113-6406 Tel: 651-487-7632 Email:
[email protected] http://www.fwi.org
For information on certification, continuing education, and general information on the banking and credit industry, contact National Association of Credit Management 8840 Columbia 100 Parkway Columbia, MD 21045-2158 Tel: 410-740-5560 Email:
[email protected] http://www.nacm.org
For information on the NASD Institute for Professional Development, contact National Association of Securities Dealers (NASD) Tel: 301-590-6500 http://www.nasd.com
■ Related Articles Accounting; Insurance; Law; Accountants and Auditors; Actuaries; Automatic Teller Machine Servicers; Bank Examiners; Billing Clerks; Bookkeeping and Accounting Clerks; Business Managers; Commodities Brokers; Credit Analysts; Economists; Financial Analysts; Financial Institution Tellers, Clerks, and Related Workers; Financial Institution Officers and Managers; Financial Planners; Financial Services Brokers; Forensic Accountants and Auditors; Insurance Claims Representatives; Insurance Policy Processing Occupations; Insurance Underwriters; Life Insurance Agents and Brokers; Property and Casualty Insurance Agents and Brokers; Risk Managers; Tax Preparers
Biology ■ Background Life has many different levels of organization from the atom to complex organisms, to whole populations and ecosystems. The biological sciences look at life on one
or more of these levels—at anything that is or has been alive. The field of biology also looks at the effects of surroundings on living things. People who study biology learn how living things work, how they relate to one another, and how they evolved. Studying biology teaches you to ask questions, judge evidence, and solve problems. Because living things vary greatly in how they live and where they came from, the field of biology is divided into many different specialty areas. Most biologists are researchers of one type or another. Many teach and conduct studies at colleges and universities. Industry employs research biologists in such areas as biotechnology (the use of biological systems to produce new goods and services), drug development, and food processing. Nonresearch careers involving biology can be found in medicine, education, and environmental protection. Biology is the basic background needed for doing many things that are good for society: fighting disease through the creation of new medicines, developing conservation measures to protect the environment, breeding better crops, evaluating food and drug safety, and even inventing support systems for life in space. Biology did not develop as a science until the last few centuries b.c., when science began to be separated from religion, particularly with regard to medicine. Although Hippocrates, known as the father of medicine, greatly influenced this development, it was Aristotle, a student of Plato, who established observation and analysis as biology’s basic tools. Throughout human history, discoveries in biology have profoundly affected daily life and the overall quality of living. From the third century b.c. to the second century a.d., agriculture and medicine were the main areas to benefit from biological studies. During the Middle Ages, Arab scientists applied what they learned from Greek discoveries to medicine. The Renaissance saw the rediscovery of Greek culture, which led to rapid advances in Italy, France, and Spain. There, during the 15th and 16th centuries, Leonardo da Vinci and Michelangelo became skilled anatomists while looking for perfection in art. In the mid-16th century, Andreas Vesalius introduced dissection as a teaching aid, creating detailed anatomical diagrams that became standards for future medical illustrations. In the 17th century, William Harvey introduced experimentation while studying the human circulatory system, which marked the beginning of understanding mammalian body systems. Since that time, discoveries in biology have occurred at a fast and furious pace. Louis Pasteur developed vaccines and the field of immunology to prevent disease. Matthias Schleiden and Theodor Schwann correctly named the cell as the fundamental unit of all organisms. Gregor Mendel
Biology
Biologist Wade Steinriede (left) and technician Keysha Hamilton measure residues from a rye cover crop among no-till cotton. The cover crop inhibited weed growth, enhanced soil quality, and reduced soil loss. (Peggy Greb, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture.)
discovered the principles of heredity through his study of peas. While the 19th century saw many advances in cell study, the 20th century was dominated by studies and breakthroughs in biochemistry and molecular biology. In 1944, Oswald Avery and a team of scientists isolated and identified DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) as the transmitter of genetic information. In 1953, James Watson and Francis Crick unraveled the complex structure of DNA to predict how it can carry the genetic code for all living matter. As you can see, biology is the foundation for most of the discoveries that affect our daily lives. It breaks new ground in improving health, understanding our world, and improving the quality of our existence. Biology is unlimited in the areas it offers for study and discovery. Although biologists of the future will work in fields and laboratories like they do today, some will venture far into space or deep into the sea. Others may do their work in virtual reality rooms that look like something from a science fiction novel. People who work in the field of biology help to make today’s science fiction tomorrow’s reality.
■ Structure Biology subfields are many and varied and include microbiology, anatomy, morphology, plant and animal
physiology, ecology, pathology, cell biology, molecular biology, marine biology, and genetics, just to name a few. There are fields of specialization for different classifications of living things: herpetology, entomology, and ornithology, for example. For all these areas, the elements of the job are essentially the same: building on the work of others, both past and present, through experimentation and observation. Most research in biology uses a team approach. Team members review previous research and experiments, then set a goal for their project. They may form a hypothesis (an educated guess) to prove or disprove a current theory or set an open-ended objective, such as finding out what happens over time to people who smoke or drink. An experiment may prove something or not. After experimentation, the biologist analyzes the results, often publishing his or her findings in a scientific journal article. Publishing results is a key part of doing research, for only by sharing data and evaluations can the scientific community make the most of research. Scientists working under contracts with research companies do not own their discoveries; their research becomes the property of the employer. Scientists working independently can keep their discoveries
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Words to Know Agronomy: The study of field crops, such as cotton, corn, and wheat, and of their relationship to the soil. Anatomy: The study of living structures, chiefly internal. Animal husbandry: The study of the care and breeding of farm animals. Ecology: The study of living things in relation to each other and in relation to their surroundings. Economic biology: The study of organisms that are useful to humans or that affect human activities. The various phases of economic biology are often taught in agricultural colleges with emphasis on such practical matters as production and selling techniques. Eugenics: The study of improving the human race through heredity. Genetics: The study of inheritance, or how living things resemble or differ from their ancestors. Biologists concerned with evolution study the development of complex living things from simpler forms of life. Horticulture: The study of all ornamental or food plants except field crops. Molecular biology: The branch of biology that uses the techniques of biochemistry and biophysics in the study of the molecular structure of living organisms. Scientists in this field generally use simple organisms, such as bacteria, in their studies, but the principles they discover generally apply to all living things. Research has been concentrated on heredity, cell development, and evolution. Morphology: The study of form, usually visible form, in living things. Paleobotany: The study of fossil plants. Paleontology: The general science of fossils. Paleozoology: The study of fossil animals. Pathology: The study of diseases. It is both a biological and a medical subject. Physiology: The study of the functions of living cells, tissues, organs, and systems. Taxonomy: The classification of organisms into orderly groups according to their physical structure and other traits.
as their own and have the right to patent and charge others for using their research. Generally, those working in the biology field do one of four types of work: basic research, applied research, testing, or support. Basic research seeks knowledge for its own sake, uncovering fundamental truths and transforming the unknown into the known. Often done at universities, basic research includes all areas of biology.
Applied research deals with translating basic knowledge into practical, useful products and processes for use in areas such as medicine or agriculture. Research biologists at universities generally split their time between their research projects and teaching. Because researchers need skilled help from others trained in biology, some biologists work in support roles, such as laboratory technicians, who help carry out experiments. All specialists must combine a thorough knowledge of general biology with other skills and professional training. Research biologists work for government agencies in the areas of conservation, environmental protection, agriculture, and the use of natural resources. They work for private industry in the development of new tools, devices, and drugs for medical diagnosis and treatment. Research biologists also study genetics, including human, plant, and animal genetics, with hopes of finding applications in medicine and agriculture. More and more, people are doing jobs that combine their knowledge of biology with other specialized training. The office for many of these jobs is the outdoors and the dress is casual. Horticulturists, for example, work in greenhouses and fields, developing new crop varieties and designing landscape plans. Zookeepers may work with captive breeding programs for endangered species. Zoos, museums, and nature centers hire educators, exhibit designers, artists, and other specialists with biology backgrounds. Those with a talent for writing may work as science journalists, breaking down science so that nonexperts can understand it. Other biologists work as policy analysts for the government, helping to develop science-based legislation. Physicians, dentists, nurses, medical technicians, and physician assistants must also have solid biology backgrounds.
■ Outlook The outlook for biologists with doctoral degrees who want to teach at a college or university is competitive for basic research positions. The increase in the number of advanced degrees, together with budget tightening for many areas of research and development, has slowed the number of grants awarded, according to the Occupational Outlook Handbook. Positions will continue to open up, though, as tenured faculty retire. Employment for biologists is expected to have average growth through 2014, according to the U.S. Department of Labor. The opportunities are better for biologists with bachelor’s or master’s degrees who seek sales, marketing, and research management positions that do not require a Ph.D. The outlook for jobs in private industry is better than for independent research positions, as companies
Book Publishing
respond to public concern for protecting the environment and human health. Ecologists, whose work examines environmental effects, will be needed to continue work on global warming issues and disappearing rainforests. An increase in the amount of research dedicated to health issues, such as AIDS, cancer, and Alzheimer’s disease, should also result in an increase of job opportunities. Genetics and biotechnology are two of the most promising employment areas for biologists. The American Institute of Biological Sciences says that plant geneticists, for example, will be needed to develop better methods of engineering crops. Researchers studying human biology will be hired in hopes of discovering ways to slow the aging process, cure genetic diseases, and reverse paralyzed nerve cells. Applications arising from new knowledge about recombinant DNA, or genetic engineering, promise to open up job opportunities, especially in the health care and pharmaceutical fields.
To access various genetics societies that provide information on graduate and postgraduate programs in human genetics, career publications, and other resources, see the following Web site. A World of Genetics Societies http://www.faseb.org/genetics
■ Related Articles Agriculture; Animal Care; The Environment; Parks and Public Lands; Agricultural Scientists; Animal Breeders and Technicians; Aquarists; Biochemists; Biologists; Biomedical Engineers; Biotechnology Patent Lawyers; Botanists; Cytotechnologists; Ecologists; Ethnoscientists; Fish and Game Wardens; Genetic Scientists; Horticultural Technicians; Marine Biologists; Microbiologists; Naturalists; Oceanographers; Park Rangers; Pathologists; Physicians; Range Managers; Toxicologists; Veterinarians; Zoologists
■ For More Information For information on specific biology careers, contact American Institute of Biological Sciences 1444 I Street, NW, Suite 200 Washington, DC 20005-2210 Tel: 202-628-1500 http://www.aibs.org
For information on careers and accredited schools, contact American Society for Biochemistry and Molecular Biology 9650 Rockville Pike Bethesda, MD 20814-3996 Tel: 301-634-7145 Email:
[email protected] http://www.asbmb.org
For information on careers, mentoring, scholarships, and other resources, contact American Society for Microbiology 1752 N Street, NW Washington, DC 20036-2904 Tel: 202-737-3600 http://www.asm.org
For information on education, careers, publications, and a variety of other ecology-related topics, contact Ecological Society of America 1707 H Street, NW, Suite 400 Washington, DC 20006-3919 Tel: 202-833-8773 Email:
[email protected] http://www.esa.org
Book Publishing ■ Background The earliest known books were the clay tablets of Mesopotamia and the papyrus rolls of Egypt. Examples of both date from about 3000 b.c. According to archeological findings, the Chinese developed books about 1300 b.c. Early Chinese books were made of wood or bamboo strips and bound together with cords. With the spread of Greek culture and the Greek alphabet in the third century b.c., books became accessible to more people. For the first time, the general public began to read on a wide range of topics. Up until that point, books had been primarily produced for scholarly research or for use by royalty. The Romans developed the book trade on a large scale. Ownership of private libraries became a mark of distinction, and each Roman ruler established his own library. The precursor to the modern book was the codex, which consisted of pieces of parchment that were folded and bound to form pages that could be turned. The advantage of pages was that they made it possible to find a particular place in a document relatively easily; it was far less convenient to find a passage in a scroll, which had to be unrolled until the appropriate passage was found. The codex was developed independently by various peoples, including the Maya of South America and the Romans. Some of the most important developments in publishing were the result of Chinese innovations and inventions.
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Words to Know Acquisition editor: Editor who seeks out authors to write manuscripts. Copy editor: Editor who makes corrections to the manuscript. This includes correcting the spelling, grammar, punctuation, style, and general readability of the text. Galleys: Initial batch of typeset pages an editor receives. House style: A publishing house’s preferred way of spelling, punctuating, and using words. Manuscript: The text of a book before it has been styled or set into type. Page proofs: Typeset pages complete with the placement of art and photos (or space allotted for art and photos), before they are printed. Plate: The “master” from which all copies of a printed page are produced. The surface of the plate contains the reverse image of the printed page. Ink is applied to the plate, and then run over paper, producing a printed page. Prepress work: The procedures performed by a printing company, starting with when they receive electronics files and related materials for a publication, concluding with the printing of the publication. These procedures include making plates and performing checks to ensure the publication will print correctly. Proofreader: One who typically reads galleys and proofs for typographical and page format errors.
Among these were the invention of paper in 105 b.c., the invention of block printing in the sixth century, and the invention of movable type in the 11th century. The oldest dated, printed book known is a Chinese version of the Diamond Sutra, a Buddhist text, which, according to its colophon (production information printed at the end of a book), was completed on May 11, 868. Although knowledge of paper was transmitted to Europe by the Arabs, the invention of printing was not. Block printing developed in Europe in about 1400, but it was Johannes Gutenberg who changed publishing forever by inventing a method of printing that utilized movable metal type. His method caught on fairly quickly, and within about 50 years it had spread throughout Europe. Gutenberg’s invention was groundbreaking because it made possible the mass production of printed material. The printing press revolutionized book publishing. The key to the printing press lay in its capacity to produce multiple copies of a book quickly and at a relatively low cost. Books were now available to everyone who could read. By the middle of the 15th century, printers were incorporating illustrations into the text. They made use
of woodcut blocks and copper engravings. The copper engravings maintained a fine crisp line in the illustration, allowing printers to produce maps in quantity. Although the number of books printed would continue to rise, few changes were made in the method of book production until the beginning of the industrial revolution. With the advent of the power motor, paper could be run through the presses by machine. Mechanical methods of typecasting and typesetting were developed that allowed the type to be produced and displayed faster. The cost of paper declined as the speed with which it could be made accelerated. In the 20th century, offset printing and other technological advances enabled book publishing to reach all segments of society. Between 1900 and World War II, little portable presses sprang up, which popularized magazines and books that appealed to readers with specific interests, such as those for readers of mysteries. Running these presses required very little investment of capital and thus enabled people to print and sell about a thousand copies of a publication and still see a return on their investment. As paper and presses became more expensive, however, many of the smaller presses were forced to stop publishing. Today desktop publishing offers some of the same benefits to small publishers as little presses did. Desktop publishing allows for the complete design and production of a publication, with relatively high-quality text and graphics, on a single computer system. Because it is fairly inexpensive, it allows for the publication of a small number of books, newsletters, or magazines at a relatively low cost. It also poses stiff competition to major publishing houses that may also produce and sell a small number of higher-quality publications, but at a greater cost.
■ Structure Publishing begins with authors, sometimes known as writers, and their ideas; or with a book producer, agent, or editor who identifies a topic that demands a book. Writers of trade books typically hire a literary agent to help them present their ideas and finished manuscript to interested publishers. There are many types of books published; currently the largest market share is in trade books, textbooks, and technical and professional books. A publishing house may produce books in all these categories or just in one category. Textbooks are books that are designed to be used in schools, and they are divided into such categories as elementary school, high school, and college. When writing textbooks, publishers must take into account such factors
as subjects that are emphasized in school curricula, subjects that are taboo, and the reading ability of the students in the targeted age groups. In recent years, for example, textbook publishers have tended to de-emphasize some of the “dead white men” who were the almost exclusive focus of textbooks in the past, and instead they have adopted a more multicultural approach that gives more attention to the accomplishments of women and people of color. The category of trade books encompasses most of the books that people commonly read, including short and long fiction; poetry; and nonfiction books on contemporary issues, history, religion, art, music, and a host of other subjects. Large publishers often produce trade books on a wide variety of subjects, but smaller firms may specialize in one or a few subjects. Technical and professional books are, for the most part, specialized works intended for relatively small segments of the population. Because they are produced in much smaller numbers than are trade books, technical and professional books are usually expensive. Medical students and doctors need books on medicine, law students and lawyers need law books, and scientists need books that address their specific areas of interest. There is one area of technical publishing that deserves to be mentioned in its own right: reference books. Reference books are usually designed to make the location of particular pieces of information as convenient as possible. They are not designed to be read from cover to cover. When most people use a dictionary, for example, they want to look up a particular word rather than read the entire dictionary (although some people do like to increase their knowledge of words by reading through dictionaries). In addition to dictionaries, encyclopedias and almanacs are also examples of the types of reference books that are published. Once a manuscript is accepted by a publishing house, it goes to the editorial department. Headed by an editor in chief or editorial director, the editorial department evaluates manuscripts, revises written material with the writer, and prepares the manuscript for the production staff. Once a manuscript is revised by the author and approved by an editor, it is turned over to the production department. Production is the division of publishing that takes a manuscript and makes it into a book—usually with the help of page-layout programs. The copy editor makes corrections to the text. This includes correcting the spelling, grammar, punctuation, style, and general readability of the text. This can either be done by writing on the typed pages or by making the changes to the text on a computer. Typesetting is done by a computer that generates the pages that will print in the book. The pages are read by
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Dan Brown, author of the wildly popular The DaVinci Code, signs copies of his book during a book signing. (Associated Press/Tim Boyd.)
a proofreader who will catch any problems with the text or with coding. Once all the pieces of the book are in place, the book is ready to be printed. The marketing department, the acquisition department, and the production department work to determine the number of books that will be printed, the size, the binding style (hardback or paperback), and other details. While a book is in production, the promotion department hires advertisers to schedule space in magazines and newspapers, works out cooperative advertising with retailers, and produces point-of-purchase material for use in stores. Direct mailings to promote or sell the books are also arranged. For potential bestsellers, the staff may also arrange for newspaper, radio, and television releases and set up interviews for authors in all of those media, with the intention of keeping authors in the public eye. In the United States, publishing companies vary in size from offices with only a handful of employees to corporate giants employing a thousand people or more.
■ Outlook As long as people continue to read, there will be a future in book publishing. Employment in book publishing is expected to grow at a slower rate than the average career field through 2014. Future opportunities for writers and editors are expected to be greatest in textbook and technical publications. Technological improvements have had a large impact on the publishing industry. Desktop publishing has made editing and page makeup simpler and more efficient, allowing for a greater output of titles. CD-ROM publications
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continue to be a growing new book format as consumers purchase computers and computer accessories. Digital printing has the potential to revolutionize the industry by making printing faster and more economical. Computerized ordering systems are making the publishing business much more cost effective. These systems allow for more accurate inventory maintenance and more efficient distribution networks. Sales of books have increased in the past few years and continue to do so. U.S. book sales totaled more than $23.7 billion in 2004, a 1.3 percent increase from 2003, according to the Association of American Publishers. Sales of adult hardbound and paperbound books and mass market paperbacks rose, while juvenile hardbound book sales decreased. Education and professional and scholarly sales all remained solid. A continued rise in sales is expected to last through the end of the decade due to the growing population, availability of disposable income, and the introduction of books in a variety of formats that appeal to both the traditional and the nontraditional reader.
■ For More Information For more information on book publishing, contact Association of American Publishers 71 Fifth Avenue New York, NY 10003-3004 Tel: 212-255-0200 http://www.publishers.org
The Literary Market Place publishes current addresses of publishing companies in the United States and Canada. In addition, it lists associations, significant individuals, literary agents, and other publishing-related organizations. The Literary Market Place Information Today Inc. 143 Old Marlton Pike Medford, NJ 08055-8750 Email:
[email protected] http://www.literarymarketplace.com
The periodical Publishers Weekly contains current information on the book publishing industry as well as listings of job openings, primarily in the New York area. Publishers Weekly http://publishersweekly.com
■ Related Articles Newspapers and Magazines; Printing; Public Relations; Publishing; Pulp and Paper; Art Directors; Book Editors; Cartographers; Cartoonists and Animators; Editors; Graphic Designers; Indexers; Lexicographers; Literary
Agents; Magazine Editors; Newspaper Editors; Online Journalists; Photographers; Printing Press Operators and Assistants; Science and Medical Writers; Writers
Broadcasting ■ Background For centuries people have sought to improve methods of communicating over long distances. In 1895 an Italian engineer, Guglieimo Marconi, demonstrated how to send communication signals without the use of wires; instantaneous worldwide communication soon became a reality. In the early 1900s, transmitting and receiving devices were relatively simple, and hundreds of amateurs constructed transmitters and receivers on their own and experimented with radio. Ships were rapidly equipped with radios so they could communicate while at sea with each other and with shore bases. In 1906, human voice was transmitted for the first time by Reginald A. Fessenden. Small radio shows started in 1910; in 1920, two commercial radio stations went on the air: KDKA in Pittsburgh and WWJ in Detroit. By 1921, a dozen local stations were broadcasting. The first network broadcast (more than one station sharing a broadcast) was of the 1922 World Series. By 1926, stations across the country were linked together to form the National Broadcasting Company (NBC). Four years later, the first radio broadcast was made around the world. There has been a steady growth in the number of radio stations in the United States. Now most towns have at least one radio station, and the larger cities have as many as 30 or more, with diverse programming to suit all tastes. In 2006, the United States alone had more than 13,769 radio stations, both commercial and public. One major trend in radio is the increasing use of programming created by services outside the broadcasting industry. Satellite radio, in which subscribers pay a monthly fee for access to more than 100 radio stations, will be a big threat to smaller, marginal stations. Modern television is based on electronic theory that grew out of the experiments of Heinrich Geissler in 1857, in which he discharged electricity in a vacuum tube, causing rare gases in it to glow. Other scientists immediately began to experiment with vacuum tubes, and in 1898 Karl Braun made the first cathode-ray tube in which he could control the flow of electrons being released. The development of the iconoscope tube in 1923 turned optical energy into electrical energy. It was
not until 1927 that the first workable cathode-ray-tube camera was invented by a 16-year-old boy named Philo T. Farnsworth. Improvements by Vladimir Zworykin made the system practical. Soon after, the first experimental television program was sent by wire from New York to Washington, DC. But it was not until 1939, when President Franklin D. Roosevelt used television to open the New York World’s Fair, that the public realized that the use of television as a standard means for communication was just around the corner. Several stations went on the air shortly after this demonstration and successfully televised professional baseball games, college football games, and the Republican and Democratic conventions of 1940. The onset of World War II limited the further development of television until after the war was over. Since television’s strength is the immediacy with which it can present information, news programs became the foundation of regular programming. Meet the Press premiered in 1947, followed by nightly newscasts in 1948. Television began to expand rapidly during the 1950s, following the lifting of the Federal Communications Commission’s freeze on the processing of station applications. In 1953 there were 120 commercial stations. By 2006, there were 2,218 broadcasting television stations. Cable television has experienced rapid growth over the past decade; approximately 65 million Americans subscribed to basic cable in 2006, according to Nielsen Media Research. Approximately 29.6 million Americans subscribed to digital cable in 2006, according to the National Cable and Telecommunications Association. Other consumers are turning to satellite television and other technologies for their entertainment needs. Broadcasting on the Internet has become a popular form of electronic communication. Many radio and television stations have launched Web sites to complement their programming. According to a 2006 survey conducted by the Radio-Television News Directors Association and Ball State University, 87 percent of radio stations and 99 percent of television stations had Web sites.
■ Structure Broadcasting is the electronic transmission of images and/or sound. Radio and television are the main broadcasting media. The radio and television industry is made up of a large number of relatively small and independent stations that are individually owned and operated. Approximately 327,000 people were employed in the radio and television broadcasting industry in 2004, according to the U.S. Department of Labor. In television, large stations located in metropolitan centers can employ several hundred people, whereas a
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Words to Know AM broadcast: Amplitude modulation system of radio transmission using power of 25 to 50 kilowatts, the maximum power permitted by the FCC. Analog: A signal that varies continuously in frequency or amplitude. Digital transmissions of data, which can be compressed for better quality, are replacing analog. Arbitron ratings: These ratings are provided within local markets to identify how many people are listening to the different radio and television stations within a market as well as to further identify who those people are—their age, sex, and buying patterns. Broadcast: To transmit programs from a radio or TV station. Demographics: Statistics that show a radio listener’s or a television viewer’s age, income, and other data; this information is valuable to producers and advertisers trying to reach specific audiences. Digital: A transmission, by a computer, composed of a discontinuous signal; replacing analog signals in telecommunications. Electronic media: Broadcasting companies that transmit information electronically, such as TV and radio stations, cable networks, and news services. FCC: Federal Communications Commission; an agency of the U.S. government that regulates broadcasting and other communication. FM broadcast: Frequency modulation method of radio broadcasting; it produces a clearer signal than AM. HDTV: High definition television; linked to satellite, cable, and computer networks to provide better resolution than current systems. Interactive: Video games, CD-ROM programs, Web pages, and other multimedia that allow users to affect the direction of the presentation of material. Market: The geographic area that a radio or television station serves. Nielsen ratings: A listing of TV programs according to the number of viewers; compiled by Nielsen Media Research, ratings are used in determining advertising rates. Satellite broadcasting: Broadcasting radio and television programs with the digital technology used in computers and compact discs. Provides higher quality broadcasts. Also called digital broadcasting. TelePrompTer: A monitor that displays the script for reading on air by a newscaster or other TV presenter
small station in a small city may employ as few as 35 people. In radio, the smallest station may employ only four or five full-time people. Many television stations
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and radio stations are affiliated with one of the national networks. An affiliate station is not owned by the network, but merely has a business contract under which it is supplied by its network with a considerable amount of programming. This programming may consist of national or international news and news analysis, which can be put together more efficiently and cost effectively at the network headquarters. In television, the typical affiliate is supplied with programs during a portion of the morning hours, a portion of the afternoon hours, and a portion of the evening hours. During the remaining time, the station develops its own programming. This programming may be locally developed and presented live, or it may be videotaped for later showing. Stations also purchase programs from various organizations that produce shows for general sale or else have acquired the rights to them. Each station develops the particular program format that in its judgment will best serve its market. Cable television networks operate under some of the same arrangements as commercial television stations. Some cable networks are advertiser-supported. These networks may carry original programming or purchase rights to rebroadcast shows that originally aired on commercial television. Other cable networks are subscriber supported. These networks tend to run motion pictures, special broadcasts of sports or entertainment events, and movies produced specifically for cable. Cable systems may also transmit material that is not limited by the restrictions of language, subject matter, or motion picture audience ratings that affect commercial television broadcasts. Pay-per-view cable programming often covers special events that the viewer can opt to pay for on an event-by-event basis. Radio is structured similarly to television, but there are some significant differences. With the rise of television, the amount and variety of programs offered in radio was reduced. In radio, the network’s major responsibility is to supply news and feature programs of national interest that would be difficult for the individual station to produce. By the 1980s, satellite distribution of such programming became commonplace. Radio and television depend on electromagnetic waves to carry signals from the transmitting tower to the receiver in the home. Each broadcast requires a certain amount of air space for a certain amount of time; otherwise interference would occur. Thus each user of space is assigned an area of the spectrum, which is referred to as a channel in television and a frequency in radio. There are many users of the spectrum besides radio and television stations, including the federal government
(particularly the Armed Forces), state and municipal governments for police and similar types of communications, and private users of all types. Private users include airlines, private communication concerns, and amateurs. Without the assignment of spectrum space by a central authority, communications would be chaotic because of signal interference. Because of the need for regulation in the broadcast industry, Congress established the 1927 Federal Radio Commission, which in 1934 became the Federal Communications Commission (FCC). The FCC became an independent agency of the federal government composed of five commissioners appointed for terms of five years by the President. It supervises and allocates spectrum space, makes channel assignments, and licenses radio and television stations for periods of seven and five years respectively to applicants who are legally, technically, and financially qualified. The FCC determines whether the operation of each station will be “in the public interest, convenience, and necessity.” If there is more than one applicant for a station frequency, the FCC decides which should receive the license. At the end of the license period, the FCC reviews the overall operation of the station and determines whether its license shall be renewed. The commission also sets limits on the number of broadcasting stations that a single individual or organization can control. The 1996 Telecommunications Act removed all limits on group size nationally and raised the number of stations that a broadcaster can own in one market to a maximum of eight. This new leniency has paved the way for large station and network mergers in recent years. The FCC issues regulations for broadcasting stations concerning engineering and operating standards and certain other matters, such as indecency. It defines indecency as any material that is considered patently offensive, as measured by contemporary community standards, and which deals with sexual or excretory functions or organs. The FCC has also been involved in introducing digital television transmission. The FCC required major network affiliates in the top 10 markets to build digital transmitting facilities by May 1, 1999. All other commercial stations in all markets were required to construct digital broadcast facilities by 2006. Broadcasting is affected by politics, but it is primarily a business in the usual sense, dependent on sales and profits for its continued existence. It is particularly exciting because it is like show business with a stopwatch; programming is timed down to the second, and precision
Broadcasting
and speed are crucial for both taped and live broadcasts. Broadcasting relies on the creativity of its employees to develop and hold the interest of its listening and viewing audiences. Yet, because of the unremitting pressures of deadlines, broadcasting must be geared to quick decisions and quick action.
■ Outlook Employment in the radio and television broadcasting industry is expected to increase about 11 percent, more slowly than the average for all other occupations through 2014, according to the U.S. Department of Labor. Competition is the name of the game in the broadcasting industry. The public has many viewing and listening choices, from cable, satellite TV, and conventional television to radio, satellite radio, and Web broadcasts. Because of this competition and FCC deregulation, radio and television stations have been consolidating to keep their costs down. These consolidations have created fewer opportunities for technical workers, top managers, marketing and advertising sales workers, and broadcasters (especially in radio), as owners of multiple stations downsize and merge staffs to save money and improve productivity. Job seekers should be prepared for stiff competition, since this field is an attractive and popular career choice. Be prepared to work in a smaller market to gain experience; most larger markets stations, such as Chicago and New York, prefer to hire experienced workers.
■ For More Information Contact BEA for scholarship information and a list of schools offering degrees in broadcasting. Broadcast Education Association (BEA) 1771 N Street, NW Washington, DC 20036-2891 Tel: 888-380-7222 Email:
[email protected] http://www.beaweb.org
National Association of Broadcasters 1771 N Street, NW Washington, DC 20036-2800 Tel: 202-429-5300 Email:
[email protected] http://www.nab.org
For information on scholarships and student membership, contact National Association of Farm Broadcasters PO Box 500 Platte City, MO 64079-0500 Tel: 816-431-4032 http://www.nafb.com
For statistics and information on the cable industry, visit the NCTA Web sites or contact National Cable and Telecommunications Association (NCTA) 1724 Massachusetts Avenue, NW Washington, DC 20036-1903 Tel: 202-775-3550 http://www.ncta.com
The RTNDA provides information on awards, scholarships, and internships and offers publications, such as Breaking into Broadcasting and Careers in Radio and Television News. For more information, contact Radio-Television News Directors Association (RTNDA) 1600 K Street, NW, Suite 700 Washington, DC 20006-2838 Tel: 202-659-6510 Email:
[email protected] http://www.rtnda.org
For career information and an overview of the industry, visit About.com: Radio http://radio.about.com
For job listings and union information, contact National Association of Broadcast Employees and Technicians 501 Third Street, NW, 8th Floor Washington, DC 20001-2760 Tel: 202-434-1254 Email:
[email protected] http://www.nabetcwa.org
For broadcast education, support, and scholarship information, contact
■ Related Articles Business; Film; Radio; Television; Actors; Art Directors; Audio Recording Engineers; Broadcast Engineers; Cable Television Technicians; Camera Operators; Cartoonists and Animators; Comedians; Disc Jockeys; Media Planners and Buyers; Production Assistants; Radio and Television Announcers; Radio and Television Program Directors; Radio Producers; Real-Time Captioners; Reporters; Screenwriters; Sports Broadcasters and Announcers; Stage Production Workers
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Business ■ Background The practice of conducting business is as old as civilization itself. As long as people have been exchanging goods and services for payment of some sort, business transactions have been a part of life. Business was, in fact, one of the factors that led to America’s independence, when the early settlers, who wanted to develop their own businesses and industries, rebelled against England’s economic constraints. Early businesses typically took one of two forms: private ownership or partnership. In a privately owned company, the person who established the business was solely responsible for the services provided, the employment of any workers, and the profits or losses of the business. Most of these early sole proprietorships evolved from a trade or skill the owner possessed. For example, a person skilled in working with iron might open a blacksmith shop, while a person skilled at sewing would open a tailor’s shop. Partnerships were businesses owned jointly by two or more individuals. In these business ventures, the partners usually pooled their resources to open and run a business, sharing in the profits and risks. In some cases, partners might equally split the financial cost of starting a business. In other cases, one partner might provide the funding, or capital, to start the business while another partner provided the idea, the managerial skills, the labor, or other less tangible assets. Partnerships were especially common in family businesses, with two siblings often starting a business together. Often, the younger family members were trained on the job to follow their parents into the business when they were old enough to take over. Corporations, today’s common form of business, were developed in the early Middle Ages as a legal alternative to private businesses or partnerships. What made corporations significantly different from sole proprietorships or partnerships was that a corporation was considered its own entity in the business world independent of its controlling members. The first corporations were religious orders, universities, and town governments. A very important change in the legal structure of businesses took place in England in the 15th century. New limited liability laws were passed, mandating that no individual could be held financially responsible for the debts incurred by a corporation. If a corporation ran into financial trouble, the courts would not pursue the personal earnings of any one member or members of the corporation. The only money that the corporation
founders could lose was the money they used to start and run the company. Between 1600 and the mid-1700s, some corporations took on the added responsibility of maintaining law in territories where they held a monopoly. The East India Company, a British firm in India, and the Hudson’s Bay Company in North America were two such firms that regulated what eventually developed into British colonies. In their applications for incorporation, these companies had to state their goals for the advancement of public welfare. The American concept of business changed dramatically with the American Revolution, however. The newly independent American colonists rejected the idea of business as a government regulator. Even so, most of the new corporations chartered in the early 1800s were involved in public service of some kind, such as construction of water routes, banking, and insurance. Eventually this changed, and commerce and manufacturing firms became the predominant applicants for charter in the United States. With the burgeoning of the industrial revolution in the late 18th century, businesses became more mechanized and more specialized. Earlier companies had typically involved just a few people who together executed all the tasks necessary to manufacture a product or provide a service. As machinery made it possible for businesses to produce more materials faster, businesses expanded in size and scope. More workers were hired to keep up with the increased pace, and as a result, more management personnel were hired to oversee the workers and handle the financial aspects of the company. As they grew, companies began to structure themselves in different ways. Departments were formed to handle very specific aspects of the business: financial, marketing, personnel, etc. This departmentalization of business responsibilities became a significant feature of the modern corporation. A new way of structuring a business emerged in the late 19th century, when the Singer Corporation first allowed individuals to sell its sewing machines in particular regions. Soon afterward, General Motors started selling cars in the same manner, as did Coca-Cola with its soft drinks. This method of doing business is called franchising. Fast-food restaurants soon got into the franchising business. Dairy Queen, one of the oldest fast-food franchises, opened in 1940 and began selling franchises in 1944. During the 1950s, franchising became very prevalent. Among the most well-known franchisers to emerge at that time were McDonalds, Dunkin’ Donuts, and Aamco Transmission. McDonalds was one of the first franchisers to establish guidelines for what the stores
could look like, what products could be sold, and what types of promotions could be run. In this way, the corporation was able to maintain strict control over the quality of the product line, guaranteeing consistency across the country and building brand recognition and loyalty. Originally, most franchises were offshoots of goodsproducing companies, like Singer sewing machines. Eventually, however, franchising spread into many other kinds of industries. Today, the trend is toward serviceindustry franchises, such as real estate offices, law offices, insurance agencies, and cleaning services. Today, the business world is more diverse than ever. In addition to the more traditional ways of structuring companies, factors such as technological improvements, loosening of trade restrictions, and changing demands on the part of employees have created new ways of doing business. One of the most important trends in today’s business is that of doing business remotely, via the Internet. This type of business, called e-commerce, means that businesses can advertise their goods and services, take orders, and receive payment electronically. Businesses conducting e-commerce can often reach a far broader range of clients and customers than they would otherwise, at far less marketing and advertising cost. Many companies have built e-commerce Web sites and are conducting business online in addition to their more traditional methods of doing business. For example, many manufacturers and merchandisers who have traditionally displayed their goods in actual stores or customer showrooms now also maintain Web sites through which customers can order and pay for items. Some companies have even taken e-commerce one step further and have done away with the actual, physical store altogether. These companies, sometimes called virtual companies, operate only via the Internet. These companies save enormous amounts of money by not having to maintain and staff a store. Technological advances, along with changing employee expectations, have contributed to another trend in today’s business world—working at home. There are two subtrends in the movement toward working at home: home-based businesses and telecommuting. Home-based businesses are, essentially, very small organizations that conduct all their business from the owner’s home. Many home-based businesses are one- or two-person operations, although some have more employees. They may be goods-producers or service businesses. Property managers, lawyers, public relations and marketing professionals, cleaning services, artists, sign makers, photographers, and many other business people have opted to run their businesses from home. By taking advantage of modern communications technology, these home-based businesses can
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Working from home has become increasingly popular due to the accessibility of the internet and advances in computer technology. (R. Wright/Corbis.)
market their goods across the country and even internationally by building Web sites, taking orders, and shipping their goods to the appropriate destinations. Telecommuting, another at-home working trend, involves a company’s employees working off-site, in their own homes, rather than at the company’s offices. According to a survey by the International Telework Association and Council, of the 44 million people who worked away from the office in 2004, 54 percent worked from home at least one day per month, and 22 percent worked at home daily or nearly every day. Of those who telecommute from home, 16.5 million are self-employed. A final important trend is the increasingly global nature of business, as numerous firms take advantage of loosened trade restrictions to expand their operations into overseas markets. Many U.S. firms, for example, have targeted new and emerging markets by expanding into Latin America, India, Russia, China, and other countries. Commonly, a U.S. firm maintains its headquarters in the United States, and has satellite offices or branches in various other countries. Corporations that operate in more than one country at a time are called multinational corporations, and they are becoming increasingly common.
■ Structure All businesses can be defined as organizations that provide customers with the goods and services they want. Most businesses attempt to make a profit, that is, to make more money than it takes to run the business. Some businesses, however, attempt only to make enough money to cover their operating expenses. These businesses, which are often social service agencies, hospitals, foundations, or advocacy groups, are called nonprofits or not-for-profits.
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Words to Know Annual meeting: A corporation’s yearly management meeting, usually held after the end of its fiscal year. Members of the board of directors are usually elected during this meeting. Assets: The holdings of a business, including land, buildings, inventory, machinery or equipment, investments, cash, and money owed (accounts receivable). Capital investment: Money that a business invests in itself for growth purposes. Capital investments can include new buildings, vehicles, equipment, etc. Consumer goods: Products, like food and clothing, that satisfy human needs and wants. Debt-to-worth ratio: A company’s total liabilities divided by its net worth. Entrepreneur: A person who organizes, manages, and assumes the risk of a business venture with the expectation of gaining a profit. Fiscal: Referring to money matters. Free-market economy: An economy, like the United States’, where wages and prices are primarily determined by competition instead of by the government. Incorporate: To form or become a corporation. Labor market: Availability and demand for employees for a specific geographic area. Liabilities: Whatever a business owes, including accounts payable, mortgages or other loans, and taxes. Liquidate: To sell out completely. Net worth: The total book value of a business, minus the value of its liabilities. Operating expenses: All the costs associated with running a business, including payroll, equipment, and materials. Primary market: The initial target market for a product. Profit and loss statement: Financial report that summarizes the revenues and expenses and shows the net profit or loss in a specified accounting period (also called an income statement). Secondary offering: An offering by a company’s shareholders to sell their stock to the public. In a secondary offering, the proceeds go to the shareholders, not the company.
There are three main types of businesses in the U.S. economy: manufacturers, merchandisers, and service providers. Manufacturers produce products of all kinds. From skateboards to limousines, from paper plates to soda, from shoelaces to designer suits, virtually everything around you comes from a manufacturer of some sort. Many manufacturers make only small parts, rather
than complete, finished products. These manufacturers, often called suppliers, provide their parts to larger manufacturing firms, who use them to construct finished products. For example, an airplane manufacturer purchases the parts needed to make an airplane from a number of other manufacturers, who specialize in making those parts. Merchandisers are businesses that help move products through a channel of distribution to the consumer or end-user. There are two types of merchandisers: retailers and wholesalers. Wholesalers purchase goods from manufacturers and then sell them to buyers, who then resell them to consumers. Retailers are the businesses that actually sell the goods directly to the consumer. Grocery stores, office supply stores, and mall stores are all examples of retailers. The third main type of business is the service provider. Service providers are businesses that do not sell an actual product but rather perform a service for a fee. Common examples of service providers are banks, restaurants, dry cleaners, hotels, and hairstylists. Many U.S. businesses are defined as small businesses, businesses with fewer than 500 employees. According to statistics from the U.S. Small Business Administration, there are approximately 24 million small businesses in the United States. These businesses employ 50 percent of the private workforce and pay more than 44 percent of the total U.S. private payroll. Small businesses are usually started by an individual or group of individuals with an idea for a product or a talent or expertise in a certain area. Typically, these entrepreneurs fund a new business partly with their own savings. They may also get a small business loan from a financial institution, such as a bank or a venture capital group. Venture capital groups are investment groups who invest in new or growing businesses that show promise. Many of these small businesses are privately owned, which means that an individual or a small group of individuals own and operate the entire company, and are solely responsible for making its decisions. Other companies, especially larger ones, are publicly owned. Publicly owned companies are owned not by one or a few individuals, but by hundreds or thousands of individuals called shareholders. Each shareholder in a public company owns a part, or share, of that company. The amount of the company each shareholder owns is determined by how many shares of the company’s stock he or she owns. Each shareholder gets to cast votes on certain company decisions in proportion to how many shares of stock he or she owns. Publicly held companies are governed by an elected board of directors, who have the power to hire or fire the top-level management of the company. The
board of directors has the responsibility of overseeing the company’s operations and its performance in the marketplace. Frequently, small privately owned companies become publicly owned companies. For this to happen, the company’s owners decide to sell off part of their ownership to interested buyers in an initial public offering, or IPO. In an IPO, buyers purchase shares of the company’s stock. Shares of publicly held companies are bought and sold on the stock market. The increase or decrease in price of a company’s shares of stock is very important to a company’s value. Although this is primarily a look at how business as a whole is structured, it is important to realize that there are certain structures in place within each individual business as well. There is a wide variety of corporate structures, but almost every successful company’s structure contains four main components: production, marketing, finance, and human resources. Production includes the conceptualizing, designing, and creating of products and services. Depending upon the size of the company and the type of product or service it produces, production subcategories might include a research and development department, which develops and tests new products; and a quality control department, which monitors products or services for consistency and quality. Production also includes the actual workers and equipment used to produce the product. For example, the factories and factory workers who make automobiles are a part of production. The second of the four components is marketing. Marketing is the process of distributing and promoting the company’s product to the right people at the right time. For example, a company’s marketing department might determine which magazine advertisements or television commercial time slots would best reach a particular product’s target consumer group. Marketing departments may develop marketing campaigns designed to catch consumers’ attention and interest, like Dairy Management’s “Got Milk?” and Nike’s “Just Do It” campaigns. A company’s marketing department is supported by advertising, public relations, and sales personnel. The finance department of a company handles the management of money. Financial decisions, such as when to acquire new property, when to borrow capital, and when to raise or lower prices, are typically the responsibility of top-level management. In privately owned companies, the owners often oversee the finances. In larger, publicly held companies, a highly trained finance professional or staff may handle financial decisions. Human resources management is the branch of a company that deals with employees. Recruiting, hiring,
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training, evaluating, disciplining, administering benefits packages, and firing employees are all activities that fall into this category. Many smaller companies do not have a specific department to handle human resources. Almost all larger companies do, however.
■ Outlook Because it is such a broad category, it is difficult to project growth for business as a whole. It is entirely possible, and even common, for one industry to suffer slow growth or decline while another industry thrives. There are certain trends, however, that affect business as a whole. Almost all businesses are affected by changes in the economy. When the economy is thriving, consumers have more money to spend, which means that they buy more products and services. When the economy suffers a downturn, however, virtually all businesses suffer along with it, as consumers cut back on spending. During economically unsound periods, many companies lay off or terminate employees in order to stay afloat. The economy is currently experiencing one of these unsound periods. During the early 2000s, there were a number of layoffs and mergers in Internet businesses, airlines and travel, retail, and computer and electronics industries. It remains to be seen what long-term effect the terrorist activity and ensuing military action will have on U.S. business. In addition, rising inflation, especially of oil and energy costs, together with recent declines in the housing market suggest a continued risk of an economic decline. Most businesses are being cautious and conservative in spending, hiring, and expansion. Another trend that will affect many, if not most, businesses is that of increased use of technology. As every industry becomes more automated, workers who have technological skills become ever more important, and technology-related industries will continue to be an area of rapid expansion. It is becoming increasingly difficult
History Lesson The U.S. stock market, where shares of publicly owned companies are frantically bought and sold each day, began in 1792. In May of that year, a group of businessmen met on a narrow street in New York City named Wall Street. These businessmen wanted to start an organization to help investors buy and sell stock certificates. They established a number of rules about how these certificates would be traded, deciding to charge customers a small fee for arranging the purchase or sale of their stocks. These businessmen were the forefathers of today’s stockbrokers.
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this country for significantly less money than American workers would be paid. This trend has especially affected workers in manufacturing, but increasingly affects those in other businesses as well.
■ For More Information For information on educational programs and career resources, contact American Business Women’s Association 9100 Ward Parkway PO Box 8728 Kansas City, MO 64114-0728 Tel: 800-228-0007 Email:
[email protected] http://www.abwahq.org
Contact the IFA to receive the Franchise Opportunities Guide, or visit the association’s Web sites to view the online version. International Franchise Association (IFA)
With considerable experience, consultants may serve as freelance and temporary experts for a variety of businesses and industries. (Mathew Hohmann.)
for workers in almost every position to survive in the modern business world without basic computer literacy. In addition, as computers continue to cut down on human work, some jobs may be eliminated or combined to reduce costs. Technology will continue to influence the way business is done in other ways as well. There is likely to be a continuation of the increased use of the Internet as a buying-and-selling medium. Telecommuting and entrepreneurial home-based businesses, too, are expected to continue to increase due to technological advances and the ease of communication between computers. Recent years have seen some changes in the corporate structure, which may continue. In the last decade, many companies have cut positions in an effort to reduce costs and enhance organizational efficiency. Called downsizing, this trend has the largest effect on middle-management workers, but also creates increased workloads for remaining employees who must take on the duties and responsibilities that were previously handled by workers whose jobs have been eliminated. Another troubling trend for U.S. workers is the practice of outsourcing jobs to other countries, as technology, globalization, and political influence allow corporations to employ workers outside
1350 New York Avenue, NW, Suite 900 Washington, DC 20005-4709 Tel: 202-628-8000 Email:
[email protected] http://www.franchise.org
Junior Achievement is a nonprofit organization that teaches young people about business, free enterprise, and the workforce. Junior Achievement One Education Way Colorado Springs, CO 80906-4477 Tel: 719-540-8000 http://www.ja.org
Visit the SBA Web site for small business statistics and other relevant information. U.S. Small Business Administration (SBA) 409 Third Street, SW Washington, DC 20416-3212 Tel: 800-827-5722 http://www.sbaonline.sba.gov
The Entrepreneurs’ Organization (EO) is a nonprofit educational organization for entrepreneurs. Contact EO for information on educational and networking opportunities. Entrepreneurs’ Organization (EO) 500 Montgomery Street, Suite 500 Alexandria, VA 22314-1565 Tel: 703-519-6700 Email:
[email protected] http://www.eonetwork.org
chemicals
To explore a variety of business career areas as well as other business information, visit the following Web site. Careers in Business http://www.careers-in-business.com
■ Related Articles Computers; Entrepreneurs; Human Resources; Accountants and Auditors; Billing Clerks; Bookkeeping and Accounting Clerks; Business Managers; Buyers; Chief Information Officers; Collection Workers; Cost Estimators; Cultural Advisers; Customer Service Representatives; Data Entry Clerks; Economists; Event Planners; Executive Recruiters; Forensic Accountants and Auditors; Internet Consultants; Internet Executives; Internet Store Managers and Entrepreneurs; Internet Transaction Specialists; Labor Union Business Agents; Management Analysts and Consultants; Office Administrators; Office Clerks; Public Relations Specialists; Purchasing Agents; Receptionists; Secretaries; Statisticians; Stenographers; Temporary Workers; Typists and Word Processors; Webmasters
Chemicals ■ Background Modern chemistry can trace its birth to the large-scale production of alkalis and alkaline salts of potassium and sodium in the late 1700s. These compounds were used to make soap, glass, and textile bleaches, and they were therefore in tremendous demand. The crude, inefficient procedures by which they were made could not satisfy their ever-increasing use. In 1789, Nicolas Leblanc, a French surgeon, invented a synthetic process for converting common salt into soda ash, using sulfuric acid, limestone, and charcoal. Leblanc’s method led to great advances in industrial processing. English industrialists spent much time, money, and effort to improve his manufacturing process, leading to large-scale production and increased industrial use. In 1872, the chemical industry was revolutionized by the introduction of the more efficient, less costly Solvay process for making alkalis, which replaced the Leblanc process. Continuing developments and manufacturing improvements found new ways to economically produce ammonia, sodium hydroxide, chlorine, and other industrial chemicals in large quantities. During World War I, the British blockades prevented valuable chemicals produced only in Germany from reaching America. This provided the impetus for the development of the organic chemical industry in the United States. The U.S. government assured the uninter-
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Words to Know Academia: The academic world of colleges and universities. Alkali: A hydroxide compound that is very soluble in water and produces a high concentration of hydroxyl ions in solution. Biotechnology: Use of data and techniques of engineering and technology to study problems concerning living organisms. Capital-intensive: Business or plan that requires a large investment of money. Catalysis: Speeding up a chemical reaction by addition of a substance that does not undergo a permanent chemical change. Categorizing: Classifying. Earth-friendly: Material that does not harm the earth by its presence. Electrochemistry: The science that deals with the use of electrical energy to bring about a chemical reaction. Forensic chemistry: The science concerned with the relation between chemistry and the law. Hydrocarbon: A compound containing only hydrogen and carbon, such as benzene and methane. Octane number: A number representing the antiknock properties of a gasoline: the higher the number, the greater the antiknock properties. Pesticide: Any chemical used for killing insects, weeds, or other harmful living things. Petrochemical: A chemical derived from petroleum or natural gas. Plastic: A nonmetallic compound, synthetically produced, that can be molded into various forms for commercial use. Polymer: A naturally occurring or synthetic substance consisting of giant molecules formed by adding smaller molecules to each other. Pyrolysis: Chemical decomposition of a substance by heat. Synthetic: Produced by chemical reaction rather than being of natural origin. Toxicologist: A scientist who studies poisons, their effects, and their antidotes.
rupted services of its chemists and chemical engineers by deferring them from military service to help create materials necessary for the war effort. Different branches of America’s chemical industry began cooperating instead of competing. This cooperation led to the construction of ammonia plants to produce explosives and fertilizers. The importance of rubber in warfare was determined in World War I. The Germans, who had been cut
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off from foreign rubber sources by the British blockade, ran out of tires for their trucks and rubber boots for their troops. In an effort to circumvent this situation, the German chemical industry tried to make synthetic rubber. However, it could never produce enough to satisfy its needs. In 1941, when Japan attacked Pearl Harbor, America suddenly found itself in the same position as the Germans had 27 years before. However, with government assistance, the U.S. chemical industry was able to make enough synthetic rubber to satisfy American war needs. Nylon, discovered by Wallace Carothers at DuPont in 1927, reached the market in 1939. It was initially used for women’s hosiery, dresses, and undergarments. With the onset of war, nylon was manufactured solely for parachutes. Another petrochemical, polyethylene, was in great demand for insulation in radar and other electrical equipment. New developments in catalysis in 1940 enabled the American petroleum industry to produce ultrahigh octane gasoline for tanks and aircraft and toluene for TNT manufacture. From 1945 to 1980, the chemical industry enjoyed substantial growth. But the early 1980s witnessed the most severe decline in world sales since the Great Depression of the 1930s. Although companies had developed new, more efficient production methods, skyrocketing petroleum prices greatly reduced world demand for basic
It Was an Accident! In 1856, William Perkin, an English chemistry student, came home from university on holiday. Being that he came from a wealthy family, he had his own private laboratory and even an assistant. One day without really understanding what he was doing, he mixed aniline (a coal tar derivative) with potassium dichromate (a powerful oxidizing agent). The reaction became so violent that it scared Perkin and his assistant. They quickly threw the flask with its frothing substance into the sink and began to wash it down the drain. Some of the liquid splashed onto a piece of white cloth on the table top and stained it a beautiful pale purple. Realizing that there was something of value in this mixture, Perkin saved what he could and experimented with it. He found that the liquid had extraordinary dyeing properties, and he called its tint mauve. Thus began the synthetic dye industry, which expanded far beyond the manufacture of mauve. This dye gave its name to a whole era of English history, the Mauve Period. Not only did this experiment give Perkin an indelible place in the history of chemistry, but it also made him a very wealthy man.
chemicals. In order to compete more effectively, many chemical firms spent heavily on expansion and research and development. Though these maneuvers were somewhat successful, foreign competition has continued to restrict sales. Despite the fact that U.S. industry is still dominant, its share of the global market has diminished. Our leading status is partially due to our vast domestic sources of coal, sulfur, phosphate rock, petroleum, forests, croplands, and water. Important problems still confront our chemical industries: the development of alternate sources of energy, elimination of environmental pollution, and improvement of the safety of existing chemical products.
■ Structure Most of the over 50,000 chemical products manufactured by the chemical and allied industries are used by other industries to make jet fuels, food additives, paints, detergents, and perfumes. The range of products is so wide that no one method of categorizing them exists. A simple division can be made by classifying them as organic or inorganic chemicals. The chemical industry is a loose confederation of eight separate branches: agriculture, detergents, nitrogen compounds, paints, paper and textiles, petrochemicals, pharmaceuticals, and plastics. The agricultural chemicals industry produces fertilizers and pesticides. The nitrogen compounds necessary for fertilizers are also essential for the manufacture of explosives such as nitroglycerine and TNT. Products made by these industries are also used to produce fireworks, adhesives, and inks. The pharmaceutical industry is involved in the production of drugs. Petrochemicals employees represent about 30 percent of the chemical workforce. The petrochemical industry is currently growing very rapidly and accounts for the largest number of new chemicals. The pulp, paper, and textile industries are huge consumers of chlorine and chlorine compounds used as bleaching agents. The plastics industry makes containers, sheeting, films, fibers, fabrics, piping, automobile parts, tires, hoses, and wearing apparel from polymers like nylon, Dacron, and vinyls. The detergent industry produces soaps, detergents, special cleaning preparations, ammonia, bleaches, floor waxes, shoe polishes, cosmetics, deodorants, and perfumes. The paints and allied products industry makes paints, varnishes, lacquers, enamels, putties, paint removers, sealers, and stains. The paints and coatings sector usually remains fairly stable and is often used as an indicator of the overall economy.
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The divisions of the chemical industry differ in the occupational makeup of their workforce. Industries that make finished products ready for sale to the final consumer, such as paint and cosmetics, hire more administrative, marketing, and managerial personnel. A greater number of production workers are employed by industries that sell their products primarily to industrial consumers. The chemical industry is highly capital-intensive and has factories in practically every state. California, Illinois, New Jersey, New York, Ohio, Pennsylvania, South Carolina, Tennessee, and Texas have the most plants.
■ Outlook Due to plant automation and more efficient production methods, job opportunities for production workers, who made up almost 43 percent of the total chemical industry workforce in 2004, are expected to decline, despite a projected growth in output. The U.S. Department of Labor predicts that the chemical manufacturing industry will decline by 14 percent through 2014. For those in the specialty occupations, including chemical engineers and chemical technicians, the employment outlook will be slightly better as the chemical manufacturing industry continues to research and develop new chemicals and streamline production processes for existing products. Employment for chemists will grow more slowly than the average for all occupations through 2014. Chemists who have at least a master’s degree will be in the strongest demand. Opportunities for all workers will be best in pharmaceuticals and biotechnology and in research, development, and testing firms. Opportunities in academia may not be as strong as overall employment declines in the chemical industry create less demand for teachers in chemical-related disciplines. Many openings that do arise will be for part-time or non–tenure track positions. One area of strong growth is expected to be forensic chemistry, especially DNA analysis. According to the American Chemical Society (ACS), experts predict that more than 10,000 new forensic scientists will be needed over the next decade to work in private laboratories and government agencies. There is also a need for chemists to do crime-scene investigation and analysis of evidence. Companies that provide environmental services and earth-friendly products should do well. Environmental concerns will also continue to compel the chemical industry to devote resources to comply with governmental regulations. Therefore, occupations related to compliance, improvement of product visibility, and promotion of consumer confidence should grow. International competitiveness will also be important.
This chemicals worker is checking pipes at a chemical plant. (Mitch Kezar, Tony Stone Images.)
Other trends include a continued emphasis on research and development. In order to stay competitive and differentiate their products, companies will continue to produce specialty chemicals, such as advanced polymers and plastics, which are designed for specific uses. This should increase employment of chemists in research-oriented positions. A focus on new manufacturing processes will also continue and should represent opportunities for chemical engineers. The market shift to specialty chemicals and increasing competition will create more marketing and sales positions as companies strive for product visibility and an increasing market niche. In general, opportunities in the chemical industry continue to be best for those with advanced degrees.
■ For More Information For career and industry information, contact American Association of Textile Chemists and Colorists PO Box 12215 Research Triangle Park, NC 27709-2215
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Tel: 919-549-8141 http://www.aatcc.org
For information on careers, mentoring, and scholarships, as well as a list of schools, contact American Chemical Society 1155 16th Street, NW Washington, DC 20036-4801 Tel: 800-227-5558 Email:
[email protected] http://www.chemistry.org
For information on careers as well as a list of schools, contact American Institute of Chemical Engineers 3 Park Avenue New York, NY 10016-5991 Tel: 212-591-7338 http://www.aiche.org
For information on careers in the fragrance industry, contact Fragrance Foundation 145 East 32nd Street New York, NY 10016-6002 Tel: 212-725-2755 Email:
[email protected] http://www.fragrance.org
For information about the history of soaps and detergents, contact this organization or visit its Web site. Soap and Detergent Association 1500 K Street, NW, Suite 300 Washington, DC 20005-1209 Tel: 202-347-2900 Email :
[email protected] http://www.sdahq.org
For fun and educational information on the field of chemistry, check out the following Web site: Rader’s Chem4Kids http://www.chem4kids.com
■ Related Articles Manufacturing; Pharmaceuticals; Plastics; Stone, Concrete, Ceramics, and Glass; Air Quality Engineers; Asbestos Abatement Technicians; Biochemists; Chemical Engineers; Chemical Technicians; Chemists; Environmental Technicians; Industrial Chemicals Workers; Laboratory Testing Technicians; Nuclear Medicine Technologists; Paper Processing Workers; Petroleum Engineers; Petroleum Technicians; Plastics Engineers; Plastics Technicians; Quality Control Engineers and Technicians; Toxicologists
Computer Hardware ■ Background The computer industry has dramatically changed since the early 1800s when Charles Babbage conceived the basic parts of the modern computer. The Babbage model, known as the analytical engine, was composed of gears and levers and was the size of a desk calculator. Early computers, using vacuum tubes to store program concepts, were considered first-generation computers. The computer hardware industry took off with the arrival of the second-generation computers in the mid 1950s. Using components run by the newly invented transistor, these new computers were smaller, faster, more reliable, and easier to use. No more resetting switches or changing circuit boards! By the mid 1960s, third-generation computers were being built. The industry now had the capability of building smaller transistors grouped together to form integrated circuits (ICs). Many ICs were based on a small piece of silicon, called a chip. The technology developed in the following years allowed ICs to be smaller, faster, and more powerful. The microprocessor—thousands of ICs bundled onto a single chip—was invented in 1971. This ushered in the fourth generation of computers, which are still in use today. By the 1980s, competition among the industry giants, such as IBM, Apple, and Packard Bell, resulted in lower prices. Computers were now affordable for small businesses, as well as for home use. Computers are getting smaller, yet becoming faster and more powerful in their capabilities. Computer hardware professionals are constantly experimenting, designing, and building smaller, stronger microchips and microcomputers to meet the demand. Products such as laptop computers, notebooks, handheld digital computers, and consumer products such as toys and appliances are tremendously popular. Their success has prompted computer companies to invest heavily in their design and development departments to produce the next high-tech item. The computer hardware industry also includes the manufacturing of peripherals such as modems, monitors, scanners, and just about anything you can attach to your computer. The popularity of computers, whether used for business, school, or personal entertainment, remains strong. This success hinges, in part, on the work of the computer hardware field where talented and driven individuals are needed to design, build, analyze, and serve the market.
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■ Structure Computers have proven to be an almost indispensable tool for business, as well as for home use. Their powerful growth has created a wealth of jobs for both the hardware and software sides of the industry. Job titles and descriptions are constantly evolving in this field, the result of rapidly changing technology and industry demands. However, the main professional occupations in the computer hardware industry are computer scientists, computer engineers, systems analysts, and support workers; all can be further divided into specific specialties. Each group is involved in the design, manufacturing, and implementation of computer hardware systems, as well as computers and their components and peripherals. Here’s how they all fit together. Computer scientists design computers, develop new information technologies, and find new applications for computers. They are employed by the academic professions to program computer languages, research new computer theories, and develop new hardware. Computer scientists may also work for private industries developing languages or tools, creating new systems, or designing computer games. In general, computer scientists are regarded as possessing a higher level of computer theory and expertise than computer engineers and systems analysts. Computer engineers design, build, and test computer hardware, such as computer chips and circuit boards, as well as computer systems and software. They also work with peripheral devices, such as printers, scanners, modems, and monitors. There are many different types of computer engineers. Development engineers staff the research and development departments of computer firms. Their purpose is to come up with new product ideas, their functions, and applications. In some companies, systems analysts may also play a part in the design process. Systems analysts plan and develop new products or revamp existing technology and systems to meet the specific demands of a business or organization, compared to engineers who may not have a target market, or client, in mind. Many times, systems analysts oversee the entire production process from start to finish. They are employed by a variety of companies specializing in business, accounting, science, or engineering, among others; most analysts have a bachelor’s degree in computer science. As part of the design process, system analysts, design engineers, or a team of both, design each component, then assemble and test each new product. They evaluate effectiveness, cost, and reliability, among other factors, before pursuing the project. Computer-aided design (CAD) programs automate three-dimensional designs
A technician works on a circuit board in need of repair. (William Taufic/Corbis.)
that engineers can manipulate when experimenting with different drafts of a potential product. Once the product design is completed and approved, computer production engineers supervise the manufacturing of the hardware product. They evaluate the manufacturing process, or the equipment used, to make production more efficient and cost effective. Production engineers and their staff implement any necessary changes. Quality assurance engineers monitor the production process to make sure the hardware product is made properly and flawlessly. The new, or improved, hardware product is now ready for use. Computer sales representatives sell computers and related hardware and peripherals to businesses or individual customers for home use. System setup specialists are often needed by businesses to install new computer systems or evaluate and upgrade existing ones. They also offer technical support and training to computer users. Computer service technicians test, repair, maintain, and install computer equipment. Technical writers are important to the computer hardware industry because they create a bridge between computer companies and the ultimate end users of the product, the customers. Technical writers produce user manuals, installation guides, and tutorials in a concise format that is easy for nonspecialists to understand and follow. Besides simplifying technical
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Words to Know Bug: An error, such as a design flaw, in software or hardware. Bus: An electrical conductor that serves as a common pathway for electrical signals for several components in a computer. CAD (computer-aided design): The use of a computer in designing a product. Its principal application is in mechanical engineering. CPU (central processing unit): The part of a computer that carries out the instructions of a program. Debug: To remove the bugs, or defects, from programs or equipment during the initial testing of products. Hardware: The physical components of a computer system. They typically include the motherboard, disk drives, display, keyboard, and the CPU. Motherboard or system board: The main printed circuit board in a microcomputer. It contains various integrated circuits (including the microprocessor and RAM chips) and slots (receptacles) for expansion cards. Peripheral: An auxiliary device (such as a modem, monitor, or disk drive) that is connected to a computer. Port: An external electrical connector used for attaching a peripheral to a computer. Software: A term for computer programs, as opposed to computer equipment. Originally the term referred to the programs, programming aids, and the documentation associated with programs.
language and coding, technical writers also test documentation against the actual product. Computer support specialists, also called help desk technicians, are employed by companies or organizations to provide assistance and support for computer hardware users, as well as software and system users.
■ Outlook Although the U.S. Department of Labor predicts an overall decline of 7 percent in employment opportunities in the computer and electronic product manufacturing industry, employment opportunities for some positions are still largely good, especially among professional and related occupations. The Department of Labor predicts that three of the 10 fastest growing jobs from 2004 to 2014 will be computer-related. The computer hardware industry is boosted by several key factors. The Internet continues to provide faster ways to obtain more information, attracting many new
computer users. New computer peripherals, such as personal digital assistants (PDAs), use advanced microchip technology that requires the work of qualified computer professionals. Computer networking is expanding into all fields of business, creating opportunities for systems analysts. The power of semiconductors, integrated circuits in particular, is important outside of the computer industry. These electronic components give power to aircraft navigational systems as well as electronic consumer goods, such as cellular phones, toys, and refrigerators. Also, computer professionals who can translate technolingo into layperson’s terms (for example, technical writers and computer support specialists) will be in high demand. However, though many opportunities within the industry exist, expect competition for these jobs to stay fierce. A degree in computer science or electrical engineering is a prerequisite for most companies, though nonscience degree holders may be considered if they have ample computer training or practical experience along with various computer courses. Management opportunities favor those with advanced degrees in computer science, computer engineering, management information systems (MIS), or an MBA. Certification is also becoming more important in this industry, as employers seek to hire the best-educated and most qualified candidates from a growing pool of applicants. Along with having strong programming and analytical skills, successful industry workers should be excellent communicators and quick thinkers. They should also have good business sense. In the past, industry giants were located only in California’s Silicon Valley or the San Francisco Bay area. Up-and-coming computer hardware companies are now established throughout the United States in states including Texas, North Carolina, South Dakota, and Idaho. Major computer hardware companies include IBM, Hewlett-Packard, Toshiba, Intel, and Dell. Though the computer hardware industry is not immune to economic volatility or changes in profit margins, qualified computer workers with advanced education and certification will always be needed.
■ For More Information Contact ACM for information on internships, student membership, and the ACM student magazine Crossroads. Association for Computing Machinery (ACM) 1515 Broadway, 17th Floor New York, NY 10036-5701 Tel: 212-869-7440 Email:
[email protected] http://www.acm.org
Computers
For information on technical careers, scholarships, and Computer magazine, contact IEEE Computer Society 1730 Massachusetts Avenue, NW Washington, DC 20036-1992 Tel: 202-371-0101 http://www.computer.org
For certification information, contact Institute for Certification of Computing Professionals 2350 East Devon Avenue, Suite 115 Des Plaines, IL 60018-4610 Tel: 800-843-8227 Email:
[email protected] http://www.iccp.org
For employment information and online career sites for computer professionals, contact Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers 1828 L Street, NW, Suite 1202 Washington, DC 20036-5104 Tel: 800-701-4333 Email:
[email protected] http://www.ieee.org
For certification information as an analyst, contact Quality Assurance Institute 2101 Park Center Drive, Suite 200 Orlando, FL 32835-7614 Tel: 407-363-1111 http://www.qaiworldwide.org
For information on careers and internships in technical writing, contact Society for Technical Communication 901 North Stuart Street, Suite 904 Arlington, VA 22203-1822 Tel: 703-522-4114 Email:
[email protected] http://www.stc.org
■ Related Articles Computers; Computer Software; Electronics; The Internet; Computer-Aided Design Drafters and Technicians; Computer and Electronics Sales Representatives; Computer and Office Machine Service Technicians; Computer Network Administrators; Computer Programmers; Computer Systems Programmer/Analysts; Computer Trainers; Data Entry Clerks; Database Specialists; Data Processing Technicians; Desktop Publishing Specialists; Graphic Designers; Graphics Programmers; Hardware
Engineers; Information Brokers; Internet Developers; Internet Security Specialists; Microelectronics Technicians; Quality Assurance Testers; Semiconductor Technicians; Software Designers; Software Engineers; Systems Setup Specialists; Technical Support Specialists; Technical Writers and Editors; Webmasters
Computers ■ Background Computers can be divided into three broad categories, by operation and industry sector: hardware, software, and the Internet. Hardware refers to the physical equipment of a computer, such as motherboards, memory chips, and microprocessors. Software includes the programs that tell the hardware exactly what to do and how to do it. The Internet is composed of numerous global networks that are connected to each other. Developed in Asia and widely used during the Middle Ages, the abacus can be considered the origin of modern computing devices. An abacus, composed of strings and beads representing numerical values, can be used for arithmetic. Today, Japanese children still learn to work on an abacus before being introduced to electronic calculators. French philosopher Blaise Pascal invented the world’s first digital calculator in the 17th century. His machine was based on a system of rotating drums controlled with a ratchet linkage. He originally intended it for use in his father’s tax office, but the principles behind it are still used in modern automobile odometers. In honor of his early contributions to computer technology, the programming language Pascal was named after him in the 1970s. A German philosopher and mathematician, Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibnitz, later improved Pascal’s design, making a handheld version similar to a handheld calculator. It never became available commercially, however. The first significant automated data-processing techniques were applied to making fabric patterns, not calculating numbers. French weaver Joseph-Marie Jacquard introduced a punch-card weaving system at the 1801 World’s Fair. His system was straightforward enough; the punched cards controlled the pattern applied to the cloth as it was woven. The introduction of these looms caused riots against the replacement of people by machines. After proposing in 1822 that it might be possible to compute table entries using a steam engine, Charles Babbage had second thoughts about his idea and went on
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to design the analytical engine that had the basic components of the modern computer in 1833. This earned him the title of father of the computer. He was aided greatly by the daughter of famous poet Lord Byron, Ada Augusta King, Countess of Lovelace, who is recognized as the world’s first programmer. In 1890, U.S. inventor and statistician Herman Hollerith put the punched card system to use for the 1890 census. He discovered that perforated cards could be read electrically by machines. Each perforation could stand for some important piece of information that the machine could sort and manipulate. Hollerith founded Calculating-Tabulating-Recording Company in 1914, which eventually was renamed International Business Machines (IBM) in 1924. IBM is still a computer industry leader today. In the mid-1940s, punched cards were also used on the Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator (ENIAC) at the University of Pennsylvania. ENIAC’s inventors developed the world’s first all-electronic, general-purpose computer for the U.S. Army. This computer was enormous and relied on over 18,000 vacuum tubes. In 1949, they introduced the Binary Automatic Computer (BINAC), which used magnetic tape, and then developed the Universal Automatic Computer (UNIVAC I) for the U.S. census. The latter was the first digital computer to handle both numerical data and alphabetical information quickly and efficiently. In 1954, IBM built the first commercial computer, the 650 EDPM, which was programmed by symbolic notation.
ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator) was the first large electronic digital computer, completed at the University of Pennsylvania in 1946. It used vacuum tubes in place of electromechanical parts. (University of Pennsylvania.)
By the late 1950s, the transistor, invented 10 years earlier, had made the second generation of computers possible. Transistors replaced the bulky vacuum tubes and were lighter, smaller, sturdier, and more efficient. The integrated circuits of the late 1960s introduced the solid-state technology that allowed transistors, diodes, and resistors to be carried on tiny silicon chips. These advances further reduced operating costs and increased speed, capacity, and accuracy. Minicomputers, much smaller than mainframes (large-scale computers) but of comparable power, were developed shortly afterward. The next important advances included large-scale integration and microprocessing chips. Microchips made even smaller computers possible and reduced costs while increasing capacity. The speed with which a computer processed, calculated, retrieved, and stored data improved significantly. Decreased costs allowed manufacturers to explore new markets. In the mid-1970s, Steve Wozniak and Steve Jobs started Apple out of their garage. Their vision was to bring computers into every home in America and even the world. Toward that end, they developed a user-friendly computer offered at a reasonable price. User-friendliness was essential, since many people without computer skills would have to adapt to the computer system. The development of their eventual product, the Macintosh computer, was the first to give on-screen instructions in everyday language and successfully use a graphical interface. In addition, Apple introduced the mouse, which allows users to point and click on screen icons to enter commands instead of typing them in one by one. IBM and manufacturers who copied their designs were quick to enter the personal computer (PC) market once they recognized the tremendous sales potential. The result was a friendly debate among computer users over which are better—Macs or PCs? Regardless of personal preference, the two incompatible systems often led to problems when people tried to share information across formats. Software designers have since developed ways to make file conversions easier and software more interchangeable. One major trend of the last decade has been the downsizing of computer systems, replacing big mainframe computers with client-server architecture, or networking. Networks allow users greater computing flexibility and increased access to an ever-increasing amount of data. The second major trend of the last decade has been the rapid growth of the Internet and World Wide Web. Initially developed for the U.S. Department of Defense, the Internet is composed of numerous networks connected to each other around the world. Not surprisingly, this massive network has revolutionized information
sharing. It is used for real-time video conferencing, electronic mail services, online research, help lines, and longdistance telephone calls. The World Wide Web usually refers to the body of information that is available for retrieval online, while the Internet generally refers to the back-end network system plus its various services. Hardware companies are continually striving to make faster and better microprocessors and memory chips. Intel and Motorola have been the innovators in microprocessor design, striving for faster and more efficient processors. Such innovations allow computer manufacturers to make smaller, lighter, and quicker computers, laptops, and handheld models. As processors get faster and memory increases, computers can process more sophisticated and complicated software programming. Advances in hardware technology have led directly to advances in software applications. As the developer of Windows, Microsoft has been the leader in the software industry. Windows is a userfriendly, visual-based operating system. (An operating system is the interface between the user, the programs stored on the hardware, and the hardware itself.) Disk operating system (DOS) is one of the early operating systems, and while still used, it requires more computer knowledge than other operating systems. The Windows and Mac systems allow users to point and click on icons and menus with a mouse to tell the computer what to do, instead of having to type in specific commands by hand, as DOS requires.
■ Structure This article covers the hardware and software branches of the computer industry (For additional information, see the articles “Computer Hardware” and “Computer Software”.) For more information on the Internet, see the article “The Internet.” Many different types of companies hire computer professionals. Computer manufacturers and software companies hire the whole range of professionals. Many of these employers are clustered in certain geographical areas, like northern California, Seattle, and parts of the East Coast. Living in an area with many potential employers increases the likelihood of being hired (or rehired) by an employer relatively quickly. Computer companies range from huge market leaders to small start-ups. In addition, there are thousands of small- to medium-sized companies that create specialized products, such as software to be used specifically to run corporate human resource departments. Large corporations are major employers of computer professionals as well. Many maintain information systems (IS) or information technology (IT) departments, which
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hire people for the many different positions previously described. The number of in-house information systems departments has grown with the increased usage of computers in the workplace. Almost all companies, including banks, insurance companies, consumer products firms, and government agencies, have IS or IT departments. Other employers of computer professionals are consulting firms, such as Deloitte and Ernst & Young. They hire college graduates with majors in computer science to help them integrate the latest technology into their clients’ business. Most of these jobs are headquartered in large cities and require a lot of travel.
Hardware Hardware firms produce every piece of equipment used to build a computer system. This includes the equipment inside a computer, such as memory chips, microprocessors, network cards, and motherboards. It also includes the equipment mostly found outside the computer, called peripheral hardware, such as keyboards, monitors, printers, fax modems, scanners, digital cameras, Zip drives, and CD-ROMs. Internal hardware makes the difference between a slow, hard-to-use computer and cutting-edge technology. Memory chips store data and programs, while processors follow program instructions to manipulate the data in a desired manner. For example, when a secretary uses a word processor to type letters, the microprocessor transforms the keyboard input into electrical impulses that are stored on the memory chips. Many companies specialize in improving the speed, accuracy, and overall quality of these devices. Secondary storage devices, such as floppy disks, Zip disks, portable memory devices such as flash drives and recordable CD and DVD drives, are used to store information and transfer it physically to another computer location. Another type of storage is the hard drive, which is generally installed inside the computer. Hard drives hold a tremendous amount of information. External hard drives are also available to increase computer storage space. Input devices are another type of hardware and include keyboards, scanners, and video cameras. Scanners read printed material (such as photographs) and convert it into electrical impulses to be stored in the computer. Then, systems operators can change them in any way desired. They can also use them to prepare formal presentations in different media, including 35mm color slides, videotape, or computer presentations. Output devices, such as a monitor, allow users to access and change data and information. Some television manufacturers specialize in making monitors with
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Words to Know Babbage, Charles: Known as the father of computers. Browser: User-friendly software that makes Internet searches quicker and more efficient. DOS: Disk operating system; the interface between the user, the programs stored on hardware, and the hardware itself. GUI: Graphical user interface. Hardware: The physical equipment of the computer, such as motherboards, memory chips, and microprocessors. Internet: A worldwide system of computer networks connected to each other. Intranet: A restricted Internet, available only to the members of a group, such as a club or business corporation. Input devices: Hardware such as keyboards, scanners, and video cameras. Mainframe: A large, main computer that handles data, programs, and software required for extensive procedures. Programming language: The form of instructions used to run computer programs; common languages include BASIC, COBOL, FORTRAN, and C++. Software: Programs that tell the hardware what to do and how to do it. Storage device: Device such as a CD-ROM, DVD-ROM, floppy disk, magnetic tape, or Zip drive that stores computer files outside of the computer. UNIVAC I: The first digital computer to handle both numerical and alphabetical information quickly and efficiently. World Wide Web: The collection of information available for retrieval from the Internet.
higher resolution and better graphics capabilities so that more complex applications can be run and displayed successfully on the systems. Another output device is a printer. Dot matrix printers of the early 1980s soon gave way to ink jet printers, bubble jet printers, and laser printers. Color printers have become as common as the black-and-white printers. Communications devices, such as modems, enable computers to connect to other systems via cables or telephone lines. The modem allows the transfer of information between computers. Wireless broadband has recently been developed in response to the strong demand for fast access to data on the Internet. This technology allows connection to the Internet via a groundbased antenna system or via satellite signal. A modem or wireless broadband technology is necessary for users to access the World Wide Web and online services like
America Online and others. Internet service providers provide users with access to the Web through dial-up phone lines, or increasingly high-speed services through DSL or cable connections.
Software Programming is a vital part of the computer industry. Without detailed, precise programs, computers would be useless since they only do exactly what they are told to do. Several programs are necessary to make computers operate properly. Systems programmers write instructions for how hardware pieces should function with one another. This task includes configuring printers, hard drives, and memory chips. Programmers must be proficient in several programming languages and are greatly aided by commercial prepackaged programs. The software industry is unique within the business world in that very little overhead (equipment, office space, or personnel) is needed to get started. When an individual or group of individuals comes up with a good idea for new software and can convince financial backers to invest in their idea, a start-up is born. Many start-ups have tried to make a name for themselves with innovative and creative software applications. Often, these companies are so small and have such limited resources that they operate out of garages or basements. Industry leaders, such as Microsoft, Apple, and Google, all came from such humble beginnings. However, many start-ups never make it and go bankrupt. It is a good idea for individuals interested in working in software to be flexible and keep their technical knowledge up to date. In this way, if a company folds, programmers and designers can more easily find other employment. Most software companies approach software design in a similar fashion. First they identify a client or consumer need, such as organizing home finances. This process can last many months, depending on the intended user and the company. If a mass-market product is being considered, companies must evaluate many different factors, including the specifications of average in-home computers, competitive products already on the market, costs of development and customer service, and potential market for the product. When the decision is made to go ahead with the application, programmers write the code. (In the past, writing code for a major project could take months. Today, new technologies have eliminated the need for some routine programming work.) Each subsection of the program is tested and retested and then usually tested many times again. Just imagine the amount of coding required by a word processing program; features like the spell check, dictionary, and thesaurus alone could constitute millions of lines of commands.
There is much more to the computer business than research and development, however. Many people are employed by computer companies to market and advertise their products to the right people. Sales representatives must be trained, promotional brochures must be developed, and price schedules must be determined. Within the hardware and software branches of the computer industry, there are a number of different types of jobs. Many positions overlap and not every company hires people in each functional area. These basic areas are design, programming, administration, service, and sales.
Design For our purposes, designers include researchers who evaluate the market or existing technology to find windows of opportunity for improvements or new product design. Researchers have considerable freedom to explore uncharted areas of computer technology. Often, their ideas are not implemented for years to come until the market catches up to the theory. Designers usually work on a project that has already been defined in some way. For example, an accounting department might request a special system to improve its operations. A software designer is assigned to handle that problem. Generally, designers use their knowledge of hardware and software to design a computer system and set of applications that will solve a business or scientific problem. More specifically, designers can specialize in databases, networks, or software applications. Computers, whatever their function, are based on the principles and processes of mathematics. The design process remains similar regardless of position. The problem is defined, equipment is analyzed and upgraded if need be, software is customized, and new programming fills any gaps.
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Administration Computer administrators are in charge of daily operations of different kinds of computer systems. The most common areas of specialization are database, network, systems, security, and quality assurance. Administrators are responsible for a variety of tasks. They help install new systems and train new users. They also address user problems as they arise. For example, a user might not be able to gain access to certain files on a network server. The administrator verifies first that the user is inputting the correct password and following the right procedure. If the problem is not due to user error, the administrator checks the security files, making sure the user is granted access. Administrators are also involved with backing up the system regularly. They also ensure good systems communications. If a network server goes down, for example, a network administrator attempts to isolate the cause of the problem and fix it. If it is too complicated, the administrator must call in higher-level systems people.
Service Computer service is another broad category of careers in the computer industry. Systems set-up specialists, technical support specialists, and computer repairers are included in this group. Systems set-up specialists install new hardware and software either at the client site or in a service center. Large installations at major corporations can take days or even weeks to properly install. Set up work requires solid knowledge in the basics of computer technology as well as strong manual dexterity skills. Sometimes systems are
Programming Programming is much more detail oriented and less abstract than design analysis. It can involve hardware, software, or both. In any case, programmers write the coded instructions that make computers do what we want them to do. Systems programmers write the instructions that make different computers and peripherals perform well together. Software programmers write instructions for how computers should respond to various input and what on-screen displays should be generated. Programmers are required to know at least one, but usually more, computer programming language, including BASIC, COBOL, FORTRAN, and C++. Computer programming languages change as the capacities of computers expand, so programmers must continually update their skills.
A custom computer goes through the assembly line at Dell. (Corbis.)
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Computer Fun Facts The IEEE Computer Society has many interesting facts about computers on its Web sites. Did you know that ■ Grace Murray Hopper, while working on the Mark II computer at Harvard, found the first computer bug, which was a real bug that had been crushed in the jaws of a relay switch. She glued it to the logbook of the computer and thereafter when the machine stopped, told people they were debugging the computer. The very first bug still exists in the National Museum of American History of the Smithsonian Institution. ■
In the movie, 2001: A Space Odyssey, Arthur C. Clark introduced HAL, the computer of the future and based it on the artificial intelligence proposals of I. J. Good and Marvin Minsky. Supposedly, HAL was the monosyllabic cipher of IBM.
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Less than four months after IBM introduced the personal computer in 1982, Time magazine named the computer its man of the year. Never before had an inanimate object been chosen for that honor.
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Ada Augusta King, Countess of Lovelace and the daughter of Romantic poet Lord Byron, translated a pamphlet on Charles Babbage’s analytical engine. She added her own notes, as well as working closely with Babbage himself. She became recognized as the world’s first computer programmer.
so complicated that specialists are called to help plan the layout of the computer room, both of the multitude of wires and the physical equipment. Technical support specialists can also specialize in either hardware or software. They work in large corporations or for computer companies that offer technical support to end users. For example, a large bank probably has a technical support person on staff in the information systems department. This individual is responsible for helping users when they encounter problems as well as fixing problems with the machines when they break down or crash. Technical support specialists who work for a computer manufacturer may answer phone calls from frustrated users who cannot get their computers or applications to run properly. These specialists talk consumers through the problems and attempt to solve them over the phone. Computer repairers are called in when the hardware breaks down physically. Transistors can blow, for example, or motherboards or other internal hardware can be defective from the start. Computer repairers analyze the
hardware, determine the cause of the problem, and fix it by repairing the equipment or replacing certain parts with new ones.
Sales The computer industry would not exist without a sales force. Computer sales representatives work for computer manufacturers or retail stores. They are very knowledgeable about the wide range of products on the market and must be good at persuading consumers that their company’s product is better. Their work requires technical expertise as well as strong interpersonal communication skills.
■ Outlook Employment for many computer professionals, such as software engineers, systems administrators, computer systems analysts, and database administrators, is expected to increase much faster than average through 2014 as technology becomes more sophisticated and organizations continue to adopt and integrate these technologies, making job openings plentiful. Additionally, faster-thanaverage growth is predicted for computer support specialists and network administrators. Falling prices of computer hardware and software should continue to encourage more businesses to expand computerized operations and integrate new technologies. To maintain a competitive edge and operate more cost-effectively, firms will continue to demand computer professionals who are knowledgeable about the latest technologies and can apply them to the needs of businesses. As for the Internet, the expanding integration of Internet technologies has resulted in a rising demand for a variety of skilled professionals who can develop and support Internet, Intranet, and World Wide Web applications. Growth in these areas is expected to create strong demand for computer scientists, engineers, and systems analysts who are knowledgeable about networks, data, and communications security. Employment opportunities in the computer industry are numerous and varied. Flexibility is key because as the industry shifts into new, unexplored areas, computer professionals have to shift as well. In addition, many computer professionals use certain jobs as springboards to other higher-level jobs. For example, few professionals want to work in technical support long term, but many start there to get a foot in the company’s door in order to be first in line for any internal positions that open up. According to the U.S. Department of Labor, employment of programmers is predicted to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations through 2014. Advanced software capable of writing basic code has
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eliminated some jobs, and other programming jobs are at risk of being outsourced to other countries. Employment of computer equipment operators is expected to decline, since advances in automation continue to increase, reducing the need for such workers. Three things are essential to aspiring computer professionals: determination to keep up with the latest technology, flexibility, and formal education. Of course, a solid understanding of computer basics is required as well. However, the technology of today will be obsolete in months, if not weeks, and only those individuals who strive to be on the cutting edge will have long-term growth potential during their careers.
cians; Computer and Video Game Designers; Computer Network Administrators; Computer Programmers; Computer Support Service Owners; Computer Systems Programmer/Analysts; Computer Trainers; Database Specialists; Data Entry Clerks; Data Processing Technicians; Desktop Publishing Specialists; Electrical and Electronics Engineers; Graphic Designers; Graphics Programmers; Hardware Engineers; Information Brokers; Internet Consultants; Internet Developers; Internet Security Specialists; Microelectronics Technicians; Quality Assurance Testers; Semiconductor Technicians; Software Designers; Software Engineers; Systems Setup Specialists; Technical Support Specialists; Technical Writers and Editors; Webmasters
■ For More Information For information on internships, student membership, and the ACM student magazine Crossroads, contact Association for Computing Machinery (ACM) 1515 Broadway, 17th Floor New York, NY 10036-5701 Tel: 800-342-6626 Email:
[email protected] http://www.acm.org
For information on scholarships, student membership, and the student newsletter looking.forward, contact IEEE Computer Society 1730 Massachusetts Avenue, NW Washington, DC 20036-1992 Tel: 202-371-0101 http://www.computer.org
For information about the IT industry, contact Information Technology Association of America 1401 Wilson Boulevard, Suite 1100 Arlington, VA 22209-2325 Tel: 703-522-5055 http://www.itaa.org
For certification information, contact Institute for Certification of Computing Professionals 2350 East Devon Avenue, Suite 115 Des Plaines, IL 60018-4610 Tel: 800-843-8227 http://www.iccp.org
■ Related Articles Computer Hardware; Computer Software; Electronics; The Internet; Computer-Aided Design Drafters and Technicians; Computer and Electronics Sales Representatives; Computer and Office Machine Service Techni-
Computer Software ■ Background The software industry comprises many facets: personal computer (PC) applications; operating systems for both stand-alone and networked systems; management tools for networks; enterprise software that enables efficient management of large corporations’ production, sales, and information systems; software applications and operating systems for mainframe computers; and customized software for specific industry management. Packaged software is written for mass distribution, rather than for the specific needs of a particular user. Broad categories of packaged applications include operating systems, utilities, applications, and programming languages. Operating systems control the basic functions of a computer or network. Utilities perform support functions such as backup or virus protection. Programming software is used to develop the sets of instructions that build all other types of software. The software most familiar to the majority of computer users is application software. This includes the familiar word processing, spreadsheets, and email packages used in business; games and reference software used at home; and subject, or skill-based, software used in schools. Although software has always been an important part of computer history, the software market did not really take off until the advent of the personal computer. IBM debuted its personal computer in 1981. Osborne released the first portable computer that same year. Apple came out with the first graphical user interface (GUI) and mouse, which set the standard for future computers, according to Cass Brewer (“Computer History,” Web Guide Monthly, September 1998). The GUI made computers much easier
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Words to Know ASCII: American Standard Code for Information Interchange. Debugging: The process of testing, making appropriate changes, and rechecking software before it is released. GUI: Graphical user interface. Hacker: Person who breaks into the resources of corporate computer systems. Hub: A central location for the attachment of wires from workstations on the network. Hubs receive signals from one station and retransmit them to another. IS: Information services departments within corporations. IT: Information technology. LAN: Local area network that connects two or more communication devices within a localized geographical area. Network interface card: An expansion card installed in a PC to provide an interface between a LAN and the PC. Network operating system: Software that enables PCs attached to a LAN to communicate with the server and other PCs on that network. Network server: An intelligent device on a LAN that runs network operating software and provides various services to the intelligent devices on the network. Rollout: The release of a software package or upgrade. Router: A networking device that manages protocoldependent LAN-to-LAN internetworking traffic. Switch: A networking device that receives incoming packets, stores them temporarily to examine link-layer information, and then decides whether the packet needs to be forwarded, and if so, to which port. Wireless LAN: Local area network that uses radio waves instead of cables to connect to a user device.
for the average person to use. “Software was used mainly by ‘power users,’” says David Berner, a systems analyst for Baxter International. “But with the GUI, nontechnical people could also use computers easily.” That user friendliness propelled computers to become the devices that have revolutionized the way we do business and, in reality, the way we live. “In 1983,” according to the IEEE Computer Society, “software development exploded with the introduction of the PC. Standard applications included not only spreadsheets and word processors, but graphics packages and communications systems.” Needless to say, the software industry has boomed since then. The worldwide packaged software industry for all platforms was worth about $220 billion in 2005. Of this,
the United States is estimated to hold an approximately 50 percent share of the market. U.S. software companies lead the world in development and production of original, effective, and efficient products for businesses, homes, and schools.
■ Structure The field of computer software can be divided into three environments: corporate information services (IS) departments, software vendors, and consultants. People in corporate IS departments usually work on the implementation and support of software and hardware products for companies that produce nontechnical items or services. People who work with software vendor companies focus on creating products for sale. Consultants are independent contractors who are hired by corporations to help implement new software packages.
IT Departments Information technology (sometimes known as information services) departments support the information-systems needs of corporations. They analyze a company’s technological needs, then explore what kinds of software products are already available for implementation. Some customization of the software might be necessary, so information technology (IT) employees might develop or add various programs. There are several software-related positions within IT departments. Programmers write, test, and maintain software. They write specific programs by breaking down each step into a logical series of instructions that the computer can follow. Programmers then code these instructions in a conventional programming language, such as C or FORTRAN; an artificial intelligence language, such as Prolog; or one of the more advanced, function-oriented or object-oriented languages, such as Java, C++, or Smalltalk. Programmers usually know more than one programming language and must often learn new ones as they are released. They update, repair, modify, and expand existing programs. Programmers also test programs by running them several times to ensure that the instructions in the user manuals are correct and that they produce the desired information. If an error occurs, programmers make the appropriate changes and recheck the programs until they run smoothly. This process is called debugging. Database/data warehouse administrators work with database management systems software, from coordinating changes to testing and implementing databases. They are responsible for design implementation and coordinating security measures. Systems analysts use their knowledge and skills to solve computer problems and enable the technology to meet
the individual needs of an organization. They have a multidimensional vocation that requires a range of technical, managerial, and creative skills. Systems analysts study business, scientific, or engineering data-processing problems and design new solutions. This process can include planning and developing new computer systems, or devising ways to apply existing systems’ resources to additional operations. They also might design entirely new systems, including hardware and software, or add one software application to harness more of the computer’s power. The ideal systems analyst has a balance of programming and analysis skills. Directors and managers of IT and client/server computing are responsible for overall software application development and support. They analyze and select products as well as supervise the budgets and contract negotiations. IT managers also handle some project-management duties. Systems programmers and Unix administrators install, maintain, upgrade, and support the operating systems and software products. They mainly work with the software systems and do not have a lot of interaction with users. Directors of technical services and technical support managers are responsible for the implementation and support of software products. They work closely with vendors and other departments to ensure software reliability. Network engineers deal with LAN and WAN support and PC/LAN connectivity. They have lots of interaction with users and troubleshoot network conditions. This job also includes designing networks and analyzing products. Intermediate engineers maintain and support network issues. Junior engineers usually provide help desk support and configure the company’s PCs. Directors of network services handle all of the network communications responsibilities. Computer operators run jobs, change tapes and disks, and monitor equipment. Operations supervisors are responsible for data center hardware implementation and its overall support. Computer operations managers, supervisors, and directors of computer operations also work with vendors to maintain the overall system reliability and hardware configuration planning, as well as managing support staffs. Chief information officers or vice presidents are responsible for the overall operations of the department, including budgets. Chief information officers spend a lot of time negotiating vendor contracts, and building teams of specialists to carry out their strategic plans.
Software Vendors Software vendors develop and sell software products (sometimes coupled with hardware). To remain compet-
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itive, software companies must keep up with emerging technologies. There are several steps to complete before introducing a new software package or upgrade. These steps include conceptualization, design, alpha prototype creation, beta testing, and rollout (or release). While this can be very stimulating work, there can be downsides. Many times, it is necessary to work extra hours to meet deadlines. On the other hand, it can be very exciting when you are in the thick of things, working toward creating the best product on the market. There are two types of jobs within vendor companies: technical and functional. Technical people, such as programmers and systems architects, actually make the concept work. Functional people deal with the aesthetics and userfriendliness of the software. These positions include design analysts, testers, and quality-assurance technicians. Other functional positions are project managers and trainers. Vice presidents or directors of development are in charge of other software engineering managers or technical support departments. In small companies, vice presidents of
A cross-sectional view of a machine part produced with computeraided design (CAD) software. CAD reduces the time and effort needed to design products and can provide data that will allow computer-controlled machine tools to manufacture them. (International Business Machines.)
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engineering might also be designers. In large companies, they might have 100 people reporting to them. Managers of research and development are in charge of developing, maintaining, and supporting all of the projects in their areas. Software designers, sometimes known as software architects or software engineers, are the most purely technical people in the industry. They are responsible for creating the company’s new products. Occasionally, they lead teams of engineers. Sometimes they receive royalties for the products they develop. A good software designer can make or break a company. Software engineers maintain existing code, develop new enhancements to older products, and write custom interfaces with other projects. These professionals also possess strong programming skills, but are more concerned with analyzing and solving programming problems than simply with code. Software engineers sometimes mentor junior- and intermediate-level developers. Before the product is shipped or made available to the general public, it must be tested to ensure it performs all of the functions that are documented in the user manual. If there is a problem with a particular code, testers or quality-assurance people collaborate with the development team to get it resolved. Vice presidents of sales and marketing and directors of sales support are responsible for sales, customer support, and product planning, usually for one region of the country. Individuals who hold these positions have usually started out in technical development and moved up into the various levels of sales and marketing. They travel frequently in order to foster customer relationships with the company. The sales staff has system engineers to help support them, especially during sales presentations. They also are responsible for customization of the software at the customer’s site, installation, and upgrades. Project managers oversee the implementation of their clients’ systems according to their specific requirements. This includes assembling resources to develop the application as well as to prepare and stabilize the system. Project managers supervise these resources and oversee the necessary contracts. They also prepare the documentation required for the project, including a detailed plan that contains all of the tasks necessary to complete the project and the resources assigned to those tasks, as well as daily meeting logs and weekly status reports. Customer support specialists provide assistance and advice to users. They interpret problems and provide technical support for hardware, software, and systems. Directors of product planning report the strategic direction of the company to the outside world. They plan trade shows and advertising and analyze the competition’s products, pricing, and packaging. Directors of
data center operations support the computer systems of software developers and other departments within the vendor company.
Consulting A growing number of software professionals are employed on a temporary (or contract) basis. Many are self-employed and work independently as consultants. For example, a company that is installing a new computer system might need the services of several systems analysts just to get the system running. Because not all of them would be needed once the system is functioning, the company might contract directly with systems analysts, temporary-help agencies, or consulting firms. Such jobs can last from several months to more than two years. This growing practice enables companies to bring in people who have the exact skills they need to complete particular projects rather than having to spend time or money training and retraining existing workers. Often, experienced consultants then train the company’s inhouse staff as a project develops.
■ Outlook While overall growth in this industry has slowed, the U.S. Department of Labor predicts that three of the 10 fastestgrowing jobs through 2014 will be computer related. In addition, thousands of job openings will result annually from the need to replace workers who move into managerial positions or leave the labor force. Keeping current with new or upgraded products is extremely important for software professionals. “You have to keep up to date on all of the new technology. This industry changes so quickly, that if you do not, you will be out of a job,” notes systems analyst David Berner. “I recently interviewed someone who only knew some of the older computer languages. We did not hire him, and it will be tough for him to find a job.”
■ For More Information For information on scholarships, student membership, and the student newsletter looking.forward, contact IEEE Computer Society 1730 Massachusetts Avenue, NW Washington, DC 20036-1992 Tel: 202-371-0101 http://www.computer.org
For certification information, contact Institute for Certification of Computing Professionals 2350 East Devon Avenue, Suite 115 Des Plaines, IL 60018
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Tel: 800-843-8227 http://www.iccp.org
For more information on careers in computer software, contact Software & Information Industry Association 1090 Vermont Avenue, NW, Sixth Floor Washington, DC 20005 Tel: 202-289-7442 http://www.siia.net
To read an online version of this popular computer industry magazine, visit Computerworld http://www.computerworld.com
■ Related Articles Computer Hardware; Computers; Electronics; The Internet; Computer and Electronics Sales Representatives; Computer-Aided Design Drafters and Technicians; Computer and Office Machine Service Technicians; Computer Network Administrators; Computer Programmers; Computer and Electronics Sales Representatives; Computer Systems Programmer/Analysts; Computer Trainers; Database Specialists; Data Entry Clerks; Data Processing Technicians; Desktop Publishing Specialists; Graphic Designers; Graphics Programmers; Hardware Engineers; Information Brokers; Internet Developers; Internet Security Specialists; Microelectronics Technicians; Quality Assurance Testers; Semiconductor Technicians; Software Designers; Software Engineers; Systems Setup Specialists; Technical Support Specialists; Technical Writers and Editors; Webmasters
Construction ■ Background Construction is an industry field that includes the erection, maintenance, and repair of buildings and other immobile structures, and the building of roads and service facilities that become integral parts of structures and are essential to their use. Construction includes structural additions and alterations but excludes the building of mobile structures such as trailers and ships. Most of the earliest buildings have not survived to this century because they were made of nonpermanent materials. However, some structures that were made of stone and baked brick have survived. The 3,000-year-old
Egyptian pyramids are assembled from mammoth stone blocks; the 2,500-year-old Mayan temples in Guatemala are handcarved stone. As builders began to understand the physics of a building, they were able to modify the structure to stand taller, have wider and more open rooms, and have windows to allow in light. Pillars allowed more open windows and wider rooms. Arches and vaults allowed buildings to have higher roofs. Two thousand years ago, the Romans developed a mix for concrete that was extremely strong and long lasting. In fact, today there are innumerable Roman structures still standing and some that are still used. The Romans built international roads, laying stones down for thousands of miles, to facilitate the movement of troops. They built aqueducts to move water hundreds of miles. They developed the first pipelines to move wine and olive oil from the villages to the shore where the products would be loaded on boats. For the next 1,500 years, buildings and roads improved with new understandings of physics and new mixes of concretes and cements. The buildings remained brick, stone, concrete, wood, or other natural products. It was not until 1796, with the first iron-frame building in England, that the next major breakthrough in building design occurred. Cast-iron pillars allowed architects and builders a chance to construct buildings higher than 10 stories. By the turn of the century, buildings were being constructed that were 14 and 15 stories high. These were the first skyscrapers. The new mechanical elevator allowed people to use floors too high to climb to by stairs. Metal as a building material changed bridges, buildings, tunnels; almost every structure was affected in design. Bridges could be designed to span across much larger waterways. Buildings eventually reached more than 100 stories. Tunnels could cross miles under rivers, even under the English Channel. Today, the construction industry is still testing new materials and new methods of building with metals and synthetic products. Lighter, stronger materials allow the construction of larger, more open structures with less support. These new products are designed to withstand natural disasters, such as earthquakes and hurricanes. The other major shift in the construction industry is the movement away from building new structures and toward repairing, expanding, and maintaining old structures. Almost 50 percent of construction work in the United States is in renovation and repair. As cities become saturated with buildings, renovation and restructuring will become the most common part of the building trades. Also, as the U.S. road and bridge system ages, repairs are needed to keep the vast transportation network in a usable condition.
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Did You Know? The largest building in the world by volume is in the United States. It is a one-story airplane plant at Everett, Washington. Its footprint covers 98.3 acres and encloses an area of more than 472 million cubic feet. In this enormous space, Boeing 747, 767, and 777 jet airliners are built. Source: http://www.boeing.com
■ Structure The construction industry is one of the largest industries in the United States. According to the U.S. Department of Labor, it employed 7 million wage and salary workers in 2004. There were approximately 818,000 construction companies in the United States in 2004. Approximately 62 percent of these companies were specialty trade contractors, 30 percent were building construction contractors; and 7 percent were heavy and civil engineering construction or highway contractors. More than 65 percent of construction companies employ fewer than five people. Construction is a detailed and complex industry, dealing with all aspects of building a structure, whether it’s a skyscraper or a highway. This includes clearing sites and developing structures. Construction also covers service equipment that, when installed, becomes an integral part of the structure, such as plumbing, heating, central air-conditioning, electrical wiring, lighting equipment, elevators, and escalators. In general, the first step in construction involves bidding for a project. It is not true that the contractor who bids the lowest price is always awarded the contract. Bids are judged on several points: experience of the contractor, designs submitted for the project, proposed time schedule, recommendations from previous customers, and cost. The winning contractor then hires subcontractors to perform selected projects, such as laying the foundation, fireproofing the structure, and installing the ventilation system. After all of the tasks have been coordinated with the subcontractors, the structure is ready to be built. Construction takes many forms, and its products vary widely in size, appearance, composition, character, and purpose. These products are divided into major groups or categories according to their principal characteristics, and each of these is further divided into subcategories. The categories apply to new construction as well as repair and renovation work. The largest single category of construction is residential building construction, which includes structures ranging from small homes to huge housing develop-
ments, and usually amounts to about one-third of the total annual dollar volume. Another major category is nonresidential building construction, or general building construction. It includes industrial buildings, such as plants and factories; commercial structures ranging from small stores to great skyscrapers; and institutional and other kinds of nonresidential structures, such as schools, churches, and hospitals. Highway and heavy construction is another principal category. Highway work embraces not only networks of interstate highways, but also bridges, local roads, and streets. Airport runway construction is largely done by highway contractors, since runways and highways involve much of the same methods, materials, machines, and skills. Typical heavy projects include dams, big bridges, tunnels, railroads, missile bases, refineries, and waterways such as the Panama Canal, the St. Lawrence Seaway, and river channels. Similar equipment and construction methods are employed for highway and heavy construction. Earthmoving, for example, may be done for a highway project or for an earth-fill dam. Finally, municipal utilities construction encompasses the essential services for counties, towns, and cities. Such projects include sewage treatment plants, water purification projects, water and sewer lines, underground utilities, street resurfacing, park and playground construction, as well as sidewalk construction and maintenance. Construction activity is divided into two broad classifications: private and public. Private construction is construction work performed for private owners, whether individuals, corporations, or other business firms, organizations, or institutions of a nongovernmental character. It is usually paid for out of private funds. Public construction is construction work performed for federal, state, or local agencies of government and usually paid for out of tax money, bonds, or other public funds. However, the governing distinction between private and public construction is the ownership of the project at the time of construction and not the source of funds used to pay for the project. For most of the trades involved in construction, the workers do not start at the beginning of the building process and work until the building is complete. Workers come in for the portion of the job that involves them and then move on to other projects. So, an electrician comes in to wire a house and then moves on to another construction site. He or she may have to come back to do more electrical work, but it is not essential to have an electrician at a job site every day. Because workers come and go, it is important to have a project supervisor, or job foreman, who knows all the phases of the work being done.
■ Outlook Construction accounts for approximately one-tenth of the U.S. annual gross national product. Physical facilities built by the construction industry include homes, stores and buildings, mills and factories, highways and streets, bridges, railroads, airports, wharves and docks, pipelines, tunnels, dams, power plants, irrigation projects, public works, and defense installations. Whether it is the life savings of one family buying a home or the investments of a corporation to finance the erection of a skyscraper, it all adds up to a substantial yearly increase in national investment. The nation’s banks, insurance companies, pension plans, and other financial institutions have a big stake in construction, for they finance most of it. In the 21st century the nation will be forced to make major repairs to its infrastructure—highways, tunnels, bridges, dams, schools, power plants, water and sewer systems, subways, and airports—which will generate the need for all kinds of people employed in highway and heavy construction work. In addition to the increased numbers of projects, the construction projects themselves will grow in both size and complexity. New laws setting higher standards for building and construction materials, worker safety, energy efficiency, and pollution control will need to be addressed by skilled professionals with expertise in construction science, engineering, and management. Residential construction should continue to grow, although the demand for remodeling and repair work is likely to be stronger than the demand for new housing. The remodeling trend will also take place in nonresidential construction as aging industrial plants, schools, hospitals, and other large buildings need alteration, expansion, and repair. Employment growth is expected in highway, bridge, and street construction, as well as in repairs to prevent further deterioration of highways and bridges. Employment of construction managers, who oversee projects and ensure that laws are upheld, is expected to grow as fast as the average through 2014. Managers with a bachelor’s degree in construction science and work experience with a construction management services firm should have plenty of job opportunities. Job growth also will occur in most of the skilled construction trades, especially for electricians. They will be needed in greater numbers not only to replace old wiring in existing facilities but to keep pace with the continuing growth in telecommunications and computer equipment now used in many new structures, including, for example, electronically operated “smart” buildings.
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Employment of tile and marble setters, construction and building inspectors, and heating, air-conditioning mechanics and installers should grow faster than the industry average. Employment of carpet installers, construction laborers, floor sanders and finishers, insulation workers, paperhangers, plasters and stucco masons, and tapers is expected to grow more slowly than the construction industry as a whole because of the development of new materials and equipment that increases productivity with less labor. All these factors point to a steady expansion of the market for construction services. Although further technological improvements in construction methods and equipment is expected to raise the productivity of workers, the volume of activity will require substantial numbers of craftworkers in the various building trades, mostly as replacements for those who retire or leave the labor force for other reasons. Although prospects look promising, the construction industry is very sensitive to fluctuations in the national economy. These fluctuations usually affect part-time and seasonal workers and lower-skilled workers the most. Skilled, artistic tradespeople are almost always in demand, even during economic downturns.
Words to Know Environmental impact statement: A report, often required by the Environmental Protection Agency, prepared to determine how proposed construction will affect the environment, including wildlife and natural resources. Feasibility study: A report prepared by cost estimators to determine whether proposed construction is economically viable. General contractor: The person or firm entrusted by the site owner with overall responsibility for building construction; see also Subcontractor. Geographic information systems (GIS): A combination of digital computer technology and mapmaking techniques that stores data in the form of a map instead of a list. Photogrammetric surveying: The process of taking reliable measurements from photographs, usually aerial photographs. Quantity surveying: The process of financially managing proposed construction by evaluating and advising on economic, legal, and scheduling concerns. Subcontractor: The person or firm entrusted by the general contractor with responsibility for one particular aspect of building construction, such as roofing or plumbing work.
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Email:
[email protected] http://www.csinet.org
For information on training and job listings, contact Home Builders Institute 1201 15th Street, NW Washington, DC 20005-2800 Tel: 800-795-7955 http://www.hbi.org
For industry information, contact National Association of Home Builders 1201 15th Street, NW Washington, DC 20005-2800 Tel: 800-368-5242 http://www.nahb.org
For information on apprenticeship training programs for construction industry workers, visit Employment & Training Administration U.S. Department of Labor http://www.doleta.gov
■ Related Articles Construction sites can be dangerous places to work, so safety regulations must be followed at all times. (Matthew Hohmann.)
■ For More Information For information on training programs and accreditation, contact American Council for Construction Education 1717 North Loop 1604 East, Suite 320 San Antonio, TX 78232-1570 Tel: 210-495-6161 Email:
[email protected] http://www.acce-hq.org
Machining and Machinery; Architects; Asbestos Abatement Technicians; Bricklayers and Stonemasons; Carpenters; Cement Masons; Civil Engineering Technicians; Civil Engineers; Construction Inspectors; Construction Laborers; Cost Estimators; Drafters; Drywall Installers and Finishers; Electricians; Elevator Installers and Repairers; Floor Covering Installers; Glaziers; Heating and Cooling Technicians; Ironworkers; Landscape Architects; Lathers; Marble Setters, Tile Setters, and Terrazzo Workers; Operating Engineers; Painters and Paperhangers; Plasterers; Plumbers and Pipefitters; Roofers; Sheet Metal Workers; Stationary Engineers; Surveying and Mapping Technicians; Surveyors; Welders; Welding Technicians
For information on careers and training, contact Associated General Contractors of America 2300 Wilson, VA 22201-5424 Tel: 703-548-3118 Email:
[email protected] http://www.agc.org
Cosmetology ■ Background
For information on college student membership, scholarships, certification, and education programs, contact Construction Specifications Institute 99 Canal Center Plaza, Suite 300 Alexandria, VA 22314-1559 Tel: 800-689-2900
From a new summer hairdo to a milk and honey facial, from a leg waxing to an eyebrow plucking, cosmetologists provide a wide range of beauty and health services. Back when a shave and a haircut were two bits, men spent their lunch hours relaxing in hydraulic barber chairs for hot, aromatic shaves. Meanwhile, women got
their hair done in beauty salons, while also indulging in occasional manicures and facials. This attention to skin care and hair care is no longer regarded as an indulgence; as a matter of fact, some doctors are beginning to prescribe spa treatments for their patients. The cosmetology industry is at the forefront of new attitudes regarding mind/body awareness, relaxation techniques, nutrition, and spirituality. Now, men and women frequent the same salons, paying the same kind of attention to their hairstyles and appearance. Spas, which were considered the domain of rich old women for most of the 20th century, have become vacation spots of choice for men and women, young and old. And cosmetology, because of its stability, growth potential, and financial security, has been highly ranked in recent career surveys by Money, Women’s World, and the U.S. Department of Labor. Cosmetologists work in many different settings; they may rent a chair in a local hair styling salon or bodywrap spa guests at a tropical resort. “Day spas” are cropping up across the country, opening up jobs for cosmetologists with experience in massage, facials, nail care, and hydrotherapy. To compete, hair and nail salons are expanding to include additional rooms for face and body treatments. Fitness centers are also expanding their lines of service and are hiring massage therapists and spa attendants. New treatments, like aromatherapy, and new products, like herb-based, chemical-free cosmetics, require the industry to constantly change, adapting to trends and attitudes. But cosmetologists aren’t limited to the spa and beauty salon. A variety of jobs are available at the fringe of the cosmetology industry. Cosmetologists work in films, at recreational parks, cosmetology schools, funeral homes, and health clubs. The earliest beauty salons were in the caves of prehistoric humans who decorated their bodies with the pigments they used to paint the cave walls. Ancient Egyptians also painted their bodies, but paid the most attention to decorating the eyes. This eye treatment was both for beauty and health—the dark paint protected their eyes from insects and the harsh sunlight. Egyptians also dyed their skin and hair with henna, a practice that eventually caught on in Rome and even regained popularity here at the end of the 20th century. In ancient India and medieval Europe, hair and body decoration was practiced only by the upper classes and by royalty. Throughout history, everything from beet juice to lethal white lead has been used to decorate the skin and hair. By the 1700s, the men and women of Europe wore stark white face powder, powdered wigs, and bright red lip rouge. Makeup was toned down by the Victorian age; a more reserved attention to cosmetics was then stimulated by
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early twentieth-century advertising. Advertising is still a very important part of the cosmetology industry. Magazines, TV, and other media promote glamour, beauty, and fashion trends.
■ Structure The hair salon is the most well-known icon of the cosmetology industry. Salons can range from a space in a stylist’s home to a small storefront operation to a large multi-station facility with separate rooms for shampooing, cutting, coloring, perming, makeup, massage, and other services. Cosmetologists who have finished training and have received a state license to practice usually start in entry-level positions in salons. These positions might include floor sweeping, shampooing clients’ hair, making appointments, ordering supplies, and other tasks. Gradually, new cosmetologists take on more responsibilities and have more direct client contact, starting with simple cuts and styling. With more on-the-job experience while building a client base, they do more complicated cuts and styles, perms, and hair coloring. Another popular alternative for cosmetologists is selfemployment. Some work as freelance hair and makeup designers who work with photographers, modeling agencies, film production companies, theaters, or television studios. Some open their own salons or rent a station in an established salon. Because so many cosmetologists seek self-employment, there is a great deal of mobility within the industry. According to a 1999 survey (the most recent information available) conducted by the National Accrediting Commission of Cosmetology Arts and Sciences (NACCAS), one out of every three salon employees changed jobs in the last year. Approximately 25 percent of those who left salon establishments went into business for themselves, either as salon owners or booth renters.
Access to Cosmetology Education More than $3 million in scholarships is available through Access to Cosmetology Education (ACE) Grants. Sponsored by three major beauty industry associations (the American Association of Cosmetology Schools, the Cosmetology Advancement Foundation, and the Beauty and Barber Supply Institute), ACE Grants are the first industry-wide effort to encourage motivated and qualified individuals to join the world of cosmetology. To find out how to apply for an ACE Grant, call 1-888-411-4726.
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There are a number of specialties within cosmetology. In hair styling alone, cosmetologists can specialize in cuts, color, or perms. They may also become makeup artists, nail technicians, electrologists, image consultants, or developers and marketers of beauty products. According to the Occupational Outlook Handbook, there were 670,000 barbers, hairstylists and cosmetologists, 60,000 manicurists and pedicurists, 30,000 skin care specialists, and 25,000 shampooers in 2005. The cosmetology industry also includes people working in other career fields, such as health care (cosmetic surgeons, dermatologists, surgical aides), the film industry (hair and makeup artists, costume designers, special effects artists), advertising, retail sales, fitness, and management. Magazine, newspaper, and Web publishing offer opportunities for full-time and consultant cosmetology experts. There is a variety of jobs available in the manufacturing of beauty and personal care products (such as cosmetics, hair care products, skin care products, and toiletries), including chemical scientists, technicians, packaging designers and engineers, advertising and marketing professionals, sales and distribution personnel, and production workers.
■ Outlook Cosmetologists work to make their clients look and feel their absolute best. (Corbis)
Words to Know Aromatherapists: Practitioners who use fragrant, plantderived oils to treat a wide range of conditions and problems in their clients. Dermatologic surgeons: Dermatologists who perform surgical cosmetic procedures. Electrolysis: A permanent method of removing unwanted facial or body hair through the use of an electric probe. Estheticians: Another term for cosmeticians or skin care specialists. Image consultants (also called color analysts): Practitioners who assess clients’ coloring and advise them on their most flattering colors for makeup and clothing. Olfactory: Of or related to the sense of smell. Thalasso hydrotherapy: A fresh seawater massage available in some spas. Tonsorial artists: Old-fashioned term for barbers, derived from the Latin word meaning to shear.
Check the yellow pages of your phone book under “Beauty Salons and Services” and you’ll see how much the industry is growing. You’re likely to find a long list of salons in your area. Day spas are also opening up across the country, and salons are expanding to include more spa services like body wraps and massage. Hotels and resorts are adding salons, spas, and fitness centers to their facilities. The clientele of spas and salons has expanded to include men. Many skin care lines carry products for men, and cosmetic surgery is gaining wider acceptance among both men and women. Those in the cosmetology industry, through such professional organizations as the NACCAS and the Cosmetology Advancement Foundation, are making efforts to educate people about the varied career options within the industry. Due to the growing number of salons and the mobility within the industry, these cosmetology associations are actively recruiting people to meet the industry’s high demand for workers. The U.S. Department of Labor projects average growth for all cosmetology occupations through 2014. The number of barbershops is declining, but trained barbers should not have difficulty finding jobs because of the lack of qualified applicants. The high rate of turnover in the cosmetology field and the continuing demand for services should create plenty of opportunities.
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■ For More Information For career information and information about grants and scholarships, contact Cosmetology Advancement Foundation PO Box 811 FDR Station New York, NY 10150-0811 Tel: 212-750-2412 http://www.cosmetology.org
For information on accredited schools and jobs, contact National Accrediting Commission of Cosmetology Arts and Sciences 4401 Ford Avenue, Suite 1300 Alexandria, VA 22302-1342 Tel: 703-600-7600 http://www.naccas.org
For industry and career information, contact National Cosmetology Association 401 North Michigan Avenue, 22nd Floor Chicago, IL 60611-4255 Tel: 312-527-6757 http://www.salonprofessionals.org
■ Related Articles Aromatherapists; Barbers; Color Analysts and Image Consultants; Cosmetic Surgeons; Cosmeticians; Cosmetics Sales Representatives; Cosmetologists; Dermatologists; Electrologists; Makeup Artists; Massage Therapists; Mortuary Cosmetologists; Nail Technicians; Salon Managers; Spa Attendants
Dance ■ Background Dance is one of the oldest of the arts. Anthropologists believe the first formal dances were probably symbolic dances performed by early tribal societies as part of ritual ceremonies held to ask spirits or gods for success in hunting or in battle. Some anthropologists think that dancing and music originally came from the same mating-display impulses that occur in other species. The Egyptians used dance to honor their leaders and during parades, funerals, and religious ceremonies. Israelites performed circle dances, processional chain dances, and energetic stamping-and-jumping dances at religious festivals. Greek children learned to dance as part of their education; adults performed dances in festivals honoring the god Dionysus
and as part of Greek comedy and tragedy. Many of these dances were adopted and developed by the Romans as well. During the Middle Ages, the church banned pagan ritual dance, but dance was performed in the Mass and in miracle and mystery plays. Social dancing also was important in court activities. Dance flourished with the other arts during the Renaissance. In Italy in the 15th century, dance helped tell stories in conjunction with celebrations. The balletto combined dance, poetry, song, and elaborate scenery, and a performance could last for hours or days. King Henry II of France married Catherine de Medici, who brought the balletto to France, where it was renamed ballet. The French court’s ballets de cour led to the development of ballet as theatrical dance, distinct from court ballroom dancing and folk dancing. During the mid-1600s, King Louis XIV of France was a great supporter of ballet. He also was known to participate in ballets. He founded L’Académie Royale de Dance, where classical ballet positions were first codified under dancing master Pierre Beauchamps. By the beginning of the 18th century, ballet became a serious profession, moving out of the court and onto the stage, with its own schools, theaters, paid dancers, and choreographers. Noted choreographers and dancers were Jean Philippe Rameau, Franz Hiverding, Jean Georges Noverre, and August Vetris. One of the oldest ballets still performed today is the French La Fille Mal Gardée choreographed by Jean Dauberval. Meanwhile, ballroom dancing remained popular with the aristocracy. The first public dance halls, called assembly rooms, opened in London in the mid-1700s, eventually spreading throughout Europe and America. Point shoes and dancing on the toes became part of ballet toward the middle of the 19th century. As the Romantic movement developed, some of ballet’s greatest masterpieces were written and debuted: La Sylphide, Swan Lake, Giselle, Sleeping Beauty, and The Nutcracker Suite, among others. Russian ballet became the center of attention late in the century. Among the great modern masters of ballet were Vaslav Nijinsky, Anna Pavlova, George Balanchine, Mikhail Fokine, Serge Diaghilev, Margot Fonteyn, Mikhail Baryshnikov, and Rudolf Nureyev. Modern dance, developed in the early 1900s, began as a reaction against what was viewed as the formal, set techniques of ballet. Modern dance stressed a less-structured, more personal approach to dance. Many modern dances did not tell a story, but expressed abstract concepts such as time, space, emotion, or movement for movement’s sake. Among the American pioneers of modern dance
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Words to Know Accompanist: A pianist who plays for dance classes or dance rehearsals. Arabesque: A move in which the dancer balances on one leg with the other extended behind and arms extended. Barre: A horizontal handrail that the dancer holds onto while performing ballet exercises. Character shoe: Leather shoe, usually with a strap that buckles across the ankle, sometimes with a heel, often worn for contemporary dance or musical theater. Choreography: Predetermined arrangement of movement created for a specific dance piece. Five positions: The fundamental positions that form the starting points of most dance movement. Jeté: A leap from one foot to the other, made with a kicking movement of the leg. Leg warmer: A covering for the legs, usually worn while rehearsing to prevent cramping. Leotard: One-piece, tightfitting, sleeved or sleeveless garment covering the torso, worn by dancers in rehearsal and sometimes as part of a performance costume. Plié: A movement in which the knees are bent outward with the back held straight. Relevé: Straightening of the legs and raising onto the toes. Repertoire or repertory: The group of pieces that a company chooses from for each scheduled performance. Technique: The basic vocabulary of any given style of dance; ballet, jazz, and other styles of dance all have their own techniques. Toe shoe: A ballet shoe with a rigid, padded filling in the toe to allow the dancer to stand up on the toes.
were Loie Fuller, Isadora Duncan, Ruth St. Denis, and Ted Shawn. Later dancers from this school included Doris Humphrey, Charles Weidman, and Martha Graham, and their more contemporary successors, Merce Cunningham, Alvin Ailey, Twyla Tharp, and others. In the United States, African-Americans developed tap dancing in the 1800s by combining traditional African dances with English and Irish dance steps that emphasized the sounds the shoes made during the dance. Tap dance was among the many variety acts incorporated into vaudeville and musical revues, which were quite popular in America in the early 1900s. The first choreographed tap dancing routines were performed by the Floradora Sextet in 1900. Later popularizers of tap dancing included Bill “Bojangles” Robinson, Fred Astaire, Ruby Keeler, and more recently, Gregory Hines and Savion Glover.
As ragtime and jazz found their way into the musical lexicon, they affected ballroom dancing as well, popularizing such dances as the Castle walk (named for Vernon Castle and Irene Castle), fox-trot, tango, and the maxixe, a Brazilian dance. In the 1930s, Americans danced to the swing music of big bands, including the Lindy hop or jitterbug, as well as novelty group dances like the Lambeth walk, conga, and big apple. In the 1950s, Latin American dances, such as the mambo, cha-cha, and merengue, were popular, and with the advent of rock and roll in the 1960s and disco in the 1970s, social dancing became more and more free-form and improvisational. The evolution of musical theater and musical comedy, both live on stage as well as in film and television, resulted in the popularity of many kinds of modern and classical dances, including ballet, modern, tap, jazz, folk, ethnic, and ballroom. Popular stage and film choreographers have included Jerome Robbins, Bob Fosse, Gower Champion, and Michael Bennett. People from around the world use folk dances as an expression of cultural pride. In the United States, for example, the square dance represents a form of folk art expression. Folk and ethnic dances, once primarily social events that everyone could participate in, have taken to the stage and become performance art as well. Flamenco, tango, Irish step dance, West African dance, Native American dance, and Indian classical dance are just a few of the dance forms that are performed on stage, and they have also had a significant influence on ballet, modern, tap, and Broadway choreography.
■ Structure As with other performing arts, the staff involved in executing a dance performance extends far beyond the talent that appears on the stage, and includes choreographers, costume designers, and lighting technicians. The performer, however, is the most visible and best known of the people in dance. Dancers use their ability to move rhythmically and athletically to perform in ballets, modern dance ensembles, musical shows, folk shows, and other productions. They most often perform as part of a group, though some dancers perform solo. Among the different types of dancers are the acrobatic dancer, whose dancing is characterized by difficult gymnastic feats; the ballet dancer, who uses classical ballet movements to perform dances that often suggest a theme or tell a story; the modern dancer, whose dancing explores abstract ideas; the jazz dancer, who uses contemporary styles, often in shows and musical theater; and the tap dancer, whose style is distinguished by the feet tapping a rhythm in time with the music.
All dancers must take good care of their bodies and keep themselves in the best possible physical shape. The most successful of today’s dancers have training in a variety of styles so that they may adapt to the demands of contemporary choreography, which can combine movements from ballet, modern, tap, and other styles. Choreographers create original dances and teach them to dancers and other performers. They often direct the presentations of their work. Choreographers follow the same format for assembling a production that directors do. They audition performers, rehearse the performers, block out the action that takes place on stage, and combine the elements of design, movement, lighting, and sound into a cohesive piece. Such a task requires an understanding of music and storyline. Many choreographers begin as dancers. Some go on to start their own companies, while others remain freelance professionals whose work is commissioned by different companies around the country and even the world. Ballet masters or rehearsal directors assist in teaching a dance to a group of dancers. Usually the ballet master or rehearsal director has learned the dance directly from
Dance
the dance. At times, when the dance is a preexisting work being introduced to a new company, it is taught to the company’s ballet master, who then takes charge of teaching and rehearsing the dance in the choreographer’s absence. Dance may be performed in a small studio or a large auditorium, although the floor or stage upon which the dancers perform must meet specific qualifications so that the dancers will not be injured. Although dance usually does not involve such elaborate or realistic sets as one sees in theater, there usually is some scenic design, sometimes in the form of a backdrop or other simply scenic pieces. A set or scenic designer decides what elements will be used and how to enhance the presentation. Scenery behind the performers sets the mood and the location. Lighting sets mood and highlights movements and performers at key points in the presentation. The lighting designer draws up plans for how each part of the performance will be lit. The general lighting, specific illuminations (such as spotlights), and the special-effects lighting are all charted, timed, and choreographed to the performance. The choreographer, scenic designer, and
Dancers with choreographer the Boston Balletor rehearse for the annual production of the Nutcracker. (Associated Press/Michael Dwyer.) the original has actually performed
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Types of Dances Big Apple: A ballroom group dance performed in a circle to swing music, according to the directions of a caller; originated in the Big Apple Club of South Carolina. Bolero, Fandango, Flamenco: Spanish dances. Cakewalk: A high-stepping, strutting dance originated by African-American slaves. Cha-cha: A ballroom dance that originated in Cuba in the 1950s, bouncy and rhythmic, marked by a triple step (chacha-cha) and subtle hip movements. Conga: A line dance in which each dancer holds the waist or shoulders of the dancer ahead; three quick walking steps are followed by a kick to the side; originated in Cuba in the 1930s. Country dances: English folk dances for two or more couples, performed in a circular or square formation or in two facing lines. Fox-trot: Smooth, gliding ballroom dance with various combinations of slow and quick steps; originated in the United States around 1914. Lindy hop or lindy; also jitterbug or swing: A ballroom dance marked by energetic movement and improvised steps; originated in Harlem in the late 1920s. Mambo: Ballroom dance that originated in Cuba in the 1940s; a fast dance performed to Latin-American and jazz rhythms. Polka: A ballroom dance and a Bohemian folk dance, moderately fast with hopping and gliding steps. Square dance: An American folk dance for four couples arranged in a square who respond to instructions from a caller. Tango: A ballroom dance marked by long, gliding steps, graceful pauses, and close body contact. Twist: A fast dance in which the partners, who do not touch, twist their arms and hips; originated in the United States in the 1960s. Virginia Reel: An American folk dance, usually involving four to eight couples in two lines who follow the directions of a caller. Waltz: A ballroom dance marked by smooth turning and gliding movements, usually to a three-count. There are many variations, from the Viennese to the American.
lighting designer work closely together to create a unified, memorable final product. Stage crew members help build the sets. They also operate lighting and sound equipment during a performance. Lighting of the performance is designed, set up, and executed by lighting technicians. Manipulating the
equipment, establishing the timing, and creating special effects are part of the lighting job. Directing the amplification and recording of stage sounds is done by sound technicians. They also tape record performances for records, tapes, compact discs, video, film, and television broadcasts. Sound amplification, sound effects, and recordings are well plotted before the performance actually begins. For dance, the sound usually consists primarily of prerecorded or live musical accompaniment. Soundboards that control effects, amplification, and recording are controlled by the technicians during the performance. Makeup and costuming are expressive elements of the appearance of the performers that augment and reinforce the mood of the dance. Even the most basic costumes are carefully chosen to help tell the story or present the spirit of the piece being performed. Makeup artists apply makeup and other material to dancers. Costume directors select and help create the costumes for dance performances and oversee the production of the costumes by designers and seamstresses. Costume directors work closely with the choreographer and must be able to design costumes that don’t interfere with dance movements. Dance companies with large administrative staffs also may employ managers to handle marketing, public relations, fund-raising, and development. For those fortunate enough to be employed by a single company for the long term, the typical schedule demands travel. Dance companies often travel around the country or around the world for weeks or months at a time. Road production managers oversee and coordinate the business and operational aspects of a dance company while it is on tour. They arrange with local unions to hire stagehands and with local officials to secure the proper performance permits. They inspect theaters to make sure that the theater’s facilities are appropriate for the production. Road production managers have various administrative duties, such as accounting for expenditures and receipts, paying the company and crew their wages, and arranging accommodations for the company and crew. Typically, dance productions have several nighttime performances a week, with one or two matinee performances. Some performances may be held only once or twice. Rehearsals are often during the day. A career in dance, like most other arts, requires a passion for dance itself. Most people start taking classes at a very early age and continue into adulthood and throughout their careers. Dancers usually are hired through an audition, either for a one-time production or to be part of an ongoing company. Some companies have apprentice or trainee programs, which allow dancers to work
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their way into the full company. Most choreographers start out as dancers, as do company artistic directors. Because there are relatively few dance companies that contract dancers or choreographers all year, professional dancers often must supplement their income with work in other professions. For example, dancing talent is used at and by summer resorts, on cruise ships, in gambling casinos, at state fairs, and at amusement and theme parks. Many dancers and choreographers also teach dance, either in professional studios or at schools and universities.
and opera companies, music videos and television, film production, universities, and studio teaching.
■ Outlook
The following is a national nonprofit service organization for professional dance. It represents ballet, modern, ethnic, jazz, and tap companies; dance service and presenting organizations; individuals; and other organizations. Dance USA
Employment opportunities for skilled dance artists will continue to grow. The U.S. Department of Labor reports that employment for dancers and choreographers should grow about as fast as the average through 2014, although competition will remain keen. There are always more aspiring dancers than positions available. As with most careers in the arts, although the possibilities of success exist and excite the imagination, the possibilities of disappointment are all too real. The employment picture is clouded by fierce competition and too few available positions. Typically, performers make ends meet by branching out. They find short-term jobs in television or industrial revues. During the summer they try to find work with a stock company at a resort or with a musical road company. While the number of dance companies continues to grow, the number that employs dancers, choreographers, and administrative and technical staff with any regularity is remaining steady or declining, due to cuts in the budget of the National Endowment for the Arts and other funding sources. In times of economic recession, less money is spent on leisure activities, and growth of careers in these fields suffers accordingly. The industry will grow in proportion to its ability to attract audiences. According to the Survey of Public Participation in the Arts, published by the National Endowment for the Arts, 20.1 million people in the United States attended a dance event in 2002—a decline of 8 percent since 1992. Other forms of entertainment that compete with dance include theater, music, movies, sporting events, computer games, and home-video rental. Those who begin as dancers often find themselves exploring related opportunities, such as teaching or administration because their careers, like those of professional athletes, are likely to be limited as they grow older. Many people well trained in dance find work as teachers in performing arts schools or as private instructors. For those who do succeed, a career path often includes a variety of jobs. The areas of most promising opportunity are national dance
■ For More Information For information about the Fannie Weiss Student Scholarship, contact American Dance Guild PO Box 2001, Canal Street Station New York, NY 10013-0874 Tel: 212-932-2789 http://www.americandanceguild.org
1111 16th Street, NW, Suite 300 Washington, DC 20036-4809 Tel: 202-833-1717 http://www.danceusa.org
This federal grantmaking agency supports the visual, literary, design, and performing arts and has a list of service organizations and state and regional arts organizations. National Endowment for the Arts Arts and Education Education and Access Division Nancy Hanks Center 1100 Pennsylvania Avenue, NW Washington, DC 20506-0001 Tel: 202-682-5400 http://arts.endow.gov
Defense ■ Background From simple rocks to sophisticated satellite surveillance systems, people have always sought ways to defend themselves and to protect their territory and to promote their interests. The development of weapons, tools, vehicles, and strategies, both defensive and offensive, plays a crucial role in the safety and welfare, as well as the economic health, of almost every society. Today, defense is a multibillion-dollar enterprise with private industries building weapons and defense systems for the government. The rudimentary weapons of earlier times—rocks, slings, and spears—were made of whatever materials were available. The weapons were often made by the war-
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Words to Know Aeronautics: The design and construction of aircraft. Artillery: Heavy firearms, such as cannons and tank guns, as opposed to small arms, such as rifles and grenades. Astronautics: The science and technology of space flight. Distant Early Warning (DEW) Line: A series of 60 radar sites along the 70th parallel in the United States and Canada; used in the 1950s and 1960s. Fortification: Defense structure used for protection from enemy attacks; made obsolete by the advent of air warfare. Intercontinental Ballistic Missile (ICBM): Modern missile technology that many countries possess; ICBMs can be used to deliver nuclear warheads. North American Aerospace Defense Command (NORAD): An underground command center that houses the passive air and space defense program that monitors the skies over the United States and Canada. Reconnaissance: Inspection or exploration of an area, especially to gather military information. Satellite: A free-flying object that orbits Earth, another planet, or the Sun. Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT): A series of talks between the United States and Russia in the post-Cold War era that limits the development of new weapons and sets guidelines for the disposal of existing weapons. Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI): Also known as Star Wars; a system proposed by President Reagan that would use laser-equipped satellites and space-based weapons to destroy ballistic missiles.
riors who used them. At the same time people developed weapons, they also developed ways to protect themselves. The earliest armor was of animal hides, and as weapons evolved into spears and arrows, warriors learned to fashion metal into shields. Another early weapon was fire. The Greeks used incendiary weapons as early as the fourth century b.c. Gunpowder, invented by the Chinese, became one of the most important developments in the art of war. By the 14th century, armies had adapted gunpowder for use with cannons, which could fire large stones or metal balls for long distances and destroy a city’s fortifications. Mortars, developed by the Dutch in the 17th century, and other explosive bombs were used to terrible effect. The castles and other fortifications that had protected cities for so many centuries were rendered far less effective by these new weapons. Gunpowder was also adapted for use in firearms by the
14th century and in rockets by the 13th century. Cannons were also mounted on sea vessels. In the 16th century, the British designed the first real warship, and the British naval fleet soon dominated the seas. The invention of the airplane and the automobile married private industry to war and defense efforts in the early part of the 20th century. The first military order for an airplane was made soon after Orville Wright and Wilbur Wright’s first flight in 1903. By 1911, airplanes were being used in war. At first, airplanes were used mainly for reconnaissance missions. However, they soon were adapted for dropping bombs. In peacetime, the government relied on industry to produce equipment such as vehicles, tanks, naval vessels, and airplanes. World War I and, to a greater extent, World War II proved just how adaptable private industry was to producing the materials of war. When the United States entered World War II, industries that previously had little to do with defense efforts were mobilized to produce everything needed for the war, from supplies to vehicles to weapons. Other industries were tapped for valuable defense technologies. Radar, radio, and sonar were useful not only for guiding aircraft and naval vessels but also for warning of impending attacks. Chemical weapons, such as the mustard gas used in World War I, made new types of defense equipment, such as gas masks, vital to the soldiers on the ground. Automobiles made armies even more flexible; where previously they had relied on the railroads or horse-drawn wagons for supplies, armies could now be deployed and maintained virtually anywhere. The automobile was also adapted for strategic use in battle. Outfitted with armor and heavy weapons, a tank became a ferocious, seemingly unstoppable weapon. Another important innovation of World War II was the development of the first jet engine. By the end of the 1950s, jet travel had revolutionized the airline industry, opening air travel to millions of people around the world. The Cold War between the United States and the Soviet Union, coupled with the space race that developed between the two countries, saw the dedication of enormous amounts of resources to the development of ever more sophisticated weapons. Cold War-era weapon development included conventional, nuclear, biological, and chemical weapons; air and naval craft; and surveillance, intelligence, communications, and computer technology. Much of the technology developed initially for defense has been adapted for commercial and civil use. The aerospace industry, for example, provides not only military aircraft but aircraft for commercial aviation. Defense and the aerospace industry remain intrinsically linked. The use of aircraft and space technology
Defense
Officers monitor air and space activity at the command post of the North American Aerospace Defense Command. The facility is housed in a steel building deep inside Cheyenne Mountain near Colorado Springs, Colorado. (U.S. Air Force.)
has become a dominant force in modern warfare. The Persian Gulf War (1990–91) showed the strategic importance of these technologies. Using aircraft, long-range missiles, and sophisticated guidance systems coupled with satellite-based intelligence operations, the United States and its allies were able to weaken the Iraqi army almost to the point of surrender before the land-based war even began. After tensions eased between the United States and Russia, new concerns arose with smaller countries, such as North Korea, that had the technology to build rockets that could reach the United States. The Strategic Defense Initiative, proposed by Ronald Reagan and known as Star Wars, died with the end of the Cold War in the 1980s, but new concerns prompted the government to invest in a new national missile defense system. Today, the United States is currently occupying Afghanistan and Iraq, and concerned with fighting the threats of terrorism that come from terrorist groups from various parts of the world. Billions of dollars are being spent on developing high-tech weapons, aircraft, communications systems, and other methods of protecting the United States from traditional military attacks as well as chemical and biological warfare.
■ Structure At one time, airplane manufacturers, shipbuilders, and munitions factories were the chief suppliers of defense equipment. Today, computer companies that work for business also build specialized computers and software used to operate satellite and monitoring systems. Companies like Boeing and Lockheed Martin Aeronautics Company build commercial aircraft as well as specialized military aircraft. The defense industry incorporates a wide variety of technologies, sciences, and industries and requires the participation of virtually every type of profession. The national security of the United States is organized by the federal government under the Department of Defense (DOD). Operating from the Pentagon in Washington, DC, the DOD oversees the activities of the Army, Navy, Air Force, and Marines, including 1.4 million men and women on active duty, 654,000 civilians and another 860,000 million volunteers serving in the National Guard and Reserve. Headed by the secretary of defense, military and defense operations are directed by the Joint Chiefs of Staff, who in turn oversee the unified commands, including the Space Command, the Atlantic and Pacific Commands, and the Tactical Air Command.
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The DOD employs its own staff of scientists, engineers, and researchers, who explore, design, develop, and implement many technologies useful or even vital to the national defense. The DOD also procures the manufacturing, scientific, research, and engineering resources of a wide variety of industries. Procurement of weapons, vehicles, aircraft, and related systems are made through the DOD. The DOD may provide specifications for a new type of weapon or aircraft, then contract with a commercial manufacturer to design and produce it. The DOD may fund the research of scientists from a variety of backgrounds, such as mathematics, physics, chemistry, biology, astrophysics, and others who work at colleges and universities, and private companies. Research is a vital component of the defense industry. From highly theoretical research to applied research resulting in new materials, components, systems, products, and technologies, researchers continually refine and expand our defensive capabilities. Physics plays an important part in the development of new types of aircraft, weapons, and missiles; chemistry research provides new materials for use not only on Earth but also in space. Biologists develop vaccines and other defenses against chemical or biological weapons. Engineers and other scientists work on the development and production of safe, efficient equipment; the usefulness, performance, speed, safety, and efficiency of combat, aeronautical, and space vehicles; and the development and operation of vehicles capable of carrying instruments, equipment, supplies, and living organisms through space and through the atmosphere. Defense research also involves creating and refining communications, surveillance, tracking, and other systems that allow pilots, soldiers, and other personnel to maintain visual, audio, and long-range contact among members of their own or opposing forces under a variety of conditions. A vast complex of manufacturers contributes directly or indirectly to the country’s defense efforts. Defense manufacturers build trucks, tanks, and other vehicles; ordnance, which includes cannons, artillery, and other weapons and their ammunition; and radar, sonar, radio, and other systems and components. Some companies specialize in manufacturing or managing the manufacturing of the entire system, usually by subcontracting various phases of the operations, while other companies specialize in certain components or materials. Thousands of subcontractors, from very large to very small companies, supply parts, supplies, materials, and subassemblies to the principal contractors. Defense manufacturers also produce missiles for the armed forces and spacecraft for use by National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) and the DOD.
They work closely with the DOD to develop equipment, vehicles, arms, and systems related to the nation’s security. Manufacturers compete for contracts to research, develop, and ultimately build equipment required by the DOD. The DOD is a highly structured bureaucracy. People who work for the DOD generally must take civil service exams and are placed according to their exam results and training. The DOD even trains its own employees at a college it operates, the Defense Acquisition University in Fort Belvoir, Virginia. The college provides systems acquisition education and training for the people who are responsible for acquiring weapons systems. It trains military personnel and is generally not open to civilians other than DOD employees.
■ Outlook In the decades following World War II, the defense industries were among the most important industries in the United States. Apart from the international prestige to be gained by winning the space race, the ongoing threat presented by the Cold War between the United States and the Soviet Union required that a large proportion of the nation’s energies and resources be devoted to improving our defense capabilities. Defense contractors could be assured of billions of dollars of new contracts each year; interest in space travel and research was also high. The collapse of the Soviet Union and the end of the Cold War in the late 1980s and early 1990s created a new reality for defense industries. The immediate threat to national security disappeared, and with it, the need for high levels of spending. Military bases were closed, and the number of military personnel on active duty was reduced. At the same time, other factors combined to depress the industry. After the Challenger disaster of 1986, the space program entered a decline. Decisions were made to reduce the reliance on the space shuttle through the 1990s, and NASA’s budget was cut. A second space shuttle disaster occurred in 2003 when the Columbia disintegrated in mid-air while reentering the Earth’s atmosphere. This disaster led to slight increases in NASA’s budget. In the late 1990s, changes in the political climate of the world fueled new developments for high-technology companies and the space program. In 1999, the government allocated $6.6 billion to build missiles, radar, and other components of a national missile defense system. Concern over the threat posed by missile attacks from countries like North Korea prompted renewed interest in a way to defend the United States from the weapons of mass destruction that missiles could deliver.
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The terrorist activity on U.S. soil in September 2001 instigated immediate defense operations against physical, chemical, and biological threats, cyberattacks, and missile threats. In the past, defense systems were targeted at specific countries or groups, but today they are concentrated more on the threats themselves, according to the Quadrennial Defense Review released to Congress on September 30, 2001. The review stated that the size of the military will remain about the same, but portions will be reconfigured to combat unconventional, unpredictable threats. The Defense Appropriations Bill for fiscal year 2005 provided $355.4 billion in new discretionary spending authority for the Department of Defense, $38.2 billion more than was made available for 2001. The budget included spending for weapons; aircraft; shipbuilding; ballistic missile defense; intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance, military personnel pay raises and medical programs; troop readiness and sustainment programs; and other programs. Employment in the aerospace industry has been in steady decline since the early 1990s. According to the U.S. Department of Labor, aerospace manufacturing provided more than 444,000 wage and salary jobs in 2004. (See the article “Aerospace.”) The renewed military spending could mean more opportunities for engineers and production workers.
■ For More Information Contact AIA for publications with information on aerospace technologies and careers. Aerospace Industries Association of America (AIA) 1000 Wilson Boulevard, Suite 1700 Arlington, VA 22209-3901 Tel: 703-358-1000 http://www.aia-aerospace.org
ASEE and NSPE have information on their Web sites about careers in engineering, scholarships, internships, and schools, and much more. American Society for Engineering Education (ASEE) 1818 N Street, NW, Suite 600 Washington, DC 20036-2406 Tel: 202-331-3500 http://www.asee.org
National Society of Professional Engineers (NSPE) 1420 King Street Alexandria, VA 22314-2794 Tel: 703-684-2800 http://www.nspe.org
For news and links to various topics on defense, visit this Web site. U.S. Department of Defense http://www.defenselink.mil
Related Articles Aerospace; Military Services; Aeronautical and Aerospace Technicians; Aerospace Engineers; Border Patrol Officers; Cryptographic Technicians; Customs Officials; Engineers; Military Workers
Dental Care ■ Background Although modern dentistry dates back only to the 1700s, archeologists have provided evidence of dental treatment from thousands of years ago. The ancient Egyptians treated toothache and swollen gums in the 16th century b.c. The Greek physician Aesculapius was the first recorded supporter of tooth extraction around 1250 b.c., and Hippocrates wrote about dental diseases in the fifth century b.c. The Etruscan civilization used crowns and bridgework in the eighth century b.c. Some people in the Roman Empire wore false teeth, and the Greek physician Galen also wrote about teeth in the second century. From the ninth to 12th centuries, Arabic scholars who wrote about dental disease and treatment included Abulcasis and Avicenna. Arabians made toothbrushes by pounding the end of a stick. From the Middle Ages up to the early 18th century in Western Europe, teeth were extracted by barber-surgeons. A French dentist, Pierre Fauchard, is called the father of modern dentistry. In 1728, he published a book, Le Chirurgien Dentiste (The Surgeon Dentist), that emphasized the importance of healthy teeth. He developed the first orthodontic treatment methods and devised a more advanced technique for making dentures. Throughout the 1700s in America, dentists mainly pulled diseased teeth and provided dentures. Revolutionary War hero Paul Revere, a metalworker by trade, made dentures from gold and ivory. The first president of the United States, George Washington, was often said to have had wooden teeth; in fact, his denture teeth were made either of ivory or carved cow’s teeth. While dentures remained very expensive for 150 years after Washington, the invention of vulcanized rubber in 1851 meant many more people could afford dentures. Porcelain teeth were attached to rubber that had been molded on a model of the mouth. In the 20th century,
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however, acrylic plastics replaced vulcanized rubber and porcelain in dentures. The world’s first dental school, the Baltimore College of Dental Surgery, was established in 1840. Currently, there are 55 dental schools in the United States. The use of anesthesia during surgery was developed in part by two American dentists. In 1844, Horace Wells pioneered the use of nitrous oxide, or laughing gas. Dentists today still use nitrous oxide to relieve pain and anxiety. William Morton was the first to use ether as an anesthetic gas. Local anesthetic injections of novocaine were first recommended in 1906. Since then, dental researchers have continued to investigate other anesthetic methods to allow pain-free dental treatment. Not only are numerous local anesthetics available today, but some dentists also use a method that involves placing electrodes on the skin and using electrical current to prevent pain. For extensive dental procedures or for patients who are extremely anxious, dentists may use sedative medications or general anesthesia.
An orthodontist checks his patient’s braces for loose brackets. (Photo Disc/Getty Images.)
In the 1890s, an American dentist, G. V. Black, made significant changes in how dentistry was practiced. In addition to creating a foot engine to power the dental drill, he devised a cavity classification system that remains in use today. He also suggested that tooth decay and gum disease were infectious diseases caused by bacteria, decades before there was any scientific proof of his theory. In 1895, Wilhelm Roentgen discovered X-rays. By the next year, X-ray images were being used in dentistry. Dentists use X-ray films, or radiographs, to detect tooth decay and other diseases that affect the teeth and jawbones. The high-speed, air-turbine, dental drill became available in 1957. The high-speed drill allows dentists to remove decayed tooth substance much more rapidly and with much greater comfort for the patient. The dental profession has been the driving force behind fluoridation of water supplies in the past 50 years. Widespread fluoridation has prevented tooth decay in children and adults. Because tooth decay has become less common, people are now retaining more teeth into old age. Recent advances in technology and medical care are reflected in dental care. Bone grafting and bone regeneration use materials such as Gore-Tex. New medication technology allows dentists to place antibiotics between the gums and teeth to treat periodontal disease. Lasers are currently used for gum surgery; in the future, dentists may use lasers to drill cavities or make tooth surfaces more resistant to decay. The technology of computeraided design/computer-aided manufacturing, or CADCAM, is also used in dentistry to make ceramic tooth inlays. Dental researchers continue to fine-tune filling materials. Although many tooth-colored filling materials are available now, they are generally not as durable as silver amalgam fillings. Many dental schools are striving to educate dentists to become physicians of oral health. Today’s dentist must be well versed in health issues that affect the body outside of the oral cavity. Patients with certain heart conditions, cancer, AIDS, or diabetes require special care from their dentists. People who take prescription medications may have oral side effects, such as dry mouth, and some medications affect dental treatment in other ways. Medical emergencies may occur in the dental office, so dentists and their staff must be ready to deal with them. Many people are nervous about receiving dental treatment, no matter how painless; thus, dentists also need to know psychology. In addition to examining the teeth and gums, today’s dentists check their patients for signs of cancer in the mouth or head and neck. Because of the ill effects of tobacco on oral health, some dentists help their patients stop smoking or chewing tobacco.
The dental care field provides a range of occupational options. More than 600,000 people are employed as general dentists, dental specialists, dental hygienists, dental assistants, and dental laboratory technicians.
■ Structure Most dental care workers work in private dental offices. Other settings where dental care workers may be employed include hospitals, dental schools, research facilities, nursing homes, and the military. The general dentist is the most familiar dental care worker. There are more than 150,000 dentists working in the United States today and approximately 85 percent of dentists work in a general dental practice. Much of a general dentist’s time is spent examining patients’ teeth and mouths, treating tooth decay with fillings, and providing crowns and bridges—in other words, restoring the teeth and mouth to function. Dentists also treat diseases affecting the soft tissue, such as gum disease and canker sores, and the jawbones, such as abscesses. General dentists also perform many of the treatments that are performed by specialists, but they may refer the most difficult cases to specialists. For example, general dentists perform routine root canals, treat mild gum disease, and extract teeth. General dentists may enter practice immediately after dental school, or they may pursue advanced education in general practice first. Whereas a large portion of medical care is delivered by health maintenance organizations, most dental care is currently provided outside of managed-care programs, often with traditional fee-for-service insurance arrangements. However, managed care is making inroads into dental practice, and this trend is likely to continue. Dentists who complete advanced training in a specialty may practice as dental specialists. There are nine officially recognized specialties in dentistry. Approximately 15 percent of all dentists are specialists. Orthodontists correct problems in tooth and jaw alignment, usually through the use of orthodontic braces or removable appliances. While most orthodontic patients are children and teenagers, adults make up an increasing portion of the orthodontist’s caseload. Oral and maxillofacial surgeons perform surgery on the mouth, jaws, and face. In addition to removing impacted wisdom teeth, they repair jaw fractures, remove cancerous tumors, and surgically correct poorly aligned jaws. Some oral surgeons perform plastic surgery procedures on the face. Periodontists treat diseases of the gums and bones that support the teeth. They perform gum surgery, prescribe antibiotics, insert dental implants to replace missing teeth, and perform procedures to regenerate bone around the teeth.
Dental Care
There are five other dental specialties. Endodontists treat diseases and injuries that affect the tooth root. Root canal treatment involves drilling a hole in a tooth to gain access to the pulp within, removing the pulp tissue and nerves, and filling the root canal. In addition to providing root canal treatment, endodontists sometimes perform endodontic surgery. Pediatric dentists provide a broad range of dental care to children, from infancy through adolescence. Prosthodontists provide advanced treatment with dentures or bridges for people who have missing teeth. Many public health dentists work for the government to ensure that individual communities and the nation as a whole receive needed dental care. At the national level, public health dentists may work for the National Institutes of Health or the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. States and cities may also employ them. Oral and maxillofacial pathologists often are responsible for diagnosing diseases that affect the bones and soft tissues of the mouth. They often examine specimens under a microscope. Oral and maxillofacial radiologists use radiant energy to diagnose and manage diseases, disorders, and conditions of the bones and soft tissues of the mouth. Other groups of dentists seeking official specialty recognition are dental anesthesiologists and holistic dentists. Most Americans are familiar with dental hygienists. The hygienist’s job usually includes cleaning the teeth above and below the gum line, taking X-rays, applying fluoride to teeth, and educating patients about dental hygiene practices, such as flossing. In some states, dental hygienists may practice independently, but in most states they may work only under a dentist’s supervision. Some dental hygienists teach courses at dental hygiene schools or work in research, administration, or insurance companies. Dental assistants have less dental training than dentists and dental hygienists. They may be clinical or preventive dental assistants, working alongside the dentist while they are treating a patient. As infection control managers, dental assistants are responsible for disinfecting and sterilizing dental equipment. They often assemble instrument trays for the dentist’s use. Dental assistants also process X-rays, provide oral hygiene instruction to patients, schedule appointments, maintain supplies and records, and may process insurance claims and serve as dental practice managers. The vast majority of dental laboratory technicians work in dental laboratories rather than dental offices. They make crowns, dentures, porcelain veneers, and other items needed to restore damaged teeth or replace missing teeth. They may also bend orthodontic wires into the proper shape. Dental research offers scientific opportunities to dentists. Dental researchers may work for the National Insti-
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Words to Know Canine: A pointed tooth adjacent to the incisor, also known as a cuspid or eyetooth; adults have four canine teeth. Cementum: The tissue that covers the dentin in the tooth root. Crown: An artificial replacement for the natural crown of the tooth; often made of porcelain attached to a metal core. Dental caries: Tooth decay, or the progressive destruction of tooth substance, caused by bacteria present in plaque. Dentin: The part of the tooth beneath the enamel. Denture: An artificial substitute for a missing tooth or teeth and the adjacent soft tissue. Enamel: The hard, shiny material that makes up the outermost layer of the visible portion of a tooth. Fluoride: A chemical compound of the element fluorine and another element; fluoride is used in water supplies, toothpaste, and other products to prevent tooth decay. Gingiva: The oral tissue that is covered by a mucous membrane and surrounds the teeth; the gums. Incisor: A front tooth used for cutting; adults have four upper incisors and four lower incisors. Mandible: The lower jawbone. Maxilla: The bone that forms half of the upper jaw; the upper jaw is made up of the right maxilla and the left maxilla. Maxillofacial: Pertaining to the jaws and face. Molar: A tooth located in the back of the mouth that grinds food; adults have four first molars, four second molars, and four wisdom teeth (third molars). Occlusion: The contact between the biting surfaces of upper and lower teeth. Palate: The roof of the mouth, consisting of the hard palate and, behind it, the soft palate. Plaque: The sticky substance that forms on tooth surfaces, made up principally of bacteria; responsible for starting tooth decay and gingivitis. Premolar: A tooth with two pointed cusps located between the canines and molars, also known as a bicuspid; adults have four first premolars and four second premolars. Pulp: The blood vessels, nerves, and other cells in the center of each tooth. Restoration: Any filling, crown, inlay, bridge, partial denture, or complete denture that restores or replaces lost tooth structure, teeth, or oral tissues.
tute of Dental and Craniofacial Research, a division of the National Institutes of Health. Many researchers work at universities and dental schools. The dental industry, which includes companies that make filling materials, dental instruments, medications, toothbrushes, and toothpaste, also employs and funds many researchers.
■ Outlook Employment opportunities for dentists are expected to grow about as fast as the average job through 2014. However, if the number of dentists graduating from dental schools does not increase, fewer dentists will be available to meet increasing demand for dental care. Thus, the job prospects for dentists are promising. Although young people primarily need preventive care, since fluoridation of water has succeeded in reducing tooth decay, older generations will need increasing amounts of dental treatment. Today’s elderly have kept more of their natural teeth, meaning that they have more teeth in need of regular dental care. If the number of dentists holds steady, dentists will become busier. With the swelling demand for dental services, the salary trends for dentists are also promising. In 2005, the median salary for dentists was $129,920. According to the American Dental Association, the real income earned by general dentists is now close to that earned by physicians in general practice. Dental hygiene and dental assisting are projected to be among the 20 fastest growing occupations through 2014. One factor increasing demand for these workers is the expected increase in demand for dental care related to the aging of the American population and greater retention of natural teeth. Dental hygienists are performing more of the routine services that used to be provided primarily by dentists. In addition, new dentists and those with heavier workloads are more likely to hire an increasing number of dental support professionals in the years ahead. The opportunities for dental laboratory technicians should be good, although the occupation will experience slower-than-average growth through 2014. Employers are having difficulty filling trainee positions primarily because such positions offer low entry-level salaries. Experienced technicians who have established their professional reputations may have the opportunity to start their own laboratories. In general, the services of dental laboratory technicians will be needed less; today’s patients are likely to need more crowns or partial dentures than complete dentures. This may be partly offset by increased demand for tooth-colored fillings.
■ For More Information For information on licensure, accredited dental programs, and to read publications, such as the Journal of the American Dental Association, contact American Dental Association (ADA) Department of Career Guidance 211 East Chicago Avenue Chicago, IL 60611-2678 Tel: 312-440-2500 http://www.ada.org
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This organization promotes education and keeps its members up to date on the latest developments in the field. It publishes a bimonthly magazine for members and holds an annual meeting in conjunction with the Academy of General Dentistry. American Dental Assistants Association 35 East Wacker Drive, Suite 1730 Chicago, IL 60601-2211 Tel: 312-541-1550 http://www.dentalassistant.org
For information on careers, educational programs, and available publications, contact American Dental Hygienists’ Association 444 North Michigan Avenue, Suite 3400 Chicago, IL 60611-3903 Email:
[email protected] http://www.adha.org
This association publishes the Journal of Dental Technology and other educational publications and provides a variety of member benefits. National Association of Dental Laboratories 325 John Knox Road L103 Tallahassee, FL 32303-4113 Tel: 800-950-1150 Email:
[email protected] http://www.nadl.org
■ Related Articles Health Care; Dental Assistants; Dental Hygienists; Dental Laboratory Technicians; Dentists; Endodontists; Holistic Dentists; Orthodontists; Periodontists
Earth Sciences ■ Background Curiosity about the physical world inspired the development of the earth sciences, sometimes called geosciences. The earth sciences include geography, geology, geophysics, meteorology, and oceanography. Geography dates to the dawn of history, when investigations and explanations of the world first began. In ancient Greece, Aristotle had the audacity to suggest that the Earth was round instead of flat. He wrote about natural science, including marine life. Eratosthenes calculated the circumference of the earth with remarkable accuracy and developed the concepts of latitude and longitude. Early advances in all of the earth sciences were also made by the Chinese, Egyptians, Arabs, Romans, and others. They
speculated about the origin of the earth, the causes of earthquakes and volcanic eruptions, and the nature of fossils. Early weather prophets predicted the weather by such signs as the behavior of birds, insects, or other animals. During the Middle Ages, most geographic ideas of the ancient world, including that of the spherical shape of the earth, were lost by Europeans. Ocean study was hampered by fear of rumored monsters and of the unknown, and by technical difficulties in navigation. Fear gave way to curiosity, however, and the travels of Marco Polo, Dias, Columbus, da Gama, Magellan, and Hudson yielded new maps and a greater knowledge of the world. Their voyages were primarily made for geographic discoveries and for trade and colonization. Along the way, however, they gathered information on currents, sea ice, and other physical and biological phenomena. The invention of the thermometer (1593) and the barometer (1643) made scientific weather forecasting possible. The relationship between air pressure and weather was recognized, and by 1670 some barometers were marked “fair” and “rain.” An important early work in geology was written in the late 1600s by Nicolaus Steno of Denmark. His work describes several principles of physical and historical geology and presents the view that fossils are the remnants of once-living creatures. During the 17th and 18th centuries, many European naturalists explained the presence of marine fossils in mountain rocks in terms of catastrophes, such as the biblical flood. In the late 1700s, James Hutton, a Scottish geologist, developed the theory that the surface of the earth undergoes continual, gradual change as the result of a number of natural processes, some that break down rock and wear down the land and others that form new layers of rock and build the land back up. In the early 1800s, William Smith, a British canal engineer, demonstrated that fossils are the key to studying and matching layers of rock of different regions. Sir Charles Lyell’s Principles of Geology (1830–33) was influential in the development of modern geology. He opposed the idea that catastrophes accounted for geologic events. He showed that the higher a fossil is found in the rock sequence the more it resembles living types. In 1840, Sir James Clark Ross successfully sounded the bottom of the south Atlantic to 16,063 feet, using a crude hemp line and a lead weight. Darwin’s Beagle expedition (1831–36) and the Challenger venture (1872–76) revealed much information about the ocean bottom and undersea life. Early in the 19th century, scientists began to collect international weather observations. The invention of the telegraph made it possible to gather weather information quickly from a wide area, and weather services were established in a number of countries.
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The earth sciences have been further developed and refined by 20th century advances in tools and technology. Scuba gear, manned submersible units, cameras, radar, and infrared sensors help oceanographers study the ocean’s effect on climate, life in the ocean, and the evolution of the ocean floor. Radar, weather satellites, and computers allow meteorologists to forecast weather, track storms, and process large amounts of weather data. Geologists use sophisticated computer models to study plate tectonics and seismographs to determine the depth and formation of rocks below the earth’s surface. Geographers and other earth sciences professionals use geographic information systems technology to map, manipulate, store, and selectively retrieve geographic data. This data can be used in a variety of areas, including business, the study of disease outbreaks and epidemics, environmental planning, and natural resource management. The practical aspects of earth sciences received great emphasis in the 20th century, particularly in the mining and petroleum industries and in the construction of tunnels, dams, and roads.
■ Structure Each of the earth sciences has its own set of specialties. Geography is a kind of bridge between the physical and social sciences. It is concerned with the distribution of
Anatomy of an Earthquake An earthquake is accompanied by three types of waves that vibrate the Earth’s surface—primary, secondary, and surface waves. ■ The Primary Wave (or P Wave) alternately compresses and expands the rock of the Earth’s interior. This wave moves through the Earth at a speed that varies greatly. Under some conditions it is about five miles per second. ■
The Secondary Wave (or S Wave) shakes the rock sidewise as it advances. It travels through the interior of the Earth about three-fifths as fast as the primary wave.
■
The Surface Wave (or L Wave), which is the most damaging, resembles the waves produced when a stone is dropped in a puddle. The surface wave moves at a speed of about two miles per second.
The transmission of these waves through the Earth is affected by the type of material through which they travel. By studying the strengths of the waves at various points around the world after a major earthquake, scientists have been able to learn about the structure and composition of the interior of the earth.
people and things, the location of places on the earth’s surface, and the relationships between people and their natural environment. It includes the study of topography (the overall arrangement of the land), landforms (mountains, plateaus, plains, canyons, and the like), climate, and such features of the natural environment as plants and animals, soils, minerals, and water resources. Physical geography is the study of land and water features and the natural forces responsible for their occurrence. This branch includes climatology, the study of weather conditions over an extended period of time; geomorphology, or physiography, the study of surface features and topography; and mathematical geography, concerned with the earth’s size, shape, and movements. Human geography is the study of the way human beings live in their physical and cultural environments. This branch includes cultural geography, the study of the geographical distribution of cultural traits; economic geography, the study of how people make a living; political geography, the study of the influence of geography on nations, national interests, and international relations; population geography, the study of the geographical distribution of humans and the analysis of changes in distribution patterns; urban and transportation geography, the study of cities and towns in relation to their location, size, shape, and function; regional geography, the study of physical, economic, political, and cultural characteristics of regions as small as a congressional district to as large as a continent; and medical geography, the study of epidemics, health-care delivery systems, and the ways in which our environment affects health. Geology is divided into two main branches. Physical geology investigates the composition and structure of rocks and the forces that bring about change in the earth’s crust. This branch includes geochemistry, the analysis of the chemical composition of the earth’s crust; geomorphology, the description and study of external forms of the earth’s surface; mineralogy, the study of the chemical and physical properties of minerals; petrology, the study of the origin, occurrence, structure, and history of rocks; seismology, the study of earthquake shocks and their effects; and structural geology, the investigation of stresses and strains in the earth’s crust and the deformations they produce. Historical geology examines the rocks for evidence of conditions on the earth’s surface millions of years ago. It also traces the rise of plant and animal life as revealed by fossils. This branch includes geochronology, the study of time in relation to the history of the earth; paleontology, the study of fossils; and stratigraphy, the classification of rock sequences. Geophysics, a branch of physical geology, is the application of the science of physics to the study of the earth. Geophysicists have developed highly technical methods for investigating problems in geology, meteorology, and
oceanography. Using sensitive instruments, geophysicists measure and describe physical forces that cannot be studied with equal accuracy by direct observation. They are interested primarily in natural forces, such as the forces generated by earthquakes, storms, and ocean currents. Geophysicists help locate oil and mineral deposits, underground water, and the flaws in rock formations at places where roads and dams are to be built. Meteorology is the science of the atmosphere and its phenomena. It has two major divisions: Weather refers to the condition of the atmosphere in a specific place at a particular time; climate refers to average weather conditions in particular areas over a long period of time. Oceanography is the science covering all aspects of ocean study and exploration. It draws on the sciences of botany, zoology, meteorology, physics, chemistry, geology, fluid mechanics, and applied mathematics. Physical oceanography is the study of water masses and ocean currents, the interaction between the ocean and atmosphere, and the relationship between the sea, weather, and climate. Chemical oceanography is the study of the distribution of chemical compounds and chemical interactions that occur in the ocean and the seafloor. Biological oceanography is the study of the forms of life in the sea. Geological and geophysical oceanography is the study of the shape and material of the ocean floor.
■ Outlook The employment outlook for those in earth science positions is generally expected to be good. Although employment is projected to grow more slowly than the average through 2014, a large number of expected retirements and the relatively low number of qualified earth science graduates should translate into good employment prospects for those entering the field. Opportunities also vary by specialty. Most geologists and geophysicists are employed in the oil and gas industry. Although this industry can be somewhat volatile, the ever-increasing demand for energy resources and the development of new technologies has brought some stability to this field in recent years. The prospects for employment should be favorable in the areas of environmental protection and reclamation. Earth scientists will be needed to help clean up contaminated sites in the United States and help private companies and government agencies comply with environmental regulations. Positions with agencies dependent on government funding, however, will be closely tied to the status of federal and state budgets. In times of cutbacks, there will be little if any job growth with such agencies. Most oceanographers’ work is research-based and there will be stiff competition for funding, especially funding from government agencies. Opportunities are
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Earth scientists excavate eastern gamagrass roots for study at the USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service’s Big Flats Plant Materials Center in New York. (Agricultural Research Service Photo Unit, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture.)
better for those with advanced education and for those who have expertise in other sciences or engineering. Overall employment of geographers is expected to grow about as fast as the average through 2014 due, in part, to the limited need for geographers outside of government and academic institutions. All social scientists, in fact, are projected to experience employment growth that is slower than the average. Geographers who have a background in economics or urban planning have the brightest employment outlook. Employment for meteorologists is expected to be about as fast as the average. The National Weather Service has no plans to increase the number of weather stations or the number of meteorologists in existing stations for many years, and employment of meteorologists in other federal agencies is expected to remain stable. If the health of the economy improves, however, the outlook in private industry should be better than in the federal sector. Weather-sensitive industries like farming, commodity investments, radio and television, utilities, transportation, and construction firms need more specific weather information than can be provided by the National Weather Service. They will require meteorologists to interpret the results of seasonal and other longrange forecasting research.
■ For More Information For information on geoscience careers, contact American Geological Institute 4220 King Street
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Alexandria, VA 22302-1502 Tel: 703-379-2480 http://www.agiweb.org
AGS publishes maps, books, journals, and other geographyrelated materials. American Geographical Society (AGS) 120 Wall Street, Suite 100 New York, NY 10005-3904 Tel: 212-422-5456 Email:
[email protected] http://www.amergeog.org
For information on careers and scholarships, contact American Institute of Professional Geologists 8703 Yates Drive, Suite 200 Westminster, CO 80031-3681 Tel: 303-412-6205 Email:
[email protected] http://www.aipg.org
This organization has a newsletter, a journal, employment announcements, and scholarships and student information. American Meteorological Society 45 Beacon Street Boston, MA 02108-3693 Tel: 617-227-2425 Email:
[email protected] http://www.ametsoc.org
This association has information on careers in geography, profiles of geographers, job listings, and an internship guide. Association of American Geographers 1710 16th Street, NW Washington, DC 20009-3198 Tel: 202-234-1450 Email:
[email protected] http://www.aag.org
For career information and job listings, contact Geological Society of America PO Box 9140 Boulder, CO 80301-9140 Tel: 303-447-2020 http://www.geosociety.org
This association has a newsletter, job announcements, and science links. National Weather Association 1697 Capri Way Charlottesville, VA 22911-3534
Tel: 434-296-9966 http://www.nwas.org
■ Related Articles Biology; The Environment; Parks and Public Lands; Social Sciences; Arborists; Biochemists; Biologists; Botanists; Cartographers; Chemists; Civil Engineers; Ecologists; Environmental Engineers; Fish and Game Wardens; Geographers; Geographic Information Systems Specialists; Geologic Technicians; Geologists; Geophysicists; Groundwater Professionals; Hazardous Waste Management Technicians; Horticultural Technicians; Land Acquisition Professionals; Land Trust or Preserve Managers; Marine Biologists; Meteorologists; Naturalists; Oceanographers; Paleontologists; Petrologists; Range Managers; Soil Conservationists and Technicians; Soil Scientists; Surveying and Mapping Technicians; Surveyors; Toxicologists
Education ■ Background American colonists first began establishing elementary schools for their children in the early 17th century. These schools were private, and only the wealthiest families could afford to enroll students in them. The main purpose of these early schools was to teach the students religion due to its major role in colonial life. Reading, writing, and arithmetic weren’t considered as important. Before 1642, only 10 percent of the young children in the colonies attended school. That year, the colony that would eventually become Massachusetts passed a law stating that parents must teach their children to read. By 1647, the colony mandated that every town with 50 families or more must establish an elementary school. This paved the way for widespread education for children. However, it wasn’t until more than 200 years later, in 1852, that the state of Massachusetts passed the first law in the country making school attendance compulsory. By 1918, all states had such laws. The earliest secondary school was located in the Massachusetts Bay Colony. The Boston Latin School opened in 1635 with the purpose of training children, primarily boys, to become well-read members of the clergy. Like the Boston Latin School, many of the early secondary schools focused on the language of Latin. In the 1700s, the colonists, led by Benjamin Franklin, founded another type of secondary school called the academy. Academies offered a wide variety of subjects in addition to religion,
but they were all private schools that charged tuition and catered to the sons and daughters of affluent families. Public education did not really take hold until the early 1800s, after the Revolutionary War had ended and the country was beginning to unite. Boston was the site of the first public high school, which opened in 1821. After fighting the war, many Americans wanted children to learn about patriotism and about becoming morally upstanding individuals. Many also wanted to de-emphasize religion in the schools. The growing spirit of unity in the country had another important effect on public education, namely the movement toward using standard texts in all schools. The first college in the United States was Harvard, founded in 1636. By 1833, Ohio boasted the country’s first coeducational college, Oberlin. The concept of kindergarten (meaning children’s garden in German) came to the United States from Germany in 1856, when Margaretha Schurz opened a private kindergarten in Watertown, Wisconsin. The first public kindergarten was established in St. Louis in 1873. In 1901, the first public two-year college in the United States, Joliet Junior College, was founded in Illinois. Today, there are nearly 1,200 community colleges in the United States. Education went through many changes in the 1900s. One such change was a declining emphasis on strictness and rote learning (memorization) and a greater emphasis on developing the whole person. Educators added elementary school courses in science and geography, as well as fun classroom activities and field trips. Although World War II caused many people to leave school, the public school system continued to expand and take on more significance, even in the political and social arenas. One of the most important educational reforms of the 20th century was the 1954 Supreme Court decision forbidding racial segregation in public schools. School systems have suffered many crises in recent years. Reports by the National Commission on Excellence in Education stress the widespread public perception that something is seriously amiss in the existing educational system. Many feel that educational systems fall far short of the goal of cultivating a learning society and that U.S. students lag far behind their counterparts in other developed nations. Urban schools, in particular, have suffered in the last decade from the problems of violence, drug abuse, gang activity, and high dropout rates, in addition to diminishing student performance. Experts say that as many as 20 percent of Americans are functionally illiterate. Many different reasons have been cited for these declines: too little federal funding, poor parental influence, poverty,
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This kindergarten teacher is helping her students learn to tell time. (Corbis.)
irrelevant or uninspired curricula, the lack of national standards and a national curriculum, poorly motivated students, and poorly trained teachers. The No Child Left Behind Act was enacted into law in 2002. The Act does the following: (1) sets achievement goals for teachers and paraprofessionals; (2) holds states to higher accountability for the educational achievement of their students in exchange for more flexibility in how they can use federal education funds; (3) stresses the importance of using scientific research to determine what educational programs and practices are most effective for students and educators; and (4) gives parents with children in schools that do not meet state standards for at least two straight years the option to transfer their children to a better-performing public school or public charter school. The full impact of the Act is as yet unknown, but supporters feel that it will greatly reduce the achievement gap between rich and poor students and white and minority students, while opponents note that these programs have not received promised funding and that the testing mandates of the Act distract from other educational goals. Despite problems with the nation’s school systems, teaching careers have broad appeal and offer varied opportunities. Teaching attracts people with a keen interest in a particular subject area, a desire to work with people, a commitment to social service, a wish for a life of scholarship and study, and a desire for a secure professional career.
■ Structure The majority of people involved in education are engaged in teaching. Teaching responsibilities vary greatly from job to job in terms of subjects, schedules, and assigned
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Words to Know Academic adviser: A faculty or staff member who helps college students choose majors, course plans, and professors. Bilingual education: Classes in which students with limited English-speaking skills are taught in their native languages. Charter school: A public school that operates independently of the traditional public school system. Its curricula may be similar to that of traditional public schools or it may be designed to meet the specific educational needs of a community. Charter schools are usually sponsored by state or local school boards. Distance education: Traditionally known as correspondence courses, these programs allow students to take courses by mail or via the Internet. Elective: A high school or college course that is optional but counts toward graduation requirements. English as a second language (ESL) class: English language class for people with limited English-speaking skills. Enrollment: Total number of students registered for a class, program, or school.
Faculty: The staff of professors and instructors in a high school or college. Financial aid: Funds, which may come from the government, private agencies, colleges, and banks, that help individuals pay tuition and other college expenses. Humanities: College programs that include courses in foreign language, philosophy, and the visual and performing arts. Interdisciplinary: Programs or courses that include instruction in a number of different academic areas. Liberal arts: Academic work in the humanities, social sciences, and natural sciences. Life sciences: Academic programs, including biology, biophysics, and zoology, that involve the study of living organisms. School district: A local agency that oversees the operation of the public schools of the area. Syllabus: An outline, or schedule, for a course. Technical education: A program that prepares people for positions in technical careers; usually includes the study of the principles of technology and the development of technical skills. Tenure: Status granted to a faculty member that ensures job security and permanence.
duties. For example, elementary school teachers typically work with one group of children all day, while middle and secondary school teachers teach four, five, or more groups of students throughout the day. College professors may only present a few lectures a day, but also conduct scholarly research. Teachers of younger children perform many of the roles of a parent, so the jobs of the preschool, kindergarten, and elementary school teachers include the personal and social responsibilities that are assumed by parents at home. These jobs, of course, include the full gamut of responsibilities for the emotional and intellectual growth of children. Responsibilities of teachers of grades K–6 include teaching, selecting and planning course work, grading homework, and evaluating student achievement. They participate in conferences with parents, other teachers, and administrators on problems with curriculum, instruction, and guidance. They meet with social workers and psychologists regarding students with mental, emotional, behavioral, physical, or learning disabilities. High school teachers have basic responsibilities similar to those of elementary school teachers, but they act less
as parent substitutes and are more concerned with academics. Typically, high school teachers specialize in one or two subjects. But even at the high school level, teachers are concerned about more than the students’ academic progress. They help students deal with personal problems and advise them in matters concerning their future, such as selecting colleges and careers. Similar to the high school teacher, the college professor shares the commitment to a specific field of knowledge, but such commitment is more intense. College professors are expected to participate in the activities of a professional society or association. Increasingly, professors are sought out as consultants in business, government, and public service. With more demands on their time outside of the classroom, college teachers have less time to spend with students than they would like. Professors with years of experience and a high level of specialization may choose to teach at the graduate level. These teachers spend more time in research activities and work with a small number of graduate students. At all levels of the profession, teachers today are generally better educated than they were years ago. All states
require the minimum of a bachelor’s degree for a beginning position, and many teachers have graduate degrees. A variety of new opportunities for educators have evolved in nontraditional areas. Qualified education professionals are needed to work in agencies such as adult education programs, recreation departments, drug and alcohol abuse programs, Planned Parenthood units, and government organizations such as the Peace Corps and Job Corps. Teachers are finding more opportunities in business, vocational, and special interest training, where a degree in education is not as important as work and life experience. Thousands of people are employed by professional organizations, private agencies with educational programs, and government offices of education. Every state in the United States has an office of education, which hires professionals to monitor and make recommendations for local school policies. The federal government also employs professionals to ensure that legislative mandates regarding education are carried out at the state and local levels. Federal education officials are concerned with such areas as early childhood education, bilingual education, inclusion of students with disabilities, transportation, and school health. School districts and schools at all grade levels hire workers with education backgrounds to work as administrators. School and college administrators, including superintendents and principals, often first work as teachers. Administrators for elementary and secondary public schools handle finances, record keeping, course development, hiring, enforcement of state requirements, union negotiations, maintenance of school properties, and other management duties. At the college level, administrators act as presidents, vice presidents, deans, admissions officers, financial aid managers, student advisors, buildings and grounds managers, and department heads. Association leaders and educators in government offices also often begin their careers as teachers. To be qualified and experienced for these higher-level positions, most education administrators and government officials have completed graduate study in education. Many educational publishing houses prefer to hire textbook editors with teaching experience. As former teachers, these editors are not only experts in the subject matter, but are also better able to determine whether the material is appropriate for the age and reading level a book is intended for, and whether instructions are clear and easy for a teacher to use. Many teachers belong to a professional union such as the National Education Association or the American Federation of Teachers. Most teachers also join other associations or societies that represent their own subject
Education
areas or fields of specialization. Professional organizations and unions help teachers attain improvements in education, such as reduced teaching loads to allow more time for planning and evaluating, increased pay and benefits, and budgetary allowances that permit teachers to attend professional meetings. Other policy changes benefiting teachers include laws guaranteeing due process, establishing grievance procedures, ensuring fair dismissal procedures, and protecting teachers’ rights and academic freedom. Teachers must be extremely dedicated to their students, to the subjects they teach, and to the notion of education in general. Perhaps it is for this reason that teaching is frequently referred to as a calling rather than a career. It is generally regarded as a noble profession, yet teachers continue to receive low pay, work long hours, and have limited resources, particularly at the elementary and secondary school levels.
■ Outlook According to the U.S. Department of Labor, employment in the field of education is expected to increase by 20 percent through 2014, higher than the average growth rate projected for all industries. Aside from growth within the field, many job openings will arise from the need to replace workers who retire or change occupations. Enrollments in elementary, middle, and secondary school are projected to remain flat, which will lead to average employment growth for preschool, elementary, middle, and secondary school teachers. Opportunities should be good, though, in schools in inner cities and rural areas, and in the following states that are predicted to have large increases in enrollment: California, Hawaii, Idaho, Utah, New Mexico, and Texas. Opportunities should also be strong for educators who specialize in the teaching of mathematics, science (especially chemistry and physics), bilingual education, vocational education, and foreign languages. Postsecondary student enrollments are expected to increase, spurring much faster than average employment growth for postsecondary teachers. Opportunities should be especially strong in Arizona, California, Florida, New York, and Texas. Although college enrollment is expected to increase, competition for full-time faculty and administrator positions will remain high. Lower paid, part-time instructors, such as visiting professors and graduate students, are replacing tenure-track faculty positions. Organizations such as the American Association of University Professors and the American Federation of Teachers are working to prevent the loss of full-time jobs, as well as to help part-time instructors receive better pay and benefits.
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Email:
[email protected] http://www.aasa.org
To read about issues in higher education, visit the AAUP Web site. American Association of University Professors 1012 14th Street, NW, Suite 500 Washington, DC 20005-3465 Tel: 202-737-5900 Email:
[email protected] http://www.aaup.org These first-and second-graders are working with blocks to show mathematical relationships and help them to understand basic concepts. (Donald R. Downey, New Standard Encyclopedia.)
More instructors will find work in community colleges and other adult education programs. The federal government is committed to providing vocational training for high school graduates who choose not to enroll immediately in four-year colleges or universities. These school-to-work programs prepare graduating seniors for high-wage technical jobs and require trained adult and vocational education teachers. The U.S. Department of Labor projects that the number of special education teachers, speech-language pathologists and audiologists, and counselors will grow about as fast as the average occupation through 2014, because of increasing enrollment of special education students, continued emphasis on inclusion of disabled students in general education classrooms, and the effort to reach students with problems at younger ages. Jobs for teacher assistants also will grow somewhat faster than average in general, special education, and English-as-a-second-language classrooms.
■ For More Information For information on community college education, contact American Association of Community Colleges (AACC) One Dupont Circle, NW, Suite 410 Washington, DC 20036-1110 Tel: 202-728-0200 http://www.aacc.nche.edu
For information about careers in administration, contact American Association of School Administrators 801 North Quincy Street, Suite 700 Arlington, VA 22203-1730 Tel: 703-528-0700
For information on union membership, contact the following organizations: American Federation of Teachers 555 New Jersey Avenue, NW Washington, DC 20001-2029 Tel: 202-879-4400 Email:
[email protected] http://www.aft.org
National Education Association 1201 16th Street, NW Washington, DC 20036-3290 Tel: 202-833-4000 http://www.nea.org
The DETC serves as a clearinghouse of information on distance learning. It also sponsors a nationally recognized accrediting agency and offers a list of accredited institutions at its Web site. Distance Education and Training Council (DETC) 1601 18th Street, NW Washington, DC 20009-2529 Tel: 202-234-5100 http://www.detc.org
For information about careers in education, scholarships, networking, and publications, contact the following organization: National Association for the Education of Young Children 1509 16th Street, NW Washington, DC 20036-1426 Tel: 800-424-2460 Email:
[email protected] http://www.naeyc.org
■ Related Articles Adult and Vocational Education Teachers; Career and Employment Counselors and Technicians; College Administrators; College Professors; Computer Trainers;
Education Directors and Museum Teachers; Elementary School Teachers; English as a Second Language Teachers; Guidance Counselors; Interpreters and Translators; Mathematics Teachers; Medical Ethicists; Naturalists; Nursing Instructors; Preschool Teachers; School Administrators; School Nurses; Secondary School Teachers; Special Education Teachers; Teacher Aides
Electronics ■ Background The electronics industry is composed of organizations involved in the manufacture, design and development, assembly, and servicing of electronic equipment and components. Together, these organizations offer a wide variety of products that frequently have only one thing in common: They depend upon electronic technology to operate. Electronics is one of the fastest evolving and most innovative industries, and also one of the most competitive. The research and development of new, better products is of great importance in electronics, where companies often compete fiercely to bring the newest technology to market first. Electronics is the branch of science and technology that deals with the study, application, and control of the conduction of electricity in a vacuum, in gases, in liquids, in semiconductors, and in conducting and superconducting materials. There are thousands of electronic products with countless applications. These products consist of materials, parts, components, subassemblies, and equipment that use the principles of electronics to perform their major functions. The roots of the electronics industry go back to the late 1800s, when scientists experimented with gaseousdischarge tubes and discovered that electricity could pass through gas from one metal electrode to another. Subsequent experiments led to the discovery of the vacuum tube, a tube with all the gases removed, through which electric current could flow. In 1904, a British scientist, John Ambrose Fleming, built the first commercial vacuum tube. It was used to detect radio signals. Three years later, Lee De Forest, an American inventor, produced a triode, or three-electrode tube, which was the first electronic amplifier. The early years of the electronics industry were known as the vacuum tube era. During this period, which lasted from the 1920s to the 1950s, the primary electronic device was the vacuum tube. At first it was used primarily in radio receivers and broadcasting equipment. As more was learned about vacuum tubes,
Electronics
however, they came to be used in television sets, radar, electronic computers, and sound motion pictures. In the 1950s, the electronics industry expanded with the first commercial use of the transistor and the development of semiconductor diodes. Transistors, and other solid-state materials, allow electrons to flow through a solid material rather than through a vacuum tube. Transistors were first used as amplifiers in hearing aids and pocket-sized radios. By the 1960s, transistors and semiconductor diodes were being used instead of vacuum tubes in many electronic products. These years are often referred to as the solid-state era of electronics. The electronics industry expanded even further with the development of integrated circuits in the late 1950s. Integrated circuits are very small semiconductor chips that can do the work of thousands of individual electron devices such as transistors. Integrated circuits revolutionized the electronics industry and made possible many new products. At first, integrated circuits were used in military equipment and spacecraft. Later, they were used in radios, televisions, computers, and many other types of electronic products. Around 1970, researchers working in the laboratory of an electronic component manufacturer developed the first microprocessor. Microprocessors, which have been called one of the most important discoveries of the last half of the 20th century, are tiny silicon chips on which all of the arithmetic and logic functions of a computer are placed. In essence, they are tiny chips that serve as miniature computers. At first, microprocessors were used to create pocket-sized calculators, video games, and home appliances. They then led to the creation of small computers. Until that time, computers were gigantic in size and very expensive. Only the federal government and giant industries could afford them. Microprocessors, however, allowed the development of smaller computers that could operate faster and perform many functions that larger computers could not. Today, microprocessors are used in a variety of products, such as digital watches, personal computers, microwave ovens, telephone equipment, and electronic controls in automobiles. The electronics industry continues to expand and to search for ways to use electronic components to create new and innovative products. Today’s high-performance microprocessors allow computers to perform applications in new technologies, such as real-time video image processing, medical imaging, and digital telecommunications. Scientists are developing products such as an all-in-one personal computer and television set with built-in digital video disc (DVD) player, stereo sound, and recordable-optical CD, Internet access device, and three-dimensional video game player. Other scientists
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A production worker works in a cleanroom in an electronics plant. (Hewlett-Packard.)
are working to create a supercomputer that can perform one trillion floating point operations per second, which is 10 times faster than the fastest existing computer. Others concentrate on wireless communication and computing devices that are small enough to fit in your pocket. The electronics industry is closely tied to economic conditions both within the United States and around the world. In the early 1970s and 1980s, total U.S. shipments of electronic equipment, components, and systems grew steadily and totaled many billions of dollars in sales. Exports comprised about 25 percent of the electronics industry’s business. In the mid-1980s, however, despite a strong U.S. economy, the electronic components industry suffered a sharp downturn. Intense foreign competition and offshore operations by American companies contributed to a trade deficit. But high levels of research and development and capital expenditures in the late 1980s set the industry back on its feet, and by the mid1990s, sales and exports of electronics were at record highs and the industry was once again strong. Since then, shipments by U.S. electronic components manufacturers have continued to grow. Today, electronics manufacturing is global in scope. To compete effectively, U.S. electronics suppliers must sell to both domestic and foreign markets. Not only are foreign sales markets vital, but foreign labor markets are increasingly important, too. To stem production expenses, many U.S. electronics manufacturers have moved their assembly and testing plants to other countries where wages are lower. Even so, most manufacturers keep at least part of their operations in the United States. There are heavy concentrations of manufacturing plants along the Atlantic Coast from Baltimore north-
ward, in the Midwest centering around Chicago, and on the Pacific Coast, with the greatest production center in southern California. One well-known area with a heavy concentration of electronics companies is Silicon Valley, an area south of San Francisco. This area developed with the growth of integrated circuits and microprocessors. During the 1960s and 1970s, many electronic component manufacturers settled their operations there and the area became known as a high-tech area with many companies doing cutting-edge research. Today, some companies are moving from the Silicon Valley and other traditional manufacturing areas to cities in Arizona, Texas, Oregon, and other states. Manufacturing plants are being established in many parts of the country. There are numerous exciting opportunities and intellectual challenges for the future in electronics manufacturing and associated service operations. New applications are being discovered in such areas as space exploration, telecommunications, computer technology, and industrial and commercial automation. As society becomes increasingly automated at home and at work, the electronics industry will continue to research efficient, innovative ways to incorporate electronics technology into daily life.
■ Structure The products made by the electronics industry can be divided into four basic categories: government products, industrial products, consumer products, and electronic components. The first category, government products, represents a high percentage of sales in the industry. Missile and space guidance systems, communications systems, medical technology, and traffic control devices are just a few of these high-priced, high-tech products. The second category covers industrial products, which include large-scale computers, radio and television broadcasting equipment, telecommunications equipment, and electronic office equipment. Industrial products also include testing and measuring instruments, industrial control and processing equipment, electronic instruments for nuclear work, and radiation detection devices. The third category, consumer products, is the most commonly known area within the electronics industry and includes such things as wireless phones, compact disc players, DVD players, televisions, radios, video games, and VCRs. Other consumer products are personal computers, Personal Digital Assistants, electronic ovens, and home intercommunication and alarm systems. The fourth category is made up of the small pieces that all electronics are made of: components. Integrated circuits, capacitors, switches, transistors, relays, micro-
chips, television picture tubes, and amplifiers are among the most widely known. Electronic components usually are classified in three broad groups: electron tubes, semiconductors, and passive components. Tubes include receiving, television picture, and various power and special-purpose tubes. Principal semiconductor devices are integrated circuits, microprocessors, transistors, diodes, and rectifiers. Passive components include capacitors, resistors, transformers, relays, connectors, and switches. Because of its dependence on technology and the need to keep abreast of technical progress, electronics manufacturing provides a large number of opportunities for engineers and scientists. In 2004, more than 30 percent of individuals working in the electronics industry were in professional specialty occupations, primarily electrical and electronics engineers. About 6 percent of those employed in the electronics industry are technicians, mostly engineering technicians, who work closely with engineers. Today, there is strong growth in companies doing research and development in areas such as telecommunications, computers, and biomedical and medical engineering. Although electronics employs a high number of professional and technical workers, more than three out of 10 workers in this field are in production. Many are assemblers, who put together the various parts of an electrical device. Other production workers inspect and test equipment before it is shipped out. About 14 percent of the jobs in this field are executive, managerial, and administrative, and the remainder are clerical and sales and service positions. The principal unions involved in electronics manufacturing are the International Union of Electronic, Electrical, Salaried, Machine, and Furniture Workers; International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers; International Association of Machinists and Aerospace Workers; and United Electrical, Radio and Machine Workers of America.
■ Outlook Approximately 1.3 million Americans were employed in the computer electronic equipment manufacturing industry in 2004. Overall employment in this industry is projected by the U.S. Department of Labor to decline by 7 percent through 2014. The greatest employment declines will occur in the following industry segments: computer and peripheral equipment (–17.5 percent), and semiconductor and other electronic components (–11.7 percent). Manufacturing and reproducing magnetic and optical media is predicted to decline by 0.2 percent. Contributing factors to the decline include the continuing automation of manufacturing processes and the
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trend for U.S. electronics companies to move their production and assembly operations to lower-wage countries, such as those in the Pacific Rim. Only one industry segment—navigational, measuring, electromedical, and control instruments (+4.2 percent)—is expected to experience employment growth through 2014. Growth will also vary among the different types of jobs in the industry. More growth is expected among the professional specialty occupations, such as scientists,
Words to Know Analog: An electrical signal that is processed in a continuous wave, based on real-world qualities like speed, sound, and voltage. Capacitator: A device for accumulating and holding a charge of electricity. Circuit: The complete path of an electric current. Circuit board: A board that contains the wires connecting the various parts of an electronic system. Current: The movement or flow of electric charge. Digital: An electrical signal that is broken down into a series of zeros and ones and therefore varies in measured increments. Diode: A device through which an electric current can pass in only one direction. Electron tube: A device that typically consists of a sealed glass bulb containing two or more electrodes; used to generate and amplify electric oscillations and alternating currents. Fab: A semiconductor fabrication facility, that is, a chip factory. Integrated circuit: A piece of silicon on which thousands or millions of transistors have been combined; also called a chip. Microprocessor: A computer on a digital chip, which performs math and logic operations and executes instructions from memory. Rectifier: A device in which current flows more easily in one direction than in the other direction; used to change an alternating current into a direct current. Resistor: A device that introduces resistance into an electric current. Schematic: A diagram of a circuit. Semiconductor: A device that controls electronic signals. Solid-state: Refers to electronic devices that can control current without using moving parts, heated filaments, or vacuum gaps. Transistor: A device used for amplification or switching of electrical current.
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This worker is assembling a video display terminal for a computer. (Lear Sigler, Inc., Data Products Division.)
engineers, and computer systems analysts. This is because of the increasing sophistication of technology and manufacturing processes as well as the competitive nature of the industry, which leads to strong efforts in research and development. Production positions will decline due to increasing technological advancements in manufacturing and outsourcing of positions to plants that are located in foreign countries. The electronics industry is extremely susceptible to economic conditions, both within the United States and around the world. Global competition is increasing, and many U.S. manufacturers are joining in partnerships with foreign companies, most notably Japanese companies, in order to succeed. The environment is extremely competitive and is expected to remain so in the future. Employment opportunities within individual companies will be significantly affected by those companies’ efforts to remain competitive. Many companies reduced their workforces during the 1990s in order to have leaner staffs and less operating expenses. Radical changes are not unusual as a company drops one product line, adds another, or gears down after a large project. For example, a large company may lay off a large number of workers in one area of the company, while at the same time it may hire new employees for a different area. Electronics professionals can expect to change jobs and companies several times during their careers. In order to succeed, professionals will need to acquire multiple skills, have a strong technical foundation, and stay up to date on changing technologies. The use of electronic components in automobiles has been growing steadily since the early 1990s. In the late 1970s, electronic parts made up only about 1 percent of the total cost of an automobile. Today, depending upon
the make and model, electronic components account for between 8 and 15 percent of an automobile’s cost. Electronic navigational systems are also being used by the automotive industry, as well as many other industries. These systems are based on technology developed by the Department of Defense for its global positioning system, a satellite-based navigational system used for military purposes (and now also available to the general public). Some automobiles are now equipped with electronic navigational systems that use satellite-tracking systems to guide them to their destinations. Equipment includes a computer screen and both visual and audio prompts. Another electronic navigational technology being developed is an enhanced vision system that allows airplane pilots to “see” through weather through the use of electronic sensors that create high-resolution radar imagery. Home theater products represent another rapidly growing area of consumer electronic products. Many U.S. households have the basic equipment for a home theater: big-screen TV, VCR or DVD player, and stereo system. Projection televisions with screens as big as 70 inches are popular items, as are combined television/ VCR/DVD products. Larger screens are expected in the near future. Another recently developed personal audio/ visual product is the HDTV (high-definition television). HDTV uses digital technology to produce twice the picture resolution of the traditional televisions. HDTV can also display computer graphics and show movies in their original widescreen height-to-width ratio. This industry sector continues to evolve rapidly. The computer industry is a leader in creating technologically advanced products. There are now more than 227 million Internet users in North America, with 55 percent of Internet users having broadband access at home or work. Computer and semiconductor companies are constantly working on developing lighter, smaller, and more efficient electronic components that can be used in computers and related products. Before a product even comes out, engineers and scientists are working on creating a faster and better version. One of the new products being developed is a graphics/multimedia chip that will offer full-screen, fullmotion video, DVD-quality sound, and 64-bit graphics. Software developers and electrical and electronics engineers have created new products that allow electronic banking and electronic shopping. Other technological innovations include electronic printing. Digital printing technology, first developed in 1993, allows information to be transported electronically and reduces many of the equipment and material costs associated with printing. There should be increased opportunities in the development of military electronics. The Defense Appropria-
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tions Bill for fiscal year 2005 provided $355.4 billion in new discretionary spending authority for the Department of Defense, $38.2 billion more than was made available for 2001. Portions of the budget have been earmarked for surveillance and reconnaissance, missile defense systems, and development of new fighter aircraft, all requiring the expertise of electronics scientists, engineers, and computer specialists.
■ For More Information For general information and current news about the electronics industry, contact American Electronics Association 5201 Great America Parkway, Suite 520 Santa Clara, CA 95054-1122 Tel: 408-987-4247 http://www.aeanet.org
For specific information on various industry sectors, including consumer electronics, telecommunications, and electronic components, contact this organization or visit its Web site. Electronic Industries Alliance 2500 Wilson Boulevard Arlington, VA 22201-3834 Tel: 703-907-7500 http://www.eia.org
For information on engineering and computers or to find the IEEE student branch nearest you, contact Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) 1828 L Street, NW, Suite 1202 Washington, DC 20036-5104 Tel: 732-562-3900 Email:
[email protected] http://www.ieee.org
For information on math, science, and engineering programs for high school students, and for brochures on careers in engineering, contact Junior Engineering Technical Society Inc. 1420 King Street, Suite 405 Alexandria, VA 22314-2794 Tel: 703-548-5387 Email:
[email protected] http://www.jets.org
■ Related Articles Aerospace; Broadcasting; Computer Hardware; Computers; Computer Software; Defense; Music and Recording Industry; Telecommunications; Aeronautical and Aero-
space Technicians; Aerospace Engineers; Appliance Service Technicians; Audio Recording Engineers; Avionics Engineers and Technicians; Biomedical Engineers; Broadcast Engineers; Cable Television Technicians; Communications Equipment Technicians; Computer-Aided Design Drafters and Technicians; Computer and Electronics Sales Representatives; Computer and Office Machine Service Technicians; Computer Programmers; Electrical and Electronics Engineers; Electronics Engineering Technicians; Electronics Service Technicians; Energy Transmission and Distribution Workers; Industrial Engineering Technicians; Industrial Engineers; Instrument Makers and Repairers; Instrumentation Technicians; Laboratory Testing Technicians; Mechanical Engineering Technicians; Mechanical Engineers; Metallurgical Engineers; Metallurgical Technicians; Microelectronics Technicians; Robotics Engineers and Technicians; Semiconductor Technicians
Energy ■ Background For most of human history, fire was the main source of energy. Wood, charcoal, then coal provided fuel for fire. Over the years, however, people have acquired a more sophisticated knowledge of fuels and energy. This has resulted in the development of atomic energy, as well as new methods of accessing, storing, and utilizing a variety of resources, including petroleum, coal, natural gas, and water. The natural gas industry established itself in the early 19th century. In Britain, the first gas company was founded in 1812. The first American company opened in Baltimore in 1817. However, the oil rush of 1859 and the introduction of the electric light in 1879 thwarted the natural gas industry. Gas lights had been more effective and easier to use than kerosene lamps, but electric lighting became even more popular. Though used less and less for lighting, gas was still the primary fuel for cooking and even today maintains a share of that market. When huge reserves of natural gas were discovered in the Southwest in the early 1900s, the production of natural gas increased to 800 billion cubic feet a year. Further increases in the production of natural gas have been dependent on the development of pipelines that carry the gas to potential market areas. Other energy sources were also investigated during the 19th century. The internal combustion engine, patented in 1838, set the stage for gasoline’s popularity as a fuel.
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Jean Joseph Étienne Lenoir built a single-cylinder engine in 1860, and by 1865, 400 copies of it were being used in Paris to power such machines as printing presses and water pumps. German inventors built some of the first two- and four-cylinder combustion engines, fueled by gasoline and used to power vehicles. With the development of the automobile, the demand for gasoline grew dramatically. World War II further increased the dependence on gasoline and other petroleum products by creating a demand for fuel for tanks, ships, and other wartime vehicles. This stimulated the need for exploration of a large number of oil wells across the country. By the 1970s, the demand for oil had increased to the extent that Western nations could no longer supply enough oil to meet their own needs and were forced to import it from Middle Eastern countries. When these Middle Eastern countries gained control over the quantity and the price of oil being sold, they formed a cartel, known as the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC), which became one of the major influences on the world economy during this period. To combat the influence of OPEC, Great Britain, the United States, and other oil-producing countries increased domestic production in order to reduce the world’s dependence on oil from the OPEC nations. OPEC was forced to reduce prices and lost its control of the oil market. However, on the domestic market, greater availability of oil and gas products resulted in lower prices and decreased profits for the energy companies. The exploration, production, and delivery of energy extracts a large price from the environment. The grounding of the Exxon Valdez in Alaska’s Prince Edward Sound in 1989 resulted in one of the largest oil spills in history and remains North America’s worst environmental disaster ever. The damaged ship dumped 10 million gallons of crude oil into clear, clean water, killing thousands of birds, fish, and mammals, destroying the area’s fishing industry, and causing a national uproar. In just two weeks, the oil spill extended along the Alaskan shoreline at a distance equal to the entire coastal length of the state of California. The energy companies’ desire to drill for oil in Alaska’s huge Arctic Wildlife Refuge continues to meet with great opposition from environmental groups and others who wish to preserve the pristine condition of this area, which serves as an important habitat for artic animals and birds. Oil and gas exploration and extraction alter the environment, and among the challenges facing energy producers is the development of techniques for reducing alterations and damage to the environment created by the drilling, refining, transporting, and burning of fossil fuels.
Pumps of varying sizes are placed in wells where oil will not emerge rapidly. (Phillips Petroleum.)
Another challenge is to find more efficient ways to use nonrenewable energy sources and to harness energy from renewable sources, such as the sun, wind, and sea. Until the 1930s, hydroelectric power was responsible for providing most electricity because hydroplants were less expensive to operate than those that relied on thermal energy released by burning fuels like coal. Today, hydroelectric plants, which are often located at river dams, are just one source among many for generating energy. Hydropower supplies about 10 percent of our nation’s energy, according to the U.S. Department of Energy. Nuclear energy has played an important role in the energy industry since World War II, when the first atomic bombs were exploded. As the focus of nuclear engineering after the war grew to include nonviolent uses for atomic energy, nuclear reactors were built to propel naval vessels and to produce electric power. There are more than 100 nuclear power plants operating in the United States. However, several serious accidents at large nuclear reactors, specifically Three Mile Island in Pennsylvania and Chernobyl in the Ukraine, have provoked widespread fear about the dangers of radioactive contamination. In addition, nuclear wastes produced by these and other facilities must be carefully managed, and there is much conflict among government officials, taxpayers, and residents about where and how the waste should be disposed.
In the future, utility companies will no longer be monopolies. This is driven by three major factors: a significant drop in the cost of solar and wind power (in the latter case, a decrease of 80 percent in the last 15 years), a rise in consumer environmental awareness, and the gradual emergence of a deregulated electricity market. Consumers will be able to choose their energy source. Renewable energies, such as geothermal, bioenergy, solar power, and wind energy, will provide new options for many people concerned about the environment and conserving natural resources.
■ Structure Nearly every field of science and engineering is involved in the energy industry. Among the oil industry’s key employees are geologists, geophysicists, petroleum engineers, chemists, and chemical engineers. Together, these highly skilled men and women carry much of the responsibility for finding oil, producing it, processing it in the refinery, and conducting petroleum research. The U.S. oil industry is made up of thousands of companies engaged in one or more of five principal categories: exploration, production, refining, transportation, and marketing. Companies active in all five are known as integrated companies. Mineralogists and paleontologists who study fossil remains in the earth as a clue to oil-bearing sands are among the scientists who perform exploration research. According to one expert, the chances of striking oil when a well is drilled average only one in nine. Only one in 144 wells drilled in new fields results in commercially significant quantities of oil and natural gas. Geologists use a variety of sources to help find petroleum. They use background information to hunt for signs of certain kinds of underground rock formations where oil is likely to collect. For example, oil may be found where layers of certain kinds of rocks have slipped or tilted in a particular way, or where the layers have been pushed up to form a kind of underground dome. Sometimes geologists can find places where the tilted layers stick out of the earth. They frequently drill holes to get core samples of the underground layers. Geophysicists rely on another important type of exploration method. Working with such tools as the gravimeter, magnetometer, and seismograph, they chart underground rock formations and calculate the composition, depth, thickness, and slope of the structures. In the past, these calculations were made with explosives, set off at several different points. Later developments in seismic land surveys include the use of vibratory or percussion devices that do away with the drilling of holes and the use of explosives. With
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vibratory devices, the geophysicist can get accurate information and minimize environmental damage. In water, these devices send out pulses in the form of electrical discharges or contained explosions of propane gas or air so that marine life won’t be harmed. Petroleum and natural gas often are found in the same fields. When the geologist and the geophysicist have turned in their reports and recommendations, a petroleum company decides whether to drill. Drilling requires a great amount of equipment and supplies. Dozens of skilled workers are required, including exploration crew, geologists, drilling crew, engineers, and other skilled technicians. Once recovered, the crude oil has to be transported to refineries where it is turned into thousands of useful products. (For more information, see the article “Petroleum.”) Gas energy comes primarily from domestic natural gas wells. Gas production has been bolstered by pipeline imports from Canada, by domestic production of synthetic natural gas from petroleum, and by delivery of liquefied natural gas by ship from overseas. Potential sources for future use include natural gas from Alaska and Mexico, natural gas from coal, and gas from renewable organic and other unconventional sources. Advancing technology may allow us to draw energy from seawater and from pools of superheated brine. Another recent technological advancement is the use of nuclear energy to generate electricity. Nuclear power plants are made up of one or more nuclear reactor units.
Renewable Energy Because U.S. energy consumption is increasing, scientists, environmentalists, geologists, and other professionals are interested in exploring renewable sources of energy, such as solar and wind energy. Historically, coal has been very cheap and plentiful, but solar and wind energy are very clean and efficient in comparison. Customers who buy electricity have never been able to choose the type of energy source they would like to use. But, in a few years, that will change as utility monopolies are broken up and additional sources, such as solar and wind energies, are offered to the public. Utility companies are investing in solar and wind projects so that they, too, may offer the new options to their customers. Demand is expected to be high because many people are very concerned about keeping the earth clean. Jobs in designing, installing, and maintaining the necessary solar and wind equipment will be on the rise. Source: American Solar Energy Society
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Words to Know Chemical engineer: Worker who designs and operates refineries based on the research findings of a chemist; also responsible for ensuring the safety and quality of the product during manufacturing. Compressor operator: Worker who runs compressor engines and other related equipment. This includes loading and unloading compressors, starting and stopping engines, and controlling the speed of the engines in order to maintain the optimum operating pressures. Environmental conservation expert: Person who analyzes and recommends safe, environmentally responsible ways to extract, refine, transport, and market oil and natural gas. Exxon Valdez: Ship that was grounded in Alaska’s Prince Edward Sound in 1989 and dumped 10 million gallons of crude oil into a pristine environment, producing the worst environmental disaster ever recorded in North American history. Geologist: Scientist who locates natural resources, such as petroleum, by studying the rock environment and drilling for ground samples. Geophysicist: Scientist who works with tools, such as gravimeters, seismographs, and vibratory devices, to chart underground rock formations and calculate the depth, composition, thickness, and slope of the structures. Industrial engineer: Professional responsible for methods analysis; work standards development and control; planning, scheduling, and budgeting; and economic analysis of operating practices and investments. Mineralogist and paleontologist: Scientists who study fossil remains in the earth to locate oil-bearing sands.
In each unit, uranium undergoes a fission reaction, which produces enormous quantities of heat. During this fission reaction, the nucleus of an atom is split into energized particles called neutrons. The neutrons are released at such great speed that they collide with other atomic nuclei and cause additional splitting action to occur. This chain reaction would be uncontrollable if it did not occur within the walls of the reactor core. If the chain reaction is not contained properly, the results could be catastrophic, as in the 1986 incident in Chernobyl nuclear plant in the former USSR (now Ukraine). Nuclear fission also pro-
Nuclear disaster: Occurs when safety procedures fail during nuclear activity and the surrounding environment becomes inhospitable. So far, two major accidents have occurred: one at Three Mile Island near Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, and one at Chernobyl, Ukraine. Nuclear reactor operator (NRO): Worker who is licensed by the Nuclear Regulatory Commission to oversee the generating machines in a nuclear plant. NROs interpret data from monitoring instruments that record all activity in the reactor unit. Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC): A cartel of oil-producing, oil-exporting Middle Eastern countries. In the 1970s, they dominated the oil market and sent U.S. oil prices soaring with their monopoly. Petroleum scientist: Expert who works in exploration research in order to better understand how oil was formed and to make drilling expeditions more precise. Power plant operator: Worker who controls the boilers, turbines, generators, and auxiliary equipment in traditional, nonnuclear plants; monitors equipment for irregularities in the generation or distribution of power. Radiation protection technician: Worker who monitors radiation levels, protects workers from being exposed to dangerous radiation levels, and decontaminates radioactive areas. Renewable energy: A clean and unlimited source of power or fuel. This energy is harnessed from different sources such as wind, sunlight (solar), water (hydro), organic matter (biomass), and the Earth’s internal heat (geothermal). Rig-builder supervisor: Person who directs work on the rig, including putting up the tall, open towers called rigs or derricks and overseeing the process of drilling into the ground.
duces toxic, long-lived nuclear waste, so the nuclear power industry and government must develop ways to contain these wastes for the long term. Heat generated by this fission process creates steam from water circulating around the reactor core. Pipes keep the steam under very high pressure and carry it away to the turbine, which drives the electric generator that produces electricity. (For more information, see the article “Nuclear Power.”) Solar energy converts the sun’s light into energy that can be used to make electricity. In the near future, the
demand for architects that can design buildings to maximize sunlight will grow, as will the demand for installers of solar systems for homes and businesses. According to the American Solar Energy Institute, more than one million Americans use solar water heaters, more than 500,000 use solar energy to heat their swimming pools, and more than 200,000 homes use solar electric (PV) technology. Wind energy has been the fastest growing energy technology in the world for the past three years, according to the American Wind Energy Association. In order to better harness this renewable energy source, engineers will be needed to improve the design of today’s windmills and make them more efficient so that wind energy rates can compete with other available energy sources. Until just a few years ago, most wind farms were concentrated in California and Texas, but other states with sizable wind farm development include Colorado, Iowa, Kansas, Minnesota, Nebraska, New York, North Dakota, Oklahoma, Oregon, Pennsylvania, South Dakota, Washington, West Virginia, Wisconsin, and Wyoming. According to the American Wind Energy Association, the U.S. wind industry employs more than 2,000 people who contribute directly to the economies of 46 states. The U.S. installed capacity has increased significantly since 1998, from 1,900 megawatts to over 10,000 megawatts in 2006. The Pacific Northwest Laboratory predicts that U.S. wind energy potential could be as high as 10,777 billion kilowatts generated annually, or more than twice the electricity generated in the U.S. today.
Energy
■ Outlook U.S. energy consumption is expected to increase at an average annual rate of about 1.2 percent through 2025, according to the Energy Information Administration, a statistical agency within the U.S. Department of Energy. Even though production of oil, petroleum, and natural gas is expected to increase through 2008, the demand still outweighs the supply, so the United States will continue to rely on imports. Short-term energy issues include concerns for energy shortages, economic slowdown, and volatile energy markets. Key long-term issues include the supplies and prices of fossil fuels, the development of U.S. electricity markets, technology improvement, and the impact of economic growth on projected energy demand and carbon dioxide emissions through 2025. While the number of oil refineries in the United States is gradually declining, their overall production capacity is increasing due to better efficiency. Since the Clinton administration, the U.S. Bureau of Land Management has leased large areas of Alaska’s National Petroleum Reserve to the oil industry for oil exploration. However, much of the oil exploration and refining activity has gone overseas, particularly to offshore Africa, South America, the Middle East, the former republics of the Soviet Union, and the North Sea. Natural gas production is expected to increase at an average annual rate of 1 percent through 2025. Net imports are also expected to increase, primarily from Canada. Two of the four existing U.S. liquefied natural gas import facilities have announced plans to reopen
Bull Shoals Dam, on the White River in Arkansas, provides hydroelectric energy to the area. (Arkansas Dept. of Parks and Tourism.)
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and three of the four have announced plans to expand their capacity. Because domestic companies cut way back on exploration and production of oil and gas in the 1980s after worldwide oil prices declined, and because cost-cutting measures were instituted, projections to 2014 for engineers do not show an increase. However, the elevated overseas oil production and the plans for drilling in Alaska may result in a slight increase in the demand for workers willing to travel. Coal production is expected to increase at an average annual rate of 1.5 percent through 2025, but since European demand for coal is declining, U.S. coal exports will also decline. Job opportunities in the wind energy field will grow significantly, as wind power capacity will triple or even quadruple in the next decade. Positions that will need to be filled include those of windsmiths, technicians, engineers, avian specialists, electricians, and construction workers. Employers will also need to fill manufacturing, research, development, and management jobs. The American Wind Energy Association estimates that if the United States increases its current wind energy capacity 15-fold, which they do not believe to be unreasonable, our country could stand to gain as many as 150,000 new jobs in this area.
■ For More Information This nonprofit organization promotes the advancement of engineering and science relating to the atomic nucleus and of allied sciences and arts. For information on publications, scholarships and seminars, contact American Nuclear Society 555 North Kensington Avenue La Grange Park, IL 60526-5535 Tel: 708-352-6611 http://www.ans.org
This trade association represents employees in the entire petroleum industry. For free videos, fact sheets, and informational booklets available to educators, contact American Petroleum Institute 1220 L Street, NW Washington, DC 20005-4070 Tel: 202-682-8000 Email:
[email protected] http://www.api.org
This national trade association represents municipal, state, and local government-owned electric utilities. For more information on the industry, contact American Public Power Association 2301 M Street, NW
Washington, DC 20037-1484 Tel: 202-467-2900 http://www.appanet.org
This national organization promotes the widespread use of solar energy and sponsors the National Solar Conference. For information on publications, such as Solar Today, contact American Solar Energy Society 2400 Central Avenue, Suite A Boulder, CO 80301-2862 Tel: 303-443-3130 Email:
[email protected] http://www.ases.org
This national trade organization of the U.S. wind energy industry promotes the growth, research, federal legislation, and development of the industry. For information and publications about the wind energy field, contact American Wind Energy Association 122 C Street, NW, Suite 380 Washington, DC 20001-2109 Tel: 202-383-2500 Email:
[email protected] http://www.awea.org
For industry news and updates, publications, conferences, career opportunities, and membership information, contact Geothermal Energy Association 209 Pennsylvania Avenue, SE Washington, DC 20003-1107 Tel: 202-454-5261 Email:
[email protected] http://www.geo-energy.org
For more information on hydropower, contact National Hydropower Association 1 Massachusetts Avenue, NW, Suite 850 Washington, DC 20001-1404 Tel: 202-682-1700 Email:
[email protected] http://www.hydro.org
For information on renewable energy research and the development of new technologies, contact National Renewable Energy Laboratory 1617 Cole Boulevard Golden, CO 80401-3393 Tel: 303-275-3000 http://www.nrel.gov
This organization is dedicated to the peaceful use of nuclear technologies. For more information, contact
Engineering
Nuclear Energy Institute 1776 I Street, NW, Suite 400 Washington, DC 20006-3708 Tel: 202-739-8000 http://www.nei.org
This society promotes the science and education of exploration geophysicists in the development of natural resources, in characterizing the near-surface, and mitigating earth hazards. For informational brochures, contact Society of Exploration Geophysicists 8801 South Yale Tulsa, OK 74137-3575 Tel: 918-497-5500 Email:
[email protected] http://www.seg.org
For information on the energy industry, contact U.S. Department of Energy 1000 Independence Avenue, SW Washington, DC 20585-0001 http://www.energy.gov
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Engineering ■ Background A lot of brainpower goes into engineering—a lot of knowledge, creativity, thoughtfulness, and pure hard work. Humankind has been “engineering,” so to speak,
since we realized we had opposable thumbs that we could use to handle tools. And from that point on we began our ceaseless quest to make, to build, to create tools and systems that helped us live our lives better. There were a lot of mistakes, but engineers and scientists learned from them and built a foundation of engineering laws and principles. We can trace the development of civilization to the present day through engineering hallmarks like Stonehenge, the Egyptian pyramids, the ancient cities of Greece, the extensive system of roadways and aqueducts built by the early Romans, Europe’s construction of fortresses and cathedrals, the invention of dams, electricity, the automobile, the airplane, the building of canals and cross-continental railways, nuclear energy, putting a man on the moon—and that’s just skimming the surface of the many things engineers are responsible for that built our civilizations and defined how we think of ourselves and our societies. The rise of the first cities in 3000 b.c. in Mesopotamia (modern-day Iraq) created a need for engineers, though there was certainly no concept of what an engineer was then. These early “engineers” did not apply scientific principles to their work, but rather they learned by example, from mistakes, and from the urgency of pure need. People relied on “engineers” to address their everyday needs and survival. To protect against enemy attacks, engineers learned to heighten and strengthen building walls through the use of brick (a building material most likely invented by accident). To bring food and water into the city, engineers constructed a system of levees, small canals, and reservoirs. The first engineer of prominence whose architectural legacy has survived millennia, was the ancient Egyptian builder, Imhotep. He designed and built what is commonly believed to be the first pyramid, the Step Pyramid, around 2650 b.c. just outside of present-day Cairo, Egypt. Modern engineers marvel at the skills the ancient Egyptians demonstrated in the building of the pyramids. To build a structure as massive and architecturally perfect as a pyramid at a time of very limited building resources (the invention of the wheel was in its infancy—they had nothing like cranes, levels, or any sort of machinery to move the large, heavy stones) was a task of incredible ingenuity. The ancient Egyptians used sledges to transport the stones from the distant quarries where they were mined. The main method they used to move the huge stones (some weighing up to 55 tons) higher up as the pyramid grew was called jacking, which used wedges and levers to slowly but surely move the stones higher and higher. The engineers of ancient Greece studied more complex principles of geometry and put them to use in advanced
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architectural designs. These engineers used five basic machines to help them in their building: the wheel, the pulley, the lever, the wedge, and the screw. More complex building methods and different building materials began to appear with the Greeks. They developed a variety of joints, made use of the column as a load reliever, used post-and-beam construction, and they used the arch, although rarely. The Greek engineers employed materials like iron, lead, limestone, and marble. Other Greek contributions to engineering include studies on the lever, gearing, the screw, the siphon, and the concepts of buoyancy, and the invention of force pumps, hydraulic pipe organs, and the metal spring. Whereas the Greeks were the theorists of early engineering, the Romans were the projectors and administrators. They busily set out to construct many great public works, like building roads, bridges, tunnels, aqueducts, and even plumbing for each city home. Rome’s major concern for establishing a system of civil engineering was to aide its war machine. Military engineers were responsible for building roads and bridges (to better access future conquests, assure quick communications, and protect their empire), and baths (to relax the warriors after battle), and of course, for developing a variety of weaponry. The Roman military engineer’s greatest responsibility, however, was the fortification of army camps. They built all kinds of fortifications, which included walls of varying thickness, height, and shape to better repel would-be attackers. Modern engineering’s true beginnings are mostly rooted in the 17th and 18th centuries, where mathematical principles and laws of physics began to be understood and developed. Isaac Newton’s groundbreaking research in mathematics and physics was quickly picked up by engineers and put to practical use. Aside from enlightening the world about gravity, Newton’s work in mechanics produced the generalization of the concept of Force, the formulation of the concept of Mass (his First Law), and the principle of Effect and Counter-Effect (his Third Law). Other mathematicians and engineers of the time, enlightened by Newton’s findings, went on to make mathematical discoveries that paved the way for the work of future engineers. It wasn’t until the 18th century that the first schools of engineering were established. Previously, most young engineers learned their skills by apprenticeships, if they were lucky enough to get one. A French military engineer, Sébastien le Prestre de Vauban, recognized the need to have an actual corps of engineers in the military to study and improve the building of fortifications, bridges, and roads. Shortly thereafter, engineering schools began to appear throughout France, and then the rest of Europe, and finally in the United States. In 1775, the U.S. Con-
tinental Congress stated, “That there be one Chief Engineer at the Grand Army . . . [and] that two assistants be employed under him . . . ,” and thus began the United States Corps of Engineers. This new need for engineers prompted the beginning of scientific schools at Harvard (1847), Yale (1861), the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (1865), and other engineering schools. Vauban’s plan to educate engineers was largely for military purposes. Armies needed easy ways to get from point A to point B, so roads and bridges had to be built (The Romans, we have seen, did this very well). It was around this time too, that the civil engineer came on to the scene as a separate discipline. When military engineers built roads, bridges, canals, and other public works, they tended to build them only when it served a very specific military purpose. Cities needed better water supplies and sanitation facilities, and local roads that could link smaller communities. As cities grew, they tended to do so in a not-too-orderly fashion, so civil engineers were needed to plan the cities. In 1771, John Smeaton, the first self-proclaimed civil engineer, founded the Society of Civil Engineers with the objective of bringing together like-minded engineers and other men with financial resources to design and build public works. With the advent of steam power and the industrial revolution at the end of the 18th century, great engineering accomplishments seemed to happen every day— from the steam engine and the large-scale mining of coal, to the cotton gin and new agricultural technology, the world was changing quickly. New processes for manufacturing iron and steel made their use more common in all branches of engineering, which was evidenced by the first suspension bridge, erected by J. Finley in the United States in 1801. This invention made possible the building of bridges in locations where a standard mid-span support bridge could not feasibly be built, thus greatly improving transportation. A suspension bridge is suspended by cable attached to and extending between supports or towers—a modern-day example is the Golden Gate Bridge in San Francisco. Over the years suspension bridge technology was improved and they became a common sight throughout the world. The 19th century marked the dawn of electrical engineering. Many scientists at the time, excited over this new, and most likely profitable, phenomenon, electricity, dove headfirst into all its mysteries and intricacies, making many valuable discoveries. Once these scientists laid down the principles of the field, other engineers, inventors, and scientists put these principles to practical applications, like Samuel Morse’s invention of the telegraph in 1837, Alexander Graham Bell’s telephone in 1876, Thomas Edison’s light bulb in 1878, Nikola Tesla’s
electric motor in 1888, and many others. By the early 20th century, much of the infrastructure of modern society as we know it was coming to light. The first major engineering feat of the 20th century was Orville and Wilbur Wright’s first controlled flight of a powered airplane. Aeronautical engineering, as it came to be known, was a dangerous endeavor at its outset, and early engineers labored for a long period of time without significant success. Gliders were the first airplane design to test the skies and provided engineers with valuable information on aerodynamics. The Wright brothers came up with the idea of fixing a motor to their plane for long distance flight and made several failed (though educational) attempts to take off. Finally, in 1903 they succeeded in flying an engine-powered biplane for 59 seconds. Over the next two years they made more adjustments and tests and eventually ended up selling planes to the U.S. military. As with previous centuries, it was the military and war that fueled most of our major engineering advancements. The 20th century has been no different. The U.S. and European militaries recognized immediate potential in airplanes and put its engineers to work on making them safer, more maneuverable, faster, and rugged. By 1914, just in time for the first World War, militaries fitted their planes with radios, navigational equipment, and guns. Planes were also designed to haul and drop bombs. European navies invested heavily into submarine research. The German navy, although a latecomer to the submarine, was the early leader in this technology, and during World War I its U-boats were greatly feared by Allied ships at sea. Fighter plane and submarine design advanced even further by World War II. Military engineers increased the plane’s and sub’s speed, range, and general mechanical abilities to make them easier to learn and operate. By 1942 the German Luftwaffe flew the first real jet plane, which reached speeds of more than 500 miles per hour. One of this century’s most profound engineering innovations came in the 1930s with nuclear power. In the race to develop the atomic bomb, the U.S. government spearheaded the Manhattan Project to study and develop nuclear power. As nuclear engineers began to realize the awesome potential of nuclear energy, schools were established to study this extremely dangerous new technology and a new branch of engineering was born— nuclear engineering. In the 1950s, the Cold War brought about fierce technological and military competition between the United States and Russia, necessitating the services of all types of engineers. The exploration of space became another area where engineers sought to demonstrate their country’s
Engineering
technological dominance. In 1957, the Soviets launched Sputnik, the world’s first orbiting satellite. The United States countered with its own satellite, Explorer I, in early 1958. In the early 1960s, Russia and America set their sights on the moon and engineers from both countries worked feverishly to be the first to land a man on the moon. And in 1969, the world was awestruck when U.S. astronaut Neil Armstrong stepped from his spacecraft onto the rocky surface of the moon. Even today engineering marvels still abound, from the skyscrapers in our cities, to the artificial heart, to the tiny computer processors in many of the electronics we buy. The rapid speed at which computer technology is progressing is unprecedented. Big news one month in the computer industry is almost ancient history in the following months. Modern society is becoming increasingly automated, as human power is replaced by the nevercomplaining, never-tiring robot. According to the 1828 charter of the British Institution of Civil Engineers, engineering is “the art of directing the great sources of power in nature for the use and convenience of man.” Most engineers will hold true to this as an accurate definition of their field, with perhaps a few additions. Not much of the philosophy has changed since 1828. What has changed is the scope and method of engineering, which began as an empirical art and has gradually developed into a highly specialized science.
■ Structure The engineering industry comprises many fields of study, all employing unique and sometimes similar methods of science to reach practical solutions to problems and questions in all industries. There are five basic areas of study in which engineers in all branches of the industry can specialize: research, development, application, management, and maintenance. While an engineer may work exclusively in one of these areas, it is more common for their knowledge and duties to overlap. For example, research and development are commonly linked and called R&D. Those working in the application side of a project may often find themselves making maintenance calls. All engineering projects begin with research. The type and scope of research will be different in each branch of engineering, but generally, once a goal has been set by an industry or institution and brought to the engineers, they set out to find possible ways to solve it. This could entail visiting a manufacturing plant to get a first-hand understanding of an industrial problem. It could entail testing different materials for a specific application. It could also require the engineer to struggle over mathematical or computer applications, as well as spend long hours in a laboratory mixing chemicals. The scope of research is
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limitless. Some research engineers work independently, seeking to find new principles and processes for a specific branch of engineering. Closely tied to research is development. Development entails applying the results of a research project to a specific function. Since there may be more than one way of doing this, a development team must perform tests and studies to find the best way. A research engineer may have come up with several useable materials for a part on an airplane, but it is up to the development team to figure out which of those materials works best in the big picture. For example, a certain material might be chosen for an exterior part on a plane. It works fine, it’s durable and weather resistant; however, a development team might discover the material reacts negatively to the exhaust of the engines, or that at certain altitudes and speeds it reacts differently than when on the ground. With these observations made, the development team will reject the material and look for one that is more stable under these types of stresses. With the research and development complete, the real fun begins—project application. Engineers use the data from the R&D studies and apply them to the design and production of materials, machines, methods, or to whatever the ultimate goal is. For example, a team of civil engineers, after finding the best materials and location for building a bridge in Alaska, will then set out to design and build the bridge. A team of industrial engineers, having studied an outdated method of production at a manufacturing plant and having researched newer methods specific to that type of manufacturing, will begin implementing the new method and train plant employees. A management engineer, who earlier may have been part of the R&D or application team, will be responsible for keeping the developed idea working. They study their work as it was intended to function—whether that be machinery, a drawbridge, or a carving knife—and look for ways to improve on it in the future. If a team of electrical engineers designs a new system of electronic circuits for a home entertainment system, they may find that once everything is in place and the system has been manufactured that there are certain minor aspects that can be improved. While the development team is supposed to have found these possible flaws before production, it is almost impossible to catch every possible little glitch. Engineers consider this learning from experience and will improve the design in the future. Maintenance, the final stage in an engineering project, is concerned with the project’s upkeep. A team of mechanical engineers, for example, may have designed a machine to package coffee in tin containers. The engi-
neers visit the plant, set it up, and go home with everyone satisfied. Two months later, a maintenance engineer, who was likely involved in the application process, is called back to the plant to fix a problem in the system—the coffee keeps overflowing, causing waste. These sorts of maintenance calls are fairly common, as it takes a while with any new project to work out the bugs. Again they learn from experience, and similar systems in the future will probably not have the same problem. Engineers in a particular industry, say in nuclear engineering, will of course, be trained in nuclear engineering, but they will also have to understand many basic to complex principles of other branches of engineering. Depending on their specific studies, the nuclear engineers may need understanding of environmental, chemical, aerospace, mechanical, electrical, industrial, materials, naval, or computer engineering. Professional Engineer, or PE, is a special title like Ph.D., which indicates that the engineer has completed education and experience requirements and passed tough exams. PEs are under legal responsibility for their engineering work and are bound by an ethics code to protect the public health and safety. PEs have graduated from an accredited engineering program, have had at least four years experience under a licensed PE, and they have passed the Principles and Practice of Engineering (PPE) exam. There were approximately 1.4 million engineers in the United States in 2004, according to the U.S. Department of Labor. More than 72 percent worked as electrical and electronics, civil, mechanical, industrial (including health and safety), aerospace, and computer hardware engineers. Forty percent of all engineers worked in manufacturing and 27 percent worked in the professional, scientific, and technical service industry. Since engineering is such a broad field, there are literally thousands of different places you can find employment, depending on your specialty. Engineers are needed in virtually every field. Whether you want to work for a small company or a large firm, indoors or outdoors, nine to five or the graveyard shift, there are engineering careers available for you. You can find your engineering career at a desk behind a computer with regular hours not far from your home; or you may find your engineering career in the workshop with a socket set in one hand, a computer-aided calibrator in the other, and a little grease under your nails; or you may find your engineering career in the dank sewers of a major city as you plan a more effective method of waste management. As a mechanical, automobile, chemical, industrial, plastics, or robotics engineer you may find employment with one of the Big Three U.S. automobile makers, as
Engineering
Words to Know Ampere: The unit of measurement for an electrical current. Biomechanics: Developing mechanical devices like the artificial hip, heart, and kidney. Capacitor: An electrical element used to store electrical energy, consisting of two equally charged conducting surfaces having opposite signs and separated by a dielectric. Cellular, tissue, and genetic engineering: Application of engineering at the cellular and subcellular level to study diseases and design intervention techniques. Circuit: A connection of two or more electrical elements to serve a useful function. Clinical engineering: Application of engineering to health care through customizing and maintaining sophisticated medical equipment. Conduction: The process by which heat travels through a substance. Convection: The process by which heat is transferred by the movement of fluids. First law: In all processes energy is simply converted from one form to another, or transferred from one system to another. Gear: A toothed wheel, cylinder, or other machine element that when turned fits with another toothed
well as any of the thousands of private manufacturing companies. As an aeronautical or aerospace engineer you will almost certainly try to land a job at NASA or a major commercial firm like Boeing. Civil engineers can find jobs with local and city governments, with construction firms, with the military or federal government, and even large corporations. The petroleum and chemical engineer can seek jobs, naturally, with petroleum and gas companies like BP, Texaco, and ExxonMobil Corporation, or they can look for jobs with major chemical companies like Dow Chemical, Eastman Chemical Company, or DuPont. Environmental and biological engineers will have no problem finding employment at the Environmental Protection Agency, industry, or consulting firms. Companies producing high-tech equipment for commercial and industrial use look for skilled electrical engineers, as well as software, mechanical, materials, and plastics engineers. Engineers are also employed by local, state, and the federal government—194,000 in 2004, according to the
element to transmit motion, or to change speed or direction. Generator: An electromechanical device used to convert mechanical energy into electrical energy. Mechanism: A part of a machine containing two or more parts arranged so that motion of one part compels the motion of the others. Momentum: The measurement of the motion of a body, determined by multiplying its mass by its velocity. Radiation: Energy emitted as electromagnetic waves or subatomic particles from a source or substance. Second law: Heat cannot pass from a cooler to a hotter body without some other process occurring. Semiconductor: A substance with electrical conductivity, such as germanium or silicon, which is between being a good conductor and a good insulator used in such devices as transistors, diodes, and integrated circuits. Thermodynamics: The study of heat and other forms of energy. Voltage: The energy required to move a specific number of electrons across two points. Watt: The unit of measurement for electrical power.
U.S. Department of Labor. Some federal employers of engineers include the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, and the Departments of Agriculture, Defense, Energy, Interior, and Transportation. New engineering fields are developing all the time, as are specialties. One of the most recent developments is genetic engineering, which involves the alteration and manipulation of the genes of living things. Other possibilities for engineers can be found in academia as instructors or researchers.
■ Outlook We live in a rapidly changing, high-tech world, where the major engineering riddles of one year are solved the next year. Engineers wield tremendous influence on our lives, cultures, and societies. As the world changes with the latest technologies and as we grow accustomed to the luxuries they offer, there will be an increased demand for highly skilled, innovative professionals to continue the trend. These advancing technologies will put pressure on industry
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to improve and update their current systems—whether they be for production facilities or corporate offices—if they are to stay competitive. Overall, the U.S. Department of Labor predicts slower than average growth for all engineers through 2014, although job prospects vary by specialty. An employment decline is expected for petroleum engineers and mining and geological engineers. Aerospace engineers, marine engineers and naval architects, and nuclear engineers will have slower-than-average growth. Growth that is about as fast as the average is expected for agricultural engineers, chemical engineers, civil engineers, computer hardware engineers, electrical engineers, electronics engineers, health and safety engineers, materials engineers, mechanical engineers, and industrial engineers. Employment for biomedical engineers and environmental engineers should grow much faster than the average career.
■ For More Information For information about careers in engineering, contact American Society for Engineering Education 1818 N Street, NW, Suite 600 Washington, DC 20036-2479 Tel: 202-331-3500 http://www.asee.org
For information on engineering careers and student membership, contact Junior Engineering Technical Society 1420 King Street, Suite 405 Alexandria, VA 22314-2750 Tel: 703-548-5387 Email:
[email protected] http://www.jets.org
For information on National Engineers Week Programs held in many U.S. locations, contact National Engineers Week Headquarters 1420 King Street Alexandria, VA 22314-2750 Tel: 703-684-2852 Email:
[email protected] http://www.eweek.org
For information on training programs, seminars, and how to become a student member, contact Society of Manufacturing Engineers One SME Drive PO Box 930 Dearborn, MI 48121-2408 Tel: 800-733-4763 http://www.sme.org
For information on licensure, contact National Society of Professional Engineers 1420 King Street Alexandria, VA 22314-2794 Tel: 703-684-2800 http://www.nspe.org
For career guidance and scholarship information, contact Society of Women Engineers 230 East Ohio Street, Suite 400 Chicago, IL 60611-3265 Tel: 312-596-5223 Email:
[email protected] http://www.swe.org
■ Related Articles Aerospace; Manufacturing; Mathematics and Physics; Aeronautical and Aerospace Technicians; Aerospace Engineers; Air Quality Engineers; Biomedical Engineers; Ceramic Engineers; Chemical Engineers; Civil Engineers; Electrical and Electronics Engineers; Electronics Engineering Technicians; Engineers; Environmental Engineers; Hardware Engineers; Industrial Engineers; Mechanical Engineering Technicians; Mechanical Engineers; Metallurgical Engineers; Metallurgical Technicians; Mining Engineers; Nuclear Engineers; Optical Engineers; Packaging Engineers; Petroleum Engineers; Petroleum Technicians; Plastics Engineers; Plastics Technicians; Quality Control Engineers and Technicians; Robotics Engineers and Technicians; Software Engineers; Traffic Engineers
Entrepreneurs ■ Background Have you ever baby-sat neighborhood kids? Mowed a lawn or two in the summer? Run a lemonade stand? Then you already know something about being an entrepreneur. You’ve set your own hours, named your prices, and earned money. The entrepreneurial spirit has long been strong in kids and teens; this is evident in the number of junior achievement organizations, such as Future Business Leaders of America, devoted to the interests of young entrepreneurs. A Gallup poll found that 70 percent of high school seniors want to own their own businesses someday. Although entrepreneurial enterprises are popular with teenagers, people often outgrow the ambition to embark on their own businesses because they need to support a family and pay rent or mortgage and don’t want to risk
financial security. But many adults choose to break away from the norm and start their own companies. Some of the biggest corporations of today started out as small businesses: Coca-Cola was a concoction by a Georgian pharmacist who jugged his mixture in his backyard, then carried it to Jacob’s Pharmacy to sell for a nickel a glass; Henry Ford, who invented the quadricycle in 1896, was the man behind the origins of the automotive industry. And there are similar entrepreneurial success stories today, as people establish companies on the basis of diverse products and services. Dineh Mohajer invented Hard Candy cosmetics by mixing nail polishes together, gave the colors mock-exploitative names like Scam and Skitzo, and made gross sales of over $10 million her first year of business. Dave Kapell invented Magnetic Poetry, words on magnetic strips, and now pulls in millions of dollars a year in sales. And when these people aren’t running their businesses, they’re telling their success stories on TV, in magazines, and on the Internet, to a public itching to quit their own jobs and set up offices at home. It’s not necessary to invent a new fashion trend or popular novelty to start a new business. The numbers vary from study to study, but the Small Business Administration reports that there are approximately 23 million home-based businesses in the United States. Some of these businesses may be making big money, but most are simply making their founders comfortable. In addition to providing services and making good living wages, many small business owners are fulfilling their dreams. For example, a personal chef may find the ease and slower pace of creating individualized menus much more satisfying than the odd hours and frantic demands of a restaurant kitchen. A husband and wife may gladly quit their full-time jobs to open up their home as a bed and breakfast. The owner of an adult day care service may see her business as an opportunity to give something valuable to the community. Consulting is a popular entrepreneurial trend. The roots of consulting include the development of timeand-motion studies by Frank and Lillian Gilbreth in the early 1900s. They developed these studies to evaluate the efficiency of industrial employees’ work habits. They were hired to survey the design of different companies and then prepare proposals to redesign the methods used in their operations and tasks. Because of the demand for their specialized service, Frank Gilbreth started a consulting firm that handled requests on a freelance basis. This was among the first consulting firms established in the United States. Today, hiring specialists is an established business practice. It can often be more cost effective to hire a specialist temporarily than to hire a full-time, salaried employee.
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Women in Business America’s 10.4 million women-owned businesses employ 12.8 million people and contribute $1.9 trillion to the economy, according to the Center for Women’s Business Research (CWBR). According to a study called “Removing the Boundaries: The Continued Progress and Achievement of WomenOwned Enterprises” by the CWBR, between 1997 and 2000 the number of women-owned firms with 100 or more employees increased by 43.9 percent, 68 percent faster than all businesses passing the 100-employee mark. The study also found that the ranks of women-owned firms with 500 or more employees increased by 124.3 percent over the same period. In addition, the number of womenowned firms with revenues of $10 million or more grew by 36.8 percent, more than three times the rate of comparably sized firms.
Owning a small business has been a part of the American dream since the earliest days of the country, and the era from the late 20th century until today has seen a great increase in entrepreneurial ambition. This may be in part due to the downsizing trends of American companies. Whereas earlier in the century, a person could work for one company until retirement, such job security has become more rare. It’s increasingly common for men and women in their 50s to lose their jobs and find themselves with few job prospects. With severance pay in hand, these people often invest in the businesses they’ve been longing for, recognizing these ventures as no more risky than any other career pursuit. In the first half of the 20th century, a person chose a job path and stuck with it; today, people are more likely to experiment with a variety of careers throughout their lives. There are more than 550 colleges and universities that offer entrepreneurship courses, 350 more than there were in 1984. Additionally, nearly 50 schools offer entrepreneurism as a degree program. There are also more organizations, periodicals, and Web pages advising people on how to start their own businesses and keep them running. Entrepreneur and Success magazines publish special issues devoted to small businesses, and they maintain Web sites. The Edward Lowe Foundation gives small business owners access to extensive databases, research, and conferences and publishes Entrepreneurial Edge magazine. From 1991 to 2000, the Small Business Administration (SBA) helped nearly 435,000 small businesses get more than $94.6 billion in loans. In 2003, the SBA lent a total of $248 billion in small business loans of under a million
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dollars each.The SBA also provides business start-up kits, workshops, and research assistance. This wealth of information, along with the ease of accessing it via the Internet, has undoubtedly played a part in the boom in small businesses. Technology in general has made it easier to run a home-based business. Computer software, specially designed for a profession, takes much of the time and effort away from administrative details. Email and faxes allow better communication, and the Internet provides market research, industry support, and ways to better promote a business.
■ Structure Entrepreneurship covers a huge range of business endeavors from the homemaker who makes, packages, and sells her special jams and jellies from her home to the plastics manufacturer who employs more than 500 workers in three factories.
This florist owns a successful floral arrangement company that creates displays for weddings, birthdays, and other occasions. (Corbis.)
Many people who own small businesses start small, often part time, from a home office and expand as the demand grows. They perform all the functions normally found in any business, including those of president, manager, manufacturer or service provider, secretary, accountant, investor, benefits administrator, salesperson, and maintenance engineer. Owners of home-based businesses might be involved in making and selling products, such as food items, jewelry, furniture, ceramics, or clothing. Or they might provide services, either performed in the home office or at other locations outside the home, such as writing and editing, telemarketing, housekeeping, computer programming, pet sitting, or catering. Owners of these types of businesses can be quite successful for a long time, working completely on their own. They enjoy answering only to themselves and having control over every part of their work. They take all the responsibilities, suffer all the hardships, and reap all the rewards. Consultants usually work independently out of their own homes or offices, although some work on a part- or full-time basis for consulting firms. Traditionally, consultants have provided professional expertise in such areas as marketing, public and media relations, business plan development, finances, productivity, automation, computer programming, and downsizing. Today, the field of consulting has expanded to include almost every possible aspect of modern life. You can find consultants who will charge you a fee to help you plan your wedding, design and build your home, coordinate your wardrobe, purchase the right car, manage your finances, find an affordable college for your children, and place your parents in the right nursing home. Small, start-up businesses, midsized companies, large corporations, and governmental agencies frequently contract with consultants who have a specific area of business expertise. Successful home-based businesses often grow and expand, and the owner must decide how to handle the expansion. If the owner, for example, has started a ceramics business out of love for working with clay, he or she may decide to hire another person to handle business affairs, such as accounting, taxes, licenses, and bill payment. Another business owner may decide to purchase updated, more efficient equipment or technology, hire one or two staff, and rent office or studio space outside of the home to better serve a growing clientele. The larger a business becomes, the more complicated its structure also becomes. In addition to managing the business, the owner has to manage people, and instead of providing a service or manufacturing a product personally, the owner must find workers, train them, monitor their work, provide a safe and productive work environment, and pay salaries and benefits.
A small business doesn’t necessarily have to start as a home-based business. An entrepreneur with a somewhat larger investment capacity can start a business, such as a small restaurant, a public relations firm, a travel agency, or a secondhand clothing store, for example. These types of small businesses require a detailed plan and enough money to purchase startup equipment and materials, rent space, pay utilities, purchase insurance, fund advertising, and pay salaries and benefits for at least a year. The owner may get loans from a bank, the Small Business Administration (SBA), or a commercial finance company. In addition to the complicated financial arrangements, the plan for a small business includes such things as finding a market, establishing a presence in the community, creating a demand for the product or service, hiring capable staff, and monitoring quality control. Another choice for entrepreneurs is to purchase a franchise, such as a Baskin-Robbins, a RadioShack, or a Mail Boxes Etc. The franchiser lends its trademark or trade name and a business system to franchisees, who pay a royalty and often an initial fee for the right to do business under the franchiser’s name and system. Entrepreneurs who choose this option have the security and support of the established name, a ready market, and a business system already in place. Some of the most popular franchise industries include fast food, retail, service, automotive, restaurants, maintenance, building and construction, retail food, business services, and lodging. An estimated 1,500 franchise companies operate in the United States, doing business through more than 320,000 retail units. The average initial investment level for nearly eight out of 10 franchises, excluding real estate, is less than $250,000, and the average length of a franchise contract is 10 years, according to the International Franchise Association. A person can become an entrepreneur by taking over an already existing business. A son or daughter may take over from a parent who is retiring, a long-time employee may purchase a business from a boss, or someone could purchase a business without having previous ties. As with a franchise, the location is already established and outfitted with equipment and materials. A business system is in place, and suppliers and clientele are established. Unlike a franchise, however, the new owner can change the business system or any other aspect of the business as desired. (An exception might be if the new owner keeps the same business name and the sales contract stipulates certain business practices based on the use of that name.) The Internet has opened a wide variety of opportunities, although dot-coms experienced hard times in the early 2000s. Creative entrepreneurs have found ways to use the new technology, not just to market and sell products and services, but as the basis of a business.
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Words to Know Consultant: An individual, often working on a freelance basis, who advises businesses on how to improve management and increase productivity. Cottage industry: A term used to refer to businesses that produce a product from home. The craft industry is often referred to as a cottage industry. Demographics: Statistical groupings of the population based on age, sex, income, and other characteristics; used in developing business and marketing plans. Direct mail: Contacting consumers and clients directly by sending out information and advertising about a product or service. Franchise: A contract with a company to sell the company’s products or services and use the company’s name, logo, and business guidance. Freelance: Someone who sells their work or services by the hour, day, or project, rather than working on a salary basis for one employer. Incorporated: A legal corporation; larger businesses with employees incorporate for tax benefits and liability reasons. Independent contractor: An individual who contracts with a business on a freelance basis. Intrepreneur: Someone who works within a company with a certain amount of independence, offering expertise in the running of a separate, or internal, business. Investment: The money used to start and operate a business. Marketing: Getting a product or service to the consumer through advertising, shipping, and selling. Microbusiness: A small business intended to stay small, have few employees, and serve a limited marketplace. Network: Sharing knowledge and resources with other small businesses in order to develop more business contacts. Not-for-profit: A business created to solve a problem and not motivated by profit; concerned with making money, however, to meet operating and staffing expenses. Patent: Provided by the U.S. Patent Office; allows exclusive rights to produce an invention for a specified period of time. Schedule C: The form to file with the Internal Revenue Service to record the profit and loss from a business.
For example, online researchers use Internet databases, libraries, and catalogues to find information for their clients. Design and management of Web sites can be done by one person from a home computer or by a few people cooperating in a small business venture.
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According to the SBA, there are approximately 25.8 million small businesses in the United States. They employ 50 percent of the private workforce, generate more than half of the nation’s gross domestic product, and are the principal source of new jobs in the U.S. economy.
■ Outlook Entrepreneurship is risky. It takes considerable money, time, and effort to open a business and to keep it going long enough to start seeing profits. Success also depends on trends, customer demand, political climate, competition, the economy, and other unpredictable social factors. The SBA Office of Advocacy reports that in 2005 there were an estimated 671,800 employer business openings, but 584,000 employer business closings and bankruptcies. In spite of the risks, entrepreneurship will continue to be strong. It is part of the American identity—the United States is viewed worldwide as a land of opportunity. A study by the Kaufman Center for Entrepreneurial Leadership found that 70 percent of people between the ages of 14 and 19 were interested in becoming business owners. Of the general public, 50 percent are thinking about starting a business. There are no educational, racial, or gender barriers to starting a new business, so there are opportunities for people of all backgrounds. According to the U.S. Census Bureau, minority-owned businesses include 4.1 million firms that generated $694.1 billion in revenues as of 2002. About one in five of all minority-owned firms had paid employees and more than 4,400 minority-owned firms had 100 or more employees. The nation’s 10.4 million women-owned businesses employ 12.8 million people and contribute $1.9 trillion to the economy, according to the Center for Women’s Business Research. The trend in home-based businesses is growing rapidly. The trend was started primarily by women who wanted to stay home to care for their children but either didn’t want to give up their jobs or needed the income. Now more than half of the people working from home are men. Other factors that have contributed to the increase of at-home businesses include downsizing during hard economic times, the growth of the Internet and computer technology, and the growth of the service sector of the economy. Entrepreneur magazine periodically predicts new business trends that sound promising. For example, ID Society (http://idsociety.com), founded by Jonathan Webb, 28, and Adam Berkowitz, 27, is an all-in-one marketing firm that offers Web design, Flash development, CDROM business cards, printing, marketing and any other promotional efforts a client might need. The popularity of disk-jockey culture has created start-up businesses in
clothing, record labels, and record stores. DJs themselves are selling equipment and clothing. There is also a niche for Internet businesses that legally sell downloadable music and provide online events featuring music superstars and related products. Another promising trend is companies that provide technical education for targeted populations, such as Cybercamps, which instructs kids in computer technology. The entrepreneurial spirit in America is accepted and well respected. There is honor and pride associated with starting a business from scratch and working hard to make it succeed. Anyone can start a business, whether motivated by a love for making raspberry jam, the familiarity of carrying on the family printing business, the invention of a new dot-com niche, or the ability to anticipate the next craze in electronic gadgets. The opportunities are endless for entrepreneurs who are willing to accept the risks, or blindly ignore them.
■ For More Information For information on consulting, contact Association of Professional Consultants PO Box 51193 Irvine, CA 92619-1193 Tel: 800-745-5050 Email:
[email protected] http://www.consultapc.org
For information about Entrepreneurial Edge magazine and many other small business resources, contact Edward Lowe Foundation 58220 Decatur Road PO Box 8 Cassopolis, MI 49031-0008 Tel: 800-232-LOWE Email:
[email protected] http://edwardlowe.org
For information about franchising, contact International Franchise Association 1350 New York Avenue, NW, Suite 900 Washington, DC 20005-4709 Tel: 202-628-8000 Email:
[email protected] http://www.franchise.org
This organization has a wealth of information on homebased businesses, including a national registry, publications, a list of home-based occupations, and more. National Association of Home Based Businesses 10451 Mill Run Circle, Suite 400 Owings Mills, MD 21117-5577
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Tel: 410-363-3698 Email:
[email protected] http://www.usahomebusiness.com
To learn about membership for women entrepreneurs, contact National Association of Women Business Owners 8405 Greensboro Drive, Suite 800 McLean, VA 22102-5104 Tel: 703-506-3268 Email:
[email protected] http://www.nawbo.org
For information on entrepreneurship opportunities for students, contact Students in Free Enterprise 1959 East Kerr Street Springfield, MO 65803-4775 Tel: 417-831-9505 Email:
[email protected] http://www.sife.org
To learn about government programs, contact SBA; visit its Web site for small business statistics and other relevant information. U.S. Small Business Administration (SBA) 409 Third Street, SW Washington, DC 20416-3212 Tel: 800-827-5722 http://www.sba.gov
■ Related Articles Business; Antiques and Art Dealers; Bed and Breakfast Owners; Child Care Service Owners; Chimney Sweeps; Desktop Publishing Specialists; Financial Planners; Florists; Franchise Owners; Greeting Card Designers and Writers; Information Brokers; Lawn and Gardening Service Owners; Medical Billing Service Owners; Personal Chefs; Personal Shoppers; Swimming Pool Servicers; Tailors and Dressmakers; Taxidermists
The Environment ■ Background Environmental careers have expanded rapidly in the last 35 years, and just about everybody expects that growth to continue for some years. Of course, the reasons
behind this success are often disquieting, if not ominous. Ground-level ozone and airborne particles are affecting millions of people throughout the United States. Wildlife habitats continue to be threatened, and 1,310 plants and animals in the United States alone were considered endangered or threatened as of 2006, according to the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. Hazardous waste still needs to be cleaned up at thousands of Superfund sites. And periodic contamination, or poisoning, of water supplies by pollutants shows that much work is left to be done to ensure safe drinking water for all. Fears about such phenomena as global warming, holes in the ozone layer, acid rain, and other environmental crises have many people wondering what the planet will be like in the coming decades for their grandchildren or even for their grandchildren’s children. Public support for environmental work is strong and apparently continues to grow all the time. A CBS News poll found that 61 percent of Americans think it’s more important to protect the environment than to produce energy. A Harris poll of 2005 found that 74 percent of American adults agree with the statement that “protecting the environment is so important that requirements and standards cannot be too high, and continuing environmental improvements must be made regardless of cost.” The Environmental Careers Organization (ECO) breaks down environmental careers into these broad categories: parks and outdoor recreation, air and water quality management, education and communication, hazardous waste management, land and water conservation, fishery and wildlife management, forestry, planning, and solid waste management. What’s more, says ECO, new kinds of jobs are being created all the time to meet new demands. There currently are more than 30 major environment-related areas of study at the college level, and some experts say that we’ve only begun to see the tip of the iceberg in terms of types of environmental jobs. Many environmental problems are interconnected and broad ranging. Acid precipitation, often known as acid rain, is caused by pollutants released into the air from cars, trucks, planes, factories, and power plants. When acid rain or acid snow falls, lakes, streams, and oceans are contaminated, causing harm to marine and freshwater life, drinking-water supplies, crops, buildings, and forests. In other words, air pollution can lead to water pollution and to forest destruction. Likewise, forest destruction leads to air and water pollution. These problems further become human problems when they directly affect our health and well-being. This interconnectedness of environmental problems has led to a distinct trend. Environmental professionals increasingly are encouraged to be cross-trained to be able to work
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An ecologist takes a water sample at Prime Hook National Wildlife Refuge in Delaware. (Jim Palmer, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.)
on issues involving, for example, both wildlife biology and forestry. The public’s enthusiastic response to Earth Day convinced politicians throughout the country that their constituents were passionately interested in environmental issues. Soon after, Congress created the Environmental Protection Agency. Since the inception of Earth Day, Congress has enacted nearly 40 major federal environmental laws. Today, Earth Day is observed by more than 200 million people worldwide, in more than 140 countries. The history of environmental problems is closely linked to two things: the expanding world population and the many advances in technology that began with the industrial revolution. When relatively few people inhabited the earth and before they lived in cities, they could afford to pollute their environment with few adverse effects. Trees could be cut for fuel in small enough numbers, and the smoke from widely scattered fires dissipated in the atmosphere. Sewage and garbage could be disposed of without causing disease. Air and water pollution existed, but not in large enough degrees to spark a public outcry or to halt the activities that caused them. As early as 1300, London, the most heavily populated city in England, was suffering ill effects from the widespread use of coal as a fuel. The air was thick with smoke and smelled bad. In 1306, King Edward I banned coalburning in London, though the reasons are unclear. Some
believe the king was successfully lobbied by the powerful wood establishment to ban coal at a time when England’s wood was in short supply, thus keeping wood prices high. Others believe that the king showed remarkable wisdom and foresight in recognizing the harmful effects of air pollution. After a time, however, coal use resumed because there simply wasn’t enough wood to fuel the city. The state of the environment started to deteriorate much more rapidly with the advent of the industrial revolution in Europe in the mid-1700s. Large numbers of people living in closely concentrated cities began to produce immense quantities of pollutants with no means of efficiently and harmlessly dispersing them. Great clouds of smoke spewed from factories fueled by coal. By 1750, England had become the first country to be largely powered by coal, but people were so excited by the mechanization of industry and the conveniences that industry and city living afforded, that they pressed full speed ahead without giving much consideration to the damage being done. The mastery of coal, combined with the advent of the steam engine, not only made England the leading industrial nation in the 1800s, but it made it the world’s largest polluter as well. Smog engulfed the city, and all manner of wastes were dumped into the Thames River. (Later, when these wastes got into the drinking-water supply, thousands of people became ill with typhoid fever.) In the 1900s, the situation was worsened by continuing technological developments, including the automobile. In 1952, the sulfur dioxide smog was so severe in London that 4,000 deaths were attributed that year to breathing and respiratory problems caused by pollution. The United States relied on wood as its primary fuel until 1850, as the amount of wood was abundant and clearing the forests was a major American industry. Coal became the most utilized fuel from about 1885 until about 1950, when oil and gas ended its reign. Although there was no single precipitating event in this country to draw awareness to environmental problems, the biggest contributing factor was probably the net consequence of our reliance on and high consumption of nonrenewable fossil fuels. The environmental movement in the United States was spawned in the 1960s, though its roots were to some extent in the conservationist movement that emerged in the 19th century. By that time, most lakes and rivers in this country had suffered damage, and Lake Erie was actually declared dead, devoid of any plant or animal life. (It has since been revived to some extent.) Air pollution plagued every major U.S. city. And scientists discovered in the mid-1960s that fir and spruce trees in the eastern part of the country were being damaged by something called acid rain. From the beginning of the industrial revolution, some voices have called out for protection, conservation, and care of the environment. Henry David Thoreau was cel-
ebrating nature and warning about the encroachment of railroads and industry in the mid-19th century; the Audubon Society and the Sierra Club were formed in the 1890s out of concern that wilderness areas were disappearing; and the National Wildlife Refuge System helped stop the slaughter of Pelican Island, Florida, waterfowl in 1903 (the birds’ feathers were being used for women’s hats). The National Park Service was created in 1916 to conserve the national parks’ scenic areas and wildlife. Fishery management began in the 1870s and was a busy profession by the 1950s. The first Clean Air Act was passed in 1955, the Air Quality Act in 1967. Rachel Carson’s book, Silent Spring, published in 1962, was an urgent statement about the serious health and environmental threats of insecticides. But there was no environmental industry per se until the 1960s, according to the ECO; a comparatively few rangers, foresters, public health officials, and advocates essentially made up the environmental field until this time. However, the watershed year for the U.S. environment movement surely was 1970. In 1970, Americans celebrated the first Earth Day, a nationwide event to promote awareness of the planet’s fragility. Earth Day called on consumers and government leaders to clean up the country’s messes, to develop alternative and renewable energy resources, and to preserve and take better care of the pristine areas that remained. It raised public awareness and helped fire up environmental action at the grassroots level—that is, citizens began to take action themselves to help the environment. The federal government established first the Council on Environmental Quality and then the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to implement environmental legislation. Out of the EPA were born all the state-level EPA organizations, which also work to implement the laws. The National Environmental Policy Act, which took effect in 1970 as well, required that any federal agency with plans to build, support, or regulate a large facility such as a highway, dam, or power plant first must issue an environmental impact statement (EIS) that would assess any damage the project might cause to the environment. The EIS must also take alternative proposals under consideration. A preliminary EIS is reviewed by federal, state, and local authorities and is made available to the public before the federal agency prepares a final EIS and decides whether to proceed with the project. Sometimes an EIS has resulted in projects being challenged legally and delayed; one well-known example is the Tellico Dam on the Little Tennessee River, which might have eradicated a little-known, endangered species of fish called the snail darter. The project was challenged by 11 lawsuits and held up for several years. It was resumed only after the three-inch-long fish were relocated to other tributaries
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of the river. The status of the snail darter since has been upgraded from endangered to threatened. The environmental movement picked up steam in the 1970s. In the 1980s, environmental groups, such as the Sierra Club, Audubon Society, Friends of the Earth, and Wilderness Society, gained considerable lobbying power on Capitol Hill in opposition to pressure from big business and President Reagan, and many laws were passed to clean up and protect the environment. These included the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act of 1976, meant to regulate how industry got rid of its wastes. They also included the Superfund Act for cleaning up toxic wastes at abandoned sites and prosecuting the responsible parties, the Clean Air Act, the Wild and Scenic Rivers Act, the Clean Water Act, and several others. A stance on the environment, pro or con, now is part of many political candidates’ platforms. For example, Ronald Reagan’s anti-environmental stance on most issues, and in particular his appointment of anti-environmentalist James Watt as Secretary of the Interior (the department in charge of the National Park System), sparked a great deal of outrage in the environmental community and led to record-breaking memberships
A worker cleans up oil spilled into Prince William Sound by the tanker Exxon Valdez in 1989, the worst oil spill in U.S. history. (Jill Bauermeister, U.S. Forest Services.)
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Gaylord Nelson, Founder of Earth Day On April 22, 1970, more than 20 million people participated in demonstrations, attended teach-ins, and listened to speeches about the environment. It was, at the time, the largest demonstration in history. This watershed event, called Earth Day, inspired our country to recognize the importance of environmental issues. The annual event, which continues to change the world today, grew out of one man’s frustration with federal government’s inattention to environmental issues. That man was Gaylord Nelson, a senator from Wisconsin. Nelson was born on June 14, 1916. He earned his B.A. at San Jose State College and his law degree from the University of Wisconsin Law School. He served as first lieutenant in the U.S. Army in Okinawa before returning to Madison, Wisconsin, to practice law. From 1959 to 1962, Nelson served as governor of Wisconsin. During his tenure in this office, he initiated a program to purchase one million acres of land for recreation, parks, and wildlife areas. This revolutionary program was funded through a penny-a-pack tax on cigarettes. When Nelson was elected to represent Wisconsin in the U.S. Senate in 1962, he was troubled by that body’s apparent indifference to environmental problems. To draw attention to environmental issues, Nelson urged President Kennedy to embark on a Conservation Tour. The President agreed and embarked on the tour in September
of 1963. The tour failed to galvanize the public to environmental awareness, and Nelson continued to search for new ways to draw attention to environmental problems. In the late 1960s, Nelson ran across an article about the teach-ins being held on college campuses. He was electrified by the concept. In a speech in Seattle in September 1969, Nelson announced that there would be a national environmental teach-in in early 1970. The nation’s response was overwhelming. The public’s enthusiastic response to Earth Day convinced politicians throughout the country that their constituents were passionately interested in environmental issues. Soon after, Congress created the Environmental Protection Agency. Since the inception of Earth Day, Congress has enacted nearly 40 major federal environmental laws. Today, Earth Day is observed by more than 200 million people worldwide, in more than 140 countries. Gaylord Nelson was also the sponsor of the 1964 Wilderness Act. He introduced legislation to require automobile fuel efficiency standards, ban the use of DDT and Agent Orange, control strip mining, and ban the use of phosphates in detergents. In 1995, he received the Presidential Medal of Freedom for his lifelong efforts on behalf of the environment. Gaylord Nelson passed away on July 3, 2005. His achievements demonstrate that, with enough conviction and energy, one person can make a difference. Together we can save the planet.
in environmental groups. Watt eventually relinquished his post under pressure. On the other hand, during the Clinton administration, some people were disappointed that Vice President Al Gore, an avowed environmentalist, was not more aggressive on environmental issues. While environmental quality has improved on many fronts, serious problems remain to be solved. Industrial and auto emissions have been cut significantly, but many cities still don’t meet EPA regulations for allowable limits of airborne pollutants. Other problems still to be resolved include the worldwide phasing out of ozone-depleting chemicals in order to protect the damaged ozone layer, which shields us from harmful radiation; the reduction of so-called greenhouse gases, including curbing emissions of carbon dioxide, to reverse the trend of global warming; and putting a stop to the burning of tropical forests, which also contributes to global warming and has many other deleterious effects.
Some of these issues were addressed at the international level for the first time in the Earth Summit, a gathering of leaders from 178 nations in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, in June 1992. The majority of the nations represented signed treaties aimed at curbing global warming and at promoting biodiversity, or protecting endangered plants and wildlife. The delegates at the convention also adopted a nonbinding plan called Agenda 21, which calls for industrial nations to provide financial and technological assistance to developing countries while also encouraging them to protect their environments. In December 1997, representatives from 159 nations met in Kyoto, Japan, to discuss ways to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, the principal agents responsible for global warming. Thirty-eight developed nations, including the United States, agreed in principle to the Kyoto Protocol, promising to reduce their emissions of the six greenhouse gases (carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide, meth-
ane, hydrofluorocarbons, perflurocarbons, and sulfur hexaflouride) by an average of 5.2 percent by 2012. The United States, the world’s largest producer of greenhouse gases, agreed to reduce emissions to 7 percent below 1990 figures. While many considered any agreement a success, others questioned how these voluntary reductions could be monitored and enforced. Many developed countries, such as the United States, were disappointed that developing countries such as China, India, and Brazil would not commit to limiting their own greenhouse gas emissions. The United States signed the Kyoto treaty in November 1998 but is not subject to its terms and obligations until the treaty is ratified by the Senate. A follow-up conference in Buenos Aires, Argentina, in November 1998 proved largely disappointing as developed and undeveloped countries continued to disagree about the implementation of the Kyoto Protocol. The effectiveness of these conferences remains to be seen, but it’s clear that environmental concerns have taken on global, as well as national, importance. Another significant development is the attention to environmental racism, or the tendency to condone poorer environmental conditions (hazardous waste dumps, illegal/abandoned dumps) in areas populated mainly by people of color. Action has included studies and meetings like the 1991 First National People of Color Environmental Leadership Summit.
■ Structure The number of environmental jobs in the United States is thought to be between one and 4.5 million, with most estimates falling around the two million mark. Environmental needs are so pervasive, affecting so many different types of industries, municipalities, and wilderness areas, that the environmental industry really is found everywhere. Based upon the Environmental Career Organization’s (ECO) general breakdown of environmental jobs, the following is a loose overview of the structure of the industry.
Planning Whether the objective is to save a wildlife habitat, put a transportation system in place, or guide a booming city’s expansion, environmental planners focus on developing a detailed scheme upfront to help make sure the objective is met. They became very important with the passage of the 1970 National Environmental Policy Act and its rule that any federal project requires an environmental impact statement—that is, the people carrying out the project have to research and document the effect of the project on the environment. Though most environmentalists do some planning, official planners tend to view a situation more widely and address several problems with one plan.
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They may concentrate on a specific geographic area or a specific environmental issue, such as air quality. Environmental planners may have backgrounds in environmental science, land management, or law. They rely on a network of experts, including researchers and scientists who report on air, water, and soil quality and wildlife conservation and management. Planners also use environmental lawyers, lobbyists, and public relations specialists to help get plans approved. Environmental planning also includes education and communication. Teachers, from preschool to college level, and wildlife guides share the task of communicating information about the environment to others. Jobs in this category include everything from college professors who instruct tomorrow’s scientists and engineers, to tour guides who take groups through Yellowstone or the Everglades, as well as corporate communications workers who inform the public about a company’s activities that might impact the environment. Because of their bias, their information may or may not be the most reliable. Currently, an urgent task is to help educate people about landfills and other touchy, but critical, subjects so that communities can make informed decisions about them.
Solid Waste Management This is the largest of the environmental fields. Chemists, engineers, recycling coordinators, recycling experts, and others in this field seek to cut down on the amount and danger of solid wastes, popularly known as garbage. Once, people just put their garbage in dumps; then they started burning it; then they used landfills. Now, solid waste managers are trying to reduce the amount of garbage generated in the first place (source reduction), lower the toxicity of garbage that goes into landfills, and find new uses for garbage (such as turning waste into energy). They also seek ways to burn garbage more efficiently, without releasing toxic substances into the air. Individual communities and businesses employ these professionals to help them handle their solid waste. In addition, special companies devoted solely to collecting, separating, transporting, and disposing of others’ solid waste have become a big business. Increasing public concern about the amount and kind of solid waste accumulation has created opportunities in green businesses. These business are concerned with making products that do not harm the environment during manufacturing or use, and packaging is either biodegradable or recyclable. Other businesses concentrate on turning nonbiodegradable material into new products. For example, old tires can be used to make floor mats, asphalt surfaces, carpet padding, playground equipment, bumpers, and guardrails. Plastics can be turned into siding, lumber, wire and cables, carpeting,
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and clothing. There are numerous jobs associated with the design, manufacture and marketing of green products, although there is some debate about whether these should be called environmental careers.
Hazardous Waste Management Hazardous wastes present another, different problem: this is garbage that’s potentially lethal to human health or the environment and must be disposed of in special ways. The ECO says millions of tons of such substances are produced each year. While the chemical industry produces by far the most hazardous waste—up to 70 percent of it—there are many other sources as well, from nuclear reactors to dry cleaners. Biologists, chemists, engineers, geologists, hydrogeologists, and many others are employed in this field. Specialists include radioactive waste managers, who deal with the various waste materials produced by nuclear energy production and nuclear-powered equipment manufacturing, and industrial health/hygienists, who focus on the health effects of exposure to hazardous waste. Opportunities are found with local, state, and federal environmental agencies; on in-house staffs of companies that generate hazardous waste; with consultants or disposal companies; and with emergency response companies, which specialize in dealing with hazardous waste emergencies like chemical spills.
Words to Know Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA): 1980 law (known as Superfund) that mandated cleanup of private and government-owned hazardous waste sites. Ecosystem: A community of various species that interact with one another and with the chemical and physical factors making up the nonliving environment. Endangered species: A species having so few individual survivors that it may become extinct over all or most of its natural range. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA): Federal agency responsible for overseeing the implementation of environmental laws, including those designed to monitor and control air, water, and soil pollution. Environmental science: The study of how we and other species interact with each other and the nonliving environment of matter and energy. Hazardous waste: Any discarded substance, usually chemical, that can cause harm to humans. Recycling: The collecting and reprocessing of a resource in order to turn it into a new, reusable product.
Air Quality Management Air quality engineers, air quality planners, analytical chemists, and toxicologists are just some of the people in this field, which is devoted to the abatement and prevention of air pollution. Under this broad category, people might work on acid rain, ozone depletion, or greenhouse gases. Even more specifically, they might analyze the root causes of these problems. Some study the effects of sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide, particulates, or mercury, all of which are substances emitted into the air when fuels or trash are burned. Others study how much sulfur dioxide is emitted in a coalburning process. Some design, implement, and monitor the effectiveness of scrubbers, which are devices that clean emissions before they’re released into the atmosphere. Others monitor the effects of a certain quantity of sulfur dioxide on the human respiratory system or on animal and plant life.
Water Quality Management This area focuses on getting polluted water back to the desired quality level, whether for drinking, swimming, fishing, power, irrigation, or other uses. Work involves rivers, lakes, canals, and other surface water, as well as the water below the ground, known as groundwater. A key area is the recovery and treatment of wastewater for reuse; this is the biggest area of focus within the water quality management category. Other areas of interest are the preservation of wetlands, which are home to certain fish and wildlife, and the reduction of the damaging effects of floods and droughts. Wetlands ecologists, fish and wildlife scientists, and botanists are just some of the professionals working on wetlands problems.
Land and Water Conservation In addition to conserving wilderness areas, this category includes work to ensure better use of land and water for any purpose, so both can sustain many different types of plants and animals. There are specific laws for conservation of federal- and state-owned land and water, including the National Forest System. Local governments develop their own plans for any land or water in the area not owned by the state or federal government. Special projects in this field include reconstructing destroyed ecosystems. The federal government employs the most people in this category, in such agencies as the Bureau of Land Management, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, and National Park Service.
Fishery and Wildlife Management This area focuses not only on making sure there are enough of certain species of fish and animals to meet
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human needs but on taking steps to ensure the health of the whole surrounding ecosystem that supports these species. Wildlife biologists and fishery biologists are key players in this field. Professionals in this category work on wetlands restoration, saving endangered species, cleaning up contaminants, and other projects. Private fisheries and other private companies, plus many U.S. agencies like the Forest Service, employ people in this category.
Parks and Outdoor Recreation Rangers, forest firefighters, geologists, landscape architects, and many others fall into this category. So do park managers, resource managers, researchers, and maintenance personnel. While the National Park Service employs some of these professionals, it doesn’t use many. These professionals are found in greater numbers working for other U.S. agencies, or for state, county, or city parks, zoos, and other facilities. One intriguing area in this category is the re-greening of city neighborhoods, which involves bringing open park spaces back into urban areas.
Forestry The majority of work in this field involves ensuring healthy forests for use in lumber, paper, and other manufacturing. Smaller percentages of employees work for federal, state, or local governments as foresters, helping to conserve and expand forests. Even smaller percentages work for consulting firms, educational organizations, or nonprofit organizations. Issues in this field include saving endangered species, conserving forest wetlands, and combating pollution. Urban forestry also is increasingly drawing interest; the number of trees within urban areas is dropping, and cities are using foresters to help regain the numbers. Again, it’s important to note that many environmental problems are interrelated and work may crisscross between categories. For example, biologists discovered that a major section of the Florida Everglades was contaminated by mercury. After that initial discovery, it took other scientists to figure out how the mercury got there and where it came from. They discovered that incinerated mercury had been carried into the surface water by rain. What started out as solid waste was burned and caused air pollution, which in turn led to the formation of acid rain, which polluted the water in the Everglades. Federal and state regulatory officials play an important role in the environmental industry. One of their key tasks is to go to the original source or sources of the problem, such as commercial incinerators, and deter-
A soil conservation technician examines sea oats that were recently planted to stabilize erosion during severe storms and hurricanes. (Bob Nichols, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture.)
mine whether the emissions are within legal limits. If not, the offending company might be fined or given a certain amount of time to comply with the regulations. The regulator checks later to determine whether the problem has been fixed. He or she also might testify against the polluter in court.
■ Outlook Because of growing concern in the United States and around the world for the future health and survival of the planet, most indicators point to growth in the field of environmental sciences. Exactly how large the field will become is difficult to project because the amount of attention paid to the environment in this country varies with each political administration and other issues, such as the health of the economy and the tension between creating new jobs and protecting the environment. Media attention to one cause or another, such as preserving the wetlands, saving the rainforests, saving the whales, or recycling, waxes and wanes. Even so, the media helps to periodically remind people that significant environmental problems urgently need solutions. Industrialized nations now have more resources and more interest in finding alternatives to fossil
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fuels, protecting the ozone layer, putting a stop to habitat and species destruction, and developing methods for conserving water, energy, and other resources. Recent political turmoil has heightened the threat of an energy crisis in the United States, and concern is growing over the possibility of bioterrorism and chemical warfare. The situation has put scientists and government officials on alert to ensure that the environment, including human health, is protected from such threats.
■ For More Information For information on environmental resources, scholarships, and colleges offering degrees in the environmental sciences, contact Air & Waste Management Association (AWMA) One Gateway Center, Third Floor 420 Fort Duquesne Boulevard Pittsburgh, PA 15222-1435 Tel: 412-232-3444 Email:
[email protected] http://www.awma.org
For information on careers and certification, contact Ecological Society of America 1707 H Street, NW, Suite 400 Washington, DC 20006-3919 Tel: 202-833-8773 Email:
[email protected] http://www.esa.org
For information on careers, publications, and internships, contact Environmental Careers Organization 30 Winter Street Boston, MA 02108 Tel: 617-426-4375 http://www.eco.org
The mission of the EPA is “to protect human health and to safeguard the natural environment—air, water, and land—upon which life depends.” Contact this government agency for information on careers, internships, and general environmental issues. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) Ariel Rios Building 1200 Pennsylvania Avenue, NW Washington, DC 20460-2403 Tel: 202-272-0167 http://www.epa.gov
For information on career opportunities, employment benefits, the application and hiring process, and federal job information/testing offices, contact National Park Service 1849 C Street, NW Washington, DC 20240-0001 Tel: 202-208-6843 http://www.nps.gov
Greenpeace is an independent organization that advocates “non-violent direct action and creative communication to expose global environmental problems and to promote solutions that are essential to a green and peaceful future.” Greenpeace America 702 H Street, NW Washington, DC 20001-3874 Tel: 202-462-1177 http://www.greenpeaceusa.org
The Nature Conservancy is a private environmental organization that purchases land in order to “preserve the plants, animals and natural communities that represent the diversity of life on Earth.” To learn more about employment opportunities and internships, contact The Nature Conservancy 4245 North Fairfax Drive, Suite 100 Arlington VA 22203-1606 Tel: 703-841-5300 Email:
[email protected] http://nature.org
NAAEE is an environmental interest group that seeks to promote environmental education and support the work of environmental educators. For information about its programs, contact North American Association for Environmental Education (NAAEE) 2000 P Street, NW, Suite 540 Washington, DC 20036-5915 Tel: 202-419-0412 Email:
[email protected] http://www.naaee.org
For comprehensive information on forestry-related careers and education, contact Society of American Foresters (SAF) 5400 Grosvenor Lane Bethesda, MD 20814-2198 Tel: 301-897-8720 Email:
[email protected] http://www.safnet.org
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For information on student volunteer activities and programs, contact Student Conservation Association PO Box 550 Charlestown, NH 03603-0550 Tel: 603-543-1700 http:// www.thesca.org
For information on careers and educational requirements, contact U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 1849 C Street, NW Washington, DC 20240-0001 Tel: 800-344-9453 http://www.fws.gov
Contact the USGS or visit its Web site for information about its environment theme, including current and future projects, as well as a registry of earth and environmental science Internet resources. U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) 12201 Sunrise Valley Drive Reston, VA 20192-0002 Tel: 888-275-8747 http://www.usgs.gov
For information on universities and colleges offering curricula in wildlife conservation, contact The Wildlife Society 5410 Grosvenor Lane, Suite 200 Bethesda, MD 20814-2144 Tel: 301-897-9770 Email:
[email protected] http://www.wildlife.org
Unity College offers more environmental programs than any other college in the United States. For more information, contact Unity College PO Box 532 Unity, ME 04988-0532 Tel: 800-624-1024 Email:
[email protected] http://www.unity.edu
■ Related Articles Biology; Earth Sciences; Parks and Public Lands; Waste Management; Air Quality Engineers; Arborists; Biochemists; Biologists; Botanists; Chemists; Ecologists; Energy Conservation Technicians; Environmental Engineers; Environmental Technicians; Fish and Game Wardens;
Foresters; Forestry Technicians; Geologists; Geophysicists; Groundwater Professionals; Hazardous Waste Management Specialists; Hazardous Waste Management Technicians; Land Acquisition Professionals; Land Trust or Preserve Managers; Marine Biologists; Meteorologists; Naturalists; Oceanographers; Park Rangers; Range Managers; Recycling Coordinators; Renewable Energy Careers; Soil Conservationists and Technicians; Soil Scientists; Tour Guides; Wastewater Treatment Plant Operators and Technicians
Fashion ■ Background Clothing has been worn by people of all cultures since prehistoric times; its basic function was to protect the body from the elements. Clothing styles have been influenced by well-known people, religion, tradition, art, science, and more recently, the media. Archaeologists have found no clothing from early periods before the Stone Age. This may be because of the fragility of the garments; even if they were buried, they didn’t survive the weathering of the centuries. It is assumed that prehistoric people made clothing for warmth from the skins of animals killed for food. The clothes may have been unfitted and tied or wrapped around the body. Toward the end of the Stone Age (about 10,000 years ago), the first sewn clothing was made in the southern regions of Europe with needles carved from bone. In the northern regions, people used leather straps to sew together skins. Holes were made in the garment and a hook was used to pull the leather thong through the skins. From pottery and wall paintings, archaeologists have clues to the clothing of the ancient Egyptians. Material was woven from spun thread. The thread was spun on a spindle, a long smooth stick with a notch at one end for catching the thread or yarn. Spinning the spindle against a bowl, called a whorl, produced a fairly even, continuous fiber. These fibers were formed into fabric by weaving. The first clothing Egyptian men wore was a band around the waist, with pendants and religious objects hanging from the band. The first clothing worn by Egyptian women was a white linen skirt that reached down to the ankles. The first pair of trousers was worn in Persia around the sixth century b.c. The type of clothing worn in any location often was influenced by the climate. In warmer climates, both men
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and women tended to wear dresses and other loose fitting apparel that was open at the bottom. Those in colder climates were more likely to wear pants. Religious customs also influenced the type of apparel worn. For example, in the 12th century when the Muslims conquered northern and central India, dramatic changes were made in the dress code to conform to Muslim practice. Until the conquest, the warm climate had dictated that dress styles leave some of the body uncovered, but the Muslim practice of covering as much of the body as possible led to a change. For women, this meant covering the arms, legs, and in many areas, the head and most of the face. It was also in the 12th century that the spinning wheel came into use, although its origin is unknown. The spinning wheel increased the speed at which threads and yarns could be produced. The two-bar loom was invented at about the same time, increasing the speed at which the threads could be woven. Advances in fabric making resulted in more beautiful and widely available clothing. The next wave of inventions to assist fabric makers in their art came during the 18th century. The spinning jenny, a machine that spun more than one thread at a time, was invented by James Hargreaves in about 1764. The water-frame, cotton-spinning machine invented by Richard Arkwright made hard, twisted thread from cotton rather than linen, the fiber used until then. In 1785, Edmund Cartwright developed a power loom that ran on steam. He opened a factory in England that used the machine for rapid production of fabric. In 1793, Eli Whitney, an American inventor, developed the cotton gin, which reduced the amount of time and manpower necessary to pull the seeds from cotton. In 1830, Barthelemy Thimonnier patented a sewing machine in Paris. The same fate befell Thimonnier and Cartwright: In fear of losing their livelihood, weavers and tailors destroyed their factories, leading to many instances of destruction and violence across Europe. In 1846, Elias Howe of the United States developed a sewing machine. The machine was quick and used two threads in a lockstitch pattern, as sewing machines use today. However, Howe’s sewing machine was no more accepted in the United States than Thimonnier’s invention had been in Paris, and he sold part of the patent rights in England. In 1851, Isaac Singer built the sewing machine that would survive the objections of the tailors. The machine made only simple stitches, and although it sped production of the basic elements of garments, tailors still were needed for much of the manufacturing process. These early workers were required to purchase their own sewing machines.
As the industrial revolution progressed, the sewing machine was joined in 1860 by a band-knife cutting machine, invented by John Barran of Leeds, England, that cut several layers of fabric. In the 1890s, the first spreading machine was put to use in garment making, as was the first buttonhole machine, which was invented in the United States at the Reece Machinery Company. Factories began to replace craft shops. In the early 20th century, New York City’s Lower East Side became the largest producer of clothing in the world. This was due to the city’s large population of immigrant garment workers and easy access to both New England’s woolen mills and the South’s cotton mills. The small garment factories were poorly lit and ventilated, unsafe, and unsanitary. The rooms were packed with workers who labored 12 or 14 hours a day for meager wages. The term sweatshop was used to describe these early businesses. On March 25, 1911, in New York City, a disastrous fire swept through the Triangle Shirtwaist Factory, killing 146 people, most of them young girls. The building had only one fire escape, and the exit doors were blocked. The factory had just been approved by the city inspectors for fire safety. As a direct result of the tragedy, the city was forced to revise its building codes and labor laws, and membership in garment industry unions increased dramatically. The International Ladies Garment Workers Union, founded in 1900, developed enough support after the fire to lobby for labor laws to be enacted and enforced. The Amalgamated Clothing Workers of America was established in 1914 and soon became one of the largest unions in the apparel industry. The era of the sweatshop was coming to an end in the United States. The World Wars increased the need for clothing production and helped maintain the United States’ leadership position in the apparel-producing industry. Like many other fields, the apparel industry was starting to specialize and departmentalize. Jobbers bought raw materials, such as cotton, and sold it to contractors. Contractors made materials—fabrics, threads, or even garments. Manufacturers bought materials and threads and made clothes to sell to wholesalers or to distributors who owned their own stores. Wholesalers sold finished products to retail stores. However, shops that produced finished garments from raw materials still existed; they were called vertical mills and vertical mill distributors. During the first half of the 20th century, the garment industry was concentrated in the United States and Great Britain. By the 1950s, many other countries, including Canada, Belgium, the Netherlands, South Africa, the Scandinavian countries, Australia, and Japan, began
to expand their garment industries. In the 1960s, the garment industry grew rapidly worldwide, expanding greatly in the Far East, especially in Japan, South Korea, Taiwan, Hong Kong, and Singapore. The greatest change in the apparel industry in the last 50 years has been the migration of manufacturing jobs to Asia. A substantial number of garments are made abroad because of the reduced cost of labor and taxes as well as technologically advanced, well-engineered factories. The quantity of clothing imported increased by more than 300 percent in the late 20th century. Because of the limited investment required to cut and sew garments and the tendency of firms to specialize in one operation, such as cutting, small companies can enter this industry with relative ease. Most manufacturers have small factories, which employ fewer than 100 workers. However, the relatively few companies with more than 100 workers employ more than 60 percent of the workforce in the apparel industry.
■ Structure The apparel industry is made up of thousands of manufacturers. It includes almost all types of clothing, except hats, shoes, hosiery, and fur, which are excluded because of the fundamental differences in materials and manufacturing methods. The apparel industry generally is subdivided into two categories. Men’s and boys’ clothing includes suits, overcoats, other outer garments, slacks, shirts, ties, underwear, and sleepwear. Women’s and girls’ clothing encompasses coats, suits, other outer garments, dresses, blouses, skirts, slacks, and accessories, such as scarves, underwear, and sleepwear. The U.S. apparel industry began in the Mid-Atlantic region, where it still is centered around New York City. The pool of experienced workers in these states is far greater than in any other area of the country, and the largest concentration of factories producing men’s apparel is located there. These plants usually are larger than those making women’s garments because men’s clothing undergoes fewer design and style changes and thus is better suited to mass production. In the women’s and girl’s outerwear sector of the apparel industry, the majority of the cut-and-sewn garments originate in New York City, but much of the sewing is contracted out to firms throughout the world. In addition, some relatively low-priced women’s and children’s garments, such as low-end cotton dresses, which do not require highly skilled operators, are made throughout the country. The production of a garment consists of designing the item, cutting the cloth, sewing the pieces together, pressing the garment, and merchandising the product.
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Words to Know AMTEX: American Textile Partnership. CAD/CAM: Computer-aided design and computer-aided manufacturing. Chargeback: Financial penalty for infractions, such as errors in purchase orders or failure to deliver floor-ready merchandise. Cruisewear: Apparel designed for vacationing, originally for shipboard activities. Dressmarker: Custom tailor. Fabricated: Assembled, produced; as in fabricated textiles. Floor-ready: Clothing on hangers, prepared for presentation in the store. Grading: Adjusting pieces of a garment for various sizes. Made to measure: Custom-designed apparel. National Textile Center: Consortium of universities involved in textile research. Parity: Equality; elimination of tariffs on goods from other countries. Preticket: Price tag applied to a garment by the apparel firm, showing retailers’ price. Ready-to-wear: Apparel manufactured in preset sizes, not customized. Showing: Event held to display new designs and styles to buyers and media representatives. Subsector: A specific area of apparel, such as men’s and boys’ clothing. Sweatshop: Small, early 20th century apparel factory, especially in New York City, that was crowded, unsanitary, and unsafe, especially from fire. Tannery: Facility where animal hides are cleaned and preserved in tannin solutions to make leather. Tannin: Chemical extracted from certain trees or plants and used to keep leather from decomposing. Workroom: Location where textiles are cut and assembled into garments. WWD: Women’s Wear Daily; periodical considered the clothing industry bible.
A designer creates the look of a piece of clothing. He or she draws a picture of the item and works with sewers and others to make a sample of it. The designer then makes modifications of the design based on suggestions from apparel executives and other management personnel. Once an item of clothing has been designed, it is sent to the merchandising department, where it is prepared and presented for sale to retailers. Merchandisers must understand clothing trends as well as pricing. Some
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This fashion designer fits fabric of a design to a mannequin in her studio. (Corbis.)
merchandisers buy piece goods used in the manufacture of garments, while others are concerned with pricing the garments. Because the apparel industry covers such a wide variety of garments and uses practically every type of textile manufactured, merchandising problems vary from one segment of the industry to another. When the garment style has been produced, shown to retail buyers, and accepted by the merchandising department, the manufacturer gives the orders to the cutting department of the factory. There are five basic operations in the cutting department: marking, spreading, cutting, assembling, and ticketing. Small shops may combine two or more of these operations into a single job. Markers trace the pattern pieces on large sheets of paper. In some cases, they trace the pattern with chalk directly on the cloth itself. Spreaders lay out bolts of cloth into exact lengths on the cutting table. A machine cutter
follows the pattern outline on the cloth and cuts various garment pieces from layers of cloth. Using an electrical cutting machine, the cutter slices through all the layers at once. In more automated facilities, markers send the layout electronically to a computer-controlled cutting machine, and the cutter monitors the machine’s work. Thus numerically controlled machine operators are replacing many cutters. Newer technology has been developed so that computer-controlled markers and cutters often are used. Computers allow for more precise information to be programmed into set patterns and more uniform shapes to be cut. After the garment has been cut, assemblers bring together the various pieces needed, including lining, interfacing, and trimmings, to make a complete garment. They match color, size, and fabric design and use chalk or thread to mark locations of pockets, buttonholes, buttons, and other trimmings. They identify each bundle with a ticket. This ticket previously was used to figure the earnings of workers, who were paid according to the number of pieces they produced. Present technology uses bar codes and computers to calculate the worker’s pay and track the bundles through the production line. The bundles then are sent to the sewing room. Sewing machine operators put the material together into its finished form. These and other production workers must be careful to follow the patterns supplied by the designers. Some pressing is done as a garment is assembled; sometimes it is done at the completion of all sewing. Delicate garments must be pressed by hand. The finished clothing then is inspected and sent to the shipping room. From there, the material is sent to the markets the manufacturer has created for the product. Manufacturers must have a good sales staff so that stores will choose to carry the newly created clothing line. Marketing plays a very important part in the success or failure of a line of clothing. Once the prices for each garment have been established, salespeople for the manufacturer travel to New York and other merchandising centers to show their goods. A great deal of selling in the women’s wear field is done in the showrooms of New York. The menswear division also has its semiannual buying periods, and large retailers go to the New York market to purchase a substantial proportion of their seasonal requirements. The orders usually are larger than in the women’s wear field, because a retailer can make longterm commitments without fear that the garments will be out of style within a short time. Executive offices of apparel manufacturers usually are located in the same states as the factories, but nearly
every important apparel manufacturer has a sales office in New York City. This is where large retailers usually do their buying and where industry wide sales meetings are held each new season. Stores at some distance from New York employ local residents to comb the market for merchandise and advise them on placing orders. Some stores have organized cooperative-buying offices. These have increased the importance of the New York market as a selling and buying center where fashion ideas originate and where buyers and sellers congregate. A large number of the workers in the apparel manufacturing industry are women (the highest percentage in U.S. manufacturing), and minorities account for about 27 percent of the workforce. About 8 percent of workers belong to unions, according to the U.S. Department of Labor. The major union is the United Needletrades, Industrial, and Textile Employees (UNITE), a merger of the International Ladies Garment Workers Union and the Amalgamated Clothing and Textile Workers Union.
■ Outlook In the face of foreign competition, the future of the apparel industry is unclear. Imports from foreign countries have deeply affected the U.S. apparel industry. Foreign imports have taken increasingly larger shares of such important markets as blouses, coats, shirts, and sweaters. As a result, employment in U.S. plants has declined. The related field of textile manufacturing has also seen significant declines. According to the National Council of Textile Organizations, 365,400 textile-manufacturing jobs were lost from June 2001 to June 2006. This represents a decline of 37 percent. In 2004, the apparel industry provided approximately 285,000 wage and salary jobs. According to the U.S. Department of Labor, wage and salary employment in the apparel industry is expected to decline 46 percent through 2014— greater than the decrease for nearly any other industry. Declining employment will be caused by growing imports and competition from foreign markets, new technology, and cost-cutting practices imposed by retailers. The apparel industry is highly competitive, and low profits and wages are characteristic. There are approximately 14,000 establishments in all 50 states and most jobs are with large firms: More than 58 percent of all U.S. apparel industry workers are employed at companies of 100 workers or more. Many U.S. firms will continue to move their assembly operations to low-wage countries, which will adversely affect employment for lower-skilled machine operators. However, much of the apparel will still be designed and cut in the United States, which will maintain the demand for some pre-sewing functions.
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Learn More About It Dickerson, Kitty G., and Jeannette Jarnow. Inside the Fashion Business. 7th ed. Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 2002. Mauro, Lucia, Kathy Siebel, and Maureen Costello. Careers for Fashion Plates & Other Trendsetters. 2d ed. New York: McGraw-Hill/Contemporary Books, 2002. Stephens Frings, Gini. Fashion: From Concept to Consumer. 8th ed. Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 2004. Watson, Linda. Vogue: Twentieth Century Fashion. London, U.K.: Carlton Books, 2002.
Technological changes continue to affect the fashion manufacturing process. Many apparel manufacturers now use computer systems to design products, make patterns, and present their products to buyers. Many of the operations at apparel factories are difficult to automate, however, because of the large variety of fabrics and the intricate cutting and sewing required of most fashions, so the fashion industry is likely to remain labor-intensive. Quick Response is a new production concept that uses computers and allows manufacturers to quickly produce and deliver products in high demand and avoid producing clothing that does not sell well. The system relies on automated checkouts with bar-code scanners to track inventory, identify strong sellers, and know when to replenish stock, thereby cutting lead time in the order and delivery of goods. The fastest job growth in retail trade is projected for apparel and accessory stores. Pressing machine operators, custom tailors, and workers whose skills can be used in retail clothing stores, laundries, and dry cleaners will have the best opportunities. Workers who have knowledge of computer-aided design and computer-aided manufacturing will have the best employment prospects.
■ For More Information For industry information, contact American Apparel and Footwear Association 1601 North Kent Street, Suite 1200 Arlington, VA 22209-2127 Tel: 800-520-2262 http://www.apparelandfootwear.org
For information about this school, programs, and an application, contact FIT. Fashion Institute of Technology (FIT) Seventh Avenue at 27th Street New York, NY 10001-5992
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Tel: 212-217-7999 Email:
[email protected] http://www.fitnyc.edu
For a list of accredited schools, contact National Association of Schools of Art and Design 11250 Roger Bacon Drive, Suite 21 Reston, VA 20190-5248 Tel: 703-437-6312 Email:
[email protected] http://nasad.arts-accredit.org
For information on purchasing the U.S. textile industry, contact National Council of Textile Organizations 1776 I Street, Suite 900 Washington, DC 20006-2601 Tel: 202-756-4878 http://www.ncto.org
For comprehensive information on a career in the sewn products industry, visit Careerthreads.com http://www.careerthreads.com
For subscription information, visit the following magazine’s Web site: Women’s Wear Daily http://www.wwd.com
■ Related Articles Textiles; Apparel Industry Workers; Buyers; Cosmetologists; Costume Designers; Fashion Coordinators; Fashion Designers; Fashion Illustrators and Photographers; Fashion Models’ Agents; Jewelers and Jewelry Repairers; Knit Goods Industry Workers; Makeup Artists; Models; Nail Technicians; Photo Stylists; Shoe Industry Workers; Tailors and Dressmakers; Textile Manufacturing Workers; Textile Technicians
Film ■ Background In the Woody Allen film Annie Hall, Allen tells Diane Keaton, “A relationship is like a shark . . . if it doesn’t keep swimming, it dies.” This could also serve as a good metaphor for the film industry. For over 100 years, the film industry has avoided many deaths by moving forward.
It has adapted to the times, enjoying golden eras and surviving slumps. But such complexities can be expected of an industry driven by both art and commerce. The film industry holds a place in the American imagination like no other, while also maintaining a firm hold on the American pocketbook. The U.S. moviegoing public spends approximately $8 billion annually at the box office. We rent and purchase our favorite films on video and DVD and subscribe to many cable channels devoted to the 24-hour repeat of recent and classic productions. We read magazines and books about filmmaking and visit Web pages devoted to our favorite stars and movies. And thousands of people flock to Hollywood every year to invest in a more glamorous life, with dreams of becoming an actor, screenwriter, or director. What follows are only some of the major developments in the history of this evolving, ever-changing industry. The desire to create more than static, nonmoving images emerged soon after the development of still photography. If one picture could capture a single moment, inventors realized, then it should be possible to devise a similar technique for capturing a series of moments. Flip cards, the first version of moving pictures, worked on a simple principle. If a series of still pictures can capture the movements of someone running, showing the pictures in rapid succession would give the illusion of the movement of running. In 1877, Eadweard Muybridge successfully captured a horse in motion by using 24 cameras and trip wires that triggered the camera shutters as the horse ran along. The famous inventor Thomas Edison produced a short movie called The Sneeze in 1894, using film for the first time instead of individual plates. Georges Melies introduced narrative films in 1899 in France, and in 1903 Edwin Porter filmed The Great Train Robbery, the first motion picture that told a story using modern filming techniques. Porter used editing to put together a compelling story that he had filmed out of sequence. Motion pictures became increasingly popular in the early 1900s, with the advent of the movie house and silent film stars such as Charlie Chaplin and Rudolph Valentino. It was not until 1927, when The Jazz Singer with Al Jolson was produced, that talking movies began to be made. In the 1920s the first animated films were released for theater distribution. The 1920s also saw the rise of the studio moguls who built the large production companies such as Paramount and Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer (MGM). These companies dominated the industry for years, with tight control of talent, publicity, and film distribution. The 1930s is often considered the first golden era of filmmaking. It is estimated that 65 percent of the population went to the movies in 1938, accounting for 80
million tickets sold every week. The studios flooded the theaters with films, both good and bad, to keep the public entertained. Though many silent film stars couldn’t find success in the new talkies, others, like Charlie Chaplin and Greta Garbo, thrived. Ernst Lubitsch, Frank Capra, and George Cukor are only a few of the great directors who worked during this period. During World War II, films provided an escape from hardship and tragedy, as well as an aid to the government to educate people about the war effort. Frank Capra, George Stevens, John Huston, and other great filmmakers of the era dedicated themselves to making documentary films for the government. Many feature films were patriotic in nature, or served as portraits of quality American life being protected by the soldiers overseas. A special war tax attached to each theater ticket allowed moviegoers to make a contribution just by being entertained. After the war, however, this close relationship between the film industry and the government soured. The government demanded the big studios give up their theaters, greatly limiting the studios’ control over the features shown across the country. The studios were also hurt by the anti-Communism that swept the nation in the time of Joseph McCarthy. The government formed the House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC) in 1947 to sniff out supposed Communist sympathizers in the film industry. A blacklist of actors, screenwriters, and directors believed to be pro-Communist ended the careers of many blacklisted filmmakers. Hollywood received a great deal of negative publicity, and a public backlash of films evolved, including a boycott by the American Legion. Today, the scandal still has an impact, demonstrated by the uproar when Elia Kazan, director of such film classics as Streetcar Named Desire and On the Waterfront, who cooperated with the HUAC by naming those in the industry he believed to be Communists and thus effectively ending their careers, was announced as the winner of a special Academy Award in 1999. The Oscars were picketed and Nick Nolte, Ed Harris, and others of the night’s nominees refused to applaud during Kazan’s acceptance. Also contributing to the demise of the big studios was the rush to the suburbs. Americans were leaving the big cities and, therefore, their proximity to the grand movie houses. They also began to spend their recreational dollars on records for their new hi-fi’s and for tickets for travel on the new airlines. By the late 1940s, the studios had to allow contracts with filmmakers and stars to lapse, ending the studios’ years of complete power over the industry. Television changed the film industry in a variety of ways, and it continues to do so. With the popularity of
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TV growing in the early 1950s, movies had competition like nothing before. In 1946, the film industry made more money domestically than at any other time in its history—a gross of $1.7 billion. The early 1950s saw a large drop-off in movie attendance, and by 1962, domestic gross had been cut nearly in half to $900 million. In the 1950s, the movies began to compete by offering elements (and gimmicks) viewers couldn’t find elsewhere. Although the Technicolor process of color film had been perfected in 1933, filmmakers still shot primarily in black and white (B&W). Not only were B&W films less expensive to produce than color films, but filmmakers had honed their skills with B&W, and were more comfortable with it. But B&W TV was growing in popularity and film producers recognized the need to use color more frequently to draw viewers to movie theaters. The industry also tried a few technological stunts, such as 3-D. House of Wax and other horror films were the primary users of 3-D, but other genres dabbled in it as well. The musical Kiss Me, Kate was presented in 3-D. This process, however, was short-lived. And though Cinerama, a film industry gimmick that consisted of films presented on a large, wraparound screen, lasted a bit longer than 3-D, it too sizzled out within 10 years, ending with Stanley Kubrick’s 2001: A Space Odyssey in 1968. CinemaScope, another big-screen novelty, proved more successful and inspired other wide-screen processes such as VistaVision and Panavision. Film producers offered something else TV viewers couldn’t get at home: films with controversial subject matter and dialogue. Otto Preminger adapted the play The Moon Is Blue in 1953 and released it without the Movie Production Code’s seal of approval. The code had been in place since the 1930s to essentially censor films on the basis of morality. Preminger sprinkled his film with a few frank discussions of sex and use of such words as “virgin.” Although The Moon Is Blue is tame and coy in contrast to later films, its success led other filmmakers to push at the boundaries of the code more aggressively. The success of foreign films, not subject to the code, also proved the public’s appreciation of more daring films. By the late 1960s, the code had become barely relevant, and it was abandoned in 1967 in favor of the ratings system still used today. Despite the film industry’s early efforts to separate itself entirely from TV, TV came to have a large impact on the way films were made. Filmmakers and actors cut their teeth with TV projects; films became smaller in scope with lower budgets; and some television screenplays, such as Marty and A Catered Affair, were adapted for the big screen. The film industry’s survival in the face of great competition was evidenced in the 1970s. In addition to enjoying
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greater financial success, films also enjoyed another artistic golden era. The late 1960s and early 1970s brought along groundbreaking films that explored, like never before, politics, violence, society, and sexuality. Filmmakers like Robert Altman (Nashville), Francis Ford Coppola (The Godfather), Arthur Penn (Bonnie and Clyde), Martin Scorcese (Taxi Driver), Roman Polanski (Chinatown), and Woody Allen (Manhattan), made films that were both critically and financially successful. Though many of these filmmakers still make quality films today, their earlier work stands out. The film sequel also evolved during this period; film series had long been a tradition, but Coppola was the first to label a film Part II when he released his sequel to The Godfather. Horror movies such as Halloween and Friday the 13th capitalized on their formulas well into the 1980s and 1990s, and other genres, such as action films and comedies, followed suit with their own sequels. The revolutionary period of the 1970s went unmatched in the 1980s. Whereas the 1970s produced a long list of great directors, the 1980s produced relatively few breakout filmmakers. David Lynch (Blue Velvet), Spike Lee (Do the Right Thing), Tim Burton (Beetlejuice), and Barry Levinson (Diner) established careers in the industry, and some female directors, such as Susan Seidelman (Desperately Seeking Susan) and Joan Micklin-Silver (Crossing Delancey), made films that met with both critical and financial success. But the 1980s are mostly marked by the introduction of VCRs in American homes. By the middle of the decade, even small towns had video rental stores, and filmmakers seemed to make films with an eye toward the video version. Some films even went directly
to video, losing little in the translation. But the 1980s also laid the groundwork for the two major developments of the 1990s: the big-budget, special effects spectacle and the independent film. The success of George Lucas (Star Wars) and Steven Spielberg (E.T.) ushered in a new standard of big-budget filmmaking and experimentation with special effects and computer technology. Lucas and Spielberg helped to establish the tradition of the summer blockbuster, as film studios began to compete for younger, primarily male, audiences. With Independence Day, Men in Black, Star Wars I–III, and Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King, and Pirates of the Caribbean: Dead Man’s Chest the top moneymakers of the late 1990s and early 2000s, this is a trend that is likely to continue. And industry executives weren’t the only ones tracking weekend grosses. The 1990s and early 2000s also saw the regular publication of the top 10 films for any given week, and the public became more aware of film successes and failures. At the other end of the spectrum, the inexpensively produced work of independent filmmakers hearkened back to the glory days of the 1970s. The success of the Sundance Film Festival, and the attention given the films it spotlighted, revealed an audience for more personal, artful films. The independently produced Pulp Fiction not only made a lot of money but also won awards and inspired several imitations. Also, many women, minority, and gay filmmakers found their voices in independent cinema. Today, producers and directors strive for a union of all the different aspects of great filmmaking. They attempt to create work that is artful, technologically enhanced, and financially rewarded.
■ Structure
Working in film can be an exciting career. This is a crew at work on an outdoor shoot. (Corbis.)
Most movie productions begin with the selection of the story to be told. The movie may be based on a novel, a play, or an original script. With documentaries, the movie focuses on a nonfiction subject. The second most important step after developing the storyline or subject is to acquire funding. With commercial films, the company sponsoring the production pays the production costs and approves the steps in the process of making the film. In the days of the studio contracts, the conception, production, and financing of films was all done within one studio. For example, 20th Century Fox would have producers, staff writers, directors, and actors and actresses, from whom they would choose for a particular film. Today’s system is different. Although there are people who will sign contracts to do several films for one studio for a prearranged salary, most people work on a
project-by-project basis. Producers now bring a project to a studio with an estimated cost of production and perhaps the main actors and actresses already cast, and a studio may agree to back the production. The studio will pay for the costs of producing the film and for the salaries of the crew and cast in exchange for the film’s profits when it is released. If the movie is successful, it will bring in more money from ticket sales than the film cost to produce. Movies have become very expensive projects, with some films costing many millions of dollars to produce. These films require a huge turnout in the theaters to make any money for the company sponsoring the film. Small productions need not sell as many tickets, but frequently the actors and actresses are not well known, and selling tickets becomes more difficult. With the increased cost of film production, the independent producer has to be a good salesperson to be able to persuade a studio of the marketability of a film idea. If there are popular actors and actresses involved in the film, or a particular storyline has done well before, the producer is more likely to find financing than if a new idea or unknown actors are involved. Some studios are more willing to take the risk of a lesser-known cast and story if the cost of production is not too high. Occasionally, a producer will go to a studio with just the idea for a film. With studio backing, he or she may be able to attract bigger names to work on the film. Studios have developed a “step deal” for this and other arrangements. With a step deal, the studio can withdraw funding from a project if the producer cannot get an adequate script or staff together. Documentary filmmakers usually have more difficulty securing financing than a mass-market motion picture. If the funding is sought through endowments, government agencies, or broadcasting stations, the producer and director should anticipate putting together a fairly lengthy proposal with extensive research on the selected topic. For example, the length of the documentary needs to be planned out and explained. A timetable for the research, filming, and editing has to be calculated. The potential investors also need biographical information on the more important staff members of the documentary so they know the background of the people with whom they are entrusting their money. The producer may have to produce a shortened version of the film (a pilot) to show what the full-length project will look like. It can take from six months to 10 years to secure financing for a documentary. Once funding has been found for a project, a payment schedule is worked out with the producer of the documentary. Some funds are usually supplied up front, with vari-
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Short Shorts Audiences have long had an impact on filmmaking, regularly expressing their opinions and concerns, even before the regular use of focus groups by the industry: ■ In silent films, actors didn’t always recite the lines that appeared on the title cards. By the end of the silent era, filmgoers became so good at reading lips, that many wrote letters of complaint to the makers of What Price Glory? (1926). The actors Edmund Lowe and Victor McLaglen used profanity in many of the scenes, offending hundreds of lip readers. ■
Parents complained to the makers of Elmer the Great in 1933 because of its influence on their children. A scene featured Joe E. Brown attempting to drink from a coffee cup with the spoon still in it. After poking himself in the eye repeatedly, Brown finally bent the spoon out of the way. Children across America, after seeing the film, bent all the family spoons.
■
By 1947, Shirley Temple, America’s sweetheart and the most successful child star of all time, was a young adult of 19. That Hagen Girl gave Temple the opportunity to play an adult role, and featured a scene where 36-yearold Ronald Reagan tells her he’s in love with her. When the film was previewed, audiences were so disturbed by the scene, that the scene was ultimately cut.
ous amounts distributed along the way and the remaining money delivered after the completion of the project. A film crew on a documentary can be as small as four people—a producer-director, a camera operator, a sound technician, and a lighting technician—although some documentaries require a large staff. As with other forms of film production, the lower the costs, the easier it is to find funding. After funding has been arranged, the filmmakers prepare to film. Whether you’re making a documentary or a feature film, you’ll need a script. In the case of a feature film, screenwriters write and rewrite the script to develop characters, tighten the plot, and keep within time limitations. The action must be planned carefully. Timing, continuation of narrative, camera angles, and the many other details that go into making a cohesive piece of work need to be worked out as thoroughly as possible before the filming begins. If the producer waits until the actual production to decide on major aspects of the project, the costs increase dramatically. Decisions about where the filming is to be done, whether in a studio or on location, go into the cost analysis of the
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Words to Know Agent: A business manager who uses industry connections to find film work for actors, screenwriters, and other professionals; negotiates contracts and receives a percentage of a client’s fee. Art department: A collection of professionals (art director, set director, and others) who work with the visual aspects and designs of a film. Boom mike: A microphone attached to the end of a long pole and kept above the heads of actors out of view of the camera. Box office: The office from which theater tickets are sold; also refers to the commercial success of a film. Casting: Placing actors in roles for a film. Continuity: Maintaining the consistency of details (costumes, actor positions, etc.) from scene to scene. Documentary: A nonfiction, journalistic film composed of interviews, historical background, and other factual reports surrounding a specific subject. Focus group: A small group of unbiased viewers who preview a film for a production company and offer their opinions. Foley artist: A professional who recreates sound effects for a film, matching the sounds with images. Indie: A film produced independently, outside of the major studio system. Matte shot: A shot incorporating an artist-created backdrop. Post-production: Editing, effects, and other work done on a film after primary filming is completed. Print: Developed film that can be projected onto a screen for viewing. Soundstage: An area within a studio comprised of large sets. Steadicam: A special camera that allows scenes to be shot smoothly as a Steadicam operator moves across a set or location.
project. Casting of the actors, actresses, narrators, and other talent that will be in the project affect the budget. How long the filming will take, the special effects required, and the overall size of the staff and production all determine the final budget for a film. The studio production department needs all this information before final approval of the contract can be made. For animated features, the methods of funding can be either like that of the documentary or that of a mass market motion picture. Animated features continue to have great appeal to the public and continue to be produced,
despite the incredible time and detailed work that must go into the manufacturing of an animated film. Each image to be captured in a film of live action needs to be drawn onto a clear plastic sheet. Simple movements, like saying hello, require at least eight different drawings shown in sequence to recreate actions of the body and mouth. A full-length feature takes at least two years to complete and may use more than one million different drawings. As computer animation is more widely used, however, the amount of painstaking work done by hand and the time it takes to produce an animated film have been greatly reduced. Although computers have automated some aspects of animation, the creation of three-dimensional animation (such as that of Pixar) on computers still requires incredible amounts of labor. Depending on the size of the project, live-action filming can take several days to several months. The picture is normally filmed out of sequence. The film can be shot in a studio on a soundstage, where everything is recreated to look like an actual location. The film can also be produced on location, in the actual setting where the story takes place. Once the filming is done, the film is reassembled in a studio. Special effects, music tracks, and any conversation that may have been muffled by other noises during the filming is added at this point. This type of work requires both precision and split-second timing to assure that the on-screen action matches the sound heard. Once the project is completed, the film is reviewed by the people in charge of the production. If the final product is acceptable, the film is released. This means that the film is distributed to the theaters. Now it is up to the marketing and distributing staff to build an audience for the film. Their job is to encourage the public to watch the production and to make the public aware of where the film is playing. Without an audience, even the best motion pictures will have little impact. Most work in the motion picture industry revolves around Hollywood and New York City. Actors, however, can get their start in smaller productions in any number of cities around the country. Chicago’s Second City Theatre, for instance, has been a training ground for such actors as Bill Murray and Dan Akroyd, who became regulars on TV’s Saturday Night Live for several years and then embarked on profitable film careers.
■ Outlook The film industry is greatly ruled by trends. Though filmmakers and industry executives attempt to carefully analyze the success and failures of films, it is nearly impossible to predict which films will capture the pub-
lic’s imagination and attract them to the theaters. So many different elements play parts in a film’s success. How a film is promoted and distributed, the other films out at the time, and societal attitudes toward the subject matter are just a few of the factors that determine success. Studios are constantly on the lookout for the next big picture but are also anxious to play it safe and follow the formulas of reliable film product. Some industry experts fear that in the future studio executives will rely even more on focus groups and other audience screenings when releasing a picture, thereby limiting the original and creative efforts of the filmmakers. The U.S. Department of Labor projects that the motion picture and video industries will grow 17 percent from 2004 through 2014. Big-budget films will likely continue to rule the industry. Production companies will hire the most popular big-name actors and directors to draw huge profits. Special effects and animation will continue to create new jobs for those talented with computers. Computer-generated imagery is being used increasingly on all films, not just science-fiction and horror projects; filmmakers use computers to create crowd scenes, detailed backdrops, and other elements common in all films. Special effects and popular stars don’t guarantee success, however, so film executives will continue to look to the independent filmmakers and festivals for original talent. Also, the unexpected success of such small movies as The Blair Witch Project and You Can Count on Me has proven that movies without stars, special effects, and big budgets can sometimes make more money than many high-profile projects. The digital revolution also is affecting the film industry. High-definition television (HDTV) now offers the public nearly theater-quality presentation in their own homes. Theaters also are competing with the Internet and personal computers for the public’s recreational dollar. Theaters are working to attract more people to the movies by providing enhanced stereo systems, comfortable seating, restaurants, food delivered to viewers’ seats, and other frills. The digital revolution is also enabling PC owners to photograph, edit, and graphically enhance their own films, and to present them on the Internet. As more people across the country put together their own films, you may see studio executives looking to the Internet for new talent. Today, movie production is inseparable from the TV and video industries. Companies make films to be released in theaters, but also plan for future video rentals and sales and TV showings. Feature films are more frequently produced specifically for release on TV, both network and cable, and then are produced on video.
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Constantly changing TV and video technologies both challenge and feed the film industry. DVD, for example, offers viewers much more than a theater experience with the inclusion of director’s cuts, outtakes, and commentary on the making of the film. Viewers can skip to their favorite parts of a movie, watch it in a different language, or choose from various formats. HDTV offers such highquality pictures that some people say it is better than seeing a movie in a theater. Although HDTV proponents predict that the new TVs will have a serious effect on box office receipts, the technology is still cost-prohibitive for most Americans. As it becomes more affordable, there may be a change in the habits of moviegoers similar to what happened in the 1950s with the introduction of black-and-white TV, but it is likely that the television and film industries will continue to challenge each other and enjoy a competitive coexistence.
■ For More Information For information about colleges with film and television programs of study, and to read interviews with filmmakers, visit the AFI Web site. American Film Institute (AFI) 2021 North Western Avenue Los Angeles, CA 90027-1657 Tel: 323-856-7600 http://www.afi.com
Visit the ASC Web site for a great deal of valuable insight into the industry, including interviews with award-winning cinematographers, information about film schools, multimedia presentations, and the American Cinematographer online magazine. American Society of Cinematographers (ASC) PO Box 2230 Hollywood, CA 90078-2230 Tel: 800-448-0145 http://www.theasc.com
To learn about women in the film industry, visit the WIF Web site to read articles, interviews, and job listings. Women in Film (WIF) 8857 West Olympic Boulevard, Suite 201 Beverly Hills, CA 90211-3605 Tel: 310-657-5144 Email:
[email protected] http://www.wif.org
■ Related Articles Advertising and Marketing; Broadcasting; Television; Visual Arts; Actors; Advertising Account Executives; Art Directors; Audio Recording Engineers; Camera Operators;
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Cartoonists and Animators; Cinematographers and Directors of Photography; Composers and Arrangers; Costume Designers; Dancers and Choreographers; Film and Television Directors; Film and Television Editors; Film and Television Extras; Fund-Raisers; Graphic Designers; Lighting Technicians; Marketing Research Analysts; Media Planners and Buyers; Music Conductors and Directors; Music Producers; Musicians; Photographers; Producers; Production Assistants; Real-Time Captioners; Screenwriters; Singers; Special Effects Technicians; Stage Production Workers; Stunt Performers; Writers
Fire Fighting ■ Background Fire kills more Americans than all natural disasters combined. The United States had an average of 3,932 deaths a year from 1996 to 2005, according to the National Fire Data Center of the U.S. Fire Administration. Civilian injuries averaged 20,919 a year during this time span. (Note: These statistics do not reflect the death or injuries that occurred as a result of the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001.) There were 1.6 million fires in 2005, resulting in about $10.6 billion worth of damage. Throughout history, fighting fires has been extremely difficult. Volunteers would form lines, known as bucket brigades, to pass water buckets in an attempt to douse the fires. Some volunteers used long swabs for putting out roof fires. Others contributed ladders. People began forming voluntary fire societies to protect each other’s property. This lead to the establishment of the first volunteer fire brigade by Benjamin Franklin in Philadelphia in 1736. Franklin served as the Union Fire Company’s first volunteer fire chief. However, the idea of the modern fire department with paid personnel and standardized equipment did not become an integral part of municipal administrations until the middle of the 19th century. Early fire engines were hand pumps equipped with reservoirs that were pushed by volunteers or hauled by horses to fire scenes. For large fires, the reservoir was kept full by a bucket brigade. This method was inefficient because the short range of the pump’s water stream made it necessary to position the apparatus dangerously close to the fire. The introduction of more powerful pumps and flexible hoses helped solve this problem. The industrial revolution, particularly the invention of the steam engine, brought increasingly sophisticated equipment to fire fighting. Nevertheless, when a fire
broke out in a major city, the results could be devastating. In 1871, the Great Chicago Fire killed 300 people, left 100,000 homeless, and destroyed more than 17,000 buildings. Legend has it that the fire began when Catherine O’Leary was milking her cow. The animal allegedly knocked over a lamp, setting the O’Leary’s barn ablaze, and the rest of the city along with it. Whatever its origin, the fire quickly took its toll, burning more than 2,000 acres in 27 hours. Early in the 20th century, internal-combustion engines were used to power pumps. The newly created pumper (automotive hose carrier) carried a powerful pump, a large amount of hose (usually about 1,000 feet), and a tank of water for use when a supply of water was not available. But while these innovations helped to advance fireservice technology, other problems still plagued the industry. The Triangle Shirtwaist Company fire of 1911 occurred in a New York City sweatshop and resulted in the deaths of 146 people, mostly young immigrant women. The fire began on the eighth floor of the Asch Building just east of Washington Square Park and quickly spread upward to the two top floors. Fire truck ladders, which only reached to six stories, were of little help. Some workers, trapped by doors that had been illegally locked to prevent theft, leapt from windows to their deaths. Other workers died when the building’s overloaded fire escape collapsed. This fire, as well as other urban fires of the time, spread easily because of the crowded conditions, poor building techniques and materials, and sparse water supplies available for fighting fire. After the Triangle Shirtwaist Company fire, building codes and regulations were established that would make fires less likely to start and spread to other buildings. An emphasis on fire prevention, as well as fire suppression, started to emerge. New techniques and materials for preventing fires were developed. Devices, such as hydrants, extinguishers, fire alarms, and sprinkler systems, made it easier to respond to fires more quickly and efficiently. Many people began specializing in designing, developing, installing, and maintaining fire-prevention systems. Because of an increased knowledge of fire science, fire fighting has evolved from a relatively low-skilled but noble occupation to a highly specialized, technical profession that has expanded considerably in scope to keep pace with the staggering losses of life and property from fire. Perhaps the most dramatic development is that providing emergency care to the ill and injured is now a major part of firefighters’ jobs. Most professional firefighters are not only trained in fire suppression but are also trained as emergency medical technicians (EMTs)
or paramedics. In addition to hoses and axes, firefighters use lifesaving equipment, including cardiac defibrillators and medication. Rapid response from a well-trained firefighter is often the difference between life and death in emergency medical calls. “More and more fire departments are expecting firefighters to handle emergency medical service (EMS) calls and, given the decline in fire calls in the majority of jurisdictions and the rise in EMS calls in a violent and aging society, you can’t blame them,” notes Scott Baltic, former editor of Fire Chief magazine, a trade publication for fire service officers. “The third service arrangement (where a city has separate police, fire, and EMS departments) is rapidly becoming a thing of the past. Third-service EMS agencies are being or have been absorbed (by fire departments) in St. Louis, San Francisco, and New York, to name a few.” Firefighters also deal with incident command, hazardous-materials spills, high-angle and rope rescue, disaster response (tornadoes, hurricanes, floods, and earthquakes), confined-space and trench rescue, vehicle extrication, terrorism response, water/ice rescue, and canine search and rescue. Other duties include fire prevention, fire investigation, fire education, and community relations. Firefighters teach their communities about the hazards of fire. They often visit schools to discuss with children the dangers of fire and the correct reactions to emergency situations. Fire department officials are often responsible for inspecting public and private facilities to ensure that fire codes are strictly enforced. Others investigate the causes of fires. When a fire is judged to be the result of arson, they pursue and arrest the suspected arsonists, as well as testify at their trials. Many private individuals and companies are also involved in fire-prevention and protection efforts. Several companies develop fire-safety products, including fire extinguishers, specialized fire-fighting equipment, and sprinkler systems. Other professionals are specially trained to plan, design, install, and maintain fire-safety systems. Independent testing laboratories perform inspections on fire apparatus. Firefighters are hired by insurance companies, building departments, and divisions of state governments, whose responsibility it is to provide bases for evaluating fire dangers and to determine ways of minimizing damage from fire to buildings and their contents. Architectural firms often hire or consult fire-science professionals to examine the fire safety of proposed building designs. Many industries have their own fire-protection staffs and private fire brigades. Other employers of firefighters include airports, national forests, shipyards, and military bases.
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Books on Fire Fighting Brown, Larry. On Fire. New York: Warner Books, 1995. The author recounts his 17 years as a firefighter in his hometown of Oxford, Mississippi, weaving stories of his personal challenges and choices amidst accounts of battling deadly blazes. Carter, Harry R. Firefighting Strategy and Tactics. Stillwater, Okla.: Fire Protection Publications, 1998. Basics of fire fighting. Delmar Publishers. Firefighter’s Handbook: Essentials of Firefighting and Emergency Response. 2nd edition. Clifton Park, N.Y.: Delmar Publishers, 2004. Textbook for the firefighter 1 and 2 and hazardous materials operations levels. Chapters are correlated to sections from the NFPA 1001 Standard for Fire Fighter Professional Qualifications. Delsohn, Steve. The Fire Inside: Firefighters’ Lives in Their Own Words. New York: HarperCollins, 1996. This collection of riveting interviews with firefighters who describe the highs and lows of their profession gives readers a glimpse into the world of the fire service. Ertel, Mike, and Gregory C. Berk. Firefighting: Basic Skills and Techniques. Tinley Park, Ill.: Goodheart-Wilcox Company, 1997. A useful survey of the field, providing the basic guidelines of fire extinction and safety. MacLean, Norman. Young Men & Fire. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1993. On August 5, 1949, a crew of 15 of the U.S. Forest Service’s elite airborne firefighters, the Smokejumpers, parachuted into the remote Mann Gulch in the Montana wilderness. Less than 30 minutes later, all but three of those men were dead or fatally burned. A deeply moving story of human fallibility and the violence of nature. McCluskey, Frank B. Thoughts on Fire: Life Lessons of a Volunteer Firefighter. Writers Advantage, 2004. An inside look at the world of volunteer fire fighting.
■ Structure The fire service is broken up into two divisions: paid career firefighters and volunteer firefighters. There were approximately 1,100,750 firefighters in the United States in 2005, according to the National Fire Protection Association. Approximately 305,150 career firefighters and 795,600 volunteer firefighters work for public fire departments. These employment totals do not include state or federal government firefighters or private fire brigades. More than nine out of every 10 career firefighters work in municipal or county fire departments that protect 25,000 or more people. Some very large cities have several thousand firefighters, while small towns might
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A Forest Service firefighter connects two hoses. (Bob Nichols, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture.)
have only a few. The remainder work in fire departments on federal and state installations, such as military bases and airports. Private fire brigades employ a very small number of firefighters. Most volunteers work for departments that protect fewer than 25,000 people. More than half of all volunteer firefighters are located in small, rural departments that protect fewer than 2,500 people, according to the National Volunteer Fire Council. The number of volunteer firefighters is decreasing every year. As suburbs continue to extend into rural areas, municipal fire departments that employ career firefighters are developed to better serve the growing needs of the communities. Another reason could be the amount of time being a volunteer firefighter demands. Municipal fire departments or fire districts are headed by fire chiefs, who are responsible for the administrative and technical work of planning, organizing, and directing the municipality’s fire-fighting and fire-prevention activities. Chiefs also are responsible for training, staffing, budgeting, and all other administrative matters. They are in charge of developing and improving the department,
as well as keeping abreast of changing local conditions and technical changes in the industry. Fire administrative officers, who help with the department’s business-management activities, sometimes assist chiefs. Next in command are deputy fire chiefs, who are responsible for the department’s administrative and supervisory duties, including organizing platoons and scheduling shifts. They also deal with departmental discipline and relieve chiefs during sick leave, time off, and vacations. Platoon chiefs organize platoons, schedule shifts, and carry out administrative duties and clerical tasks. Battalion chiefs are responsible for commanding the personnel, equipment, and apparatus of one or more fire stations. They also coordinate apparatus maintenance. At an emergency scene, battalion chiefs command and instruct the firefighters. Fire captains or lieutenants command the various shifts. At fire scenes, fire captains organize incident command. Platoon chiefs, battalion chiefs, captains, and lieutenants also fight fires. Other fire department positions include the following. Driver/operators drive fire apparatus, such as pumpers or aerial ladders, to fire scenes. Firefighter/paramedics have advanced emergency medical care responsibilities along with fire-fighting duties. Depending on the nature of the emergency, these personnel provide advanced life support, perform extrication and rescue, or act as firefighters in fire-suppression or hazard-control activities. Firefighter/ EMTs also perform dual roles and can provide basic life support as well as fire-suppression activities. Firefighters combat, extinguish, and prevent fires. They connect hoses to hydrants, operate pumps, apply water or other extinguishing agents through hose lines and nozzles, and position ladders. Firefighters also ventilate smoke-filled areas, operate heavy equipment, and salvage building contents. At emergency scenes, all fire personnel wear turnout gear, which includes bunker boots and coats, gloves, and helmets that are made from fire-resistant material, to protect them from the fire. They also use self-contained breathing apparatus (SCBA), which are like scuba tanks, to breathe in clean air even in smoke. Several departments also require their personnel to use personal alert safety systems (PASS). These devices help monitor the firefighters while they are in burning buildings and set off an alarm if a firefighter is motionless for 30 seconds. Because it is virtually impossible to see in a smoke-filled room, some fire departments use handheld, thermalimaging systems. These devices measure the heat from a person’s body to provide a better picture of where victims are trapped in burning structures. When they are not on emergency calls, firefighters inspect buildings for any hazardous conditions that could
cause fires. Armed with knowledge of fire hazards, as well as local fire and building codes, they check exit routes, the storage and use of flammable and combustible materials, overcrowding of public places, and the improper use of equipment or materials in buildings. Firefighters also conduct practice drills, attend training courses, and take care of other required station duties. Firefighters maintain the trucks and equipment used to fight fires. Many different vehicles are used depending on the size and location of the department, including pumpers, which carry hose and nozzles; tankers, which carry extra water supplies; aerial ladders, which have pumps and hose beds as well as long ladders with baskets and nozzles for fires in tall buildings; and rescue vehicles, which transport axes, pike poles, reciprocating saws, blankets, and automobile-extrication equipment. Other kinds of apparatus include incident-command vehicles, hazardous-materials units, and fireboats. Almost all fire departments have special teams for operations such as hazardous-materials spills and search/ rescue missions. Depending where the department is located, it might also perform the following functions: terrorism response, high-rise fire fighting, and disaster response (including floods, tornadoes, hurricanes, and earthquakes). Some departments, particularly in the western states, are trained in wildland fire fighting. Wildland firefighters work to combat the massive fires that occur in forests. Drought, heat, and wind dry out trees and grass, making them easier to catch fire. Dried grass, leaves, and light branches ignite easily, and fire spreads quickly between them, often generating enough heat to ignite heavier fuels, such as tree stumps and heavy limbs. If the blaze covers a large area, local departments can be called in to assist firefighters who work for the U.S. Forest Service and are stationed in the nation’s forests. These firefighters locate fires from remote fire-lookout stations and report their findings to headquarters by telephone or radio. Fire rangers also patrol areas of the forest to find and report fires and hazardous conditions, as well as to ensure that travelers and campers comply with fire regulations. When fires break out, an elite corps of firefighters, known as smokejumpers, battle the blaze by parachuting from airplanes to reach inaccessible areas. Helicopters outfitted with large buckets (from 72 to 2,600 gallons) dump huge amounts of water on burning areas.
■ Outlook Fire fighting is forecasted to remain an extremely competitive field. It attracts many people, particularly because a high school education is usually sufficient to become a recruit. However, this is changing rapidly. “The days when
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Words to Know Apparatus: Fire trucks used to transport firefighters to emergency scenes, such as aerial ladders, pumpers, and hazardous materials units. ARFF: Airport Rescue Fire Fighting. Disaster response: Emergency plans firefighters carry out to help during natural disasters such as tornadoes, hurricanes, floods, and earthquakes. EMS: Emergency medical service. EMT: Emergency medical technician trained to provide basic life support to emergency victims. Most firefighters are cross-trained in fire suppression and basic life support. Hazmat: Hazardous materials that when spilled or emitted in the air could cause severe problems in the community. Industrial firefighter: Firefighter responsible for fire protection and prevention in chemical plants or near shipyards. NFPA: National Fire Protection Association. Paramedic: Person trained to provide advanced life support to emergency victims. PASS: A personal alert safety system that firefighters wear to protect themselves when entering burning buildings. SCBA: Self-contained breathing apparatus that helps firefighters breathe clean air in burning buildings. Smokejumper: Firefighter that parachutes out of airplanes into the middle of wildland fires. Third-service arrangement: When a municipality keeps its police, fire, and EMS departments separated. Turnout gear: Fire-resistant clothes worn to emergency scenes, including bunker boots, pants, and bunker coats. Vehicle extrication: The process of rescuing a victim trapped in an automobile.
fire departments would typically require nothing more than a high school diploma are disappearing,” says Scott Baltic. “I’m noticing that many fire departments are requiring applicants to already have state certification as firefighters and/or EMTs.” Baltic also thinks that an associate’s degree in fire science or fire technology will become a more common requirement for an entry-level fire-fighting job. The fire service is also a popular field because earnings are relatively high, and members receive a guaranteed pension upon retirement. In addition, the work is frequently exciting and affords an opportunity to perform a valuable community service. Consequently, the number of qualified applicants generally exceeds the number of job openings. Firefighter employment should grow faster than the average for all occupations through 2014, according to
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Fairfax, VA 22033-2868 Tel: 703-273-0911 http://www.iafc.org
For information on union membership and scholarships, contact International Association of Fire Fighters 1750 New York Avenue, NW Washington, DC 20006-5301 Tel: 202-737-8484 http://www.iaff.org
For statistics and other information about fires and fire protection, contact National Fire Protection Association 1 Batterymarch Park Quincy, MA 02169-7471 Tel: 617-770-3000 http://www.nfpa.org
For information on volunteer fire fighting, contact National Volunteer Fire Council
Firefighters watch as a blaze, hopelessly out of control, consumes a building. (New Standard Encyclopedia.)
the U.S. Department of Labor. There is keen competition among public service providers for funding. Most job growth will occur as volunteer fire-fighting positions are converted to paid positions. Specialty areas, such as hazardous materials and technical rescue, will also continue to grow. “The hot area right now is terrorism response,” explains Baltic, “and I suspect that people with hazardous materials and/or military experience will have especially good opportunities to put their skills to use for the future.” The potential for upward mobility in the fire service is essentially unlimited. “Almost every fire chief in this country started out as a rookie firefighter,” notes Baltic. “On the supply side, there will always be little boys, and increasingly little girls, who dream of being firefighters. Romanticism aside, the truth is that for someone who is comfortable with a certain degree of danger and can handle the physical demands, fire fighting can be a great career.”
■ For More Information For information on fire-related issues, contact International Association of Fire Chiefs 4025 Fair Ridge Drive, Suite 300
1050 17th Street, NW, Suite 490 Washington, DC 20036-5503 Tel: 202-887-5700 http://www.nvfc.org
For information on training opportunities, contact U.S. Fire Academy U.S. Fire Administration 16825 South Seton Avenue Emmitsburg, MD 21727-8920 Tel: 301-447-1000 http://www.usfa.fema.gov
■ Related Articles Government; Public Safety; Emergency Medical Technicians; Firefighters; Fire Inspectors and Investigators; Fire Safety Technicians
Food Processing ■ Background As a fundamental human need, food always has played a central part in our lives. Our ancestors lived or died according to their ability to grow food, to hunt for food, or to fight for food. People have always sought out new food sources, and throughout history people have identified the plants, insects, fungi, and animals in their region
capable of sustaining them. In time, agrarian cultures were able to trade or sell their surplus food supplies for other goods and services, and food became an important part of the commerce of a society. As societies came into contact with each other, they also learned of different types of foods available in different parts of the world. The first colonists in America, for example, survived the first winter only with the assistance of Native Americans, who had learned to harvest and use such indigenous foods as corn, pumpkin, squash, and turkeys. Some of the earliest methods of processing foods developed out of a direct need to assist people in surviving long winters. Because there was no chance to harvest fruits and vegetables in winter, it was important that people find a way to store enough food for the entire season. Drying and salting meats preserved it for months, as these methods removed or otherwise made unavailable the water needed by microorganisms that might spoil the food. Pickled vegetables and fruits could be stored for long periods, because the high acid content of the pickling solution killed off microorganisms. Apples packed in coal would not ripen as quickly. Smoking foods was another preservation method, as smoke contains chemicals with both antibacterial and antioxidant properties. Each society in the harsher climates developed its own particular methods of storing food. Before the industrial revolution, there were relatively few commercially processed and packaged food products. People bought their foods mostly in bulk out of barrels, bins, sacks, and jugs. These bulk products were sold in small stores; the supermarket did not exist. An important development in food preservation and processing was the canning process, first developed by the Parisian chef Nicolas Appert in 1810. He found that heating foods sealed in bottles or cans killed the bacteria that spoil food and removed oxygen, which allows foods to break down. Canning allowed foods to remain unspoiled for longer periods, and cans were also easy to transport. As urban centers grew, so did the need for food that could be shipped easily. The industrial revolution had two major impacts on the food processing industry. The first was that the new mechanical systems allowed the development of inexpensive production of canned and processed goods. The second was that wages increased in the cities and people could afford to spend more money on food. People shifted from a diet of predominantly breads and grains to one that included meats, vegetables, and dairy products. Soon, consumer demand led manufacturers to develop an ever-increasing variety of foods. In the 1920s, new refrigeration techniques allowed for the freezing of foods, a process that kept both flavor and nutritional value intact. Manufacturing processes,
Food Processing
including the development of assembly line production methods, enabled companies to produce larger quantities of many different kinds of foods. For the first time, food manufacturers were able to provide foods of dependable and uniform quality as well as seasonal items yearround. This provided the consumer with a wider variety of products that were easy to prepare and easy to store. The early part of the 20th century, especially after World War I, saw a huge growth in the U.S. food industry. Manufacturers developed new and improved processing methods and varieties of new products. They also developed the containers and packages for suitable and safe handling of these products. The science of food technology became especially important around 1940, as the United States prepared to enter World War II. New methods of processing, preparing, packaging, and transporting foods were needed to supply the troops as they went into battle. A variety of chemical preservation methods were developed, which led to the Food Additive Amendment of 1958, which controlled the type and amount of chemical preservatives that could be added to foods. The 20th century also saw a major change in the ways people purchased food. Prior to World War I, consumers were most likely to buy their food at small neighborhood stores. But the introduction of trucks and automobiles not only made people more mobile but also allowed foods and other products to be more easily transported. The implementation of improved methods of processing and packaging food also made more types of foods available than ever before. The first supermarkets began to appear, offering a greater selection of goods and combining many small shops under one roof: a fruit and vegetable stand, a meat market, a dry goods store. Chains of stores were able to lower their costs by purchasing and marketing together so they could afford to sell foods with lower profit margins than the smaller shops. The supermarkets made money because selling more products offset the lower profit they made on each item. By the 1950s, most Americans bought their food in supermarkets instead of small groceries and specialty shops, and going to the supermarket became an American way of life. The early supermarkets were still quite small compared to the supermarkets of today. U.S. consumers now select groceries from an assortment of some 10,000 to 12,000 items, as opposed to a limited selection of only about 1,000 items available in the 1950s. Two-thirds of today’s grocery store items are new or have been improved materially within the past few decades. As nutrition specialists bring to focus the importance of a well-balanced diet that includes predominantly grains, vegetables, and fruits, there is an increased demand for these products. With the
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The emphasis on a healthier style of eating has resulted in the development, production, and wide distribution of low-fat and nonfat food items, including fat-free sour cream and potato chips. Ironically, just as food labs are discovering ways to chemically alter food to reduce or eliminate the fat content, an increasing section of the market is demanding organic, or completely naturally grown, produce. The tomato that has been exposed to chemicals or gases to enhance its size or color or to increase its ripening time is becoming less desirable than the one grown naturally. Specialty supermarkets devoted to the sale of organic foods are opening in greater numbers across the country. As the market for organic, allnatural produce grows, a corresponding rise will occur in the processed foods made from such organic produce.
■ Structure
A worker at a pasta factory ensures sanitary and safe conditions while a machine is running. (Corbis.)
increased demand, the food industry searches for new ways to preserve, package, and deliver these items. Today’s household includes many timesavers that have lightened food preparation chores. Frozen dinners, frozen bread dough, dehydrated foods, and other products provide millions of people with their meals. A growing segment of the marketplace is home meal replacement. These are prepared items, including entrees and side dishes, that are cooked and ready-to-eat, or that require only warming. They are not frozen but kept in the deli or other refrigerated section of the store. Developments in food and food technology continue today. Food processors have developed such methods as nitrogen flushing, which replaces oxygen in packages with nitrogen to retard spoiling, and irradiation, which involves exposing foods to low levels of radiation to reduce or remove completely the microorganisms that might spoil the food or pose a danger to human health. Irradiation is now used on a variety of foods and in many countries across the world. Foods, such as tomatoes, can be more quickly ripened using chemicals, gases, and other processes. Food scientists have long worked with genetic manipulation, creating such foods as seedless grapes and oranges and “burpless” cucumbers; more recently, scientists have developed methods of introducing new genes into fruits, vegetable, and animals to change various properties, such as color, flavor, and shelf life.
The food industry is one of the largest areas of employment in the United States. The industry includes people who work on farms and for food processing companies, food research laboratories, food wholesale and retail companies, restaurants, railroads and trucks that transport food, or agencies that prepare food advertising. Others work in hundreds of other companies that supply goods or services vital in converting a raw farm crop into a ready-to-use food. The food processing industry provided nearly 725,000 jobs in 2004, according to the U.S. Department of Labor. Food processors or manufacturers stand in the middle of the food industry production line. They work with the farmers who supply the raw crops, the wholesalers and retailers who distribute their finished products, and the consumers who buy them. For that reason, there is a great variety of jobs in food manufacturing companies. Most food manufacturers, large or small, divide their companies into areas responsible for purchasing, processing, packaging, and marketing food products. Depending on the size of the company, there may be special departments for engineering, trafficking, accounting, distribution, law, public relations, and personnel. The industry tries to provide consumers with a flow of new and improved products. The research laboratories of manufacturers invest millions of dollars annually in research on new products and on new uses and improvements of old ones. They employ thousands of scientists and other specially trained people for this purpose. Advances in the food processing industry allow us to eat foods that were grown thousands of miles away and harvested weeks earlier. Food processing prevents food from spoiling as quickly as it would otherwise. It also provides greater convenience, variety, color, taste, and, in many cases, monetary savings. Food is processed
and preserved by cold storage, canning, freezing, drying, freeze-drying, curing, and, most recently, by the use of antibiotics and a process called irradiation, which uses microwave and ultraviolet rays. Food research has become so complex that a battery of scientists does constant work in many areas. Organic chemists, biochemists, analytical chemists, food technologists, and chemical engineers each have special roles. Before a new product is introduced, its potential market is surveyed carefully by market researchers who must be consistently alert to changes in consumers’ attitudes, needs, and shopping habits. Market researchers plan and conduct studies and surveys to get the facts on the performance and acceptance of existing products and to define the potential market for new products. Price, brand image, distribution, size and appearance of packages, advertising, and promotion are some of the areas in which market researchers work. Market researchers provide information used in major food production decisions. Once a product has been approved for production, the manufacturer starts the processing, packaging, and shipping of the new food item. Manufacturers create thousands of new products every year and develop consumer markets for them. They improve their old products; promote foods and good eating; offer their brands in safe, attractive, and convenient packages; and make products available at reasonable prices. The manufacturer establishes the chain needed to get a food from the farmer to the grocery store. For a new product, this means that the manufacturer contracts with farmers to deliver a certain type of food product—eggs, for example. The manufacturer then finds or converts a processing factory to make the new product. While the factory is being developed to produce this new product, packaging is being designed, advertisement campaigns are being developed, and market research is continuing. Once all the steps are in place for producing, packaging, and delivering the product, the manufacturing begins. There is an enormous variety of methods for preparing food. Some foods may require only one preparation method; others may require several. Lettuce usually just needs to be harvested and washed, but some companies now offer packaged lettuce, often with bits of carrots and red cabbage, as ready-to-eat salad. Cows and other animals are slaughtered, cleaned, and cut up for consumption. Foods for frozen dinners require a great deal of preparation. They need to be harvested, cleaned, combined, and cooked according to a recipe, portioned out, and then frozen in special packaging. The processing of foods is a modern technological accomplishment and a highly complex business. It is also
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a high-cost operation with narrow quality limits. Consequently, food and grocery manufacturers have relied on sophisticated processes to aid in the production and marketing of food items. Dehydration is one such process. A key word that has helped sell dehydration to the American consumer is instant, which is used now with products such as potatoes, milk powders, cereals, and dozens of other packaged dry products as well as coffees, teas, and cocoa. These packaged dry products are prepared simply with the addition of hot water. Freeze-drying is another process to which consumers have become accustomed. It involves first freezing the food so that the moisture is transformed into ice crystals. Then it is dehydrated under vacuum at low temperature. The ice sublimates so that the crystals pass off as vapor without going through an immediate liquid state. Freeze-dried foods retain bulk but lose water weight. For example, three freeze-dried pork chops weigh no more than a single fresh pork chop. After preparation, however, freeze-dried chops regain normal weight and retain most of the original flavor and texture. Among the first consumer packages containing freeze-dried ingredients were soups. Other freeze-dried
Words to Know Aerate: Supply with oxygen. Agglomeration: The process of gathering into a mass or ball. Calibration: Adjustment for a particular function. Campylobacter: Spirally curved, rod-shaped bacteria. Coagulate: Clot. Cryogenics: Science of using very low temperatures. Emulsion: Fluid formed by suspending one liquid into another. Extrude: Project; force out. Fluorometer: Instrument for measuring fluorescence; i.e., radiation. Genetic manipulation: Changing the hereditary characteristics of a plant or animal, as in seedless grapes. Also known as genetic engineering. HACCP (Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point): Quality and safety program used in the food industry. Pathogen: Specific causative agent of disease. Polymorphous: Assuming different forms; changing. R&D: Research and development. Retrofit: To furnish with new or modified parts. Syneresis: Separation of liquid from a gel by contraction. Viscosity: Texture; density.
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products include beef steaks, precooked scrambled eggs, ham patty mix, chicken stew, shrimp, pot roast of beef, Swiss steak, and fruits and vegetables. Processes that until relatively recently were only laboratory terms are becoming household words. In the United States, for example, it is estimated that 90 percent of the homes have microwave ovens, and the industry provides many products suited for microwave preparation. Another modern processing method is irradiation, which can keep seafood, meats, fruits, and vegetables fresh. Irradiated food is not frozen. It tastes and looks fresh. Like freeze-dried foods, these foods can be stored on the shelf. When ready for use, they can be cooked just as fresh foods are. New processes are continually being developed that will expand the ever-broadening variety of foods for the American consumer. The important functions between the factory door and the consumer’s kitchen—distribution, selling, packaging, and all forms of promotion directed to the consumer—are what create a demand for a product. Customer familiarity with brand names and manufacturers allows a manufacturer to promote new lines. Customers who are happy with one product line from a manufacturer are more likely to try another line from the same manufacturer. Different methods are used to establish a manufacturer’s identity with the customer. A line of processed foods led to the creation of the mythical Betty Crocker, identified with the kitchens of General Mills in Minneapolis. The familiar image of the Quaker man on the oats cereal package is now used to introduce new lines of cereals for Quaker Oats Company. Those who supply and process food must be constantly aware of changing consumer tastes and demands. In the
Catfish, processed and packed at a processing plant, is made ready for shipping. (Agricultural Research Service Photo Unit, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture.)
mid-1980s, for example, consumers turned increasingly toward natural foods as additives came under growing scrutiny and criticism by consumers and the Food and Drug Administration. Today, many consumers have doubts about irradiation processes and the genetic engineering of foods since the long-term effects on human health have not been formally studied. Consumers’ concerns with their health led to the introduction of products emphasizing high-fiber, low-fat, and low-sodium content. In 1992, new regulations were developed requiring the food industry to provide even more detailed nutritional information on their packages. During the 1990s, fat, or the absence of it, became a major new trend in food preparation and marketing. New federal nutritional guidelines, recommending that no more than 30 percent of daily caloric intake should come from fat, have led healthconscious consumers to watch their fat intake more closely, and manufacturers and food scientists have responded with a variety of low-fat and fat-free foods. In the early 2000s, the American public became fascinated by low carbohydrate diets that promoted weight loss, but did not necessarily guarantee overall good health. We can expect that as researchers discover new links between our health and the types of foods we eat, the food industry will continue to respond with new foods, preparations, and processing techniques to meet the latest consumer demands.
■ Outlook The food industry has changed dramatically in a very short time. Frozen foods, for example, were a novelty in the early 1950s. Now, millions of homes in the United States use frozen foods in some form. Many products that formerly could only be processed by hand can now be completely processed by automated equipment, so it is possible for a food to be harvested, processed, and packaged without ever being touched by human hands. Some areas of the food industry have become virtually obsolete, while others have gained in importance. It is difficult to predict what the dynamic food industry will be doing in another 30 years, but one thing is certain: People will always need to eat. The growth of the food industry has not happened simply because people have to eat or because of the population increase. This extra growth has resulted from many things—good management at all levels, teamwork among all segments of the food industry, heavy investment in research, new and improved products, modernization of plants, new equipment, automation, and a great deal of advertising and promotion. Employment in the food processing industry is expected to grow about as fast as average through 2014, according to the U.S. Department of Labor. Job growth
Foreign Trade
will be concentrated among production workers, who hold 52 percent of processing jobs. The sorting, cutting, and chopping tasks performed by these workers have proven difficult to automate, so employment among hand workers will rise along with the growing demand for food products. Automation is likely to decrease opportunities for machine operators and increase jobs for industrial machinery mechanics. Job prospects for food technologists and scientists are expected to be good as more attention is focused on the role of food in diet and health; efforts are made to improve food safety, including the risk of bioterrorism; and solutions are sought for major issues such as increasing population, loss of arable land, deforestation, the availability and cost of usable water, pollution, and climate change. The food processing industry will be particularly challenged in several areas. Food product labeling will be completely overhauled, there will be a greater demand for food packaging that uses up fewer resources and for packaging that can be reused or recycled, and there will be a continuing demand for increased nutritional value in processed foods.
For information about publications, videos, and technical manuals pertaining to the snack food industry, contact Snack Food Association
■ For More Information
Foreign Trade
This organization is concerned with the food sciences and technology in industry, academia, and the government. It has a list of brochures, videotapes, food science experiment booklets, employment services, and scholarships for members and student members. Institute of Food Technologists 525 West Van Buren, Suite 1000 Chicago, IL 60607-3823 Tel: 312-782-8424 Email:
[email protected] http://www.ift.org
For food industry news, contact Food Processors Association 1350 I Street, NW, Suite 300 Washington, DC 20005-3305 Tel: 202-639-5900 http://www.fpa-food.org
For information on the frozen food industry, contact National Frozen and Refrigerated Foods Association 4755 Linglestown Road, Suite 300 PO Box 6069 Harrisburg, PA 17112-8508 Tel: 717-657-8601 Email:
[email protected] http://www.nfraweb.org
1600 Wilson Boulevard, Suite 650 Arlington, VA 22209-2511 Tel: 703-836-4500 Email:
[email protected] http://www.sfa.org
■ Related Articles Agriculture; Packaging; Sales; Bakery Workers; Beverage Industry Workers; Brewers; Canning and Preserving Industry Workers; Chemical Engineers; Confectionery Industry Workers; Cooks and Chefs; Dairy Products Manufacturing Workers; Enologists; Family and Consumer Scientists; Food Service Workers; Food Technologists; Health and Regulatory Inspectors; Meat Packing Workers; Meatcutters; Packaging Engineers; Packaging Machinery Technicians; Restaurant and Food Service Managers; Toxicologists
■ Background Foreign trade is the exchange of goods and services between nations. It has been an important part of national economies for centuries, helping domestic industries grow to serve foreign customers and allowing people to enjoy goods produced outside their own country. The ingredients for two favorites in the United States, coffee and chocolate, for example, come from the warmer climates of South America and the Middle East, where coffee and cacao plants grow. Tobacco was first discovered in America and was grown and shipped back by the colonists. Spaghetti noodles were supposedly brought back from China by Marco Polo. Trade has always been a major force behind the relations among nations. While it has often helped create alliances among friendly trade partners, fights for control over raw materials or trade routes have also been the cause of wars throughout world history. International trade developed and has continued to be practiced by countries for two basic reasons. The first is that one country can supply something that another cannot produce. The other reason for international trade is cost. Although one country may be able to produce an item, it may be cheaper to make it somewhere else and have it brought in. Tea can be grown with some difficulty in a northern climate, but most tea for the world market is
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still supplied by India. India has a climate and soil well suited to the production of tea, and everything is in place to grow enough tea leaves to meet the demands of the world market. With the establishment of standard trade routes and fairly stable governments in the Western countries, international trade became regulated and controlled by the 1700s. Taxes were levied against some import items to allow local producers to compete economically against foreign producers. (Import taxes are called tariffs.) Trade limits were set on other items to keep the local market from being flooded with foreign goods. Europe traded with the United States from the time of the first settlements in the 1600s. As the American economy and industry expanded with the industrial revolution in the early 1800s, the variety of items the United States was able to trade with other countries increased greatly. After World War II, American international business quickly expanded its manufacturing and distribution facilities overseas. In some instances, these companies were established under licensing arrangements or as joint ventures with a foreign company. A country’s balance of trade (relation of exports to imports) is an important measure of its economic health. Most economists believe that imports and exports should be equal in value, or exports should be higher, for a healthy national economy. When export shipments are smaller than imports, it means that money spent in other countries will not be returned. In the 1960s, the United States experienced an erosion of its dominant position in world trade, and in most of the years since 1970, it has reported a negative trade balance (more imports than exports). In 1999, the U.S. trade deficit reached an all-
time high of $267 billion as economic crises in other countries caused our exports of everything from soybeans to automobiles to fall. No other developed nation has had such a large difference between exports and imports. Canada, Japan, and the European Union have all experienced an export growth greater than import growth. Because of this imbalance, the United States is keenly interested in expanding the export of American goods or controlling the import of foreign goods. Since that time, the trade deficit has continued to rise significantly, reaching $725.8 billion dollars. Before the 1940s, the United States had a largely protectionist approach to foreign trade, meaning that the government enforced high tariffs and rigorous import restrictions to protect home market producers from overseas competition. Today, protectionism is not as popular as free trade, whose proponents favor open markets and economic interdependence. In a move toward more free trade, President Clinton signed two agreements in 1993. The North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) is a pact among the United States, Canada, and Mexico. Its provisions include the elimination of all tariffs over the next 15 years on goods produced and sold in North America, the barring of governments from imposing special requirements on foreign investors, and the lifting of certain restrictions on services, such as banking, telecommunications, and transportation. The second pact, which consisted of amendments to the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), was approved by the U.S. Congress and the governments of 116 other nations. It reduces international trade barriers, including tariffs, import quotas, and export subsidies. Opponents of agreements of this sort argue that they put American jobs at risk and increase the U.S. trade deficit. Today, advances in information technology have made the world a smaller place. It is quite easy for anyone, even in a remote area, to communicate with anyone else across the globe. This openness has created new markets all over the world. The growth of foreign business and its importance to the national economy has created a great need for individuals prepared to handle the complex problems of international business.
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Rows of imported cars at dock have just been unloaded from the ship in the background. (Steve Elmore, Tony Stone Images.)
About one out of seven persons in private employment is engaged in activities linked to foreign trade. Foreign trade today affects almost every person in the world. It enables each country to make the best use of its most abundant resources. By selling its surplus, whether it’s a raw material such as coal, a semi-finished product like cotton stuffs, or finished products like computers,
a country earns the money to import another nation’s surplus. Foreign trade involves the building of offices or plants in foreign countries, sending technical or other specialists abroad, and expanding the distribution of a product into the international market. Large companies that have been abroad for many years have well-established programs and hiring practices. They may have programs that train within the company for work abroad, or they may be able to rely on the local nationals to run most of the organization. It is not easy to break into the international field in the large corporations, although some students are recruited occasionally for overseas service. Usually, a number of years must be spent in the domestic office learning the business and the company and often specializing in one aspect of it. Maturity and experience in decision-making ordinarily must be gained in the United States before a person is sent overseas. With each type of trade arrangement, there are a number of jobs needed to organize, develop, and maintain the agreement. The jobs vary with the product or service offered and with the company’s goals for the product overseas. Many overseas jobs are temporary as companies send people skilled in setting up a manufacturing process or researching a new market for a few years. Professions in foreign trade include purchasers, buyers, economists, marketing research analysts, clerical support, delivery and logistics experts, and support personnel. Large companies may have these professionals on staff. Small to mid-sized companies hire these individuals through consulting firms. Purchasers and buyers work in a number of capacities for large and small companies. Not all purchasers and buyers are involved with foreign trade. Those who are keep track of world markets to obtain the highest quality merchandise at the lowest possible purchase cost for their employers. To assist them in their search, they review listings in catalogs, industry periodicals, directories, and trade journals as well as visit manufacturers or sellers. Purchasers who specialize in commodities (raw materials such as steel, lumber, and cotton) track such things as market conditions, price trends, and futures markets. On the opposite side of the transaction are marketing research analysts. They are concerned with the potential sale of a product or service. For example, they analyze statistical data on the buying practices of consumers in foreign markets before a company introduces its product into that market. They gather data on competitors and analyze prices, sales, and methods and costs of marketing and distribution. Is the cost of marketing and delivering a product all the way overseas worth the profit it will make?
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An Information Industry Behind every buying decision, whether that of an individual consumer or a large company, is information. This tenet of business has not changed, but the way buyers and sellers exchange information has changed greatly over the years, most recently with the proliferation of the Internet. The growth of the Internet has opened markets for companies all over the world. The number of Internet users as of September 2006 was 1.04 billion, according to Internetworldstats.com. The U.S. Department of Commerce projects that digital delivery of goods and services will continue to grow. Software programs, newspapers, and music CDs no longer need to be packaged and delivered; they can be sent electronically over the Internet. Airline tickets and securities transactions are other transactions that already occur over the Internet in large volume. The government expects the transmission of goods and services directly over the Internet to be the largest and most visible driver of the digital economy. Another area, retail sale of tangible goods, is expected to grow more slowly although sales of certain products, such as computers, software, cars, books, and flowers, are growing rapidly.
Marketing research analysts help companies make that determination. A host of other professions make up foreign trade careers. Accountants are responsible for trade and tariff payments, investments, and currency exchange. Interpreters and translators are needed for contracts, hiring, training, sales, and almost every other aspect of the work. International affairs specialists give advice to a company on the business and political climate of a foreign country. Four basic arrangements govern the trade of goods and services across national borders. The most basic arrangement is the single trade transaction. For example, someone in Florida has a shipment of orange juice to sell abroad. That seller either hires someone to find a buyer or personally finds someone who would like to purchase the shipment of orange juice. A buyer is found in France, a contract is signed after legal matters are settled, and the orange juice is shipped abroad. In the single trade transaction, there is only one contract and one shipment. The second type of arrangement concerns installment sales. More than one transaction will take place between the seller and the buyer. A series of contracts for shipments may be signed, or one contract may be signed that
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outlines a series of sales over time. Either way, the key to an installment sales arrangement is an extended relationship between the seller and the buyer for continued supplies across the border with multiple deliveries and payments. Many products are bought with such regularity that a continued supply of an item can be counted on to sell. This pattern allows the importer to develop regular customers who rely on the continual receiving of goods from abroad. Wine, cheese, and many other food items are shipped on installment contracts. A third type of international sales arrangement is the license arrangement. License arrangements are more complex because they involve the production of the item in the country where it is to be sold, while the rights to produce the item remain with the country that originally produced the items. Products made under patents are licensed to other companies for manufacturing, as long as the company manufacturing the product pays royalties on each item sold. For example, books may be produced in another country, or in another language, under a license agreement. If an American author has a book published in Germany, the German publisher has to get
Words to Know Absolute advantage theory: A country that trades internationally should specialize in producing only those goods it can produce more cheaply than can its trading partners. The theory was developed by Scottish economist Adam Smith in 1776. Balance of payments: Relationship between all payments in and out of a country over a given period, including the movement of government and private capital between countries, such as investments and debt payments. Balance of trade: Relationship of exports to imports; a favorable balance of trade occurs when a country exports more than it imports. Comparative advantage theory: The theory that a country can still gain from trading certain goods even though its trading partners can produce these goods more cheaply, especially if the product will bring a better price in another country than it will at home. The theory was developed by English economist David Ricardo in 1826. Devaluation: The practice of decreasing the value of one nation’s currency relative to gold or the currencies of other nations; generally undertaken as a means of correcting a deficit in a country’s balance of payments.
legal permission to publish, and the German company normally pays the author a set fee for each book sold. The joint venture is the fourth type of arrangement for foreign trade. Two companies, one from each country, agree to produce something in a cooperative effort. They may choose to produce the item under one company’s name, under the two names combined, or they may choose to create a third company with an independent function from the two parent companies. Both parent companies get benefits from the sales of the items produced by the joint venture. Car manufacturers regularly have joint venture projects. Subsidiary companies are branches set up in foreign countries. Many Fortune 500 companies have branches all over the world. Oil companies commonly have branches abroad, as do large banks, investment firms, and automobile manufacturers. Multinational corporations are companies that have operations in two or more countries. It is estimated that at least half of the 7,000 multinational corporations have branches in more than two countries and at least 300 companies operate in six or more countries. These companies may operate production branches in
Euro: The new European currency that became effective January 1, 1999; seven bank note denominations (5, 10, 20, 50, 100, 200, 500) and eight coin denominations (1, 2, 5, 10, 20, 50 cents, and 1 and 2 euro). European Union (EU): Modern outgrowth of the European Economic Community; the organization seeks to integrate the economies of member European countries by eliminating internal tariff and customs barriers and developing common price levels and a common currency, the euro. General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT): The first international agreement designed to remove or loosen barriers to free trade; originally signed by 23 non-Communist nations in 1947. Goods: Finished products, agricultural products or food, and raw materials are all things that countries trade with each other. North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA): The 1993 agreement that eased trade restrictions among the United States, Canada, and Mexico. Tariff: Tax on imported goods. Trade deficit: An economic situation that occurs when a country imports more than it exports. World Trade Organization (WTO): Modern replacement for GATT that was voted on by members in 1994.
Foreign Trade
Many imported goods are transported to their final destinations via water routes. (Adrien Lamarre, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers.)
countries where it is cheaper to manufacture the product or where the raw materials may be close at hand. They also may produce the item in one or two locations and then use the other operations for sales and administration.
■ Outlook The international market is more than four times larger than the U.S. market and export opportunities continue to grow. According to the U.S. Department of Commerce, 15 percent of U.S. exporters account for 85 percent of the value of American-made exports. The forces that determine the demand for workers in foreign trade careers are complex. Because so many markets are involved, the outlook for foreign trade professionals is volatile. The United States continues to import more goods and services than it exports, with an accelerating trade deficit. Because of this volatile atmosphere, the best that people interested in a foreign trade career can do is to ensure they have the basic skills needed, such as accounting, foreign language, and market research. Many foreign trade jobs are relatively short in duration. The trend in recent years has been to send overseas only those U.S. employees who have skills and abilities
not available locally. Americans go overseas to train local nationals in technical know-how and management techniques or as engineers or contractors on a project. After two or three years, perhaps longer, they are replaced by the local nationals they have trained. Since new technology has made the world smaller, even small and medium-sized companies are now able to venture into foreign trade. They can use the Internet and interactive video to display products, solicit customers, shop for supplies, and make arrangements for credit, insurance, and transportation. The jobs are still fairly undefined because the work is new to most companies. Self-motivation, creativity, and an openness to world cultures are essential to the employee who will be breaking new territory for a company.
■ For More Information General information about international business may be obtained from the following organization: American Association of Exporters and Importers 1200 G Street, NW, Suite 800 Washington, DC 20005-5503 Tel: 202-661-2181
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Email:
[email protected] http://www.aaei.org
For trade statistics, state export data, and recent press releases, contact or visit the ITA Web site. International Trade Administration (ITA) U.S. Department of Commerce 1401 Constitution Avenue, NW Washington, DC 20230-0001 Tel: 800-USA-TRADE Email:
[email protected] http://www.ita.doc.gov
For more information on foreign trade, visit World Trade Organization http://www.wto.org
■ Related Articles Accounting; Advertising and Marketing; Banking and Financial Services; Business; Sales; Accountants and Auditors; Business Managers; Buyers; Cultural Advisers; Economists; Export-Import Specialists; Financial Institution Officers and Managers; Internet Consultants; Internet Executives; Internet Transaction Specialists; Interpreters and Translators; Lawyers and Judges; Management Analysts and Consultants; Marketing Research Analysts; Merchant Mariners; Political Scientists; Purchasing Agents; Stevedores; Traffic Engineers
Government ■ Background George Washington, Thomas Jefferson, Ben Franklin, and our nation’s other founders had an amazing amount of foresight in the structuring of the United States government. Politicians’ attitudes, beliefs, and sensibilities have changed, but through it all, the structure of the U.S. government has endured. This endurance is no small feat when you consider the many forces that might have torn the country apart: women fought for decades for the right to vote; slavery was alternately supported and condemned by the Congress; the Vietnam War, a century after the Civil War, killed tens of thousands and provoked protest and violence in cities across the nation; and the fiercely contested presidential election between Al Gore and George Bush in 2000. The United States continues to be affected by the consequences of these and other historic events, however. Elected officials are still actively involved in passing legislation that provides protection,
studies, and services in efforts to improve race relations, end gender inequality, make reparations to veterans of war, and ensure that election law is followed and the rights of voters are preserved. The failings and strengths of the U.S. government, the desire to change things for the better, and the capacity of the government to allow for this change lure people to careers in state capitals, city halls, and Washington, D.C. There are career politicians who devote their entire working lives to government jobs, but the government also offers careers to teachers, journalists, business executives, farmers, and anyone interested in affecting the way Americans relate to each other and to the world. Many of the concerns of America’s first citizens and government leaders remain relevant today. Diplomatic relations were important in even the earliest days of the development of the United States as ambassadors went to the leaders of other countries to encourage support of American independence. Today’s satellite communications and Internet technologies allow Foreign Service officers and ambassadors to keep in constant contact with the Department of State in Washington, D.C., but the diplomats of the late 1700s would spend years on foreign soil, cut off almost entirely from their home government. In some cases, these diplomats would even return having accomplished little in the way of foreign support. In the early 1800s, westward expansion resulted in the development of many major cities. Between 1815 and 1850, a new western state joined the Union every two and a half years on average. The 1850s saw the Gold Rush in California and a desire to take risks on new business ventures. The early architects of developing cities were as dedicated to their mission as today’s city managers and urban planners are to preserving and expanding those cities. An interest in chronicling the concerns of U.S. citizens and the actions of government went hand-in-hand with the development of a political system. Ben Franklin, in addition to his efforts for the new government, also published one of the colonies’ first newspapers. As early as 1735, laws and court decisions supported freedom of the press: Publisher John Peter Zenger of New York was acquitted in a libel trial when it was found he had printed the truth about the royally appointed governor. Newspapers and politics again became closely linked as the Revolutionary War neared, and writers used the press to either gather support or opposition against war. The press became a regular forum for the debates of political parties and also helped to spread political awareness. Although it may seem that it was contemporary politicians who, with their spin doctors and TV ad campaigns,
first used the media to affect elections, it’s actually a tradition as old as the political parties themselves: Postrevolutionary newspapers served as the battleground for the Federalists and Republicans, the first political factions to emerge in the new country. The Foreign Service, the U.S. Congress, state legislatures, the political science departments of colleges and universities, and the media all attract thousands of professionals every year who are anxious to be involved in, or to comment upon, the decisions that affect the people of the country. Although elected and appointed officials change, the structure of the government strengthens and remains resilient—although it may be restructured occasionally to better deal with business or cultural changes or to respond to domestic or international crises. At no time in our recent history has our government been challenged more than after the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001. In response to the attacks, the Bush administration restructured many existing government agencies and created new agencies to improve security at U.S. borders, in U.S. airports, in dealing with travelers throughout the United States, and in making the entire country safer from chemical, biological, or technological attacks or other potential threats. The U.S. Department of Homeland Security was created in 2002 to address these issues. It employs 180,000 workers in one of four major directorates: Border and Transportation Security, Emergency Preparedness and Response, Science and Technology, and Information Analysis and Infrastructure Protection. Many major government agencies—such as the U.S. Customs Service, Transportation Security Administration, Federal Emergency Management Agency, Federal Computer Incident Response Center, Secret Service, and Coast Guard, were merged into this new agency. Overall, the federal government employed approximately 1.9 million civilian workers in 2004. Fewer than one out of six worked in the Washington, DC-area, and about 93,000 worked overseas. Approximately 7.9 million people were employed by state and local governments (excluding education and hospitals) in 2004. Seventy percent of this total were employed by local government.
■ Structure You probably spend much of every day complaining about things you don’t like about school: unfair grading practices, militant gym instructors, broken lockers, gum under the desks, or low funding for the music department. Some of us will just complain, but others will try to change troubling issues. If you’re prepared to speak
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President George W. Bush addresses military and Department of Defense personnel at the Pentagon. (Helene C. Stikkel, U.S. Dept. of Defense.)
to the principal, write to school board members, or to just take a putty knife and scrape the gum off the desk yourself, you’ve got a bit of a fighting spirit. Though most of us will become involved with political issues at some level during our lives, some will take their civic concerns even further by devoting their lives to government-related careers. For some of these careers, you must be elected. Local, state, and federal officials, such as governors, state legislators, and U.S. Congress members must campaign and attract voters. The process of obtaining office can be a long, hard struggle. And once elected, the term in office may be as short as two years, as in the House of Representatives. The higher the office, the more time and money the candidate must spend to campaign for the position. Political candidates begin by getting petitions with lists of signatures to show that there are several hundred or, in some cases, several thousand registered voters interested in having them run for office. After announcing their candidacy, candidates proceed to advertise, speak at public and private gatherings, and meet with the public frequently in order to keep their names in the minds of voters. A candidate must meet many requirements to be placed on the election ballot. This may mean winning a certain number or percentage of votes in a primary
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Votes for Women Half of America’s population could not vote until 1920, the year that the 19th Amendment to the Constitution giving women the right to vote became law. Before that, women had no voice in the government of their own country. Women had begun to protest this situation in the mid1800s, when Susan B. Anthony and Elizabeth Cady Stanton led the campaign for universal suffrage. (Suffrage is the right to vote; those who champion it are suffragists.) For years they made passionate speeches and wrote fervent essays but made little progress. Things changed dramatically once suffragist Alice Paul realized that women had to be more assertive, even militant, to win the vote. She organized the National Women’s Party in 1916 and led its members in the fight for suffrage. They lobbied Congress, published a magazine, held massive parades, and shocked the nation by picketing the White House, an act never before seen. Alice Paul and the suffragists were often yelled at and spat upon. Many were thrown in jail and ridiculed during their hunger strikes to protest imprisonment. But instead of backing down, they stepped up their campaign and aimed their protests directly at President Woodrow Wilson. At the height of World War I, Alice Paul’s suffragists publicly denounced Wilson for sending American troops to fight for democracy abroad when there was no true democracy at home. This was a watershed moment: The statement was undeniably true, and it forced Americans to recognize the shamefulness of limited suffrage. It took time to get the amendment through Congress and ratified by enough states, but the courage and vision of Alice Paul and the suffragists won votes for women in time for the 1920 election.
election or collecting signatures on a nomination petition. Each candidate running for office has a staff that works for his or her election. These people may be employed by the candidate or a political party, or they may be volunteers donating their time and energy. The higher the office, the more workers are needed for the candidate to be successful. Many people get their start in politics by working on the campaigns of others. Some people work for a candidate because they are interested in seeing that particular person win the election. Others work because they support the party that the candidate represents. Still others make a career out of working for political candidates. They become informed and skilled on how to run a successful campaign and are hired by different candidates. Party volunteers do a lot of the
necessary clerical work in a candidate’s campaign office. This includes stuffing envelopes, handing out buttons and brochures, going door to door, or calling to talk to voters about their candidate. In larger campaigns, these volunteer activities are usually coordinated by a paid, full-time general office staff. Other paid members of the staff include public relations and press representatives who are trained in presenting a candidate’s views to the public. They arrange as much press and media coverage as possible for every event. The head of the press office should have a substantial background in handling the media and be able to deflect criticism from news stories that may not show the candidate in the best possible light. For candidates running for higher offices, such as senator or president, this position may be held by a consultant. Such consultants also develop Web sites and scope the Internet for public opinion. Consultants advise candidates on how to best use the media during a campaign. They also advise officials throughout their terms in office, helping to prepare speeches and press conferences. All of these people work together to solicit as much support as possible from the public for the election of the candidate. They work from early in the campaign until the final weeks before the election, when the pressure and the time commitment become very demanding. The lower-level staff works on whatever area needs the most help. The higher-level staff are usually specialists in a given area, working to cover as much ground and contact as many people as possible in the time they have before the voting begins. A congressional candidate campaigns mainly in his or her district. The presidential candidate must campaign across the entire United States. Presidential campaigns now start at least one full year before the date of the election and have campaign offices in all 50 states and the District of Columbia. The success of the candidate and staff is determined by the results of the election. For the winning candidate, a career is set for the term of office. With the Senate and the House of Representatives, several terms may be set; the majority of incumbent senators and representatives win reelection. Usually, several members of a candidate’s campaign staff assume staff positions once the candidate is elected. Others move on to other election campaigns or into positions in the party office. Depending on the level and the ambitions of the staff member, there are various opportunities for future political work. In Washington, D.C., the staff that assists Congress is quite large. Each representative has an administrative assistant to run the office in Washington. This person normally comes from the representative’s own state, but that is not always neces-
sary. Legislative and other assistants work in offices in the congressperson’s home state and in Washington, D.C. The backgrounds and skills of these people vary according to the representative’s wishes and needs. Lobbyists are also hired by special interest groups to sway congressional representatives to vote in favor of their interests on certain pieces of legislation. The National Rifle Association, the National Wildlife Federation, the tobacco industry, the American Medical Association, and the American Bar Association are all strong lobby groups, supporting the legislation they feel best helps their industry or concerns. Lobbyists are frequently former government employees and are familiar with the offices and the staff they are lobbying. There are restrictions, however. Some people are required to be out of office for a certain period of time before working as a lobbyist. Think tanks are institutes or corporations established to perform research on certain social, technological, business, or other problems. They provide important information to lobbyists, members of the government, and government-related groups on a range of issues. Though they are privately employed and are not officially part of the political process, employees of think tanks produce reports that routinely affect the decisions and actions of government bodies. Not all important political decisions are made in Washington, D.C. Every state, county, and city has its own unique concerns and issues. And many of those involved in government are not elected officials. Hired city managers and urban planners gauge the needs of their cities and local communities and propose changes to government officials. Among the responsibilities of managers and planners are the preservation of historic buildings and neighborhoods, the development of affordable housing and efficient public transportation, the building of civic centers and auditoriums, and the design of new parks and recreational areas. Many people working in government hold degrees in law, economics, journalism, and political science. The faculties of political science departments of colleges and universities across the country are also involved in politics without directly affecting laws. They study government, research legislation and history, publish articles, and teach undergraduate and graduate courses.
■ Outlook Although there is always the possibility of staff cutbacks on local, regional, and federal levels, opportunities in politics will remain strong. The government will always require fairly extensive staffing to accomplish its work. But budget concerns will determine how many aides are hired for congressional staff work. In coming years,
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more of the congressional aide positions will be consolidated, and aides will be performing a number of different duties, from press relations to legislative research. Careers in politics are affected by the issues of the day. Current needs, such as public safety, aggression against terrorism, protection of the environment, providing for increased populations, and cultural diversity, will likely become more urgent. The Internet and other communication technologies will continue to require special attention as the government attempts to pass laws concerning privacy issues, copyright protection, and federal involvement in TV and radio broadcasting. Health care, taxation, education, and human rights will always be near the top of political agendas.
Words to Know Advocate: A person who, either alone or as part of a group, stands behind a particular issue and promotes legislation that supports that issue. Apportionment: Division of a state into districts, according to population. Bill: A proposed law that is considered by legislators. Campaign: The competition for a government office. Candidate: The individual who campaigns for a government office. Congress: The body of the U.S. government that passes laws; composed of the Senate and the House of Representatives. Constituent: A voter who lives within a legislator’s district. District: A division of a state based on population; a senator or representative is elected to serve a district. Fiscal year: The year for which a budget is planned by legislators beginning October 1 and ending September 30 of the following year. Floor: Describes both the chambers where bills are discussed and the location of bills; those up for discussion are referred to as “on the floor.” Grass roots: The common people, as opposed to government leaders. Hearing: A committee meeting where members exchange information and consider specific legislation. Incumbent: A candidate currently holding an office that is up for election. Legislation: The act of making laws. Representative: A member of the House of Representatives of the U.S. Congress; also referred to as a congressperson. Senator: A member of the Senate of the U.S. Congress.
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Tel: 202-289-4262 http://www.icma.org
National Association of Counties 440 First Street, NW Washington, DC 20001-2028 Tel: 202-393-6226 http://www.naco.org
National League of Cities
People register to vote at a curbside registration booth. (Jonathan Nourak, Tony Stone Images.)
The agencies of the Foreign Service and the number of Foreign Service officers hired will be affected by the closing of embassies and consulates around the world. The relations between the United States and other countries will determine funding for international affairs. Campaign reform (restrictions on the way candidates can raise money) will change the face of future elections. Free broadcast time for politicians may improve the way candidates reach voters. But campaign reform is unlikely to change the way candidates use the media; negative campaigning is losing its stigma among political consultants and campaign managers because of its great effectiveness. The Internet has already become a new source and resource for political research, public opinion polling, campaigning, and rumors. Candidates, consultants, and campaign workers will continue to use the Internet as carefully as they have the broadcast media. And voters will be better informed about issues at hand and bills up for consideration by their state and federal lawmakers.
■ For More Information For information about the forms of city, county, and state governments around the country and to learn about programs sponsored by local, regional, and state governments, contact the following organizations: Council of State Governments PO Box 11910 Lexington, KY 40578-1910 Tel: 859-244-8000 http://www.csg.org
1301 Pennsylvania Avenue, NW, Suite 550 Washington, DC 20004-1763 Tel: 202-626-3000 http://www.nlc.org
To read about state legislatures, policy issues, legislative news, and other related information, visit the NCSL’s Web site. National Conference of State Legislatures (NCSL) 444 North Capitol Street, NW, Suite 515 Washington, DC 20001-1512 Tel: 202-624-5400 Email:
[email protected] http://www.ncsl.org
For information on state and local government, visit this Web site. State and Local Government on the Net http://www.statelocalgov.net
The U.S. Department of State offers a wealth of information, including internship opportunities, the history of the Foreign Service, and current officers and embassies. Check out its Web site or contact U.S. Department of State 2401 E Street, NW, Suite 518 H Washington, DC 20522-0003 Email:
[email protected] http://careers.state.gov
Visit the Senate and House Web sites for extensive information about Congress, government history, and current legislation. The sites also provide links to the Web sites of state legislatures. For information on internship opportunities, contact U.S. Senate Washington, DC 20510 http://www.senate.gov
International City/County Management Association
U.S. House of Representatives
777 North Capitol Street, NE, Suite 500 Washington, DC 20002-4239
Washington, DC 20515 http://www.house.gov
■ Related Articles Aerospace; Ambassadors; Bank Examiners; Border Patrol Officers; Campaign Workers; City Managers; Congressional Aides; Cryptographic Technicians; Customs Officials; Deputy U.S. Marshals; Federal and State Officials; FBI Agents; Fish and Game Wardens; Foreign Service Officers; Health and Regulatory Inspectors; Interpreters and Translators; Lobbyists; Mail Carriers; Military Workers; Political Scientists; Postal Clerks; Press Secretaries and Political Consultants; Regional and Local Officials; Secret Service Special Agents; Urban and Regional Planners
Grocery Stores ■ Background Family celebrations and traditions across the world have one thing in common—food. From a simple breakfast to a home-style Sunday dinner, food is a key ingredient in everyday life as well as the special days of the year. Grandma’s pumpkin pie, Aunt Edith’s banana salad, and Uncle Hubert’s holiday ham are dependent on the availability of ingredients. In the United States, these ingredients are usually purchased at a grocery store or supermarket. At one time, family farms and gardens provided much of a family’s food supply. As people left the family farms for cities and industrial work, and as families had less time for gardening, food preservation, and food preparation, they became even more dependent on the grocery industry. Full shelves, large selections, and timely deliveries are so typical that the efficiency of the U.S. grocery industry is often taken for granted, even though much of the rest of the world cannot count on such a ready supply of food. Grocery stores have been a part of life in the United States since the 1800s. At that time, small general stores served towns, cities, and neighborhoods. In some areas, huckster wagons worked independently or for a particular store to deliver groceries to rural areas. This to-yourdoor service was complemented by specialty deliveries of bread, milk, and more. In the early 1900s, mom-and-pop grocery stores were prevalent, but some of today’s leading retailers were already expanding. Bernard Kroger, founder of the Kroger Company, already had 40 stores and a factory by 1902. Today, in terms of actual stores, Kroger Company is the largest grocer with 3,323 stores (In terms of annual sales, Kroger is second to only Wal-Mart with 56.9 billion in 2004, according to the Directory of Supermarket, Grocery & Convenience Store Chains 2005). In the early part
Grocery Stores
of this century, many neighborhoods also had several specialty stores, including the butcher’s shop, the bakery, and the delicatessen. Technology has played a part in the history of the grocery industry. From refrigeration methods to transportation, the industry has integrated the latest technology to improve services and efficiency. One of those technical aspects can be heard in nearly every grocery store. The familiar beep that accompanies checkout lines is due to the innovative bar coding system first developed by Joseph Woodland and Bernard Silver in 1949. The first laser-based scanning system in the United States was installed in a Kroger store in Cincinnati in 1972. While now widely used in other industries, grocery stores were the testing grounds and first users of the Universal Product Code (UPC), which was adopted in 1973. Today, the trend toward supermarkets and larger grocery stores is growing. According to the Food Marketing Institute, the number of smaller stores continues to fall, while the number of large supermarkets with more than $2 million in annual sales increased from 16,775 in 1987 to 34,052 in 2005. As larger supermarkets move into an area, many smaller stores cannot compete and either go out of business or are purchased by a larger conglomerate. The demise of the local grocery is due not just to supermarkets but also to mass retailers, such as Wal-Mart and Meijer offering both groceries and general ware in their supercenter stores. Like many other retailers and businesses, mergers and buyouts are constantly changing the names of some local grocery stores, while closing down others. Partially due to those mergers, the total number of grocery stores has declined steadily over the past decade. Shoppers are spending more, but doing so in a smaller number of stores. Competition in the grocery industry is fierce with many added amenities to lure customers such as in-store coupons, special parking, baby-sitting, restaurants, and specialty areas. Like the small bakeries and specialty shops of the past, large supermarkets now have smaller specialty areas under one roof. Cheese shops, fresh seafood, and pharmacies are some of the specialty areas available. The number of amenities and selection at a store often depend on the store’s location, size, and the competition in the area. Grocery store profits are not excessive; the industry average is only 1.16 percent. The huckster wagon is returning in a different form. Online grocery stores are cropping up all over the Web, with many companies vying to grab this new market in grocery retailing. The online groceries bring back the days of home deliveries with the added convenience of ordering over the Internet. With total grocery store sales
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Grocery store workers unload a bushel of apples. (Chuck Savage/ Corbis.)
at 478.9 billion in 2005, online groceries have plenty of room to grow. Some online grocers specialize in specific types of food, while others are more diverse. While most traditional grocery stores have Web sites, they do not typically offer online ordering.
■ Structure While your first thought of workers in the grocery industry might be of baggers, cashiers, and stockers, the grocery industry is highly sophisticated and corporate and has a wide variety of jobs available. Only a part of those positions involve working within the stores. Of course, at small groceries, the owner may serve as manager, department head, and a number of other positions, depending on the size of the business. In the stores, store managers or directors are responsible for all aspects of the store’s performance. Financial goals, merchandising, and customer relations are just a few of their responsibilities. The store manager often works with customers, employees, and the community
as well as the government to make sure the store meets strict government regulations. Store managers often have an assistant manager to help with their duties. Department managers have responsibility for one area or department, such as the bakery or the meat department. Other managers include a service desk manager/ accountant, customer service manager, receiving manager, and scanning coordinator. These office help positions keep the business running smoothly. Within each department, there are workers or associates trained for specific duties. For example, the bakery workers create a variety of pies, cakes, cookies, breakfast items, and specialty deserts. In the deli, deli workers prepare meats, cheeses, salads, party trays, and entrees. Many stores now have a food court area that requires workers normally found in a restaurant such as a manager, waiters, cooks, counter staff, and a bus staff. On the front lines of grocery stores, cashiers scan items, conduct cash and credit card transactions, and greet customers. There is a reason why cashiers, or checkers, are often the first to come to mind when you think of grocery stores. They are the largest occupation in the stores—about 34 percent of all workers. Courtesy clerks pack groceries in paper or plastic bags and assist shoppers to their cars when necessary. They often check prices or return merchandise to the shelves. Directly above the individual store staffs, there is a group of professionals who supervise several stores. These people include the vice president/director of store operations and the district/regional manager. Merchandisers or product specialists work with a specific department on merchandising strategies to improve sales and appearance. Human resource specialists recruit, train, and orient new employees while staying informed about employee issues and acting as a liaison for staff concerns. At the corporate level, a variety of people offer specialized support to the industry. Accountants track all record keeping and profits. Advertising professionals create promotions, signs, circulars, and advertisements for media as well as special events. Category management personnel work to maximize sales and profits in a specific area, such as beverages or frozen foods. They work with individual stores and merchandising people to arrange promotions and display areas. Human resource professionals oversee personnelrelated activities as well as labor relations. Information technology plays a large part in the grocery industry. This area includes computer programmers, engineers, system analysts, network specialists, installers, and computer support staff. With the advent of Web sites and the
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possibility of online grocery shopping, Web professionals are included in the technology area. Marketing and merchandising professionals often work together to market products and more effectively display and sell products. In public affairs, people work with the public and within the community to represent the store or company. They often answer questions from the media, issue press releases, and organize community activities. Bringing the food supply to the nation is a complex and challenging job that requires a variety of people with many talents. While “grocery” may still bring up an image of a friendly cashier, there are a tremendous number of people who are behind the bag of groceries that you carry home. According to the Food Marketing Institute, 3.4 million people work in the grocery industry. Some of those workers are at the corporate level, while others work in stores. Consumers make an average of 2.1 trips to the grocery each week, spending about 5.4 percent of their weekly income on food. With more than 45,000 items to choose from in a typical supermarket, American consumers are accustomed to the variety and convenience of grocery stores.
■ Outlook Employment in the grocery industry is expected to grow by 7 percent through 2014, according to the U.S. Department of Labor. The industry provides approximately 3.4 million wage and salary jobs. In 2004, approximately 30 percent of all grocery store employees worked parttime and the average workweek was 30
Words to Know Bar code: An electronic code, read by a scanner, that indicates price. Coupon: A price reduction promise issued by a manufacturer or store to offer discounts to customers. Department: A specialized area within a grocery store, such as a deli or bakery. Distributor: Business that delivers and sells food to individual stores and supermarket chains. FDA: The U.S. Food and Drug Administration oversees all domestic and imported foods, with a few exceptions, as well as bottled water and wine with less than 7 percent alcohol. Manufacturer: A company that produces food that is then sold to wholesalers. Merchandising: The presentation of products to be sold on shelves, displays, or cases.
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Paper or Plastic? After deciding among 45,000 products, choosing coupons, and selecting brands, grocery consumers have one more decision to make after the final beep of the scanner. Paper or plastic? Which is more convenient and which is better for the environment largely depends on who you ask. While many people prefer the easy-to-carry handles of the newer plastic bags, paper bags are still often requested. On environmental issues, the plastics industry claims that its product helps reduce, reuse, and recycle. The plastic bags reduce because of their smaller size and ability to be compacted. They are often reused elsewhere in the household, and recycling is available at most grocery stores. However, the American Forest and Paper Association is convinced that paper is better since it is made from a renewable resource (trees) rather than a nonrenewable one (petroleum). With differing viewpoints and preferences, the grocery industry will most likely continue to ask, paper or plastic? However, customers can also bring their own cloth bags. Some grocery stores even offer a small discount for each bag a customer uses.
hours. About 74 percent of workers were employed in grocery stores with more than 50 workers. Some workers will be needed to replace those who move up the corporate ladder or leave the industry. There
Nutritional labeling: Special marking now required on most food; some elements must be present, such as total calories, total fat, and sugars. Packaging claims must be substantiated by the FDA. Online grocery: Groceries that offer ordering via the Internet, accompanied by home delivery. Profit margin: The profit that can be expected to be made in a given industry; the grocery industry has an average 1.16 percent profit margin. Retail: The selling of goods to consumers. Stock: Merchandise or food presented for sale in a retail store. UPC: Universal Product Code, a bar code standard first enacted in 1973. USDA: The U.S. Department of Agriculture; responsible for food safety and inspection of all meat, poultry, and eggs. Wholesaler: Company that buys food from manufacturers for sale to distributors or individual stores.
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Email:
[email protected] http://www.fmi.org
For information on all retail fields, contact National Retail Federation 325 7th Street, NW, Suite 1000 Washington, DC 20004-2818 Tel: 202-783-7971 http://www.nrf.com
For information about union membership in the food industry, contact United Food & Commercial Workers International Union AFL-CIO/CLC 1775 K Street, NW Washington, DC 20006-1502 Tel: 202-223-3111 http://www.ufcw.org A supermarket grocer checks his produce. (Andy Sacks, Tony Stone Images.)
is a high turnover rate for positions such as cashiers and stock clerks; many of these workers do not choose to pursue careers within the industry. The trend in supermarkets is toward expansion to include goods such as prescription drugs, flowers, liquor, carryout food, and services such as banking, post office, catering, and photo developing. In addition, grocery stores are adding specialty departments like delicatessens, bakeries, wine and cheese centers, and salad bars to counter the trend toward eating away from home. This expansion is expected to create many new jobs. While technological advances have often decreased employment in other industries, the technological improvements in the grocery industry still require real people to be present. Scanners and cash registers have changed the industry but have not changed the need for quality employees. Online grocery stores are new and, at present, account for only a small percentage of sales in the grocery industry. However, sales are expected to continue to grow, which could create a need for more delivery and technical personnel in those companies.
■ For More Information For industry and employment information, contact Food Marketing Institute 655 15th Street, NW Washington, DC 20005-5701 Tel: 202-452-8444
■ Related Articles Business; Bakery Workers; Cashiers; Cooks and Chefs; Counter and Retail Clerks; Food Service Workers; Meatcutters; Retail Business Owners; Retail Sales Workers; Stock Clerks; Supermarket Workers
Health Care ■ Background The origins of medicine began with prehistoric people who believed that diseases were derived from supernatural powers. To destroy the evil spirits, they performed trephining, which involved cutting a hole in the victim’s skull to release the spirit. Skulls have been found in which the trephine hole has healed, demonstrating that people did survive the ritual, although it may be assumed that trephining did little to help the afflicted person. The first doctors, known as medicine men, also used herbal concoctions, ritual dances, and incantations to heal their patients. In about 3000 b.c., the ancient Egyptians developed a systematic method of treating illnesses, which introduced the notion of specialization within the field of medicine. The famous physician Imhotep was so respected that the Egyptians regarded him as the god of healing. The Greek physician Hippocrates was the first person to declare that disease was caused by natural, not supernatural, phenomena. He introduced a method of conduct and ethics for the practice of medicine. To this day,
each physician pledges the Hippocratic Oath on their day of graduation from medical school. Another Greek physician, Galen of Pergamum, studied in Rome during the second century a.d. He worked as physician to Emperor Marcus Aurelius and lectured to physicians on dissections and experimental physiology. He conducted anatomical studies of animals, particularly apes, because the dissection of humans was illegal. He is credited with the discoveries of blood transport by arteries, the pumping mechanism of the heart, and the function of the kidneys. His written work remained influential for hundreds of years, and during the 15th and 16th centuries, many physicians repeated his experiments to gain further insight into the mechanism of human anatomy. Avicenna (980–1037), from Persia, was another major contributor to the early development of Western medicine. His single largest contribution was the book The Canon of Medicine, which included the information of Greek and Arabic physicians that had been gathered from many generations, as well as some of his own findings. The book remained the most important publication for medicine through the 16th century and served as a major resource of information for Eastern and Western countries. When dissection of human corpses was accepted in the 1500s, Andreas Vesalius was able to conduct his
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own examinations and correct many of the errors that Galen had made. Vesalius published On the Structure of the Human Body in 1543, which provided the basis for future study of human anatomy. William Harvey made an important contribution to medicine in the 17th century. Using the observations Hieronymus Fabricius had made on the valves in veins, Harvey conducted physical tests to prove that blood circulates through the body and through the veins and arteries. He wrote On the Motion of the Heart and Blood in Animals (1628). It was the development of the microscope that moved medical study into the next plane of understanding. Zacharias Janssen, a Dutch eyeglass maker, discovered the benefits of combining magnifying lenses. He is credited with developing the first compound-lens microscope around 1590. Another Dutch scientist, Anton Van Leeuwenhoek, used microscopes to study the microscopic contents of water, blood, and other body fluids and tissues. He described bacteria from his observations, becoming the first person to recognize the presence of foreign bodies in human fluids. Discoveries were made more rapidly once the concept of germ infection became recognized and accepted. The awareness of bacteria, fungi, and viruses led to concepts,
A surgical team includes surgeons, anesthesiologists, nurses, and surgical technicians. (Donald R. Downey.)
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Two nurses check their notes at a monitoring station in a hospital. (Roger Tully, Tony Stone Images.)
taken for granted today, that proved to be a major boon to the medical profession. Washing hands before surgery, examinations, and deliveries of newborns led to a decrease in cases of infections and death. Joseph Lister developed the concept of an antiseptic environment that promoted sterilized equipment and surroundings in medical work. Louis Pasteur successfully produced vaccinations that battled diseases. In the mid-1800s, Pasteur inoculated sheep against a common animal disease called anthrax. He went on to develop a vaccination against rabies, demonstrating that vaccinations were as successful in preventing disease in humans as they were in animals. Another discovery that the modern world relies on every day is the development of anesthesia. Surgery had been performed without it for hundreds of years, but it was hazardous and extraordinarily painful. In 1846, a surgery by William Morton in Boston before a group of physicians proved to the medical world that the use of anesthesia freed the patient from surgical pain and allowed the physician to work more accurately, more thoroughly, and more extensively than ever before. Early anesthetics included nitrous oxide, ether, and chloroform.
Drugs were discovered that battled and killed some bacteria and infections. Penicillin was discovered by Alexander Fleming in 1928. Howard Florey and Ernst Chain were able to isolate the penicillin compound in pure enough quantities to use it to combat infections such as staph. That advance in 1938 led to mass production, which allowed the British and American armies to use it on wounded soldiers through World War II. The number of lives saved by penicillin is beyond calculation. Immunologists and bacteriologists experimented with methods of inoculating soldiers against viral infections. Tetanus antitoxin was developed by Emil von Behring and Shibasaburo Kitasato in 1890. The two also worked on diphtheria antitoxin, which, only after the vaccinations had a combination of toxins and antitoxins, would produce an immune response in humans. During the 1930s technology was developed that allowed immunologists to isolate and cultivate viruses for study and experimentation. As viruses were isolated, the proper vaccinations could be developed that would trigger immunization in humans. The most heralded of the vaccines was the one developed by Jonas Salk for poliomyelitis (polio). Albert Sabin developed an oral vaccine soon after, which also immunized against polio. Polio had infected hundreds of thousands of people in the United States between 1940 and 1959 and had killed 26,635 people, according to the National Center for Health Statistics. Initial use of the vaccination began in 1954. In 1960, thanks to the vaccination, only 3,190 Americans developed the disease. Viruses still plague the population and therefore impact on the medical community. Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (AIDS) is the most deadly virus to affect the population. By 2004, 529,000 people had died from AIDS in the United States, according to the Centers for Disease Control (CDC), and the disease had been diagnosed in 944,000 others. Severe acute respiratory syndrome (commonly known as SARS) is a viral respiratory illness that was first reported in Asia in 2003. Before the outbreak was contained, SARS spread to more than 24 countries in North America, South America, Europe, and Asia. According to the World Health Organization, 8,098 people worldwide contracted SARS during this outbreak and 774 of that group died. Researchers are attempting to find a preventive vaccination and a cure for these deadly viruses. The health care industry continues to develop at a rapid rate with the discoveries of new drugs, treatments, and cures. Modern technologies, such as computers and virtual reality, are being used by the medical community to perform tests, compile data, diagnose illnesses, and
train professionals. Many surgeries are no longer performed with a scalpel, but with lasers. Disease, illness, and injury are now being treated and cured so successfully that the general population is living much longer and the number of elderly is increasing. Scientists are conducting promising research in the field of genetics. Knowledge about genes could help doctors identify people who have genetic predispositions to certain diseases and perhaps lead to a cure for such illnesses as Parkinson’s disease and some types of cancer. The medical and health care field has become one of the largest and most varied occupational areas. Approximately 13.5 million people were employed in some aspect of the U.S. health care system in 2004, according to the U.S. Department of Labor. Health care workers are employed as physicians, nurses, nursing aides, technicians, technologists, therapists, and in a host of other occupations.
■ Structure Health care workers work in a variety of settings, including private offices, hospitals, clinics, managed-care facilities, nursing homes, and private homes. The single most familiar element of the medical industry is the physician. For many years, the main health consultant was the family physician. General practitioners still serve the role of the family doctor to many families in the United States, but the role and the method of medical care delivery by the family doctor has changed. According to the U.S. Department of Labor, approximately 28 percent of the physicians in the United States are general or family practitioners. General practitioners handle most medical problems, but when an emergency or problem arises that the family doctor may not have the equipment or capability to handle, the patient is referred to a specialist. The patient may rely on his or her generalist to recommend a specialist, or the patient may be able to determine which type of specialist is needed. For skin problems, for example, most patients would go to a dermatologist. Internists frequently work as general practitioners. They are capable of handling most medical concerns that are presented to them by their patients and make referrals to specialists as needed. There are at least 40 different specialties for the physician to choose from while in medical school. They range from anesthesiology to urology. The rest work in one specific area of the body, one specific element of treatment, or with one specific clientele. For example, pediatricians work with children; neurologists work with problems of the nervous system; and anesthesiologists handle anesthetization during surgical procedures.
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Words to Know Ambulatory care: Services for patients who are able to walk or move about. HMO (Health Maintenance Organization): A prepaid managed care plan that requires members to pay a fixed amount of money in exchange for most of their medical needs. Managed care: A philosophy of health care that tries to keep medical costs down through education and preventive medicine. Outpatient: Patient treated at the hospital but not admitted for extended care. PPO (Preferred Provider Organization): A health insurance plan that contracts with doctors, hospitals, and other providers to obtain discounts for medical care. The providers agree on a predetermined list of fees for all services. It is a form of managed care. Preventive care: A type of medical care that stresses the prevention of disease by teaching patients better eating habits and other healthful lifestyle choices. Rehabilitation center: A facility that uses therapy, education, and emotional support to help patients gain good health and lead useful lives. Residency: A period of advanced medical training and education that is normally required after graduation from medical school. Stethoscope: An instrument used for listening to sounds within the body, primarily in the heart and lungs.
The largest group of workers in the health field are those in the nursing occupations: physician assistants, registered nurses, licensed practical nurses, nursing aides, orderlies, and nurse assistants. Depending on training and work setting, the nurse’s job may include a wide range of duties related to caring for the sick or educating those who are well. In hospitals and other inpatient institutions, such as nursing homes, staff nurses frequently work with patients who are grouped together on the basis of some common characteristic, for example, pediatric patients or patients undergoing surgery. Nurses in some specialties, such as those working in intensive care units, are required to complete extra courses in addition to their basic education. Many nursing schools now provide training in certain specialties as part of their regular curriculum, for example, preparing students to work with elderly patients. Registered nurses (RNs) may work in other settings besides hospitals. Private-duty nurses are RNs who are
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hired directly by patients and work in a variety of settings, including hospitals and nursing homes. Occupational health nurses oversee the health needs of business and government employees in their workplaces. Public health nurses specialize in promoting good health practices to prevent illness and restore health; they may provide care and counseling in schools, clinics, or other settings. Office nurses generally assist physicians, surgeons, and sometimes dentists in private practice or in clinics, often performing routine office and laboratory work in addition to nursing services. Other registered nurses teach, staff nursing organizations, act as administrators, or are engaged in research. Advanced practice nurses are a broad category of registered nurses who have completed advanced clinical nurses’ educational practice requirements beyond the two to four years of basic nursing education required for all RNs. Under the advanced practice nursing designation fall four categories of nursing specialties: clinical nurse specialists, nurse practitioners, nurse-midwives, and nurse anesthetists. Licensed practical nurses (LPNs) observe and record information about patients, including temperature, blood pressure, and respiration rates. They assist patients with their personal hygiene and prepare them for medical examinations. In addition, they give injections, change surgical dressings, and administer prescribed medicines. Most nursing aides, orderlies, and attendants work in hospitals, but substantial numbers also are employed in nursing homes and other extended-care facilities. One of the most distinctive features of modern medicine is its increasing reliance on new and sophisticated pieces of medical machinery. New technology aids in making diagnoses, providing effective treatments, and taking over body functions when organs fail or patients undergo surgery. Because these new machines require special skills from the people who attend them, they provide opportunities for many new jobs. One of the areas in which technology has made particularly dramatic breakthroughs is in the area of heart disease. Numerous tests aid the discovery of heart disease. These include tests that pick up heart sounds and murmurs (phonocardiology), tests that record the heart’s electrical activity (vector cardiography), stress testing, ultrasound testing (echocardiography), as well as more complicated testing procedures in which medical technicians assist a physician in performing cardiac catheterization (inserting a tube through veins into a patient’s heart). People working in therapy or rehabilitation help injured, disabled, or emotionally disturbed people regain
their strength to the fullest extent possible. There are many different kinds of therapists, each with special knowledge and special skills. Some therapists, for instance, use dance, art, and music to help resolve patients’ physical, emotional, and social problems. Research is one of the most important areas of medical work. Medical researchers look for cures to diseases, study drugs for treatment, and work on preventive measures for disease and disabilities. Biomedical researchers concentrate on eliminating specific diseases and health hazards, such as cancer, heart disease, and radiation contamination, and studying other environmental hazards that are damaging to human health. Nobel prizes are awarded to researchers for their work. Research is also one of the most frustrating and difficult aspects of medicine because one may work for years on a disease and never find a cure or treatment. Biomedical research is funded by a variety of institutions, including manufacturers of pharmaceutical, electronic, chemical, and medical supply products; private health agencies, such as the American Cancer Society and the American Heart Association; endowments from philanthropic organizations; federal, state, and local governments; and hospitals, universities, and research organizations. Medical research offers employment opportunities to individuals with varying amounts of training, ranging from the researcher who possesses an advanced degree to the technicians and assistants who have high school or community college diplomas or a certificate from a laboratory technical school. Many health care professionals perform research work in pathology laboratories or other types of laboratories. Health care professionals also work with architects, city planners, government officials, law enforcement officers, and highway engineers to solve such health-related problems as traffic safety, drug abuse, rodent control, and the design of appropriate and adequate community health facilities. Other health care professionals research the problems concerned with the delivery of medical care services. They investigate such problems as why infant mortality and the incidence of tuberculosis is greater among some segments of the population than others. They search for ways to establish cooperative arrangements among various hospitals so that duplicate facilities for certain types of treatment do not exist where the area patient load requires only one facility. They work out the logistics of an efficient system of evening and weekend medical coverage for a community and design effective emergency teams trained in the latest methods of cardiopulmonary resuscitation.
Many research positions in health care are associated with teaching responsibilities, but opportunities for teaching exist at all levels in the health care professions. Opportunities exist in professional schools of medicine, nursing, dentistry, and veterinary medicine, and in the allied medical professions, including therapy occupations and medical technology. In the 20th century, advances in Western medicine overshadowed other ways of practicing medicine that many considered primitive and unscientific. In the last three decades, however, there has been an increasing interest in alternative medicine, a term used to refer to such practices as massage therapy, herbal remedies, homeopathy, acupuncture, reflexology, meditation, and many other treatment options. Although once frowned upon by the traditional medical community, more and more physicians and hospitals are embracing alternative medicine and finding new ways to combine old and new approaches to healing. Overall, the structure of the health care industry is enormously varied. There are many different jobs to choose from and many different facilities in which to work, once the job is chosen. Preventing, curing, and treating the diseases and injuries that affect the population is a major undertaking, requiring skill and training on every level.
■ Outlook According to U.S. government projections, employment in the health services industry is projected to increase 27 percent through 2014, adding about 3.6 million new jobs over the 2004–14 period. Projected rates of employment growth for the various segments of this industry range from 13 percent in hospitals, the largest and slowest growing industry segment, to 69 percent in the much smaller, but fastest-growing home health care services segment. The U.S. Department of Labor also says that six out of the 10 occupations projected to grow the fastest are concentrated in the health services industry. By 2014, employment of medical assistants is projected to increase by 52 percent, physician assistants by 50 percent, home health aides by 56 percent, medical record and health information technicians by 47 percent, and physical therapist assistants by 44 percent. There may be a general perception that careers in health care require advanced education; however, most jobs require less than four years of college. Employment growth for physicians is expected to be faster than for the average occupation. More doctors will be needed because the population is both growing and aging. Also, many new technological improvements require the expertise of greater numbers of medical spe-
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A pediatrician tends to his young patient, who is comforted by his mother. (Rubberball Productions.)
cialists. However, the need for primary care providers will be far greater than the need for medical specialists. Job prospects will be best in internal medicine, family practice, geriatrics, and preventive medicine. Since managed-care programs are growing because of their cost efficiency, employment opportunities in hospitals are expected to decline, especially in administrative and support jobs. Some observers expect that consolidations and closings will reduce the number of community hospitals by as much as 10 percent. Remaining hospitals are likely to cut costs, reduce staff, curb the use of advanced technologies, encourage outpatient care, and reduce paperwork. In the next decade, most health care workers will be employed in some kind of corporate, group, or network environment. One of the fastest growing job categories in the industry is home health care. Home health care workers include nurses, physical therapists, and consultants, as well as lowerpaid workers who cook, clean, bathe, and dress homebound patients, such as the elderly and disabled. Opportunities are excellent for nurse practitioners and physician assistants, too. They will begin to assume many of the functions of primary care physicians in the next few years, including taking patient histories and making preliminary diagnoses. The employment outlook for all kinds of nurses is very favorable. Many hospitals don’t have enough nurses; the demand is bigger than the supply. Also, as health care services expand, even more nurses will be needed. Currently, there are about 2.4 million registered nurses. The U.S. Department of Labor projects the occupation of reg-
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istered nurse to be one of the top 25 occupations with fastest growth, high pay, and low unemployment. Nurse practitioners are in very high demand, with recent graduates having an average of four job offers from which to choose. The employment outlook for physical therapists is also excellent. Occupational and physical therapy are expected to remain among the top growth careers in the United States. Other health care jobs with a promising outlook include dental assistants and hygienists, cardiovascular technologists, emergency medical technicians, and respiratory therapists.
■ For More Information Visit the AAFP Web site to access career information, including the online pamphlet Consider a Career in Family Practice. American Academy of Family Physicians (AAFP) PO Box 11210 Shawnee Mission, KS 66207-1210 Tel: 800-274-2237 Email:
[email protected] http://www.aafp.org
Visit the AACN Web site to access a list of member schools and to read the online pamphlet Your Nursing Career: A Look at the Facts. American Association of Colleges of Nursing (AACN) One Dupont Circle, Suite 530 Washington, DC 20036-1110 Tel: 202-463-6930 http://www.aacn.nche.edu
For information on careers in hospitals, contact American Hospital Association One North Franklin Chicago, IL 60606-3421 Tel: 312-422-3000 http://www.aha.org
For general information on health care careers, contact American Medical Association 515 North State Street Chicago, IL 60610-5453 Tel: 800-621-8335 http://www.ama-assn.org
For career and certification information, contact American Medical Technologists 710 Higgins Road Park Ridge, IL 60068-5737
Tel: 847-823-5169 http://www.amt1.com
For information about opportunities as an RN, contact American Nurses Association 8515 Georgia Avenue, Suite 400 Silver Spring, MD 20910-3403 Tel: 800-274-4262 http://www.nursingworld.org
For a list of accredited U.S. and Canadian medical schools and other education information, contact Association of American Medical Colleges 2450 N Street, NW Washington, DC 20037-1126 Tel: 202-828-0400 http://www.aamc.org
For information on careers in health care financial management, contact Healthcare Financial Management Association 2 Westbrook Corporate Center, Suite 700 Westchester, IL 60154-5700 Tel: 800-252-4362 http://www.hfma.org
For information about state-approved programs and information on nursing, contact the following organizations: National League for Nursing 61 Broadway New York, NY 10006-2701 Tel: 800-669-1656 http://www.nln.org
National Organization for Associate Degree Nursing 7794 Grow Drive Pensacola, FL 32514-7072 Tel: 877-966-6236 Email:
[email protected] http://www.noadn.org
For information pertaining to medical careers in Canada, contact Canadian Medical Association 1867 Alta Vista Drive Ottawa, ON K1G 3Y6 Canada Tel: 800-457-4205 http://www.cma.ca
Discover Nursing, sponsored by Johnson & Johnson Health Care Systems, provides information on nursing careers, nursing schools, and scholarships.
home furnishings
Discover Nursing http://www.discovernursing.com
For comprehensive information about the career of health care manager, visit Make a Difference: Discover a Career in Healthcare Management! http://www.healthmanagementcareers.com
For more information on health care careers, visit Pfizer Guides to Careers in Health Care http://www.pfizercareerguides.com
■ Related Articles Alternative Health Care; Chemicals; Insurance; Pharmaceuticals; Social Services; Adult Day Care Coordinators; Advanced Practice Nurses; Allergists/Immunologists; Anesthesiologists; Biomedical Engineers; Biomedical Equipment Technicians; Cardiologists; Cardiovascular Technologists; Child Life Specialists; Chiropractors; Clinical Nurse Specialists; Community Health Nurses; Creative Arts Therapists; Critical Care Nurses; Dental Assistants; Dental Hygienists; Dental Laboratory Technicians; Dentists; Dermatologists; Diagnostic Medical Sonographers; Dialysis Technicians; Dietetic Technicians; Dietitians and Nutritionists; Dispensing Opticians; Ear, Nose, and Throat Specialists; Electroneurodiagnostic Technologists; Emergency Medical Technicians; Emergency Nurses; Endodontists; Epidemiologists; Ergonomists; Gastroenterologists; General Practitioners; Geriatric Care Managers; Geriatric Nurses; Geriatric Psychiatrists; Geriatric Social Workers; Geriatricians; Grief Therapists; Health Advocates; Health Care Managers; Hematologists; HIV/AIDS Counselors and Case Managers; Holistic Dentists; Histologic Technicians; Home Health Care Aides; Home Health Care and Hospice Nurses; Hospice Workers; Kinesiologists; Legal Nurse Consultants; Licensed Practical Nurses; Medical Assistants; Medical Ethicists; Medical Laboratory Technicians; Medical Record Technicians; Medical Technologists; Medical Transcriptionists; Microbiologists; Music Therapists; Neonatal Nurses; Neurologists; Nuclear Medicine Technologists; Nurse Anesthetists; Nurse Assistants; Nurse Managers; Nurse Practitioners; Nurse-Midwives; Nursing Home Administrators; Nursing Instructors; Obstetricians/Gynecologists; Occupational Health Nurses; Occupational Safety and Health Workers; Occupational Therapists; Occupational Therapy Assistants and Aides; Oncological Nurses; Oncologists; Ophthalmic Laboratory Technicians; Ophthalmologists; Optometrists; Oriental Medicine Practitioners; Orientation and Mobility Specialists; Orthodontists; Orthotic and Prosthetic Technicians; Orthotists and Prosthetists; Osteopaths; Pathologists;
Pediatricians; Pedorthists; Periodontists; Perfusionists; Pharmacists; Pharmacologists; Physical Therapists; Physical Therapy Assistants; Physician Assistants; Physicians; Podiatrists; Psychiatric Nurses; Psychiatric Technicians; Psychiatrists; Psychologists; Radiologic Technologists; Recreational Therapists; Registered Nurses; Rehabilitation Counselors; Respiratory Therapists and Technicians; Science and Medical Writers; Senior Care Pharmacists; School Nurses; Social Workers; Speech-Language Pathologists and Audiologists; Special Procedures Technologists; Sports Physicians; Sports Psychologists; Surgeons; Surgical Technologists; Toxicologists; Transplant Coordinators; Urologists; Veterinarians
Home Furnishings ■ Background The home furnishings industry consists of three general areas: interior design, furniture, and silverware and other craftware items. While most of today’s furnishings are designed to be practical and comfortable, many also achieve a unique level of style and beauty. In general, home furnishings can be seen from four different perspectives: function (the purpose it serves), status (the wealth or class it represents), technology (its quality of construction and innovation), and aesthetics (the statement it makes about the owner’s personality and taste). People have been beautifying their living areas since the dawn of civilization. Wall paintings created by prehistoric cave dwellers in Lascaux, France, for example, have been traced back to 15000 b.c. While their purpose is unknown, the drawings show how early humans integrated the concept of design into their culture. Similarly, furniture design has been common since 3000 b.c., when Egyptians, Assyrians, Mesopotamians, and other Mediterranean cultures flourished. Throughout the centuries, developments made in architecture have been matched by designs in furniture, windows, glassware, and all sorts of other objects commonly found in homes and places of business. Many artisans who designed these furnishings became well known in their day, and some are still held in esteem today. Paul Revere, for example, is highly regarded for the beauty of his designs as a silversmith. Louis Comfort Tiffany, a stained glass designer in the early 1900s, popularized the use of stained glass for lamps, windows, and doors. Interior design, furniture, and craftware did not formally emerge as modern industries until the great upsurge in advertising at the beginning of the 20th cen-
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tury. Advertising created a need for home furnishings by artisans who could create objects and interior atmospheres that were, at the same time, practical, functional, and beautiful.
Interior Design Throughout history, individuals have added personal touches of decoration to their homes. Until recently, however, interior design and decoration were the privilege of only the wealthy. Artists like Michelangelo were employed to beautify stately homes and other buildings, and kings sometimes initiated particular decorating trends in their palaces. By the mid-19th century, many people could afford attractive homes, as well as the furnishings needed to adorn them. Few, however, knew how to achieve the beauty that they desired for their houses. By the late 1800s, specialists, including upholsterers, architects, cabinetmakers, and antiques dealers, emerged to offer expertise on interior decoration. Elsie de Wolfe was the first person to actually practice interior design as a separate profession in 1905. It wasn’t, however, until the 1950s that the design revolution really began. The growth of modern industry has strongly influenced the interior designer’s profession. In particular, mass production has allowed for the large-scale manufacture of furniture, fabrics, carpeting, and other decorating materials. In addition, the development of computer technologies has made it possible for interior design professionals to create sample designs for their clients to see. Most interior designers working in the United States today are either self-employed or working at organizations with fewer than five employees. Today’s designers create various atmospheres in homes, restaurants, hotels, hospitals, theaters, stores, offices, and other buildings. Working with architects, general contractors, and a variety of other industry specialists, they help clients select equipment and fixtures, colors, and materials.
Furniture The first furniture dates back to the Stone Age, a discovery reflected by the built-in benches and sleeping spaces found in a Neolithic house at Skara Brae, Orkney, off the northwestern coast of Scotland. Furniture pieces were also found among the treasures stored in Egyptian tombs, giving archaeologists great insight into the character of Egyptian culture. Knowledge of classical Greek furniture was obtained from Greek writings. Although some of these pieces may have been modeled after Egyptian furniture, Greek pieces were consistently lighter and more delicate. Similarly,
A woodworker puts some finishing touches on a table. (Mathew Hohmann.)
Roman furniture was first copied from the Greeks, but as the Roman Empire expanded so did the function and decoration of its furniture. Comparatively little is known about the furniture pieces of other civilizations of the past and it was assumed they were probably made of wood, brick, or cloth that deteriorated over time. Actual specimens from pre-14th century Europe are scarce. The period from about a.d. 1000 to 1200 was known as Romanesque and was characterized by simplified interpretations of the Greco-Roman designs. Following the Romanesque period, furniture pieces were created to match the various architectural styles of the time. From the 12th century through the 1600s, these styles included Gothic, Renaissance, and Baroque. In America, the Pilgrim style of furniture, which was popular from 1650 to 1690, naturally reflected the style of the immigrants’ English roots. The Pilgrims brought only a few pieces of furniture over to America with them. As a result, furniture making was an early and flourishing industry in the colonies. Furniture making in America was considered a craft until the late 1700s, since furniture was still being produced in small woodworking shops. During the early part of the Victorian period, however, furniture making gradually shifted from individual craftspeople in small
shops to large factories, where steam-powered tools allowed for mass production. Furniture manufacturing became an important industry. The Midwestern United States served as the chief furniture manufacturing area because the region had an abundant supply of hardwoods and was located near water transportation routes. Grand Rapids, Michigan, became the most famous furniture center in the United States. The first furniture factory in Grand Rapids was opened in 1848 by cabinetmaker William Haldane. Other factories soon opened in that city, and artisans from Europe were drawn there, bringing their ideas and expertise and adding to the quality of the furniture produced. Mass production greatly influenced the furniture of the early 20th century. The Bauhaus School, founded in 1919 in Weimar, Germany, set out to unify architecture and furniture and relate them to the techniques of mass production. The Bauhaus perspective, which emphasized functional forms and modern materials, did much to change the focus of American designers. The Midwest remained the primary furniture manufacturing region in the United States until the end of World War II, when the Southern states took the lead. The Midwest now produces about 20 percent of the American furniture market, while the South manufactures more than 50 percent. The creation of today’s furniture requires a wide array of materials, including wood, aluminum, chromium, and stainless steel. While furniture manufacturing is highly mechanized, custom-crafted pieces continue to be in demand.
Silverware People have used an interesting variety of eating utensils throughout the ages. Dishes, flatware, and cutlery of all kinds have been made of wood, bone, stone, volcanic glass, shell, and a variety of metals, including silver, tin, gold, pewter, and stainless steel. Shells were probably the first rudimentary spoons. Primitive forks were just sticks with sharpened ends. And the first knives, sharpened with bone, wood, or stone, were used not only for cutting food but for warfare as well. By the Middle Ages, eating utensils became ornately decorated and more functionally developed according to each of their individual uses. By the mid-18th century, flatware looked roughly as it does now, with matching metal spoons and forks in standard patterns. From about 1750 to 1880, Sheffield plate was a popular kind of metalware. It was used mainly for knife handles and hollowware—hollow vessels, such as bowls, creamers, teapots, pitchers, cups, and trays.
Home Furnishings
A Home Furnishings Time Line 15000– 13000 b.c.
Decorative wall paintings made by cave dwellers in Lascaux, France
c. 3000 b.c.
Furniture design common among the Egyptian, Assyrian, and Mesopotamian cultures
a.d. 500–1500
Eating utensils become ornately decorated; upholsterers begin practicing their craft
1000–1200
Romanesque period of furniture
1100–1500
Gothic period of furniture
c.1500
Artists like Michelangelo employed to design and beautify buildings
1500–c. 1650
Renaissance period of furniture
1650–90
Pilgrim style of furniture
late 1600s
Baroque period of furniture
1725–60
Queen Anne period of furniture
mid-1700s
Electroplating process invented
1750s
Paul Revere takes over his father’s silversmith shop
1750–1880
Sheffield plate becomes popular kind of metalware in silverware manufacturing
1760–late 1800s Neoclassical style of furniture 1848
First furniture factory opened in Grand Rapids, Michigan
1905
Elsie de Wolfe is first person to practice interior design as a separate profession
1919
Bauhaus School founded in Weimar, Germany
1940s
Upholstered chair formed by molded plywood shell developed in the United States
1950s
Interior design industry formally emerges
With the invention of electroplating in the mid-18th century, the silverware industry experienced enormous growth in the United States. The process, which involves coating inexpensive metals with silver, gold, or other expensive materials, became a common method for manufacturing attractive flatware and hollowware.
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Today, 60 different kinds of workers participate in the manufacture of silverware, transforming a variety of metals into contemporary pieces. Regardless of the metals used, many of the steps in the silverware manufacturing process are basically the same.
■ Structure The home furnishings industry is divided into three main areas: interior design, furniture, and silverware and other craftware items. Within these divisions are the various stages or elements that go into either creating an atmosphere, in the case of interior design, or an object, in the cases of furniture and silverware. In addition to the three major areas, home furnishings includes such accessories as textiles and fabrics used by professionals in the field. Interior design is a creative process, with each new job requiring the implementation of fresh and unique ideas. Therefore, the specific steps involved are not always cutand-dried. The process usually begins, however, when interior designers meet with clients: homeowners, contractors, architects, hospital executives, restaurant and lodging owners, school administrators, and decisionmakers at other nonresidential buildings. At the initial meeting, the designer learns about the client’s requirements, determines the timetable for the project, and gets a general sense of the budget available. Once they understand what their clients want, interior designers go to work, independently or with other design professionals, conducting research, assembling fabric swatches, planning the arrangement of furniture, and selecting draperies, floor coverings, wallpaper, paint, and other decorations. Designers make their creative decisions based on a variety of factors, including general style, scale of furnishings, traffic patterns, flow, lighting, safety, and building codes. After all designs have been formulated, interior professionals usually make a formal presentation to their clients. Such presentations often include sketches, floorplans, models, photographs, and/or samples of materials. Designers also provide clients with cost estimates of furnishings, materials, labor, and other items needed to complete the project. Upon the client’s approval, the implementation phase begins. This stage involves ensuring that each aspect of the design is carried out properly. In addition to actually performing the work themselves, interior designers often supervise others. They should, therefore, have familiarity with a variety of craft areas, including painting, carpet laying, and carpentry. While interior professionals may sometimes design furniture, pieces are usually designed and made or manufactured by specialists in the field. Furniture making
versus furniture manufacturing is the difference between a handmade piece and a machined item. The major difference between the two in terms of process is that a machined piece of furniture passes through a series of steps performed by various workers, while a handmade item is created by a single skilled craftsperson. For the sake of simplicity, the process is described below in terms of machined furniture. Furniture manufacturing is the mass production of furniture from wood, metal, plastic, fabric, and other materials. The wood furniture manufacturing process, in particular, includes four main operations: woodworking, assembling, finishing, and upholstering. The jobs required in the manufacturing process vary with the size of the plant, as well as the kind of furniture that is being made. There are two basic types of wood furniture: case goods and upholstered furniture. Case goods are not upholstered and include such items as tables, bookcases, cabinets, and dressers. Upholstered furniture is padded and covered with fabric. The manufacturing process generally begins with furniture designers, who translate their ideas into blueprints, shop drawings, or similar plans from which the pieces of furniture will be created. Once the designs have been approved, pattern makers use the blueprints to create the patterns for the various parts needed to build the furniture. They trace the outline of the patterns onto the building materials and then cut the pieces out of the wood, using hand and power tools. Highly skilled model builders then make the prototypes of the furniture to test the practicality of the new designs. They cut and form the parts using lathes, power saws, and hand tools and then join the parts using screwdrivers, wrenches, glue, and welding torches. As specifications and measurements are revised, model makers may alter the design of the finished model. The model is then approved for production, and engineers plan for its mass production. After the design process is completed and production is planned, mass-produced furniture begins in the woodworking area. Factories receive lumber in the form of rough planks that must be seasoned (dried) for months to prevent warping. When the seasoning is complete, machine operators cut the wood into different sizes and shapes using planers, crosscut saws, ripsaws, and other machines. The wood is then brought to the planing and jointing shops where woodworkers route, dowel, carve, and shape it. Some wood is treated with veneer, a very thin layer of fine wood glued and pressed onto a less expensive wood. The wood pieces are then ready for assembly. The assembly line usually consists of a series of loose rollers over which assemblers push the work as they finish
their part of the assembly. Workers assemble the frames and fit the doors and drawers using screwdrivers and other tools. To glue and press small parts together, they operate special machines that use radio-frequency heating to set the glue in less than a minute. After all the pieces of wood are assembled, the furniture pieces move on to the finishing department. Furniture finishers sand, stain, varnish, and paint the furniture, applying many separate finishing coats to color and seal the wood. The final operation that some pieces of furniture require is upholstering. Upholsterers install padding, springs, and fabric or leather on wood frames to create soft coverings on furniture. The first step in transforming a bare, wood frame into a finished piece of upholstered furniture is to stretch strips of strong webbing material onto the frame to form a tight mat for supporting metal springs. Workers firmly attach the springs to both the mat and the frame and smooth and cover them with burlap cloth. Then upholsterers put padding and stuffing made of synthetic fibers, foam, and other materials over the springs and frame, tack, staple, and glue on the cover fabric. After all pieces of furniture have been assembled and finished, inspectors examine them to ensure that they meet manufacturing standards. They reject items with serious flaws and indicate what needs to be repaired. Once all furniture pieces have been checked to the inspectors’ satisfaction, they are shipped out of the factory. Like furniture manufacturing, the production of silverware requires contributions from many different types of artisans and production workers. The process starts with flatware designers, who make sketches or plans for new lines of tableware. Once the designs are approved, model makers create full-size models from plastic, clay, or plaster. Tool makers and die makers (increasingly referred to as precision metalworkers) then construct dies, which are tools that can stamp, shape, or cut metal. These dies are used to produce spoons, forks, knives, and other utensils, which begin as flat sheets of metal. Flatware press operators feed the sheets into presses, which die-cut the metal into flat blanks that are approximately the same size and shape as the finished utensils. The blanks are then put into a drop press, which shapes each blank to form the specified piece. Next, flatware makers, or annealers, heat, or anneal, the metal, softening it to reduce the possibility of warping. Finally, the annealed flatware is immersed in a chemical solution to cool and clean it, and then each piece is trimmed, smoothed, and polished. The manufacturing process for hollowware, which includes such items as sugar bowls and teapots, calls for workers with specialized skills because these pieces are
Home Furnishings
A furniture designer creates a Windsor chair from wood. (Ariel Skelley/Corbis.)
often ornate. Most hollowware is made from a base metal, such as brass, which comes in rolled sheets. Workers cut the sheets into sections, and then press operators mold the brass into various shapes. Next, profile-saw operators and profile trimmers trim away excess metal. Finally, handles, legs, and border trim are created separately and attached by silverware assemblers using screws, bolts, pins, or adhesives. Items like candlesticks and goblets are stretched and shaped by workers called spinners, who use hand tools and bench-lathes. Silversmiths and hammersmiths also create hollowware. These skilled specialists anneal metal, shape it, add embossed designs, and solder on parts. They also repair damaged pieces using hammers, tongs, pliers, and other tools. The last step often required in the manufacture of flatware and hollowware is electroplating, a process that uses electric current to coat a metal with one or more thin layers of another more expensive metal, such as silver, gold, or platinum. Electroplaters clean unplated items and then suspend them, along with pieces of plating metal, in a tank containing a chemical solution. When electricity is applied, the plating metal is deposited on the pieces, creating items that look as if they were made entirely of the precious metal.
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Words to Know Anneal: Heating process used in the manufacture of silverware that softens metal to help reduce the possibility of warping. Baroque: Furniture design most prominent in the latter part of the 17th century, which is characterized by scroll-shaped and spiral-turned legs, carved fronts on large pieces of furniture, and pewter, gold, bronze, silver, and ebony inlays. Bauhaus School: Institution founded in 1919 in Weimar, Germany, that aimed to unify architecture and furniture and relate them to the techniques of mass production. Case goods: Pieces of furniture that are not upholstered, including tables, bookcases, cabinets, and dressers. Die: Tool used to shape, stamp, or cut metal in the silverware manufacturing process. Electroplating: Process used in silverware manufacturing that involves coating inexpensive metals with precious metals, such as gold and silver. Gothic: Furniture and architecture style, started in the 12th century, that focused on the basic needs of the people of the time. Hollowware: Containers, such as trays, sugar bowls, and teacups, made by silversmiths,
■ Outlook Job opportunities in the home furnishings industry depend in large part on the overall economy. Income growth has been sluggish for most Americans through the early 2000s, so consumer spending on home furnishings and interior decoration has suffered as a result. However, people who are considering the purchase of a new home may opt instead to spend money on redecorating. New residential and industrial construction both may continue to grow, which will improve opportunities for interior designers and decorators. New housing construction slowed in 2006, so this trend may be diminished. The U.S. Department of Labor predicts that interior designers, as well commercial and industrial designers, should have job growth equivalent to the average for all careers through 2014. The furniture and silverware segments of the home furnishings industry have been in a slow growth period for some time. In addition to only modest demand growth, furniture and silverware manufacturers are facing competition from companies overseas. Furniture
hammersmiths, and other silverware industry professionals. Interior designer: Professional who evaluates, plans, and designs the interior areas of residential, commercial, and industrial structures. Radio-frequency heating: Process used by furniture assemblers that sets the glue used in the assembly process in less than a minute. Renaissance: Furniture design that remained influential until the mid-1600s and which featured ebony and tortoiseshell inlay and rich decoration, as well as simpler designs. Romanesque: Period from a.d. 1000 to 1200 that was characterized by simple furniture made mostly from wood. Season: In the mass production of furniture, to dry rough planks to prevent them from warping. Silversmith: Craftperson who performs many tasks related to the fabrication of hollowware. Silverware: Tableware made from many different types of metals and alloys. Spinner: Silverware manufacturing worker who uses hand tools and bench-lathes to stretch and shape such objects as goblets and candlesticks. Veneer: Thin layer of fine wood glued and pressed onto less expensive pieces of wood.
production continues to move abroad, where labor is less expensive, and those pieces that require intensive labor are often imported from other countries. Similarly, silverware manufacturers contend with fierce competition from companies abroad, especially those in Europe and Asia. Additionally, consumers simply don’t buy expensive silverware more than once or twice in a lifetime, and those who are buying are increasingly price-conscious. Interior designers should once again benefit from a variety of technological innovations. In addition to affecting the design of homes, advances in technology such as computer-aided design and robotic manufacturing will create the need for multidisciplinary design. On the flip side, technology in the furniture and silverware manufacturing industries will play a part in limiting employment opportunities. Computer-controlled machinery, automated processes, and robots will all prevent employment from increasing as fast as demand for furniture. The implementation of labor-saving machinery will also eliminate jobs currently held by lower-skilled workers who manually operate machinery in the manufacture of silverware.
Hospitality
Interior designers and decorators should be able to find job opportunities, particularly industrial designers in housing developments, hospital complexes, hotels, and other large building projects. There will also be a variety of opportunities for residential designers. Professionals who have familiarity with technology will definitely have a competitive edge in the job market. Despite the rather dreary outlook for furniture and silverware workers, job openings will continue to be available, but most will result from workers moving to other jobs or leaving the workforce altogether. Those who have experience with computer-controlled machinery will have the best employment prospects.
■ For More Information The largest trade association for furniture manufacturers in the United States, the AFMA is dedicated to fostering the growth and development of the furniture industry. American Furniture Manufacturers Association (AFMA) PO Box HP-7 High Point, NC 27261-1860 Tel: 336-884-5000 http://www.afma4u.org
ASID is the oldest and largest organization of professional interior designers in the world. American Society of Interior Designers (ASID) 608 Massachusetts Avenue, NE Washington, DC 20002-6006 Tel: 202-546-3480 http://www.asid.org
The IDSA serves its members by recognizing excellence, promoting the exchange of information, and fostering innovation. Industrial Designers Society of America (IDSA) 45195 Business Court, Suite 250 Dulles, VA 20166-6717 Tel: 703-707-6000 http://www.idsa.org
IIDA represents design educators and professional interior designers practicing in commercial, education and research, facility planning, government, health care, hospitality, residential, and retail design. International Interior Design Association (IIDA) 13-500 Merchandise Mart Chicago, IL 60654-1104 Tel: 888-799-4432 Email:
[email protected] http://www.iida.com
A trade association of furniture retailers, the NHFA provides business services, education, government representation, networking opportunities, and information. National Home Furnishings Association (NHFA) 3910 Tinsley Drive, Suite 101 High Point, NC 27265-3610 Tel: 800-888-9590 Email:
[email protected] http://www.nhfa.com
The SAS is the nation’s only professional organization solely devoted to the preservation and promotion of contemporary silversmithing, specifically in the areas of hollowware, flatware, and sculpture. Society of American Silversmiths (SAS) PO Box 72839 Providence, RI 02907-0839 Tel: 401-461-6840 http://www.silversmithing.com
■ Related Articles Manufacturing; Metals; Plastics; Textiles; Wood; Carpenters; Drafters; Furniture Manufacturing Workers; Industrial Designers; Interior Designers and Decorators; Lathers; Leather Tanning and Finishing Workers; Machine Tool Operators; Molders; Precision Machinists; Precision Metalworkers; Plastics Products Manufacturing Workers; Silverware Artisans and Workers
Hospitality ■ Background The hospitality industry provides accommodations, meals, and personal services for both the traveling public and permanent residents. The range of employment opportunities in this industry is vast. All positions, from bellhops to executive managers, share the same goal of serving the public. Hotels have been in existence for as long as people have needed to travel distances requiring an overnight stay. These structures were built along trading routes followed by travelers long before the first roads were built. The earliest lodging places, called inns, most likely offered little more than a sheltered area, usually by a source of water. In many parts of the world, it was the custom for people to offer their homes as a resting place for weary travelers. In the past, Muslim inns were called manzils, meaning “the place were the traveler descends.” Religious structures also provided lodging for the traveling faithful.
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A member of a hotel’s staff delivers room service to guests. (Corbis.)
Biblical references to inns, such as the one encountered by Mary and Joseph, were known as khans. In France, inns were called cabarets, buildings with many rooms, or hotelleries, from which the word hotel was derived. As the Roman Empire expanded more than 2,000 years ago, the first great system of roads was constructed and travel became more frequent. Inns sprang up to accommodate the large numbers of travelers going from town to town. Later, travelers could also find lodging at monasteries. Eventually monasteries developed separate dormitory lodgings for such visitors, and it was the regular responsibility of some of the monks to tend to the guests’ needs. The Le Grand Saint Bernard Hospice in the Swiss Alps, featuring the famous St. Bernard dogs, was founded in a.d. 961 by Augustinian monks specifically as an inn for travelers. This huge stone structure was one of the earliest identified inns and had up to 80 beds and could shelter a total of 300 persons. Hotels and inns began to flourish in England in the middle of the 14th century. Roads were improved and
travel increased, giving rise to more inns, many of which offered meals in addition to lodging. By 1446, there were enough establishments to warrant the English government’s regulation of the profession, and this did much to establish standards for comfort and cleanliness. In England, some inns of the 15th and 16th centuries were noted for their lavish rooms. In America, the first public inn was built in Jamestown, Virginia, in 1607. Most of the early American hotels were established on the East Coast, where travelers from Europe would disembark. Inns, taverns, and ordinaries, as they were called in the Southern colonies, appeared along canals, rivers, seaports, and roads. As the country expanded into the Western territories, farmhouse inns were maintained along the stagecoach routes. Large, often elaborate hotels were built in the larger Eastern cities, such as New York and Boston. Catering to the wealthy, these hotels featured dining rooms, ballrooms, shops, billiard and sitting rooms, and other amenities, in addition to many clean, well-appointed rooms. The rise of the railroads increased the demand for hotels and inns in both Europe and the United States. Having a railroad stop was usually a boon to small towns. Hotels were typically located close to the train station. They also grew larger to accommodate the increasing numbers of travelers. As lodgings developed, they began to offer more than a bed, a meal, and a roof over one’s head. People began to have parties and meetings at inns. The size of the average hotel increased. The largest hotels would have hundreds of rooms. During the 19th century, many luxury hotels were established to cater to the well-to-do traveler. Often as large and as opulent as palaces, these hotels de grand luxe appeared in the major cities of the United States and Europe. The Ritz hotels of London, New York, and Paris, the Palace Hotel of San Francisco, and the Waldorf Astoria of New York were famous for their luxurious accommodations. Until the 20th century, travelers had little to choose between the luxury hotels on the one end and the inexpensive hotels, which were not always as clean or as comfortable, on the other. This changed when Ellsworth Statler began building his chain of mid-priced Statler Hotels, which set a new standard for the quality, amenities, and service the middle-class traveler could expect. Statler’s hotels featured clean, comfortable rooms, each with a private bath, telephone, radio, full-length mirror, and closet, for a modest price. Coordinating linens, china, and silverware were used in each Statler hotel restaurant, as well as standardized recipes. Freestanding (or self-contained) restaurants once were associated almost exclusively with hotels. Prohibi-
tion and the 1920s dramatically altered that association. Before the Volstead Act, which outlawed the consumption of alcohol in the United States, hotel guests could relax with a drink in the downstairs bar or restaurant. Denied their drinks during Prohibition (1920–33), they left their hotels in the evening to scout the neighborhood for one of the many speakeasies that served liquor illegally. Most of the speakeasies also provided food, both to cover their illegal activities and to please their customers. Thus, Prohibition helped drive a wedge between the hotel and the restaurant, two institutions that traditionally had coexisted for mutual profit. More dramatic changes for the hotel profession came with the rise of the automobile. A new type of hotel appeared to accommodate the public’s increasing mobility. Motor inns and travel courts, often built by farmers where their land faced onto one of the new roads, were being built all across the country to meet the needs of the motoring population. They offered far simpler accommodations than a hotel. Despite an early reputation as a gathering place for thieves and other undesirable people, motor inns, later called motels (formed from the words motor and hotel), soon drew off much of the business from the city-based hotels. Motels gained an image as inexpensive, simple lodging places offering convenient automobile parking for guests. However, modern motels have become larger, fancier establishments with conference and ballroom facilities, as well as other amenities comparable to larger hotels, so the quality distinctions between the two are almost nonexistent. The hotels responded to this new competition by building or expanding their facilities to accommodate large meetings and conventions. More and more selfstanding restaurants appeared, many offering simple, quick fare to motorists. The automobile made even the most remote locations accessible, and resorts were built to cater to every type of vacationer. The biggest boom in the hospitality industry came with the end of World War II. More and more people were able to purchase cars, and with a healthy economy and growing amounts of leisure time, more people were traveling, dining out, and vacationing than ever before. Hotel chains such as the Statler and Hilton hotels were soon joined by chains of motels, such as Howard Johnson and Holiday Inn. Entire cities became devoted to the hotel industry, such as the gambling city of Las Vegas and seaside resort towns such as Atlantic City. The growth of the airline industry in the 1950s made long-distance travel even more practical and created a demand for new hotels, now located near the airports. One trend in the hospitality industry of the last several decades has been toward consolidation. Today, more than
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50 percent of the hotel and motel beds in the United States are controlled by about 25 companies. According to the American Hotel & Lodging Association, the top hotel companies (in descending order) are Inter-Continental Hotel Group (Holiday Inn), Cendant Corporation (Days Inn, Super 8, Ramada, Howard Johnson, Travelodge), Marriott International, Choice Hotels International (Clarion, Comfort Inn, Econo Lodge, Quality Inn), Hilton Hotels Corporation (Doubletree, Embassy, Hampton Inn, Hilton), Best Western International, Starwood Hotels & Resorts Worldwide (Sheraton, W Hotels, Westin), Accor International (Motel 6, Red Roof Inn), and Carlson Hospitality Worldwide (Radisson, Regent International Hotels). A second trend in the hospitality industry is the growing popularity of bed and breakfasts (B & Bs), which offer a personal touch to the tourist or businessperson tired of staying in often impersonal chain hotels and motels. B&Bs are usually private homes, farmhouses, or other historic or period buildings with a small number of rooms. The most successful B & Bs are pleasant and homey creations, where the friendly touch of the owners makes each visit a personal and memorable experience for travelers. There are thousands of bed and breakfasts in the United States. A third trend in the hospitality industry has been the construction of increasing numbers of retirement communities. As people live longer, and retire with more wealth, these self-contained communities offer private homes clustered around meeting, recreation, and dining facilities. In the past, hotels and motels were set up primarily to serve the wealthy traveler or the person going from place to place. Today, with places such as Disney World, Universal Studios, Club Med, and others, many hotels are no longer simply places to stay while visiting a certain location. They have become travel destinations in themselves.
Who Was Kemmons Wilson? Do you remember that big gray machine perched on every other floor of every other motel your family lodged at while on summer driving vacations? The one dimly lit and humming away? It was the ice machine! Free ice (and that weird paper bucket to haul it in) was the brainchild of Kemmons Wilson (1913–2003), founder of the very first Holiday Inn hotel. His hotel also offered a telephone in each room at no extra charge and free parking. It may seem commonplace today, but these freebies were revolutionary in the 1950s and set a standard for the hotel industry.
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■ Structure Establishments in the hospitality industry fall into one of five categories: transient, motel or motor inns, residential, resort, and convention hotels. Transient, also known as commercial, hotels make up three-fourths of the hotel business in the United States. These hotels cater to commercial travelers, businesspeople, salespeople, and tourists who wish to spend one or more nights at the hotel. Many commercial hotels have swimming pools, saunas, exercise rooms, ballrooms, conference rooms, and some house restaurants and drinking establishments open to the public as well as guests. Motels are generally located near highways and airports and in small cities. Many motels offer parking beside or near the guests’ rooms, eliminating garage fees and unnecessary nightly loading and unloading of baggage. The facilities range from simply a room with a bathroom to motels with swimming pools and restaurants. Others have rooms designed as separate structures, each with a bed, bathroom, and kitchenette. These accommodations are referred to as suites. Some hotels offer suites only, mainly housing businesspeople on extended stays. An inn is usually a small building, perhaps an extension of somebody’s home, that provides simple services such as a clean bed and bathroom. The number of rooms usually ranges from five to 20. A growing number of inns have become bed and breakfasts. They offer a home-like setting, with breakfast included in the room cost, hence the name. Residential hotels provide permanent or semi-permanent housing, on a weekly, monthly, or sometimes yearly, payment basis. These facilities may offer amenities such as maid and food service. Some residential hotels provide small kitchenettes in each room. Hotels that offer recreational or social activities besides lodgings are considered resorts. Usually located near popular tourist attractions, resorts may have skiing, water sports, tennis, golf, or horseback riding to keep guests entertained. Many of these hotels offer fine shopping and dining, themed decor, and entertainment. Resorts as a complete family vacation destination are another trend in the hospitality industry. Some of the most popular luxury resort meccas include Hawaii, Florida, Mexico, and the Caribbean. Other resorts, especially those in Las Vegas and Atlantic City, are built around gambling activities. Convention centers are usually a complex of buildings, one of which is a hotel. These centers are used as meeting places for large groups or businesses, or for major exhibitions; lodgings for the conventioneers are provided by the adjoining hotel. Convention hotels and centers must have state-of-the-art audiovisual and technical equip-
ment to stay competitive. Many of these conventions centers are found in desirable, tourist-friendly locations, such as Las Vegas or Orlando, Florida. There are seven main branches of the hospitality industry. Front office, service, marketing and sales, and accounting comprise the front of the house positions, or those most visible to the public. Less visible, back-ofthe-house jobs include food and beverage, housekeeping, and engineering and maintenance. Most branches of this industry operate on a three-shift system, allowing for 24-hour service for hotel guests. The front office deals with all the paper and computer work involved with room and reservation assignments. The people working in this department also run the reservation desk, switchboard, and mail room. A general manager heads this department as well as the entire hotel operation and employees. Department supervisors report to the general manager. The main purpose of the service branch is to make the guests feel welcome. This includes greeting guests, parking cars, running the elevators, opening doors, carrying baggage, preparing rooms, and assisting with travel plans and entertainment. Most jobs in this department require little training or further education, thus creating a great starting place for people eager to break into the hotel industry. The accounting and financial management branch controls the fiscal affairs of the hotel. Some of the many responsibilities of this department are financial policy and planning, maintenance of records and statements, expenditures, bank accounts, and payroll handling. Though the accounting staff may not have one-on-one contact with hotel guests, this department is considered as front of the house because the nature of the work is managerial. Many of the accounting executives rise to leading hotel positions. The marketing and sales sector strives to attract potential customers. The employees of this department try to find out what guests need and desire to make their establishment more appealing. Marketing and sales workers often use surveys, focus groups, or other research methods to gauge the feelings and opinions of guests and potential guests. The creative efforts of those in marketing and sales are expressed in new programs to attract guests or promotional campaigns designed to inform potential guests of current services. The food and beverage departments make up one of the largest and most lucrative sectors in the hospitality industry. They include all the services involved with the bars and restaurants of a hotel, as well as room service, from purchasing to food preparation and presentation. Depending on the size of the hotel, the housekeeping department can easily number in the hundreds. The
Hospitality
room and floor attendants are responsible for keeping the rooms clean and supplied with fresh linens and towels. They also suggest repairs and improvements for guest rooms. Executive housekeepers oversee the workers in the housekeeping department. The engineering and maintenance departments keep the facilities of a hotel, motel, or other establishment in working order. Their activities include plumbing, painting, electrical wiring, and general repairing. They also help the housekeeping staff with the heavier tasks of keeping a hotel clean.
■ Outlook As the economy improved in the mid- to late 1990s, travel, tourism, and the hotel industry in general enjoyed an upswing. People were traveling more, often taking more frequent but shorter trips. Business travel increased, despite innovations such as fax machines, email, and video conferencing.
Words to Know Back of the house: Departments of the hotel that have little or no contact with the public. Some examples of back of the house departments include housekeeping, food and beverage, and general maintenance. Bed and breakfast (B&B): A small hotel or inn that offers breakfast with the price of a guest room. Block: A number of rooms designated and reserved for a particular group. A block of rooms is usually given a special discounted price per guest room. Check in: The process of registering a guest with the hotel. At this time, guest information is taken and a room assignment and room key is given. Check out: The process of guests leaving the hotel. At this time, room costs, plus any additional services rendered, are tallied and paid for, and the room key returned. Concierge: Designated person or department that provides services to help make the hotel guests’ stay more enjoyable. Concierges offer recommendations to restaurants, museums, shows, and tours. They may also be asked to arrange airline travel and itineraries, and car rentals. Folio: A hotel bill listing all room charges, including long-distance phone calls, food and beverage service, and cable television.
The positive outlook for the travel and tourism industry took a sudden turn after the terrorist attacks of September 2001. The threat of more terrorism affected consumer confidence and corporate travel policies. Air transport and corporate and convention travel were particularly hard hit. Foreign travel to the United States was also affected. In spite of the decline in travel, the industry expects that the downturn in business will be temporary. The U.S. Department of Labor projects jobs in the air transportation industry will increase by 9 percent through 2014 (less than the average for all occupations); employment in hotels and other lodging establishments is expected to increase 17 percent for the same period—or slightly more than the average for all occupations. Employment for workers in the hospitality industry varies by specialty. The U.S. Department of Labor predicts faster-than-average growth for hotel, motel, and resort desk clerks and slower-than-average growth for bookkeeping, accounting, and auditing clerks; secretaries; waiters and waitresses; and lodging managers.
Front of the house: Departments of the hotel that have high contact or visibility with guests. Examples of front of the house departments include the front desk, concierge, and sales and marketing. Hospitality industry: The industry that includes the hotel and motel, or lodging, trade. As defined by the Council on Hotel, Restaurant and Institutional Education (CHRIE), hospitality also includes food services, recreation services, and tourism. Niche marketing: Hotels can attract a specific group by using special amenities and services to make foreign or special-needs guests feel at home. Some examples are internationalized service, multilingual staff, and audio or Braille hotel information and menus. Rack rate: Standard, nondiscounted price for a hotel room. Resort: A travel destination that offers lodging, entertainment, and spa services, usually situated at a location of interest. RevPar: The amount of money the hotel earns per month. Smart card: Also known as a key card, this is an electronically coded plastic card about the same size and width as a credit card. A key card is inserted into a slot located near the guest room, and if the information matches that stored at the front desk, the room door will open. Cards are recoded with every new guest.
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Consolidation will be key to growth in the future. Consortiums composed of smaller hotels and motels will pool resources and share advertising costs to compete with bigger and better-known hotel names such as Marriott and Hilton. Many larger hotels have joined with airlines, car rental agencies, and travel agents to offer complete travel packages. These businesses can present savings and convenience for travelers while providing name recognition for themselves. Additionally, more establishments will branch out and target the fast growing elderly population, many of whom have substantial retirement funds. Called assisted living communities, these complexes offer housing, food, and medical services. World Travel and Tourism Council research in 2001 showed that the travel and tourism industry employs more than 200 million people worldwide, more than any other industry. Employment opportunities in this field look extremely good. This industry also employs a high percentage of women and minorities compared to other fields. Though many employees in the hotel industry have worked up from unskilled entry-level positions, advancement opportunities are best for people with college degrees in hotel or hospitality management. It is becoming increasingly important to hire skilled workers to fill new openings created by retirement, high turnover, and industry growth. The problems of finding and keeping staff are expected to become more difficult as the pool of younger workers shrinks. Another challenge for the industry will be how it integrates new technology. Most hotels, resorts, and other organizations have already established data processing terminals to process reservations, bookkeeping procedures, and other services. Other advances include security systems based on card-activated access, in-room checkouts, and TV-based guest shopping. Those establishments that are best able to provide these and other services should be able to attract a wide range of customers. As the labor force continues to shrink, the hotel industry will increasingly automate many of its services. While the long-term prospects for growth in the hotel industry are good, it should be remembered that the industry is tied directly to the amount of money people can spend on leisure and business activities. Therefore, any downturn in the economy usually has a negative impact on industry growth.
Tel: 202-289-3100 Email:
[email protected] http://www.ahla.com
For information on scholarships, contact American Hotel and Lodging Educational Foundation 1201 New York Avenue, NW, Suite 600 Washington, DC 20005-3931 Tel: 202-289-3100 http://www.ahlef.org
For information on training, certification, and distance learning, contact Educational Institute of the American Hotel and Lodging Association 800 North Magnolia Avenue, Suite 1800 Orlando, FL 32803-3252 Tel: 800-752-4567 Email:
[email protected] http://www.ei-ahla.org
For information on hospitality sales and marketing, contact Hospitality Sales and Marketing Association International 8201 Greensboro Drive, Suite 300 McLean, VA 22102-3810 Tel: 703-610-9024 http://www.hsmai.org
For youth hostel and traveling information, contact Hosteling International, American Youth Hostels 8401 Colesville Road, Suite 600 Silver Spring, MD 20910-3312 Tel: 301-495-1240 Email:
[email protected] http://www.hiayh.org
For a list of schools with programs in hotel and restaurant management, food service management, and the culinary arts, contact International Council on Hotel, Restaurant and Institutional Education 2613 North Parham Road, 2nd Floor Richmond, VA 23294 Tel: 804-346-4800 Email:
[email protected] ■ For More Information For career information, contact American Hotel and Lodging Association 1201 New York Avenue, NW, Suite 600 Washington, DC 20005-3931
For career information, certification, and research information on executive housekeeping, contact International Executive Housekeepers Association 1001 Eastwood Drive, Suite 301
human resources
Westerville, OH 43081-3361 Tel: 800-200-6342 Email:
[email protected] http://www.ieha.org
For information on career opportunities in the food service industry, education, training, and financial aid, contact National Restaurant Association 175 West Jackson Boulevard, Suite 1500 Chicago, IL 60604-2702 Tel: 800-765-2122 http://www.nraef.org or http://www.restaurant.org/ careers
For information on concierge careers, contact the following organizations: International Concierge Institute (ICI) Email:
[email protected] http://www.concierge-institute.com
National Concierge Association Email:
[email protected] http://www.conciergeassoc.org
■ Related Articles Recreation; Restaurants and Food Service; Travel and Tourism; Adventure Travel Specialists; Amusement Park Workers; Baggage Porters and Bellhops; Bartenders; Caterers; Cooks and Chefs; Cruise Ship Workers; Food Service Workers; Gaming Occupations; Hotel and Motel Managers; Hotel Concierges; Hotel Desk Clerks; Hotel Executive Housekeepers; Inbound Tour Guides; Lifeguards and Swimming Instructors; Recreation Workers; Reservation and Ticket Agents; Resort Workers; Restaurant and Food Service Managers; Tour Guides; Travel Agents
Human Resources ■ Background In the 18th century, the U.S. economy was primarily agricultural, dependent on crops such as wheat and cotton. During the 19th and early 20th centuries, however, the United States experienced an industrial revolution. With this revolution, the economy shifted largely toward production of raw materials, such as iron and steel, and finished products, such as cars and refrigerators. Although there were great differences between the agricultural society of the 18th century and the industrial society
that followed, in both cases, the economy was based on the goods produced. Today, however, an increasingly large portion of the economy depends on service industries. A service industry is one in which the main product is not something that can be sold in a store but is, instead, a set of actions performed for a client. The service itself is the product that is sold. This shift toward a service economy has contributed to the growth of a new industry: human resources, abbreviated to HR. Just as agricultural and industrial economies thrive when there are plenty of high-quality natural resources available, a service economy succeeds based on the quality of its workforce. Therefore, the function of the human resources industry is to produce competent personnel and to keep employees productive. The increased emphasis on human resources is not limited only to service industries. High-tech, goodsproducing industries, such as the computer industry, are placing greater importance on the quality of their personnel. Such industries are especially vulnerable to human error, because the smallest mistake in a complex computer system can make the entire system unusable. The more technical skills involved in the design, manufacture, marketing, and sales of a product, the more competent a company’s workers must be. Meeting these increased demands has caused new developments in the field of human resources. In the past, human resources professionals, sometimes referred to as personnel specialists, served primarily as technicians with such responsibilities as hiring and training workers, managing the payroll, and dealing with labor issues. Today, HR professionals are being entrusted with a broader, more conceptual, and strategic set of responsibilities. They may set up job classifications and employee benefits systems. In addition, they often work with top management to devise plans for the optimal use of human resources. For example, HR professionals often advise management on policies to reduce absenteeism and on methods to improve morale and productivity. In recent years human resources professionals have realized the importance of having a good training and development program for their employees. By teaching employees the latest in computer software programs, sales techniques, safety procedures, and other workplace skills, the company ensures that it can remain competitive in the future. New theories of adult education have enhanced the effectiveness of such employee training and development programs, and today, human resources professionals can choose from several different modes of instruction to find the educational program that best fits the needs of
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HR Online Like so many other career fields, the field of human resources has become increasingly computerized over the last decade. The thick bulky files, containing every piece of information on every employee from hire date to termination, that used to be a part of every personnel office are being replaced by files on personal computers. And computers aren’t just used for storing employee information. There are more than 1,000 software programs designed specifically for a wide variety of human resources functions. Below are some ways that technology is used in the HR office. ■ Recruitment: Along with the traditional help-wanted ads in local newspapers and trade publications, human resources professionals are now able to recruit employees from around the world using the power of the Internet. By posting a job opening on one or several of the hundreds of career Web sites, the HR professional reaches an enormous pool of potential employees. ■
Planning: The human resources professional who wants to plan for a company’s needs in six months or six years needs only to type some numbers into a forecasting software. These programs allow the professional to modify several variables in order to see what impact the changes have on the company in the long run.
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Education and testing: From computer simulation software used in training programs to online tests that are automatically scored, both job training and evaluation have gone high-tech. Job trainees can now learn about their new companies and jobs through interactive CD-ROMs, self-paced computer instruction, and other methods not available before the electronic age.
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Communication: In businesses where employees have access to email or the Internet, the HR department can use technology for all sorts of communications. Some companies have put their employee newsletters online, either in the form of an email or as a secure Web site. Other companies put their employee benefits information online, so that employees can use a password to access their personal information 24 hours a day.
their employees. Some of the different forms of instruction include interactive CD-ROMs, DVDs and videos, and trainer-led workshops and orientation sessions. Another important responsibility of human resources professionals is the employee benefits program. In order
to attract the best employees, build loyalty, and maintain employee morale, companies must offer attractive benefits programs. HR professionals use their expertise to design benefits packages that are most effective for their companies. In addition, HR professionals must be sensitive to the needs of their employees and ensure a nonhostile workplace. In large multinational corporations, an international human resources department is often created to meet the needs of U.S. citizens working in foreign countries, as well as people from other countries working in the United States. The essence of HR management is transforming an input, which is an employee or group of employees, into an output, which is a job well done. To effect this transformation, HR professionals use systems that acquire, develop, allocate, conserve, utilize, evaluate, and reward workers. Human resources management encompasses several job responsibilities, which may be carried out by one person or by a number of specialists. Different kinds of specialists include personnel managers, industrial relations directors, recruiters, job-development specialists, job analysts, compensation managers, training instructors, benefits managers, retirement officers, employee healthmaintenance specialists, and mediators. Other occupations in the HR field include ergonomists, employment firm workers, and career and employment counselors and technicians.
■ Structure Human resources professionals are generally employed in one of two major arenas. In the first, they work for large or medium-sized companies in any kind of industry. Any organization with many employees, whether a bank, oil company, or fast food restaurant, needs personnel specialists. The second major arena is in personnel consulting firms that help other companies find qualified employees, both on a permanent and temporary basis. Such companies provide a service to both employers and those seeking employment. Employment agencies, executive placement services, temporary help services, labor contractors, and registries for chauffeurs, household workers, models, nurses, ship crews, and teachers are all examples of this type of service firm. Before a company or organization can make any decisions about personnel, its managers must come up with a game plan for the company itself. What are its goals for the future? Will it be developing new products? How much growth is expected, and how quickly? Once these basic questions are answered, an organization can start planning for its human resources. A good first step is determining what needs to be done at every
level of the organization. It is important to take future needs into account, as well. For example, if a company operates in only one city but plans in five years to have offices in 10 cities, in five years that company will need a manager with the skills to oversee the activities of 10 regional offices. Once a plan is in place, management should evaluate the capabilities of the people already on staff to see how they fit into this plan. If they discover they do not already have the personnel needed, they must determine the best way to hire the appropriate workers. An increasingly important part of this planning is human resources accounting, a relatively new field. Generally speaking, human resources accounting is a process of cost estimation, a mathematical way to determine the cost and value of people as resources. The role of the HR accountant is to help management understand the monetary implications of business decisions. When a company has to decide between hiring from within the company or hiring a new employee, human resources accountants can provide figures related to the costs of acquiring and developing people for positions. When the person is already on staff, the amount of money it will cost to retrain that person is taken into account. If the person is an outsider, the cost to hire and integrate that worker into the company is considered. In some cases, a company may save money by laying people off. But if those people get different jobs and don’t come back, the company has to spend money to train new people. This may not result in a savings in the long run. Human resources workers also help companies recruit, select, and hire new workers. The goal of this process is to bring the right people together to perform a job in the most effective way possible. HR professionals are responsible for finding the best workers to do a job. They accomplish this by knowing the right places to look for workers and by conducting good interviews with candidates. However, there is more to acquisition than finding the personnel a company wants; making the company attractive to prospective employees is equally important. To get the employees it wants, a company might decide to offer benefits to employees, such as providing on-site day care, flexible schedules, and job sharing. HR professionals devise proposals that balance the needs of employers and workers to come up with employment packages that benefit both. Human resources professionals help increase productivity by making people better workers. This involves various forms of training to enhance workers’ technical, administrative, and interpersonal skills, either through
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Human resources professionals interview potential candidates for job openings and discuss benefits packages. (Corbis.)
formal programs or on-the-job training. Continuing education programs and training for employees benefit both the employee and the employer. The HR department plans these educational programs and may even lead the programs. Allocation is the process of assigning people to various roles and tasks. Ideally, when a person is assigned to a particular job, three things should happen. First, the job should be done well. Second, the employee should learn more skills. Third, the employee should be happy (which relates back to getting the job done) with the situation. Sometimes, assigning the most qualified person to a job may not be the right decision, because it keeps someone else from learning the task. Incorrect allocation can be costly because, in many industries, if workers don’t develop skills, they become less valuable. Utilization is the process of using human resources to achieve a company’s objectives. If the aim of human resources management is to increase the value of an organization’s workers, then task design, selection, role assignment, development, performance appraisal, and compensation are more than just a set of functions to be performed; they are a set of strategies that can change the value of human assets. Conservation is the process of maintaining the capabilities of workers and the effectiveness of the work team developed by an organization. This can save a business money in the long run. If not monitored, the quality of human resources may deteriorate. If this happens, an organization has to incur the cost of retraining or replacing employees who no longer have the necessary skills. Workers’ productivity is often directly linked to their psychological well-being. A manager sometimes puts pressure on employees in order to increase productivity
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or reduce costs. It is important, however, that the effects of pressure on worker motivation and attitudes do not go unnoticed. Highly skilled employees may become dissatisfied and leave. Good human resources professionals are like good coaches: They keep workers performing well and feeling good about themselves. One important element of conservation and retention has to do with individual workers’ professional ambitions. Not everybody wants the same thing from a job. Some employees want to climb the corporate ladder, while others want to be teachers, consultants, or entrepreneurs. Human resources professionals need to develop different career paths and reward systems to deal with different types of people. The areas of evaluation and compensation are also important ones for human resources professionals. Evaluation is the process of assessing the value of people to an organization. It involves measuring the performance of workers and determining how much they should be paid for their contribution. This is a very important function because it is directly related both to general productivity and to hard dollars. If a company pays an employee $60,000 a year and nobody notices that this employee is
Words to Know 401(k): A savings plan offered by a corporation to its employees that allows employees to set aside tax-deferred income for retirement purposes. The name 401(k) comes from the IRS section describing the program. Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA): A law passed in 1990 that prohibits job discrimination on the basis of disabilities. Arbitration: A method of settling labor disputes, in which a third party is chosen to hear both the management’s and the employee’s sides of the situation. Employee assistance plan (EAP): A program that is available for covered individuals, either employees or family members, that provides counseling or other service for personal problems, such as alcoholism, substance abuse, physical abuse, and mental illness. Employer match: A contribution, typically to a retirement or savings plan, by the employer that is directly related to what an employee contributes. For example, for every dollar an employee contributes to his or her retirement fund, an employer might contribute 50 cents.
not doing a very good job, then the company is throwing its money away. On the other hand, if an employee’s excellent work goes unnoticed and undercompensated, he or she may leave the company. Then, not only will the company have to spend time and money training a replacement, but the replacement may not be as good as the original worker. Clearly, then, accurate evaluation is an essential part of effective human resources management. HR professionals can facilitate evaluation by helping managers develop creative ways to assess their workers’ skills and by reminding them not to take their workers for granted. Perhaps one employee could do more if given the chance; maybe another is simply not equal to a task. Compensation goes hand in hand with evaluation. Compensation is defined as how workers are rewarded for their performance, and a savvy HR professional understands that there is more to compensation than salary. Some employees would prefer to have their entire reward concentrated in their salaries, but for others, benefits such as insurance, pension plans, vacation time, profit sharing, and general job flexibility are equally, or even more, important. It is up to the human resources
Health maintenance organization (HMO): Prepaid medical service group that serves the employees in a group insurance plan. Health plan: An insurance plan that includes medical, dental, and/or vision coverage. Individual retirement account (IRA): A savings account that allows a participant to set aside a certain amount per year, often tax deductible. Pension: A fixed amount of money paid by a former employer to a retired or disabled former employee or his or her dependents. Preferred provider organization (PPO): Prepaid managed care plan that, unlike an HMO, allows employees to use both network and non-network health care providers. Severance pay: A set amount of money given in some cases by an employer to an employee who has been terminated, usually through no fault of his or her own. Termination: The end of an employee’s employment with a company, whether caused by dismissal or resignation. Third-party administrator (TPA): A company, other than the employer, that handles the
team to determine the best way to compensate workers in line with both the company’s and individuals’ needs.
■ Outlook According to the U.S. Department of Labor, employment of human resources, training, and labor relations specialists and managers is expected to grow faster than the average career through 2014. There are several reasons for this expected demand. As jobs grow more specialized, complex, and often technological in nature, employee recruitment and training becomes increasingly important. In response to this trend, employers are expected to place more emphasis on job-specific training programs. If this is the case, human resources professionals will be needed to design, implement, monitor, and evaluate these training programs. A second reason for the strong demand for human resources professionals is that many aspects of personnel management are now governed by legislative action. Specific standards for occupational safety and health, equal employment opportunity, wages, and benefits make it necessary for many companies to have human resources experts handling their personnel issues in order to avoid errors and omissions. Of particular significance are the rising health care costs and the structural changes that have taken place in many companies’ insurance packages. As benefits programs become more complex, human resources professionals who are familiar with program requirements and options become more valuable. The hiring of labor relations staff and arbitrators is also likely to increase, as companies work toward resolving labor disputes on their own rather than in court. There may also be an increased demand for specialists in international human resources management and human resources information systems. Employment growth may be especially strong in companies that recruit, manage, and supply personnel to other companies. An increasing number of businesses are opting to contract out for personnel management or hire personnel specialists on a temporary basis. Demand should also be especially strong in companies that specialize in developing and administering employee benefits packages for other companies. In spite of the strong demand for human resources professionals, however, the job market is expected to be competitive in the coming years, due to the large pool of qualified college graduates and experienced workers in this area. Job growth may also be somewhat limited by the increasing use of computers in various aspects of human resources management. Finally, employment in human resources, as in other areas, may be slowed in some cases by corporate downsizing and restructuring
Human Resources
and the use of computerized human resources information systems that allow workers to accomplish more tasks in a shorter period of time.
■ For More Information For information on training, job opportunities, and human resources publications and online discussions, contact International Public Management Association for Human Resources 1617 Duke Street Alexandria, VA 22314-3406 Tel: 703-549-7100 Email:
[email protected] http://www.ipma-hr.org
For general information on industrial relations, contact Labor and Employment Relations Association 121 Labor and Industrial Relations University of Illinois—Urbana-Champaign 504 East Armory, MC-504 Champaign, IL 61820-6221 Tel: 217-333-0072 Email:
[email protected] http://www.lera.uiuc.edu
For newsletters, journals, and Internet resources on career development, contact National Career Development Association c/o Creative Management Alliance 305 North Beech Circle Broken Arrow, OK 74012-2293 Tel: 866-367-6232 http://www.ncda.org
For information on employment law and legislation, or career counseling resources for high school students, contact National Employment Counseling Association 5999 Stevenson Avenue Alexandria, VA 22304-3304 Tel: 800-347-6647, ext. 222 http://www.employmentcounseling.org/neca.html
For a wide variety of information, including job openings, governmental issues, news, a human resources library, and information for students in the field of human resources, contact Society for Human Resource Management 1800 Duke Street Alexandria, VA 22314-3406 Tel: 800-283-SHRM http://www.shrm.org
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For news and information about compensation and benefits administration, contact WorldatWork 14040 North Northsight Boulevard Scottsdale, AZ 85260-3601 Tel: 877-951-9191 http://www.worldatwork.org
■ Related Articles Business; Foreign Trade; Accountants and Auditors; Business Managers; Career and Employment Counselors and Technicians; Cost Estimators; Employment Firm Workers; Ergonomists; Executive Recruiters; Management Analysts and Consultants; Occupational Safety and Health Workers; Personnel and Labor Relations Specialists
Information Services ■ Background Information occupies an invaluable place in our lives. Information is the tool by which we learn, make decisions, and answer questions or concerns that we face every day at work, at school, and in our personal lives. A junior high school student may seek information on the history of ancient Greece to use in a school report. A college senior may look for technical information to help prepare for a job interview. A retired couple may gather information about the customs of a foreign country to help plan for a vacation trip. Parents may rely on information about low-cholesterol recipes to help create a healthier lifestyle for their family. A law librarian may compile information on previous legal cases in preparation for a court case. These are just a few examples of the different roles that information plays in the things we do and in the way we live. The world of information is constantly changing and expanding. Each year more books are published, more articles appear in magazines or newspapers, new CDROMs are produced, and more resources become available to us through computers by way of database vendors, online services, and access to the Internet. The growth and expansion of technology constantly create new ways for information to be preserved and new avenues for people to access information, whether through their own home computers, in libraries, or in businesses or research institutes. But all this stored knowledge can be unwieldy and overwhelming. We need trained information profes-
sionals to help us organize and store the information in the first place, and then to provide guidance when we have to retrieve and synthesize the information. The field of information services is extremely comprehensive, and it combines aspects of library and information science. Professionals working in information services are charged with the management of information, and they are trained to organize, analyze, preserve, retrieve, and access stored knowledge. Information professionals work in a wide variety of organizations, from libraries to schools to businesses to government research institutes, to name a few. Information services have a long and important history of providing the means by which societies have preserved records of knowledge and culture. Ever since humans learned to write, libraries have been essential to preserving the history of civilization. Since ancient times, libraries have been centers where people could learn, read, and have access to information. No one really knows when the first library was established, but there are many remains of important libraries that existed in very early times. There are records of libraries in ancient Egypt as old as the pyramids, for example, and a large library existed at Nineveh in Assyria as early as 600 b.c. In these ancient repositories, scholars studied manuscripts in Greek, Ethiopian, Persian, Hebrew, and Hindi. In Rome, private libraries were common among educated citizens. During the Middle Ages, when knowledge of Greek and Latin classics was threatened, precious manuscripts were preserved in monastery libraries. Later, Renaissance humanists and collectors, such as Petrarch and Boccaccio, preserved many important works of literature and philosophy in their personal libraries. Many of these libraries, together with book collections gathered by kings and noblemen, were the beginnings of some of the great scholarly libraries that still exist in Europe. Before the invention of the printing press by Johannes Gutenberg in the mid-1440s, manuscripts were written by hand. The movable type press allowed for books to be printed more efficiently and inexpensively, thus providing a larger circulation of books. All early libraries were intended for the use of small, elite groups. Few people had received enough education to be able to read well, and most people were too poor to have the leisure time to enjoy books. The industrial revolution and other social changes in the 18th and 19th centuries upset the old social order, and new generations of working people were able to acquire an education. Their desires called for a new kind of library, one that not only would preserve the best works of earlier times
but also would be an educational facility for the common people. Associations of young mercantile workers, apprentices, mechanics, and clerks formed libraries. In 1731, Benjamin Franklin and a group of his friends organized the Library Company of Philadelphia, the earliest library of this kind in the American colonies. Public libraries, supported from public funds and open to all readers, were established in Manchester, England, in 1852 and in Boston in 1854. Additional public libraries soon were started in many other cities in both countries. By 1876, there were 342 public libraries in the United States; by 1920, the number had grown to more than 6,500, located in every state in the union. Today, there are more than 117,000 libraries in the United States. In the 1950s, the development of new technologies stimulated the emergence of the field of information science. This new field brought together elements from library science, computer science, business administration, and other fields to create new and more efficient ways of storing, organizing, and disseminating recorded knowledge. Information science focused on the combination of modern technologies with human resources to bring about the transformation of information services from a field focusing on print materials to one including all forms of media, including print materials, audiovisual materials, and electronic media. Over the last 40 years, the field of information science has evolved tremendously, yet it remains closely connected to the field of library science. Today information services professionals, in libraries and in many different settings, employ vast technologies to organize, classify, and retrieve records of culture and thought. In addition to traditional books and periodicals, information is now available through audio and video recordings, visual aids such as microfilm and filmstrips, CD-ROMs, digital video discs (DVDs) online database searching services such as DIALOG and LEXIS/NEXIS, remote sources accessed through the Internet, and e-books and other electronic publications. In today’s information society, libraries remain a key part of the information services industry and will continue to play an increasingly important role. Libraries, and the information professionals they employ, are needed to help people find their way through puzzling and often contradictory information in a world in which the amount of information and technology continues to increase and expand at a dizzying pace.
■ Structure The field of information services is made up of a variety of professionals who help meet the growing demands of
information services
A special collections librarian for Syracuse University Library’s department of special collections examines photos from the Dr. Benjamin Spock permanent collection. (Al Campanie, The Image Works.)
our information-based society. The designation information professional encompasses not only librarians and information scientists but any of a number of professionals who organize, analyze, retrieve, and disseminate recorded knowledge. Information professionals may work anywhere from the traditional library setting to such places as research institutes and information brokerages. The structure of the information services industry is expanding constantly. Perhaps the fastest growing category of libraries in the United States includes school library media centers. There are more than 74,000 libraries in elementary, junior high, and high schools. A generation ago there were approximately 20,000 such libraries. This increase has come about partly because many more children are enrolled in schools, but a more important reason is that changes have been made in the methods of teaching and learning. A seventh-grade class studying how their state government works, for example, may continue its assignment by seeing a filmstrip about the state constitution; some students may watch a videotape or DVD of one of the governor’s press conferences or listen to a recording of the governor’s inaugural address; others may access
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the state government’s home page on the Internet. All of these sources of information are available in a modern school library media center. The school library media center has become an indispensable part of education. In it, a carefully selected collection of books, magazines, newspapers, pictures, films, videotapes, recordings, CD-ROMs, DVDs, and other materials are brought together, indexed, and arranged for convenient use. The school library media specialist is a part of the teaching team of the school and works with the other teachers in planning and determining resources to be included in the teaching curriculum. For the inquisitive student, the library media center provides materials for independent study. For the student with special interests, it can supply information to help develop a hobby. For all students, the library media center can provide a larger world of knowledge that complements classroom instruction. There are approximately 5,600 academic libraries of all types serving millions of students enrolled in institutions of higher education: junior colleges, colleges, and universities. These libraries range from a 10,000-volume library to the many millions of volumes in large private and public university libraries. Their clientele ranges from beginning college freshmen to university professors engaged in research. University libraries collect publications in many languages and develop highly specialized collections of books, periodicals, manuscripts, and other materials. They are equipped for scholars and for graduate students who are preparing themselves for scholarly careers. To make the library’s collection useful, each university library needs a specialized staff to offer expert assistance in many subjects and in many languages. A university library consists of a network of specialized libraries to serve the faculty and students. The library system typically emphasizes such subjects and professions as engineering, music, commerce, fine arts, literature, agriculture, medicine, law, chemistry, education, sociology, architecture, and psychology. It also must serve the entire academic community. In recent years many universities have established undergraduate or core libraries, sometimes in separate buildings, with smaller, less-specialized, and easier-to-use collections. College libraries have more modest goals than university libraries because they serve academic institutions primarily concerned with teaching, although some colleges offer graduate degrees and many college teachers spend part of their time in research and writing. The book collections are smaller, generally from 50,000 to 100,000 volumes, and most of the books are in the English language. College librarians, like school library media
specialists, work closely with members of the teaching faculty in selecting materials that will be useful to undergraduate students. Community college libraries serve two-year colleges. Frequently called learning resource centers, these libraries emphasize the use of a wide variety of films, tapes, and other audiovisual materials, as well as books. Their collections are usually smaller than those of four-year college libraries, but they are carefully selected and organized to support the range of academic, paraprofessional, and technical courses offered. Public libraries provide a variety of services for people of all ages, from the youngest toddlers who just have learned to enjoy picture books to retired adults who have renewed their interest in subjects for which they had little time during their working years. Public libraries range in size from the New York Public Library with millions of volumes and 85 branch libraries to town libraries with 10,000 to 15,000 volumes. Regardless of size, they have a common goal of providing information and recreational reading materials to all people. Many also provide computers so patrons can access forms of electronic media, like CD-ROMs, DVDs, online database services, and the Internet. A typical public library features a children’s room, where the natural curiosity of children can be stimulated by storytelling, puppet shows, and displays, as well as by the privilege of choosing a book to borrow with a minimum of advice from grown-ups. Teenagers have their own part of the library, too, where the books of most interest to them are available. Other parts of the library are usually arranged by the subjects that have been found to be interesting and useful to large groups of readers. The Enoch Pratt Free Library in Baltimore, Maryland, a heavily used public library, has the following divisions: African American; Business, Science, and Technology; Children’s; Fiction; Fine Arts and Recreation; Humanities; Job and Career Information; Maryland; Periodicals; Sights and Sounds; Social Science and History; Special Collections; and U.S. Government Documents. In some public libraries, adult services include an information and referral center for people who need help in using other community services. Information on voter registration, employment offices, health and family services, and other services are available, and individuals are guided to the appropriate agencies. Branch libraries provide neighborhood library service to many parts of the city. Bookmobiles take smaller collections of books to communities where no branch libraries exist. Library service to smaller towns and rural areas has improved greatly, thanks to the federal Library Services
Information Services
and Construction Act, which made money available for this purpose. The United States, however, is still short of its goal to provide good library service to all the people of the country. Special libraries provide specialized information services to many trade organizations, research laboratories, businesses, government agencies, art museums, hospi-
Words to Know Administrative services: The area of librarianship that deals with the management of personnel and services. Apprenticeship: An assistantship or internship; training time for persons new to a field to work with an established professional to learn the trade; may be a paid or unpaid position. Bibliography: A list of books or other sources that were used for reference to a written work. Bookblock: The pages of a book and its endleaves; the “meat” of a book; also called textblock. Bookmobile: A large van or mobile home that houses library materials. The bookmobile and its staff travel to provide library services to areas where no branch libraries exist. CD-ROM: Acronym for compact disc read-only memory. When a compact disc is used inside a computer, it is called a CD-ROM. CD-ROMs can store much more data than floppy disks. The data contained in an entire encyclopedia can be stored on one CD-ROM. Certification: The process by which a person gains official affirmation of his or her skills in a certain field. Codex: An early manuscript, usually similar in form to books today. Database: A large storage system of information, usually kept electronically on a computer. An example of a paper database might be the holiday card list your parents use each year; they may keep track of who received a card, when it was sent, the recipient’s address and telephone number, and whether gifts were exchanged. Dewey Decimal System: A manner of classifying and locating materials in a library. Items are assigned a unique series of numbers and letters that indicate in what area, level, and shelf location the items can be found.
tals, newspapers, publishers, and others. Because these libraries generally are concerned with highly specialized subjects, they have relatively small collections. A few thousand volumes may be found in a large special library. These libraries work very closely with the employees of the company or members of the organization and provide their patrons with access to esoteric materials. The
Electronic book: Text that is available in electronic format. More commonly known as ebook. E-books typically require special software or hardware to be read. Freelance: Used to describe persons who work for various companies on specific assignments and special projects; they are not official employees of any one company. Internet: Many computer networks connected together throughout the world by means of telephone wires or other methods so that computers (and their users) can communicate with one another; also referred to as the Net and the Web (from World Wide Web). Internship: An assistantship or apprenticeship; training time for persons new to a field to work with an established professional to learn the trade; may be a paid or unpaid position. Listserv: An email mailing list that specialized groups use to keep in contact with other people about topics of interest to them. Microfiche: A sheet of film that contains numerous pages of printed or graphic material that has been greatly reduced; a single microfiche card may contain hundreds of pages of material. Microfilm: A roll of film that contains reduced print or graphic material. Multimedia: Dealing with various record formats, such as newspaper, magazine, compact disc, digital video disc, cassette tape, book, or even papyrus roll. Provenance: The history of the creation and ownership of an item. Technical services: The area of librarianship that deals with the technical aspects of a library. This may include tasks such as cataloging materials or working with the computer records for a collection. User services: The area of librarianship that deals with the needs of the readers and researchers of a library.
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This student librarian performs the routine task of reshelving books. (Robert E. Daemmrich, Tony Stone Images.)
librarians who work in them often have supplemental training or previous academic experience in the subject of the special library. The library of a pharmaceutical company, for example, may contain 10,000 to 15,000 volumes carefully selected to aid the scientists who research and test new medicines. Special librarians often assist in the research by pointing out likely sources or by searching through books and journals to compile bibliographies and summaries of previous research on the subjects being investigated by the researchers. They contribute to the staff ’s awareness by circulating current digests related to the field. In many special libraries the usual stock of books and periodicals is supplemented by technical reports, maps and charts, files of clippings and pamphlets, pictures, slides, disk and tape recordings, microfilm, and other forms of recorded information. The rapid expansion of government services in many areas has stimulated the growth of library services and created new opportunities for special librarians in federal and state governments. The libraries at the top of the federal network are the Library of Congress, the National Library of Medicine, and the National Library of Agriculture. The Library of Congress contains all of the books that are published in the United States and other valuable materials. These three great libraries have developed extensive collections in their fields and serve the entire country. Almost all departments of the executive branch of the government have special libraries that provide the information needed to carry on the work of these agencies. Near Washington, D.C., are libraries serving all branches of the armed forces, Veterans Administration hospitals, federal research laboratories, and other field agencies. In state governments there are historical libraries and archives, legislative reference libraries, law libraries, pub-
lic library extension agencies, and many smaller libraries that serve specialized branches of the state government. The field of information services has come to include other kinds of information agencies. These agencies exist outside of the library setting. For instance, various government agencies and research centers employ information professionals or hire consultants to perform research, organize information, and analyze data concerning certain issues. In addition, an increasing number of information professionals are working as information brokers. Information brokers can be individuals working on a freelance basis or companies employing information specialists. In either case, information brokers provide information to clients for a fee. Rather than employing their own fulltime specialists, clients can save a great deal of money by outsourcing, or hiring outside individuals or companies to perform searches of computer databases and manual sources, to locate documents, to compile bibliographies, and to provide all sorts of information. These and other kinds of nonlibrary information agencies have evolved because professionals have honed their skills in the management of information and in the provision of information services. As today’s information society continues to expand, there will be more opportunities for work in these alternative settings.
■ Outlook The information services field is growing in more nontraditional settings. Cutbacks in library budgets will decrease opportunities for information services professionals, but the growth of our information-based society may counteract the decline. Easy access to recorded knowledge has become an essential part of life for information professionals in traditional libraries as well as for individuals, employees of research centers, professional firms, and businesses, and information brokers and research consultants. Librarian positions are expected to increase more slowly than the average occupation through 2014, whereas jobs for library assistants and library technician will have growth that is close to that of the average career. Many libraries now assign technicians and assistants to perform tasks once handled exclusively by more highly paid professional librarians. Although this is in part a cost-cutting move, the reassignment of responsibilities allows librarians to dedicate more time to other responsibilities. However, computerized ordering, cataloging, and information retrieval programs require specialized training. Professional information scientists will continue to be necessary to direct, review, and coordinate such systems and to train and supervise operations.
Information Services
Job prospects are expected to be best in privately financed special libraries. In addition, librarians with special qualifications, such as languages, computer services, or children’s services, can anticipate better opportunities. Jobs requiring knowledge of science, mathematics, and business are considered difficult to fill because of fewer graduates with these backgrounds. Overall, the best opportunities for information services careers will be outside of the library, with private corporations, consulting businesses, and information brokers. Rather than being called librarians, these information professionals might be called database specialists, researchers, or systems analysts. In the future, libraries will increasingly become a part of a national network linking public, academic, and special libraries into a single information source. Each library will retain its own identity and serve its own clientele, but information in any one location can be made available to patrons in any part of the country. Many systems, such as a central library catalog, perhaps supplemented by regional catalogs, will be made available by way of high-speed electronic communications. The information services industry is reflecting this trend toward linking information, and it is forging ahead to increase the opportunities created by the Internet. Expanding technologies of our society have made information part of a global network. As information continues to expand and to reach out to all corners of the earth, information services professionals will be needed to help these technologies make the world a much more easily accessible place.
■ For More Information For information on law librarian careers, books, graduate student membership, and scholarships and grants, contact American Association of Law Libraries 53 West Jackson Boulevard, Suite 940 Chicago, IL 60604-3606 Tel: 312-939-4764 Email:
[email protected] http://www.aallnet.org
For information on librarian specialties, accredited schools, and scholarships and grants, contact American Library Association 50 East Huron Street Chicago, IL 60611-2729 Tel: 800-545-2433 http://www.ala.org
For job listings, contact American Society for Information Science and Technology
1320 Fenwick Lane, Suite 510 Silver Spring, MD 20910-3514 Tel: 301-495-0900 Email:
[email protected] http://www.asis.org
For information on the career of independent information professional, contact Association of Independent Information Professionals 8550 United Plaza Boulevard, Suite 1001 Baton Rouge, LA 70809-2256 Tel: 225-408-4400 Email:
[email protected] http://www.aiip.org
For career information and other resources, including job listings, contact Association of Research Libraries 21 Dupont Circle, Suite 800 Washington, DC 20036-1109 Tel: 202-296-2296 Email:
[email protected] http://www.arl.org
For career information, a list of schools, and information on scholarships and grants, contact Medical Library Association 65 East Wacker Place, Suite 1900 Chicago, IL 60601-7246 Tel: 312-419-9094 Email:
[email protected] http://www.mlanet.org
For information on careers, educational options in music librarianship, and student membership, contact Music Library Association 8551 Research Way, Suite 180 Middleton, WI 53562-4663 Tel: 608-836-5825 http://www.musiclibraryassoc.org
For information on careers and scholarships, contact Special Libraries Association 331 South Patrick Street Alexandria, VA 22314-3501 Tel: 703-647-4900 Email:
[email protected] http://www.sla.org
For information on careers, education, and scholarships, contact
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Canadian Library Association 328 Frank Street Ottawa, ON K2P 0X8 Canada Tel: 613-232-9625 Email:
[email protected] http://www.cla.ca
■ Related Articles Book Publishing; Broadcasting; The Internet; Newspapers and Magazines; Printing Publishing; Social Sciences; Archivists; Book Conservators; Information Brokers; Librarians; Library Media Specialists; Library Technicians; Music Librarians; Research Assistants
Insurance ■ Background The insurance industry provides protection for its customers against financial loss from various hazards. This protection is offered in the form of insurance policies. The industry is a massive, highly complex one that has grown out of an ancient and very simple principle: The more people who share a financial risk, the smaller the risk is for each. A crude but effective form of insurance based on this principle was applied thousands of years ago in China. Boats often sank in the treacherous Yangtze River, and cargoes were lost, sometimes bringing financial ruin to their owners. Then the shippers developed the idea of sharing the risk by having each person’s goods distributed among many boats. That way, if one boat sank, a number of people lost a small part of their belongings, but no one person suffered a heavy loss. The early Babylonians had a form of credit insurance. The Code of Hammurabi, a collection of Babylonian laws written around 1800 b.c., stipulated that a borrower did not have to repay a loan if personal misfortune made it a hardship to do so. The borrower paid an additional amount for this protection. Another form of insurance made life a little less hazardous for American settlers in the early frontier days. If a family’s cabin burned, the neighbors would get together and build them a new one, knowing that they would get the same kind of help if the tables were turned. In a way, they too were sharing the risk. Today, the population is much too large and life is much too complicated for such simple means of sharing the risk to protect people against the many hazards
that could cost them their property or their financial security. Instead, people share the risks by purchasing insurance policies. Customers pay a certain amount of money, called a premium, to an insurance company for coverage against possible loss. When a person buys a fire insurance policy on a home, for example, he or she pays the insurance company only a small fraction of what it would cost to replace the house. If the house burns down, however, the insurance company is able to pay the owner for all or part of the loss by using the money that many other people have paid for their insurance policies. In that way, each person who buys an insurance policy is protected against financial loss by all of the others who have bought policies. Employment opportunities in the insurance industry can be found anywhere in the country. In small communities, however, employment is usually limited to agents, brokers, and the clerical workers they employ. Other insurance professionals, such as actuaries, underwriters, and insurance attorneys, work mostly in the larger cities, in home offices or regional offices of the insurance companies or industry organizations. These offices are in cities throughout the country, but the greatest number are concentrated in New York, New Jersey, Massachusetts, Connecticut, and Illinois.
■ Structure According to the U.S. Department of Labor, the insurance industry, including both insurance carriers and agents and brokers, employed about 2.3 million wage and salary workers in 2004. Insurance carriers provided nearly three out of five jobs in the insurance industry; insurance agents, brokers, and providers of other insurance-related services held about two out of five jobs. In addition, there were about 151,000 self-employed workers in 2004, most of whom were insurance agents or brokers. The insurance industry is divided into three main branches: life insurance, health insurance, and property and casualty insurance. Companies may specialize in one or all three types of coverage. Life Insurance: Life insurance is basically a means by which one person provides for the financial security of others, usually other family members, in the event of that person’s death. Using life insurance in its simplest form, a person pays an insurance company a small amount on a regular basis (monthly, semianually, annually) for a policy that guarantees that the family will receive a relatively large amount of money if the person dies while covered by the policy. However, many life insurance policies combine this form of protection with others. Some provide for the policyholder to receive a regular income
after reaching retirement age. Some provide funds for a college education for the policyholder’s children. Some will pay off the mortgage on a person’s home if he or she dies or becomes unable to work. A new type of insurance being offered by some life insurance companies is critical care insurance. This insurance helps defray the costs of treatment for cancer and other critical illnesses. With medical advances and more patients surviving years with critical illnesses, this insurance provides benefits for patients and their families while the insured is still alive instead of only providing for the family upon the death of the insured. Health Insurance: Health insurance pays all or part of hospitalization, surgery, medicine, and other medical costs. This helps protect the policyholder against large medical bills in the case of an illness or accident. In Canada and other countries, people are covered by government health insurance. In the United States, health insurance is usually provided by insurance companies or managed care plans, which include health maintenance organizations (HMOs) and preferred provider organizations (PPOs). Usually, an employer pays part of the insurance premiums for employees. The government helps defray medical costs for the elderly and disabled through the Medicare program and for the poor through Medicaid. Supplemental medical insurance is often purchased to cover some costs not covered by Medicare. Property and Casualty Insurance. Property and casualty insurance comes in a wide variety of forms. It includes the different kinds of insurance that protect people from financial loss if their property is destroyed, damaged, or stolen. It also includes all forms of liability insurance, the insurance that protects people from financial loss if they are responsible for injury to another person or damage to another person’s property. An example of liability insurance is medical malpractice insurance. Within the property and casualty field, there are several specialized branches, or lines of insurance. Some companies write all lines, while others write only one. In addition to insurance on homes, business places, automobiles, and personal property, this field includes marine insurance, which covers boats and ships and their cargoes, and inland marine insurance, which covers almost anything capable of being transported or which is used in transportation. Inland marine insurance covers everything from furs and paintings to locomotives and bridges. Also included in the property and casualty field is worker’s compensation insurance, which pays a person for loss of wages and medical expenses if he or she is disabled because of an injury or illness connected with a job.
insurance
An insurance agent processes a claim over the phone with the help of special software. (Greg Pease, Tony Stone Images.)
Worker’s compensation also provides death benefits for dependents if death is due to a work-connected injury or illness. Fidelity bonds, which protect an employer from loss due to dishonesty of an employee, and surety bonds, which guarantee that contracts will be carried out properly, are other forms of insurance written by property and liability companies. Insurance agents and insurance brokers deal constantly with the public. In addition to selling insurance policies, they are responsible for advising each client about the particular kinds and amounts of insurance that will meet the client’s individual needs. In some cases, they also help settle claims when a loss occurs by working out a payment agreeable both to the policyholder and the insurance company. Agents who sell certain types of life insurance also may collect premiums. Some agents are employed by a single insurance company and are paid either a salary, commission, or a combination of both. (Commissions are a percentage of the premiums paid to the agent based on the value of the policies an agent sells.) Many other agents are independent businesspeople who are under contract to represent several companies. Insurance brokers are independent businesspeople who represent no particular companies but order policies from many insurers. Brokers represent the insurance buyer. They determine the buyer’s needs and procure the appropriate insurance. Some brokers are paid on commission while others negotiate a fee based upon the amount of risk they assume. Agents and brokers often specialize in certain types of insurance. Life insurance and health insurance are usually handled exclusively by agents. Property and casualty insurance is handled by both agents and brokers. Some
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agents and brokers specialize in only one line of property and casualty insurance, such as automobile coverage. Others handle a diverse range of business. Agents may work in large offices with a number of other agents or in small, one-person agencies. Some work out of their homes. Many agents combine their insurance business with other types of business. It is not uncommon, for example, for a property insurance agent to be in the real estate business as well. In addition to selling and performing services for their clients, insurance agents spend considerable time on paperwork, record keeping, and correspondence. Depending on the size of the agency, an agent also may supervise a number of clerical workers and a staff of salespeople. Because an agent’s income depends on the amount of insurance policies he or she sells, the agent devotes a lot of effort to finding new prospects and establishing contacts with people who might buy insurance. This frequently involves considerable civic and social activities. Large insurance companies that use independent agents and brokers hire field representatives to promote their line of insurance. Field representatives make regular calls on each agent in their territory who handles their company’s insurance. They instruct the agents on new types of insurance and changes in policies. They help find new business and assist agents in examining their clients’ insurance programs to make sure the clients have the right kind of coverage in sufficient amounts. They also encourage the agents to conduct vigorous sales campaigns. Field representatives are, in effect, district sales managers, but they must be exceptionally good at getting along
Words to Know Annuity: A contract that provides an income for a specified period of time, such as a certain number of years or for life. An annuity is like the reverse of a life insurance policy: The purchaser gives the life insurance company a lump sum of money and the life insurance company pays the purchaser a regular income, usually monthly. Beneficiary: The person(s) named in the policy to receive the life insurance proceeds upon the death of the insured. Disability insurance: Insurance that pays an ongoing income if a person becomes disabled and unable to work. Policyholder: The person who owns a life insurance policy. This is usually the insured person, but it may also be a relative of the insured, a partnership, or a corporation. Premium: Payment to an insurance company to buy a policy and to keep it in force.
with people because the agents they manage are independent businesspeople and not employees of the company. Their job is to encourage local agents to sell more of the company’s insurance. Because their job is to instruct agents about changes in their business, field representatives must keep up to date on all policy changes and be able to explain them clearly and thoroughly. Field representatives frequently conduct educational meetings at which agents are informed about developments in insurance and sales methods. After an agent fills out an insurance application with a client, the application goes to an underwriter. The underwriter considers all of the information available about the risk involved and then decides whether it should be accepted. If, for one reason or another, an underwriter decides that the hazards involved in insuring a particular risk are far above average, he or she may turn down the application or may accept it but reduce the company’s risk by reinsuring part of it with another company. Some companies specialize in reinsurance. If the underwriter decides that the company should accept the risk, he or she then sees that the proper kind of policy is issued and the proper rates are charged. In large companies, underwriters are usually specialists in a particular type of insurance. Life insurance actuaries, for example, study statistics on how long people live, what causes people to die, and what types of people live longer than others. From those statistics, they can project how long persons in certain statistical categories can be expected to live; life expectancy is the term they use. They cannot, of course, predict when a particular person will die, but they can predict with great accuracy how long an average person of a given age, sex, occupation, and so forth will live. With that knowledge, they can determine the amount of premiums that must be collected on each life insurance policy so that the insurance company will have enough to make payments when policyholders die and still earn a return for the company. Actuaries in the property and liability field make many of the same kinds of studies and predictions. They can predict, for example, how many auto accidents will take place in a particular area and how much they will cost. That enables insurance companies to set rates that bring in enough money to pay their claims. Not all actuaries work for insurance companies. Some actuaries are employed by industry associations that propose insurance rates for groups of companies. Others work for insurance departments of their states. Some are independent consultants who run their own businesses. When an accident, death, or other loss has occurred, an adjuster examines the claim. An adjuster may work on a great many different kinds of claims. He or she may be
required to estimate the amount of damage to a house struck by lightning, the cost of repairing a damaged fender on an automobile, the value of a stolen necklace, or how much income will be lost because a store owner’s shop burned down. The adjuster also may be a specialist on one particular kind of claim. For example, the General Adjustment Bureau, an organization that handles much of the adjustment work for property and casualty insurance companies, set up one group of adjusters to work only on losses caused by missile tests. Many adjusters travel to all parts of the country and sometimes to foreign countries. Large numbers of adjusters travel to the scene of major disasters, such as hurricanes and tornadoes, which result in thousands of insurance claims. In such cases, the adjuster’s job is to examine insurance policies to make sure each individual’s loss is covered by insurance, to inspect the damaged property and estimate the cost of repairing or replacing it, and to work out a fair settlement with the policyholder. With the pool of money insurance companies collect from premiums, they invest in the national economy. Insurance companies invest huge sums of money in government, transportation, and utility bonds, thereby helping to finance many public improvements and further increasing their own income. In addition, they invest in stocks and insure many home mortgages.
■ Outlook The U.S. Department of Labor projects that employment in the insurance industry will increase 10 percent between 2004 and 2014, more slowly than the 14 percent average for all industries combined. Medical service and health insurance is the fastest growing segment in the industry. The demand for auto and homeowners insurance should continue to rise, but job growth for certain professional, clerical, and sales jobs will be limited by downsizing, computerization, and a trend toward direct mail and telephone sales. As the population ages, more people are expected to buy health and long-term care insurance as well as annuities and other types of pension products. In order to stay competitive, an increasing number of insurance agents and brokers will offer comprehensive financial planning services as well as multiline products. Many insurance companies are aggressively expanding into the international market, especially into Asia, southern Europe, and Latin America. The insurance industry is increasingly using the Internet as an effective marketing tool. Clients are now able to use the Internet to find information on their policies, to compare rates and obtain quotes, and to submit claims.
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While online access can reduce costs for insurance companies, it also can mean fewer employment opportunities for sales agents, particularly agents who sell auto insurance.
■ For More Information For industry information, contact American Risk and Insurance Association 716 Providence Road Malvern, PA 19355-3402 Tel: 610-640-1997 Email:
[email protected] http://www.aria.org
For information on scholarships and women in the insurance industry, contact Association of Professional Insurance Women 551 Fifth Avenue, Suite 1625 New York, NY 10176-0001 Tel: 212-867-0228 Email:
[email protected] http://www.apiw.org
For information on the industry and education programs, contact Independent Insurance Agents and Brokers of America 127 South Peyton Street Alexandria, VA 22314-2879 Tel: 800-221-7917 Email:
[email protected] http://www.independentagent.com
For information on educational programs, contact Insurance Educational Association 100 California Street, Suite 650 San Francisco, CA 94111-4505 Tel: 800-655-4432 Email:
[email protected] http://www.ieatraining.com
For general information about the insurance industry, contact Insurance Information Institute 110 William Street New York, NY 10038-3901 Tel: 212-346-5500 http://www.iii.org
■ Related Articles Accounting; Banking and Financial Services; Accountants and Auditors; Actuaries; Financial Institution Officers and Managers; Forensic Accountants and Auditors;
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Insurance Claims Representatives; Insurance Policy Processing Workers; Insurance Underwriters; Life Insurance Agents and Brokers; Property and Casualty Insurance Agents and Brokers; Risk Managers
Internet ■ Background Perhaps you’re a casual user of the Internet, occasionally surfing the Web and exchanging email. Perhaps you’ve published your own Web page and spend several hours a day online reading the latest news, checking stock quotes, buying groceries, doing research for a paper, or playing computer games. Regardless of your experience with the Internet, your future will be affected by its existence. The Internet is a worldwide network of computer networks linked together through high-speed, high-volume telephone lines and cables. You can use it to talk to someone in India, buy salsa from someone in Texas, check the status of your stock portfolio, learn about colon cancer, and chat with a group of people about your common interest in rap music. Today’s Internet bears little resemblance to its beginnings. In 1958, Russia launched Sputnik, and the Cold War was in full swing. Soon after, the Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) was created by the U.S. Department of Defense to help the United States regain and maintain a lead in technology. The Department of Defense wanted a comprehensive, indestructible network that could communicate even when under enemy attack. If one of the computer links was destroyed, messages still had to be able to get through to their destination. With this in mind, packet switching was developed in 1968. Within a message (packet) was information about its destination and how to get there so that, if the message hit a point of failure in its route, it could tell where it needed to go next to reach its final destination. In 1969, using packet switching, ARPA created an internetwork (a network of networks) called ARPANET. There was still a problem, however. How could they get different types of networks to communicate with one another? The U.S. military wanted to link all its networks together worldwide. Despite its inability to link these different networks together, the ARPANET grew. Military and defense contractors, universities, and scientists were rapidly getting connected to this internetwork. Throughout the 1970s and 1980s, different portions of ARPANET were declassified and opened up to the public. The first
public demonstration of ARPANET occurred in 1972, and other organizations began asking permission to connect their networks to it. In 1983, a new protocol (the way computers talk to each other) called Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) was integrated into ARPANET and the all-inclusive network finally was realized. Many Internet historians cite ARPANET’s switching over to TCP/IP as the birth of the Internet. In 1986, the National Science Foundation began NSFNET, a much faster network than ARPANET, which connected five supercomputing centers at Princeton, Pittsburgh, the University of California-San Diego, the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, and Cornell. The purpose was to connect major researchers and scientists around the globe. This original group quickly grew to include more universities and some corporations and industrial institutions, including the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. Soon, email, file transfer, and newsgroups became commonplace. By 1990, due to a newer, faster NSFNET, ARPANET was disbanded and commercial (business for profit) use was permitted on NSFNET. Because NSFNET was largely funded through federal grants, the network was becoming too costly for the U.S. government. So by 1993, commercial firms stepped in and provided faster and higher capacity transmission, and the Internet became more efficient. The lines put in place by this faster network became the backbone (the main arteries of the Internet where the largest volume of messaging traffic travels) for today’s Net. NSFNET was shut down in 1995 because the Internet had grown to assume all of NSFNET’s abilities and more. ARPANET and NSFNET were based in the United States, but at the same time they were being developed, other networks were popping up in different regions across the globe. For example, the EBONE, created in 1991, as a group of European organizations coordinated their efforts to form their own internetwork. EBONE soon plugged into the U.S. Internet backbone and suddenly Europe and the United States were linked together. This has happened worldwide to such an extent that today every country on every continent has Internet access. The World Wide Web was the brainchild of physicist Tim Berners-Lee, who developed a way to organize information in a more logical fashion by using hypertext to link portions of documents to one another. Although Berners-Lee formed his idea of the Web in 1989, it was another four years before the first Web browser (Mosaic) made it possible for people to navigate the Web simply. No one person or organization is in charge of the Internet and what’s on it. Various organizations take part
in its administration. For example, the Internet Corporation of Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN), a nonprofit, private corporation, is responsible for coordinating the assignment of Internet domain names, IP address numbers, and protocol parameter and port numbers. As part of this work, ICANN accredits registrars offering .com, .net, .org, .biz, and other top-level domain names. The Internet Society, a nonprofit, nongovernmental, and international organization, works to maintain the global viability of the Internet by focusing on technical standards, public policies, and education and training. The World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) promotes the development of common protocols to ensure global usability of the Web. None of these, however, actually control the Internet. The Internet runs all by itself, almost as if it were a living thing. The Internet might have begun as a project by an agency of the U.S. government, but there is no regulation or censorship of it today by any governmental agency. If you find some questionable content on the Internet, your only avenue is to contact the local administrator of that site or resource and air your complaint. Of course, if people break local laws by the content they place or their activities on the Internet, they are liable for prosecution.
■ Structure As an industry, the Internet is one of the most dynamic and evolving sectors of the U.S., and the world, economy. Growth in the use of the Internet has been phenomenal. While it is difficult to come up with exact figures, Internet World Stats (http://www.internetworldstats.com) estimates that in the United States alone the number of Internet users went from approximately 18 million in 1995 to some 205 million in 2006. As the general public’s access to the Internet has grown, the ways in which the Internet can be used have also increased. E-commerce (business-to-business sales and business-to-consumer sales), advertising, distance education programs, banking, e-filing tax forms, Web conferencing, bill payment, these are just a few of the Internet applications now available to us. Job possibilities in cyberspace are practically endless. Naturally, crossover exists between the computer field and the Internet field, since the Internet developed from computer applications. Some traditional computer professionals (for example, computer engineers, software designers, computer programmers, and database specialists) continue to focus their work on supporting and enhancing the functioning of the Internet. Internet professionals as a group, however, include more than
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There were 1.04 billion people online worldwide in 2006.
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The number of home Internet users equaled almost 16 percent of the world’s population in 2006.
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The United States had over 205 million Internet subscribers, including over 69 million broadband Internet subscribers, as of 2006.
Source: www.internetworldstats.com
these computer workers. For example, there is the consultant who builds Web sites for clients, the advertiser who creates ads to show on Web sites, and the writer whose columns appear in online magazines. So when we refer to workers in the Internet industry, exactly whom do we mean? One way to think of this field is by dividing Internet workers into two general categories: those who make (or build) the Internet, and those who make use of the Internet. Professionals who make the Internet include, but are not limited to, the following: Internet developers, also known as Web site developers, Internet content developers, and Web designers, create Web sites that are usually intended for public use. They may also, however, build sites for a private network that uses Internet technology. These professionals must be able to consider and translate their employers’ wants and
A worker walks through stacks of books at the Amazon.com distribution center in Fernley, Nevada. (Jack Kurtz, The Image Works.)
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needs into a usable site by using programming languages, graphics files, and other Web production tools. Internet consultants are often involved with the Web hosting activities of the industry. That is, they
What Can You Do with the Web? The Internet is a network of networks, a meeting place where you collaborate with friends and discuss politics, a mail service where express delivery leaves traditional postal service in the dust, and a library where you can conduct research with a keyboard and mouse instead of a card catalog. The Internet also includes newsgroups, file transfer, chatting and conferencing, real-time audio and video news broadcasts, and movie and music downloads, among other features. The World Wide Web (WWW) Today URLs or Web addresses appear on business cards, corporate literature, advertising and direct mail, television commercials, news programs, and billboards. Everyone is on the Web and everyone wants you to visit their site. But what is the Web, exactly? The Web is an easy-to-use system of text and graphics files and resources that are published on the Internet as Web pages (a page is like a single piece of paper that contains text, graphics, and/or links to other files). Multimedia has become standard for many Web sites. Video, sound, interactive sites, and three-dimensional games and activities are available because of VRML (Virtual Reality Markup Language). To surf the Web, you need a connection to the Internet and a Web browser such as Microsoft Explorer and Netscape Navigator, which help users get around the Web by locating different Web sites (a site is a collection of several pages) through their Uniform Resource Locator (URL), or their address. If you don’t know a Web address, there are hundreds of search engines that allow you to type key words and phrases and they compile a list of pertinent sites to explore. After you find a site, you can then move to other sites and documents by clicking the hypertext links, which are often highlighted or
provide such services as designing, developing, and/ or maintaining Web sites for businesses, organizations, and institutions. Consultants may work independently, hiring out their services on a contract
underlined. The speed at which you can connect to other sites depends on the size of the file and the speed of your Internet connection. A common feature of many Web sites is a security system. In addition to free access to parts of a Web site, organizations might post some information available only to members by requiring them to sign in with a log-in name and password. Sites that allow you to buy and sell goods and services over the Internet usually offer security protocols, which allow customers to use credit card information to place orders without danger of their personal information being accessible to other Internet users. Email Started in the early 1970s, electronic mail was one of the first services of the Internet and probably is the most widely used feature of the Internet. To send and receive email, you need three things: an Internet email account, a connection to the Internet, and a software program that manages email. With email, you also can subscribe to mailing lists that will send regular updates of information like stock quotes, weather conditions, current events, political updates, and organization news. Another feature of email is the ability to send attachments. An attachment can be a word processing file, a sound file, a picture file, or any file prepared in a different program. The attachment is sent with the email message as a link and when you click on the link, the attachment opens in the program it was originally created in. Newsgroups Newsgroups are discussion groups where you can post messages for a number of people to see. Readers can post replies, including text messages graphics, video, games, and even software. Each newsgroup contains threads of these postings on a particular topic. The
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basis, or they may work for companies that offer consulting services. Internet quality assurance specialists are responsible for testing and maintaining the quality of a business’s,
messages look like email between one user and another, but they can be read by anyone accessing that particular newsgroup. Some newsgroups are moderated by one person who edits or filters and then posts submissions, but many are unmoderated and allow anyone to post messages. Newsgroups can be searched for a particular topic and then you can follow a thread of messages. Usenet, short for User’s Network, is the premier newsgroup network today. More than 120,000 newsgroups exist and new ones are being added every day. File Transfer The Internet holds thousands upon thousands of files that you can download to your computer via the File Transfer Protocol (FTP). This protocol allows different computers to share files by uploading (copying a file from your computer to an FTP site) and downloading (copying a file from an FTP site to your computer). Software, drivers, updates, music clips, sound effects, video clips, movies, animations, stills, games, electronic books all can be transferred using FTP sites. Some FTP sites are for private use only. If you happen upon one of these, you must enter the proper user name and password to get access. However, many FTP sites offer public access. For these, the only thing you need to remember is to type anonymous where it asks for a user name. Then, in the password field, type in your email address. Chat and Conferencing Email and newsgroups let you communicate with people online, but there is a delay between your sending a message and getting a reply. With “live” communication such as chat and video conferencing communication takes place in real time. To chat, you need an Internet connection and an Internet Relay Chat (IRC) client. IRC began in Finland in 1988 and is frequently compared
school’s, or other organization’s Web site. Some of their activities include finding and fixing bugs in the programming running the site; ensuring that applications, such as links, are working correctly; and determining if the site is
to CB radios. Conversations take place on channels, some of which are dedicated to particular topics and others of which are simply for informal discussion. You can only talk to people that are on your channel; however, at any time, you can switch to another channel and talk with another group. Not only can you talk publicly in the chat room, you can invite someone to carry on a private conversation in another channel. IRC can be intimidating to a new user because of the typed commands that are used. Although there are more than 100 commands, you can successfully chat after learning just a few of them. There is also a “netiquette” (a code of etiquette) for the Internet that is prevalent in IRC. For example, you never type in all uppercase because THAT IS CONSIDERED SHOUTING. It takes some time to learn the basic rules but veteran IRC users are very helpful and patient if they know you are a “newbie” (someone new to IRC). Instant Messaging and Videoconferencing Instant messaging has become an important tool for business and personal communication. According to Nua Internet Surveys, 47 percent of Internet users have instant messaging software and use it instead of phone calls and email. The benefits are that you can see when friends or coworkers are online, see when they sign on or off, and block messages from unknown users. Videoconferencing is primarily used in business and education. It allows real-time communication, including video and speech, among people separated by great distance. A business in New York, for example, could hold a meeting with one of its branches in Tokyo. Videoconferencing also allows communication to restricted areas such as clean rooms, nuclear facilities, and operating rooms and it has been used to observe wildlife in their natural habitat. The technology can connect two or more points simultaneously.
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Words to Know Browser: Software used to navigate pages on the World Wide Web so that viewers can view Web pages. Chat room: Where two or more people go to converse online in real time by typing on the keyboard. Domain name: Textual name that uniquely identifies a site on the Internet; prevents users from having to memorize or keep track of a site’s numerical IP address. Download: Process of retrieving files from the Internet and putting them on a computer. E-commerce: Electronic commerce; selling goods and/or services over the Internet. Email: Electronic mail; an online mail system where a person can create, send, and receive messages and attachments. Encryption: Process of encoding a message (for example, a credit card number) so that, if intercepted, it cannot be read without decoding. FAQ: Frequently Asked Questions; file that includes basic questions and answers about a subject. FTP: File Transfer Protocol; a method of sending and receiving files over the Internet. Home page: The main introductory page of an organization’s site or the page designated to appear on the screen when the person connects to the Internet.
HTML: Hypertext Markup Language; the formatting language recognized by browsers. Web sites and links are all written in HTML code. Hypertext: Links or areas (called hotspots) within a document that take the reader to another document or site with the click of the mouse. Links are often highlighted or underlined. Java: Programming language used to create and embed mini-applications called applets in Web pages. Applets are used to create animations and interactive games. Mailing list: Subscription-based email. To subscribe, a person must send an email to the listserver of the mailing list. Newsgroup: Discussion groups that are organized by subject. Participants can read through messages in the newsgroup and post replies for all to see. Usenet is the most common network of newsgroups. Search engine: Software located on large Web sites where the user enters keywords or phrases to search for specific information covered on the Internet. TCP/IP: Transfer Control Protocol/Internet Protocol; language used by computers on the Internet to communicate with other computers despite their different platforms. URL: Uniform Resource Locator; unique site address that points to a specific Internet site, including the Web, FTP, and other Internet resources. Usually begins with http://. Webmaster: Someone in charge of managing a Web site.
doing what the owners want it to. Closely related to quality assurance are the issues of transaction and security. Internet transaction specialists work on the programming that allows users to transfer their money to a business or organization to make a purchase, donation, etc., via a Web site. Internet security specialists are responsible for maintaining the integrity of a Web site so that, for example, a company’s payroll information, a school’s grading records, or a charity’s donor list aren’t accessed by unauthorized users (known as hackers). Other professionals involved in the making of the Internet include Internet store managers, who set up and run businesses on the Web; Internet executives, who are top-level management personnel responsible for conducting business over the Web; and webmasters, who maintain and update Web sites. Internet Service Providers (ISPs), registrars that assign domain names, and
Internet content providers are a few of the other businesses directly involved in building the Internet. The second category of professionals, those whose work focuses on making use of the Internet, includes, but is not limited to, the following: Online journalists are professional writers or journalists whose writing appears in online magazines, on news sites, on entertainment sites, in online newspapers, and other cyber publications. These writers may be employed on a freelance basis or they may work for one particular publication. Online researchers or information brokers are professionals who provide clients with survey results, government statistics, business reports, and other such information on topics they have researched online. These workers may have their own businesses or they may work for an employer, such as a law office or government agency.
Other professionals now making use of the Internet for their work include graphic designers, advertising workers, game developers, distance education teachers and professors, stockbrokers, tax service providers, real estate agents, and college and university public affairs workers to name a few. As the Internet continues to grow in popularity, in speed and strength, and in uses, the differences between these two general categories of workers will undoubtedly become less distinct. While no one can say with certainty where the Internet will take us, it is clear that more and more professionals will become involved in both the making of and the making use of the Internet.
■ Outlook New technologies are making Internet connections faster and easier. Cable modem has remained the dominant access mode in the United States through the mid-2000s, but DSL and wireless broadband are gaining in popularity. As with all computer technology, it is expected that DSL and wireless broadband will replace cable modem as the technology is refined and becomes less expensive. The Internet offers a huge variety of career options. Internet growth will increase employment opportunities with computer and network hardware suppliers, access providers, software companies, Internet consulting firms, and e-commerce developers. There is a continuing need for skilled computer science workers and a rapidly growing market for designers and managers who can combine Internet savvy and know-how with their ability to create, produce, and manage Web content. Employers report difficulty finding experienced IT (information technology) staff, and Webmasters are also in demand. Internet companies, nicknamed dot-coms, have gone through a period of sharp decline after rapid growth in the late 1990s and early 2000s. Despite this downturn, experts predict that the dot-com industry will gradually rebound in the next few years, although job security with any one firm may be uncertain. Mergers, downsizing, business failures, and the ever-changing technology of this industry mean that there may be some instability regarding long-term employment with any one firm. Nevertheless, workers who keep current with technology and who are willing to learn and adapt will be in strong demand.
■ For More Information Information Technology Association of America is a trade association that represents the information technology industry, including hardware, software, telecommunications products and services, Internet and online services,
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systems integration, and professional services. The Web site provides information on e-commerce, information security, and government affairs, among other things. Information Technology Association of America 1401 Wilson Boulevard, Suite 1100 Arlington, VA 22209-2325 Tel: 703-522-5055 http://www.itaa.org
This organization is responsible for coordinating the assignment of Internet domain names. For more information on this process, visit its Web site. Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers 4676 Admiralty Way, Suite 330 Marina del Rey, CA 90292-6601 Tel: 310-823-9358 http://www.icann.org
This professional organization sets technical standards and provides leadership in addressing issues that confront the future of the Internet. For information on training programs and regional workshops, contact Internet Society 1775 Wiehle Avenue, Suite 102 Reston, VA 20190-5107 Tel: 703-326-9880 http://www.isoc.org
For news on research projects and new technology developments and to learn about areas of science employing high-performance computing, visit NCSA’s Web site. National Center for Super Computing Applications (NCSA) University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign 152 Computing Applications Building 605 East Springfield Avenue Champaign, IL 61820-5518 http://www.ncsa.uiuc.edu
Tim Berners-Lee, creator of the World Wide Web, founded the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) in 1994. Visit its Web site for information on Web technology and news. World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) c/o Massachusetts Institute of Technology Computer Science and Artificial Intelligence Laboratory (CSAIL) 32 Vassar Street, Room 32-G515 Cambridge, MA 02139-4309 Tel: 617-253-2613 http://www.w3.org
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■ Related Articles Computer Hardware; Computers; Computer Software; Electronics; Computer and Electronics Sales Representatives; Computer and Office Machine Service Technicians; Computer and Video Game Designers; Computer Network Administrators; Computer Programmers; Computer Systems Programmer/Analysts; Computer Trainers; Computer-Aided Design Drafters and Technicians; Data Entry Clerks; Data Processing Technicians; Database Specialists; Desktop Publishing Specialists; Graphic Designers; Graphics Programmers; Hardware Engineers; Information Brokers; Internet Consultants; Internet Developers; Internet Executives; Internet Quality Assurance Specialists; Internet Security Specialists; Internet Store Managers and Entrepreneurs; Internet Transaction Specialists; Microelectronics Technicians; Online Journalists; Quality Assurance Testers; Semiconductor Technicians; Software Designers; Software Engineers; Systems Setup Specialists; Technical Support Specialists; Technical Writers and Editors; Webmasters
Law ■ Background You probably know someone who drives as if there were no speed limits or stop signs. They just zoom down the road, oblivious of others. What if there really were no traffic laws like stopping at stop signs or driving slower on a curvy road? We would live in a much more dangerous and disorganized society if we did not have laws. Traffic law is just one small segment of the overall law of our country, but it’s clear how important laws of all kinds are to all aspects of a community. Our legal system includes statutes (laws) enacted by legislatures (Congress) and decisions handed down by the courts (judicial system). The law provides us with guidelines and rules to live by in our personal, social, and business activities. When someone doesn’t follow the laws or a law is unclear, our legal system includes ways to settle disputes and resolve conflicts. The law in the United States is based on democratic principles, and its goal is to protect individual rights and ensure a just and free society. Throughout history, societies have established systems of law to govern people. One of the earliest known codes of law is the Code of Hammurabi developed about 1800 b.c. by the Babylonians. Roughly 400 years later, Moses was given and then introduced the Ten Commandments, which have become the foundation of Judeo-Christian ethics and the basis of our current legal system.
The ancient Greeks and Romans set up the first schools of law for young boys to learn the many skills involved in pleading a case. To be an eloquent speaker was a great advantage. The Greeks especially focused their training on thinking logically, another important part of debating and proving matters of the law. In the late 1700s and early 1800s, Napoleon organized and refined European law into what became known as the Napoleonic Code. The Napoleonic Code of law is based more on common sense than on specific legal theories. In America’s early days, the settlers lived under the English Common law that they brought with them to the New World. This common law began under Henry II in England and set up standard punishments for certain crimes. This common law was later modified by the Articles of Confederation and then the Constitution. In areas of the United States that were originally controlled by the Spanish, such as California and Texas, traces of Spanish law still exist. Similarly, because Louisiana was controlled by the French, it still operates a legal system based more on French laws than on the English legal system. But in all cases, the laws of other countries and other times were adapted by legislatures to fit the changing needs and customs of American society. Our legal system today is called statutory because lawmakers enact statutes to govern us. Several fields of law have been practiced in the past and continue to be practiced today. The two most well-known fields are criminal law and civil law. Criminal law focuses on crime, that is, acts committed in violation of a law. This field of law is concerned with an individual’s relation to society; in fact, criminal acts are considered offenses against all members of a society even if the acts were committed against only one person. Anyone who breaks criminal laws may be punished with prison time or fines. Civil law focuses on relationships between individuals. Most civil law addresses written contract, wrongs against individuals (or torts), and property issues. Those who break civil law cannot be imprisoned or fined as a result, but they may have to pay money as a result of the decision of the court. Other fields of law include administrative law, constitutional law, tax law, maritime law, and labor law. Today, whenever a person faces problems involving legal rights, buys or sells a house, wants a divorce, starts a business, or decides to make a will or draw up a trust, that person needs a lawyer. Current estimates put the number of practicing lawyers at approximately 735,000, with the entire legal services field adding several hundred thousand more. Legal professionals can be found in many segments of society, from the government to corporations to the private practice just down the street.
Law professionals are employed in government in almost all types of law and by a variety of government agencies including the Internal Revenue Service, Department of Commerce, Department of Justice, Department of Homeland Security, Department of the Interior, Environmental Protection Agency, and the Federal Drug Administration. A vast number of law professionals work in the local, state, and federal court systems as well. Many lawyers today find work in the private sector for large and small firms and corporations. With the increasing numbers of lawsuits and the complexity of all areas of the law, the field of law is here to stay.
■ Structure The main players in the legal profession in the United States are lawyers and judges whose basic tasks are to interpret and apply the law. Basically, lawyers explain the law to their clients, advise them concerning the status of their cases, and act on their behalf in legal proceedings. Judges preside over court proceedings and make judgments concerning how laws are to be applied. Supporting these main players are paralegals, legal secretaries, court reporters, bail bondsmen, process servers, and other specialists who each play an important role in the legal system. Lawyers and judges depend on the people who work around them in these various positions. For example, a paralegal assists the lawyer by doing some of the vital grunt work that needs to be accomplished, such as interviewing witnesses, conducting research, and examining documents. Because of the many different types of laws and the various situations and people they are applied to, lawyers have opportunities to practice law in a variety of areas. Most lawyers base this choice on what subject they are interested in, the people they want to work with, and where they want to live while doing that work. The possibilities include working for a private company, a government agency, a corporate law firm, or a public interest law firm. In addition, lawyers may serve as judges or become instructors and professors in colleges or universities. Over the years, most lawyers have chosen to go into private practice, that is, providing legal services exclusively to private clients. These are the lawyers most average people contact when they need legal advice or services. A majority of private practice lawyers work by themselves, without the immediate assistance of any partners (although they may have salaried associates). Others work with colleagues in law firms that range in size from two attorneys to as many as several hundred. Typically, law firms are composed of partners, who own the practice and share expenses and earnings on an agreed basis,
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Mysteries of the Grand Jury From the O. J. Simpson case to the legal investigation into President Clinton’s activities, grand juries play a major role in our legal system. You might hear a snippet or two on the news about a grand jury meeting or evidence being brought before a grand jury, but you won’t see a grand jury on CourtTV or CNN. A grand jury reviews evidence that is presented by a prosecutor to decide whether there is enough evidence and probable cause to go ahead with a trial. That’s it. The grand jury basically says, “Yes, you’ve got enough on this guy to make us think he might have been involved in this crime,” or “No, you don’t have enough evidence to prove he was even in the same country.” Anyone who can be on a regular trial jury can be on a grand jury. The same pool of names that is picked from for regular juries is used for the grand jury selection. In the United States, you must be a citizen between the ages of 18 and 70, you must be sane, and you must have no convictions on your record. Here’s the difference though: Unlike regular jurors, the jurors for a grand jury aren’t questioned about what they believe or if they have prior knowledge of the case at hand. Unlike other courtroom situations, only certain people are allowed in: the prosecutor, grand jurors, stenographer, and witnesses. The judge is never in the grand jury room when testimony is being given. The judge only appears when there are legal questions that require a judge’s ruling. The grand jury’s activities are kept secret to keep the pressure off the jurors. Trying to decide whether to indict someone is a high-stress situation that doesn’t need to be complicated by outside pressures. It also allows witnesses to speak without fear of someone coming after them later. Anyone can be called to testify before a grand jury. Even the president of the United States cannot refuse that call. If you are issued a subpoena, you must appear before the grand jury or you will be found in contempt of court.
and associates, who are salaried lawyers working for the firm and usually expecting one day to become partners themselves. Most lawyers, particularly private practitioners, spend little time in court and handle few criminal cases. Lawyers spend most of their time in their offices, consulting with clients, doing legal research, drafting documents, and giving advice, much of which is designed to avoid a lawsuit or trial. The specific nature of the work a lawyer
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A lawyer shows a photo as evidence to the jury during a trial. (Corbis.)
does depends on whether the lawyer (or the firm) has a general practice or a specialized practice. A general practitioner is a counselor, adviser, and, at times, advocate, willing to accept employment in the broadest possible spectrum of legal problems. Of all the lawyers, it is the general practitioner who is most often called on by individuals in times of personal distress or need. As a general practitioner, a lawyer’s work includes drafting wills, settling estates, preparing contracts and leases, arranging real estate transfers, negotiating the purchase or sale of businesses or homes, solving tax problems, and handling family matters, such as divorce, separation, adoption, and child custody. In addition to trial practice, which it occasionally involves, a general practitioner’s work also includes representing workers before compensation boards and appearing for clients before other administrative bodies. Specialized practitioners limit themselves to one area of law, whether it be taxation, bankruptcy, criminal defense, estate work, personal injury cases, or any of the many other specialties. For example, probate lawyers specialize in planning and settling estates; tax attorneys handle cases involving income tax or estate tax issues. More often than not their clients are referred to them by other lawyers rather than by previous clients. Frequently, specialists are lawyers who used to have a general practice and found that they would rather devote their time to the development of a particular specialty. As a general rule, lawyers who work in firms are expected to specialize in some area. One of the reasons
for working with other lawyers rather than working alone is to save time and effort and to take advantage of the particular training or skill of each partner and associate. Although individual partners are usually responsible for certain clients, each problem that comes into the firm is usually resolved by the lawyer most qualified to treat it. For example, a general practice partnership of half a dozen lawyers is likely to have lawyers who concentrate on trial work, others who specialize in tax matters, and still others responsible for trust and estate work. This same division of labor is apparent in the large firms as well. These firms, predominantly located in major cities, have the ability to offer a wide range of highly developed specialties under one roof. They attract clients with many different needs, such as bigger businesses and wealthier individuals. They consequently develop particular expertise in the areas of the law with which their clients are most concerned, including antitrust and financial matters, international transactions, the regulation of stocks and bonds, corporate tax problems, bankruptcy, and so on. There are, in addition, whole firms devoted almost entirely to one specialty, such as intellectual property law, which involves protecting patents, trademarks, and copyrights. Besides private practice, lawyers can opt to work for the government on the federal, state, or local levels. The difference between government work and private practice is basically in the way the job is set up. In government service there is no such thing as a partnership, and government employment is always on the basis of salary. Unfortunately, the salary in government law is usually somewhat less than in private practice. Government attorneys, however, are often given greater responsibility at an earlier stage in their careers than are private practice lawyers. Government attorneys who have been out of law school only a few years often handle trials against the most prominent and skillful private practice attorneys. Often young lawyers gain valuable experience in government and then leave to establish themselves successfully in private practice. Almost all government attorneys are associated with a particular board, department, or bureau. A lawyer for the National Labor Relations Board, for example, is involved with labor law. An attorney in a state tax bureau is occupied with tax matters. A lawyer in a city attorney’s office is primarily involved with municipal law. There are some areas of government practice in which more general experience is needed, such as in the civil rights sections of the various state and federal attorneys offices. A district attorney’s specialized field is the city, county, state, or country that he or she is elected to serve. You’ll find much more specialization in government
law than in private practice. These specialists often find themselves in high demand if and when they do enter private practice. Lawyers also may work solely for a corporation. Lawyers on the legal staffs of these corporations are usually referred to as corporate or house counsels. Sometimes, but not always, they assume business responsibilities as well. A business may have only one corporate attorney, usually designated as the general counsel, or it may have a large legal staff composed of the general counsel, associate general counsels, and lesser positions commonly called assistant general counsel, senior attorney, general attorney, or simply attorney. The larger the corporation, the larger its legal staff. Because the job of a corporate attorney is to advise the corporation in legal matters that affect it, the nature of the job depends on the business in which the particular company is engaged. If the corporation is an insurance company, for example, its staff attorneys ensure that the company complies with the applicable laws and government regulations and plan the defense of litigated cases in which the company’s clients are involved. An attorney employed by an airline, railroad, or other transportation company, on the other hand, works with the various federal and state administrative boards and commissions that govern those operations. Whether a lawyer becomes a specialist or handles a more general series of problems depends on the size of the company, what kind of company it is, and the lawyer’s position within the company. Corporate legal positions traditionally offer great salaries. This is partly because they also offer a great opportunity for the lawyer who is interested in business to enter into actual management. On the other hand, there are companies in which the staff attorney is likely to feel the pinch of bureaucracy and to experience the frustrations of work common to any large organization. Another type of law practice involves public interest work. Since the mid-1960s, the public interest part of the legal profession has enlarged considerably, even though the overall percentage of lawyers working in the area is still small. Public interest lawyers represent individuals, groups, and interests that have been underrepresented in the past. A major employer of public interest lawyers is the Legal Services program, a federally funded organization that provides free legal help to the poor. The Legal Aid Society provides similar services, as do many state bar associations. Groups and interests not necessarily poverty-related also are represented by public interest lawyers. A number of law firms, largely funded by private foundations, do a lot of public interest work. In addition, there are other private organizations that support large legal
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staffs devoted to special goals. The various civil rights groups, for example, employ a number of attorneys to defend civil rights cases in courts throughout the country. The same is true for many of the special interest groups dedicated to preservation of the environment, conservation of energy, and equal opportunity for women and minorities, among dozens of other interests and sectors. Probably the most essential segments of the legal system, however, are the courts. After all, without courts and judges to preside over them, there would be no use for lawyers. On the federal level, the judicial system is made up of a series of courts. The Supreme Court is the highest court of the land and rules on issues related to the U.S. Constitution. The Supreme Court is made up of nine justices, appointed by the president with consent of the Senate, who review selected decisions made at the state level. The Circuit Court of Appeals deals with appeals of decisions made by the district courts, and reviews judgments of lower courts. The district courts are the third level of the federal court system, servicing approximately 100 zones, or districts, across the country. Each state also has its own judicial system, which is separate from the federal system. Most civil and criminal cases are tried in state courts. These cases can move on to a federal court if they are related to an issue concerning the U.S. Constitution. Most cities also have municipal courts to handle minor cases. No matter what level the court, many individuals besides the judge and the attorneys are needed to make it run smoothly. Before court is even in session, a bail bondsman plays a role. Bail bondsmen pay the bail to allow someone who has been arrested and is awaiting trial to go free for the time being. In exchange, the person who was arrested agrees to pay the bondsman a certain percentage of the bond assigned by the court. Another pretrial legal position is the process server. Process servers are licensed by the courts to serve legal papers to the people or corporations that are involved in legal disputes. Inside the courtroom, bailiffs are court officers that keep the peace of the court, make sure witnesses are ushered in and out of the courtroom, hand evidence directly to the witnesses, and maintain order. Court reporters document the events in court for the official record by transcribing the words and actions of the judge, attorneys, and witnesses. Although the court reporter, bailiff, bondsman, and process server generally receive little attention from the media, they are vital to the success of our legal system.
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Words to Know Acquit: If the court (either judge or jury) decides that the defendant is not guilty, the individual is acquitted and set free. Affidavit: A written statement detailing facts that are needed as evidence or supporting material in a court case. The statement is made under oath. Arraignment: The hearing set aside for the court to officially charge a suspect and hear the suspect’s plea of guilt or innocence. Bailiff: An official of the court whose role is to maintain order in a courtroom. Bar examination: To become licensed to practice law, it is necessary to pass the bar examination. Bar exams usually last more than one day and test the taker’s knowledge of many different legal topics. Bench: Actually the seat that the judge sits on, but more often used to refer to the person of the judge or the judge’s authority. Bench trial: A trial decided by a judge instead of a jury. Damages: Money paid to the person who wins a lawsuit against another person. The money is awarded to pay for the injury or loss caused by the losing party of the lawsuit.
■ Outlook As laws become more complicated and lawsuits more prevalent, legal services will continue to expand. According to the U.S. Department of Labor, employment of lawyers is expected to grow about as fast as the average through 2014. As the population grows and the economy expands, many more lawyers and other legal personnel will be needed to focus on such areas as elder, health care, antitrust, environmental, international, and intellectualproperty law Lawyers who want to become judges will face stiff competition, although employment of judges is expected to grow as fast as the average through 2014. The continuing public concerns about crime, safety, and efficient administration of justice should spur demand. According to the National Law Journal, the demand for corporate attorneys is strong all over the country and especially in the Southeast. Other specialty areas experiencing growth include labor and employment, health care, intellectual property, international, and trusts and estates.
Hung jury: At the end of a court trial, the jury is expected to review the evidence and give the court a final decision. If the jury cannot make that final decision, it is called a hung jury. Indictment: The grand jury returns this statement of charges if it believes a suspect is guilty. Jurisprudence: The study of law. LexisNexis, Westlaw: Online databases of legal reference sources and other research materials. Moot court: A mock court conducted with hypothetical cases to train law students. Plea bargain: When the defendant in a criminal case pleads guilty to a lesser charge in exchange for a shorter sentence. The result is that the defendant is guaranteed punishment, although perhaps not as severe as it could have been without the plea bargain. The prosecution gets the assurance of a conviction and the defendant avoids the risk of a more severe penalty. Retainer: An advance fee paid to a lawyer to ensure that the lawyer will represent the client and that the lawyer will get paid. Testimony: A declaration made under oath by a witness in response to questions from attorneys. Torts: Wrongs against individuals.
Employments for paralegals and legal assistants is expected to grow much faster than the average for all occupations through 2014. They will continue to find employment in private law firms, but there will be increasing opportunities with corporate legal departments, insurance companies, real estate and title insurance firms, and banks. Paralegals who graduate from well-respected paralegal training programs and/or those with previous experience (in other words, a quality apprenticeship or internship) will find the best jobs. Employment for court reporters is expected to grow about as fast as the average through 2014 due to an increasing number of criminal court cases and civil lawsuits at both the state and federal levels.
■ For More Information For general information on law schools and other student services, contact American Bar Association 321 North Clark Street Chicago, IL 60610-4714
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Tel: 800-285-2221 Email:
[email protected] http://www.abanet.org
For general information about law schools, contact Association of American Law Schools 1201 Connecticut Avenue, NW, Suite 800 Washington, DC 20036-2605 Tel: 202-296-8851 Email:
[email protected] http://www.aals.org
For information on working in public interest law, contact Equal Justice Works 2120 L Street, NW, Suite 450 Washington, DC 20037-1541 Tel: 202-466-3686 Email:
[email protected] http://www.equaljusticeworks.org
The FBA provides information for lawyers and judges involved in federal practice. Federal Bar Association (FBA) Student Services 2215 M Street, NW Washington, DC 20037-1483 Tel: 202-785-1614 Email:
[email protected] http://fedbar.org
For information on the Law School Admission Test, law schools, and careers in law, contact Law School Admission Council/Law School Admissions Services Tel: 215-968-1001 Email:
[email protected] http://www.lsac.org
For information about legal secretarial careers, contact the following organizations: Legal Secretaries International Inc. 2302 Fannin Street, Suite 500 Houston, TX 77002-9136 http://www.legalsecretaries.org
National Association of Legal Secretaries 314 East 3rd Street, Suite 210 Tulsa, OK 74120-2416 Tel: 918-582-5188 Email:
[email protected] http://www.nals.org
For information on choosing a law school, law careers, salaries, and alternative law careers, contact National Association for Law Placement 1025 Connecticut Avenue, NW, Suite 1110 Washington, DC 20036-5413 Tel: 202-835-1001 Email:
[email protected] http://www.nalp.org
For information about educational and licensing programs, certification, and paralegal careers, contact National Association of Legal Assistants 1516 South Boston Avenue, Suite 200 Tulsa, OK 74119-4003 Tel: 918-587-6828 Email:
[email protected] http://www.nala.org
For information on certification and court reporting careers, contact National Court Reporters Association 8224 Old Courthouse Road Vienna, VA 22182-3808 Tel: 800-272-6272 Email:
[email protected] http://www.ncraonline.org
For general information on public interest law, contact National Lawyer’s Guild 132 Nassau Street, Room 922 New York, NY 10038-2400 Tel: 212-679-5100 Email:
[email protected] http://www.nlg.org
For information about employment networks and school listings, contact National Paralegal Association PO Box 406 Solebury, PA 18963-0406 Tel: 215-297-8333 Email:
[email protected] http://www.nationalparalegal.org
For more information on the work of bail bondsmen and links of interest, visit the PBUS Web site. Professional Bail Agents of the United States (PBUS) 1301 Pennsylvania Avenue, NW, Suite 925 Washington, DC 20004-1701 Tel: 800-883-7287
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Email:
[email protected] http://www.pbus.com
For information about the legal profession in Canada, contact Canadian Bar Association 500-865 Carling Avenue Ottawa, ON K1S 5S8 Tel: 800-267-8860 Email:
[email protected] http://www.cba.org
■ Related Articles Accounting; Banking and Financial Services; Business; Government; Public Safety; Real Estate; Accountants and Auditors; Bail Bondsmen; Bailiffs; Biotechnology Patent Lawyers; Border Patrol Officers; Bounty Hunters; Court Reporters; Elder Law Attorneys; Forensic Experts; Intellectual Property Lawyers; Lawyers and Judges; Legal Nurse Consultants; Legal Secretaries; Paralegals; Polygraph Examiners; Process Servers
Letter and Package Delivery ■ Background The postal service touches the lives of virtually everyone in the nation. Letter and package carriers visit the homes and offices of millions of Americans, clerks and postmasters wait on customers at their local post offices, and thousands of postal employees work behind the scenes to process and deliver 212 billion pieces of mail each year. This service includes the delivery of letters, postcards, newspapers, catalogs, packages, and other communications. Mail service has existed in this country since 1639, when a tavern owned by Richard Fairbanks in Boston was selected by the Massachusetts General Court as the first official repository for colonial mail brought to and from overseas. In time, mail service was authorized by other colonies, but dramatic improvements eventually were made by Benjamin Franklin, who was Deputy Postmaster General of the colonies under the British from 1753 to 1774. As the 13 original colonies joined to oppose British rule in 1775, the Continental Congress formed its own postal system and appointed Franklin the first Postmaster General of the united colonies. In 1789, the Post Office was continued when the U.S. Constitution
was written, with Samuel Osgood as the first Postmaster General. It became an executive department in 1872. As the country grew, mail service expanded dramatically. The number of post offices climbed from just 75 in 1789 to a peak of nearly 77,000 in 1901. In 1847, the year postage stamps were first authorized in the United States, the Post Office handled only about six pieces of mail per year for each person in the United States. Today, the Post Office delivers 202 billion pieces of mail per year. Over the years, mail has been delivered using the most sophisticated means of transportation available. Railways were used to transport mail in the early 1830s. For a short time in the 1860s, relays of riders on horseback, called the Pony Express, delivered mail between Missouri and California. The automobile carried the mail as early as 1896, long before many Americans had seen the newfangled invention. And in May 1918, less than 15 years after Orville and Wilbur Wright launched the world’s first powered flying machine at Kitty Hawk, North Carolina, the Post Office Department had established regular airmail service between Washington, D.C., and New York City. Among the pioneer pilots who flew for the Post Office was Charles A. Lindbergh, famous for his solo flight across the Atlantic in 1927. Other famous Americans who worked for the Postal Service over the years include presidents Abraham Lincoln and Harry Truman, who were both postmasters. Actor/singer Bing Crosby and football hero Knute Rockne were postal clerks. Other unsung heroes braved the elements to deliver the mail. One was Chester Noongwook, an Alaskan American, who delivered mail by dogsled for many years on the remote Saint Lawrence Island in the Bering Sea, 120 miles west of the Alaskan mainland. His route was 120 miles round trip. Noongwook’s Alaskan huskies eventually were replaced by airplane, but not until 1963. Another unsung hero was John “Snowshoe” Thompson, who delivered mail on snowshoes over the Sierra Nevada mountain range between Nevada and California in the mid-1800s. As the volume of mail skyrocketed after World War II, the Post Office Department began searching for new ways to process and deliver mail more efficiently to offset growing postal deficits. In the 1950s, postal officials initiated research into mechanized and automated mailprocessing machines. Mechanized postal equipment can cull, cancel, and sort mail at a reasonably rapid rate, but these machines are fairly labor intensive compared with automation. Mechanization was deployed in the late 1950s and is still used in post offices today. Automation uses more sophisticated, computer-driven machines operated by only a few people. Automated equipment
was tested in the 1960s and 1970s, and was used regularly in post offices beginning in 1983. One breakthrough in the efficiency of mail processing was the inauguration of the zip code (Zoning Improvement Plan) in 1963, an extension of the one- and twodigit zone numbers first used during World War II. Before the zip code, each envelope or package had to be read as many as 10 different times before final delivery. Each reading consumed valuable time. Use of the zip code eliminated many of the readings, reduced the chances of human error, and eventually formed the basis for the processing of mail using mechanized and automated equipment. Zip codes are assigned to every address in the nation. The first digit represents a broad geographical area, ranging from zero for the northeast to nine for the West Coast. The second two digits pinpoint population centers and large postal facilities (called sectional centers) accessible to common transportation networks. The last two digits identify small post offices or zones in the larger cities. With zip codes, mail is sent from the sectional center nearest the point of origin directly to the sectional center nearest its destination. From there it is dispatched to its ultimate delivery point. In 1978, the Postal Service began developing plans for an expanded zip code. Implemented in 1983, this system, called zip + 4, adds four digits to the end of existing zip codes. Zip + 4 applies primarily to business mailers and works by providing the potential for automated sorting to each block of a street and to office buildings and companies receiving large volumes of mail. Today, zip codes can be as long as 11 digits, for example, 10026-4576-98. The first digit of the zip code still refers to a specific part of the country and the second two digits still identify the sectional center. As the addition of the four numbers originally specified the delivery area for businesses, these four digits identify the delivery sector in neighborhoods as well. Finally, the last two digits pinpoint the specific address on the route. Use of the add-on digits is not required of the average mailer, but it can expedite the sorting process. Automated letter sorting hinges largely on two machines: the optical character reader (OCR) and bar code sorter (BCS). An OCR reads addresses at a rate of 40,000 envelopes per hour and sprays bar codes in the lower-right hand corner of envelopes. Subsequent sorts are performed by bar code sorters. In 1988, the Postal Service set a goal that a bar code (a series of vertical lines similar to universal product codes) would be placed on virtually all letter mail by 1995. Today, digital imaging and optical character recognition sort-
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A mail carrier with the United States Postal Service sorts through packages while loading her truck before heading out on her route. (Associated Press/David Doemland.)
ing machines are used to handle this task. Much of the bulk mail that makes its way through the postal system already has a bar code, so that mail is routed directly to the machines that read the bar codes. Mail that doesn’t have a preprinted bar code but does have a typed or printed address is sent to a mail sorting machine that uses a camera to take a picture of the typed addresses so that the computer can interpret the image and cause the correct bar code to be printed on the mail. In the future, the post office hopes to be using OCR equipment that can read handwritten addresses so that those letters without printed addresses can be read and bar coded the same way. For now, if the sorting machine cannot read the address because it is handwritten, a Silicon Graphics computer uses more sophisticated methods to devise the image. If successful, the bar code is placed on the mail, if not successful, the mail is sent to a postal worker who reads the address and types it into the system. The mail is sent back through the sorting machines so that the correct bar code can be applied. Larger sorting centers are using the approximately 875 OCR machines owned by the United States Postal Service (USPS), while thousands of sorting machines are used in post offices all over the country. Congress occasionally discusses making the USPS a private enterprise. Discussions range from breaking up the four classes of mail to selling the entire enterprise to a private firm. However, the public’s resistance to private postal service has restricted any major change in the Post Office. The biggest segment of private post competition is in the overnight and package delivery business.
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Numbers About Letters ■
Every mail carrier delivers about 2,300 pieces of mail a day to 500 addresses.
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The USPS employs 773,000 career employees.
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The United States boasts 37,000 post offices.
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The USPS delivers more than 44 percent of the world’s card and letter mail volume.
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The USPS pays $2 billion in employee salaries and benefits every two weeks.
Source: United States Postal Service
Two major competitors to the government Postal Service, Federal Express and United Parcel Service (UPS), developed systems for same-day, overnight, and two-day package and document delivery. Other, smaller companies also provide overnight and package delivery services to the United States and abroad. The Postal Service also faces competition from electronic mail and faxing. However, it is not expected that alternative delivery systems and email will affect the volume of mail handled by the USPS. In fact, mail volume is expected to continue to increase, as population growth and partnerships with express delivery companies stimulate demand for mail delivery. The Postal Service is responding to this competition with new technologies, such as electronic postmarks, online bill-paying, and online stamp purchasing and postage that can be downloaded from a personal computer and printed onto an envelope or mailing label.
■ Structure Under the Postal Reorganization Act of 1970, the Postal Service began operations as an independent establishment of the executive branch on July 1, 1971, with its own hiring and pay procedures. In 2004, the U.S. Postal Service employed 75,000 clerks; 335,000 mail carriers; and 209,000 mail sorters, processors, and processing machine operators. In 2004, there were approximately 773,000 career employees working for the U.S. Postal Service. Temporary workers, many of whom are young people, are hired to help at peak periods, including the Christmas holidays. After a probationary period of three months, temporary workers are eligible for career employment. The two largest private delivery firms are United Parcel Service, with some 348,000 U.S. employees, and Federal Express with more than 260,000. In 2005, UPS
delivered 3.75 billion packages and documents, serving 7.9 million daily customers in the United States and 200 other countries and territories. Federal Express delivers more than 6 million packages a day in the United States and in 220 other countries. Unseen by the general public, the giant workrooms in the post offices and private delivery companies are busy centers of activity. At all hours of the day and night, an endless flow of mail moves from unloading platforms through the workrooms and out to loading platforms. In the workrooms, the mail goes through a series of separations in which it is sorted according to its type of mail and destination. Part-time employees make up a large percentage of the package handlers and sorting staff, partly because the time required for the rush period of package movement is less than the standard eight-hour day. For both the government Postal Service and the private companies, the sorting room is often the beginning for people who make a career of letter and package delivery. Working in the sorting room is an ideal way to learn how these companies work, and work experience in this area aids in advancement in the company. Highly developed merit promotion programs are also available. With experience, knowledge, and common sense it is possible to secure positions of increasing responsibility and recognition. Promotion from within is favored. Members of the Postal Service staff have been responsible for the development of automated and mechanical mail-handling equipment and improved management techniques for coping with the avalanche of letters and packages that go through the system each day. Often, employees with ideas and talent work themselves up the employment ranks to planning and supervisory positions. Because most mail is generated in larger urban areas, there is a concentration of employees in the big cities. Large centers of employment include New York, Chicago, Los Angeles, Boston, San Francisco, Philadelphia, and Houston. Wages, hours, and working conditions are negotiated through collective bargaining between management and several unions and associations. Three of the unions— the National Association of Letter Carriers, the American Postal Workers Union, and the National Postal Mail Handlers Union—are affiliated with the AFL-CIO. A fourth union is the National Rural Letter Carriers Association. UPS is unionized by the International Brotherhood of Teamsters Parcels Division. Most full-time postal employees work an eight-hour day, five days per week. A full-time employee who works the nightshift or overtime receives additional compensation.
Until 1992, individual post offices were under the jurisdiction of a multiple-level field structure, beginning with five regional offices. This regional office structure has since been replaced by a structure made up of 10 areas. Each area has two managers, one for Customer Services and one for Processing and Distribution. At the next level, 85 Customer Service districts and 350 Processing and Distribution centers were created. Each area also has a marketing/sales office. In addition, employees in Postal Data Centers perform centralized payroll, timekeeping, and other financial functions. There are other support installations, such as the supply centers, which fill acquisitions for supplies, and the mailbag repair centers and mail equipment shops. Post office employees perform many nonpostal services, too. Among other things, they distribute alien address report cards, accept passport applications, and provide assistance to the Census Bureau.
■ Outlook Competition for jobs in the Postal Service is strong. The U.S. Postal Service expects employment to decrease due to the growing efficiency of mail processing and delivery through automation. Comparatively few postal employees leave their jobs for other occupations before normal retirement age. Although the USPS annual mail volume is 212 billion pieces, the U.S. Department of Labor predicts that postal clerk and mail carrier jobs are expected to decline through 2014. Employment growth among distribution clerks will be slowed by the increasing use of automated materials handling equipment and optical character readers, bar-code sorters, and other automated sorting equipment. However, the expected increase in mail volume will require additional clerks. This increased mail volume will not necessarily mean more jobs for mail carriers. The use of the delivery point sequencing system, which allows machines to sort mail directly to the order of delivery, should decrease the amount of time carriers spend sorting their mail, allowing them more time to handle long routes. More widespread use of cluster boxes is also expected to cut down on the number of door-to-door deliveries increasing carrier productivity and leading to a small employment decline for these workers. Due to contract negotiations between the Teamsters Union and UPS, many more full-time positions at UPS should be available in the coming years. Although many part-time positions will be combined to make these new full-time jobs, UPS will still hire many part-timers to sort packages. Competition for jobs in the private delivery industry is not as tight as it is with the government Postal Service. With the expansion of delivery
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Words to Know Aerogramme: Lightweight stationery that folds into a mailing envelope to be sent to other countries. Carrier technician: A carrier who performs multiple routes in a rotating order to fill in for regular carriers on their days off. Casing: Another term for sorting mail for delivery. Certificate of mailing: Document that provides a receipt showing evidence of mailing. Certified mail: The sender gets a receipt and a record of the delivery is kept at the post office. Collect on delivery (COD): Payment for an item is collected when the item is delivered. Electronic postmark: Postal time and date stamp for tracking email. Express mail: Postal service of overnight delivery, available 365 days a year. Missile mail: A postal delivery experiment in 1959 that sent 3,000 letters to mainland Florida in a guided missile. Money order: A safe way to send money through the mail. Optical character reader (OCR): Machine that reads bar codes to sort mail. Postal inspector: Person who investigates criminal acts against the postal system. Postal Rate Commission: Five-member independent agency that recommends postal rates and services. Postmaster: Person who oversees the workers in a post office. Processing center: Facility where mail is sorted and grouped for delivery to post offices. Snail mail: Slang term used to describe the postal system as compared to electronic mail.
services, such as Federal Express, UPS, and DHL, staffing continues to rise. Private companies are also more likely to consider young people without work experience, or with only summer job experience. It is easiest to move up from inside the company, rather than applying for a middle management position after gaining work experience elsewhere. Moving into the private delivery service becomes much more difficult as position rank increases. As private firms expand into international delivery, employment abroad becomes an option for management staff. Although ground delivery staff may be hired from the host country, the development and management staff may be selected from U.S. employees. The international market is increasing rapidly and will develop new opportunities for hiring.
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Tel: 703-524-5011 Email:
[email protected] http://www.astl.org
Council of Supply Chain Management Professionals 333 East Butterfield Road, Suite 140 Lombard, IL 60148 Tel: 630-574-0985 http://www.cscmp.org
For employment information, contact the following organizations: DHL http://www.dhl-usa.com This equipment sorts parcels and other odd-sized pieces of mail. (U.S. Postal Service.)
FedEx http://www.fedex.com/us/careers
■ For More Information
United Parcel Service of America
The following union organizations offer information about employment: American Postal Workers Union
http://www.upsjobs.com
1300 L Street, NW, Suite 525 Washington, DC 20005-4107 Tel: 202-842-4200 http://www.apwu.org
National Association of Letter Carriers 100 Indiana Avenue, NW Washington, DC 20001-2144 Tel: 202-393-4695 Email:
[email protected] http://www.nalc.org
National Postal Mail Handlers Union 1101 Connecticut Avenue, NW, Suite 500 Washington, DC 20036-4303 Tel: 202-833-9095 http://www.npmhu.org
National Rural Letter Carriers Association 1630 Duke Street, Fourth Floor Alexandria, VA 22314-3465 Tel: 703-684-5545 http://www.nrlca.org
For information on shipping and delivery careers, contact the following: American Society of Transportation and Logistics 1700 North Moore Street, Suite 1900 Arlington, VA 22209-2793
For information about eligibility and qualifying examinations for the U.S. Postal Service, consult your local post office or state employment service. Current information on the Postal Service also is summarized annually in the U.S. Government Manual. For general information on postal employment, contact U.S. Postal Service Tel: 800-275-8777 http://www.usps.gov
■ Related Articles Government; Packaging; Shipping; Transportation; Aircraft Mechanics; Airplane Dispatchers; Mail Carriers; Pilots; Postal Clerks; Route Drivers; Truck Drivers
Literary Arts ■ Background From the earliest times, people have wanted to communicate with other people, and one of the best means of communication is language. Before the invention of writing, people could only transmit information orally. After writing was invented, which may have occurred in Sumer in approximately 4000 b.c., writers could communicate with people who were not within speaking distance. Written communication took various forms in various cultures, and over the centuries a wide range of
forms came into existence. As time passed, these forms were developed and refined. The term literature, which derives directly or indirectly from litterâtûra, the Latin word for “alphabet,” is often used loosely to refer to many genres, or types, of writing. Among these genres are novels, short stories, plays, poems, and essays. To most people, however, the term literature means writing of high quality. Some novels, for example, although they may be popular, are not considered literature. In general, literature is considered to be work that is good enough to survive and be read long after its author’s death. The term literary arts refers to those arts that are related to the creation of literature. Forms of literature can be roughly divided into three categories: prose, poetry, and drama. The word prose comes from a Latin term that means straightforward discourse, and the term is most often used to differentiate prose forms from poetry, which is usually not absolutely straightforward. Any literary work that is not poetical is a work of prose. Nonfiction prose includes essays, diaries, biographies, and scholarly works. Fiction prose includes novels and short stories. One of the most important prose forms is the novel. No one knows precisely when the first works that we would now consider novels were written, but we do know that Egyptians were writing novelistic works of fiction as early as 1200 b.c. As early as the first and second centuries a.d., Roman authors produced works that could be considered rudimentary novels. Toward the end of the first millennium a.d., the Japanese, writing in a form called monogatari, which means tales, produced a number of novelistic works. The greatest and most famous of these is Genji Monogatari (The Tale of Genji), which was written in approximately 1000 and may be the first true psychological novel. This important work was written by Murasaki Shikibu, a female member of the Japanese imperial court. In Europe, the greatest early novel was Miguel Cervantes’s Don Quixote de la Mancha (1605, 1615), a satire of the social structure in Spain. The modern novel is generally Western in form and style. Even modern Asian and African novelists have been powerfully influenced by the forms and conventions of the novel that developed throughout Europe during the past three centuries. The human urge to create poetry is basic, and forms of poetry have developed in virtually every human society. Poetry is linked with music, and, like music, it relies on rhythm, or meter. Many forms of poetry have specific meters and rhyme schemes, characteristics that emphasize the sound of the words used. Rhythm is important even in poetry that does not rely on strict meter. Sound is important in prose, but it is even more important in
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Words to Know Advance: A payment to an author that is paid after a publishing contract is signed and before the work contracted to be done is completed. Book proposal: A letter in which an author suggests an idea for a book to a publisher. Doggerel: Verse of poor quality. Essay: A flexible literary form, usually in prose, which discusses one or more topics either formally or informally. Fiction: In literature, work that is based on imagination rather than fact. Kill fee: A fee paid to an author whose work has been accepted for publication but is not published. Literary agent: A person who locates a publisher for an author’s work and negotiates the best possible deal for the author, receiving as a fee a percentage of the total amount paid to the author. Nonfiction: Work that is based on fact rather than on imagination. Novel: A long work of prose fiction. Plagiarism: Misrepresenting another person’s work as one’s own. Playwright: A writer who creates works for the stage. Reader’s fee: A fee paid to an expert in a field who reads and evaluates a manuscript that a publisher is considering for publication; some academic publishers require potential authors to pay readers’ fees. Screenwriter: A writer who creates works for film or television. Small press: A publishing company that produces a small number of books per year. Verse: Refers to poetic form rather than content. All poetry is verse, but all verse is not poetry, which is a term that is usually reserved for verse of particularly high value. Work for hire: An agreement between an author and a publisher stipulating that the publisher, not the author, will hold the copyright to the work.
poetry. In many societies, poetry is sung or recited with musical accompaniment. Although some poets write primarily with the printed page in mind, it is safe to say that the vast majority of poets create their poems with the voice in mind. Works of drama are designed to be performed by actors. Dramatic works, like works of poetry and prose, were developed in many different cultures throughout the world, in places such as Greece, China, and Western Europe. Dramatic works may be either realistic or stylized. Certain Asian forms of drama, such as the Japanese
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Noh theater, in which the actors wear masks, are highly stylized and ritualized, while Western works are, on the whole, more realistic. Modern dramatic works may be written for any one of a number of media, including the stage, film, television, and radio.
■ Structure Writers constitute by far the largest segment of the literary arts community, although publishers, editors, and literary agents who deal exclusively or primarily with literature must also be considered members of that community. Publishers such as James Laughlin of New Directions (who has published innumerable important works), and editors such as Harry E. Maule (who worked with Sinclair Lewis and Edna Ferber) and Maxwell Perkins (who worked with Tom Wolfe, F. Scott Fitzgerald, and Ernest Hemingway) have played important roles in the history of 20th-century publishing. Although there are some opportunities for literary writers in the world of commercial publishing—especially in high-profile magazines such as the New Yorker, Atlantic Monthly, and Esquire, and in some book houses, which often make little money on literary works but make up for the shortfall in more profitable areas of their businesses—for the most part, literary works are published by small presses, university presses, and literary periodicals. Publishers at small literary presses are typically devoted to literature and go out of their way to publish the best works they can find. Most of them have made their peace with small profits, but they, like all other publishers, try to be as profitable as possible. Because they have small profit margins, they cannot pay their authors very well, but those authors usually do not mind, since they know that the publisher is not getting rich at their expense. Besides, many
Author Deepak Chopra speaks at a book signing. (Michael Rosenfeld, Tony Stone Images.)
of those authors would not be able to find publishers at all if it were not for dedicated small press publishers. University presses are also important outlets for literary publishing. University presses do not experience the same degree of pressure to make profits that commercial publishers experience, but they try to do as well as they can. These presses tend to publish books written by academics, since they are located in academic communities, but each press has its own specialty; university presses are always looking for well-written and well-researched books in their areas of interest. Among the best arenas for literary writers are literary magazines and journals. Some of these magazines are independent commercial ventures, but a substantial number of them, such as Ploughshares and Carolina Quarterly, are run by universities. Publication in one of the major literary journals, such as the Paris Review (an independent publication), can enhance a writer’s reputation and increase the likelihood that his or her work will be published elsewhere. In addition, the best works published in these journals are selected and republished by annual prize anthologies such as The Best American Short Stories and Pushcart Prize: Best of the Small Presses.
■ Outlook The financial outlook for virtually all members of the literary arts community is poor. Competition among writers who wish to be published is fierce, and all but a tiny minority of those who do publish must find another way to make a living. Academic writers, for example, are usually not paid by academic journals. When they are paid, they receive a token payment, an amount of money that would be rejected as a bad joke by skilled workers in other professions. What they gain from publishing is the prestige of placing their work in a well-known journal in their field. In a recent survey of academic writers conducted by the National Writers Union (NWU), almost 50 percent of academic writers stated that they made less than $2,000 per year for their writing. The financial outlook for poets is extremely poor. Even the most famous poets rarely make a living from their writing. Most poetry publications do not pay at all, pay in copies of their publications, or pay minuscule amounts of money that are akin to those paid by some academic journals. Roughly three-fourths of those who read literary magazines are writers. The situation is little better for writers of fiction. Some commercial book publishers and magazines pay well for literary fiction, but many good writers compete for a few places in those publications. An excellent writer is likely to find a publisher but is not likely to make much
machining and machinery
money. Many of the top magazines and book houses favor known writers, although it is true that almost all acquisitions editors are on the lookout for outstanding new writers. Many publishers will not even talk with authors who are not represented by a literary agent. People write literary works because they love the act of creating and cannot be happy if they are not doing what they think they are meant to do, not because they expect to become wealthy. The fact is that almost all literary writers must find another way to make a living. Of course, there are exceptions, but even most writers with famous names must teach at universities, teach writing workshops, and sometimes publish nonliterary work such as commercial magazine articles in order to pay their bills and support their families. In spite of the difficulties, however, many writers love the work they do and would not give it up for something more financially rewarding.
■ For More Information The Authors Guild provides writers with services and information related to the legal and business aspects of writing. The organization also publishes the Author’s Guild Journal, a quarterly publication. The Authors Guild 31 East 28th Street, 10th Floor New York, NY 10016-7923 Tel: 212-563-5904 Email:
[email protected] http://www.authorsguild.org
The NWA provides a wide range of services to writers, including chapbook publishing services, critiques, editing, and a literary agency. National Writers Association (NWA) 10940 South Parker Road, #508 Parker, CO 80134-7440 Tel: 303-841-0246 http://www.nationalwriters.com
The WGA, an organization for screenwriters, publishes various informational booklets that can be purchased by nonmembers. Writers Guild of America (WGA) East Chapter 555 West 57th Street, Suite 1230 New York, NY 10019-2925 Tel: 212-767-7800 http://www.wgaeast.org
Writers Guild of America (WGA) West Chapter 7000 West Third Street
Los Angeles, CA 90048-4321 Tel: 800-548-4532 http://www.wga.org
The following Web site provides a wide range of material of interest to writers, including links to literary magazines. Writer’s Resource Center http://www.poewar.com
■ Related Articles Book Publishing; Newpapers and Magazines; Publishing; Book Editors; Columnists; Diet and Fitness Writers; Editors; Indexers; Lexicographers; Magazine Editors; Newspaper Editors; Science and Medical Writers; Screenwriters; Technical Writers and Editors; Writers
Machining and Machinery ■ Background The machining and machinery industry manufactures metal parts that are used to make machines, tools, and other machine parts. In other words, the industry creates metal machines that make other machines. The machining and machinery industry also produces parts for such items as engines, tools, and other machinery. It is, in effect, the first stage of the manufacturing process. This industry covers, for example, the manufacture of boring or jig machines that produce nuts and bolts, as well as the production of the nuts and bolts themselves. Although humans have used wheels and other tools since the dawn of history, the use of machine tools is relatively recent. When the Scottish inventor James Watt experimented with steam engines in the mid-1700s, he could not find anyone who could drill a perfect hole; thus his engines leaked steam. Then in 1775, Englishman John Wilkinson invented the first relatively accurate machine tool, a mill to bore cylinders for Watt’s steam engine. Several years later, Matthew Murray, Joseph Clement, and Richard Murray developed the planer, which could be used to smooth holes and flat surfaces to the necessary degrees. Henry Maudslay introduced the concept of precision to heavy machinery. Previously only watches and scientific instruments were made with this degree of precision. The early 1880s saw the development of the first screw-cutting lathe, which remains the standard today. Also about that time, electric motors began making major improvements in industrial productivity.
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This period in the 19th century, which came to be known as the industrial revolution, brought about the mass production of many products. As new entrepreneurs and inventors emerged, the number of manufacturing plants on both sides of the Atlantic grew, as did the demand for machine tools and equipment. The United States gradually became the principle producer of machine tools. The most rapid growth came, however, during World Wars I and II when there was a huge demand for tanks, planes, jeeps, ships, and guns. Machines had to be devised to turn out the required parts. After World War II, the numbers and types of consumer goods that Americans desired continued to increase, and the mass-production methods developed for war were converted and improved to accommodate those demands. Electrical control mechanisms were refined during the 1940s, and when computers were introduced into
Machining History Nestled in the quaint town of Windsor, Vermont’s first capital, you will find the American Precision Museum, which has the largest collection of historic precision machine tools in the country. Where else would you be able to view a 1921 Jones & Lamson 2" x 24" flat turret lathe with cross-sliding head, equipped for bar work? Or see a unique collection of miniature engines and scale model machines? Housed in the original Robbins & Lawrence Armory and Machine Shop that was built in 1846, the museum is one of several historic buildings still standing in Windsor. According to the museum, Robbins & Lawrence was contracted by the government to manufacture 10,000 Mississippi rifles. In the process, the company developed and produced precision machine tools that were interchangeable. The museum exhibits all of the guns that were manufactured in the building during its long history. A corner of the museum is set up as it might have been in the 1850s. Some of the machines still operate and can be started by pushing a button. The museum also features revolving exhibits, such as Pedal Power, which shows early bicycles and how they were adapted to run other machines. Additionally, the Early American Industries Association (EAIA) is a nationwide group for inveterate history buffs that encourages the study and preservation of obsolete tools, implements, and mechanical devices. It has both individual and institutional members who meet annually in Scranton, Pennsylvania, home of the Steamtown National Historic Site. Visit the EAIA Web site (http://www.eaiainfo.org) for more information.
industry, the nature of many manufacturing operations changed. Automated equipment, including robotics, now perform many operations formerly done by machine operators and other precision metalworkers. Computercontrolled equipment is being used to program machines and to design and manufacture machine tools. As technology continues to advance, machines are becoming increasingly more sophisticated and able to produce highly precise machined parts.
■ Structure People often think of the machining and machinery industry as being limited to operating machine tools. A machine tool is a power-driven machine, not portable by hand, that is used to shape or form metal by cutting, impact, pressure, electrical techniques, or by a combination of these processes. Operating a machine tool, however, is just one of the many occupations in the machining and machinery industry. To remain competitive, companies must invent, improve, and anticipate the future needs of its customers. To accomplish these goals, the industry needs a variety of competent and creative workers. In this industry, the development process begins with research engineers, and in some cases, industrial designers, who analyze market needs and decide what new products are in demand. They are usually part of a team that includes marketing specialists, production personnel, sale representatives, and manufacturing experts. Once the research team has envisioned a new product, design engineers and technicians devise the method of its construction. A manufacturing engineer then designs the machines, or the configuration of equipment, that will construct the product. Once the product has been designed, the rest of the manufacturing process simply involves creating the item. However, depending on what the product is—a mold for an injection-molding machine, a plastic component for a cellular phone, or a component part for another machine, for example—the subsequent production steps will vary. Many types of workers are involved in all aspects of the machining and machinery industry. For example, in addition to design engineers and industrial designers, there are workers such as general maintenance mechanics, who operate and repair machines and mechanical equipment. More complex power-generating equipment in industrial plants is operated and maintained by stationary engineers, who receive specialized training. Some workers, like boilermakers and millwrights, install huge pieces of machinery. Precision machinists construct machines, while layout workers and job setters prepare workpieces and machines for operation.
Industrial engineers devise efficient processes that use machines and workers together, and in manufacturing, mechanical engineers develop the specifications for machines and tools. Instrument makers design the electrical equipment that measures and regulates machine operation, while numerical control tool programmers write the computer instructions to run machines. Precision metalworkers, such as tool and die makers and mold makers, design and produce dies and molds that manufacture products with machines. Fluid power technicians install and maintain component parts of machines. Finally, in the field of nondestructive testing, industrial radiographers and laser technicians utilize techniques to determine the quality of products made by machines and components that will be used in machines. Each of the careers in this industry offers its own opportunities for advancement. Workers with the best potential, however, are those who become skilled at what they do, seek further training or education, and always remain aware that changing technology and a global economy will affect jobs and opportunities in their industry. Trade associations and unions, in an effort to improve the skill level of workers and keep them in the industry, often offer multiple levels of training and certification. Some are short-term programs, but many last several years because of the knowledge required in specific jobs. In order to advance in their careers, some workers who enter the machining and machinery industry choose to travel the road from apprentice to journeyworker. Others choose to move from programming or tool and die making to design, while still others become trainers and supervisors or move into technical sales and customer support. Those who dream of owning their business should remember that most of the small businesses in this industry are owned by people who came up through the ranks.
■ Outlook The state of the machining and machinery industry is closely tied to economic conditions. However, even when the economy improves as it did in the latter part of the 1990s, there seems to be a lag time of about one year before machine tool shipments reflect that improvement. Also, industry analysts say that uncertainty has started to affect manufacturing executives who are deciding whether to invest in new machinery. They cite several factors that are dimming prospects for increased factory capital spending. These include an emerging crunch in credit, which is shrinking the money available for capital loans that would be used to purchase new machinery.
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A mechanic performs minor repair work on a machine. (Corbis.)
Statistics on machine tool consumption indicate that the machine tool industry went into a slump in the early 1980s, and despite periods of increased orders, it has never completely come back. Analysts do see some bright spots, however. The automotive industry, which accounts for almost half of machine tool orders, needs to replace some of its aging equipment. Also, there has been growth in the nonelectric machinery industry, which includes food-processing equipment. Although economic conditions did improve during the late 1990s, employment opportunities did not increase proportionately. Many companies laid off machining workers during the past decade and are hiring fewer workers than in the past. In addition, automation is affecting employment opportunities for some workers in the machining industry (although automation does create some machinist jobs in the area of machine repair, supervision, and maintenance). The manufacturing industry has been revolutionized by highly productive, computer-controlled machining and turning centers that change their own tools; transfer machines that completely machine, assemble, and test mass-produced products; and innovative metal removal and forming systems. Robots and robotic equipment are becoming more
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common and are being used in many areas where the work is tedious, repetitious, or dangerous. Automated inspection equipment, such as electronic sensors, cameras, X-rays, and lasers, is increasingly being used to test and inspect parts during production. All of these factors have affected the machinery industry. The use of computers and automated equipment is resulting in fewer opportunities for machine operators and layout workers. According to Occupational Outlook Handbook, employment of industrial machinery repairers and machinists is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations through 2014. A decline is expected in the employment of tool and die makers and for computer numerical control (CNC) programmers due to strong foreign competition,. However, despite sluggish employment growth in the machining industry, the U.S. Department of Labor predicts that job opportunities for machinists will be excellent due to the increased
numbers of automated production processes that require the supervision of skilled machinists and a relative lack of candidates entering training programs. Even if actual production levels fall, machinists are still needed to repair, monitor, and control expensive automated equipment. Employers value the skills that good machinists bring to manufacturing, as they are often versatile and able to handle a large number of contingencies. For this reason, skilled machine workers will be in demand for the foreseeable future.
■ For More Information For information on scholarships as well as facts about the machine tool industry, contact Association for Manufacturing Technology 7901 Westpark Drive McLean, VA 22102-4206 Tel: 703-893-2900 http://www.mfgtech.org
For information about the custom precision manufacturing industry, contact National Institute for Metalworking Skills 3251 Old Lee Highway, Suite 205 Fairfax, VA 22030-1504 Tel: 703-352-4971 Email:
[email protected] http://www.nims-skills.org
National Tooling & Machining Association 9300 Livingston Road Fort Washington, MD 20744-4988 Tel: 800-248-6862 http://www.ntma.org
For information on careers and educational programs in the machining and machinery industry, contact Precision Machined Products Association 6700 West Snowville Road Brecksville, OH 44141-3292 Tel: 440-526-0300 http://www.pmpa.org
For information about career opportunities in tooling and machining as well as skill development programs, contact Precision Metalforming Association and Educational Foundation
A steam turbine rotor in its casing during manufacture. (General Electric.)
6363 Oak Tree Boulevard Independence, OH 44131-2500 Tel: 216-901-8800 http://www.pma.org
Machining and Machinery
Words to Know Computer numerical control (CNC): A selfcontained numerical control (NC) system for a machine tool utilizing a dedicated computer that is directed by stored instructions to perform some or all of the basic NC functions; can become part of a direct numerical control (DNC) system. Custom precision manufacturing industry: Composed of mostly small businesses; companies design and manufacture special tools, dies, jigs, fixtures, gauges, special machines, and precision machined parts. Direct numerical control (DNC) system: Connects from two to more than 50 machine tools, each with its own NC or CNC unit, to a common supervisory computer. Electrical discharge machining (EDM): A method of removing metal by a series of rapidly recurring electrical discharges between a tool (electrode) and a workpiece in the presence of a dielectric fluid; could be defined as one of several types of chipless machining processes. Electronic control: The use of electronic techniques to control machines, machine tools, power, and data. Fluid power industry: Composed of three large segments: mobile hydraulic, industrial hydraulic, and pneumatic; includes hydraulic and pneumatic pumps, cylinders, rotary actuators, motors, valves, and other products. Industrial revolution: Started in Great Britain in the late 18th century and spread to Europe and the United States by the early 19th century; changed the way goods were produced from individual craftspeople to mass production; ultimately changed societal structure of those countries. Laser beam machining: A chipless machining process for cutting, drilling, slotting, or scribing metal parts.
■ Related Articles Manufacturing; Boilermakers and Mechanics; Fluid Power Technicians; General Maintenance Mechanics; Industrial Designers; Industrial Engineering Technicians; Industrial Engineers; Industrial Machinery Mechanics; Industrial Radiographers; Instrument Mak-
Machinery: A group or groups of parts that are arranged to perform a useful function, such as an automobile, appliance, or manufacturing equipment; some machines give people a mechanical advantage in completing a task while others perform functions that no person could do for long, continuous periods. Machine tools: Tools used on various machines for cutting, drilling, and so forth; also, machines that are used in manufacturing facilities. Machining: Any one or group of operations that changes the shape, surface finish, or mechanical properties of a material by using special tools and equipment. Measurement and control system: Used in most industries to measure and analyze the variables involved in production operations, including measurements of pressure, temperature, composition, and flow; controls automatically make adjustments to maintain smooth operations. Nondestructive testing (NDT): Test that examines an object or material but does not affect its future usefulness; methods include visualoptical, liquid-penetrant, magnetic-particle, eddy current, ultrasonic, and radiographic. NDT can detect internal or external imperfections; determine structure, composition, or material properties; and assess quality. Numerical control: Numeric data stored on magnetic tapes or disks, or punched tapes or cards, that operates machine tools; the data are usually produced by computer from design data. Precision metal worker: Generic term that refers to tool and die makers, mold makers, and precision machinists. Tool: A device, instrument, or machine that performs an operation, such as a hammer, lathe, screwdriver, or drill press.
ers and Repairers; Instrumentation Technicians; Job and Die Setters; Laser Technicians; Layout Workers; Machine Tool Operators; Mechanical Engineering Technicians; Mechanical Engineers; Millwrights; Numerical Control Tool Programmers; Precision Machinists; Precision Metalworkers; Stationary Engineers
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Manufacturing ■ Background From ancient Greek clay pots to Roman bronze weapons and building materials, humans have demonstrated the need to produce goods. By the Renaissance, Europeans were manufacturing gunpowder, clothing, and other goods for trade with people in faraway lands and across the oceans. They built factories where goods were produced by hand with simple tools or with water-powered machines. Several major inventions fueled the industrial revolution, which began around 1750 and began to employ the many workers necessary for mass-production processes. Mass production meant that many more goods could be produced at a time. The steam engine was engineered as the new power source for machinery, further increasing the rate of production. Soon the assembly line was introduced to the manufacturing process. The assembly line allowed products to be sent from station to station to be made in stages, with each worker contributing work to a product’s completion. Henry Ford and his colleagues contributed the conveyor belt to the world of manufacturing early in the 20th
Manufacturing: An Essential Part of the U.S. Economy In a time when almost every sector of the U.S. manufacturing industry is experiencing cutbacks and setbacks due to foreign competition, the National Association of Manufacturers offers the following evidence of why U.S. manufacturing is as vital as ever: ■ Every $1.00 of manufacturing goods generates an additional $1.37 of economic activity. ■
Manufacturers are responsible for almost three-fourths of private research and development, which promotes growth in all manufacturing and nonmanufacturing areas.
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The United States is the world’s largest exporter, and almost 62 percent of exported goods are manufactured goods.
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Manufacturing employee compensation (salary and wages) averages $63,000, which is among the highest in the private sector. Manufacturing also leads all industries in employee training.
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Manufacturing contributes one-third of all taxes collected by state and local governments, which is money that promotes economic growth in all types of industries.
century. This device tripled the speed of production with its ability to drive the assembly line. Today, computer technology plays a significant role in the manufacturing process. Computers are important in assembling products, testing their effectiveness, and tracking production rates. While computers have made the process much more efficient since the days of steam engines, automation has also eliminated the need for many jobs. Computer-programmed robotic machinery now performs many of the duties people once handled. Robotics and other computer technology will continue to be at the forefront of manufacturing in the future. Manufacturing in the United States declined rapidly in the last half of the 20th century and has been declining further in the first years of the 21st century. In the 1960s, almost 30 percent of all workers were employed in manufacturing, but that number dropped to less than 16 percent by the mid-1990s. Further steep declines in manufacturing have occurred in recent years, with three million manufacturing jobs being lost since July 2000. As of 2004, manufacturing jobs have declined by 5.2 million since their peak in 1979. There are many reasons for the decline in manufacturing. There is more consumer demand for and more money spent on service industries than manufactured goods. Technological advancements are more easily adapted to manufacturing processes, allowing increased productivity with fewer workers. More companies have moved factories overseas where labor is less expensive. And small manufacturers have been squeezed out of business by their inability to compete with large firms that can afford the latest technology and can expand operations to all parts of the world.
■ Structure Manufacturing covers a wide range of industries, including food, beverage, pharmaceuticals, iron and steel, textiles, lumber, tobacco, automobiles, aerospace, and petrochemicals. In manufacturing, there are two categories of goods produced: durable and nondurable. Durable goods have a long life span and hold up over time; examples of durable goods are cars, airplanes, and washing machines. Nondurable goods have a shorter life span and include such products as food, cosmetics, and clothing. Manufacturing employs workers with an equally wide range of skill levels, education, and interests. Administrative staff includes presidents, CEOs, accountants, sales and marketing workers, order processors, customer service workers, secretaries, and others who plan, organize, and manage operations. Engineers are an important part of the manufacturing workforce. Their work focuses on research, development, analysis, planning, surveying, application, facility
evaluation, and more. Some engineers work on the design and refinement of the products to be manufactured, while others work on the design and assembly of the machines and tools that make these products. They may manage a staff or manage projects from start to finish. They are responsible for research and development to refine the production process and make recommendations to their companies based on their research. Computer science is becoming increasingly important in manufacturing industries because of the development of robotics and automated processes. Engineers also work on environmental concerns, including regulatory compliance, traffic patterns within the plant, hazardous waste control, and ergonomic issues. Technicians, who work closely with and assist engineers in manufacturing, help to execute various projects by conducting research, running tests, repairing and maintaining equipment, monitoring production, and keeping records. Manufacturing plants are overseen by department managers, supervisors, and forepersons, who are the liaisons between administrative staff and production workers. These employees usually have a great deal of experience as production workers and are responsible for such areas as worker productivity, product quality, safety and health, and plant and machine maintenance. Production workers, by far, make up the largest segment of manufacturing employment. They operate, tend to, and adjust machines, tools, and equipment; assemble parts; and package products. They cut, drill, mold, stamp, cook, stir, measure, glue, wrap, and perform the millions of other tasks required by manufacturing processes. Manufacturing provides good jobs for low- and semiskilled workers, with higher wages and better benefits than nonmanufacturing jobs.
■ Outlook Manufacturing jobs continue to decline as factories relocate to foreign countries with less labor and material costs. As a result, labor unions have lost some of their strength to negotiate for better contracts and wages for manufacturing workers. The other key reason for the continuing decrease in factory jobs is automation. To cut labor costs, manufacturers are replacing much of their labor force with robotics-based machinery. In many cases, these machines are more efficient and productive than human workers. In order to remain competitive, many companies are striving to become even more automated, which will in turn eliminate even more jobs. However, while many assembly line jobs will disappear, the demand for engineers, who program, install, and maintain the automated machinery, should be strong.
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A pharmaceuticals manufacturing worker fixes malfunctioning equipment. (Corbis.)
According to the U.S. Department of Labor, employment in manufacturing will be best in pharmaceuticals. A growing and aging population and the frequent introduction of new drugs to the public will continue to bolster the pharmaceutical market. The need to replace retiring workers should also create many job openings in the area of aerospace and aeronautics manufacturing, although this segment of the industry will not experience job growth. Exports of both pharmaceuticals and aerospace equipment are also projected to remain strong. There should be slow growth in auto manufacturing and electronic equipment. Food processing is expected to decline because of increased automation. Apparel manufacturing is projected to decline more than any other industry—manufacturing or otherwise—through 2014, due primarily to increasing imports, automation, and cost-cutting measures implemented by apparel manufacturers due to increased competition and mergers.
■ For More Information For industry and career information, contact National Association of Manufacturers 1331 Pennsylvania Avenue, NW Washington, DC 20004-1790 Tel: 202-637-3000 Email:
[email protected] http://www.nam.org
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For information on careers, schools, mentoring, student membership, and scholarships and grants, contact Society of Manufacturing Engineers One SME Drive Dearborn, MI 48121-2408 Tel: 800-733-4763 http://www.sme.org
■ Related Articles Aerospace; Automotives; Chemicals; Computer Hardware; Computer Software; Computers; Electronics; Engineering; Machining and Machinery; Metals; Packaging; Pharmaceuticals; Plastics; Printing; Rubber; Shipping; Stone, Concrete, Ceramics, and Glass; Textiles; Toys and Games; Aerospace Engineers; Automotive Industry Workers; Boilermakers and Mechanics; Cost Estimators; Fluid Power Technicians; General Maintenance Mechanics; Glass Manufacturing Workers; Industrial Chemicals Workers; Industrial Designers; Industrial Engineering Technicians; Industrial Engineers; Industrial Machinery Mechanics; Industrial Radiographers; Instrument Makers and Repairers; Instrumentation Technicians; Job and Die Setters; Laser Technicians; Layout Workers; Manufacturing Supervisors; Mechanical Engineering Technicians; Mechanical Engineers; Millwrights; Numerical Control Tool Programmers; Packaging Engineers; Packaging Machinery Technicians; Pharmaceutical Industry Workers; Plastics Products Manufacturing Workers; Plastics Technicians; Precision Machinists; Precision Metalworkers; Quality Control Engineers and Technicians; Robotics Engineers and Technicians; Stationary Engineers; Tobacco Products Industry Workers; Toy Industry Workers
Mathematics and Physics ■ Background Mathematics and physics are closely related natural sciences. Mathematics is the science and study of numbers and how they relate with each other. Physics is the study of the basic elements and laws of the universe. The earliest mathematical records date to the ancient Babylonians and Egyptians of 3000 b.c., when math involved basic measuring and calculating. Primitive counting systems were probably based on using fingers. Primitive forms of geometry and algebraic relationships were used in the ancient Middle East to
A physicist works on a circuit board. (Corbis.)
solve specific problems, but mathematics did not yet include formulating proofs. In Greece, mathematics was advanced by Thales of Miletus and Pythagoras of Samos, a religious leader who taught that studying numbers was important in understanding the world. They invented abstract mathematics, founded on a logical structure of definitions, axioms, and proofs. In the fifth century b.c., the philosopher Democritus discovered the formula for figuring out the volume of a pyramid, and Hippocrates made some discoveries related to the famous problem of squaring the circle, making a square equal in area to a given circle. Other famous Greek mathematicians include Euclid, Archimedes, and Apollonius. Isaac Newton, the 17th-century English mathematician and physicist, was only 23 when he started figuring out the principles of physics. He also discovered the law of gravity and formed a theory about light. Newton invented differential and integral calculus and studied space, exploring the appearance of comets and the effect of the moon on our oceans’ tides. Englishman Charles Babbage designed a machine in the 1800s that could automatically perform math computations based on instructions stored on cards or tape. His machine evolved into today’s computers, which are used for numerical analysis, finite mathematics, number theory, differential equations, and abstract algebra. Physicists use computers in their investigations of light, mechanics, thermodynamics, electricity, magnetism, atomic theory, and astrophysics, among many other scientific disciplines.
Major developments in the 20th century include quantum theory and the theory of relativity, which have changed the understanding of physics as it is known today. Recent technological advances—especially in computer technology, electronics, nuclear energy, and high-energy particle accelerators—have also made the scope of physics and mathematics bigger than ever.
■ Structure Since the 1800s, the fields of mathematics and physics have grown so much that each profession has its own specialized workers. Yet the lines between the two fields, and even among these and other sciences, are not as clear as they used to be. Professionals in these fields orbit the earth, help cure diseases, develop fuels for energy and warmth, and even contribute to understanding skateboarding, karate, and the sound systems at concerts. Because the two fields are related, physicists and mathematicians work in many of the same areas. Many ideas and developments in physics, chemistry, the biological sciences, astronomy, and even social sciences (like economics and psychology) rely on ideas from mathematics. These scientific fields offer many careers, including such areas as astronomy; space technology; energy and resources; earth, ocean, and space science; electronics; industry; computer science; medicine; communications; environmental science; and consulting. Mathematicians and physicists work as engineers, teachers, researchers, lab technicians and supervisors, acoustical scientists, astronomers, astrophysicists, medical physicists, and geophysicists, as well as other positions. Knowledge in math or physics opens opportunities even for writers, lawyers, and administrators. Also, employment opportunities exist worldwide in government, industry, schools, and private organizations. For instance, mathematicians like statisticians, operations researchers, and actuaries work in government agencies such as the Department of Health and Human Services, the General Accounting Office, and the Office of Management and Budget. They help gather information on how many people are likely to get cancer from smoking. They help the president understand how much money our country has and owes other countries and agencies. They even help figure out how tax laws can benefit certain people. Other agencies that employ mathematicians and physicists include the Department of Energy, the Department of Defense, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, and the National Security Agency.
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Making Order out of Chaos Mathematicians have a way of making things orderly, of defining things accurately. Take the word chaos, which usually means disorder, confusion, lots of people running around with no clue as to what’s going on. But in the world of mathematics, chaos can be explained, even considered beautiful, complex, and lovely. Perhaps chaos theory is alluring to mathematicians because it is related to fractals, which are seemingly wild geometric patterns that are repeated and repeated and repeated to make up a beautiful whole. (Polish scientist Benoit Mandelbrot coined the term fractal in the 1970s after studying chaotic data in economics; perhaps he wanted a new term to define the seemingly irregular curves, or fractions, in economic activity.) For example, though you might think snowflakes are just frozen raindrops, they’re really made up of fractals. Fractals are just recently emerging as a mathematical tool; they show an order in seemingly random things and can help us perhaps understand our rather chaotic lives. Although you can get an idea of fractals if you look closely enough at a snowflake, chaos and fractals can’t really be examined without powerful computers. They are complex patterns that many scientists believe might be used to predict supposedly unpredictable things. To learn more about the crazy world of fractals, see The Fractory, a Web site devoted to making order out of chaos: http://library.thinkquest.org/3288.
■ Outlook According to the Occupational Outlook Handbook, employment of mathematicians is expected to decline through 2014. The future in math and physics will not change much within the next few years, particularly for those whose education background is solely in mathematics. Those who also study related disciplines, such as statistics, computer science, or other types of applied mathematics will find more opportunities in areas like computer programming, operations research, and engineering design. Mathematicians may also find employment in industry and government. According to the U.S. Department of Labor, the outlook in physics employment is not good. Lately there has been an oversupply of Ph.D. physicists looking for work and a continued slowdown in civilian physics-related basic research. Competition is also strong for math and physics research jobs in colleges and universities and other centers of research. However, defense-related research funded by the government is likely to increase
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Words to Know Arithmetic: The science of numbers. Axiom: A statement generally accepted as having basic truth. Calculus: A system used to analyze rates of change in mathematical quantities that are related to one another. Chaos theory: Modern math theory that attempts to analyze the progression of ordered systems into chaotic systems; may turn out to be more effective than quantum theory in explaining certain behaviors of particles. Differentiate: To find the rate at which a function changes relative to the changes of an independent variable connected to it. Energy: The capacity of being active; power like heat or electricity that can be used. Fractal: A geometric pattern whose elements are smaller replicas of the whole. An example is the snowflake curve, a figure made of ever smaller overlapping triangles and confined to a definite area but with a perimeter with infinite length. Such a figure cannot be mathematically differentiated. Geometry: Literally means measuring the earth; this branch of math deals with measuring the elements of threedimensional space (like points, lines, and angles). Gravity: The physical force, or pull, between the earth and objects on or near it. Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle: In quantum mechanics, the understanding that one cannot pinpoint a particle’s location and momentum at the same time. Kinetic energy: Energy that an object possesses because of its motion. Magnitude: A numerical quantity generally expressed as a multiple of a standard unit. Momentum: Force that is made by motion. Quantum mechanics: In physics, an evolving system of theories attempting to explain the nature of matter and energy; in more recent years, evidence has suggested that the line between matter and energy is a blurry one. Thermodynamics: Physics that involves the mechanical action of heat.
over the next decade. These trends will result in slower than average growth in the employment of physicists and astronomers through 2014. A physics education is good preparation for jobs in information technology, semiconductor technology, and other applied sciences, but job titles are likely to be computer software engineer, computer programmer, engineer, and systems developer, rather than physicist.
■ For More Information This organization promotes the advancement of the knowledge of physics and its application to human welfare through publishing, education, and information programs. American Institute of Physics One Physics Ellipse College Park, MD 20740-3842 Tel: 301-209-3100 Email:
[email protected] http://www.aip.org
For information on careers in mathematics, contact American Mathematical Society 201 Charles Street Providence, RI 02904-2294 Tel: 800-321-4267 http://www.ams.org
This group encourages women to study and have active careers in the mathematical sciences. It promotes equal opportunity and equal treatment of women in the mathematical sciences. Its efforts have led to greater participation of women in the mathematical community, especially as speakers at mathematics meetings and as members of committees of mathematical organizations. Association for Women in Mathematics 11240 Waples Mill Road, Suite 200 Fairfax, VA 22030-6078 Tel: 703-934-0163 Email:
[email protected] http://www.awm-math.org
The following organization of applied mathematicians and computational scientists is dedicated to enriching the profession through publications, conferences, activity groups, and programs. Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics Customer Service Department 3600 University City Science Center Philadelphia, PA 19104-2688 Tel: 215-382-9800 Email:
[email protected] http://www.siam.org
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Metals ■ Background The first crude metal objects, knives for hunting and tools for farming, evolved during the Stone Age. Forged metal (heated, then hammered into shape) was used to make simple blades and hoes. Historical records indicate that metal casting (melting, and then pouring into a shaped mold) was being done around 4000 b.c. Forged copper weapons preceded castings and led directly to the discovery of the casting art. Liquid metal was discovered accidentally during the forging of hot metal. While metal was being heated for shaping, some of the copper would melt. It followed naturally that the melted metal could be cast into a shape. The casting process grew during the Bronze Age and developed rapidly in the Orient, where casting art first matured industrially. Development in Europe progressed with the casting of guns, bells, stoves, and ornamental iron. With the advent of the industrial revolution, the production of machines and engines increased dramatically. Mining became an extremely important industry, supplying the world with the materials required to build the machines that transformed society. Manufacturing the metals that would be used to create strong, durable engine pieces led to the development of industrial complexes and mining towns centered on either the production or manufacture of metal products. Steel, which is stronger than plain iron, is made from iron with other minerals added. Modern, large-scale production of steel in the United States generally is considered to have begun in the mid-1800s when the first commercial batch of steel made by the Bessemer process was produced in Wyandotte, Michigan. This pneumatic process, developed independently by an American named William Kelly and an Englishman named Henry Bessemer, made it possible for the first time to produce steel by the ton instead of by the pound. As competition from abroad increased, steel production in the United States began to decline in the 1970s. In the early 1980s, steel producers in particular suffered many economic losses and more than 200,000 workers were laid off. Top steel producers lost almost $6 billion. The steel industry began an extensive restructuring. Companies closed plants, rebuilt others, and modernized
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the rest. In addition to new equipment, such as oxygenfired furnaces, they changed many of their processes to be more time and cost efficient. These changes helped to make the steel industry stronger, but generally did not result in increased employment. Automation and improved processes allowed for greater production with fewer workers. Despite a slight recovery during the late 1980s, the steel industry continued to be affected by changes in the economy. The industry was faced with anemic market growth, an expensive labor pool, increased production costs caused in part by new environmental legislation, and stagnant market prices. In addition, foreign competition continued to be a major threat, and steel was slowly being replaced in its largest market, the automotive industry, by substitute materials such as plastics and aluminum. As a result, the steel industry again restructured itself in the early 1990s. Companies streamlined their operations, looking for ways to cut costs and improve productivity. During this period, minimills came into their own. These smaller mills compete with larger integrated steel mills by producing low-cost metals that use smaller, electric arch furnaces, and high-tech methods.
Factories that process metals are often hot, noisy places to work. (American Steel and Iron Institute.)
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Producers of other metals such as copper, aluminum, zinc, and lead have faced similar cycles. In order to remain viable, they have had to develop new markets, streamline production, and reduce costs. Since the 1980s, a strong secondary market for recycled (scrap) metals has developed for copper and aluminum in particular.
■ Structure Metals are at the core of every manufacturing society. Parts made from metal are incorporated in a wide variety of products, from steel and iron used in building materials and automobile parts, to aluminum used in packaging, to titanium used in electronic parts. The metals industry employs a wide and diverse group of people, ranging from metallurgists who study the properties of metals and discover applications for them, to workers in foundries and mills who convert metals into usable materials, to workers in manufacturing and finishing operations who convert materials into industrial products. Metallurgy is the art and science of extracting metals from ores found in nature and preparing them for use by alloying, shaping, and heating them. It is the link between the mine and the finished product. Nonferrous metallurgy is concerned with the 80 or more elements that are metallic but do not contain iron. Ferrous metallurgy works with iron and steel. Metallurgical engineers and technicians are specialists who develop extraction and manufacturing processes for the metals industry. Steel producers are the largest-volume producers in the metal sector. Within the United States, steel is produced in two types of plants: integrated mills and minimills. Companies that produce steel in traditional, integrated mills perform every step of the steelmaking process themselves, using blast furnaces or oxygen furnaces. This older technology has a number of drawbacks because of its negative impact on the environment, its extensive use of energy, and its relatively low yield. Also, integrated mills must be located in industrial areas, near the sources of their raw materials. Minimills typically process scrap iron or steel and use electric arc furnaces to continuously cast metal into blooms and billets. They produce fewer finished products than integrated mills but their costs are lower because they can operate near their customers, thus reducing transportation costs. They often locate in the South where labor costs are lower, and they use newer technology that reduces production costs and improves quality. These minimills, which began to appear after the depression of the early 1980s, have had a substantial impact on the structure of the U.S. steel industry and are taking a growing share of the market. Minimills now account for
more than 50 percent of the country’s steel—up from 25 percent almost two decades ago. In traditional steel production, three main operations are involved: the blast furnace, where iron ore is heated and combined with other elements to eliminate impurities and leave only the iron itself; the steel furnace, where steel is made by adding alloying agents such as silicon and manganese; and rolling and finishing operations, where raw steel is shaped into finished and semifinished products. To reduce their production costs and compete more effectively with minimills, many integrated mills have changed to continuous casting to make semifinished steel. This process produces steel ready for final processing directly from liquid steel, bypassing the processing steps associated with ingot casting. This makes the steel production process more efficient because it is faster and uses less energy. Integrated steel manufacturers are also experimenting with a process called direct steel making, which eliminates the need for coke ovens. An experimental plant in Pittsburgh is trying it. This process uses a coal-based, continuous in-bath melting process with a single vessel. The three principal methods of shaping metal in plants are rolling, casting, and forging. The rolling process simply reduces or changes the cross-sectional area of a metal piece by compressive forces exerted by rotating rolls. Metal processed in this way is most likely to be used in construction or manufacturing rather than in precision applications. Casting, a process used in foundries, is a method of metal forming in which molten metal is poured into a prepared mold, often having a core within the mold, to form a hollow cavity within the finished metal casting. A casting, then, is a metal object formed to a predetermined shape by pouring or injecting liquid metal into a mold. The largest tonnage of castings is produced in sand molds. Other molds are made of metal, plaster, ceramics, resin-bonded sands, and chemically bonded sands. The forging process shapes metal by hammering or by tremendous pressure that forces the metal into cavities in a set of matching dies. This produces a metal part that is unusually strong and resistant to strain. Forging workers are employed by independent forging plants and in the forging departments of automobile, steel, and farm machinery manufacturers. The metals most commonly forged are iron, steel, nickel, titanium, aluminum, and bronze. Throughout the United States, foundries are generally either jobbing foundries or captive foundries. Jobbing foundries are operated independently, and even though they may have machining, welding, and other
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facilities, the final processing of finished products is not their business. They produce castings for customers. Captive foundries are owned and operated by manufacturing organizations that use them to produce castings for their own use. An automotive foundry, for example, produces thousands of brakes, engine blocks, housings, engine heads, manifolds, crankshafts, valves, and smaller castings. Since the early 1990s, the steel investment casting business has been growing. It is well suited to producing certain types of metal products that require intricate molds. In fact, it is one of the areas in which product shipments have been matched by growth in employment. Investment casting is also used to create bronze sculptures and jewelry that has intricate designs. Investment molds are not particularly harmful to the environment and therefore are not impacted by the environmental laws that are so influential on other types of metal processing. Secondary, or scrap, manufacturing of metals is a sector of the industry that is being revitalized. Secondary manufacturers smelt, refine, and sometimes blend metal recovered from either the shaping and trimming of primary metals during production or fabrication, or
Words to Know Bloom: The largest metal product used in hot rolling; successive rolling operations reduce it to a billet, plate, sheet, strip, or foil. Cast: To form a liquid or plastic substance into a fixed shape by letting it cool in a mold. Electroplating: This process involves the deposition of one metal into another by electrolytic action. Forge: May refer to either a plant where forging is done or a mill where rolling of puddling bar is carried out. Forging: This process involves shaping metal parts by using hammers or presses. Heat treatment: Processes in which metals are subjected to specific time-and-temperature cycles in order to modify their physical properties. Ingot: Metal casting of a shape that is suitable for a subsequent process, such as rolling or forging. Metal casting: A product produced by pouring molten metal into a mold and then allowing it to solidify; castings can be made in intricate shapes or as very large pieces, e.g., for autos or appliances. Metal fabrication worker: Generally, a worker who shapes and works metallic materials into
from recycled metals. Metals that lend themselves to this process include aluminum, precious metals, copper, lead, and zinc. Products that are commonly recycled include beverage cans, coins, automobiles, household appliances, and ammunition.
■ Outlook The steel industry again faced a threat from imported steel in the late 1990s and early 2000s. This international dumping of steel in the United States is the result of a worldwide oversupply. These imports, along with other domestic factors, caused the bankruptcies of over 42 U.S. steel companies since 1998, according to the United Steelworkers of America. In 2002, the Bush administration imposed tariffs on steel imported into the United States from other countries in an attempt to improve the health of the industry. However, these tariffs were lifted in 2003, in a move that many in the steel industry considered to be premature, citing that U.S. steel producers did not have enough time to effectively confront the glut of foreign imports. According to the Career Guide to Industries, employment in the steel industry is expected to decline by 13
useful forms by mechanical means. Through these processes, the worker also may improve the quality and properties of the metal. Metal finishing: Process that applies thin metallic or organic coatings to the surface of metals. Metal forming: Manufacturing processes by which parts or components are fabricated from metal stock; categories of processes involved are mechanical workings, such as forging, extrusion, rolling, drawing, and sheet-forming processes; casting; powder and fiber metal forming; electroforming; and joining. Metal rolling: Reduces or changes the crosssectional area of a workpiece by compressive forces exerted by rotating rolls. Metallography: Study of the structure of metals and alloys by various methods, but especially light and electronic microscopy. Metallurgy: Technology and science of metallic materials. As a branch of engineering, it is concerned with the extraction and production of metals and alloys, their adaptation to use, and their performance in a particular usage. Mold: A form containing a cavity into which molten metal is poured to shape an object.
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Molten iron is teemed (emptied) from the bottom of a ladle into an ingot mold. (Bethlehem Steel.)
percent over the 2004–14 period. This decline can partly be attributed to competition from overseas and increasing domestic consolidation, but other factors affecting employment include new technology and machinery requiring fewer employees, and stricter environmental regulations. The U.S. Department of Labor predicts that employment opportunities at mills that use electric arc furnaces will be good as these types of mills continue to make up a larger segment of the steel market. Despite a prediction of overall employment decline, the department predicts that opportunities will be good for the following professions in the steel industry: engineers (including mechanical, metallurgical, industrial, electrical, and civil), computer scientists, and skilled production workers. The American Iron and Steel Institute reports that labor productivity tripled over the last decade and a half of the 20th century, dropping from 10.1 man-hours per ton to 3.2 man-hours per ton. This is due to the industry’s investment in new plant and equipment, which streamlined every step of the steelmaking process. This streamlining, although good for industry production and profits, has resulted in a drastically reduced workforce. However, the Occupational Outlook Handbook notes that computerized and automated manufacturing methods will not have as drastic an effect on employment trends in years to come, as some companies have automated the process as much as they can at this point. Employment is also affected by the health of other industries that depend on steel production, such as automakers, manufacturers of household appliances, and the construction industry. As a sluggish economy slows employment in those industries, jobs for steel production workers will be more at risk.
There is an ongoing search for new applications for nonferrous metals. Lightweight aluminum is increasingly being used in vehicle manufacturing, and aluminum producers expect to see an increase in shipments as a result. They have saturated the beverage market, but are experiencing an increased demand from aerospace companies. Copper production and consumption are at alltime highs, according to some industry reports. About 70 percent of U.S. copper consumption is for electrical and electronic use, although competition from plastics is making some inroads. Since copper usage is associated with industrialization and economic development, demand for copper from developing countries has been promising. Many metals companies are joining in partnerships with other companies, with partnerships between domestic and foreign producers becoming more common. The industry as a whole is expected to undergo many changes, and companies will need to make the most of technological trends in order to survive.
■ For More Information For information on careers and training programs, contact American Foundry Society 1695 North Penny Lane Schaumburg, IL 60173-4555399 Tel: 800-537-4237 http://www.afsinc.org
For information about the steel industry and issues affecting it, contact American Iron and Steel Institute 1140 Connecticut Avenue, Suite 705 Washington, DC 20036-4011 Tel: 202-452-7100 http://www.steel.org
For information on careers, schools, college student membership, scholarships and grants, and other resources, contact ASM International Student Outreach Program 9639 Kinsman Road Materials Park, OH 44073-0002 Tel: 800-336-5152 http://www.asminternational.org
To learn more about the forging industry, including what are forgings, what types of metals are used, how is it done, who buys it, and so on, see the FIA’s Web site. Forging Industry Association (FIA) 25 Prospect Avenue, Suite 300
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Cleveland, OH 44115 Tel: 216-781-6260 Email:
[email protected] http://www.forging.org
For information on careers, schools, college student membership, scholarships and grants, and other resources, contact The Minerals, Metals, & Materials Society 184 Thorn Hill Road Warrendale, PA 15086-7528 Tel: 724-776-9000 Email:
[email protected] http://www.tms.org
For information on careers, schools, college student membership, scholarships and grants, and other resources, contact Society for Mining, Metallurgy and Exploration Education Department 8307 Shaffer Parkway Littleton, CO 80127-4102 Tel: 800-763-3132 http://www.smenet.org
■ Related Articles Machining and Machinery; Manufacturing; Mining; Coremakers; Electroplating Workers; Forge Shop Workers; Heat Treaters; Iron and Steel Industry Workers; Job and Die Setters; Metallurgical Engineers; Metallurgical Technicians; Millwrights; Molders; Precision Metalworkers; Sheet Metal Workers
established to fight the British in the Revolutionary War. The colonists so valued the Army that its commander and most revered general, George Washington, became the first president of the United States. The oldest continuous seagoing service in the United States, the Coast Guard, was established in 1790 to combat smuggling. In contrast, the first American marine units were attached to the Army at the time of its creation; these units then were made an independent part of the Navy when it was officially established in 1798. The Marine Corps was considered part of the Navy until 1834, when it established itself as both a land and sea defense force, thereby becoming its own military branch. The air service grew from somewhat unusual beginnings. The Civil War marked the first use of aircraft in the U.S. military, when a balloon corps was attached to the Army of the Potomac. In 1892, a formal Balloon Corps was created as part of the Army’s Signal Corps. By 1907, a separate Aeronautical Division was created within the Army. Air power proved invaluable a few years later during World War I, bringing about major changes in military strategy. As a result, the United States began to assert itself as an international military power, and accordingly, the Army Air Service was created as an independent unit in 1918, although it remained under Army direction for a time. With the surprise attack on Pearl Harbor in 1941, America was plunged into World War II; at its height, 13 million Americans fought in the different branches of the military services. When the war ended, the United States emerged as the strongest military power in the Western world. A large part of America’s military success was due to
Military Services ■ Background Five separate military services make up the United States Armed Forces: the Army, Navy, Air Force, Marine Corps, and Coast Guard. These branches organize, train, and equip the nation’s land, sea, and air services to support the national and international policies of the government. Together, they are responsible for the safety and protection of the citizens of the United States. Those who choose to be members of the armed forces dedicate their lives to protecting their fellow Americans. America’s earliest organized defense forces were the militias of the colonial states, which began to come together in the first decades of the 17th century. More than 100 years later, in 1775, the Continental Army was
An army ROTC cadet in summer training at Fort Bragg, North Carolina, prepares to fire a rocket launcher as his instructor, a paratrooper noncommissioned officer, looks on. (U.S. Army.)
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Part-Time Military Jobs Some people decide to combine civilian life with part-time military service by joining the Reserves, or by becoming members of the National Guard. These service personnel agree to certain limited-duty assignments. As members of the armed forces, they serve their country and receive many special benefits (including retirement pay), but they work at civilian jobs in communities of their choice. All five services maintain Reserve forces, and the states (including Puerto Rico, Guam, and the U.S. Virgin Islands) support Army and Air National Guard units in conjunction with the federal government. Following a combination of basic and more specialized training, members of the reserve or guard typically serve two days per month (usually on weekends), and undergo an additional two weeks training per year. Members receive pay for weekend drills, and full pay and benefits for annual training periods. Reserve or National Guard members can be mobilized for varying lengths of time to supplement active-duty personnel on both military and peacekeeping missions, or to assist in cases of natural disasters or civil emergencies. For more information about programs, benefits, and application requirements, contact your local guard or reserve armory.
the superiority of its air forces. Recognition of the strategic importance of air power led to the creation of the now wholly independent branch of service, the U.S. Air Force, in 1947. Two years later, the various branches of military service were unified under the Department of Defense. (Note: Today, the U.S. Coast Guard falls under the administration of the U.S. Department of Homeland Security.) In the years following World War II, the United States and its allies devoted their considerable military resources to fighting the Cold War with the Soviet Union. Anticommunist tensions led to U.S. involvement in the Korean War during the 1950s and to participation in the Vietnam War, which ended in the mid-1970s. Antiwar sentiment grew increasingly insistent, and soon, the policies that established an American presence in foreign countries came under new demands for re-evaluation. In 1973, the draft was abolished, and the U.S. military became an all-volunteer force. The armed forces began to put great energy into improving the image of military personnel and presenting the military as an appealing career option in order to attract talented recruits. During the 1980s, the U.S. military increased its efforts to bring about the collapse of Soviet communism
and became active in the Middle East, particularly in the Persian Gulf, through which supplies of much of the world’s oil travel. Later in the decade, many countries under Soviet rule began to press for independence, and, in 1991, the Soviet Union finally collapsed under the weight of its political and economic crisis, effectively ending the Cold War. That same year, the United States engaged in the Persian Gulf War. In the late 1990s, a new role developed for the U.S. military as a peacekeeping force. For example, American troops were stationed in the Balkans to discourage renewed aggression in a longstanding civil war. Other active forces continued to monitor the Persian Gulf. Reaction to the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, suddenly changed the role of the military from a peacekeeping force to an aggressor in the attempt to destroy the strongholds and training camps of terrorists in Afghanistan and other countries around the world. Immediately after the attacks, recruitment offices reported a large increase in the number of calls from people who wanted to enlist. President Bush said the war against terrorism would likely be a sustained effort over a long period of time. U.S. troops, warships, and dozens of fighter planes were deployed to the Middle East and air and ground strikes began. In addition to military action, the administration used diplomatic, law enforcement and financial strategies against those believed responsible for the attacks. In March 2003, the United States, Great Britain, and a coalition of several other nations engaged in Operation Iraqi Freedom, which was part of the new war on terrorism. This campaign aimed to liberate the nation of Iraq from the dictatorship of Saddam Hussein, who was suspected of harboring weapons of mass destruction that might be used in future terrorist attacks. President Bush declared an end to the major combat phase of Iraqi Freedom in May 2003, but the war was far from over. Although Hussein was captured and imprisoned in December 2003 and a permanent Iraqi government was established in 2006, the struggle to bring peace to the nation was still being waged by the men and women in the military of the United States and other nations.
■ Structure The general structure of the military is pyramidal, with the president of the United States acting as the commander-in-chief of the U.S. armed forces. The president’s responsibilities include appointing top military officers and maintaining the nation’s military strength. The secretary of defense is an appointed position usually awarded to a civilian. He or she is a member of the
president’s cabinet, presiding over the Department of Defense and directing the operations of all military branches. The joint chiefs of staff, the senior commanders of the different services, work with the secretary of defense to advise the president on military matters. (The Coast Guard is now a service of the Department of Homeland Security; its commander is not a member of the joint chiefs.) Together under the auspices of the Department of Defense, the individual services—the Army, Navy, Air Force, Marine Corps, and Coast Guard—comprise the armed forces. There are approximately 2.6 million people in the armed forces, with 1.2 million serving in the Reserve branches. (Reservists generally devote one weekend a month and two weeks a year to military service and may be called up for full-time duty whenever necessary.) The goals of all five branches are similar: the defense and protection of U.S. citizens, territory, and interests at home and around the world. Each service has a different role to play, however. The Army is the senior service. It is traditionally known as the branch that fights on land. Most of the United States’ more than 25 million living veterans served in the Army, and the Army continues to be the largest of the services in total recruits, with 487,000 soldiers on active duty. The Navy, more than any of the other services, has a special way of life. Guided by traditions of the sea, it is in many ways more of a closed society than the other services. Its officers and enlisted people work and live together at sea for long periods, a lifestyle that demands close attention to duties and teamwork. Ships and aircraft units visit many parts of the world. It can be an unusual and wonderful life, and strongly appealing to many who are looking for a different and exciting type of career. The Navy has about 350,000 personnel on active duty. The Air Force, the newest of all the services, is highly technical and appeals to those interested in aviation and mechanical trades. Approximately 356,000 officers and airmen are on active duty in the Air Force. The Marine Corps operates on land and sea, and Marines usually form the advance troops in military operations. The corps is closely associated with the Navy and, like the Navy, prides itself on meeting the highest possible standards in training, military bearing, and discipline. Apart from more military duties, Marines provide security on Navy property and guard U.S. embassies and consulates around the world. There are approximately 185,000 Marines on active duty. Currently there are approximately 33,000 individuals serving in the Coast Guard. The Coast Guard is the smallest of the military services, and, as such, offers unique
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opportunities. It is responsible largely for the enforcement of maritime law, but is perhaps most well known for its involvement in search-and-rescue efforts, aiding those in distress at sea. Although opportunities exist for overseas assignments, most duties in the Coast Guard are related to the waters and shores of the United States. Positions in the military fall under two broad occupational categories: enlisted personnel and officers. Enlisted personnel execute the daily operations of the military, and are considered noncommissioned officers. Commissioned officers function as managers of the military, overseeing the work of the enlisted personnel. In addition, both the Army and Navy maintain a third classification of skilled experts called warrant officers. Enlisted soldiers or civilians who demonstrate technical and tactical ability in any one of several dozen occupational specialties may qualify as a warrant officer. Warrant officers are highly specialized and gain additional
A soldier rappels down a 40-foot tower during a training exercise at Parks Reserve Forces Training Area, California. (Tech Sgt. Robert A. Whitehead, U.S. Air Force.)
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A large number of U.S. Air Force personnel are involved in the critical task of maintenance work. This sergeant is inspecting the exhaust nozzle of a fighter plane. (U.S. Air Force.)
expertise by operating, maintaining, and managing the services’ equipment, support activities, and technical systems throughout their careers. Specialties include, but are not limited to, missile systems, military intelligence, telecommunications, legal administration, and personnel. A broad general difference between the requirements for enlisted personnel and officers is academic preparation. The service branches accept applicants of varying ages and educational backgrounds, although officers are required to have college degrees and enlisted people are not. Those who intend to serve as enlisted personnel should finish high school and then enlist. High school graduates are more likely to be successful in the military than nongraduates, and the services accept few applicants without a high school diploma. All service applicants must take the Armed Services Vocational Aptitude Battery (ASVAB) as a requirement for enlistment. All service personnel receive special training in military skills. Those who want to rise in the ranks have the opportunity to attend school or undertake independent study and will be rewarded with advancement. Military education in many instances is related to civilian occupations, an added incentive for those who later decide not to make a career of military service. While many recruits enter the armed forces immediately after graduating from high school, the military uses every opportunity to advance the education of its recruits. Frequently, service members in both categories, both officers and enlisted men and women, obtain undergraduate and advanced degrees on their own initiative while in the service. The range of educational pos-
sibilities is diverse and often exciting, and financial help for study at outside institutions is readily available. You can learn to operate the engineering equipment of an aircraft carrier or, with appropriate academic qualifications, proceed through medical training to become a military physician. With a serious sense of commitment and a great deal of rigorous preparation, you even can join the Navy’s SEALS program, or “get jets,” and become a member of the Blue Angels. Each military branch has nine enlisted grades and 10 officer designations. The names of ranks vary among the services. This is why a simple numbering system has been adopted to denote rank. Promotion depends on ability, the number of years served, and the length of time since the last promotion. On average, a diligent enlisted person can expect to earn one of the middle noncommissioned or petty officer ratings; some officers can expect to reach lieutenant colonel or commander. Outstanding individuals advance beyond those levels. The pay for the equivalent grades in all services is the same. It starts comparatively low for new recruits but increases on a fairly regular schedule to a more substantial salary for top officers and enlisted people. Congress sets the pay scales after hearing the recommendations of the president. In addition to basic pay, hazardous duty pay may be earned by enlisted personnel who frequently and regularly participate in combat. Other special allowances include special duty pay and foreign duty pay. The services also supply without charge many basic necessities such as food, shelter, and health care, which must be paid out of pocket in most civilian positions. Military men and women receive a number of additional benefits. They include access to recreational facilities, free medical and dental care, schools for dependents, financial advice, legal assistance, and religious support. Military people may apply for retirement after 20 years of service. Generally, people retiring from military service will receive 40 percent of the average of the highest three years of their base pay. This rises incrementally, reaching 75 percent of the average of the highest three years of base pay after 30 years of service. The widow or widower of a service member who died on active duty or after a service-connected disability discharge will receive, for life or until remarriage, a monthly payment computed on the basis of the deceased spouse’s rank. The surviving spouse also receives disability insurance. At about age 40, a person is still in the prime of life for most work, and although the retirement pay is comparatively good, military retirees generally choose to start new careers in civilian life. Military training usually has prepared a person for a related trade or profession, and many military people look forward to early retirement.
Military Services
Words to Know ASVAB: The Armed Services Vocational Aptitude Battery, or ASVAB, is a mandatory written examination required of every applicant, no matter the branch. The ASVAB is offered at most high schools, as well as at approximately 65 military entrance processing stations across the nation. The ASVAB was recently redesigned to serve as a tool not only for students planning to enter the military, but also those interested in pursuing opportunities in the civilian sector. Visit http:// www.asvabprogram.com for more information. Basic training: All service branches require recruits to undergo basic training at the start of the initial enlistment period. Specifics vary from service to service, but all boot camps combine classroom instruction with physical conditioning and on-the-job training to provide recruits with the underlying breadth of knowledge and experience they will need to function as a member of the force. More information is available from your local recruiter. Commission: A commission in any branch of the armed forces represents the conference of command authority. To earn a commission, officer candidates must graduate from lengthy and rigorous training programs at one of the service academies. Once commissioned, officers take on the role of managers, or executives, within the branch. Delayed entry program: All service branches offer a delayed entry program, or DEP. Enlistees can delay entry into a service by as much as one year. High school students can enlist during their senior year and enter a service following graduation. This program also is open to applicants who wish to train for a specific job that might not be available currently, but in which positions will open in the coming months or years. Recruits in a DEP function as reserve members of their chosen branch. Enlisted personnel: Enlisted personnel comprise the majority of positions in the military services. Application requirements differ from those for commissioned officers, most notably with respect to educational background. Enlisted men and women generally require only a high school diploma, although the services encourage advanced study for all members. Enlisted personnel perform support and maintenance duties, and report to warrant or commissioned officers.
National Guard: The National Guard was established in 1636 and is the oldest of the military services. The guard incorporates Army and air components and is unique among reserve forces in that the guard honors both state and federal missions. ROTC: The Reserve Officer Training Corps are the primary source for college-trained officers for the military services. Specific programs vary by service branch. The Army’s ROTC program, for example, currently is offered at over 300 institutions and, through agreements, at more than 1,000 colleges and universities. Participants work through basic and advanced programs, preparing for later enlistment in the Army. Educational assistance is available in the form of highly competitive scholarships, and Army ROTC members go on to receive commissioned officer status. Detailed information about ROTC programs in any of the five service branches is available through recruitment offices, as well as ROTC offices at local colleges or universities. Service academies: The primary service academies include the Military Academy (West Point, New York), the Naval Academy (Annapolis, Maryland), the Air Force Academy (Colorado Springs, Colorado), and the Coast Guard Academy (New London, Connecticut). The Marine Corps draws some Annapolis graduates, but the principal source of Marine Corps officers is the Platoon Leaders Class program and the Officers Candidate School in Quantico, Virginia. Each academy furnishes college education and special military training to officer candidates in its branch. On graduation, each candidate receives an officer’s commission and a bachelor of science degree. Warrant officers: Warrant officers are specially trained members of the Army or Navy whose expertise in a certain specialty qualifies them to accept the most demanding positions available within that specialty. Earning their positions through technical and tactical ability, warrant officers build their careers overseeing the operations, maintenance, administration and management of the branches’ equipment, support services, or technical systems. Branch recruiters can provide additional information on application requirements.
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They view it as an excellent opportunity to take a civilian job and keep the financial cushion of military retirement pay. Others, of course, prefer to stay in the service longer, or perhaps for their entire working lives; generally speaking, only the more senior service members have that opportunity. Even in retirement, service people are subject to recall in times of national emergency.
■ Outlook Military life is extremely regimented. Service members are not always able to choose their assignments, places of work, or homes. Their responsibility is to serve the country and the military unit, so the needs of the country and the service come first. The modern services try hard to give members what they want; a good worker gets special consideration for the same reason a civilian employer rewards a top employee. But most service members at some time will, for example, work on the East Coast when they would rather be on the West Coast, go to sea when they would rather stay home, live in a house or barracks on the base when they would rather have an apartment in town, or serve a year in a post abroad when they would rather be with their families. In contrast to the personal sacrifices, such as these that are asked of service members, it’s heartening to remember that the country always will need a military, both for defense and to protect its interests and citizens around the world. It’s true that over time, often because of political or economic influences, the requirements necessary to meet these needs change. As America’s position in the world grew stronger in the early 1990s, for example, the military engaged in a major downsizing, reducing per-
sonnel in nearly every branch and at all levels. The size and strength of each service reached a steady state in the late 1990s and today each service branch has established a goal of maintaining this “steady state.” This means every year each branch needs enough recruits to replace those leaving the service. According to the U.S. Department of Labor, approximately 170,000 new enlistees and officers must join annually to fill vacated spots. The war on terrorism will be a long, complicated effort involving all branches of the military and law enforcement. In addition to military action, personnel will be involved in any rescue and assistance needed on domestic soil to combat threats of additional physical, chemical, or biological attacks. Educational requirements and advancement standards continue to be raised as military jobs become more complex and technologically advanced. Because of the many benefits of military service, including college tuition grants and specialized training, competition for military positions may be expected to rise. The prospects for promotion for officers also will become more competitive. Opportunities for enlisted positions will become more limited for those without a high school diploma. Applicants with some college education will have the best prospects.
■ For More Information To view the Military Career Guide Online, which contains comprehensive information on opportunities in all branches of the service, visit the following Web site. Military Career Guide Online http://www.militarycareers.com
To get information on specific branches of the military, check out this site, which is the home of ArmyTimes.com, NavyTimes.com, AirForceTimes.com, and MarineCorps Times.com: Military City http://www.militarycity.com
Each of the following services publishes handbooks, fact sheets, and pamphlets describing entrance requirements, training, advancement possibilities, and other aspects of military careers. For more information, contact the following offices or your local recruiter. United States Marine Corps Recruiting Command Tel: 800-MARINES http://www.marines.com A military optometrist gives a soldier an eye examination at Fort McPherson’s Medical and Dental Clinic, Georgia. (U.S. Air Force.)
United States Navy Recruiting Command Tel: 800-USA-NAVY http://www.navy.com
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United States Air Force Recruiting Service, Headquarters
Facts About Coal Mining
Tel: 800-423-USAF http://www.airforce.com
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There are 270 billion tons of recoverable coal in the United States. At today’s usage rate, this supply will last 250 years.
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More than half of the electricity in the United States is generated by coal.
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There were approximately 1,370 coal mines in the United States in 2004.
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More than 50 percent of all coal mines are located in Kentucky, Pennsylvania, and West Virginia. Other states with a large number of coal mines include Alabama, Illinois, Indiana, Virginia, and Wyoming.
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Nearly 74,000 coal miners were employed in the coal mining industry in 2004.
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Almost 5,130 miners were injured in workplace accidents in 2004. Twenty-eight of these injuries resulted in death.
United States Army Recruiting Command, Headquarters Tel: 800-USA-ARMY http://www.goarmy.com United States Coast Guard Recruiting Tel: 877-669-8724 http://www.uscg.mil/jobs
■ Related Articles Aerospace; Defense; Military Workers
Mining
Source: National Mining Association
■ Background The mining industry locates valuable minerals in the earth and water and removes them in the most economical and efficient way. Mined materials include energy minerals, such as coal, petroleum, and uranium; nonmetallic minerals, such as limestone, salt, sandstone, and diamonds; and metallic minerals, such as iron ore, gold, and silver. Mining is the discovery, valuation, development, exploitation, processing, and marketing of useful minerals. Although early humans used exposed minerals for tens of thousands of years, the earliest mine did not appear until approximately 8000 b.c. At that time, humans extracted clay for cooking ware, hard volcanic rock for plowing, gold for ornamentation, and flint for basic weaponry. By 3000 b.c., humanity had entered the Bronze Age, mixing tin and copper to produce weapons and utensils that were stronger than flint. By 1200 b.c., humans had begun to use iron. During the Iron Age, humans mined valuable materials. Ceylon and India mined gems for trade, and the Greeks cut marble for their magnificent structures. The usefulness of bronze, tin, and iron led to the development of more sophisticated mining techniques, which culminated during the Roman Empire. In addition to metals, the Romans mined volcanic ash, combining it with other materials to create very durable cement. For more than 1,000 years after the end of the Roman Empire, mining techniques remained stagnant. It was not until the 1400s that the French, Germans, and Swedes began mining their territories with vigor.
Mining did not take hold in the United States until the 1700s, when French explorers discovered rich lead and zinc mines in the Mississippi River Valley. In the mid1800s, Pennsylvania residents developed numerous coal and coke mines, giving rise to the famous millionaires of the Gilded Age in U.S. history: Andrew Carnegie, Henry Clay Frick, Andrew Mellon, and John Pierpont Morgan. Such cities as Pittsburgh, Gary, and Duluth grew rapidly, increasing the country’s industrial and economic strength. At the same time, the discovery of rich oil fields in Texas introduced an entirely new industry to the country. After World War II, the United States entered the nuclear age, mining rare radioactive materials for nuclear energy and weaponry. More recently, the U.S. mining industry has experienced its share of ups and downs. Facing intense competition from abroad, the industry has had to make many technological improvements to compete with other countries. Many mining companies concentrate on just one or two facets of the industry; others provide special services to mining companies. For example, some companies perform just the drilling and sampling phase of prospecting and exploration. Similarly, some only analyze samples for mineral content. A number of small and intermediate-sized mining companies produce from 100 to 500 tons of ore per day and have a labor force of 25 or less. Whereas the general methods of development and exploitation remain the
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A geologist inspects core samples that reveal the depth and quality of the coal seam to be mined. (Consolidation Coal Company.)
same, the small and intermediate companies usually do not have the extensive capital resources to purchase the many types of equipment needed for larger operations.
■ Structure The basic elements found in the earth’s crust combine in strange and beautiful ways to create many different types of minerals. The variety of raw materials is as diverse as the uses for them. At least 1,400 minerals of inorganic origin are known, approximately 300 of which have become useful to industry. Basically, the output of the mining industry may be classified into three groups: energy minerals, nonmetallic minerals, and metallic minerals. Typical energy minerals are the fossil fuels, such as coal and uranium. Typical nonmetallic minerals include phosphate rock, used in fertilizers; limestone rock, used in cement, lime, and iron production; salt, used domestically and in industry for the production of basic chemicals; and sand and gravel, used extensively in construction. Typical metallic minerals are iron ores, copper ores, and bauxite, which is the raw material for the aluminum industry. The most heavily mined minerals are coal, iron, nonferrous metals, and construction materials, such as gravel. The easily accessible deposits that provided mineral supplies in the past are gone. The remaining available
minerals lie beneath the earth’s surface. The development of special tools, techniques, instruments, and methods of interpretation help locate new mineral sources. Essentially, this aspect of mining requires an understanding of the earth’s chemistry and physics, as well as some type of intuition about the earth and its ore deposits. What resources to mine, when to start mining, how to finance operations, and where to market and at what price are questions confronting the mineral economist. Since ore bodies are unevenly distributed throughout the world, a system has developed for distributing the output of ore bodies to those who need them. This system is motivated fundamentally by the law of supply and demand. In addition, local townships, counties, states, nations, and international bodies desire to influence the workings of the fundamental law of supply and demand for minerals so that their own welfare can be maximized. The influences of these organizations on the policies of a mining firm must be thoroughly understood if the firm is to survive and prosper. Discovering viable places to mine is a science that requires trained and experienced professionals to determine whether or not ore deposits and mineralized masses are technically, economically, socially, and politically minable. Scientists, engineers, and technicians are brought together as a team, usually with a specific kind of mineral target in mind. Geologists, geophysicists, and geochemists need a fundamental understanding of the ways ore bodies developed on Earth to discover more readily where ore bodies are likely to be found. Initial efforts to locate likely mine sites often start with satellite photographs. This is followed by aerial photographs and geophysical sensing, which in turn are followed by more intense and detailed study of the targeted area. Sometimes the discovery is underwater, such as the deep-sea nodules, or in the polar regions or even under existing towns. Once a mineralized mass is found, a valuation engineer confirms the discovery and authorizes the removal of the ore. The valuation function requires a wide range of talents, from an understanding of ore deposit geology to knowing the fundamentals of marketing mineral products. To address such practical matters as cost and profitability, valuation engineers must gather and analyze geological, geophysical, and geochemical data. To be profitable, the prospective ore body must be obtainable through efficient extraction by available or developing technology and equipment. The valuation engineer must also consider social and political policy. Societal values change with time and
the needs of people. Political parties and governments also change. A mining enterprise must respond to these changes and anticipate future trends and laws. Should valuation engineers deem an area worth mining, their decision launches an ever-widening circle of design and construction activity. Some mining projects today are so large that a joint venture of several companies, or a partnership between government and private industry, is created to carry them out. The design sector of mining links the research and development phases with actual construction. Once management has stated its objectives in a given mineral project, design engineers proceed to accomplish the objectives. Mining, industrial, and mineral engineers together must make a working system that safely meets the output requirements with a minimum expenditure of staff and equipment. For underground mining, design engineers plan detailed drilling procedures and determine the number and location of shafts, slopes (diagonally dug shafts), and main extraction openings. Surface structures and roads usually are designed by civil engineers. In many cases, railroads are required. Engineers determine the size, number, kind, and layout of the various pieces of equipment. Electrical engineers and mechanical engineers are responsible for designing various controls and for organizing the distribution of power and other services throughout the mine. For large-scale mining in remote areas, more often than not a town site with its services and facilities must be designed and constructed. This requires the further services of architects, water supply engineers, and sanitation engineers. The design engineers hand over a set of plans and specifications to the construction engineers, who are responsible for translating the plans into the reality of steel and concrete, head frames and mills, and shafts and tunnels. The actual construction may be handled by contractors or engineering concerns that specialize in heavy construction. Whether this is the case or not, the usual procedure is to determine a plan for construction, the quantities of material and other items needed, and the estimated cost of each construction operation. Fieldwork starts with a survey team sent to the site to lay out the mine and its facilities. Construction of access roads and auxiliary buildings begins immediately, and the team assesses any work already done on essential services such as electricity and water. Progress reports are submitted by the fieldworkers, and plans are changed accordingly. For underground mining, construction entails sinking shafts and developing main extraction openings,
Mining
underground workshops, and other openings important to mine operation. A choice must be made between conventional drill-and-blast methods and shaft-and-tunnel boring with machines. The use of shaft-and-tunnel boring machines is the newer method, but it must be carefully chosen to cope with the variety of geological conditions encountered. Boring machines require substantial capital investment and hence must be operated and maintained with skill and care. Teamwork among engineers, mechanics, and operating personnel is needed for effective and efficient operation. Essentially, these machines bore a 20foot-diameter or larger tunnel or shaft by thrusting an array of cutting bits against the rock face. As the machine’s cutting head rotates, the bits chip and break off the rock in front of them. Large hydraulic jacks bear against the side of the bored opening and provide restraint against the machine’s thrust. Boring operations run continuously, stopping only for bit changes and repairs. Tunnel advances of a hundred feet or more per 24 hours can be accomplished in relatively soft rock. Since the machine is boring blind, lasers are used to ensure that deviation from the underground target is minimal. When boring operations are completed, the shaft is equipped with the necessary supports and facilities. Open pit mines are developed when the ore body is close to the surface of the ground. Typically, the pit is developed in a series of levels called benches. Haul roads are constructed between benches so that material can be moved from any location in the pit to various receiving points. Alternative haulage from the pit may be performed by conveyors or railroad trains. The receiving point may be an ore mill, leaching dump, waste dump, or ore storage pile. Giant trucks with capacities up to 240 tons move about on this network of roads and are carefully scheduled so that no loading operation or receiving point is empty. Large drills, bulldozers, and power shovels work to ensure a continuous flow of ore out of the pit. In this way, open pit mining can move more than 600,000 tons of ore and rock in a 24-hour period. The nature of the mineral deposit determines how open pit mining methods are employed. Placer mining methods are used for the exploitation of platinum, tin, diamond, and gold deposits. In Florida, phosphates are mined by surface methods. Large quantities of earth are mined and processed to recover small quantities of these substances. The treatment of mining wastewater and the handling and safe disposal of other mining wastes are large problems. There is often a great deal of opposition to mining projects because of their adverse effects on the
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environment, including air, water, and noise pollution, as well as destruction of land and animal habitats. Strip mining of coal may be done in mountainous regions as well as in the lowlands. Although the methods are fundamentally the same, the geometry of the resulting pit is different and gives rise to a host of different problems. One concern is land reclamation, which is more of a problem for coal producers than for hard rock mining companies. Low equipment and labor costs make open pit mining the cheapest and most economical method for producing low-grade or low-value material. Rock- and earth-moving equipment works on a scale that is hard to believe. Power shovels and draglines capable of moving 100 tons at a time are common. High output rates mean that the scale of trucks, bulldozers, and other equipment must be large. Operating personnel take over when construction is completed. The pace of work increases, for performance in meeting production goals is the criterion by which everything is measured. Teamwork and cooperation are essential. Drillers, blasters, loading machine operators, haulage operators, supply workers, and safety personnel work in a cycle of operations that meet production goals at the lowest possible costs. The operations department also provides opportunities for mining engineers, metallurgists, mineral economists, industrial engineers, and chemical engineers. These professionals establish process controls and performance standards, evaluate jobs, train employees, and review cost control plans. Maintenance of plant and equipment is sufficiently important to justify a separate department, since the dollar investment in both plant and equipment may be
The Bingham Canyon mine in Utah is a typical pit mine, with its funnel shape, man-made terraces, and transpor tation systems that carry ore to processing centers. (Kennecott Copper Company.)
thousands of dollars per worker. The actual maintenance is in the hands of skilled craftsworkers and technicians such as mechanics, machinists, drafters, electricians, and instrument technicians, who are trained and equipped to overhaul all major plant facilities. All maintenance and operating work requires keeping complete and accurate records concerning equipment durability and efficiency. The analysis of these records also yields the information needed for inventory and stock requirements. Shift bosses, or mine captains, play key management roles in the mining industry. They transform the desires of upper management into action. The shift boss’s responsibilities may be summarized as meeting the required daily output while considering the health and safety of the workers. The shift boss must continually make personal inspections, regularly examining the fans and ventilation apparatus of an underground mine, looking at the condition of the shaft and main extraction openings and examining the electrical system. In any type of mine, the shift boss must talk with the workers, formulate independent opinions of conditions, and report to the company managers. The shift boss may also meet with local labor representatives and negotiate solutions to any problems or concerns. Mine managers keep informed through reports from the mine shift bosses, their assistants, and personal inspections and investigations. Mine managers and shift bosses differ in their responsibilities. The shift boss may have to decide: Should we replace the float valve at pump station 1? Should we send people from production operations to the maintenance crew? The mine manager and the people at the top management levels, on the other hand, might be thinking: Should we mine more actively in mine No. 2 than in No. 3? Is it possible to bring out a new mining venture without unduly disturbing the existing marketing structure? The choice among alternative plans that are broad in scope is management’s responsibility. The sales force in the mining industry is responsible for cultivating buyers of their product and keeping in contact with them. Most mineral commodities are sold according to specifications. Industrial users need certain qualities in their raw materials and require suppliers to meet those specifications. Salespeople are vitally important because they personally represent the company to the buyer. Knowing the wishes of buyers, they can apprise the company of the shifting demand for mineral products. Salespeople in the mining industry must be familiar with the workings of the commodity markets and the flow of minerals in national and international commerce. Because they are required to compete in both price and
specifications, they must know their company’s abilities and products intimately. They must know how various mineral commodities may interchange in the industry.
■ Outlook A vast array of careers are available to workers with high school diplomas to advanced college degrees. High school graduates with technical and mechanical aptitude may become blasters, miners, or construction equipment operators and with considerable experience move into the ranks of management. Others work in clerical, sales, or transportation positions. Workers with advanced degrees have a wider range of options open to them in design, maintenance, sales, engineering, science-related fields, law, and management. A wide variety of engineers work in the design aspect of mining, including design, civil, electrical, mechanical, architectural, sanitation, and water supply engineers. Those with high-tech mechanical skills can work in maintenance, keeping mining machinery in top working order. These workers include mechanics, machinists, drafters, electricians, and instrumentation technicians. Those who have an affinity for science and laboratory work have important positions in the mining industry as chemists, petrologists, geochemists, surveyors, and various mining technicians. The mining industry also needs law professionals to address increasingly restrictive and complicated environmental and land use issues. In addition to major companies, there are countless small operators who specialize in various aspects of the industry, such as strip mining, stripping overburden, mineral analysis, drilling mine shafts, and helping companies comply with recently enacted federal environmental regulations that affect the industry. According to the U.S. Department of Labor, employment in mining and quarrying is expected to decline by about 13 percent through 2014. There were 207,000 wage and salary jobs in the mining and quarrying industry in 2004; around 72,000 in coal mining; 27,000 in metal mining; and 108,000 in nonmetallic mineral mining. Because the demand for energy, metallic, and nonmetallic minerals presently is low, opportunities for miners are expected to decline. While coal consumption is expected to increase, it will supply a smaller share of U.S. energy consumption as it is replaced by other renewable, more environmentally friendly sources. Recent regulatory strictures, such as The Clean Air Act Amendments (which went into effect in 1995), which aim to control environmental damage such as acid rain, mandate expensive compliance measures by coal-burning utilities, therefore affecting coal producers on the whole. Technological advances and labor-saving equipment have
Mining
greatly reduced the number of production workers. For example, advances in longwall and surface mining and improvements in transportation and processing have increased productivity, but require fewer employees. Continuing productivity increases also are expected to cause employment in the mining of both metals and nonmetallic minerals to decline through 2014— although employment in the mining of nonmetallic minerals will decline less significantly due to a continuing need for crushed stone, gravel, and cement for use in construction. The future outlook for metal mining varies depending on the material that is mined, but for all metals there will be increased competition from international markets. Mining operations in other countries have lower labor costs and are subject to fewer government regulations. The Internet is expected to have an effect on the mining industry, since it provides access to a larger market of customers and suppliers. Localized mining operations will be able to find and communicate easily with low-cost suppliers, increasing efficiency. At the same time, the Internet will increase the competition among mining operations.
■ For More Information For information on careers, schools, college student membership, scholarships and grants, and other resources, contact The Minerals, Metals, & Materials Society 184 Thorn Hill Road Warrendale, PA 15086-7528 Tel: 724-776-9000 Email:
[email protected] http://www.tms.org
This organization is a merger of the National Coal Association and the American Mining Congress. It is an information center for the mining industry. National Mining Association 101 Constitution Avenue, NW, Suite 500 East Washington, DC 20001-2133 Tel: 202-463-2600 Email:
[email protected] http://www.nma.org
For career information, contact Society for Mining, Metallurgy and Exploration Career Information Department 8307 Shaffer Parkway Littleton, CO 80127-4102 Tel: 800-763-3132 http://www.smenet.org
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museums and cultural centers
The following labor union represents coal miners. United Mine Workers of America 8315 Lee Highway Fairfax, VA 22031-2215 Tel: 703-208-7200 http://www.umwa.org
■ Related Articles Earth Sciences; Energy; The Environment; Metals; Nuclear Power; Civil Engineering Technicians; Civil Engineers; Coal Miners; Environmental Engineers; Geological Technicians; Geologists; Geophysicists; Groundwater Professionals; Industrial Engineering Technicians; Industrial Engineers; Industrial Machinery Mechanics; Mechanical Engineering Technicians; Mechanical Engineers; Metallurgical Engineers; Mining Engineers; Nuclear Engineers; Oceanographers; Petroleum Engineers; Petroleum Refining Workers; Petroleum Technicians; Petrologists; Soil Conservationists and Technicians; Soil Scientists; Surveying and Mapping Technicians; Surveyors
Museums and Cultural Centers ■ Background Museums and cultural centers have many things in common. Their function is primarily to educate people about themselves and the natural and technological world, past and present. They try to authentically portray cultural diversity and search for universal elements that unite people from different backgrounds. Most museums and cultural centers have permanent collections, managed by curators and archivists. Both kinds of institutions use live performance and prepared exhibits. Either kind of institution may serve a small community or a broad-based population, and either may be supported by private or public funding, and usually both. In general, museums tend to have permanent collections and base exhibits on these collections. Museums may also have areas designated for temporary exhibits, live performances, study programs, and meetings of community groups. Cultural centers tend to have more temporary exhibits than permanent ones. They show the work of local living artists and designate a larger proportion of their space for live performance, film showings, studio classes, discussion groups, and use by community artisans.
The forerunner of the modern cultural center was, in early colonial America, the church. The small communities established by immigrants on the North American continent were, by and large, single-denominational communities. Churches functioned as the center of community life. Proclamations from civic authorities were read in churches, trials were held in churches, and the milestones of life were observed in churches. In the modern United States, many churches open their doors to groups seeking a place to pursue peaceful, nonexclusionary activities. Singles groups, day care centers, soup kitchens, theatrical groups, exercise classes, and town orchestras are among the diverse interests that find a common meeting place in churches. Thus, throughout U.S. history churches have functioned as cultural centers in the broadest sense of culture. Formal cultural centers or associations began to emerge in the late 1800s and early 1900s. In part these were places for the wealthy to pursue philosophy and enjoy art performances in pleasant surroundings. Other cultural centers were founded by immigrant groups seeking the solace of a known language and familiar customs. Today, ethnically focused cultural centers are often found in urban neighborhoods, and they are felt to be sources of cohesion and empowerment. They may offer literacy classes, voter registration, weddings, school immunizations, or classes in prenatal care in a building that also houses permanent or temporary art exhibits and is regularly used for performances. Public events in these centers may be open to everyone regardless of background. Through discussion groups, newsletters, and shared activities, cultural centers help individuals and groups retain identities in the rapidly changing demographic mix of American communities. At the same time, public events sponsored by these centers expose others to different cultures and foster tolerance and understanding. Some cultural centers serve an entire city or state and rely on tax dollars for support. City and state cultural centers may have a permanent exhibit explaining the history of the area through photographs and news stories. They may feature the work of local artists, either through rotating exhibits or through sale of items in a gift shop. Live performances and meeting rooms for discussion groups are other typical features of these centers. Such a center might also house a library or historical museum. Some cultural centers are affiliated with the local office of tourism and promote programs of interest to nonlocal visitors. Others bring international exhibitions and performers to the communities they serve. The buildings in which state and city cultural centers are housed range
from renovated warehouses, to a portion of the town hall, to a modern building in which space is shared with other civic functions, to a building on the scale of the Lincoln Center for the Performing Arts. The forerunners of museums in colonial America were “cabinets of curiosities,” or collections of unrelated objects that caught the imagination of collectors. These cabinets, which saw greatest growth in the early to mid1700s, were often attached to a library society or college. Open by subscription to members but not to the general public, they offered lectures in the interest of advancing knowledge, as well as an opportunity to observe the collections. Some of the earliest cabinets were a scientific cabinet at Harvard College that traced its origins to the gift of a telescope by Governor John Winthrop in 1672; the American Philosophical Society in Philadelphia, founded by Benjamin Franklin; and the Charleston Museum, affiliated with a library, which sustained a devastating fire in 1778. The Charleston Museum was not entirely destroyed, and after decades, it was reborn under the naturalist and educator Louis Agassiz in about 1850, to become one of the nation’s leading museums. The fire of 1778, however, marked a symbolic end to the elitist model of the cabinet and the start of the public museum in America. The prototype of the modern public museum was Charles Willson Peale’s Philadelphia Museum, a natural history museum that opened in 1786. Trained as a saddlemaker and painter, Peale developed the first formula for permanent preservation of species. He mounted the specimens in natural attitudes, posed them against habitat backgrounds he had painted, and labeled them according to the Linnean system of classification into genera and species. His grown children started several Peale museums in other cities. Peale constantly had to search for money to support his museum, and despite support from prominent citizens, including President Thomas Jefferson, the Philadelphia Museum was already failing at the time of Peale’s death in 1827. Some of his mounted specimens made their way into the permanent collections of other museums, including the Peabody Museum at Harvard, but the bulk of the collection was bought by circus impresario P. T. Barnum. Nevertheless, the Philadelphia Museum was successful for several decades, and Peale’s techniques and ideas about exhibition defined museum directions for the next century. The great period of museum building in the United States spanned more than a century, extending from the age of enlightenment through the industrial age. Museum building was driven by expeditions of exploration across the continent and in the waters of the Pacific, from which many exotic specimens and cultural artifacts
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from indigenous peoples were returned to cities on the eastern seaboard. In fact, the problem of warehousing so many articles was a crucial factor in the establishment of a national museum. Former Secretary of War Joel Poinsett established a private receivership for collections and pressed Congress for funding for a national museum. Congress resisted, but eventually, in 1846, established the Smithsonian Institution, backed by government money. The large variety of specimens, particularly those returned by explorers in the Pacific in the years 1838–42, led to the separation of art and natural history into distinct museums within the Smithsonian and gave rise to the “nation’s attic.” Other museums founded in the golden age of museum building included the Boston Museum of Fine Arts, the American Museum of Natural History in New York, the Art Institute of Chicago, and the Field Columbian Museum, later renamed the Field Museum of Natural History, also in Chicago. A few wealthy industrialists and merchants provided lasting endowments for many of these institutions. In recent years, museum staffs have rejuvenated education as one of the dominant roles of a modern
Museums Online Art Museum Network This site calls itself the official Web site of the world’s leading art museums. http://www.amn.org Musee This interactive directory to museums’ collections includes art, science, archaeology, and history museums, zoos and aquariums, and provides links to their educational, entertainment, archive, and shopping features. http://www.musee-online.org Museum Computer Network This Web site has links to more than 1,000 international museum and museum-related sites. http://www.mcn.edu Museum Spot This site is a comprehensive guide to museums and other cultural information on the Web. http://www.museumspot.com The Virtual Library Museums in the USA This is an online museum information network. http://www.museumca.org/usa
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museum. Through interactive exhibits, self-learning programs, and exhibits emphasizing concepts over content, museums hope that visitors will better understand themselves, others, and the overlapping aesthetic, natural, and technological spheres that compose the modern world. Museums have added a social and political dimension to their functions, with the repatriation of religious artifacts to the ancestral people of origin, focusing on cultural awareness and social purpose. In the mid- to late 1980s, museums began returning religious artifacts to Native American groups for resanctification and reburial. Repatriation was eventually codified into law, the Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act (NAGPRA), which took effect in 1990. Over a stated period of time, museums are required to inventory Native American items in their possession and return them to the appropriate tribes. Another example of how museums encourage political and social change is in the field of ecology. As issues of the health of the environment and the presently high rate of species extinction arose in the national consciousness, museums found exceptional resources within their walls to illustrate these concepts. Interactive exhibits demonstrate that individuals can make a difference and that solutions require long-term efforts to restore the world’s biological balance.
■ Structure Museums and cultural centers come in an array of sizes and kinds. The smallest of these institutions may be open a few hours a week and staffed by one or two people; the largest are run along the lines of a corporation. In sharp contrast to corporations, however, most museums and cultural centers are nonprofit, so their financial support comes from philanthropic foundations and from federal, state, and city agencies. Since a large degree of support comes from the public sector, museums and cultural centers pay close attention to the interests of taxpayers in their communities. Museums and cultural centers are usually run by a board of trustees or similar governing body. Trustees have considerable experience in business; they may be active or retired chief executive officers of corporations, university presidents, or partners in law firms. They help the institution run smoothly in the long term. They are usually well connected socially and have good relationships with other business and civic leaders. They take an active role in promoting the museum or cultural center and may lead fund-raising drives and other events to increase a museum’s support. Public programs and exhibits are the heart of operations for both museums and cultural centers. Exhibit
space and performance space is frequently allocated a year or more in advance. In community cultural centers, any individual or community group may be able to request space for an appropriate exhibit or function. Juried exhibits of art may alternate with displays of work by schoolchildren in the community. In smaller community cultural centers, the bulk of proposals for use of space may originate in the community rather than within the offices of the center itself. In larger cultural centers and in museums, proposals for use of space originate internally and programs are planned internally. Community leaders identified as resource people by the museum may be invited to development sessions or may be hired as consultants to the project. The community at large may be invited to attend special open forums during the development phases. Large museums regularly allocate more than 90 percent of available exhibit space to displaying items from the museum’s collections. Only a small portion of a collection can be displayed at once, and the manner and context of display change as museums focus on new issues. Exhibit design is an integral, often costly component as museums strive for a more realistic or educational experience. Rough-finished floors may be installed to suggest a woodland walk, or large windows framing interior vistas and topped with hanging vines may be installed to suggest the pastoral French countryside painted by the Impressionists. Museums with the resources to do so may add interactive computers, mechanical moving objects, and prerecorded sound to the installation. A major museum exhibit is planned two to five years in advance. Exhibit developers receive a general assignment from museum administrators and work out the specific content to illustrate the concepts behind the exhibit. The chief financial officer, chief educational officer, and chief public programs officer are likely to be involved with the project from start to finish. Content drafts and rough sketches of the exhibit are circulated through committees and revised several times. Once a draft reaches final approval, exhibit designers and builders create a scale model that will be followed during installation. Several departments work at the same time to organize the many pieces that help develop the exhibit. The museum development office submits funding proposals to philanthropic foundations and state and federal agencies. Corporations and individuals may be solicited for donations. The education department plans workshops for local schoolteachers and begins recruiting museum teachers and interpreters for the new exhibit. The education department may also develop survey instruments to test the learning component of the exhibit. Curators
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Words to Know Accession: The official process of transferring ownership of an item to the museum’s permanent collection. Catalogue: To assign an object to the museum’s established system of classification while recording the object’s provenance, catalog and accession numbers, and specific location in the collection storage area. Collections manager: Museum employee who focuses closely on the physical care and cataloging of the objects in the museum’s collection. Conservator: Professional who maintains, protects, and restores items in a museum’s collection. Curator: Professional who specializes in one area of the museum’s holdings and uses this knowledge to care for objects in the collection, to study and interpret them to other scholars and the visiting public, to devise programs and exhibits based on the collection, and to transmit a sound collection to future generations through thoughtful accessioning an deaccessioning of items in the collection. Deaccession: The official process of removing an item from the museum’s permanent collection. Development specialist: Professional who raises funds for the museum through solicitation of corporate and private donors, grant applications, membership drives, endowments, and special fund-raising events. Director: Official who provides leadership, establishes policies, nominally oversees any research done in the
lend their expertise as content specialists. The publications department writes descriptions of the exhibit for member publications and for books to be sold in the museum store. Souvenir products, such as mugs and Tshirts, are negotiated with vendors. Museum artists prepare a conceptual drawing of the finished exhibit to aid in promotions. As the end of installation nears, the museum concentrates on encouraging public excitement. Print and television journalists are invited to a private walk-through of the nearly completed exhibit. Community schools are advised of the opening date and given information on tours or special programs the museum has set up in conjunction with the exhibit. Billboard space may be rented for advertisements. A donors’ ball or dinner is usually planned for the opening; this event will also be attended by the museum’s top administrators and by the exhibit developers.
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museum, promotes capital campaigns, and represents the museum to the media, local civic and business leaders, and other museum directors. The museum director is appointed by, and reports to, the board of trustees or other governing body of the museum. Museum directors are frequently assisted by numerous vice presidents and administrators, to whom they may delegate a range of responsibilities and authority. Docent: A museum tour guide and lecturer who is an expert on the collection. Educator: Person who specializes in museum education and designs instructional materials and programs for the public. Exhibit (display): The museum medium for presenting an interpretation of subject matter through objects, text, photographs, graphic design, and audiovisual supplements. Exhibit designer: Artist who plans, develops, constructs, installs, and maintains permanent or temporary exhibits. Mission statement: Identifies the purposes and goals of the museum. Provenance: The geographical origin and history of an object. Registrar: Person who creates systems for the inventory, shipping, insurance, and custody of museum holdings; prepares object condition reports and arranges loans; processes items through customs.
In addition to permanent exhibits showcasing their collections, museums may have traveling exhibits. Traveling exhibits are small, highly focused exhibits designed for economy of space and finances. A traveling exhibit visits several cities over a period of a year or so. These exhibits are usually fully sponsored by one corporation and developed at one museum, such as the Smithsonian; participating museums then pay a fee that is applied to such expenses as insurance and cartage.
■ Outlook The Occupational Outlook Handbook reports that employment of archivists, curators, museum technicians, and conservators is expected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations through 2014. As museums focus on education and service to the community, public programs and education staff are likely to be somewhat protected. On the other hand, posi-
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tions such as curators and exhibit designers may be less secure as museums replace full-time, permanent workers with contract or temporary workers. Museums and other cultural institutions are often subject to funding cuts during recessions or periods of budget tightening. Institution-wide salary freezes and hiring freezes are already occurring in some institutions. There is strong competition for jobs as archivists, curators, museum technicians, and conservators because the number of qualified applicants is far greater than the number of job openings. Prime archivist jobs will go to graduates with highly specialized training, such as master’s degrees in both library science and history, with a concentration in archives or records management and extensive computer skills. Those interested in curator positions may have to work part time as interns, volunteer assistant curators, or research associates after completing their formal education. Substantial work experience in collection management, exhibit design, or restoration, as well as database management skills, will be necessary for permanent status. Job opportunities for curators should be best in art and history museums, the largest employers in the museum industry. In order to accurately represent different cultures, museums are actively recruiting people from minority, indigenous, and ethnic populations to work in a variety of museum functions, including as curators, technicians, educators, designers, and accountants. Museum building has not stopped, but it is being pursued more conservatively than in the past, with a primary focus on children’s museums and discovery centers. These museums usually do not have permanent collections, and therefore avoid the operating and personnel costs of managing a collection. With constricted resources, museums and cultural centers are focusing more closely on the needs of the communities they serve and their own roles in that community.
■ For More Information The American Association of Museums publishes Aviso, a monthly newsletter that lists internships and positions open for museum professionals, and Museum News, a monthly magazine with feature articles relevant to different areas of museum work. For an overview of the educational requirements and typical job duties associated with different museum positions, the report Careers in Museums: A Variety of Vocations can be purchased from the AAM. American Association of Museums (AAM) 1575 Eye Street, NW, Suite 400 Washington, DC 20005-1113
Tel: 202-289-1818 http://www.aam-us.org
This association of more than 290 children’s museums in the United States offers publications and resources. Association of Children’s Museums 1300 L Street, NW, Suite 975 Washington, DC 20005-4107 Tel: 202-898-1080 Email:
[email protected] http://www.childrensmuseum.org
For information on courses and workshops, fellowships, internships, and publications for education and museum professionals, contact Center for Museum Studies Smithsonian Institute The Arts and Industries Building, Room 2235 900 Jefferson Drive, SW Washington, DC 20560-0004 http://museumstudies.si.edu
For a list of schools and colleges, as well as information on college student membership, contact New England Museum Association 22 Mill Street, Suite 409 Arlington, MA 02476-4744 Tel: 781-641-0013 http://www.nemanet.org
This is an organization of specialists in the use of technology in cultural heritage institutions and programs. Archives & Museum Informatics 158 Lee Avenue Toronto, Ontario M4E 2P3 Canada Tel: 416-691-2516 Email:
[email protected] http://www.archimuse.com
■ Related Articles Education; Public Relations; Visual Arts; Aquarists; Archivists; Biologists; Book Conservators; College Professors; Conservators and Conservation Technicians; Ecologists; Education Directors and Museum Teachers; Exhibit Designers; Grant Coordinators and Writers; Museum Attendants; Museum Directors and Curators; Museum Technicians; Public Relations Specialists; Research Assistants; Teacher Aides; Tour Guides; Zoo and Aquarium Curators and Directors; Zookeepers; Zoologists
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Music ■ Background Throughout human history, there have been numerous theories about how music originated. The great naturalist Charles Darwin thought that music was related to sex. In his view, music evolved from the mating cries of birds and animals. Others have proposed that early humans developed singing as a way of imitating the sounds of nature or communicating over distances longer than those over which simple speech could travel. The philosopher Suzanne Langer has speculated that music, language, and dance not only were used together but also developed together in early rituals that combined those activities in a kind of early opera. In fact, however, no one knows how or when music developed. Music was an essential element in many early cultures and civilizations. It is known, for example, that music was used in various ways by the Egyptians. Egyptian priests played seven-foot-tall harps in their temples to honor the gods, and the armies of Egypt were accompanied by drums and trumpets, instruments that have accompanied warriors in many parts of the world. It was held that the god Osiris had invented the trumpet, and for that reason trumpets were used in rites dedicated to him. Music was also extremely important to the early Hebrews, Assyrians, and Babylonians. The first important instrument in their part of the world was the kinnor, a triangular harp that had between 10 and 20 strings. It was used by solo performers as well as in huge temple ceremonies that were said to include thousands of musicians. Reed flutes and drums of various kinds were also common. The shofar, a trumpet made of a ram’s horn, is particularly well known among Jews and Christians because, according to the Old Testament, seven shofars were used by the Jews to knock down the walls of the fortress of Jericho. The shofar is still used in Jewish temples. In music as well as in politics, philosophy, and science, Western civilization has been influenced by the Greeks. The very word music has Greek roots, although it should be noted that what the Greeks called music included all of what are now called the liberal arts. Although we do not know what the music of the ancient Greeks sounded like, various Greek concepts live on in modern Western music. The names of the various modes in Western music are taken directly from the names of the modes used by the Greeks, such as Ionian, Dorian, Phrygian, and Lydian. The Greeks also developed a system of notation so that their music could be written down and remembered.
A teacher leads her music class through a new piece. (Ian Shaw, Tony Stone Images.)
Unfortunately, however, scholars have not been able to decipher that notation with any degree of accuracy. In the West, music was strongly influenced by the Roman Catholic Church. In fact, in the medieval period, the only places where formal musical education could be found were the Church’s song schools, which trained boys to sing in religious services. The music that those boys sang was called plainsong, plainchant, or Gregorian chant. The music, which had developed from true chanting, featured simple melodies that used specific scales, or modes, that were authorized by the Church. As the years passed, more scales were authorized and the music became more complex. Ultimately, polyphony, the combination of two or more melodies, came to occupy a dominant place in Christian music until the Renaissance had almost run its course. During the Renaissance, which ran roughly from 1400 to 1600, the mass and the motet were the primary musical forms, but secular forms such as the German lied, the English madrigal, and the French chanson were also widely used, as were various dance forms. Renaissance composers had little knowledge of how to combine instruments for best effect. Instrumental music became more important during the Renaissance, but composers still generally wrote for instruments much as they wrote for voices, without taking into account the unique qualities of those instruments. It was during the Baroque period (1600–1750) that instrumental composition truly came into its own, advanced by the efforts of such great composers as Johann Sebastian Bach, Georg Friedrich Handel, and Antonio Vivaldi. Harmony, which occurs when two or more notes are played or sung at once, took on new importance. The harmony that had existed during the
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Renaissance had been primarily unintentional, resulting when the simultaneous use of two or more melodies caused more than one note to be played or sung at once, but during the Baroque period composers manipulated harmony in order to achieve various musical effects. This rich musical era also saw the development of many musical forms, including the oratorio, cantata, aria, concerto, fugue, suite, sonata, and the prelude. One of the most important developments in Western music, the creation of the opera, took place during the Baroque period. The opera is an art form that combines theater and orchestral music. In the early years of opera’s existence (from about 1600), there were many kinds of operas, but with the passage of time the form became relatively standardized. At the time of the early operas, the orchestra generally consisted of whichever instruments were available. By about 1700, however, various effective combinations of instruments had been determined, and by 1800 the orchestra had taken its modern form, which involves the grouping of similar instruments into sections, such as the brass section, the woodwind section, the string section, and the percussion section. The sections are positioned
Music and Religion Music and religion have been linked throughout history and in many cultures, and the link remains intact. In some cases, that link is easy to see, as it is when music is used to praise God or perform other religious functions. In other cases, the link is less obvious, as it is when musicians who perform secular music find that playing or singing connects them with God or enhances their spiritual lives in some other way. The great Hindustani sitarist and composer Ravi Shankar explained the Indian view of the connection between music and religion in the following passage from his autobiography, My Music, My Life: “Our tradition tells us that sound is God-Nada Brahma. That is, musical sound and the musical experience are steps to the realization of the self. We view music as a kind of spiritual discipline that raises one’s inner being to divine peacefulness and bliss. We are taught that one of the fundamental goals a Hindu works toward in his lifetime is a knowledge of the true meaning of the universe—its unchanging, eternal essence—and this is realized first by a complete knowledge of one’s self and one’s own nature. The highest aim of our music is to reveal the essence of the universe it reflects, and the ragas are among the means by which this essence can be apprehended. Thus, through music, one can reach God.”
in such a way as to make the music as clear and as effective as possible. The Classical movement in Western music began in approximately 1750 and ended by 1820. Its primary exponents were Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, Joseph Haydn, Franz Schubert in his early period, and Ludwig van Beethoven in his early period. The Classical movement was characterized by formalism, simplicity, restraint, and little overt expression of emotion. Composers who were part of the Romantic movement (1820–1900) rejected the restraint and formalism of the Classical composers and wrote music that attempted to express emotions in a direct manner. Among the foremost exponents of Romanticism were Franz Liszt, Richard Wagner, Johannes Brahms, and Pyotr Ilich Tchaikovsky. In addition, the later works of Beethoven and Schubert are considered Romantic. By the end of the 19th century, the French composer Claude Debussy had begun composing works that came to be called Impressionistic, a term that had originally been used to describe the work of French painters such as Claude Monet and Edouard Manet. The general idea of the Impressionist painters was to avoid detail and paint what a person might see at a quick glance. In effect, this meant focusing on the play of light as it hit objects rather than on the shapes of the objects themselves. Debussy’s compositions worked in a similar way, focusing on musical color and creating impressions that seemed to some listeners of the day indistinct and unfocused. Although various movements existed in the late 19th century and the early 20th century, it is difficult to view 20th-century music in terms of distinct movements. While many 20th-century composers have attempted to find new sounds and harmonies (such as those resulting from the serial compositional techniques developed by the Viennese composer Arnold Schoenberg), many others have worked in one or more of the traditions that existed in earlier times. The invention of forms of communication such as the telegraph, the radio, the phonograph, the telephone, the television, and the computer has made it possible for musicians to be much more aware of the activities of other musicians throughout the world than was possible earlier. Therefore, musicians and composers have become less isolated. A contemporary American composer may be influenced as much by pygmy music or the classical music of North India, for example, as by the music of the European masters. To this point, the subject under discussion has been the tradition of Western classical music (a general term not to be confused with the specific term used earlier in reference to the Classical movement). Other music has
developed and changed in cultures around the world, but it is more difficult to track because it tends to be taught and passed aurally without using any kind of notation or recording technology. But popular music and ethnic music of many kinds have had a tremendous influence during the 20th century. One of the most important developments occurred when people of African descent in the United States, Cuba, Haiti, and elsewhere combined elements of their traditional music with elements of Western music, creating various important hybrid musical forms. In the United States, that process ultimately gave birth to blues, ragtime, jazz, rock and roll, rhythm and blues, gospel music, and various other forms. These forms of music, all of which are important and all of which have spawned great artists, have spread throughout the world, combining with and affecting various other kinds of music. Many attempts have been made to combine apparently disparate forms of music, with varying degrees of success. At this point, innumerable forms of music coexist more or less peacefully, and musicians and composers are free to explore any tradition of music that they find interesting. Of course, some kinds of music are more commercially viable than others. Classical music and jazz, for example, are far less popular than rock and country music are. Yet small, passionate audiences do support musicians who specialize in less popular areas of music.
■ Structure There are many kinds of musicians, but some of the largest categories are these: instrumentalists (those who play instruments), singers, conductors, composers, songwriters, arrangers, orchestrators, copyists, and teachers. Musicians play many kinds of instruments, but those instruments usually fall into specific categories. String instruments produce sound when their strings are either plucked or strummed, as is the case with the guitar and the mandolin, or bowed, as is the case with the cello, the viola, and the violin. Wind instruments, or woodwinds, produce sound when air is blown through them, as do brass instruments, which are sometimes called brasswinds. Some woodwinds have mouthpieces equipped with reeds. When the player blows through the mouthpiece, the reed vibrates, producing sound. Instruments such as clarinets and saxophones use a single reed, whereas instruments such as oboes and bassoons are equipped with double reeds. The flute, however, does not use reeds at all. Instead, it produces sound when a player blows air at an angle against a fixed mouthpiece. Brass instruments also generally have a fixed mouthpiece. Percussion instruments, such as drums, produce sound when they are struck by a hand or by an object
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such as a stick or a mallet. The piano, which produces sound when its strings are struck by hammers that are activated when a pianist presses the piano’s keys, is also considered a percussion instrument. Singers use their voices to make music. In most cases, singers sing words, or lyrics, that are intended to match the music accompanying them. In some cases, however, singers use their voices as instruments. In Western classical music, singing without words is called vocalization. In jazz, some singers use a technique called scat singing, which involves using sounds in place of words. Conductors “play” an orchestra, choir, or other ensemble rather than an instrument. It is the job of the conductor to ensure, among other things, that the musicians play the correct notes at the correct times, that instruments or voices start and stop at the right times, that instruments and voices are neither too loud nor too soft and are in balance with one another, that the music being performed is interpreted in an appropriate manner (which usually means honoring the composer’s intentions), and that the music has an impact—usually an emotional impact—on the listeners. Conductors must know the music they are conducting inside and out, which means that much time must be spent in preparation before the conductor works with the ensemble. Conductors use their hands or a baton to indicate the basic rhythm that is being played by the ensemble, which helps the musicians to keep together. Conducting is a demanding profession that requires a very high level of knowledge, expertise, sensitivity, and intuition. A musical composer is a person who creates original music. Some composers, such as those who write orchestral music, write their music using notation, which ensures that their music can be played by musicians who can read that notation. In the case of classical music, the written music that results is very detailed. Some recording artists who are composers create music by giving oral or other nonwritten instructions to their musicians, using no notation whatsoever, yet the pieces they create are considered compositions. Many songwriters (composers who specialize in the song form) who record their songs give their musicians a lead sheet that consists of a melody and a set of chord changes, which gives the musicians basic instructions yet also allows them the freedom to interpret the music in specific ways of their own choosing. In many cases, composers or songwriters who do not read music and cannot write notation hire formally trained musicians to write down their songs, so that the written music can be used by others. Songwriters may write both music and lyrics or may write one or the other exclusively. Those who do not write lyrics work with a lyricist, who provides the words.
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Words to Know Audition: A trial performance that is used to test a musician’s suitability for a performing job. Chanson: French for song; a song with repeating verses; a type of song for one or more voices that was popular from the 14th century through the 16th century. Coda: A musical section that ends a piece of music, often with a powerful sense of finality. Concerto: A musical form in which a solo instrument is accompanied by the orchestra. Counterpoint: The simultaneous use of more than one melody (note that counterpoint and polyphony have the same meaning). Gig: A performance engagement. Harmony: The sonic phenomenon that occurs when more than one note is played or sung at once, resulting in a chord or some other harmonic structure. Improvisation: Creating music on the spot, as opposed to performing music that was composed previously; sometimes called spontaneous composition. Key: A scale that provides the harmonic material for a piece of music (a piece of music that is based on the C major scale, for example, is said to be “in the key” of C major).
Lied: German for song; a particular type of song of the Romantic movement, with piano accompaniment, in which a poem is set to music. Mode: A scale that results when the notes of a given scale are played in one of a number of possible orders. Scale: A particular set of notes arranged in an ascending or descending order. Sonata: A musical form that contains the following three sections: exposition, development, and recapitulation (musical material is introduced and displayed in the exposition section, developed in the development section, and revisited in the recapitulation section). Studio musician: A musician who earns a living by playing music that is recorded in a recording studio. Tempo: Italian for speed; the speed at which a piece of music is played. Timbre: The particular quality of sound of a voice or instrument. Twelve-tone composition (also dodecaphonic or serial composition): The technique of using the 12 tones of Western music, arranged in an unchangeable order selected by the composer, as the sole source of a composition’s melody, harmony, and counterpoint. World music: Ethnic music or music that has been influenced by ethnic music.
Arrangers generally create a musical background for a preexisting melody. An arranger may create an introduction and a coda (ending) for a melody as well as add countermelodies (additional melodies) to the original melody. In effect, the arranger composes additional material that was not provided by the original composer and ensures that the original melody is set off by its background in an effective manner. An orchestrator takes a piece of music, perhaps one that already has a basic arrangement, and assigns the parts to specific instruments in the orchestra or other ensemble. For this reason, the orchestrator must have a tremendous amount of knowledge regarding exactly what the various instruments can and cannot do. An orchestrator may decide, for example, that a particular melody should be played by a solo flute or by a flute and an oboe, so that a very specific sound will be achieved. An orchestrator must also know how to notate parts for various instruments. All the choices that the orchestrator makes will have a significant impact on the
way the music will sound. Arranging and orchestrating are very closely related, and many professionals perform both tasks. Many composers also do their own arranging and orchestrating. Copyists take the rough drafts of written music provided by composers, arrangers, or orchestrators and turn them into polished final products. Good copyists know how to determine the best way to write various passages of music in order to make them easily playable. As any musician who has tried to read a poorly written piece of music knows, the job of the copyist is critical. A performance may be ruined by badly written music, especially when the musicians are playing music that they have not had a chance to rehearse sufficiently, which is often the case. A copyist may have to rewrite parts that have not been written correctly. If a composer has written a piece of music intended for harp as if it had been intended for piano, for example, the copyist will recast the music in the specific notation that harpists use. Many copyists
work on computers, but some copyists still work by hand. The copying required for a large orchestral work typically costs thousands of dollars. Many musicians are teachers. Some teach full time in institutions such as colleges, conservatories, high schools, and grade schools, while many others teach privately or run their own small teaching studios. Many teachers teach because they love teaching; for others, however, teaching supplements their meager performance income and enables them to survive. There are many types of music that musicians play, such as classical music, blues, jazz, world music, rock, pop, country music, and folk music. Some musicians play only one kind of music, while others play in a wide range of styles on various occasions. Some musicians spend most of their time playing concerts or club dates, while others, called studio musicians, play mostly for recordings. Classical musicians may play in an orchestra or sing in a choir, perform chamber music (music for small groups such as string quartets and small vocal ensembles), act as featured soloists who travel from town to town playing with various orchestras, or work as studio musicians, providing recorded music for films, television, radio, compact discs, and so forth. Classical musicians must be highly trained. They generally begin studying music privately when they are very young. Later, they study in conservatories, and many of them obtain advanced degrees. Playing in orchestras and other ensembles is an essential part of their training. Like classical musicians, good jazz musicians are highly trained, but their training is not necessarily as formal as that of classical musicians. Some jazz musicians study in conservatories and have advanced degrees, but many learn their trade by studying on their own, studying privately with other jazz musicians, and by honing their skills in various groups. The study of improvisation, the art of creating music on the spot, which is the jazz player’s stock in trade, requires a tremendous amount of harmonic knowledge as well as technical facility, intuition, good taste, and knowledge of the jazz tradition. Jazz musicians play concerts, festivals, club dates, and studio dates. In addition, many jazz musicians spend part of their time playing other kinds of music. Blues, folk, rock, pop, world music, and country music performers tend to be, but are not always, self-taught. Instead of studying music formally, they learn by playing in bands, picking up information from other musicians, and studying privately. Many of these players do not read music. Yet more and more young players in these categories are choosing to attend schools of music, hoping to increase their marketability by increasing their skills, which is a wise move for most players.
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Generally speaking, blues, folk, rock, pop, world music, and country performers make money by playing in clubs, at concerts, at festivals, and by doing studio work. They also make and sell recordings, which is a major source of income. Some artists are primarily recording artists—in fact, some do not perform live at all—whereas others make most of their living by performing. The most popular of these performers also make music videos, which serve to publicize the musicians and, with luck, increase sales of their recordings.
■ Outlook According to the Occupational Outlook Handbook, employment of musicians will increase about as fast as the average for all occupations through 2014. Most new wage and salary jobs for musicians will be in religious organizations, where the majority of these workers are employed. Slower than average growth is predicted for self-employed musicians, mainly due to the large number of people competing for recognition in this field. Competition is extremely intense in virtually all fields of music. Although extremely talented musicians have a better chance than others do of becoming successful, even those musicians have no guarantee of success. People skills, business knowledge, and a knack for self-promotion have become more and more important. Commercial music has experienced lower sales in recent years, as buyers have found new places to spend their money. The boom that the recording industry experienced after the introduction of compact discs in the 1980s has died out, and the industry continues to look for new superstars who will be able to sell many millions of CDs. Music sales have rebounded somewhat in recent years as a result of the growing popularity of purchasing and downloading music via the Internet. In fact, the purchase of downloadable singles and albums grew by 163.3 percent and 198.5 percent, respectively, from 2004 to 2005, according to the Recording Industry Association of America. Outside the commercial mainstream, many artists have found that they can make a decent living by catering to small, devoted audiences. In addition, advances in technology have made it possible for musicians to buy or rent at a relatively low price the equipment they need to produce their own recordings. Many artists now sell their own recordings by direct mail and through the Internet, avoiding the large record companies and producers that pop musicians must court. Self-production ensures that artists can make their own creative decisions and pocket a higher percentage of their earnings than they would receive if they worked with record companies.
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■ For More Information
National Endowment for the Arts (NEA)
The following organization is the largest musicians’ union in North America. Its membership does not include singers. American Federation of Musicians of the United States and Canada
Arts and Education Education and Access Division Nancy Hanks Center 1100 Pennsylvania Avenue, NW Washington, DC 20506-0001 Tel: 202-682-5400 http://arts.endow.gov
1501 Broadway, Suite 600 New York, NY 10036-5505 Tel: 212-869-1330 http://www.afm.org
AFTRA is a labor union whose membership includes musicians and other television and radio performers. American Federation of Television and Radio Artists (AFTRA) 260 Madison Avenue New York, NY 10016-2401 Tel: 212-532-0800 Email:
[email protected] http://www.aftra.org
The following organization is a labor union that works on behalf of classically trained singers, dancers, and choreographers. American Guild of Musical Artists 1430 Broadway, 14th Floor New York, NY 10018-3308 Tel: 212-265-3687 Email:
[email protected] http://www.musicalartists.org
The following organization was founded to provide leadership and service to orchestras as well as to educate the public regarding the importance of orchestral music. American Symphony Orchestra League 33 West 60th Street, 5th Floor New York, NY 10023-7905 Tel: 212-262-5161 Email:
[email protected] http://www.symphony.org
For information on music education as it relates to careers in the music and entertainment industries, contact Music & Entertainment Industry Educators Association 1900 Belmont Boulevard Nashville, TN 37212-3757 Tel: 615-460-6946 Email:
[email protected] http://www.meiea.org
The NEA, which supports arts projects by providing grants to artists, among other activities, is an excellent source of information about American music.
The Sphinx Organization seeks to encourage young minority musicians to pursue classical music. Its Web site offers information on a variety of competitions, scholarships, and other programs. Sphinx Organization 400 Renaissance Center, Suite 2550 Detroit, MI 48243-1679 Tel: 313-877-9100 Email:
[email protected] http://www.sphinxmusic.org
■ Related Articles Music and Recording Industry; Composers; Musical Conductors and Directors; Musical Instrument Repairers and Tuners; Musicians; Music Journalists; Music Librarians; Music Teachers; Music Therapists; Pop/Rock Musicians; Singers; Songwriters
Music and Recording Industry ■ Background Acoustical recordings were the earliest efforts in recording live music with the intention of playback. Thomas Edison invented a machine in 1877 that recorded and played back sounds. When he spoke “Mary had a little lamb” into a device that, in reaction to the vibrations of his voice, cut fine grooves with a stylus in tinfoil, he became the first person to record the human voice. To play back the sound, the stylus was repositioned on the groove at a lighter pressure and the cylinder rotated. Over the next decade Edison improved his machine and prepared it for its ultimate application: the recording of music. Between 1888 and 1894 such notables as Johannes Brahms, Alfred Tennyson, and Robert Browning all made recordings on the phonograph. Edison’s phonograph was not well suited for recording lower sound frequencies from such instruments as the bass and cello because the acoustical vibrations
would not record accurately on the cylinders. Despite these early technical difficulties, phonograph copies of classical music and performers became very popular, thanks in part to Charles and Emile Pathe who, in 1894, built a small phonograph factory near Paris producing thousands of records. Meanwhile, in 1887, Emile Berliner was busy creating the next significant advancement in sound reproduction, the gramophone. Berliner made his recordings on flat disks rather than the awkward cylinder. Disks proved to be much more practical for storage and mass production. Edison’s cylinder phonographs were soon abandoned, but the term hung on in describing either device. The Gramophone Company established branches in several countries, including Gramophone Company in London and Deutsche Grammophon in Germany; the company eventually grew in the United States to become the Victor Company. Victor produced the Victrola, a record player that was unrivaled in popularity and sales for many years after its introduction in 1901. Recording with the gramophone was known as acoustic recording. Horns of various diameters were placed near the instrument or vocalist. The diameter of the horn and its proximity to the sound source essentially determined the level at which the sound was recorded. When recording multiple piece bands, and especially with orchestras, finding the right acoustics (how many horns to use, with what size diameter, and where to place them) became a grueling, time-consuming task. Columbia, a competitor to Victor, agreed to a crosslicense arrangement in the manufacturing of records and phonographs. They combined patent assignments, allowing both to record on the newly developed wax disks. These records played for two minutes and held a recording on only one side of the disk. Most of the records were voice recordings since the reproduction quality of voices was superior to that of instruments. Other early recordings were of vaudeville skits, readings, and simple popular music, such as ragtime piano pieces. In 1908, a new material called Amberol was developed, enabling the number of grooves on a cylinder to be increased. The higher number of grooves allowed for a longer recording, which doubled the cylinder’s playing time to four minutes. By 1913, however, disks were matching the playing time of the cylinder. The increased number of grooves and the establishment of two-sided disks in 1908 enhanced the desirability and the utility of the disk. The development of the less-expensive 78 revolutions per minute (rpm) disks completely replaced the cylinders by 1915. Spring motors powered the early phonographs. Hand cranks had powered the earliest versions, but it was
Music and recording industry
apparent that the evenness of power was important to the sound quality, and a regulated flow of power had to be developed. The Gramophone used a crank to wind a spring, and then the spring released at a regulated speed to turn the phonograph. In the 1930s, electrically powered motors were used to turn the phonograph. The turntable could now turn continuously, allowing for a more even speed and longer playing time for the record. One of the reasons that phonographs were developed with an electric motor was the newfound capacity to combine the unit with a radio. The speaker system could be used for both, making the product more attractive to consumers. From 1910 to 1920, the phonograph became the mass medium for popular music. Classical music recordings were by far the most widely available, but jazz, ragtime, and other band recordings began to catch on and record sales grew tremendously. However, the effect of the Depression in the 1930s took its toll on record and phonograph sales. The ability of radio to fill the void by providing free music decreased the sales of phonographs. With the industry decline came changes to the companies that had developed the industry. Radio Corporation of America (RCA) bought Victor in 1929. The father of the recording industry, Edison, left the industry later the same year. In 1938 the Columbia Broadcasting System (CBS) purchased the weakened American Columbia. A significant breakthrough for the recording industry came in 1948, when Columbia Records developed a 12-inch vinyl disk that could play 25 minutes of music per side at 33-1/3 rpm, known as the long-playing (LP) record. This allowed for the typical classical symphony movement to be recorded on one side of the record, avoiding the usual disruptive breaks that had been a part of the 78 rpm recordings. Soon after Columbia’s 12-inch, Victor developed a seven-inch disc that played at 45 rpm. It contained less music time—about five minutes—but it was more economical and smaller. The industry established a standard in 1950: 12-inch LPs for classical recording and full-length popular music albums, and the seven-inch (called 45s) for shorter, single song recordings. Another major development for the recording industry came with introduction of tape in the late 1940s. The sound quality from magnetic tape was the finest achieved to that date. Beyond the quality of the original recording, tape allowed for patchwork correction to be done to a recording, to replace sections where errors or poor sound quality occurred. It was no longer necessary to record the entire piece in one session. Tape also spawned a revival of many different kinds of music, from 18th century Baroque works to forgotten pre-war avant-garde pieces.
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A record producer busily works in a recording studio. (Zave Smith/Corbis.)
Tape recordings eventually allowed music to be recorded on channels; a singer’s voice could take up one channel with individual instruments on other channels. This allowed the music producer an opportunity to mix the music with the desired emphasis. A flute, for example, could be enhanced beyond the original performance level, or the brass instruments could be quieted. Twotrack stereophonic recordings became commonplace in the late 1950s, and phonographs were developed with two speakers to reproduce the stereo sound in the home. The technology for recording boomed with the computer age. Synthesizers reproduced the sounds of orchestras electronically. Voices and instruments could be electronically enhanced, lowered, shifted in pitch, or adjusted to accommodate any change desired. The type of music recorded could be so stylized that it could not be reproduced in a live performance. The number of tracks recorded could be increased to meet the needs of an individual recording artist. Along with the advancement in technology of sound recording, an advancement in the record disk began to change the shape of the industry once again. Compact discs (CDs) were invented in Japan in the late 1970s. CDs
are digitally recorded discs that use a laser instead of a stylus to read the music. The benefits of CDs include the quality of the reproduction, the portability of the discs and players, and their ability to remain undamaged by wear or scratching. The conversion by the record industry to CD technology was swift. All new popular and classical music is now produced on CD. Record companies are continually reissuing their classics on CD, and in many cases they reissue titles that were not big hits but now sell well on CD. Vinyl, however, has not completely disappeared. Despite its flaws, many audiophiles maintain that vinyl still produces better sound quality than CD. There is a continued niche market for vinyl, especially among independent record labels. The enhanced CD is currently available. These CDs, when played on a computer, contain video clips, lyrics, artist biographies and discographies, and interactive activities. The next advance in sound quality involves DVD audio and Super Audio CD. These high-density discs produce even better sound quality than current CDs. The industry is making efforts to assure that all new formats will be compatible with each other.
With the advent of online file sharing and downloadable music, a major new avenue for distribution of music opened in the early twenty-first century. File sharing software made it possible for people to trade digital files of recorded music via the Internet, which resulted in a major campaign by the Recording Industry Association of America to fight this form of piracy and protect copyrights. In the wake of the controversy, many authorized music download sites such as iTunes and Napster brokered deals with recording companies to place singles, entire albums, and music videos online for legitimate purchasers. With the popularity of the iPod digital music player and similar devices, many listeners readily adopted the new format. More than ever before, audio and recording technicians use computer technology in their recordings. They digitally record music and perform many of the editing and sound manipulation functions via computer software programs. The computer can transform the quiet folk sounds of an acoustic Martin guitar into the erupting noises of fully distorted power-rocking Les Paul. It can make a solo trumpet sound as though it’s being accompanied by a big band. The limits of computer recording and manipulation are only one’s imagination and resources.
■ Structure The recording industry is constantly on the lookout for new talent, new sounds, and new styles. Music producers and artist and repertoire (A&R) executives are responsible for finding the new talent and arranging the contract negotiations for a recording contract. They keep track of the musicians that are performing in clubs and concerts. They also keep in touch with the recording artists that are well known. A new artist is either approached by a representative of a record company, or the artist sends in a three-to-foursong demo tape to the A&R department of one or more companies. If the representative is interested in the artist’s work, arrangements are then made between the company and the artist or the artist’s manager. The contract may be for a single recording or a series of recordings. For relatively unknown artists, an independent label is the most likely place to arrange a contract. The A&R staff for independent labels are most active in finding and representing artists or less-mainstream types of music. Multiple-release contracts are common for independent labels, and if the artist becomes extremely popular, the contract may be bought out by a major record label. The independent label promotes albums to a lesser degree, and for the smallest labels, the artist may be responsible for all album promotion. In rock, jazz, country, and rap
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So You Want a Career in Music? Consider this option: For $2,400 a person, music lovers recently had the opportunity to raft through the Grand Canyon with the Miro String Quartet of New York. Though the quartet members made no effort to play their instruments during the actual rafting, they did ride the rapids right along with the others and entertained during breaks on the beach. (Their instruments were kept safe in watertight cases in between performances.)
music, many currently successful artists began on independent labels. In the last decade, to avoid buying-out expensive contracts for bands on independent labels, many of the major labels now have smaller subsidiaries that seek out progressive, up-and-coming artists who, once they have reached a certain level of success on the subsidiary label, will make a smooth transition to the major label. For the established performer or group, contract negotiations may be carried out between several companies vying for rights to publish the performers’ work. Musicians generally benefit as each company tries to make the best offer. Once the contract arrangements have been settled, the process of recording an album can begin. The songs that are to be recorded are decided by the artist and the music producer assigned to the artist. Artists on a major label may have to compromise their music to fit mainstream music tastes closely observed by industry executives. Independent labels generally allow musicians to record whatever they want and often encourage experimentation. The record producer hires studio musicians, recording technicians, and support staff. During a recording session, more than one recording is made of the same song. With each recording, audio recording engineers vary input levels, microphone placement, and other factors that affect the recorded sound. The best sections from each version of the song can be put (or spliced) together for the best result. Each instrument and voice can be recorded separately onto its own track and combined later by recording engineers, who specialize in mixing different recorded sounds into a unified whole. Mixing the recording is one of the most important jobs performed in the production of a recording and can influence the sound as much as the musicians can. For popular music, recording engineers use their tools of recording in a variety of ways to influence sound or to create entirely new sounds. Especially with current
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computer-aided recording and manipulation equipment, engineers and producers have increased control over the final sound, mood, and intensity of a recording. Recording engineers can change the sound of individual instruments, speed up or slow down tempo, correct missed or skipped beats, edit out unwanted sections and splice in a new section, and perform numerous other tasks in preparing the final version of a recording. To record a live performance, the technical end is just as important, but the performer only has one shot at the recording. After the performance, the engineer can work with the different tracks of tape to edit flaws and outside noises and juggle with the volume and intensity to smooth over rough patches in the performance. One of the most important aspects to the recording of a live performance is the position of the microphones. The location of microphones for a symphony determines the strength of the different sections of the orchestra. If solo performers are to be heard, individual microphones may be assigned to their positions on the stage. To maintain a balanced sound in the reproduction of a large performance such as a symphony, the sound recording technician’s goal is to match the recorded sound with the balance that is achieved for the audience sitting in an orchestral hall. Once the recording is finished and the album put together, or mastered, the production department takes over. This department is responsible for producing the actual recording in CD, cassette, and occasionally vinyl versions. The press run (the total number of releases produced) is determined by previous sales of the artist, and the anticipated increase or decrease in sales for the release. For new musicians, labels establish a new artist press run ranging from 1,000 to 10,000 copies. The A&R and promotion departments are responsible for knowing the market and the estimated value of a recording. Repressing a recording that is selling well is an easy process once the master tape is made. While the album is in production, the art department is producing cover art and inside art if there is any. Type design is chosen for all written matter. Various designs are presented to the company representative, the artists, and the record producer for approval. For smaller companies, the artists may make all the final decisions on art and packaging. A final design is selected and then completed by the artists. For reissued albums, the art department may decide on its own what design to use on the cover. Musicians on independent labels are often responsible for creating their own artwork. The marketing department of the record company creates the ads that will run in music magazines, on the radio, and on television for each album produced. Posters, show cards, displays, and any other promotional material are
designed and developed in the advertising department as well. Advertising can greatly enhance sales of an album by generating an interest in the album either before its release or after it has been moved into the stores. One of the chief methods of generating interest in a release is airplay on the radio. The promotions department is expected to keep up to date on the staff and audience of radio stations. They should be aware of what audiences are covered in each region of the country and how to best promote the new product to the audience interested in that type of music. Just as important, or possibly even more important, than radio play for commercially successful rock, country, and rap music today is having a music video broadcast, particularly on MTV or VH1—the two major music video stations. Producers and musicians contact video directors and discuss concepts for an original video. Often the musicians act in the video, or professional actors are hired to play roles. The promotions and publicity department is responsible for sending out copies of the recording to reviewers, along with press kits providing information and photos of the artist. This press package is mainly geared toward the airplay time that can be generated by favorable reviews and frequent audience requests to the radio station. Other forms of publicity used to create an interest in the recording include concert performances, interviews on television and radio, press coverage in the printed media, public appearances, and any other promotion that brings the artist into the public eye. Once album sales are underway, determining the success or failure of a recording is directly linked to the number of recordings sold. For a successful classical album, the number sold may be 5,000 to 10,000 copies. For a popular music album, the numbers are more likely to approach or exceed 1 million copies. Well-known performers regularly have record sales that exceed 1 million copies. After the record is sold, the recording may be rereleased or go out of print. Sales of most albums decline quickly after release and may not need a second pressing. Some albums, however, may be marketed successfully for years.
■ Outlook The recording industry is in a continual state of flux. New technology, new music, new markets, and new ways of doing business are constantly redefining the way the industry functions. Computer technology is simplifying the recording and mixing process while opening new outlets for creativity and distribution of music. Musicians, producers, and engineers are finding opportunities in the creation of music for Web sites and other multimedia.
Changing trends in music always keep record companies on their toes as they try to stay one step ahead of their competitors by signing the musicians and bands with the newest sound. Though rock continues to be the top-selling genre, sales have dropped for rock music in the last 10 years. By contrast, sales for rap and country music have doubled in the same time period. Women artists are continuing to be powerful forces in the music industry, as performers such as Sarah McLachlan, Beyonce, and Christina Aguilera pave the way with blockbuster sales. Opening Chinese and Latin American markets will give record companies a big boost in sales. These emerging markets have accounted for 40 percent of the growth of music sales. Yet, problems with piracy in these countries need to be controlled to avoid significant profit losses. Piracy issues also involve the Internet; the industry is concerned with digital copies of music being freely transferred over the Web, in violation of copyright laws. Internet technology has made it possible to download quality recordings quickly and easily, resulting in Web sites with whole archives of pirated recordings. CD burners are readily available, allowing people to download recordings as MP3 files and record them on CDs. Controlling piracy in the digital age is the recording industry’s biggest challenge. A report by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) stated that the industry had sales of more than $11.1 billion in 2005, which is a drop of almost 8 percent from the previous year. The shipment of full-length CDs fell to 705.4 million, a decrease of 8 percent over 2004’s shipments. Full-length cassettes have become increasingly unpopular in the past decade. Cassette shipments dropped 52.6 percent between 2004 and 2005, with sales of $13.1 million in 2005. The purchase of downloadable singles and albums grew by 163.3 percent and 198.5 percent, respectively, from 2004 to 2005. Rock still makes up the strongest segment of the recording industry, accounting for more than 31 percent of sales in 2005. Rap/hip-hop, R&B/urban, country, and pop round out the top five categories, according to RIA. In the last decade the music and recording industry has undergone dramatic consolidation. Four corporations— Universal Music Group, Warner Brothers Records, Sony BMG Music Entertainment, and EMI—control over 80 percent of the industry. While this consolidation may be beneficial for artists under contract with these companies, it has also made it more difficult for unknown acts to break into the business.
■ For More Information For information about the professional associations that serve musicians and songwriters, contact the following organization:
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Words to Know Acoustic: Music that is not electronically enhanced. Amplifier: An electronic component used to increase volume. Bandwidth: The smallest range of frequencies that make up a band of sound. Composition: A piece of music written and arranged by a composer. Demo: An inexpensively produced recording that demonstrates a musician’s ability. Discography: A complete list of the recordings of a performer or producer. Download: The process of copying an electronic file, often a song or an album, from the Internet to a computer. Genre: A category of music, i.e. rap, country, rock, jazz. Gig: A musical performance, usually live. Lyrics: The words of a song. MIDI: Acronym for musical instrument digital interface; allows for the connection of musical instruments and computers. Mix: To blend tracks electronically for a recording. Reverb: Sound created by many reflections in a small space. Session: The time spent in a recording studio. Track: A band or recorded sound on magnetic tape.
American Society of Composers, Authors and Publishers One Lincoln Plaza New York, NY 10023-7129 Tel: 212-621-6000 http://www.ascap.org
For information on music education as it relates to careers in the music and entertainment industries, contact Music & Entertainment Industry Educators Association 1900 Belmont Boulevard Nashville, TN 37212-3757 Tel: 615-460-6946 Email:
[email protected] http://www.meiea.org
For industry information, contact National Association of Record Industry Professionals PO Box 2446 Toluca Lake, CA 91610-2446 Tel: 818-769-7007
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newspapers and magazines
Email:
[email protected] http://www.narip.com
Visit this Web site to read about efforts to support the recording industry, and to check out links to many music and recording-related sites. The Recording Academy 3402 Pico Boulevard Santa Monica, CA 90405-2118 Tel: 310-392-3777 http://grammy.org
For facts and statistics about the recording industry, visit the RIAA’s Web site. Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) 1330 Connecticut Avenue, NW, Suite 300 Washington, DC 20036-1725 Tel: 202-775-0101 http://www.riaa.com
■ Related Articles Broadcasting; Film; Music; Radio; Television; Artist and Repertoire Workers; Audio Recording Engineers; Broadcast Engineers; Composers and Arrangers; Film and Television Directors; Music Conductors and Directors; Music Agents and Scouts; Musicians; Music Producers; Music Venue Owners and Managers; Music Video Directors and Producers; Music Video Editors; Pop/Rock Musicians; Singers; Songwriters
Newspapers and Magazines ■ Background The primary function of the newspaper and magazine publishing industries is to inform the public. Newspapers provide details, explanations, and interpretations of current events in all areas of society, such as politics, entertainment, and international affairs. Magazines usually serve special interests or populations. Editorial and production costs of both newspapers and magazines are funded by advertisers who purchase space to sell their products and services. Newspapers and magazines interpret, and ultimately have a strong impact on, domestic and international events. Although he disliked newspapers and suffered cruel abuse from the press, Thomas Jefferson wrote in 1787: “Were it left to me to decide whether we should
have a government without newspapers, or newspapers without a government, I should not hesitate a moment to prefer the latter.” The first American newspaper, Publick Occurrences Both Foreign and Domestick, appeared in Boston in 1690, but lasted only one issue due to censorship by the British government. The first continuously published paper in America was the Boston News-Letter, first published in 1704. The first daily newspaper, the Pennsylvania Evening Post, began publication in 1783. Producing these early newspapers was a painstaking process. Every letter for every word had to be handselected and placed in a casing in reverse order, so they would print correctly when inked. This process, known as typesetting, was done for every page. When all of the words were set, individual sheets of paper were placed under a hand-operated press. Because of the difficulty of obtaining news and the limited technology, these newspapers were small compared with the newspapers of today. The earliest magazines appeared in Europe in the 1660s. They grew out of academic movements and universities, and they appealed to the highly educated. A decade later, publications with a more general appeal emerged, such as fashion, cooking, and sports magazines. Given the high level of illiteracy in Europe in the 17th century, the earliest magazines appealed to an educated and elite crowd. The invention of photography in the 1800s increased the appeal of magazines, which often carried interesting and innovative photographs. As newspapers became larger and circulation increased, one person alone could no longer write, edit, and typeset a page. By the late 19th century, every newspaper employed full-time reporters and editors. New types of presses were developed to increase production, and the Linotype machine had been invented. The Linotype mechanically set the letters so that handset type was no longer necessary. This dramatically decreased the amount of prepress time needed to get a page into print. Newspapers could respond to breaking stories more quickly, and late editions with breaking stories became part of the news world. Also in the late 19th century, the great newspaper magnates emerged: William Randolph Hearst, Adolph S. Ochs of the New York Times, and Joseph Pulitzer. Each large city had several newspapers. With such intense competition for readership, sensationalism sold as well as news. Newspapers focused on different needs for different readers. Some papers emphasized scandal and gossip; others provided readers with either a liberal or conservative interpretation of the news.
In the United States, magazines have played an important role in entertaining and informing people. Some magazines, such as Time, People, and Newsweek, have achieved a nationwide circulation of several million readers. Other more specialized magazines have maintained a more limited circulation while appealing to those with an interest in a certain area, such as sports, economics, or theater. Computer technology has had a dramatic impact on the newspaper and magazine publishing industries. The Internet allows reporters to research information, confirm stories, and communicate with relevant parties faster than they ever imagined. It also practically eliminates the lag time between the occurrence of a news event and the opportunity for the public to read about it. Reporters and editors now transmit stories by email and the Internet. Computer-fed phototypesetters produce articles and headlines in “cold” (film) type at a rate of 2,000 lines a minute; whole pages are beamed by satellite in a matter of seconds to printing plants half a nation away. Many periodicals also maintain Web sites that provide some or all of the information that appears simultaneously in print versions.
■ Structure The newspaper and magazine publishing industries are made up of several departments that work together to produce a publication, whether it is in print or electronic form. In most cases these departments are editorial, sales, production, circulation, and promotions. Since most papers are published daily, the work is fast-paced and exciting. Careers available in the newspaper industry differ from those in the magazine industry in content, but they share many common features. From writing a story to soliciting an advertisement, producing a newspaper or magazine involves a great deal of coordination. Following are descriptions of each department and how they differ in the newspaper and magazine industries. Editorial. The editorial or news department of a daily newspaper generally is divided by subject area: city desk, national/foreign desk, news/copy desk (where stories are edited and decisions made about what goes into the main news section), editorial page, opinion page, features, arts and entertainment, business and financial, real estate, sports, graphics (picture desk, photo department, art department), and Sunday magazine. Supervising these areas are the editor or editor in chief, the managing editor, and one or more assistant managing editors. Depending on the size of the publication, there are usually a number of reporting, writing, and editing positions. In covering and interpreting the community, the nation, and the world for their readers, newspa-
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Did You Know? The first school of journalism was founded by Walter Williams at the University of Missouri in 1908. A $2 million grant given by Joseph Pulitzer in 1903 to Columbia University for a school of journalism enabled that institution to open such a school in 1912. The emphasis in journalism schools has been increasingly toward the liberal arts, to provide students with the broad educational background they need in order to be effective journalists.
pers employ general assignment reporters, beat reporters (covering, for example, the police department, city hall, county building, federal building, and various courts), rewrite staff (who work in the office developing stories by telephone and writing them with the help of reporters on the scene), copy editors (who edit copy for style and accuracy and write headlines), specialists (including investigative reporters and consumer, education, labor, science, medical, urban affairs, political, and religion writers), and bureau reporters (assigned to nearby communities, the state capital, or foreign posts). Larger newspapers have offices in several domestic and foreign cities. They also employ foreign correspondents, cartoonists, feature writers, columnists and critics, business and financial writers, news photographers, wire editors, photo editors, artists, news and layout editors, and editorial assistants. An editorial staff member at a magazine may have intricate and unpredictable responsibilities. The editorial department is responsible for having a complete awareness of its audience and works closely with the art
A busy news room at the Associated Press. (Associated Press.)
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department on the overall artistic presentation of the publication. Magazines generally fall into the following categories: consumer, trade, association, special interest, and professional and technical. A large editorial department may have an editor in chief, senior editors, associate editors, assistant editors, copywriters, researchers, proofreaders, art directors, graphic designers, photo editors, photographers, Internet editors, and Webmasters on staff. Smaller magazines may have a few key full-time editorial positions and hire others as temporary, part-time, or freelance help as needed. Most magazines use outside writers and contributors for at least some of their editorial content. Advances in desktop publishing allow many small companies and institutions to write, design, and print publications at a relatively low cost. Job functions are often combined; for example, an editor may also be responsible for some page layout and proofreading duties. Production. The production department is responsible for the finished magazine or newspaper. The production staff makes sure that the editors, artists, photographers, and salespeople submit their articles, pictures, and ads in final form by designated deadlines. A newspaper production department is divided basically into the composing room, where the pages are assembled and made up as specified by the editorial and advertising departments, and the pressroom, where the paper is printed. Such a process involves putting the
Words to Know Broadsheet: A full-size newspaper, typically 15 by 23 inches, sometimes mistakenly called a broadside. Broadside: A large sheet of paper, generally printed on one side and folded into a smaller size, often used as a directmail piece or for door-to-door distribution. Column inch: Area 1 inch deep and one column wide; used for measuring newspaper contents. J-school: A graduate school that has a master’s degree program in journalism. Stringer: A freelance photographer or reporter who works for a newspaper on an as-needed basis. Syndicate: An organization that sells special articles or features for publication by many newspapers or magazines. Tabloid: A newspaper of less-than-standard size, generally about 12 by 15 inches. Wire service: A news-gathering service that feeds national and international news via satellite to newspapers around the world.
words into type, laying out (designing) the pages, making photographic or electronic plates of the pages, and operating the press. Magazine production departments coordinate the design, layout, and printing of the publication. Employees in this department make sure that all text and illustrations are marked properly, are in the correct computer file formats, and are ready to be sent to the printer. Production workers negotiate prices with the printer and inspect color and print quality. Close contact with the printer must be maintained to ensure that quality is preserved despite tight production schedules. Sales. The sales departments in both the newspaper and magazine industries are crucial to the survival of a publication. Advertising is responsible for some 75 to 80 percent of a newspaper’s revenue. Local advertising accounts for the largest portion of newspaper ad revenue. In the magazine industry, advertising accounts for almost half of the industry’s total revenues. Advertising is divided into display and classified departments. The display segment is further divided into national advertisements (usually placed through agencies) and local advertisements, which the sales force seeks out. National advertisers and large local operations submit advertising copy to publications; however, newspapers and magazines may offer simple design services to smaller advertisers. Larger newspapers and magazines maintain advertising sales offices in several cities. Newspapers have more general audiences, so their sales forces have a wider range of possible advertisers. Magazine ad salespeople often focus on selling space to advertisers who want to reach the specific audience their magazine serves. Circulation. Once a newspaper or magazine is printed, it is up to the circulation department to get it to the reader in the most efficient and cost-effective way. The department may also develop sales and subscription contests and incentives. Newspaper circulation income from street sales, home delivery, and mail subscriptions provides 20 to 25 percent of the newspaper’s total revenue. Magazine circulation departments are involved with subscriptions and newsstand displays, the two major ways that magazines are sold. Circulation workers handle subscription problems and other concerns. They work with both the postal system for direct delivery and shipping companies for delivery to stores. Promotions. The promotions department helps increase both advertising and readership. Promotions workers help organize contests, subscription offers, and other incentives to publicize a magazine. Publishers use market research to determine the target audience and
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identify demographics, such as the age, income, location, education, spending habits, and interests of the average reader. Market research also provides valuable information on the magazine’s competition and other issues. This information helps promotions workers develop campaigns to reach new readers, get subscribers to renew their subscriptions, and encourage advertisers to run regular ads.
■ Outlook According to the Career Guide to Industries (published by the U.S. Department of Labor), employment in the publishing industry, including newspapers and magazines, is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all industries through 2014. This is mainly due to corporate mergers and increased efficiency of publishing operations, which results in a need for fewer employees. The number of daily papers has gradually decreased over the past several years, and while most major cities could support two daily papers in the past, only about 40 cities today have competing papers. This decline is partly due to the growing competition from the Internet, television, and radio as up-to-the-minute news sources. There is also strong competition between papers for a limited number of local advertisers who may not have the funds or the desire to advertise in two publications. Finding a reporting job on a daily newspaper has become tougher and tougher, as many dailies have folded. The best opportunities for reporters in the next decade will be found on newspapers in smaller towns and suburbs, both dailies and weeklies, where both populations and circulation are growing. Some major U.S. newspaper companies are expanding their operations overseas, particularly in Europe and Asia. Individual newspaper circulation ranges from a few thousand or less to more than one million. There are special interest newspapers for banking, business, law, labor, medicine, real estate, home furnishings, oil, and other industries. Black and ethnic newspapers (including German, Greek, Japanese, Chinese, Polish, and Spanish) number in the hundreds. The magazine industry is estimated to grow more slowly than the average for all industries through 2014. As more and more specialized publications are introduced to the marketplace, the competition for advertising dollars will remain great. It is estimated that the primary growth in the magazine industry will come from publications that target specialized audiences. General interest magazines will have to develop advertising strategies and options that satisfy potential advertisers. This means offering regional advertising and other options for their publication.
This pressman checks a newspaper as it comes off the printing press. (Pete Saloutos, Tony Stone Images.)
The outlook for writing and editing jobs is expected to be keenly competitive. Opportunities will be best in firms that prepare business and trade publications and in technical writing. Yet, a growing demand for publications and the growth of advertising and public relations agencies should provide new jobs in the magazine industry. The newspaper and magazine publishing industries are enormously powerful. They are responsible for providing timely, and sometimes urgent information to the public. More and more publications are producing online versions, which will require editors, writers, and salespeople, with skills specific to Web development. Many newspapers and magazines offer some editorial content free of charge online and charge fees for searching archives or receiving certain features by email. Some publications have a Web site simply as a promotion technique, to make readers aware and encourage them to subscribe to the print version.
■ For More Information For a brochure on careers in the magazine industry, contact Magazine Publishers of America 810 Seventh Avenue, 24th Floor New York, NY 10019-5873 Tel: 212-872-3700 Email:
[email protected] http://www.magazine.org
For information on careers in newspapers, as well as online courses, contact National Newspaper Association PO Box 7540 Columbia, MO 65205-7540 Tel: 800-829-4662 http://www.nna.org
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For facts about the newspaper industry, contact NAA or visit its Web site. Newspaper Association of America (NAA) 1921 Gallows Road, Suite 600 Vienna, VA 22182-3900 Tel: 703-902-1600 http://www.naa.org
■ Related Articles Advertising and Marketing; Book Publishing; Broadcasting; Printing; Publishing; Art Directors; Cartoonists and Animators; Columnists; Editors; Fashion Illustrators and Photographers; Foreign Correspondents; Graphic Designers; Lexicographers; Magazine Editors; Marketing Research Analysts; Media Planners and Buyers; Music Journalists; Newspaper Editors; Photographers; Printing Press Operators and Assistants; Public Opinion Researchers; Public Relations Specialists; Reporters; Science and Medical Writers; Sportswriters; Technical Writers and Editors; Writers
Nuclear Power ■ Background In 1942 Enrico Fermi produced the first self-sustained nuclear chain reaction with the first demonstration reactor, the Chicago Pile 1. Fermi’s work was part of the U.S. government’s research project, code-named the Manhattan Project, which resulted in the world’s first atomic bomb. Research and experimentation further refined the method by which nuclear fission is produced. By July 16, 1945, scientists had developed a way for fissionable material to create such rapid and immense chain reactions that a nuclear explosion would result. In August 1945, World War II came to a cataclysmic end after atomic bombs destroyed the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. After the atomic bomb was developed, the focus of nuclear engineering shifted to nonviolent uses for nuclear energy. In December 1951, an experimental reactor produced the first electric power from the atom, lighting four lightbulbs. In 1954 Congress passed legislation aimed at encouraging private industry to build nuclear reactors and to use reactor-produced electricity. In 1955 Arco, Idaho, became the first U.S. town to be entirely powered by nuclear energy. During the early 1960s, several demonstration nuclear power plants for the commercial production of electrical power went into operation in the United States. By the
late 1960s, electric utilities, perceiving nuclear power as economically attractive, began to order large numbers of nuclear power plants. The cost of power from nuclear plants increased rapidly through the early 1970s, because of rising construction costs, high interest rates, and construction delays caused by licensing procedures and environmental lawsuits. By the late 1970s, few orders were being placed for nuclear power plants. In May 1979, a major accident occurred in a pressurized-water nuclear reactor at the Three Mile Island nuclear power plant near Harrisburg, Pennsylvania. There were no casualties, but residents in the area were exposed to radiation by a leakage of radioactive contaminants. The reactor was left crippled, and lengthy and expensive cleanup operations were required. In 1986, a major accident at a nuclear power plant in Chernobyl, Ukraine, resulted in the release of a dangerous amount of radioactive material, causing a number of deaths and contaminating a large area. Both accidents raised public concern over the safety of nuclear reactors. In 2006, there were 103 nuclear power plants operating in the United States, supplying about 20 percent of the country’s electricity.
■ Structure Nuclear power is energy released in large amounts by the splitting or formation of atomic nuclei. The light and heat of the sun and other stars is an example of naturally occurring nuclear energy. Artificially produced nuclear energy can be released in a steady, controllable manner in devices called nuclear reactors. In non-nuclear electrical power plants, a fuel of some kind is used to convert water into steam in a steam boiler. The steam from the boiler flows under high pressure through pipes and into a turbine, causing it to rotate. The turbine drives an electric generator that produces the electricity. In nuclear plants, the fuel is uranium, which undergoes a fission reaction, or atom-splitting, that produces tremendous quantities of heat. Water circulated through the reactor carries the heat away, in the form of steam under very high pressure, through pipes to drive the turbines that produce electricity in the same way as in a conventional power plant. A nuclear reactor is a structure loaded with pellets of nuclear fuel, usually uranium with about 2 percent of the radioactive isotope uranium-235. The pellets are lined up in thin metal tubes called fuel rods. The more fuel rods packed in a given space, the more fission reactions that take place in the reactor. When fission reactions occur, neutrons (tiny particles of radiation energy traveling at great speed) are released
and cause other fission reactions to occur in what is called a chain reaction. The reactor also includes channels through which cooling water circulates and other empty spaces where control rods can be inserted. A control rod contains material that absorbs the released neutrons, thus preventing some fission reactions from occurring. When control rods are inserted into the reactor, they reduce the number of atoms being split, causing the reactor to cool down and generate less heat. When the control rods are withdrawn, the reaction rate speeds up and the reactor gets hot and generates more heat. Thus, the power in a nuclear-fueled electrical power plant is controlled by moving the control rods in and out of the reactor. The area of the reactor where the fission takes place is called the core, and it is contained within the reactor vessel, lined by a thick inner shell of steel to keep the heat in the system and under control. This internal shield is surrounded in turn by several feet of concrete insulation that serves as a nuclear radiation shield to protect personnel and the surrounding area from radiation. The radiation is very harmful to the human body when absorbed in sufficient quantities. In addition to the immediate radiation produced by fission, the fission process and the bombardment of materials by neutrons create a variety of both gaseous and solid radioactive materials. Some of these materials emit intense radiation, and some remain radioactive for a very long time. Most reactors are housed in a steellined concrete structure called the containment building, whose purpose is to contain radioactive materials should an accident release them from the reactor. A serious problem associated with the use of nuclear energy is the handling, treatment, and disposal of the solid, liquid, and gaseous radioactive waste products it creates. Several methods for the long-term disposal of highly radioactive wastes have been developed and studied. The most widely accepted plan consists of binding the wastes in a glasslike or ceramic substance that is resistant to corrosion. This waste material would be placed deep underground in stable geological formations where it would remain undisturbed. Meanwhile, until long-term plans are agreed upon, radioactive wastes are being held in temporary storage, typically in containers held in pools of water near nuclear plants. The water carries away the heat produced by radioactive decay and serves as a shield against the radiation they emit. The Nuclear Regulatory Commission, an independent agency of the federal government, is responsible for the regulation and safety of nuclear power in the United States.
Nuclear Power
Nuclear Power Facts ■
There are 441 nuclear power plants in 30 countries around the world, and 27 plants are currently under construction. In 2004, nuclear power provided 16 percent of the world’s electricity production. There are 103 plants in the United States.
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In 2006, Vermont received the greatest percentage of its electricity from nuclear power than any other state: 72.5 percent.
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Of all the Nobel prizes granted in physiology and medicine from 1975 to 1989, 10 were based on research using radioactive materials.
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Since the 1973 oil embargo, many countries have entered the nuclear energy field in order to decrease their dependence on imported oil.
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Radiation is used to sterilize baby powder, bandages, contact lens solution, and many cosmetics, such as false eyelashes and mascara.
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The water discharged from nuclear plants contains no harmful pollutants and must meet government temperature standards to preserve aquatic life.
Source: Nuclear Energy Institute
■ Outlook Few U.S. baseload (nuclear or coal) power plants have been built since 1980. This is in part because many companies have restricted construction to peaking plants, small facilities, usually natural gas- or oil-fired, that are quick to turn on and off according to swings in demand. The Nuclear Energy Institute (NEI) has estimated that one-third of U.S. baseload plants are more than 30 years old and many need to be replaced. It reports the nuclear industry has three advanced plant designs ready for when companies are ready to order new baseload plants. The institute’s vision is that by 2020, 50,000 megawatts of electricity will be added to the U.S. power supply from new nuclear plants and an additional 10,000 megawatts will be added from improvements to existing nuclear plants. According to NEI, “The NEPD [National Energy Policy Development] Group recommends that the President support the expansion of nuclear energy in the United States as a major component of our national energy policy.” It further reports that two-thirds of American adults support building more nuclear power plants. The federal government is still in the process of planning a permanent underground storage site for nuclear
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Words to Know Baffles: Tiles inside the cooling tower of a nuclear power plant that slow the rate of water flow and provide an area for cooling. Boiling water reactor (BWR): Nuclear reactor in which water, used as both coolant and moderator, boils in the reactor core. The steam from the boiling water is used to turn the turbine-generator. Boron: Nonmetallic element that occurs in borax and other compounds. Boron is used in nuclear power plants to control the rate of nuclear fission. Breeder reactor: Nuclear fission reactor that makes more usable new fuel (plutonium-239) than it consumes. Canister: A corrosion-resistant container used to enclose high-level nuclear waste during long-term storage. Chain reaction: Continuing series of nuclear fission events that take place within the fuel of a nuclear reactor. Neutrons produced by a split nucleus collide with and split other nuclei causing a chain of fission events. Cladding: Metallic tube that encases nuclear reactor fuel. Containment: A heavy structure completely surrounding a nuclear reactor to prevent radioactivity from getting into the atmosphere in the event of a major accident. Control rods: Devices that can be raised and lowered in the reactor core to absorb neutrons
waste. Until that time it has a contractual obligation to open a centralized storage facility, where it will consolidate and manage used fuel from scores of nuclear power plants around the country. The U.S. Department of Energy has conducted scientific studies of Yucca Mountain, Nevada, as the site for a proposed U.S. repository for high-level radioactive waste. In 2002, President George W. Bush signed a resolution that will eventually make Yucca Mountain a permanent repository. Once the Department of Energy receives a license from the Nuclear Regulatory Committee, construction can begin and is expected to take five years. Because of the accidents at Three Mile Island in 1979 and in Chernobyl in 1986, the public is still concerned over the safety of nuclear reactors. The nuclear industry and the federal government are
and regulate the chain reaction; the speed of the chain reaction is controlled by control rods. Coolant: Gas or liquid used in a nuclear reactor to remove the heat generated by the fission process. Core: The center fuel region of a nuclear reactor. Fission: Process of splitting the nucleus of a heavy atom into two or more lighter atoms when the heavy atom absorbs a neutron. Fission also releases a large amount of energy and two or more neutrons. When the heavy atoms are numerous and close enough, the new neutrons split more atoms and sustain a chain reaction. Generator: Machine that makes electricity. The machine uses mechanical energy to spin a turbine that turns a coil of wire in the presence of a magnetic field. When this happens, an electric current is produced. Moderator: Substance that slows down neutrons so they are more likely to cause fission. Nuclear fission: Process of dividing or splitting the nucleus of an atom. Radiation: Particles and electromagnetic rays (waves) emitted from the center of an atom during radioactive disintegration. Radioactive: Giving off radiant energy in the form of particles and rays by the disintegration of atomic nuclei. Reactor: Part of a nuclear power plant where neutrons produce a fission chain reaction.
developing standardized designs for nuclear power plants to make them safer, more efficient, and cost competitive with other electricity-generating plants. More effort is also being concentrated on the development of renewable resources for energy, such as solar and wind power.
■ For More Information This nonprofit, international, scientific and educational organization provides information, publications, scholarships, seminars, and cooperates in educational efforts. American Nuclear Society 555 North Kensington Avenue LaGrange Park, IL 60526-5535 Tel: 708-352-6611 http://www.ans.org
packaging
This organization is dedicated to the peaceful use of nuclear technologies. Nuclear Energy Institute 1776 I Street, NW, Suite 400 Washington, DC 20006-3708 Tel: 202-739-8000 http://www.nei.org
■ Related Articles Energy; Petroleum; Nuclear Engineers; Nuclear Reactor Operators and Technicians; Petroleum Engineers; Power Plant Workers; Radiation Protection Technicians
Packaging ■ Background Packaging is the planning, creating, manufacturing, wrapping, boxing, or bottling of goods for consumer, industrial, and military markets. The packaging industry services nearly all of the industries and manufacturing establishments in the United States. Packaging is one of the largest employers; increasing sophistication of technology has created a strong demand for packaging specialists. Often, product innovations require dramatic new packaging forms. Such containers as nonaerosol cans and bottles, plastic squeeze bottles and trays, aluminum cans, tinplated steel rolled as thin as foil, and foamed synthetic materials have been invented and made into packages that protect products better and are easier for both individual and industrial consumers to use. Developments such as these in user and supplier companies require large teams of packaging engineers and technicians. Packaging has pragmatic origins, arising from the need for processed products to be transported and stored with no damage. For centuries, packaging was as simple as cloth bags, wood boxes, or crates. Most food was sold in bulk from which the grocer would scoop out the quantity needed and put it in another bag. It was not until the industrial revolution in the late 18th century that packaging became an important tool for marketing. At that time, so many new products were being manufactured that the consumer had a variety of choices. Often the package determined whether one product would be purchased over another. While package design has played a vital role in the marketing of a product since the industrial revolution, the packaging industry has also had a role in the develop-
ment of new products. For example, the microwave oven has necessitated the design of new packaging that allows foods to be microwaved without compromising quality. Other household products that have changed the packaging industry include the refrigerator and the freezer. These appliances, in conjunction with new materials such as plastic, have broadened the industry. New packaging systems have emerged, such as aseptic packaging, which enables milk, fruit juices, and other liquids to stay fresh without refrigeration for many months. Today it is possible to create an almost infinite number of new packaging forms possessing practically every characteristic desired by packaging people. Plastics with new cost-function relationships are being created almost faster than packaging people can learn about them. New forms of metals, such as lightweight aluminum, are also being developed and used in packaging applications. Many federal agencies protect consumers by imposing and enforcing regulations on packaging. For example, the Department of Agriculture regulates the packaging and labeling of meat and poultry. The Department of Health and Human Services, which includes the Food and Drug Administration, enforces regulations concerning packaging and labeling of food, cosmetics, and pharmaceutical products. U.S. Customs & Border Protection regulates packaging requirements for imports, and the Surface Transportation Board (formerly the Interstate Commerce Commission) regulates packaging used for transporting dangerous articles and hazardous materials. The Federal Trade Commission enforces regulations concerning deceptive labeling and packaging. In 1982, the Food and Drug Administration issued new guidelines on the packaging of capsules and other products that are vulnerable to tampering. The new rules, drawn up in response to a wave of tampering cases, applied to many drugs or preparations that could be ingested, inhaled, injected, or otherwise used. The aim was to prevent deaths or injuries such as those that occurred in 1982 following ingestion of cyanidelaced Tylenol capsules. In general, the rules required the addition of tamper-proof seals. The packaging industry responded to these new guidelines and rules by applying more tamper-free packaging, such as bubble wrap and protective rings to a wide variety of products. A more recent concern affecting the industry involves the environment. Many packaging firms are developing biodegradable and recyclable products to reduce waste. The importance of packaging is underscored by the buying patterns of environmentally conscious consumers who choose environmentally correct packages over wasteful ones, regardless of the products themselves.
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Words to Know Aseptic packaging: Packaging that is free of microorganisms that can cause infection. Automated packaging machinery: Machines that are controlled by a computer to automatically perform some aspect of the packaging process. Computer-controlled robotics may also be used in the automation process. Biodegradable: Capable of being decomposed by biological agents, especially bacteria. Engineering technician: A person who assists engineers with research, design, development, and testing. Graphic designer: A person trained in graphic arts who produces the packaging design. Materials and metallurgical engineer: An engineer who helps develop and recommend the materials for packaging. Materials technician: A person who usually specializes in one packaging product such as plastic. This person also assists the engineer with development and testing. Packaging engineer: An engineer trained specifically in developing and recommending materials for packaging products. This engineer may also help develop packaging machinery and processes. Packaging machinery technician: A person trained to work with the automated machinery that produces the packages. Packaging regulations: Laws or rules that govern the packaging of products, such as its materials, labels, and safety. Product manager: Usually, a person who coordinates the packaging and marketing of a product. Prototype: An original form (package) that serves as a model for engineering to assess and test. Resin: Thermoplastic material used with fillers, stabilizers, pigments, and other components to form plastics.
Packaging activity is generally spread throughout the United States, but there are, of course, concentrations of packaging plants for specific products. Canned and frozen foods are packaged to a large extent in the fruit and vegetable growing areas of the Pacific Coast, Midwest, Florida, and the Middle Atlantic states. Specialty foods are packaged in or near large metropolitan areas, particularly New York, Chicago, and Los Angeles. These and other big cities are also centers for toiletry, pharmaceutical, and hardware packaging. Packaging is part of the manufacturing process in just about every one of the manufacturing facilities in the United States.
■ Structure Packaging development in manufacturing companies is a multifaceted process. The creation of a package that will be successful in the marketplace involves virtually every department in a company. Packaging is not a single science but a combination of such skills as mechanical and electrical engineering, physical and organic chemistry, food technology, sales, communications, marketing, production, printing, and graphic design. Using 3D software, a packaging designer experiments with a prototype in order to eliminate, or at least reduce, potential problems. When a marketable product has been developed, the manufacturer assigns a packaging engineer to select or develop a packaging system that provides all the physical benefits required. Then a packaging graphic designer creates an appealing package. The designer may be faced with either an existing product that needs to be repackaged or a new product. In the first case, the designer works with the engineer to determine the suitability of new packaging materials to the product and to establish a graphic image that is up to date and intensifies its competitive position. For a new product entering the marketplace, the designer has somewhat more freedom but still has to consider the specific needs of the client, manufacturer, retailer, consumer, and economy. A package is the last link in product communications, and on the crowded shelves of a store, it must serve as a “silent salesperson” that conveys the image of the product and the company that produces it. The contribution that packaging makes to the product, however, goes considerably beyond this billboard function. A package is expected to be functional, too. It must adequately protect the product up to the point of sale and beyond, and should provide consumers with easy opening and closing features. This is true not only of consumer-type packages but also of containers used in industrial and military situations as well. The American consumer is particularly oriented toward self-service. The average U.S. supermarket carries 45,000 items, according to the Food Marketing Institute. While the consumer wheels the shopping cart around, each product receives only a fraction of a second of the shopper’s attention. It is therefore extremely important that the shape, color, and graphic image are unique enough to generate attention and encourage purchase. Within this overall concept, the packaging graphic designer has to incorporate the various requirements specified under government regulations, such as net content statements. The package has to protect the product against spoilage, breakage, and tampering. It has to contain the exact weight or measure as stated and has to be easy for the retailer to stack and convenient for the
consumer to use. Most important, the packaging has to be economical. To this end, the designer has to investigate the adaptability of the new package to existing machinery, as well as space availability on the supermarket shelf. Out of this investigation, the packaging graphic designer often develops innovative uses of methods and materials. The packaging graphic designer is also often involved in the development of shipping containers and pointof-purchase displays and other promotional material related to the presentation of the product to the consumer. Many packaging graphic design firms cover all these functions through in-house personnel; others hire outside consultant services. In either case, the packaging graphic designer must bridge the gap between manufacturer and consumer. New package graphics are made possible by computergenerated designs that provide three-dimensional views and a variety of type styles and other graphic elements, including logos. Many designers, however, continue to favor three-dimensional physical models so prototypes are often made. Once a package has been designed, it is up to the engineer to determine how to produce the package in mass quantities. The engineer must be an expert in industrial, mechanical, or electrical engineering and apply classical principles to the packaging solution. The engineer selects existing machinery that can be adapted or creates new equipment that efficiently produces the packaging without changing the marketing objectives set forth by the company. Since engineering is a precise form of technology that does not normally include subjective considerations such as marketing, its application in the packaging field requires engineers with creativity and intuition. The introduction of plastic packaging materials and the creation of new packaging forms such as plastic soft drink containers and flexible food pouches have posed difficult problems in the manufacturing and handling of these packages on production lines. As machine speeds increased, simple mechanical methods for controlling action gave way to electronic controls. Thus, mechanical engineers in packaging companies are being joined by electrical and electronics engineers. The leading professional group for these latter specialists, the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, has studied the special problems existing in packaging equipment. The organization for machinery builders, the Packaging Machinery Manufacturers Institute, is also concerned with the recognition of packaging as a legitimate and separate branch of engineering. Because the functions of machines and materials are interlocked in the creation of a packaging form, some
Packaging
A packaging engineer uses a computer and blueprints to design a machine that will fill soft drink bottles. (Mathew Hohmann.)
machinery companies and even engineering groups in large packaging organizations now station chemical engineers in the same department with mechanical engineers to give them authoritative answers on materials’ properties. Chemical engineers are, of course, indispensable in the production of many packaging materials and containers, particularly those incorporating plastics, paper, and paperboard. As packaging machines have become more automated and packaging operations more complex, there has been a need for closer study of the relationships between workers and machines and of the best methods to achieve efficiency in these production operations. This has led to increasing use of industrial engineers trained specifically in packaging operations. To solve complex problems in packaging design, most companies have turned to computers, making the computer specialist and data processing staffs a vital part of the packaging function. Packaging engineers are assisted by packaging machinery technicians, who build, maintain, and repair machinery. There is a growing need for skilled technicians who fill the gap between design engineers and production workers who assemble machinery and monitor its operation.
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Some companies still use committees made up of representatives from all departments involved in the packaging function to work out packaging problems. In a packaging department, on the other hand, a relatively small group of workers devotes its whole time to working out what has become a continuing series of interconnected problems. Some companies have given the packaging function great status and head the packaging group with a vice president. The executive in charge of packaging must not only know, or have access to, technical knowledge of the materials and methods for constructing packages but also must determine whether they can be produced economically by outside suppliers or by in-plant facilities. There is increasing demand for packaging specialists to act as staff advisers on such technical matters and to coordinate packaging development. As the American economy has expanded, sales have supplanted production as the key to business success. It is therefore not surprising that, in packaging, the marketing function is regarded as critically important. To sell packaging materials or machines successfully in today’s competitive market, a salesperson must have knowledge of how the product will be used by packagers and often must supply creative ideas on new package designs or production techniques. Many packaging supply firms employ specialists who can assist the salespeople, including experts in printing
A packaging machinery technician adjusts a machine that fills soft drink bottles. (Mathew Hohmann.)
and the graphic arts and structural packaging design and mechanical engineers. This is especially true of those companies that convert basic raw materials into finished cartons, cans, and bottles. Basic manufacturers of raw materials, such as plastic resins and metal sheet and foil, also employ packaging technologists to assist their customers.
■ Outlook Packaging is an important element in the total U.S. economy. The industry grosses more than $100 billion a year and employs more than 200,000 workers, more than half of whom are employed in the food and beverage industry. The packaging industry is expected to continue its growth in the 21st century. There will be expanding employment for specialized engineers who can solve specific problems while understanding the total packaging concept. The U.S. Department of Labor predicts that job opportunities for graphic designers will be good, as companies compete to develop enticing packaging for new products. The shortage of trained packaging technicians has encouraged the packaging industry to promote educational programs at the technical school, continuing education, and university levels. Employers seek those who are trained in package design, materials selection, machinery functions, labeling, marketing, and environmental aspects of packaging. American-made packaging machinery has earned a worldwide reputation for high quality and construction and is known for its outstanding control systems and electronics. Approximately one-third of the world market for packaging machinery is located in North America, but the U.S. exports packaging machinery to about 140 other countries. Continued success in global competition will remain important to the packaging machinery’s prosperity and employment outlook. The introduction of computers, robotics, fiber optics, and vision systems into the industry has added new skill requirements and job opportunities for workers in the packaging industry. There is already widespread application of computer-aided design and computer-aided manufacturing (CAD/CAM). The role of robotics, fiber optics, and electronics will also continue to expand into the packaging industry. With packaging one of the largest industries in the United States, jobs can be found across the country, in small towns and large cities, in small companies and multiplant international corporations. The jobs are not restricted to any one industry or geographical location; wherever there is industry, there is some kind of packaging going on.
parks and public lands
■ For More Information For information on careers and educational programs, contact the following organizations American Institute of Graphic Arts 164 Fifth Avenue New York, NY 10010-5901 Tel: 212-807-1990 Email:
[email protected] http://www.aiga.org
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers 1828 L Street, NW, Suite 1202 Washington, DC 20036-5104 Tel: 202-785-0017 Email:
[email protected] http://www.ieeeusa.org
For information on certification, contact Institute of Packaging Professionals 1601 North Bond Street, Suite 101 Naperville, IL 60563-0114 Tel: 630-544-5050 Email:
[email protected] http://www.iopp.org
For information on postsecondary packaging programs, contact National Institute of Packaging Handling and Logistics Engineers 6902 Lyle Street Lanham, MD 20706-3454 Tel: 301-459-9105 Email:
[email protected] http://www.niphle.org
For industry information, contact Packaging Machinery Manufacturers Institute 4350 North Fairfax Drive, Suite 600 Arlington, VA 22203-1632 Tel: 703-243-8555 Email:
[email protected] http://www.pmmi.org
■ Related Articles Advertising and Marketing; Machining and Machinery; Advertising Account Executives; Art Directors; Chemical Engineers; Chemical Technicians; Chemists; ComputerAided Design Drafters and Technicians; Drafters; Electrical and Electronics Engineers; Environmental Engineers; Food Technologists; Graphic Designers; Industrial Designers; Industrial Engineering Technicians; Industrial Engineers; Industrial Machinery Mechanics; Marketing
Research Analysts; Meat Packing Workers; Mechanical Engineering Technicians; Mechanical Engineers; Metallurgical Engineers; Metallurgical Technicians; Numerical Control Tool Programmers; Packaging Engineers; Packaging Machinery Technicians; Plastics Engineers; Plastics Technicians; Precision Machinists; Quality Control Engineers and Technicians; Robotics Engineers and Technicians
Parks and Public Lands ■ Background The history of federal land in the United States can be divided into five major eras, some of which overlap one another: acquisition, from 1781, when the land claims of the original states were first ceded to the central government, until the purchase of Alaska in 1867; disposal, from about 1810 until about 1934, when the Taylor Grazing Act was passed; reservation for federal ownership, primarily from 1891 until the late 1930s, when grazing districts were established; custodial management, from 1905, when the Forest Service was set up to care for the national forests, to about 1950; and intensive management, the current era, which began in the early 1950s. The original portion of the public domain, or federally owned land, consisted of lands ceded by seven eastern states. The ordinance of 1785 stipulated that none of it could be sold until it was surveyed. The office of Surveyer General was established by the Land Act of 1796. The act also provided for the sale of 640 acres at $2 per acre. In the 19th century, the public domain was expanded by vast territorial acquisitions, such as the Louisiana Purchase in 1803 and the area gained by the Mexican War (1846–48). A great deal of the land was given away to citizens in the 1800s. War veterans were sometimes paid for their service in scrip, a document that could be exchanged for land. The government gave away a vast acreage for grade schools, universities, and specialized institutions. Demand for cheap land led to the Preemption Act of 1841, under which squatters (people who had settled on public land without paying for it) were given the first chance to buy their tracts for a minimum of $1.25 per acre. The Homestead Act was passed in 1862, and thousands of people rushed to claim free land, mostly in the West, for homes and farms. Under the Small Tract Act of 1938, fiveacre tracts were made available in Alaska for $2.50 an acre. In the 1960s, the Bureau of Land Management (BLM)
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Words to Know BLM: The Bureau of Land Management, an agency of the Department of the Interior; the largest holder of federal public lands in the country. Federal Land Policy and Management Act of 1976: Consolidated 3,000 separate pieces of public land management legislation and provided for greater Congressional supervision over public lands. This act ended the availability of homesites, which had been provided by the Homestead Act and the Small Tract Act. Homestead Act: Congressional legislation enacted in 1862, allowing thousands of pioneers to obtain free land for homes and farms in the unsettled West. Intensive Management Era: The current era of federal land ownership and land management in the United States; it began around 1950. OPM: Office of Personnel Management; personnel/human resources office for federal government jobs. Public land: Land owned by the federal government, sometimes known as public domain. Small Tract Act: Congressional legislation enacted in 1938, making available five-acre tracts of lands for homesites in Alaska for $2.50 an acre.
began curtailing the sale of public lands, shifting its policy toward retaining them. In 1812, Congress established the General Land Office to administer the public domain. The passage of the Taylor Grazing Act in 1934 established the U.S. Grazing Service to provide active range management on public domain lands. In 1946, the Presidential Reorganization Plan Number 2 merged the Grazing Service with the General Land Office to create the BLM within the Department of the Interior.
■ Structure Caring for our public lands is a big responsibility, especially when you consider that they presently comprise more than one-third of the United States. The term public lands generally refers to land owned by the federal government; it is also known as the public domain. (Land owned by a municipality, county, or state governments is sometimes referred to as public land.) Title to the public lands is held by various departments and agencies of the federal government. About 70 percent of the lands are managed by the Department of the Interior, whose BLM is by far the largest holding agency. Other Interior holding agencies are the National Park Service, Fish and Wildlife Service,
Bureau of Reclamation, Geological Survey, and Bureau of Indian Affairs. Second in acreage is the Department of Agriculture, whose Forest Service administers over 26 percent of federally owned land. The departments of Defense and Commerce, the Tennessee Valley Authority, and other power agencies also hold public lands. A primary principle of public land administration is to let the land be used for several purposes at the same time, such as grazing and mineral exploration, or conservation and recreation. Another guiding principle is to control the use of timber and other renewable resources, so that the supply remains constant. There are hundreds of different jobs in federal parks and other public lands. The BLM alone lists over 120 separate job titles, including safety and occupational health manager, public health program specialist, public affairs officer, archives specialist, financial analyst, land law examiner, park ranger, criminal investigator, game law enforcement officer, historian, archaeologist, and museum curator, to name a few. With an annual budget of more than $1.8 billion, the BLM employs about 10,000 permanent and seasonal or temporary workers. It manages 262 million acres of land and about 300 million additional acres of subsurface mineral resources. Most of this land is located in the western United States. The BLM is headquartered in Washington, D.C., in the historic Department of the Interior Building. There are 12 state offices and nearly 200 field offices in addition to the National Interagency Fire Center in Boise, Idaho; the National Science and Technology Center, National Business System Center, and National Information Resources Management Center in Denver, Colorado; and the National Training Center in Phoenix, Arizona. The mission of the BLM is to sustain “the health, diversity, and productivity of the public lands for the use and enjoyment of present and future generations.” Some employees work in the cultural resources area of the BLM. The bureau manages cultural resources identified in conjunction with proposed land transfers or disposals. For example, in 1997 the BLM funded archaeological studies of two prehistoric sites at the Jupiter Inlet Archaeological Site in Florida and at the Cave Creek Rock Shelter in Illinois. There are jobs in fire fighting at the BLM and other public agencies. In May 1997, prior to the wildfires that blackened large areas of Florida, the BLM’s first prescribed burn was successfully completed at the Jupiter Inlet Natural Area. This burn was accomplished cooperatively with Palm Beach County and the Florida Division of Forestry to restore habitat values for the threatened Florida scrub jay and a host of fire-dependent plant species.
Petroleum
Bureau of Land Management U.S. Department of the Interior 1849 C Street, NW, Room 406-LS Washington, DC 20240-0001 Tel: 202-452-5125 http://www.blm.gov
National Park Service U.S. Department of the Interior 1849 C Street, NW Washington, DC 20240-0001 Tel: 202-208-6843 http://www.nps.gov
U.S. Department of Agriculture 1400 Independence Avenue, SW Washington, DC 20250-0002 http://www.usda.gov View from Yavapai Point, south rim of the Grand Canyon National Park, Arizona. (Union Pacific Railroad.)
The National Interagency Fire Center (NIFC) is a good example of partnership among government agencies. The NIFC, located in Boise, Idaho, plays a key role in protecting public lands. The NIFC involves the BLM, National Park Service, Forest Service, Fire Administration, Fish and Wildlife Service, Bureau of Indian Affairs, National Association of State Foresters, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Association, National Weather Service, and Aviation Management Directorate. These agencies have pooled resources and personnel to protect the land and to respond to emergencies.
U.S. Department of the Interior 1849 C Street, NW Washington, DC 20240-0001 Tel: 202-208-3100 http://www.doi.gov
■ Related Articles Agriculture; Biology; Earth Sciences; The Environment; Recreation; Adventure Travel Specialists; Biologists; Botanists; Ecologists; Fish and Game Wardens; Land Acquisition Professionals; Land Trust or Preserve Managers; Naturalists; Park Rangers; Range Managers; Recreation Workers; Soil Conservationists and Technicians; Soil Scientists
■ Outlook There is a wide range of jobs on parks and public lands in this country, but their numbers depend on the economy and the priorities of Congress and the president. The greatest difficulty in getting jobs in this field, however, is the stiff competition for them. Although most jobs in parks and public lands are not very high-paying, they are quite secure and are considered very desirable by people who enjoy working outdoors or with the various elements of the natural world. The best future opportunities in public lands may come in the areas of environmental education, computer specialization, and internal resource or information management.
■ For More Information For information about the variety of careers and opportunities for working and volunteering in the nation’s parks and public lands, contact the following organizations
Petroleum ■ Background In the United States about 65 percent of the petroleum consumed is used for transportation, including truck, bus, automobile, airplane, and ship fuel. Industrial uses account for about 25 percent. Household and commercial use accounts for about 7 percent, largely for heating. About 3 percent is used in the production of electrical power. No one knows for sure who first had the idea of drilling a well for oil. However, George H. Bissell, a New York lawyer, was largely responsible for the drilling of the well that started the petroleum industry in the United States. Bissell acquired some land, which had oil seepages, on Oil Creek near Titusville in western Pennsylvania. He
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Top Oil Consumers 2004 Country United States China Japan Germany Russia India Canada Brazil South Korea France Mexico
Total Oil Consumption (in millions of barrels per day) 20.7 6.5 5.4 2.6 2.6 2.3 2.3 2.2 2.1 2.0 2.0
Source: Energy Information Administration
was one of the organizers of the Pennsylvania Rock Oil Company, which was later reorganized as the Seneca Oil Company. The well on Bissell’s land was drilled by the Seneca Oil Company. The man who planned and supervised the drilling was Edwin L. Drake. He erected a wooden tower, or derrick, which was used to lower and raise the drilling tools. After cave-ins of the well occurred, he lined the well with sections of the pipe. As the well was drilled deeper, the pipe was driven downward and kept the sides of the hole from caving in. This was a major contribution to the technique of drilling, and it is still a standard practice. In August 1859, Drake’s well struck oil at a depth of 69.5 feet. The well flowed at a rate of eight to 10 barrels per day, and crude oil was then selling at $20 per barrel. With the development of the automobile, the demand for gasoline grew dramatically. World War II further increased the dependence on gasoline and other petroleum products by creating a demand for fuel for tanks, ships, and other wartime vehicles. This stimulated the need for exploration of a large number of oil wells across the country. After the war, surplus oil was used in the development of gas-powered farm vehicles and machinery. Refineries also produced petroleum derivatives to be used for synthetic rubber, medicinal oils, and explosives. In the early 1950s, petroleum overtook coal as the largest energy source in the United States. It would take until the mid-1960s for this trend to begin to reverse. During its period of growth, the oil industry’s primary goals were pursuing the development of new drilling areas and increasing the speed at which oil could be shipped from
existing fields. In the 1950s, plans called for extension of the U.S. pipeline system to link the state of Alaska with the lower 48 states through a new 5,000-mile pipeline. The Alaska pipeline was the largest single construction project ever undertaken by private industry and provided a large source of oil and natural gas to the United States. By the 1970s, the demand for oil had increased to the extent that Western nations could no longer supply enough oil to meet their own needs and were forced to import it from Middle Eastern countries. When these Middle Eastern countries gained control over the quantity and the price of oil being sold, they formed a cartel, known as the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC), which became one of the major influences on the world economy during this period. To combat the influence of OPEC, Great Britain, the United States, and other oil-producing countries increased domestic production in order to reduce the world’s dependence on oil from the OPEC nations. OPEC was forced to reduce prices and lost its control of the oil market. In the early 21st century, strong demand from a growing U.S. population, reductions in domestic oil exploration and production, and regional conflicts in oil-producing countries such as Iraq caused a significant increase in the price of petroleum. To address this crisis, the U.S. government set a goal of increased domestic production, as well as encouraged energy conservation and the development of renewable energy resources. Today, the U.S. petroleum industry continues to explore economical oil exploration and production methods to meet the energy needs of the U.S. population.
■ Structure Petroleum and natural gas often are found in the same fields. After geologists and geophysicists turn in their reports and recommendations, a petroleum company decides whether to drill. Petroleum engineers explore the area, recommend the type of derrick and drilling equipment to be used and supervise the work of drilling. If the well strikes oil, a petroleum engineer oversees its production. The primary goal is not the immediate production of large quantities of oil. Rather, the goal is to recover the greatest total amount of oil over a long period of time. With careful management, wells may produce oil for more than 30 years of operation. Preparing the site for drilling is an important part of the oil-production process. Rig builders put up the tall, open towers called rigs or derricks. Drillers bore holes in the ground, often two or three miles deep, and then they bring up new oil or gas.
The rig houses the hoisting equipment that lifts and lowers the heavy tools, pipe, and casing used in drilling a well. Many rigs are portable so they can be moved more easily from one drilling site to another. For deep drilling, a permanent rig is usually built. It is made of structural steel parts fastened together. The rig-builder supervisor directs work on the rig, and crews vary in size according to the job. A small rig may require only three or four workers, whereas a rig for a large drilling project may need as many as 25 workers. Most wells are drilled by the rotary method. The rotary drilling crew bores a hole in the ground, much as a hole is bored in a wooden plank. They use a steel bit with sharp teeth, called the drill stem. Power applied to the drill stem at the surface of the well rotates the bit and its teeth, chewing a hole through the earth’s layers. As the hole is bored deeper, new pipe lengths are put on at the top. A typical rotary drilling crew consists of a rotary driller and four or five helpers, often called roughnecks. An engine operator runs the engine that keeps the pipe and bit rotating. A derrick operator works on a platform high up on the rig and is busiest when a drilling bit grows dull and must be replaced, as then the whole string of pipe has to be pulled up out of the hole. As each pipe section comes up, the roughnecks disconnect it; the derrick operator snares the upper end and pulls the pipe over to a rack beside the platform. Several miles of pipe often are racked up in the derrick before the worn bit is brought to the surface. An average-sized rig-building or drilling job has another group of workers called roustabouts. They clean the derrick floor, clean pipe, and help in other ways. In offshore drilling, divers handle much of the work that must be done. In exploration work, they frequently dive for observation purposes or to retrieve lost cables or other equipment. Divers also do underwater construction work, put up platforms, and complete underwater pipelines. Such divers must be skilled in welding, cutting, pile driving, and riveting. Other skilled workers are also needed at drilling sites. For example, the tractor driver operates the tractor, rooting out tree stumps, leveling the ground, and preparing a rough path. The ditching-machine operator cuts a trench through the earth for the pipeline. The spacer sees that the pipe lengths are spaced end to end with precision, so they can be joined together by the welder. If the pipe has not already been coated at the mill with material to limit corrosion, a crew applies it on the job. More than half of all refinery workers are maintenance workers. Their job is to keep the complex equipment running smoothly. Maintenance workers also are
Petroleum
Offshore drilling rigs supply over 20 percent of the world’s oil and are located primarily along the North Sea and Arctic Ocean coasts. (Phillips Petroleum.)
employed in exploration, production, transportation, and even in marketing, where they repair service station pumps, home oil burners, and other types of mechanical equipment. Refining is done by heating crude oil in a fractionating tower at the refinery. The lightest elements of the oil, gases, and gasoline fractions vaporize first and are carried off at the top of the tower. Other fractions, such as those of kerosene and lubricating oil, are separated from the crude oil and drawn off through pipes farther down in the column. In later, more complex refining operations, these various fractions are processed into such products as gasoline, kerosene, jet fuels, diesel oil, home heating oil, motor oil and other lubricants, waxes, asphalt, and basic ingredients for thousands of petrochemicals. In the oil field, almost all the work in mechanical trades is outdoors. Since drilling goes on around the clock, drillers work in three shifts, with three complete crews. Most oil fields are in isolated regions, and crews live in quarters furnished by the company. Oil wells, pipelines, and refineries are in operation 24 hours a day, seven days a week. Control workers are usually assigned on a rotating basis to one of three shifts, and they take turns on weekends and holidays. Transportation of crude oil and refined products is carried out by pipeline, barge and ship, railroad tank car, and highway tank truck. Most of the crude oil and oil products move through a network of pipelines totaling about 174,000 miles. Tank-truck drivers deliver oil products to service stations and dealers, to farms and factories, and to airlines and surface transportation companies. Trailer truck drivers haul gasoline and other products from refineries to distributing points, particularly in regions not served by pipelines.
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Words to Know Air drilling or gas drilling: A drilling method that uses air or gas instead of drilling mud; these are faster methods than jet drilling, but they cannot be used for wells that pass through waterbearing rock. Christmas tree: A system of valves, fittings, and controls attached to the top of the tubing through which oil flows to the surface. Drillship: A ship that has an opening in the hull over which a derrick is permanently mounted; designed for use in deep water. Drives: Natural pressures that force oil through underground rocks to the well. Jet drilling: A drilling method that uses high-speed streams of drilling mud at the bit to remove cuttings quickly, reducing the rate at which the bit wears down. Semisubmersible rig: An offshore drilling rig that has huge legs with hollow chambers. The rig is floated to the drilling site and the chambers are then flooded so that the legs come to rest on the ocean floor. Turbodrilling: A drilling method in which a bit is rotated by a turbine mounted at the bottom of a stationary drill pipe. The turbine is powered by the flow of mud pumped down the pipe. Wildcat well: An exploratory well in a region that has never produced oil.
Marketing is the sale and distribution of petroleum products. The largest portion of these products is sold through more than 175,000 service stations in the country. Thousands of other outlets, such as garages and auto repair shops, also sell gasoline and lubricants. Large volumes of these and other products are sold directly to trucking fleets, airline companies, bus lines, federal, state, and municipal governments, public utilities, steamship companies, and other large users.
■ Outlook U.S. energy consumption is expected to increase at an annual compound rate of about 1.1 percent between 2004 and 2030. Much of the increased demand will probably be met by imports, which are also expected to increase through 2030, according to the Energy Information Administration (EIA). (The EIA is a statistical agency within the U.S. Department of Energy.) Factors that could affect predictions include possible interruptions of supply from the Middle East, future decisions by OPEC, U.S. legislation on offshore drilling, increases
in energy efficiency by users, changes in technology, and changes in the rate of economic growth and energy consumption. While the number of oil refineries in the United States is gradually declining, their overall production capacity is increasing due to better efficiency. Much of the oil exploration and refining activity has gone overseas, particularly to offshore Africa, South America, the Middle East, Russia, and the North Sea. The U.S. Department of Labor predicts that employment of petroleum engineers will decline through 2014. Despite this prediction, job opportunities should be good as the number of available positions exceeds the number of new graduates who enter the field each year. Since most of the petroleum-producing areas in the United States have already been explored, the best exploration opportunities for petroleum engineers are in other countries. However, the implementation of new technologies that expand drilling possibilities and improve the performance of reservoirs in the U.S. and the Gulf of Mexico may create new employment opportunities.
■ For More Information This trade association represents employees in the entire petroleum industry. Free videos, fact sheets, and informational booklets are available to educators. American Petroleum Institute 1220 L Street, NW Washington, DC 20005-4070 Tel: 202-682-8000 http://www.api.org
The EIA is a statistical agency of the U.S. Department of Energy that provides policy-independent data, forecasts, and analyses of energy and energy-related topics. Energy Information Administration (EIA) 1000 Independence Avenue, SW Washington, DC 20585-0001 Tel: 202-586-8800 http://www.eia.doe.gov
The following Web site has links to industry news, companies, associations, and employment resources. Oil and Gas Online http://www.oillink.com
■ Related Articles Energy; Nuclear Power; Geological Technicians; Geologists; Petroleum Engineers; Petroleum Refining Workers; Petroleum Technicians; Petrologists; Roustabouts; Surveying and Mapping Technicians; Surveyors
Pharmaceuticals ■ Background Through trial and error, prehistoric humans discovered that certain plants were effective in treating injuries and fevers. Once a plant was recognized as having medicinal qualities, the information was passed from generation to generation. Gradually, one person in a tribe or social group acquired considerable knowledge of these treatments and was appointed a medicine man or healer. The medicine man (known by different names, such as shaman, witch doctor, and obeah doctor) was frequently thought to have magical or religious powers. Healing was considered an extremely powerful skill. Many of the treatments may have been ineffective, but some of the plants had actual chemical healing powers. In the regions where traditional tribal doctors still practice, ethnobotanists study plants used for cures to extract any potential pharmaceutical benefit. The oldest known written records relating to pharmaceutical preparations, which are 5,000 years old, come from the Sumerians of the Middle East. Ancient Indian and Chinese cultures used primitive pharmaceutical applications to treat disease that they believed was caused by the presence of spirits in the body. The Babylonians had elaborate laws relating to surgery and medicine. The Assyrians, ancient Greeks, and the Egyptians, who used such medications as castor oil, senna, metallic salts, and a number of plants to cure a variety of illnesses, believed medications and medicine on the whole would purge and purify the body from sin, the cause of most illnesses. In second-century Rome, Galen postulated that disease was caused by an imbalance between body organs and developed a system of classification, compounding, and preparation of medications based on this theory. This was later proved scientifically incorrect. The Arabic world from the seventh century until the Middle Ages also provided significant knowledge concerning medications. It was not until hundreds of years later that the earliest organized experiments in pharmaceutical preparation began. Exploration of the New World in the 17th century brought many previously unknown substances to the attention of European scientists. Crude experiments were undertaken to determine the toxicity of tobacco, ipecac, cinchona bark, coca leaves, and other substances. The 19th-century French physiologist Francois Magendie is usually credited with the development of organized research in pharmaceutical substances. His studies of the poisons strychnine and carbon monoxide, and the muscle relaxant curare, helped to establish many
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Words to Know Apothecary: A pharmacy or drugstore. Biotechnology: The use of living organisms in the manufacture of drugs. Dosage: The amount of medicine to be taken. Ethnobotany: The study of plants for their medicinal value. Generic: A drug commonly marketed under a brand name that is sold in a package without a brand. HMO: Health maintenance organization. A comprehensive health plan that provides treatment to participating members. Intravenous: An injection that involves inserting a needle or catheter into a vein to introduce a drug or solution. Nuclear pharmacy: The use of radioactive drugs for diagnosis and therapy. Parenteral: Pertaining to drugs given by injection. Pharmacopoeia: A reference book of drug standards and dosages. Pharm.D.: A doctor of pharmacy degree. Psychopharmacology: The branch of pharmacology dealing with the effects of drugs on the mind and behavior. Rx: A medical prescription; an abbreviation for the Latin word for recipe. Therapeutic: Pertaining to the treating or curing of diseases or disorders. Toxicologist: A chemist responsible for evaluating drugs for their toxic effect.
of the modern principles of pharmacology, an integral part of the modern pharmaceutical industry. In 1852, the American Pharmaceutical Association was formed to help pharmacists and others in the pharmaceutical field organize their professional, political, and economic goals. The Pharmaceutical Manufacturers Association (now known as Pharmaceutical Research and Manufacturers of America) has represented the U.S. pharmaceutical industry since 1958. Government intervention in the U.S. pharmaceutical industry began in 1848 with a federal law denying import of substandard or adulterated drugs. The Federal Food and Drug Act of 1906 prohibited interstate commerce in adulterated or mislabeled drugs. The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) was formed in 1927 to provide legal enforcement for the 1906 act. In 1938, the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act went into effect, requiring strict and detailed studies in the
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development of medications before they could be made available to the general public. Alzheimer’s disease, cancer, AIDS, depression, and other major diseases cost Americans more than $640 billion a year in health care expenses. The pharmaceutical industry, through new research techniques in biochemistry, molecular biology, cell biology, immunology, and genetics, is helping to reduce mortality rates and suffering. New drugs have been a major factor in the remarkable reduction in mortality rates from pneumonia, polio, influenza, tuberculosis, syphilis, and other diseases. Drugs such as penicillin and antimalarials have saved millions of people who otherwise would have died or been incapacitated. Patients with heart disease, ulcers, emphysema, and asthma have been greatly aided by advances in cardiovascular drugs, ulcer therapies, and anti-inflammatory drugs.
■ Structure In the pharmaceutical industry, the process of discovering and developing a new product is particularly complicated and painstaking for several reasons. First, the human body itself is so complex, and the makers of drugs have to understand a great deal about the body’s functions and malfunctions before they begin. Second, a drug
This chemist works in a pharmaceutical laboratory and conducts research. (Rubberball Productions.)
not only must work against illness, it must do so without killing a person, and its curative effects have to outweigh any adverse side effects. For instance, chemotherapy has toxic side effects on the human body, with symptoms such as vomiting and hair loss, because it destroys healthy cells along with cancerous tissues. The risk of such side effects is worth it to a patient whose life can be saved through chemotherapy treatments. Third, because of the potential risks of drugs to human lives, drugs must go through a long and rigorous testing process. Most modern drug research begins by studying how the body functions and malfunctions. Because a disease usually progresses in a typical sequence of events, scientists try to interrupt this sequence in the lab and break it down into separate parts. They study each part to figure out what goes wrong at the cellular and molecular levels. Then they select a specific part on which to focus their development of a new drug, with the aim of correcting the cellular or molecular malfunction and interrupting, changing, or halting the course of the disease. Scientists and researchers may test hundreds or thousands of compounds before finding one that is promising. They work with receptors (molecules on the surface of cells to which other active molecules may bind) and with enzymes that they suspect of playing a role in the disease. The cost of this research is high, but today it is aided considerably by computers. For example, a drug researcher can look at a three-dimensional model of a molecule on a computer screen with a technique called molecular modeling—this helps target specific disease sites for drug development. Another huge breakthrough in drug research is the application of biotechnology, or genetic engineering, which involves manipulating human genes and proteins to create drugs and develop diagnostic tests. The first biotechnology drug, recombinant human insulin, was approved for use against diabetes in the early 1980s; since then more than 50 new biological therapeutics and vaccines, including interferon and certain hormones, have been approved for use against such ailments as hepatitis, anemia, dwarfism in children, and heart attacks. After scientists working in a pharmaceutical lab, federal government lab, or university lab have come up with a drug that looks promising, the drug must undergo extensive testing in specific stages for an average period of 10 to 15 years before being approved for use by the FDA. The first stage is called preclinical testing, in which the chemical compound is tested on animals and in the lab to determine if it’s biologically active and safe. This stage takes an average of three and a half years. The company sponsoring the drug then files an Investigational New Drug Application (IND) with the FDA,
explaining the results of the preclinical testing and how the drug is made. If the IND is not rejected within 60 days, human clinical testing—a three-phase period that takes an average of six years—may commence. Phase I consists of studies on 20 to 80 healthy volunteers to determine the safe dose of the drug, how much is too much, how the drug works chemically on the human body and how the body in turn processes it, and how long its effects last. This one-year phase is followed by Phase II, a two-year period of testing the drug on a few dozen to 300 volunteer patients suffering from the specific disease the drug is meant to attack. Further animal tests conducted at the same time help biomedical scientists determine whether the drug is effective against the condition and whether it is safe for these patients to take. Finally, Phase III, usually a three-year period, tests that the drug is highly effective against the disease in several hundred to 3,000 volunteer patients in clinics and hospitals, and that its side effects are tolerable. Individuals in some groups may never be used for drug testing. For example, testing drugs on pregnant women is considered an unethical research practice; therefore many drugs have not been proven safe for these women. Pregnant women have to avoid most drugs because it may risk harming the fetus, and there are few research methods that will sufficiently test for fetal drug safety. Animal studies may help, but they also may be inconclusive, as well as controversial. Finally, the sponsoring company or agency files a New Drug Application, a lengthy document summarizing all the data collected in the clinical trials. In the early 1990s, the FDA took an average of two and a half years to review a drug at this stage. The FDA Modernization Act of 1997 intended to reduce this time, however; pharmaceutical companies are contributing funds to allow the FDA to hire more reviewers, as well as to make other improvements. Out of all the chemical compounds that initially look promising, only one in 5,000 survives this screening process and eventually reaches the shelves as a new drug. The drug must not only prove to be sufficiently safe for the affected population to use, it also must prove to be reasonably effective for the population it is meant to treat. Being harmless is not enough to get a drug passed by the FDA. The pharmaceutical industry is highly technical and sophisticated. The process described above requires teams of experts that include traditional organic chemists, physiologists, statisticians, biochemists, molecular biologists, toxicologists, pharmacologists, computer scientists, and physician investigators. The initial teams in the early stages of drug development usually include chemists and
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biologists who are experts in synthesizing and testing compounds and setting day-to-day goals. Much of this basic research takes place in a university setting or in a National Institutes of Health lab, while much of the applied research is more likely to be the responsibility of the pharmaceutical industry. The initial teams of scientists are joined by experts in drug metabolism, pharmaceutical development, and clinical development. Toxicologists, statisticians, and physician reviewers are called upon to evaluate the drug’s safety. Other types of specialists work in a variety of disciplines as molecular modelers, protein chemists, and X-ray crystallographers. A research laboratory may cost several hundred million dollars, plus millions more for the libraries and computer facilities needed to complement it. And the equipment, some of which either becomes outdated quickly or has a working life of only five to seven years, includes such items as fluorescence-activated cell sorters that cost $1 million each, nuclear magnetic resonance spectrometers that cost $1 million each, and robotic screening operations that cost as much as $3 million. In light of these costs, the time needed for testing, plus the salary costs of highly trained professionals, it’s a little easier to understand the Pharmaceutical Research and Manufacturers of America’s (PhRMA) estimate that it costs an average of $800 million to discover and develop just one new medicine. In 2005, research and development expenditures by research-based pharmaceutical companies were about $51.3 billion. Pharmaceutical companies, in addition to the human market, produce drug preparations for the veterinary market. Most leading drug companies have specific animal health divisions. An emerging subfield of pharmaceuticals is the medicinals and botanicals industry. These firms oversee the complex process of producing extracts of natural substances and the organic and inorganic chemicals used in a majority of modern medicines. Specific formulas for the preparation of these substances can be found in the official U.S. pharmacopeia or in the National Formulary. If a substance has never been produced on an industrial scale or is entirely new, its manufacturer must produce a document listing the acceptable legal standards of purity and potency. Finished active ingredients, known as batches, are then shipped to the preparation firm awaiting them. These batches must meet the approval of the FDA and the customer company, as well as match a master batch in regard to purity and strength. The FDA uses Good Manufacturing Practices and frequent inspection to insure that optimum standards are observed. Another emerging field of the pharmaceutical industry is ethnobotany. Nearly 25 percent of
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commercially available prescription drugs contain plant-derived compounds. As a result, many major companies have begun to invest time and money in the search for potentially lucrative medications. Discoveries include vinblastine, for treating Hodgkin’s disease; taxol, a Pacific yew derivative used to treat ovarian and breast cancer; and scopolamine for treating motion sickness. There are numerous complicated laws regarding the development and marketing of drugs in the United States. Marketing is the largest segment of the industry today both in terms of number of employees and money spent. In 1997, certain restrictions were lifted on the advertising of pharmaceuticals to consumers, which led to drug companies allocating large percentages of their budgets to advertising and marketing. Fierce competition among drug manufacturers also has created jobs in law (for example, a new specialty in biotechnology patents) and government, particularly in lobbying.
■ Outlook According to the U.S. Department of Labor, the pharmaceutical and medicine manufacturing industry is expected to grow by about 26 percent through 2014, which is faster than the average for all other industries (14 percent). The impact of economic downturns on the pharmaceuticals industry is less than other industries, mainly because many people depend on pharmaceuticals for their health and well-being. Factors that affect the growth of the pharmaceutical industry include the rising costs of research and development and shorter exclusivity periods (the amount of time a drug company can hold a patent on a particular drug). The rise of managed health care programs, governmental pressure on pharmaceutical manufacturers to cut drug prices, mergers and acquisitions, and the production of generic drug substitutes are also greatly affecting the industry. Generic drugs have more than doubled their share of the prescription market in recent years. In addition, manufacturing methods are constantly improving, which reduced the time it takes to deliver a drug to market. Faster than average growth is anticipated for professional specialty occupations—especially life and physical scientists in research and development and systems analysts, biostatisticians, and computer support specialists. In production, growth will occur for crushing and mixing machine operators, hand packers and packaging, and industrial machinery mechanics. Employment of administrative support and clerical workers is expected to experience little or no change as companies streamline operations and increasingly
rely on computers. Sales and marketing is a growing segment of the pharmaceutical industry, and should provide an increasing number of opportunities as drug companies continue to face strong competition in both domestic and foreign markets. Fifty-nine percent of the pharmaceutical industry’s employees work for firms with more than 500 workers. Most jobs are in California, Illinois, Indiana, New Jersey, New York, North Carolina, Pennsylvania, and Texas. Jobs should be plentiful for pharmacists and pharmacy technicians. The growing elderly population will require the production of new medications and treatments and more pharmacists to dispense these prescriptions. The increasing popularity of “lifestyle” drugs that treat non-life-threatening conditions and that boost selfconfidence will also safeguard the future of jobs in this field. More chain supermarkets will open pharmacies, and many of these pharmacies will stay open 24 hours to meet demand. The National Association of Chain Drug Stores (NACDS) reports that drug sales reached $230.2 billion in 2005, up 4.6 percent from the previous year. The NACDS also reports that the number of prescriptions in 2005—3.38 billion—an increase of 3.3 percent from 2004. Ethnobotany, an emerging subfield in pharmaceuticals, should stimulate competition and job growth. Qualified pharmaceutical workers in all fields will be needed as the pharmaceutical industry rushes to take advantage of the rapidly diminishing biodiversity of the world, especially in tropical regions. Good opportunities should exist for chemists, pharmacologists, biologists, science technicians, research and development managers, and marketing and sales workers. Those with doctoral degrees will have the best employment prospects in this continually lucrative field. In production, growth will occur for crushing and mixing machine operators, hand packers and packaging, and industrial machinery mechanics.
■ For More Information Contact the APA for information on student membership and continuing education. Visit its Web site to read summaries from the latest issue of Pharmacy Today. American Pharmacists Association (APA) 2215 Constitutional Avenue, NW Washington, DC 20037-2985 Tel: 800-237-2742 http://www.aphanet.org
For information on biotechnology, contact Biotechnology Industry Organization 1225 Eye Street, NW, Suite 400
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Washington, DC 20005-5958 Tel: 202-962-9200 Email:
[email protected] http://www.bio.org
For general information on the pharmaceutical industry, contact Pharmaceutical Research and Manufacturers of America 950 F Street, NW Washington, DC 20004-1404 Tel: 202-835-3400 http://www.phrma.org
■ Related Articles Biochemists; Biologists; Chemical Engineers; Chemical Technicians; Chemists; Drug Developers; Genetic Scientists; Laboratory Testing Technicians; Medical Laboratory Technicians; Nuclear Medicine Technologists; Pharmaceutical Industry Workers; Pharmacists; Pharmacologists; Pharmacy Technicians; Senior Care Pharmacists; Toxicologists
Photography ■ Background In the photographic process, images are produced by exposing light-sensitive chemicals called silver halides to light. The more light these chemicals are exposed to, the darker they become. After the silver halides are developed and fixed, a negative image is produced. The negative image, which is usually made on film, is then itself exposed to light. The light that passes through it creates a positive image on paper or film containing silver halides. The result of this second exposure is the final photograph. Some of the theory that makes photography possible has been known since ancient times. The camera obscura, a darkened chamber in which images were projected by letting light enter through a small hole, was known as early as the time of the Greek philosopher Aristotle. In the 17th and 18th centuries, various scientists found that silver nitrate and silver chloride darkened when they were exposed to light. In spite of these findings, however, it was not until 1827 that the first photograph was produced by the French physicist Joseph Niepce. In 1829, Niepce went into partnership with Louis Daguerre, who continued to experiment with photography after Niepce’s
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death and ultimately invented what became known as the daguerreotype process. Daguerre reduced the time required to create an image from eight hours to 30 minutes, and he discovered that the resulting image could be made permanent if it were immersed in salt. Daguerre’s process, although expensive, became extremely popular. People found it exciting that those without drawing or painting skills could create an image by using a chemical process. The new popularity of photography led various people to invent cheaper and more efficient processes. It soon became possible to create multiple copies of a photograph, which was something that the Daguerreotype process could not do. In a relatively short period of time, the profession of photography became commercially viable, since many people wanted to have portraits and other photographs made. Motion-picture photography was invented in 1890 by Thomas Edison, who constructed a kind of camera that would expose the roll film that was first marketed in 1889 by George Eastman, the inventor of flexible film and the Kodak box camera. In a short period of time, the entirely new art form of motion pictures came into being and gained a wide audience. Although photography became popular soon after its invention, it was not viewed as an art form until much later, after a succession of great photographers had demonstrated the photographic medium to be flexible, immediate, and expressive. Many early critics of
Learn More about It Airey, Theresa. Creative Digital Printmaking: Photographer’s Guide to Professional Desktop Printing. Watson-Guptill Publications, New York: 2001. Arndt, David Neil. How to Shoot and Sell Sports Photography. Buffalo, N.Y.: Amherst Media, 1999. Grimm, Tom, and Michele Grimm. Basic Book of Photography. 5th ed. New York: Plume Books, 2003. Long, Ben. Complete Digital Photography. 3rd ed. Hingham, Mass.: Charles River Media, 2004. Sammon, Rick. Rick Sammon’s Complete Guide to Digital Photography: 107 Lessons on Taking, Making, Editing, Storing, Printing, and Sharing Better Digital Images. New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 2003. Schaub, George. Using Your Camera, A Basic Guide to 35mm Photography. Revised ed. New York: Amphoto Books, 2002.
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photography believed that it was, by its very nature, shallow and narcissistic, and some critics even viewed photography as satanic. One of the many photographers who contributed to the development of photography as an art form was Mathew Brady, who, along with other photographers, documented the American Civil War. He created works of tremendous power, recording the horrors of war in a way that had not been done before. Some of the many important photographers of the 20th century were art photographers, such as the Americans Ansel Adams, Edward Steichen, Edward Weston, and Alfred Stieglitz, and the French avant-garde artist Man Ray. The field of photojournalism was pioneered by such important figures as Henri Cartier-Bresson, Margaret Bourke-White, and Alfred Eisenstadt. Cameras and photo processing have changed dramatically since the advent of computer technology. Most cameras manufactured today are battery-operated and allow nearly foolproof picture taking by automatically setting shutter speed, lens aperture, and focus. One of the most important developments in recent years is digital photography. In digital photography, instead of using film, pictures are recorded on microchips, which can then be downloaded onto a computer’s hard drive. They
can be manipulated in size, color, and shape, virtually eliminating the need for a darkroom. In the professional world, digital images are primarily used in electronic publishing since printing technology hasn’t quite caught up with camera technology. However, printing technology is also advancing and even amateur photographers can use digital cameras and home printers to shoot, manipulate, correct, and print snapshots. Photographs are also being combined with other media in new ways, and it is likely that this trend will continue. The Internet has provided a new arena for photographers and other artists. New technology makes it possible, for example, to broadcast full-length features on the Internet, and photographers and cinematographers will have to both adapt their techniques and find new ones in order to use the Internet effectively.
■ Structure There are many specialized areas in the field of professional photography. Portrait photography was the first commercial form of photography to develop, shortly after the invention of the photographic process as it is known today. A portrait photographer must find a way to create a likeness that is recognizable but also illuminates the char-
This photographer is conducting a photo shoot for a bridal catalog. (Rubberball Productions.)
acter of the person who is sitting for the photograph. It takes a special skill and insight to do this kind of work well. Commercial and advertising photographers shoot photographs that will be seen in magazines, on billboards, in promotional materials of various kinds, and in catalogs, among many other places. This branch of photography requires a very high level of technical skill since quality is of paramount importance. A photographer who photographs a product for an advertising campaign, for example, must be able to make that product look irresistibly attractive and perfect in every way. Any flaw in the photo would defeat the purpose of the advertising. The commercial field includes specializations such as food, fashion, product, and industrial photography. Commercial photographers often employ photo stylists, who collect props, prepare sets, and arrange products to be shot. Photojournalism is the field in which photographers capture news events as they occur. Photojournalists often travel, and sometimes the work is very dangerous, as when photographers enter war zones and disaster zones in order to capture images that communicate the essence of an event to people throughout the world. Sometimes, of course, the work is much less adventurous, as is most often the case for those who cover local news and events. Sports photographers, who photograph professional and amateur athletes and sporting events, are often photojournalists. Art photographers use photography as a vehicle for artistic expression. The work of art photographers is collected by those with a special interest in the field, shown in galleries, and displayed in museums of art. The work of well-known photographers in this field is often collected and published in book form. There is some overlap between this and other forms of photography. The work of some photographers who did not set out to create works of art is nevertheless considered to have great artistic value. This category can include portraiture and photojournalism, as well as landscape, nature, architecture, and still life photography. Educational photographers provide illustrations for books and other publications, motion pictures for specific audiences, film strips, slides, and various other photographic products. Art students, for example, must be able to study high-quality reproductions of works of art that are housed in museums and in private collections. Scientific photographers often work under unusual conditions and face a wide range of problems. Specialized forms of photography are often used, and photographers must find special techniques with which to photograph celestial events, capture the behavior of
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Words to Know Assembly: A number of photographs that are used together. Calotype: A photographic process, invented by William Henry Fox Talbot in approximately 1839, which made it possible to produce multiple copies of a photograph. Continuous tone: Any photograph or other image that is unscreened and has various shades between black and white. Dailies: One day’s worth of unedited film that is processed overnight and viewed so that a film shoot’s progress can be monitored; also called rushes. Developer: A chemical used to make images on developed photographic materials visible. Final cut: The final edited version of a film. Fixer: A chemical used to make a developed image permanent. Halftone: The reproduction of a photograph or other image through a screen that changes the image into dots of various sizes. Picture editor: A person responsible for assigning, buying, and evaluating photographs. Surprinting: Superimposing one image on another.
animals in their native habitats, make visible the trajectories of subatomic particles, and record what scientists see through microscopes. There are many other specialized areas of photography. Some photographers specialize in such fields as underwater photography and aerial photography. Work in these areas requires not only specialized knowledge but also specialized equipment. Photography instructors teach photographic techniques to professionals and amateurs alike. Photography involves much more than shooting pictures. Photographers need to know about the technical aspects of picture taking, such as cameras, lenses, the many types of film available, lighting, and shutter speed. In addition, many photographers develop their own negatives and print their own photos. Film development requires a meticulous process of mixing and measuring chemicals, loading film into developing tanks in complete darkness, carefully agitating the film and chemicals with precise timing, and drying and storing the developed negatives. Printing requires knowledge about enlargers, the huge variety of papers available, and developing and fixing chemicals. Printing, like developing, demands exact measurement of times and temperatures.
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Some photographers prefer to send exposed film to laboratories where photographic laboratory technicians process the film and print photos. Photographers also rely on photographic equipment technicians to maintain and repair their sensitive equipment. Photographers who specialize in digital photography are experts in the computer software programs that enable them to manipulate the color, size, and contrast of their photos and create special effects. They have to keep aware of constantly changing technology that increasingly allows publishers, advertisers, and other businesses to use digital photos instead of traditional ones.
■ Outlook According to the Occupational Outlook Handbook, employment of photographers is expected to grow as fast as the average for all occupations through 2014. The demand for photographs is expected to increase during that period, but the business of photography is now and will remain extremely competitive. There are far more people who want to be photographers than there are positions available. Only those individuals with the best skills, training, and business acumen are likely to succeed in the field as salaried workers or independent contractors. Photography students need to study digital processes or they will be at a disadvantage in the job market when they graduate. Study of traditional photography is still recommended, but because film-based photographs are commonly scanned, it is also necessary to study digital photography. Employment in the newspaper industry is expected to grow more slowly than the average, which will affect jobs for print photographers. There should be jobs available for photographers in news and wire services, particularly those who are knowledgeable in digital processes. Digital images will also be in demand by book, magazine, and journal publishers, and Internet businesses. Employment is expected to decline for photographic equipment repairers and photo processing workers, due to the move toward digital processes.
■ For More Information The ASMP promotes the rights of photographers, educates its members in business practices, and promotes high standards of ethics. American Society of Media Photographers (ASMP) 150 North Second Street Philadelphia, PA 19106-1912 Tel: 215-451-2767 http://www.asmp.org
The NPPA maintains a job bank, provides educational information, and makes insurance available to its members. It also publishes News Photographer magazine. National Press Photographers Association (NPPA) 3200 Croasdaile Drive, Suite 306 Durham, NC 27705-2588 Tel: 919-383-7246 Email:
[email protected] http://www.nppa.org
The PPA provides training, publishes its own magazine, and offers various services for its members. Professional Photographers of America (PPA) 229 Peachtree Street, NE, Suite 2200 Atlanta, GA 30303-2206 Tel: 404-522-8600 Email:
[email protected] http://www.ppa.com
■ Related Articles Book Publishing; Film; Newspapers and Magazines; Publishing; Visual Arts; Camera Operators; Cinematographers and Directors of Photography; Fashion Illustrators and Photographers; Medical Illustrators and Photographers; Photo Editors; Photographers; Photographic Equipment Technicians; Photographic Laboratory Workers; Photography Instructors; Photojournalists; Photo Stylists; Sports Photographers
Plastics ■ Background Since the first synthetic plastics were produced in 1909, plastics have become a part of everyday life. Plastics can be manufactured to be hard enough to use as dies for shaping metal or soft enough to weave nylon stockings. Surgeons can use plastic screws to join broken bones; architects use plastics that resemble marble, wood, and stone; NASA scientists use plastic nose cones; and others store certain chemicals in plastic containers. Plastics companies in the United States include material makers who make the resins, processors who shape the resins, and fabricators who make end products. Plastics are supplied to almost every type of manufacturer in the country. Because of the diversity of plastics, many of their uses go unrecognized. Most consumers are aware of plastics used in housewares, toys, electrical fixtures, toothbrushes, packages, and household detergent bottles, but
they may not be aware that the lifelines of all communications—television, radio, telephone, radar, sonar, and satellites—rely on plastics for insulation and other vital components. Given the prominent role that plastics play in modern life, it is surprising that a little more than a century ago commercial plastic did not exist in the United States. The U.S. plastics industry officially began in 1868, when John Wesley Hyatt mixed pyroxylin, made from cotton and nitric acid, with camphor to create an entirely different and new product he called celluloid. Hyatt developed the plastic in response to a competition sponsored by a manufacturer of billiard balls. Faced with a shortage of ivory, from which billiard balls were made, the manufacturer sought a product to use in its place. This was the first commercial plastic in the United States. Other forms of plastic had been developed in England a few years earlier, but they were of poorer quality. Celluloid quickly found new uses and moved into new markets. Such products as combs, curtains, and carriage windshields were made from celluloid. The photographic film used by George Eastman to produce the first motion-picture film in 1882 was made of celluloid. Being highly flammable, celluloid was not a perfect material, spurring further development of plastics. Celluoid, however, is still in use today (under its chemical name of cellulose nitrate) for making products such as eyeglass frames. Forty-one years passed before the plastics industry took its next major step. In 1909, Dr. Leo Hendrik Baekeland introduced phenoformaldehyde plastics, more popularly known as phenolids, the first plastics to achieve worldwide acceptance. His new substance, called Bakelite, was intended as a resin. The versatility of Bakelite soon led to the production of many products, such as cookware handles, telephones, and other parts for electrical equipment. In the 1920s, scientists introduced polyvinyl chloride, which eventually became the second-largest selling plastic for such applications as flooring and wire and cable insulation. Another plastic, cellulose acetate, was commonly used as a waterproof varnish for the fabric of airplane wing coverings. Also during this period, the U.S. firm E. I. DuPont de Nemours & Company developed superpolyamide, otherwise known as nylon. This product is still widely used today. During World War II, there was a shortage of natural materials, which encouraged chemists and chemical companies to develop even more types of plastic. The 1930s and 1940s saw the initial commercial development of many of today’s major thermoplastics: low density polyethylene, polystyrene, and polymethyl methacrylate.
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This plastics factory worker is testing red plastic before sending it to the next phase of production. (Mathew Hohmann.)
These plastics were primarily used in packaging consumer goods. The increasing demand for plastics in the 1950s and 1960s led to more and more types of plastic. Some of the more important inventions of the 1960s were heatresistant plastics and ceramoplastics that have industrial uses. In today’s society, plastics are used in every aspect of American life, including dishes, toys, signs, insulation, and appliance parts. The average car contains more than 300 pounds of plastics. Plastics are even used to replace defective heart valves, sockets, joints, and other parts of the human body. Some uses of plastics go unrecognized because they show up in combination with other materials. All paper cartons for milk, for example, have protective coatings of polyethylene, a plastic. Many metal cans have protective plastic linings. Many glass bottles have protective plastic coverings. Other plastics go unrecognized because their appearance is similar to other materials, such as plastic outerwear that looks like leather or plastic furniture with wood-grain patterns. Still other plastics go unrecognized because they are hidden in the finished product; for example, the myriad uses of plastics for electrical insulation in refrigerators. This use of plastics has resulted in more food-storage capacity without an increase in the outside dimensions of the refrigerator. Plastic parts and coatings on some appliances increase their lifespan by 40 percent as a result of their durability and resistance to corrosion.
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My Soda Bottle Makes What? You think the plastic in your clothes closet is limited to your cheap summer sandals? Actually, plastic is used in a lot of clothing, from your sneakers to your soft fleece jacket. Not only that, but often the plastic is recycled from soda bottles! This plastic, known as PET (polyethylene terephthalate), is transferred to polyester, which is much less expensive than virgin cotton. Land’s End and Reebok are just a few of the clothing manufacturers that use PET.
■ Structure Plastics consist of a family of materials, not a single material. Each member of this family has its own distinct and special properties. From different combinations of elements, it is possible to create different plastics with almost any quality desired in an end product. Some plastic products are similar to existing conventional materials but can be produced more economically. Some plastic products represent significant property improvements over existing materials. For example, in 1993 Maurice Ward invented a polymer called Starlite, which is nearly impervious to heat, flames, and lasers, and which emits very few toxic fumes in the process. This diversity has made plastics applicable to a broad range of end uses today. One generally accepted definition of plastics classifies it as any one of a large and varied group of materials consisting wholly or in part of combinations of carbon with oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, and other organic and inorganic elements. At some stage in their manufacture, these materials are liquified and are thus capable of being formed into various shapes, usually through the application of heat and pressure. Sometimes there is an overlapping of functions between industry and market. For example, customers such as automotive and packaging companies also process plastics into products and parts. There is also an overlapping of functions within the industry, as when materials manufacturers also do processing and finishing. Materials and resins manufacturers use chemical reactions to transform basic feedstocks into plastic materials; about 500 different resins and compounds are produced. These materials are then sold in the form of granules, powder, pellets, flakes, or liquids for eventual processing into finished products. Between these manufactured materials and the finished compound that goes to the processor, there is often an intermediate step that involves the addition of modifiers, chemicals, and additives that impart special proper-
ties to the plastic or upgrade existing ones. For example, plastics can be colored with pigments or dyes or made more flexible by being treated with a modifier. The companies that supply these modifiers are often the materials manufacturers themselves. In other instances, they are separate companies specializing in the production of one or more specific types of modifiers for plastics. The compounding of the base resin into the finished plastic material that goes to the processor is usually performed by the materials manufacturer. However, an industrial segment of the plastics industry known as compounders, or custom compounders, buys the base polymer from the materials manufacturer and then specially compounds it by adding modifiers, additives, and so on for resale to processors. It is also possible for processors to buy base polymers, modifiers, and additives directly and do their own compounding. Plastics processing, or plastics production, is the heart of the plastics industry. It is the function of the processor to turn plastics material into secondary products, component parts, or finished products. The miscellaneous products market is very fragmented. Some major categories include miscellaneous plastic packaging, fabricated plastics for automobiles, plastics for electrical devices, kitchenware, plastic furniture parts, and plastics for building construction. Other segments of the plastics products industry include laminated plastics, pipe, bottles, profile shapes, plumbing fixtures, foam products, and film and sheet. The fabricator’s role (in plastics production) is to turn secondary products such as film, sheet, rod, tube, and special shapes into end products. There are several common ways in which this is done: molding, casting, laminating, extrusion, and calendering. Molding a secondary product is a simple procedure that involves taking the heated liquid plastic, injecting it into a mold, and using intense pressure to shape the piece. For all molded items, the plastic is poured into a mold of the desired shape, whether it be a hollow bottle or a round object. Casting is very similar to molding; however, the plastic sets without the use of pressure. In the lamination process, a piece of paper is placed between two transparent sheets of plastic. The three items are then heated to form a bond. Products such as tabletops and electrical insulation are laminated. The most common example of laminated plastic is Formica. Extrusion is the process of making plastic tubes such as pipes and hoses. Melted plastic is squeezed through an oblong object that expels the finished product. Inside the tube is a screwlike part that pulls the plastic through it and squeezes the substance into the desired shape. The most frequently produced piping (in descending order)
are water piping; waste, vent, and drain pipe; sewer pipe; and mining, oil and gas, industrial, and other piping. Plastic piping is superior to many other types of piping because it is less expensive, lightweight, and relatively easy to install, among other factors. Foam-forming of plastics involves the blowing of air into plastics during production. Products produced by foam-forming include furniture and furnishings (cushions, carpet underlay, and filler for pillows), consumer products (plates, cups, coolers, and trays), and packaging and transportation products. Calendering, like lamination, coats materials. In a process similar to printing, the substance to be coated is fed through a series of rollers. The rollers contain the plastic that coats the substance. Finishing, decorating, and assembling the plastic products can either be done in-house by the plastics processor or fabricator, or by companies that specialize in various finishing techniques. The plastics industry employs workers of all education and skill levels, from Ph.D. chemists and engineers to unskilled workers. Scientists and engineers work in research and development, developing new types of plastics, finding new applications, and designing manufacturing processes. Many workers operate machines that actually form plastic objects. For example, injection molders run machines that first liquefy plastic powders or pellets. This liquid pellet is then injected into a mold and then allowed to harden. The final result is a molded plastic object. Some plastics are cut into shapes rather than molded. Shaping-machine operators cut spheres, cones, and other shapes from blocks of plastic. Technicians play an important role in the manufacturing of plastics. Some technicians install molds, watch over the molding process, maintain production schedules, and test both raw materials and finished products. Other technicians work in laminating. The plastics industry also employs technicians as sales and service workers. Some sell plastics materials to manufacturers. Others work for manufacturers of the machinery used in plastics production.
■ Outlook From its inception, the plastics industry has been remarkably successful. It would be difficult to find a market in the United States today in which plastics, either by themselves or in combination with other materials, do not play a vital role. Plastics are diversified, and the end is not in sight. Hundreds of millions of dollars continue to be spent by the industry each year in developing new plastics and improving existing ones.
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The Society of the Plastics Industry (SPI), which compiles new industry information every few years, reported that U.S. shipments of plastics totaled $345 billion in 2004. This figure places plastics products fourth among the top manufacturing industry groups in shipments (behind motor vehicles, petroleum refining, and electronic components and accessories). SPI also found that plastics industry employment had grown steadily over the past two and a half decades. In 2006, U.S. manufacturers of plastics raw materials, products, machinery, and molds employed 1.3 million workers. The following states employ the largest number of plastics industry workers: California, Illinois, Michigan, Ohio, and Texas. The health of the plastics materials and resins subindustry is related to other industries, such as the automobile and construction industries. As these sectors show growth, so has the need for plastics materials and resins. Increasing recyclability is also spurring job growth. The American Plastics Council reports that 80 percent of the
Words to Know Additives: Chemicals added during plastics processing to modify the behavior of plastics. Compounding: Using additives in plastics processing; important in the processing of recycled materials. Extrusion: A plastics processing technique of melting and heating resins. Feedstock: The raw material used to produce plastics. Injection molding: A process of injecting melted resin into a mold. Olefins: Unsaturated hydrocarbons used in the production of polyethylene and other polyolefins. Polymer: An organic compound used in plastics production. Polypropylene: A resin used in packaging and fibers. Polystyrene: A versatile plastic used primarily in the production of containers, bottles, and lids. Pyrolysis: The decomposition of organic material by heat. Recycling: The process of using materials recovered from waste to create new products. Resin: A solid, organic product with no definite melting point. Stabilizers: Additives used to increase the strength of plastics, making them more resistant to heat. Thermoplastics: Materials, such as vinyl or nylon, which will soften when heated and harden when cooled. Vinyl: A resin formed by polymerization (the combination of molecules to form a product of higher molecular weight).
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333 Aiken Street Lowell, MA 01854-3686 Tel: 978-934-3130 Email:
[email protected] http://pia.caeds.eng.uml.edu
For a career brochure and information about education and certification, contact Society of the Plastics Industry 1667 K Street, NW, Suite 1000 Washington, DC 20006-1620 Tel: 202-974-5200 http://www.socplas.org
■ Related Articles
A setup technician prepares machinery for the production of plastics products. (Mathew Hohmann.)
U.S. population has access to a plastics recycling program and that more than 1,700 companies handle recyclable plastics. Overall, the plastics industry in the United States may see a reduction of employment opportunities if American companies continue to move production to other countries to take advantage of cheap labor and less stringent environmental laws.
■ For More Information The APC is a trade industry that offers a great deal of information about the plastics industry, and maintains an informative Web site. American Plastics Council (APC) 1300 Wilson Boulevard Arlington, VA 22209-2323 Tel: 800-243-5790 http://www.plastics.org
For information about scholarships, seminars, and training, contact Plastics Institute of America University of Massachusetts-Lowell
Chemicals; Machining and Machinery; Packaging; Ceramic Engineers; Chemical Engineers; Chemical Technicians; Chemists; Cost Estimators; Industrial Chemicals Workers; Industrial Designers; Industrial Engineering Technicians; Industrial Engineers; Machine Tool Operators; Mechanical Engineering Technicians; Mechanical Engineers; Molders; Packaging Engineers; Packaging Machinery Technicians; Paper Processing Workers; Plastics Engineers; Plastics Products Manufacturing Workers; Plastics Technicians
Printing ■ Background Printing is a dynamic and highly technical industry that enters into nearly every facet of our lives. Practically every product you buy, use, or look at involves some sort of printing: a sign in a store window, your favorite magazine, a soda can or cereal box, the instructions to the latest computer game you bought, a billboard on the roadside, even this encyclopedia you are reading. In short, printing is a way of communicating. In fact, it is one of the oldest and most important means of recording and transmitting words and ideas. The concept of printing originated in China. That’s where paper was invented by Ts’ai Lun in a.d. 105 and where the first known book was printed in 868 using wood blocks and ink. The earliest reported form of movable type (made of clay) was also developed in China: by Pi Sheng in 1045. But because of the complexity of the Chinese language, printing was laborious and did not gain much ground until it caught on in Europe in the late 1300s.
Printing
Words to Know Camera-ready art: Text and graphic images that are already positioned and prepared for final reproduction. Color correction: Adjusting the balance and intensity of the color of photographs and other elements to achieve the desired effect when printed. This is often needed because of limitations presented by process color printing. Desktop publishing: The process of designing and laying out text, photographs, and other images on a personal computer. Files are composed entirely on the computer and, through an imagesetter, can be output directly to film. Direct-to-plate: Technology that creates printing plates directly from a computer imaging system, bypassing the film stage altogether. Film negative: A piece of photographic film with reversed-out images used to create positive images on a printing plate. Flexography: A method of printing using a rotary letterpress, flexible rubber or plastic plates with raised images, and fluid, fast-drying inks. Gravure: A printing process using a cylinder that has been incised with the image to be printed. The cylinder is dipped in ink and the excess is wiped off so that when the printing surface comes into contact with the cylinder, only the ink from the incised areas is transferred. Imposition: Assembling the various pages of a document prior to printing so that they are in the proper sequence once they are printed and folded. Letterpress: The most traditional form of printing, in which plates are cast in relief so that the image to be printed is on a raised surface. That surface is pressed against paper or other material to leave the desired image. Linotype: A machine that automated typesetting by composing an entire line of type out of molten lead as an operator keystroked the text.
At first, the Europeans used block printing primarily to create artistic and religious illustrations. Then, in the 1440s, Johannes Gutenberg revolutionized the printing process by inventing movable type in metal in conjunction with a wooden printing press. Metal type had several advantages over wood: It was more durable, it
Lithography: A printing process by which the plate, or image-carrier, is chemically treated so that the areas to be printed hold ink and the non-image areas repel ink. Monotype: A machine that automated typesetting by producing individual type characters from molten lead in response to an operator’s keystrokes. Movable type: Individual, reusable metal or wooden type characters. Used in letterpress printing, they are arranged to form words and sentences, inked, and pressed against paper or another surface. Postpress: The third and final stage of the printing process (also called finishing), in which printed materials are folded, trimmed, and bound according to the job’s specifications. Prepress: The first stage of the printing process, in which electronic files are scrutinized and prepared for production, film negatives and proofs are produced, and plates are created for printing. Press: The second stage of the printing process, in which plates, paper, and ink are loaded into a press and the actual printing of the piece is done. Screen printing: A printing process in which material (traditionally silk) is stretched across a frame and parts of it are treated with impervious material. Ink is squeegeed through the fabric screen onto paper or fabric underneath, leaving blank areas under the treated areas of the silk. Stripping: The act of cutting, taping, and arranging negative and positive elements, combining them to create a film negative from which the printing plate is made. Trapping: Adjusting the overlap of two abutting color images to avoid leaving a white space between them or producing a third color. Typesetting: The composition of text in words and lines in preparation for printing.
allowed identical pieces of type to be cast, and it could be arranged more freely. This quick and inexpensive method of printing led to a flourishing of print shops all over Europe. In the late 1700s, a young German named Aloys Senefelder developed a new printing process called lithography.
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a chemically treated plate onto a rubber cylinder (called a blanket), then onto the paper. The printing plate never touches the paper but is offset by the rubber blanket. Electronic typesetting was introduced in the 1960s. This process allowed type to be created on a computer system and output to a phototypesetting machine (so called because images were burned onto photographic paper and developed like film). Electronic typesetting replaced the hot type of molten lead and was dubbed cold type. This method, novel for its time, has been on the decline since the 1980s when personal computers and desktop publishing came onto the scene. These new systems allowed users to typeset and design entire pages on their computer screens. Most materials are now produced this way. Technological advances continue to develop at record speed. Nearly everyone in the printing field today is affected by these new technologies and must be able to adapt and learn quickly to keep pace.
■ Structure
This assistant pressworker checks the color on a magazine while it is on press. (Eric S. Barr.)
He discovered that if he wrote on limestone with a grease pencil, dampened it with water, and then applied ink, the oily ink adhered only to the penciled marks, so that when he pressed paper against the stone it transferred the image. He also learned that the image could be transferred to other stones so that several identical copies could be printed from the same pattern on a single large sheet of paper. Over the next century, thin flexible metal sheets replaced limestone, and lithography eventually became a standard method of printing. Innovations of the 19th century include the rotary press, which used revolving cylinders to make an inked impression on paper, and the Linotype and the Monotype machines, which automated the process of setting type. Another revolution occurred in 1905 when American Ira Rubel inadvertently discovered offset printing. He noticed that an image accidentally transferred from the image plate cylinder of his rotary press to the rubber that cushioned the impression cylinder left a much sharper image on paper than the plate itself. Offset printing, using the process of lithography, is the predominant method of printing today, accounting for more than half of all printing done in the United States. Of course, the process has been honed, but the principle is the same: A series of cylinders are used to transfer ink from
Printing is one of the largest and most geographically diverse industries in North America. With annual sales of more than $200 billion, printing is one of the top manufacturing industries in the United States and makes up the largest industry in several states. The industry employs more than 1.3 million people. There is scarcely a town of any size without some provision for printing, which gives young people entering the job market an array of choices. According to Graphic Comm Central, there are more than 80,000 printing establishments in the United States, and most are smalland medium-sized firms and print shops with fewer than 20 employees. The rest are large corporations, many with branches in several states. No matter what a company’s size or specialty, however, the printing process is usually the same. It is a highly technical process that typically operates under tight deadlines. For example, newspaper printers must deliver papers daily and financial printers often must produce stock prospectuses overnight. Many large commercial printers run 24 hours a day to keep up with demand in their markets. Because of this deadline-driven environment, all of the jobs in the industry, from administrative positions to manual labor, call for team players who perform well in pressure situations. “All of a printing company’s employees must work as a team and communicate every step of the way,” says Jim Reinhardt, a sales representative for Wicklander Printing Corporation in Chicago, Illinois. “If you prefer to work independently, this might not be the industry for you.” The printing process typically begins with the printing sales representative, who identifies customers who have a
need for printing services. The sales rep must convince the prospect that the company he or she represents is best qualified to do the job. In smaller companies, independent sales representatives, or brokers, may solicit clients. Brokering can be highly lucrative but tends to be limited to large cities where a range of print services is available. Part of selling print is providing the prospective customer with an estimate of how much a job will cost. The sales representative requests this information from the estimator. The estimator evaluates all aspects of the job—quantity, size, type of paper and ink, number of colors, special folds, photo scans, and other details—and calculates as accurately as possible how much the job will cost and how long it will take. This part of the process is important because it establishes the financial basis for the entire print job. Estimating requires close attention to detail, confidence with numbers, a familiarity with all aspects of the printing process, and the ability to work well under pressure. Once an initial price agreement is reached, the customer sends the job to the printing company and it goes into production. The production process breaks down into three major steps: prepress, press, and postpress (usually called binding or finishing). The entire print job is overseen by the production manager or customer service representative, who works closely with the salesperson throughout the process. It is the production manager’s job to communicate with everyone involved and make sure things happen on time. Production management requires attention to detail, strong communication skills, and the ability to handle multiple tasks at once. Although printing companies sometimes receive camera-ready art from their customers, most jobs are now submitted on a computer disk. This is why prepress areas have experienced such radical change in recent years. What used to be a typesetting and hand-composition operation run by people skilled in particular crafts is now predominantly computer-oriented. Prepress workers must be highly computer-literate and competent in a variety of tasks. When a disk arrives from a customer, it first goes to the preflight technician, who checks the file to make sure all the elements are there and that there are no technical problems with it. If photos or illustrations are not supplied electronically, the scanner operator scans them and converts them into electronic images that are then integrated into the file. If color correction is needed, it is done at this stage. Through a series of electronic processes, including trapping and imposition, the file is then recorded onto film, producing a film negative. If camera-ready art is involved, it must be photographed to produce negatives, which are then arranged by the stripper into a final film negative.
Printing
A proof is created from the film negative and reviewed by the customer. Once it is approved, the platemaker produces plates. This involves transferring the image onto sheets of metal and chemically treating the areas to be printed. During the printing process, that ink is then transferred from the printing plate to a rubber roller, which in turn lays the ink down on the paper. Offset printing using lithography (described earlier) is currently the most common method of printing. Other methods include letterpress, gravure, flexography, and screen printing. Whatever the method, it is the job of the printing press operator to set up the press for the print run. This involves installing the plates, adjusting ink levels and other controls, and loading the paper. Once the press is running, the operator continues to monitor and adjust the controls to ensure quality and consistency. Once off the press, the printed sheets go to the binding area for the finishing process. Depending on the job’s specifications, this may involve trimming, folding, gluing, and/or stitching. In binding, as in printing, technology has automated traditional methods that existed for hundreds of years. Many high-speed printing presses now have automatic folders, stitchers, and trimmers attached, delivering a finished product with virtually no manual work.
■ Outlook The technological developments of the last decade have dramatically transformed the printing industry—so much so that it is now commonly referred to as graphic communications. The introduction of desktop publishing and other new procedures and equipment has made many jobs stagnant or obsolete, particularly in the prepress area. For example, typesetters, paste-up workers, and film strippers are being replaced by workers who have mastered computerized processes. And Linotype machine operators, photoengravers, and other jobs required for letterpress printing are on the decline. In addition, much of the composition work traditionally done by printing companies now is being handled by customers, who have access to sophisticated design, page layout, and photo manipulation software. But the recent advances in technology also have created exciting new opportunities. It is projected that by the end of 2009 most printing companies will have converted to complete digital imaging, where printing plates are generated directly from the computer. This process, commonly called direct-to-plate, has been slow to catch on because of its expense and problems presented by its proofing system. As direct-to-plate and other innovative technologies gain ground, the total number of jobs in printing may go down,
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Although many experts predict that we will one day become a paperless society, this reality is still a long way off. There will continue to be a demand for printing in education, business, and other sectors. It has been said that the volume of printed information doubles every five years. This bodes well for newcomers to the field.
■ For More Information This organization is a source of financial support for education and research projects designed to promote careers in graphic communications. For more information, contact Graphic Arts Education and Research Foundation This worker in the prepress department checks customers’ electronic files for possible problems and arranges the pages for imposition. (Eric S. Barr.)
but people with specialized computer skills will increasingly be needed. Students graduating from high school and college today are highly computer literate, which puts them in a good position for a career in printing. Most industry experts advise young people to pursue internships and graphic communications programs, but printing is so diversified that almost anyone can find a niche. “If you’re smart and quick and willing to learn, you can be successful in almost any printing job these days,” says Bob Saluga of Chicago’s Service Web Corporation. Saluga, who has been in printing since the early 1960s, notes that many young people entering the field today—especially in administrative roles—do not have a background in printing. Because of rapidly changing technology and other factors, apprenticeships are being phased out by on-thejob training. With solid computer knowledge and strong initiative, entry-level workers can go a long way. The U.S. Department of Labor predicts that employment in the printing industry will decline by 10 percent from 2004–14. This decline reflects competition from nonprint media, such as the Internet; industry consolidation; and increasing use of nontraditional printing technologies. More companies are doing at least a part of prepress in-house. Employment of desktop publishing specialists is expected to increase faster than average both in printing companies and in publishing and advertising firms. Demand for manual paste-up workers, photoengravers, camera operators, film strippers, and platemakers is expected to decline, as will the number of typesetting and composing machine operators. Employment of offset press operators and letterpress operators should decrease rapidly. Employment of bookbinders and bindery workers will decline in response to the growth of electronic printing.
1899 Preston White Drive Reston, VA 20191-5468 Tel: 866-381-9839 Email:
[email protected] http://www.gaerf.org
The GCC/IBT represents U.S. and Canadian workers in all craft and skill areas of the printing and publishing industries. In addition to developing cooperative relationships with employers, the organization also offers education and training through local union schools. Graphic Communications Conference of the International Brotherhood of Teamsters (GCC/ IBT) 1900 L Street, NW Washington, DC 20036 Tel: 202-462-1400 http://www.gciu.org
This graphic arts trade association offers management and educational services to member graphic arts firms around the world. Its Web site is a good source of general information. National Association for Printing Leadership 75 West Century Road Paramus, NJ 07652-1408 Tel: 201-634-9600 Email:
[email protected] http://www.napl.org
This industry coalition serves as a clearinghouse, resource center, and coordinator of programs promoting career awareness, training, and a positive industry image. Its goal is “to attract bright young minds into the graphic communications industry.” NPES: The Association for Suppliers of Printing, Publishing, and Converting Technologies 1899 Preston White Drive Reston, VA 22091-4367 Tel: 703-264-7200 Email:
[email protected] http://www.npes.org
public relations
The Printing Industries of America/Graphic Arts Technical Foundation is the world’s largest graphic arts trade association. Its Graphic Arts Information Network provides information on the printing industry, job listings, scholarships, and other resources. Printing Industries of America/Graphic Arts Technical Foundation 200 Deer Run Road Sewickley, PA 15143-2600 Tel: 412-741-6860 Email:
[email protected] http://www.gain.net
Visit the following Web site for information on scholarships, competitions, colleges and universities that offer graphic communication programs, and careers. GRAPHIC COMM Central Email:
[email protected] http://teched.vt.edu/gcc
For information on careers, visit the following Web site Make Your Mark in Graphic Communications http://www.makeyourmark.org
■ Related Articles Book Publishing; Newspapers and Magazines; Publishing; Pulp and Paper; Wood; Art Directors; Bindery Workers; Book Editors; Cartographers; Cartoonists and Animators; Computer Programmers; Cost Estimators; Desktop Publishing Specialists; Electronics Engineering Technicians; Electroplating Workers; General Maintenance Mechanics; Graphic Designers; Indexers; Industrial Engineers; Industrial Machinery Mechanics; Layout Workers; Lexicographers; Magazine Editors; Paper Processing Workers; Photographers; Photographic Equipment Technicians; Photographic Laboratory Workers; Prepress Workers; Printing Press Operators and Assistants; Quality Control Engineers and Technicians; Typists and Word Processors
Public Relations ■ Background The origins of public relations date back to early Greece, when Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle developed rules of rhetoric that made arguments more effective. Their methods were used in jury trials, ethics instruction, and other situations in which reason guided the discussion. In the late 19th century, newspapers decided to encourage advertisers by promising positive articles con-
cerning businesses that chose to advertise in the paper. However, the free publicity in the form of news articles undermined the objectivity of the newspapers, and eventually the practice was halted in the United States. In 1909, a newspaper committee was established to watch for abuses of free publicity to advertisers. Despite the attempt to disengage public relations from newspapers, public relations continued to develop through journalists. The link between public relations and newspapers endured through reporters who were well skilled in the effects of language on public image and who were willing to use this to present a company or organization in a positive light. The first public relations counsel was a reporter named Ivy Ledbetter Lee, who in 1906 was named press representative for coal mine operators. Labor disputes were becoming a large concern of the operators, and they had run into problems because of their continual refusal to talk to the press and the hired miners. The operators decided to bring in outside help to improve their standing in the public eye. Lee persuaded the mine operators to start responding to press questions and supply the press with information on the mine activities. After his successful turnaround of the coal mine operators’ situation, Lee went on to work for the Pennsylvania Railroad. The company had been withholding information on railroad accidents and had developed a poor reputation with the press and the public. He revised the company’s policy so that all information available on any accident would be given to the press. Eventually, Lee developed a large group of clients. The term public relations had not yet been used, but it was certainly the service that Lee provided to his clients. He implemented new policies for business: honesty and openness about the company’s or organization’s business and affairs and the practice of sending out notices (press releases) to the newspapers about noteworthy company or organization developments. In the late 1920s and early 1930s, governments began regularly using public relations experts. For example, England’s Empire Marketing Board used publicity to promote trade. During World War II, government agencies in the United States made a point of hiring publicists, since public exposure aided funding and congressional awareness of the group’s activities. Groups looking for donations for rubber, scrap metal, and war bonds used press releases read over the radio and posted in shops to promote their activities. Publicity was also used to recruit soldiers. The Office of Price Administration (OPA) under Chester Bowles used public relations tactics to promote rationing procedures, to persuade businessmen
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Words to Know Account, or client: An individual or company for whom a public relations firm is providing services. Calendar listing: The basic information about an upcoming event (name of client, name of event, when, where, cost, phone number), sent to calendar editors for the listings section of newspapers and magazines. Clippings: Articles, listings, and mentions in print media of the client; public relations practitioners often maintain files of clippings for clients as well as their own portfolios. Column item: Particularly noteworthy news offered to newspaper columnists, sometimes prior to a larger press release or sometimes in place of one; many columnists only accept exclusive items. Crisis communications: A plan of action, including appropriate contact people and predetermined messages, in the event of an unexpected crisis— for example, a hotel’s plan of action in the event of an unanticipated disaster, such as a fire. Employee or internal communications: The communication between a company’s top executives and the employee population at large; tools often include a monthly or bimonthly newsletter, management memos, periodic lunchtime meetings, new employee orientation materials, and quarterly or annual employee meetings. Investor relations: Communications between a publicly held company and its stockholders, as well as financial information about the company to the media and investment professionals; includes quarterly financial reports as well as an annual report. Media, or press: The most frequently used vehicle for communicating information to the public; includes newspapers, magazines, radio, television, wire services.
Media alert: A last-minute brief announcement usually presented in a who-what-when-where format, often faxed to key media the day before or the day of an event. Media plan: A schedule of activities for publicizing a client’s activities and products, including names of media outlets and story ideas for each. Photo caption: A document attached to a photo that is sent to the media, identifying all of the individuals in the photo and describing the event depicted in the photo; should include contact name and phone number for more information. Press conference: An event to which the media are invited to hear an important news announcement from an individual or company; usually includes one or more speakers and provides for question-and-answer, interview, and photo opportunities. Press release or news release: The public relations person’s primary tool; a concise document (preferably no more than two pages in length) announcing news from a company or individual—an event, a new product, a new executive, a noteworthy financial development, etc.—that is sent to the media to generate interest in developing a printed or broadcast story; should include contact name and phone number for more information. Public affairs: Sometimes another term for public relations; also can refer more specifically to philanthropic activities of a corporation. Public service announcement: A brief (10–60 seconds) announcement, usually of an upcoming event, sent to radio and TV public service directors; all licensed radio and TV stations are required to devote a certain percentage of air time to airing free announcements from nonprofit organizations. Retainer: Usually a monthly fee paid by a client to a public relations firm providing ongoing services, as opposed to a one-time fee for a specific project for a finite amount of time.
to keep prices low, and to get legislation for the OPA passed through Congress. By the end of World War II, almost every government agency had a public relations office. Public relations had become an accepted part of business and government operations. The airlines, for example, hired public relations specialists to help deliver information on airplane
crashes, providing background and technical information to the press in a manner that would be readily understood. Politicians followed business’s example. After Richard Nixon’s unsuccessful bid for the presidency in 1960, Nixon hired public relations and press experts to help him gain popularity in his bids for elected office. The
experts redirected his method of approaching interviews and press conferences and any other elements of public presentation that affected how he was seen by the voting public. As a result, Nixon established a positive image among voters and was elected president in 1968. This relationship between politics and public relations was an inevitable occurrence given the preponderance of media around candidates and the importance of image in determining success in an election. Public relations specialists are now employed by all sorts of publicity-conscious people and companies. Politicians, celebrities, artists, and even journalists now use specialists to help them receive positive coverage in the press. Public relations today is a major service industry, expanding beyond the original clients—business and government—to a whole range of clients who wish to put their best foot forward in their presentation to the public.
■ Structure The first goal of a public relations officer is to present the best possible public image for the client. This means promoting good news and portraying bad news in a manner that will do the least damage to the client. A secondary goal of the public relations officer is to direct the individual or organization toward developing positive business practices. For example, in the case of an airline crash, legal necessity forces the airline company to be as straightforward as possible about the causes of the crash. Should it be found that the accident resulted from defects in the plane’s design, the public relations department must find out how the company plans to correct the problem, how long that will take, and what will be done in the interim to ensure passenger safety. The public relations staff assembles all the relevant information, assesses the situation, anticipates questions from the press, and then presents the information to the news media. In a major disaster, the desire is to provide as much information as possible without guessing at any information that later may be found to be untrue. In some situations, the client may wish to block the passage of information to the press. It then becomes the public relations officer’s job to redirect the focus of media attention. Interpretation of information for the media is the second major function of a public relations officer. This task is particularly important for a public relations staff of a scientific or technical firm. Public relations workers must be able to take technical information and explain it in such a way that nonspecialists will be able to understand it. This interpretation of technical material must
Public Relations
To receive some free publicity, a zoo released this photograph of Peter, an Aldabra tortoise, who is taking his seasonal stroll. (Brookfield Zoo.)
be done on press releases and any other information that comes from the technical side of the business and goes to the public. For example, in an organization such as the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), the need for a public relations specialist who has a good understanding of aeronautics is important. If a scientist is explaining a project to the public relations officer, the public relations officer must understand the explanation well enough to describe it to the media at a later time. Research is the first step of public relations. It is important to get all significant information and to analyze the attitudes revealed. Research also is important both for obtaining inside information on a topic that is to be presented to the public and for anticipating potential public response to the company. Research personnel may be on the staff of a public relations department, or they may be employed by a separate research organization retained to do the job. A major goal of public relations is press publicity. Material provided for the media is called a press release. This may cover some aspect of the company that staff deem newsworthy. The press release will provide all relevant information to the local or national press. It is one method of generating coverage of the company without buying advertising space, and the media may use the release in various forms: newspaper spot news, magazine articles, or radio and television coverage. Those who prepare press releases often have been trained as reporters and editors. They have learned to identify valuable news stories and to write and illustrate a story so that it will be published. Such writers are part of every large public relations staff.
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The use of advertising space for the presentation of an institutional message can be just as useful as a brochure or press release. Such advertisements are written either by a public relations writer or by a copywriter employed by a company’s in-house advertising agency. These advertisements can serve whatever need the company sees, but frequently they are used in response to a particular incident or crisis. After the 1989 major oil spill in Alaska, Exxon (owners of the tanker responsible for the spill) placed advertisements in media across the nation to explain the situation and the cleanup steps the company had selected. Another use of the public relations advertisement is to announce mergers, enhance or fight takeovers by other companies, and inform the public about company policies and practices. The ad serves as the voice of the company, providing the information the company wants to send out in a forum that is widely read or seen. An additional tool for informing people is the public relations periodical, which is a magazine distributed to the various groups the company or institution serves. Thousands of such periodicals are published in the United States. Some are of similar quality to magazines sold on newsstands. They often require a separate staff of editors and writers, and they maintain regular publication dates and often have large circulations. A familiar example is airline magazines provided on airplanes for passengers to read. Public relations practitioners often plan special events, including displays, exhibits, meetings and conferences, awards ceremonies, open houses, tours, contests, parades, or pageants. These events create a positive image by generating publicity, bringing in a crowd that may not have been exposed to the company before, or producing a feeling of goodwill for the company. These methods are used frequently by nonprofit groups or cultural institutions. For example, a zoo might sponsor family activities centered around the animals to bring in families who may not frequent the zoo regularly. Public relations practitioners also use oral communication to get their message across. Speakers with expertise on a subject serve two purposes in public speaking. First, they inform the public about the work of the company sponsoring the lecturer. Second, they generate familiarity with the company name and projects the company has undertaken. For example, utilities and other large corporations often provide speakers to community groups as a means of generating awareness about their activities. Public relations workers may be employed by public relations firms or serve on the in-house public relations staffs of organizations. Public relations agencies are organized according to the following hierarchy.
Usually an entry-level position, an account assistant supports account executives or account supervisors by writing press releases and conducting research. Account assistants rarely have contact with clients. Account executives handle the day-to-day activities of one or more accounts. Their responsibilities include traditional public relations functions: writing, contacting media, serving as client liaison, and supervising account services. They usually report to the account supervisor or a higher executive. Account supervisors direct client programs and supervise account assistants and account executives. Typical responsibilities include preparing client reports and work plans, monitoring out-of-pocket expenses and account budgets, maintaining client contacts, and expanding existing accounts. They sometimes are involved in sales activities. Account supervisors are middle managers who have a proven track record. They usually report to a vice president or senior vice president. Vice presidents have demonstrated the ability to conduct account and other management responsibilities successfully with minimal supervision. They carry out administrative responsibilities for accounts, including budgeting, expense monitoring, profitability, and staff supervision. They also are involved in sales activities, including program proposals, sales presentations, and expanding accounts. Senior vice presidents have strong track records in account supervision, professional and business management, sales, and employee supervision and are ultimately responsible for multiple accounts. Senior vice presidents manage members of the group, review their performance, and make recommendations to management. They are heavily involved in new business activities, including program proposals and client presentations. The following positions can be found within corporations, hospitals, colleges or universities, government agencies, nonprofit organizations, and associations. Public relations managers set the agenda for public appearances, advertising campaigns, and other scheduled events that influence the public’s image and awareness of the client. Public relations managers regularly work alone in a small business and for individuals such as politicians. In a large corporation, a public relations manager may have a large staff with several researchers, administrators, designers, and other individuals who have specific skills in public relations and marketing. Working with an account executive or a public relations manager, the researcher collects information that reflects the public’s attitudes toward a company. This
involves polling, interviewing, or reviewing data on a variety of subjects. Media relations specialists have a broad working knowledge of television and print journalism and skills in establishing a controlled, positive image for the company or person appearing before the press. Media relations specialists also work in designing and presenting commercials, public statements, and interviews. They organize such details as dress, makeup, background scenery, and audience, which are important in establishing the image desired by the client. Specialists who write well are sought by politicians, company executives, and other people who need to speak before groups or the press. Regular or frequent public speakers may hire a full-time speechwriter who understands the speaker’s style. Consequently, the speeches reflect not only the speaker’s beliefs but also the speaker’s manner. For someone who speaks infrequently before large groups, a freelance speechwriter may be hired to create one speech for a presentation. In both cases, the topic and information to be presented is selected by the speaker and given to the writer to research and write. Organizations that do not have enough staff or qualified individuals to give public presentations may hire a speaker who has the background knowledge in the subject being covered and, perhaps, name recognition by the public. Depending on the organization and the goal of the public presentation, the qualifications of the speaker may range from having supported the organization financially to having a doctorate on the subject being covered. Some organizations hire full-time speakers. Their job is to give public presentations, interviews, and press conferences on the organization’s business and to stay current on the company and its concerns. Public speakers are one of the most important facets of the business for organizations that rely on public support and funding. For example, a conservation group may hire wildlife experts to tour the country to speak about conservation issues in the hope of increasing awareness of and membership in the organization. Booking agents arrange for public speaking engagements for the representatives of a company or for an individual seeking public exposure. The agents arrange for engagements on talk shows, news shows, radio programs, lectures, panel discussions, or any other forum that provides the speaker with a receptive audience. The booking agent is responsible for balancing the audience size and makeup with the speaker’s subject the company he or she represents. For example, the audience of a tele-
Public Relations
vision show may be quite large, but the interviewer’s questions may be difficult and unsympathetic to the speaker. Booking agents weigh the potential pros and cons of all speaking engagements. Programmers are responsible for scheduling coverage over a period of time. They determine the timing of advertisements, public engagements, and other presentations. Programmers evaluate the type of coverage a client wants, determine whether to run a long-term program or a short-term blitz, and plan when and where the public exposure will come. Programmers may design public events and other sponsored events to generate coverage and media time for the client. Information officers are hired by companies and individuals to answer questions from the public and the press and to handle customer problems, complaints, and concerns. They handle questions on public events and any relevant information, such as directions, times, and schedules for sponsored events. The information officer’s range of responsibility is determined by the goals of the office and the company employing the officer. A government information officer, for example, handles much different information than a tourist bureau information officer.
■ Outlook According to the U.S. Department of Labor, there were approximately 188,000 public relations specialists in 2004. Almost two-thirds of salaried public relations specialists worked in services industries, such as management and public relations firms, educational institutions, membership organizations, health care organizations, social service agencies, and advertising agencies. Others worked for manufacturing firms, financial institutions, and government agencies. Employment in public relations is expected to grow faster than the average through 2014. Competition for jobs will be tough, though, as the number of qualified applicants is expected to be much larger than the number of available positions. College graduates interested in public relations should narrow their interests to specific areas where public relations practitioners are needed. This will allow them to use specific skills and experience to distinguish themselves from the competition. Those with internship experience also will have the advantage when seeking permanent positions. Competition among both foreign and domestic companies is fierce, forcing businesses to invest more money on promotion and public relations. A recent trend in public relations is damage control; for example the tobacco industry is fighting negative
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publicity with a focus on philanthropic efforts, the airline industry is spending significant budget dollars on encouraging people to fly after the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, and the auto and tire industries are trying to reassure customers that their products are safe after a number of fatal accidents were attributed to faulty tires.
■ For More Information The following organization provides products, services, and activities for professionals in the public relations, employee communications, marketing communications, and public affairs industries. It publishes Communications World magazine, holds an annual conference, and provides other resource materials. International Association of Business Communicators One Halladie Plaza, Suite 600 San Francisco, CA 94102-2842 Tel: 800-776-4222 Email: service
[email protected] http://www.iabc.com
The following is the world’s largest organization for PR professionals. It provides a forum for addressing relevant issues, plus opportunities for professional development, including seminars, publications, and a national conference. Public Relations Society of America 33 Maiden Lane, 11th Floor New York, NY 10038-5150 Email:
[email protected] http://www.prsa.org
This nonprofit association serves corporate customer service executives through education, publications, and networking. Society of Consumer Affairs Professionals in Business 675 North Washington Street, Suite 200 Alexandria, VA 22314-1939 Tel: 703-519-3700 Email:
[email protected] http://www.socap.org
■ Related Articles Advertising and Marketing; Newspapers and Magazines; Advertising Account Executives; Art Directors; Demographers; Fund-Raisers; Grant Coordinators and Writers; Marketing Research Analysts; Media Planners and Buyers; Public Opinion Researchers; Public Relations Specialists; Reporters; Sports Publicists
Public Safety ■ Background Virtually every aspect of life involves policies, regulations, and laws that help to promote public safety. The exterior of a house meets certain codes, or rules, so that it won’t catch on fire easily. Every time you drive a car, you follow a number of rules so that you won’t cause or get in an accident. Even your dog must be controlled according to regulations like leash laws. Public safety, and the rules that go with it, has been a concern for a long time. In the earliest societies it was clear that people would run wild unless certain rules of conduct were created. Some laws evolved from the common agreement of the group’s members, while others were handed down by the group’s leaders. Soon after the establishment of rules and laws, methods of enforcement developed. For a long time, enforcement simply meant punishment. Those who broke the laws were often ostracized or exiled from the group, subjected to corporal punishment, tortured, maimed, or even killed. Enforcement of the law was usually left up to the society’s leaders or rulers, often through the soldiers who served in their armies. Often these armies also collected taxes, which were used to maintain the army and sometimes to line the ruler’s pockets. Eventually, more organized methods of public safety were developed. In England, for example, early law enforcement officials were considered servants of feudal lords, kings, and other rulers, and their duties revolved around protecting their masters’ interests rather than ensuring the public safety. More modern law enforcement officials, however, became directly responsible for protecting people from crime. In addition, they continued to collect taxes, and they were often responsible for the maintenance and safety of public buildings, property, and other facilities. Colonial America followed in England’s footsteps and adopted its system of law enforcement. Cities grew larger during the 18th and 19th centuries, and the need arose for even more organized efforts, since larger cities often meant more crime, riots, and other disorders. The first modern police force was formed in 1829 in London. Cities in the United States organized police forces as well, beginning with New York in 1844. As the United States stretched across the continent, many states created state police forces to work with police forces in the cities and towns. Interstate crimes were placed under federal authority, and various agencies, including the U.S. Marshals Office, the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), the Secret Service, the Internal Revenue Ser-
vice, and Customs & Border Protection, were formed to enforce laws across various jurisdictions. The punishment of criminals changed as well. Beginning in the 18th century, efforts were made to create punishments that were equal to the crime. To deter people from committing crimes, societies began to develop specific punishments for specific crimes. These newer penalties generally called for a period of incarceration. Jails and prisons historically had been used as temporary holding pens before more permanent punishments, such as exile or death, but now became an important feature of these new ideas of punishment. The new prisons hired guards to watch over the prisoners, bring them food, and prevent them from escaping. The first American jails appeared in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. Another feature of protecting the public safety was the detection, prevention, and solving of crimes. Police officers who specialized in these efforts became known as detectives. Much like today, their job was to examine evidence related to a crime in an effort to catch the person or persons responsible. They also were vigilant in trying to prevent crimes and to catch criminals in the act. During
Public Safety
the 19th century, the first private detectives and detective agencies appeared. These agencies not only worked to solve crimes against their clients but also offered guard services for people and their property. Solving crimes also became more and more scientific. As early as 1780, a crime was solved when a suspected criminal’s shoes were found to match footprints left at the scene of the crime. Toward the end of the 19th and the beginning of the 20th centuries, modern forensic science techniques were developed. Methods were developed to link fingerprints, bullets and other weapons, hair, soil, and other physical evidence found at a crime scene to the crime and the criminal. Laboratories were constructed that were devoted to this work. The Federal Bureau of Investigation’s laboratory, established in the 1920s, became the largest and most famed crime laboratory in the world. Intelligence operations, that is, the collection and evaluation of information about one’s rivals or enemies, have also been a part of our history for a long time. Spies were often sent from one group into another, to determine the other’s strengths and weaknesses. By gaining information
Since September 11, 2001, strict security measures have been imposed at airports, and public safety officers are in more demand. (Corbis.)
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Words to Know Adam codes: Codes used by law enforcement officers during radio communications to describe types of calls. For example, A1 means arrest, A20 means assistance rendered, and A63 means pursuit. Cluster analysis: A computerized analysis of where specific crimes are happening. Crime analysts use this tool to identify crime “hot spots.” Contraband: Any forbidden item that is in a prisoner’s possession. Coyote: Border patrol slang term for an alien smuggler. Crime pattern: The occurrence of similar crimes in a defined geographic area. Crime series: A crime pattern where there is reason to believe that the same suspect is responsible for the crimes. Intelligence analysis: The study of relationships between people, organizations, and events. This applies to organized crime, conspiratorial acts, such as money laundering, crime rings, such as auto theft or child pornography, or other crimes of corruption. Investigative analysis: The study of why a person is committing crimes of a serial nature. Linewatch: A routine activity in which border patrol officers patrol the border for would-be crossers and apprehend them.
about their enemies, groups were better able to protect themselves from attack. Before long, government agencies began to use intelligence-gathering techniques. The Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) became responsible for preserving U.S. international interests. The FBI was charged with maintaining the country’s internal security. Each branch of the military services also operates intelligence forces. After the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, the Department of Homeland Security was formed under the Homeland Security Act of 2002. This department of the federal government has three main goals: to prevent terrorist attacks within the United States, to reduce America’s vulnerability to terrorism, and to minimize the damage from potential attacks and natural disasters. Clearly, emergency and protective services involve the cooperation of almost everyone in a society. Politicians draft legislation intended to promote the public well-being and to prevent threats to individual and
M.O.: Mode of operation; the standard way, or pattern, in which a particular criminal commits a crime. Probable cause: Information developed by an officer to give a reason to arrest, search, or stop and detain a person. Reasonable suspicion: The reasons an officer believes a person should be stopped and detained. Shakedown: A thorough search of an inmate’s cell, conducted by corrections officers looking for contraband. Sign cutting: A technique in which border patrol officers smooth the surface of sandy areas along areas used for illegal entries. When these sand traps are examined, they show footprints. Officers can follow the “signs” and apprehend the aliens. Special agent: A government title for federal employees who investigate criminal violations. Surveillance: Following, observing, or listening to people for the purpose of obtaining information about criminal activities. The Bureau: The Federal Bureau of Investigation. Wiretap: Electronic surveillance over the telephone. Yard-out: This means that it’s time for the inmates to go to the yard for exercise. Corrections officers say “chow-out” when it’s time for the inmates to eat and “shower-out” when it’s time for showers.
public safety. Many organizations, both governmental and private, act as inspectors and watchdogs to see that regulations and laws are obeyed. Industries are always concerned about the safety of both their employees and the products they make. Start paying attention to all of the rules and policies that help to keep you safe. In your home, your workplace, your streets, state, and country, you’ll find innumerable measures that ensure your safety and well-being.
■ Structure By far, the greatest number of people in emergency and protective services are working at the local level. Almost every community has its own police department. In the smallest communities, a police department may have as few as one or two employees. In larger cities, the members of a police department are divided into many divisions, each with its own area of the city to patrol. A police force may have specialized divisions, such as a narcotics
squad to combat illegal drugs; a vice squad to fight rape, prostitution, and related crimes; a SWAT team that can be called upon in emergency situations; a hostage rescue team; and a bomb squad. Most police departments employ a military-style ranking system. Patrol officers may become detectives. Police officers may rise through the ranks to become sergeants, lieutenants, or even the chief of police for a community. Many other people provide support for a police department, from traffic clerks and police clerks to forensic experts and polygraph examiners. Other important areas of local law enforcement are probation and parole services. Probation officers are generally attached to the court system, while parole officers work with the correctional system. Both work in cooperation with the police department. Sheriff departments generally operate at the county level and provide additional law enforcement efforts among the many communities in a single county. Almost every state operates its own state police department. They are often called highway patrols because one of their major responsibilities is to ensure the safety of the highways linking communities. The U.S. Marshals Service, part of the U.S. Department of Justice, is concerned with crimes that cross state lines. Interstate crimes, as they are called, may involve the transport of stolen vehicles and goods from one state to another. U.S. marshals are responsible for tracking down wanted criminals and transporting prisoners. They also operate the federal Witness Security Program and provide security for federal courts and judges. Enforcement of federal laws is largely the responsibility of the Federal Bureau of Investigation. The FBI oversees more than 200 separate violations, including such federal crimes as kidnapping. While still investigating all types of federal crime, the bureau’s most important mandate today is to protect the American people from future terrorist attacks. The Central Intelligence Agency is primarily concerned with matters of international security, monitoring world events as they relate to the safety and interests of the United States. There are many other public safety agencies operating at the federal level, including the Drug Enforcement Agency, the Secret Service, U.S. Customs & Border Protection, the Bureau of U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services, , and the Internal Revenue Service. Each agency oversees a particular jurisdiction, or responsibility, of the law. However, every federal agency provides support and cooperation to the others and they often work with state and local law enforcement agencies when investigating crimes and apprehending criminals. Since 2002, several federal agencies, including the Customs Service, the U.S.
Public Safety
Citizen and Immigration Services (formerly the INS), the Secret Service, and the Coast Guard, are now part of the Department of Homeland Security. In 2004, a special commission investigated the terrorist attacks of 2001 and made recommendations for a major overhaul of intelligence and security in the federal government. If adopted in part or in whole, these recommendations will affect the chain of command and daily operations of key government agencies, including the CIA. The incarceration and rehabilitation of suspected and convicted criminals occurs at each of the local, state, and federal levels. Communities usually operate jails, which provide temporary housing for people awaiting trial or for convicted criminals awaiting sentencing to prisons. The prison system operates minimum, medium, and maximum security prisons, depending on the nature of the crime and the criminal. Special prisons house mentally ill prisoners or juvenile offenders. People convicted of federal crimes are generally sent to prisons operated by the federal government. Security agencies and detective agencies work to ensure public safety as well. Many provide such services as bodyguards, security systems, armed security guards, and private investigation services in order to prevent crimes against people and property. Many private companies also work within the correctional system, operating prisons or providing corrections officers or other services. Some private companies also provide police services for universities, airports, communities, and large government facilities and installations.
■ Outlook Careers in emergency and protective services are among the fastest growing in the United States today, according to the U.S. Department of Labor. Increases in crime rates, and especially increases in public anxiety over crime, have led to demands for heightened law enforcement efforts, tougher sentencing laws, and dramatic increases in the security services industry. Since 1990, several incidents have raised concern over domestic security, particularly the threat of terrorist attacks. The bombing at the Alfred P. Murrah Federal Building in Oklahoma City in 1995 and the terrorist attacks of 2001 have caused an increase in both domestic and foreign intelligence and investigative operations. The threat of terrorism has put all public safety officials on alert, from FBI and CIA experts to local police forces and private security companies. There is now increased security particularly in and around government offices, public buildings, airports, post offices, and media headquarters. The war on drugs, which began during the 1980s, created a need for larger numbers of law enforcement
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officials trained and dedicated to reducing levels of drug trafficking. In the mid-1990s, President Clinton passed new tough-on-crime legislation that increased the numbers of police officers employed at the local, state, and federal levels. The corrections industry has recorded an increase of nearly 80 percent in the number of prisoners in the last decade. The war on drugs has had an especially great impact on the number of people being sent to prison. Public outrage at the early release of many violent criminals has led to demands for legislation ensuring these criminals serve the full length of their sentences. More prisons are being built to accommodate them, and more corrections officers are being hired to guard them. At the same time, the overcrowding of many correctional facilities has stimulated pressure for more liberal probation and parole efforts, requiring a greater number of parole and probation officers. Immigration and customs officials have seen huge increases in the numbers of people and goods, especially drugs, entering the country illegally. Illegal immigration has become an area of national concern as more and more people have entered the country without the required visas and work permits. Crackdowns on illegal immigration have led to more border patrol officers and immigration officials to patrol not only the country’s borders but to seek out illegal immigrants in communities across the United States. Again, the threat of terrorism has had an effect: Border patrol personnel identify and apprehend suspected terrorists and others who might have criminal intent in addition to guarding for illegal entry. Employment of border patrol officers, immigration officials, and customs officials remains largely unaffected by changes in the economy. Intelligence activities remain an important element of government despite the ending of the Cold War. The breakup of the Soviet Union has created new political situations and instabilities that must be continually monitored and analyzed for their effect on the interests and security of the United States. Terrorist attacks of U.S. targets overseas continue, especially in light of the U.S.-led war in Iraq. A primary function of the country’s intelligence agencies is to identify, intercept, and pursue terrorists who seek to harm the country, its citizens, and its allies. Private security activities have been stepped up, especially as many U.S. companies compete in the global economy. An especially fast-growing area of corporate security is in computer technology, as computers and computer transmissions of information have become more commonplace across a variety of industries.
■ For More Information Contact the ACA for information on job openings and for a list of universities that offer degree programs in corrections. American Correctional Association (ACA) 206 North Washington Street, Suite 200 Alexandria, VA 22314-2528 Tel: 703-224-0000 http://www.aca.org
Contact the AJA for information on careers in corrections. American Jail Association (AJA) 1135 Professional Court Hagerstown, MD 21740-5853 Tel: 301-790-3930 http://www.corrections.com/aja
Contact the ASC for information on careers in criminology. American Society of Criminology (ASC) 1314 Kinnear Road Columbus, OH 43212-1156 Tel: 614-292-9207 Email:
[email protected] http://www.asc41.com
Contact the AFIO for information about careers in intelligence and a list of members willing to speak at schools. Association of Former Intelligence Officers (AFIO) 6723 Whittier Avenue, Suite 303A McLean, VA 22101-4533 Tel: 703-790-0320 Email:
[email protected] http://www.afio.com
To take a career assessment quiz and for information on career paths, recruitment schedules, and student opportunities, such as internships, visit the CIA Web site. Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) Tel: 800-368-3886 http://www.cia.gov/employment
Contact the FBI for information on a career as an FBI agent. Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) J. Edgar Hoover Building 935 Pennsylvania Avenue, NW Washington, DC 20535-0001 Tel: 202-324-3000 http://www.fbi.gov
Contact the FBP for information on entrance requirements, training, and career opportunities for corrections officers at the federal level.
Publishing
Federal Bureau of Prisons (FBP) National Recruitment Office 320 First Street, NW Washington, DC 20534-0002 Tel: 202-307-3198 Email:
[email protected] http://www.bop.gov
To learn about careers, download employment applications, and read frequently asked questions, check out the following Web site: U.S. Secret Service Tel: 202-406-5800
http://www.secretservice.gov
■ Related Articles Contact the IACP for information about careers in law enforcement. International Association of Chiefs of Police (IACP) 515 North Washington Street Alexandria, VA 22314-2357 Tel: 703-836-6767 http://www.theiacp.org
Contact the NSA for information on careers in law enforcement and corrections. National Sheriffs’ Association (NSA) 1450 Duke Street Alexandria, VA 22314-3490 Tel: 703-836-7827 http://www.sheriffs.org
For career information, contact U.S. Customs and Border Protection (CBP) Department of Homeland Security 1300 Pennsylvania Avenue, NW Washington, DC 20229-0001 Tel: 202-354-1000 http://www.customs.ustreas.gov
The U.S. Department of Homeland Security is a new office of the federal government that is responsible for protecting the nation from terrorist attacks at home and abroad. For more information on the structure and purpose of this agency, contact U.S. Department of Homeland Security Washington, DC 20528 http://www.dhs.gov
For information on career opportunities, contact U.S. Marshals Service Human Resources Division—Law Enforcement Recruiting Washington, DC 20530-1000 Tel: 202-307-9600 Email:
[email protected] http://www.usdoj.gov/marshals
Your local Secret Service field office or headquarters office can provide more information on becoming a special agent.
Fire Fighting; Government; Law; Parks and Public Lands; Bail Bondsmen; Bodyguards; Border Patrol Officers; Bounty Hunters; Corrections Officers; Crime Analysts; Cryptographic Technicians; Customs Officials; Deputy U.S. Marshals; Detectives; FBI Agents; Fire Inspectors and Investigators; Fire Safety Technicians; Firefighters; Forensic Experts; Health and Regulatory Inspectors; Intelligence Officers; Occupational Safety and Health Workers; Park Rangers; Parole Officers; Police Officers; Polygraph Examiners; Process Servers; Secret Service Special Agents; Security Consultants and Guards
Publishing ■ Background The origins of publishing remain unknown. Historians have proposed various theories on the subject, but the best guess is that publishing came into existence when people developed written language, perhaps in Sumer in approximately 4000 b.c. After it became possible to record information in writing, somebody had to decide which information was worth recording. Technically speaking, the first record-keepers were the first publishers. Some of the first things deemed suitable for publication were accounting records, genealogies, laws, and religious rituals and beliefs. The first examples of publications may be those that were inscribed on clay tablets, but early media for writing included stone, metal, glass, wax, and fabric. Information regarding some of these media is spotty, since only the sturdiest of these materials have survived to be studied. The Egyptians used scrolls made of papyrus or leather to record information, and it is likely that the Greeks used the same or similar materials. Many Egyptian scrolls survived because they were preserved in the dry climate of Egypt, but, unfortunately, none of the classic Greek works are known to have survived in the comparatively wet climate of the Mediterranean. Our information about the works of that time comes from later copies (and copies of copies) that were made of tougher materials.
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Words to Know Atlas: A bound collection of maps. Atlases have been so called since the Renaissance, when collections of maps were preceded with an illustration of Atlas holding up the world. Book: A set of pages bound in such a way as to create a single volume. Casting off: Determining how much space will be required when a specific amount of copy will be typeset. Colophon: A printer’s or publisher’s logo; the part of a book, usually in the back, that gives information regarding the book’s design and production. Copy: Any text that is to be typeset or material that is to be photographed. Copy editor: An editor who corrects errors of grammar, spelling, fact, punctuation, and usage in the process of preparing text for publication. Copyright: The right to control the use of a creative work. Folios: Page numbers.
Font: All the letters and characters that belong to a single typeface. Layout: The way that typeset copy and artwork are arranged on pages or other surfaces. Mass-market paperback: A paperback book sold not only in bookstores but also in magazine outlets. Papyrus: A kind of paper made from the pith of the papyrus plant. Parchment: A sheepskin or goatskin that has been treated in such a way as to become a writing surface; a kind of paper that resembles true parchment. Point: The smallest unit of typographic measurement. Trim size: The final size of pages or other printed matter after they have been trimmed. Text: Written material used in a publication. Type size: Usually, the distance from the bottom of the lowest character in a type font to the top of the highest character, calculated in points.
From those days through the 15th century, several inventions advanced the publishing industry. The codex, which consisted of pieces of parchment that were folded and bound to form pages that could be turned, was developed independently by various peoples, including the Mayas of South America and the Romans. Paper was invented in China in a.d. 105. Block printing began in China in the sixth century a.d. and developed in Europe in 1400. Johannes Gutenberg invented movable metal type in the 1400s, making possible the mass production of printed material. In the early years of European publishing, the works that were published were intended for the small, elite group of educated people who could read and who could afford to buy books. For the most part, these people were clergymen and members of the upper class who had intellectual interests. Publishing was the business of printers, who also often performed what we would now call editorial tasks. Books of that era generally were written in Latin, which was the language of intellectuals. Over time, however, literacy spread and books began to be written in the languages of the countries in which they were published. As the size of the literate public increased, various people and institutions attempted to control the dissemination of information, which gave rise to censor-
ship. The power of publications to influence the way people thought was widely recognized by both members of power structures and those who opposed them. The church did all it could to control publishing, as did heads of state and many others in positions of power. For their part, those who opposed the people in power used publishing to attack their enemies and further their own causes. One of the most significant developments in the history of publishing was the rise of the newspaper. Although precursors of newspapers existed in Rome and China, and pamphlets and flyers were published in the early days of printing in Europe, regularly printed newspapers did not develop until the 1700s. For centuries, publishers of newspapers had to deal with censorship and repression by the state. In England, for example, papers had to deal with the Star Chamber, a court whose sole purpose was to censor any writing that was unfavorable to the king. The Star Chamber was dismissed in 1644, and after that time English newspaper publishers had a bit more freedom. Magazines developed in much the same way that newspapers did. For the most part, the magazines that existed before the 19th century were designed for relatively small, highly educated audiences. In the early 19th century, however, inexpensive magazines that catered
to a larger audience began to crop up. At the same time, magazines began to specialize, targeting specific audiences. That trend continues today. Beginning in the 19th century, the various tasks performed by publishing concerns became more specialized. Whereas in early publishing a single person would perform various functions, in 19th century and later publishing, employees performed individual tasks. Instead of having a single editor, for example, a publication would have an editorial staff. One person would be responsible for acquisitions, another would copyedit, another would be responsible for editorial tasks related to production, and so forth. The publishing industry has also been powerfully affected by technology. Publishing came into existence only after Gutenberg had invented the necessary technology, and it has changed in various ways as technology has developed. The most important recent developments have been those that have made it possible to transfer and manipulate information rapidly and efficiently. The development of the computer has revolutionized the publishing industry, and the modern newspaper industry would not be where it is today without tremendous advances in printing technology. The worldwide scope of newspaper and magazine reporting is, of course, dependent upon technology that makes it possible to transmit stories and photographs almost instantaneously from one part of the world to another. The Internet has provided an entirely new medium for publishers, making it possible for them to provide information to readers without investing in paper, which has increased dramatically in price at regular intervals during recent years.
■ Structure The publishing industry can be broken down into categories, according to the kinds of publications that are produced by publishers: books, periodicals, and miscellaneous publications. Generally speaking, a book consists of pages that have been bound in some way to form a single volume. The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, which needed a definition in order to collect statistical data, decided that a book is “a non-periodical printed publication of at least 49 pages excluding covers.” Although there are many kinds of books, three of the largest categories of books are textbooks, trade books, and technical and professional books. Periodicals are publications that appear at regular intervals, such as daily, weekly, monthly, and quarterly. The two major types of periodicals are newspapers and magazines. Although there is no absolute difference
Publishing
between the two, which are sometimes quite similar, the former tend to appear more frequently and to contain more time-sensitive information than the latter. In addition, newspapers are generally printed on relatively inexpensive paper and have large, unbound pages. Magazines, however, often use better quality and more expensive paper stock and are stapled or bound. Another area of publishing is music publishing. Music publishers produce many kinds of works, including sheet music for popular songs, collections of works by songwriters, editions of old and new pieces written for specific instruments, complete orchestral scores, and musical instruction books. Many publishers of printed music books package tapes and compact discs with those books in order to make them more useful for students and musicians. Publishers of maps and atlases occupy an important position in the publishing business. Most places in North America have been mapped in great detail, and maps can be purchased in all types of stores. Maps are made and published by government agencies as well as by private publishers, since detailed geographical information is crucial for military, political, business, and other purposes. Many other kinds of specialty publications are available, among which are greeting cards, calendars, catalogs, blank books, diaries, scheduling organizers, and postcards, to name only a few. Up to this point, the publications discussed have been print publications, but Internet publishing is increasing at an extremely rapid rate. Magazines, books, journals, and various other publications have been designed specifically for the Internet, and in some cases the entire texts of books are available to be downloaded. Most traditional
Editors at a publishing company review design proposals for a newsletter. (Ferguson.)
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print publishers of any size also have a Web presence. Newspapers, magazines, and book publishers all have Web pages, where they provide some of the material that is published in the print versions of the publications free of charge or for fees. Some publishers use Web sites to provide additional services, sources of information, and products. Book publishers have found that they can sell their products cheaply on the Internet. In addition, some authors make their own works available directly through the Internet, avoiding the problematic process of finding a publisher who will promote and sell their works. There are as many ways of organizing publishing companies as there are different kinds of publishing companies, but for the most part, these organizations have some form of the following departments: editorial, which prepares written material and artwork for publication; production, which prepares the final product for printing or for posting on the Internet; marketing and sales, which promotes and sells the product; personnel, or human resources, which finds and hires employees; clerical, which provides office services and support; and accounting, which handles the financial end of the business. Many newspapers and some other publishers have printing facilities, in which case they have a prepress department, which prepares the publication for printing, and a printing department. Most publishers, however, hire outside printers, bookbinders, and other specialists.
■ Outlook Overall, the outlook for publishing is good. The Association of American Publishers (AAP) estimated that U.S. book sales were more than $25 billion in 2005. That figure indicates an increase of 9.9 percent over 2004 sales. Categories that experienced significant growth included juvenile hardbound (59.6 percent growth), juvenile paperbound (10.6 percent growth), and K-12 education (10.5 percent growth). Audio books (29 percent growth) and e-books (44.8 percent growth) also made significant gains. Books sold through book clubs and mail order experienced the biggest losses, with a 6.7 percent drop in sales. According to the Occupational Outlook Handbook, employment in newspapers is expected to grow more slowly than average as more people choose to receive their news from nonprint sources, such as the Internet and television. Newspapers will also continue to face strong competition for advertising dollars. According to U.S. Industry and Trade Outlook, newspapers have not done as well as book publishers in recent years. In the United States and other industrialized nations, newspapers have seen their circulations decrease. At the same time, although advertising revenues have
increased slightly, newspapers’ share of total advertising has slipped as television, other print media, and the Internet have increased their percentages. In developing countries, however, both circulation and advertising are on the rise. Various large U.S. publishers have expanded their overseas operations in an attempt to make themselves more commercially viable. It is expected that newspaper revenues will remain fairly steady in the coming years. The trend toward local papers being bought by large chains is also expected to continue. The U.S. Department of Labor expects slow employment growth for periodicals, fueled mainly by increasing interest in professional, scientific, and technical journals and special interest publications, such as health and fitness magazines. Overall increases in circulation, which are under 10 percent per year, are not dramatic but are steady. Many magazines publishers are expanding their operations by publishing abroad, taking advantage of vital overseas markets. At the same time, publishers are focusing much energy on the Internet. As paper has become more expensive, publishers have become more motivated to provide products that do not require expenditures on paper. The department also expects growth in textbook publishing due to the increase of high school and college students. Publishers of technical and scientific books and journals will also see good prospects as the public seeks information about the latest technological and scientific discoveries. Employment in book publishing (except textbook publishing) should see slow growth. Employment in catalog and mail-order publishing should grow slowly as well, and this industry segment will face increasing competition from online shopping resources.
■ For More Information The AAP is an organization of book publishers. Its extensive Web site is a good place to begin learning about the book business. Association of American Publishers (AAP) 71 Fifth Avenue New York, NY 10003-3004 Tel: 212-255-0200 http://www.publishers.org
The fund provides information about internships and about the newspaper business in general. Dow Jones Newspaper Fund PO Box 300 Princeton, NJ 08543-0300 Tel: 609-452-2820 Email:
[email protected] http://djnewspaperfund.dowjones.com
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The MPA is a good source of information about magazine internships. Magazine Publishers of America (MPA) 810 Seventh Avenue, 24th Floor New York, NY 10019-5873 Tel: 212-872-3700 Email:
[email protected] http://www.magazine.org
For facts about the newspaper industry, contact the NAA or visit its Web site. Newspaper Association of America (NAA) 1921 Gallows Road, Suite 600 Vienna, VA 22182-3900 Tel: 703-902-1600 http://www.naa.org
■ Related Articles Book Publishing; The Internet; Literary Arts; Newspapers and Magazines; Printing; Art Directors; Book Editors; Cartoonists and Animators; Columnists; Copywriters; Desktop Publishing Specialists; Diet and Fitness Writers; Editors; Graphic Designers; Illustrators; Indexers; Intellectual Property Lawyers; Internet Developers; Lexicographers; Literary Agents; Magazine Editors; Medical Illustrators and Photographers; Newspaper Editors; Photo Editors; Photographers; Prepress Workers; Printing Press Operators and Assistants; Reporters; Science and Medical Writers; Technical Writers and Editors; Webmasters; Writers
Pulp and Paper ■ Background How much paper do you think you use? According to one estimate, the average American consumes more than 700 pounds per year. Although this may sound like a lot, it’s really not so surprising, given the vast number of paper products produced every year used for everything from mopping up spills to shipping enormous appliances and parts. The pulp and paper industry produces tens of thousands of these varied products, including newsprint, facial tissue, paper bags, disposable diapers, paperboard shipping containers, wrapping paper, and writing paper. Paper is a versatile product, useful in itself in thousands of ways, but also adaptable for use in all industries. Thick or thin, light or heavy, flexible or stiff, tough or fragile, paper serves industry in ways limited only by human ingenuity and resourcefulness.
Before pulp-derived paper was manufactured, the ancient Egyptians wrote on a paperlike material made by cutting papyrus reeds into strips, arranging them in perpendicular crisscross patterns, and pounding them into sheets. The pressure released a glue-like sap that bound the strips together. In a.d. 105, Ts’ai Lun of China invented pulp-derived paper using fiber from mulberry trees. This proved to be much cheaper and easier to produce than the silk and wood that had been used for a vast number of official documents during the Han dynasty. In spite of his discovery, however, wood was not used in the making of paper for the next 2,000 years. Instead, materials such as old fishing nets, rags, and hemp rope were used. During the golden age of Islamic culture in the eighth century, the Arabs took a great interest in paper, establishing a mill in 795. The use of paper traveled slowly to the Western world, however. During the years when the Chinese and the Arabs were developing paper and books, most Europeans were illiterate, with the exception of the clergy. Therefore, most of the books produced were religious works, created by monks. They painstakingly produced beautifully handwritten and illustrated bibles on vellum, which is skin from an unborn calf. This process of book production dominated Europe throughout the Middle Ages, so, while the European traders and crusaders had been exposed to paper much earlier, the first mills did not appear until the 14th century. It was not until the invention of the printing press by Johannes Gutenberg in the mid-1400s that paper became an essential product for Europeans. Paper manufacturers at that time used a combination of rags and wood to make the pulp needed to produce durable paper. Paper was made one sheet at a time, by dipping a screen into a basin of pulp. The screen was then lifted, and as the water dripped through, the remaining pulp settled evenly on the screen. After sufficient drainage, the settled pulp was lifted from the screen, pressed, and dried. Thus, the size of the sheet was limited to the size of the screen. There were very few improvements or changes in papermaking until the early 1800s, when Nicolas-Louis Robert invented a moving screen belt that enabled paper manufacturers to produce paper in one continuous sheet. In England, the Fourdrinier brothers improved the technique only a decade later, and the process they developed still bears their name. In addition, in the midto late 1800s, producers began using wood fiber, such as groundwood and sulfite pulp, to make paper. While the technology for paper production has improved over the years, the basic process has not changed. Pulp is created by either grinding the wood (today steel refining disks are used rather than the
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original stone grinding wheels) or, for the higher grades, cooking the chips under pressure with various chemicals to free the cellulose fibers. The pulp is filtered through screens and cleaned, then sluiced onto an endless wire screen in a one-half percent concentration, where the paper is formed. The paper is then pressed, dried on a series of steam-heated drums, and wound on huge rolls. The entire process is controlled by a sophisticated computerized control system, usually known as a distributed control system. The pulp and paper industry today manufactures a wide variety of paper products. The commercial printing industry uses tons of paper daily for books, newspapers, magazines, advertising promotion pieces, manuals, and catalogs. Businesses also use large volumes of paper for their computers, copying machines, and, more recently, fax machines, along with more traditional uses in record keeping, communication, and billing. Among the largest users of paper are newspaper and magazine publishers. For the publisher, paper is the item of greatest expense, representing more than the total combined cost of printing, ink, and binding expenses.
New, faster presses have heightened the demand for strong, smooth, lightweight, trouble-free papers that achieve the best reproduction in color printing. Paper and paperboard for packaging and shipping containers constitute the largest tonnage sector of the paper industry. Shipping containers, also called fiber boxes, require millions of tons of paper and paperboard annually. Paperboard cartons of all types are also used to package almost all of the prepared foods, soap products, cosmetics, and similar products used in daily life. Paper and paperboard are used to package items as light as needles, as heavy as refrigerators, as fragile as eggs, and as massive as motors. Infinitely thin or indestructibly strong, water repellent or water resistant, tissue-soft or cardboard-tough, disposable or permanent, paper and paperboard have an essential daily role in the shipping, wrapping, marketing, selling, and delivery of products that make up every phase of the daily economy of the United States. More than half of the production of U.S. pulp and paper is in the Southern states. Many of the larger mills produce pulp, as well as paper, and some also produce finished paper products. Much of the newsprint used in the United States, however, comes from Canada. It is estimated that Canadian paper mills supply about 50 percent of the newsprint to U.S. newspaper publishers.
■ Structure
Reams of paper are sent through a series of hot rollers that dry the sheets and press them into uniform thickness. (Weyerhauser.)
The process of paper production depends on many factors, such as the materials used, the grade of pulp refinement, the type of machine used to make the paper, and the finishing treatment applied after the paper is formed. Paper manufacturers use all types of wood, and the properties of the different types of wood provide for differences in the paper they make. The long fibers of softwood, for example, give paper strength, while hardwoods produce short fibers that give paper a smooth and shiny surface. Different paper products require different combinations of pulp. Most newspapers are a blend of chemical pulp (one-quarter) and groundwood pulp (three-quarters). Some newsprint mills produce 100 percent recycled newsprint, while most others incorporate at least some recycled fiber content. In high-quality papers, such as stationery, money, and art products, linen and cotton fibers are used to enhance the paper’s strength and durability. The process of paper manufacturing begins in the forests with the logging industry. Loggers fell the trees designated as pulpwood and cut them into prescribed lengths. The lumber is then chipped in the woods or in off-mill collection yards, or sent whole to the wood yards of the pulp mills. Pulp may also be taken from the waste products of woodworking industries.
At the wood yards, the cords of lumber are first showered with water to remove dirt and sand. They are then placed on conveyor belts and fed into a giant, revolving barking drum, which strips away the bark and cleans the wood. After barking, the conveyor belt feeds the logs into the chipper, a revolving disk with heavy, sharp blades set at an angle, that quickly reduces the logs to millions of wood chips about an inch square and an eighth of an inch thick. The chipper spits the cut pieces onto a set of screening trays that sort the chips according to size. Chips that are too large are rechipped, and those that are too small are used for fuel. There are two methods of pulping. In mechanical pulping, barked logs are pressed against a grinding stone, which separates the fibers of the wood by friction. The heat generated by the process softens the lignin in the wood and allows the fibers to be separated, creating a material with the consistency of oatmeal. Mechanical pulping is used to produce newspaper and other papers that do not need to last a long time. Although these papers are weak and tend to yellow easily, they are inexpensive to make, since 90 percent of the tree is used and the process is a simple one. The chemical pulp process most often used is known as the kraft process. In this process, wood chips travel on conveyors to the digesters, which are like giant pressure cookers. The chips are cooked in a solution of chemicals, which causes the lignin molecules to break down and dissolve. After the pulp is cooked, a valve in the digester is opened, and the pulp enters a blow tank at high speed. The chips, softened by the cooking process, disintegrate into fiber, which is separated from the chemicals and impurities. This process is costly and only uses about one-half of the wood from the tree. The cellulose fibers, now called pulp, pass through many cleaners and screens to prepare them for the bleaching process, which will yield the whiteness and brightness needed for the grade of paper being manufactured. Once bleached, the wood pulp is refined through a mechanical process that beats and roughens the fiber surface. Refining improves the tearing strength, tensile strength, and bursting strength of the paper. Various additives are often added to the pulp at this point in the process. Fillers, such as talc or clay, increase the brightness, opacity, smoothness, and printing properties of paper. These papers are often used in books, magazines, or stationery. Sizing agents, such as resin, wax, starch, and glue, make it more water resistant. Finally, dyes are often added to change the color of the paper. At this point, the pulp, roughly 99 percent water and 1 percent fiber, is ready to be introduced into the paper machine through a headbox that stretches across
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Recycling: Making the Old New Again On the average, Americans consume more than 700 pounds of paper per person per year. That’s a lot of paper. With paper use at that level, recycling has become more important than ever—and everyone can play a part. Newspapers Many of us read newspaper and then throw them away like any other trash, but used newspapers are actually very valuable. Old newspapers, newsprint paper that has already been through the printing process, can be recycled into many different products. Nearly one-third of old newsprint is recycled into new newsprint, but other uses include cereal boxes, cardboard boxes, books, grocery bags, insulating materials, egg cartons, tissues, and printing-writing paper. Printing-Writing Papers The paper we use every day, in books, notebooks, computer printing, magazines, and catalogs can also be recycled and used for numerous other paper products. Products made from this paper include newsprint, tissue, and recycled paperboard, as well as recycled printing-writing paper. Corrugated Containers Corrugated cardboard boxes are second only to aluminum when it comes to recycling. Because the raw material used to make corrugated boxes (wood chips and sawdust) are byproducts of the lumber industry, these boxes are among the most environmentally efficient packages manufactured. Paper and Paperboard Packaging Paper and paperboard packaging includes folding cartons for food, cleaning products, beverages, and medicines; composite cans for frozen concentrates; and food service items such as cups and plates.
the machine. Pumps spray a thin film of fibers onto a fast-moving, endless wire screen. As it travels along the wire, the water drops away and the fibers are matted into paper. While still damp, the formed paper is picked up and travels through a press section that squeezes out water, and then it travels into a dryer section, which is a maze of steam drums that press and dry the paper. From there, it is rolled and cut into various sizes. For recycled paper, the pulping process is slightly different. A large machine called a repulper adds water and breaks down the paper into usable pulp. Chemicals that
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Words to Know Alpha pulp: Chemically treated wood pulp greater than 90 percent alpha cellulose. Boxboard: A general term for the paperboard used for fabricating boxes. It may be plain, lined, or clay-coated and made from wood pulp, paper stocks, or any combination of these. Cellulose: The main solid constituent of woody plants that remains after a large portion of the lignin and certain carbohydrates have been removed by pulping and bleaching. Commodity grade: A specific grade of highvolume paper and paperboard that are produced in jumbo rolls for use in printing, publishing, packaging, and converting operations. These include newsprint, printing and writing paper, kraft wrapping and multiwall bag paper, corrugating medium, and folding boxboard. Containerboard: The component materials, such as linerboard and corrugating medium, used to make shipping containers and other corrugated board products. Converting paper: Any paper that can be converted into a paper with different characteristics or to produce a commodity different from the original commodity of the grade of paper. Corrugated box: The primary use of containerboard, which is used in shipping more than 95 percent of all products in the United States. It is especially strong because it can withstand top and side pressure and is crush resistant. It is also very lightweight and highly designable—it can be cut or folded into an infinite variety of shapes. Dissolving pulp: A special grade of chemical pulp usually made from wood or cotton liners that
is used to make regenerated cellulose (viscose rayon or cellophane) or cellulose derivatives such as acetate and nitrate. Kraft cooking process: An alkaline chemical pulp manufacturing process in which wood chips are cooked in a pressurized vessel in a mixture of primarily sodium sulfide and sodium hydroxide, with sodium sulfate and lime used to replenish these chemicals in recovery operations; also known as sulfate cooking process. Kraft paper: From the German word meaning strong, kraft paper is used for its strength and versatility. It is often used in paper grocery bags and multiwall sacks (pet foods, fertilizers, chemicals, etc.), and are used to package anything from lunch to cement. Kraft pulp: A fibrous material used in pulp, paper, and paperboard manufacturing, produced by chemically reducing wood chips into their component parts with the kraft cooking process. Mechanical printing papers: A coated or uncoated paper, excluding newsprint, containing more than 10 percent of fibers from a mechanical pulping process; includes papers for used magazines, catalogs, directories, and books. Special papers: A greaseproof or glassine paper, generally made from mechanical wood pulp and highly hydrated so that it is resistant to oil and grease. Woodfree paper: A coated or uncoated paper that contains at most 10 percent of wood fibers obtained by a mechanical process. It is used for a wide range of products, such as printing papers, bond, ledger, duplicating, envelope, stationery, and magazines.
remove the dye and whiten the pulp, which is often called secondary fiber, are added to the mash. Newsprint is the most common form of recycled paper. Once the papermaking process is complete, the paper may be sold in sheets or rolls to converters, or manufacturers, who use it in the creation of end products. Converters may include the makers of envelopes, stationery, boxes, and food packaging, as well as many other items. The paper may also be sold directly to printing companies or newspaper, magazine, or book publishers. Some larger paper mills also function as converters, although typically not at the same plant.
Major advances in pulp and papermaking technology, computer sciences, and managerial practices have brought scientists, engineers, and other professionals into the paper industry. Papermaking generally requires a large investment; a new world-class mill, for example, can cost $1 billion. For this reason, about 40 companies with major pulp and paper facilities are included in the list of the 500 largest companies in the United States. These huge companies operate in many different sectors of the industry, both nationally and internationally, and in many cases work in other industries as well.
■ Outlook The success of the pulp and paper industry has been an indication of the high standard of living of the people of the United States and other parts of the world. In the United States, the pulp and paper industry is ranked among the top 10 in manufacturing industries. Almost 700,000 people work in the pulp and paper industry, producing paper and allied products with a total value of more than $150 billion. Because almost all of the pulp and paper industry’s products are consumer oriented, its economic outlook is tied very closely to the overall health of the U.S. economy. Because exports have accounted for 60 percent of the industry’s growth in shipments over the last decade, the global economy is key to the outlook of the pulp and paper industry. Jobs in the pulp and paper industry have been steadily declining at a slow rate over the past several years. This is mainly due to increased computerization of papermaking processes, which results in the need for fewer workers to oversee operations. However, paper and paper products are in high demand both domestically and abroad. U.S. paper manufacturers have been increasing exports as a result of the North American Free Trade Agreement, the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade, and other trade regulations. Many companies are expected to enter the international marketplace as general paper and paperboard producers, however, which will create intense competition between already-established U.S. manufacturers and the new arrivals. Another result of the internationalism of the industry will likely be increased competition from foreign companies within the American market. Thus, although there will be jobs in this industry for many years to come, workers with computer and other technical skills will have better chances of landing jobs in this increasingly competitive field. One of the industry’s greatest challenges in the coming decade will be addressing environmental issues. Waste disposal and water pollution are major concerns for paper manufacturers, and during the past two decades, the industry has sharply reduced the volume of pollutants—airborne, waterborne, and solids—to comply with federal and state environmental regulations. In the late 1990s, the Environmental Protection Agency established Cluster Rules, the first attempt to combine water and air regulation for one industry. These rules, designed to reduce the amount of toxic water pollutants and air emissions by the primary pulp, paper, and paperboard industries, revised the water effluent and air emission standards. As a result of these rules, employment opportunities for researchers in wastewater management,
Pulp and Paper
emissions control, waste recycling, and energy recovery should be good. The paper industry is also concentrating on the problem of how to dispose of its products after use and is rapidly increasing its ability to use recovered paper in the papermaking process. In the coming decade, the paper industry will continue to make huge investments in new mills, in maintaining existing mills at worldwide competitive standards, in maintaining renewable forest reserves, and in expanding its use of recoverable paper. The increased automation and computerization of the industry is creating more opportunities for process engineers, computer scientists, and technicians in these fields, but decreasing the need for other employees by performing much of the work previously done manually. As the automation trend continues over the long term, hiring will primarily center on replacing workers who have left the industry or retired. At the corporate and managerial levels, the industry offers a wide variety of opportunities for office workers, accountants, market researchers, sales managers, and salespeople, as well as for the many other professionals needed to run a major corporation. With the international expansion of the industry, more positions in sales and marketing may be created. In addition, the push for new product development at many paper companies may translate into more product management and marketing positions.
■ For More Information For up-to-date information on forestry, paper, wood products, recycling, environmental issues, and governmental policies that pertain to the pulp and paper industry, visit the AFPA’s Web site or contact American Forest and Paper Association (AFPA) 1111 19th Street, NW, Suite 800 Washington, DC 20036-3603 Tel: 800-878-8878 Email:
[email protected] http://www.afandpa.org
For information on careers in paper products sales or to order the organization’s monthly magazine, contact NPTA Alliance 500 Bi-County Boulevard, Suite 200E Farmingdale, NY 11735-3931 Tel: 800-355-6782 http://www.gonpta.com
For brochures on wood science and technology, a video on careers in the forest products industry, or a directory of
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undergraduate and graduate programs in wood science and technology, contact Society of Wood Science and Technology One Gifford Pinchot Drive Madison, WI 53726-2398 Tel: 608-231-9347 Email:
[email protected] http://www1.fpl.fs.fed.us/swst
For educational programs on pulp and paper, information on local and student chapters, and a pulp and paper industry jobline, contact Technical Association of the Pulp and Paper Industry 15 Technology Parkway South Norcross, GA 30092-2928 Tel: 800-332-8686 http://www.tappi.org
■ Related Articles Printing; Wood; Bindery Workers; Biochemists; Chemical Technicians; Chemists; Environmental Engineers; Export-Import Specialists; Foresters; Forestry Technicians; Industrial Engineers; Industrial Machinery Mechanics; Logging Industry Workers; Mechanical Engineering Technicians; Mechanical Engineers; Operating Engineers; Paper Processing Workers; Printing Press Operators and Assistants; Quality Control Engineers and Technicians; Wood Science and Technology Workers
Radio ■ Background Broadcast technology developed in the 20th century enabled people to reach large audiences around the world instantly, changing forever the way we communicate. The power and mystery of the radio broadcast in the United States has been marked by events like Orson Welles’s 1938 live radio broadcast of “The War of the Worlds,” which was so realistic with its simulated news coverage that many Americans sought refuge from a Martian invasion. The radio-transmitted voices of “Tokyo Rose” and “Axis Sally” were used as psychological warfare during World War II to disturb American soldiers with taunts about the girlfriends and wives they left behind. Franklin D. Roosevelt’s (1882–1945) fireside chats, for the first time, brought a U.S. president’s voice and spirit close to the public he served.
Instantaneous worldwide communication first became a reality in 1895 when an Italian engineer named Guglielmo Marconi demonstrated how to send communication signals without the use of wires. In the early 1900s, transmitting and receiving devices were relatively simple, and hundreds of amateurs constructed transmitters and receivers on their own and experimented with radio. Ships were rapidly equipped with radios so they could communicate with each other and with shore bases while at sea. In 1906, the human voice was transmitted for the first time by Reginald A. Fessenden. Small radio shows started in 1910. Ten years later, two commercial radio stations went on the air, and by 1921, a dozen local stations were broadcasting. The first network radio broadcast (more than one station sharing a broadcast) was of the 1922 World Series. By 1926, stations across the country were linked together to form the National Broadcasting Company (NBC). Four years later, the first radio broadcast was transmitted around the world. Although the advent of television changed the kind of programming available on the radio (from comedy, drama, and news programs to radio’s current schedule of music, phone-in talk shows, and news updates), there has been a steady growth in the number of radio stations in the United States. According to the CIA World Factbook, there were 13,750 radio stations in the United States in 2006. Before the mid-1990s there were government restrictions on the number of stations one company could own in a single market. Some radio stations suffered because of smaller audiences and resulting lower advertising revenues. The 1996 Telecommunications Act removed all limits on group size nationally and raised the number of stations that a broadcaster can own in one market to a maximum of eight. With larger broadcast companies continuing to buy up smaller companies, the radio industry will survive as cost-effective competition against television and the Internet.
■ Structure More than 116,000 people are employed in the radio industry at both the local and national levels. This figure includes those who work in commercial radio as well as those employed in broadcasting headquarters (including network offices and public broadcasting stations). Some radio industry workers, such as disc jockeys, talk show hosts, news anchors, and sportscasters, are prominent around the nation or in their local communities. Their voices and faces (through advertisements, publicity, and public appearances) are familiar to large audiences. Others work behind the scenes, putting together
Radio
Words to Know AM broadcast: Amplitude modulation system of radio transmission using power of 25 to 50 kilowatts, the maximum power permitted by the FCC. Arbitron ratings: These ratings are provided within local markets to identify how many people are listening to the different radio stations within the market as well as to further identify who those people are in terms of age, sex, and buying patterns. Broadcast journalism: Journalism that conveys its information electronically via radio or television. Digital: A transmission, by a computer, composed of a discontinuous signal; replacing analog signals in telecommunications. FCC: The Federal Communications Commission is an independent federal agency that regulates television, cable, and radio. FM broadcast: Frequency modulation method of radio broadcasting; it produces a clearer signal than AM. Format: The style or general policies of a radio station. Music, news, and advertising must fit within the specified format.
the many programs aired on radio on any given day. These include researchers, writers, reporters, directors, producers, and marketing experts. Broadcast engineers and technicians maintain the broadcast equipment and salespeople sell airtime to advertisers to keep the station profitable. In radio, the smallest station may employ only four or five full-time people and rely on freelance or independent producers, directors, and writers for certain projects. Radio stations keep their programming current by using rating systems to report what people are listening to on the radio, and when. Similar to the Nielsen ratings in television, the Arbitron Company measures local U.S. radio audiences and local market consumer information. Because commercial radio stations rely on advertising revenue to stay successful, much in the broadcasting industry (scheduling, staff, and salaries) is determined by ratings. A radio station may use the Arbitron ratings to make decisions about what kind of programming to air, the success of disc jockeys, or the additions of new components. These ratings are important to advertisers, who purchase radio time to reach specific audiences. Even the worst program on radio or television takes up space in the air as it’s transmitted along electromagnetic waves. As an attempt to keep things in order in a variety of ways, the Federal Communications Commis-
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Frequency: The number of cycles per second in a broadcast signal; by broadcasting on different frequencies, many radio and TV stations can serve a single area. Market: The geographic area that a station serves. NPR (National Public Radio): A network of about 789 noncommercial, nonprofit stations. Playlist: The list of the recordings to be played during a particular radio program or time period. Ratings: The audience of a radio program as estimated by survey. Satellite: A device that orbits Earth and transmits television and other communications signals. Satellite radio: Radio programming that is broadcast via satellite. Satellite radio, unlike traditional radio broadcasts, can reach listeners over thousands of miles. Transmitter: A tall tower that sends a radio station’s signals to its listening area. Webcast: A broadcast of a radio or television show via the Internet.
sion (FCC) was created. In 1927, Congress established the Federal Radio Commission, which in 1934 became the FCC. The FCC is involved in many aspects of broadcasting, from business matters to the content of programs. The FCC supervises and allocates air space, makes channel assignments, and licenses radio and television stations to applicants who are legally, technically, and financially qualified. The commission also sets limits on the number of broadcasting stations that a single individual or organization can control. These limits were relaxed, however, in the mid-1980s; broadcasters today no longer need to perform as many public affairs and public service functions, the license renewal process is easier, ownership requirements are more lax, and it takes less time to buy and sell a station. In 1992, FCC regulations were relaxed even more, so a single company could own up to six stations in one city and 60 stations nationwide. Previously, an owner was limited to one AM and one FM station per city, and 12 nationwide. The Telecommunications Act of 1996 created even more leniency by removing all limits on group size nationally. In a single market, the maximum number of stations that a broadcaster can own was increased to eight. The new legislation has paved the road for megaradio companies to emerge with buyouts and consolidations prevalent. One of the advantages to owning a
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Ryan Seacrest, American Idol host and radio deejay of "On Air with Ryan Seacrest" and "American Top 40," sits in the studio of KIISFM in Los Angeles. (Associated Press/Kevork Djansezian.)
conglomerate of stations is the ability to attract advertisers with wider audiences and better rates. While advertisers may applaud this new trend, it presents challenges for small-time radio stations that find it difficult to compete with large conglomerates.
■ Outlook Radio has had serious competition over the years from newspapers, television, and cable television. Now the Internet is added to the long list of media competing for the consumers’ listening and viewing hours. However, although the Internet is a competitive threat to radio, many stations also recognize that it has huge potential to generate revenue. Many stations have Web sites to complement their programming. The local content offered by radio stations should mix well with the Internet’s information-driven audience. According to a study commissioned by the Radio and Television News Directors Foundation, television remains the dominant news medium, but most people have greater contact with radio throughout their day. The National Association of Broadcasters estimates that
radio reaches 94.1 percent of people age 12 and over on a weekly basis. The U.S. Department of Labor predicts slower-thanaverage job growth in radio through 2014. The trend toward consolidation into large radio networks will limit employment growth somewhat. A network can produce news programming at one station and then use the programming for broadcast from other stations, eliminating the need for multiple news staffs. Technical workers can maintain equipment at several stations simultaneously. Computer technology will also affect employment growth. New systems combine the functions of several older pieces of equipment and do not require specialized knowledge for operation. This reduces the need for certain types of workers, particularly editors, recording technicians, and graphic designers. Radio stations are increasingly using outside production companies to create programming, including music, news, weather, sports, and professional announcer services. The services can easily be accessed through satellite hook ups and reduce the
Railroads
need for program production and news staff at radio stations. The radio industry is also expecting heavier competition from the personal computer; approximately 68 percent of Americans use the Internet, and this percentage is increasing. Many in the industry aren’t that concerned about a loss of listeners—they see the Internet as way to better reach their listeners. Currently, thousands of radio stations have Web pages; many radio shows are available for download or webcast. The emergence of satellite radio—fee-based, radio programming that is broadcast via satellite—has created hundreds of new radio stations. Additional opportunities will be available to disc jockeys, producers, and support workers as this segment of the industry continues to grow. Although the number of women and minorities working in the broadcast industry has grown and will likely continue to increase, women and minorities still face discrimination and prejudice in the workplace; many women earn lower salaries than men working in identical positions.
Tel: 202-429-5300 Email:
[email protected] http://www.nab.org
The following organization conducts research and offers support to more than 5,000 member stations. Radio Advertising Bureau 1320 Greenway Drive, #500 Irving, TX 75038-2510 Tel: 800-232-3131 http://www.rab.com
This association offers resources for broadcast executives as well as scholarship information. Radio-Television News Directors Association and Foundation 1600 K Street, NW, Suite 700 Washington, DC 20006-2838 Tel: 202-659-6510 Email:
[email protected] http://www.rtnda.org
■ Related Articles ■ For More Information Contact AWRT for information on careers in radio and television, as well as scholarships and internships. American Women in Radio and Television (AWRT) 8405 Greensboro Drive, Suite 800 McLean, VA 22102-5120 Tel: 703-506-3290 Email:
[email protected] http://www.awrt.org
An association of university broadcasting faculty, industry professionals, and graduate students, BEA offers annual scholarships in broadcasting for college juniors, seniors, and graduate students. Visit its Web site for useful information about broadcast education and the broadcasting industry. Broadcast Education Association (BEA) 1771 N Street, NW Washington, DC 20036-2891 Tel: 888-380-7222 Email:
[email protected] http://www.beaweb.org
This organization offers broadcaster education, support, and scholarship information. National Association of Broadcasters 1771 N Street, NW Washington, DC 20036-2800
Broadcasting; Artist and Repertoire Workers; Audio Recording Engineers; Broadcast Engineers; Disc Jockeys; Radio and Television Announcers; Radio and Television Program Directors; Radio Producers; Sports Broadcasters and Announcers
Railroads ■ Background Despite its decline as a method of passenger transportation, the railroad remains the most efficient method of land transportation because it requires the least amount of fuel and human labor and is the least damaging to the environment. Found in almost every country in the world, railroads have transported millions of passengers and millions of tons of freight in their colorful history. Early railroads were small, single-use tracks used in British coal mines. In 1803, however, a British mining engineer, Richard Trevithick, built a steam locomotive that actually ran on the rails. In 1825, the world’s first steam-powered public railroad, the Stockton and Darlington in England, was opened for use. Like the British miners, American colonists also built short railways for transporting stone and coal. The first public railroad built in the United States was the Baltimore and Ohio,
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chartered in 1827. In 1830, service began on this railroad, with horses providing the power. The first American railroads started from the Atlantic ports of Boston, New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore, Charleston, Savannah, and Wilmington. Within 20 years, four rail lines had crossed the Alleghenies to reach the Great Lakes and the tributaries of the Mississippi River. Meanwhile, other lines had started in cities farther west, and in the mid-1850s, such cities as Chicago, St. Louis, and Memphis were connected by rail to the East Coast. After the Civil War, the pace of railroad building increased. Two railroads—the Union Pacific, building westward from Omaha, Nebraska, and the Central Pacific, building eastward from Sacramento, California—had been chartered during the war to help promote national unity. In 1869, the two railroads were joined in Promontory Point, Utah, completing the first rail connection across the United States. A golden spike was driven to commemorate the historic union. By 1870, when the U.S. railroad movement was 40 years old, there were 53,000 miles of line. Between 1870 and 1880, another 40,000 miles were added, and the following decade saw an even more rapid expansion of lines: 70,000 miles were added. In the next two decades, the lines grew by 57,000 miles, and by 1910 the network was largely complete. At the same time railroads were extending the length of their track, they were also busy improving the quality of their locomotives and trains. In 1895, electric locomotives, which drew their power from central generating stations through overhead wires or charged third rails, were introduced. These were particularly useful in areas
This electric locomotive is used for high-speed passenger service in the northeastern United States. The hinged device at the rear of the locomotive maintains contact with the overhead wire, the locomotive’s source of power. (David Hayes.)
where steam locomotion was impractical, such as the zones of electrified service around New York, Philadelphia, and Chicago. In the United States, central-station electric locomotives are still used in these areas of highdensity traffic. Another type of electric locomotive—the diesel—became much more widely used. The diesel is an electric locomotive that carries its own power plant and therefore needs no overhead wires or charged third rail. Diesel locomotives required less maintenance, offered more flexibility, and ran more efficiently. They were first introduced into heavy road freight service in 1941, and by 1960 their advantages had caused railroads to drop steam power completely. Changes in locomotives eventually resulted in other changes in rail travel, such as changes in the way trains slowed down and stopped. In early days, trains seldom traveled at more than 20 miles per hour. Although they were frequently full of travelers, passengers rarely were injured or killed in train accidents. As railroads became more commonly used and locomotives got faster, however, the number of train accidents increased, and the accidents themselves became more serious. Fortunately, in 1869, George Westinghouse patented the extremely effective air brake, which had perhaps the greatest impact on railroad safety ever. The air brake compressed and released air, acting on all the wheels of an entire train simultaneously. By the 20th century, a web of transportation had been created that allowed passengers and freight to travel to every major American city, and many minor ones, safely and efficiently. In addition, the romance and glamour of the railroad had captured the attention and the heart of the progress-oriented United States. However, the romantic, golden days of the railroad were soon to pass. New methods of transportation began to make an impact on the railroad business around 1920. With the increase in the number of cars and the rapid expansion of paved roads, much traffic was taken from the railways. Trucks began to transport loads of freight over short distances, while cars and buses lured passengers away from rail travel. In fact, railroad passenger traffic dropped noticeably between 1920 and 1930, never to rebound. As a result of the decline in railway traffic, the railroad network began to shrink. Lines that could no longer afford to operate were sometimes abandoned. Many of the nation’s short lines were absorbed into the larger systems. In 1961, there were only 661 operating railroads of the 1,300 systems in operation 50 years earlier. By 1970, more than 100 of the nation’s 500 passenger railroads were on the verge of bankruptcy. Congress responded in October of that year by establishing Amtrak, officially known as the National Railroad Pas-
senger Corporation. Amtrak was a semipublic corporation that took over the operation of most of the nation’s intercity and cross-country passenger service. Legislation allowed individual railroads to discontinue passenger service, turning over their passenger equipment to Amtrak. The tracks used by Amtrak, however, remained owned by various private railroad companies. Amtrak remains partially government funded. In an effort to assist the failing railroads, the government also established Conrail, or the Consolidated Rail Corporation, in 1975. Conrail was formed to take over a large number of privately owned railroads that had suffered financial collapse. Unlike Amtrak, however, Conrail was organized to run without continuing government subsidies and was returned to the private sector in 1987. In spite of the government’s efforts, railroads continued to shrink. By the end of the 1980s, the total mileage of railroad track was approximately 100,000 miles less than it had been at its peak. Today, American railroads are primarily high-volume freight carriers, transporting cargo such as coal, motor vehicles, grain and farm products over long distances. They are also used in the nation’s largest cities as subway systems or elevated trains, for intercity travel, and to carry commuter passengers between these cities and their suburbs. The crews of today’s trains have also changed. In years past, a five-person crew was common, with an engineer, assistant engineers, brake operator and conductor aboard. Today, an engineer and conductor are often the only two crew members aboard a train, as more equipment and instruments are computerized and automated. The job of brake operator is virtually obsolete in today’s railroad industry.
■ Structure There are two main types of railroads: major railroads and short lines. With the consolidation in the early part of the 20th century of many smaller lines into larger, more extensive systems, there evolved a limited number of major railroads that operate trains over long distances. Both major and short lines operate freight lines and passenger lines. The major railroad systems in the United States are organized much like any other business, with stockholders, a board of directors, and a chief executive officer (CEO). Like most other large corporations, the typical large railroad is divided into various segments, or divisions, that perform tasks related to certain aspects of the business. Individual railroads may assign different names to divisions, but the four basic career areas in the railroad industry are transportation, communications, administration, and maintenance.
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Words to Know Brakeman: Freight or passenger crew member who inspects the train, assists the conductor, operates the brakes and assists in switching. Conductor: Person in charge of train in its entirety, and of the train crew at large. Cross-overs: Track that joins two main tracks. Curfew: A time period scheduled in advance when no trains operate, allowing maintenance employees to work on the track or signals. Diamond: Track intersection where one track can be used at a time. Engineer: Person responsible for operating the locomotive. Fireman: Member of the steam locomotive crew who feeds the firebox with fuel; on diesel locomotives, the fireman would monitor controls and assist the engineer. Interchange: Rail junction where cars are switched from one railroad to another. Manifest: Train made up of mixed railcars (boxcars, tank cars, piggyback cars, etc.). Pull apart: When two sections of rail separate at a point where they are joined, as in when rails shrink in extremely cold weather. Rolling stock: Locomotives and cars. Yardmaster: Person who oversees switching and yard operations where trains are prepared for their next service and schedules maintenance of trains.
The majority of railroad employees work in the transportation department. Workers in the transportation department are responsible for the actual operation of the locomotives and the trains. Conductors and engineers, who work on the train while it is en route, are the most common employees in this category. Other employees, called switchyard employees, work in rail yards along the train route to form trains by coupling and uncoupling cars and directing them along the right tracks. Transportation employees who work in switchyards spend most of their time in one place, while those who work on trains while they are en route spend much of their working time traveling. Many railroads, such as the Norfolk Southern, further classify transportation department employees as agreement or labor employees because most are represented by a union and their benefits and compensation are negotiated. Every major railroad has an extensive communication network, with dispatchers working in central locations to monitor the progress of each train. These communications
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workers receive and pass on information to the crews of trains that are en route. For example, a communications worker might notify a train crew about the location of other trains or the condition of the upcoming tracks. Since the 1980s, computers have handled most of the routine dispatching functions, allowing a single dispatcher or operator to oversee and direct large segments of a railroad. Some railroads use a system of transponders in the track, which transmit train location and speed directly to computers in the dispatch office. Other railroad dispatchers receive the same information via radio signals from satellites. In either case, dispatchers are able to easily follow the progress of various trains and are able to arrange and issue orders for train movement from thousands of miles away. The administrative department within a railroad is very similar to administrative departments in other large industries. Railroads have a variety of clerical and office personnel, with secretaries and clerks performing a range of tasks. Also found within the administrative segment of the industry are more specialized departments performing individual functions. Most large railroads, for example, have a sales and marketing department, which works with present and potential customers to sell rail services. Since most rail business is in freight, employees in sales and marketing departments work primarily with companies that need to ship their product to distant places. Workers in this department might develop marketing brochures and campaigns, meet regularly with existing clients to maintain good relations, or write proposals and make presentations to potential clients. For railroads that have passenger service, sales and marketing workers might attend trade shows and communicate with travel agents or tour packagers to promote their rail service. Workers in sales and marketing typically work out of a railroad’s headquarters. Another subdivision of the administrative category is shipping and receiving. Workers in shipping and receiving are responsible for recording information about cargo that is being sent, making sure that it is placed in the appropriate car, tracking its progress, and making sure that it is received, undamaged, at the correct destination. In passenger service, instead of performing shipping and receiving tasks, workers take reservations, answer passenger questions, and sell tickets. There are many other types of administrative services that are also necessary to the running of a railroad. Large railroad systems have their own attorneys and their own accountants. Computer programmers and analysts maintain the railroads’ sophisticated management information systems. Workers in the personnel department are responsible for hiring, training, evaluating, and maintaining paperwork on all the railroad’s employees. Finally, a supervisory
staff consisting of several levels of managerial employees tends to the financial and policy decision-making and the employee supervision for the entire operation. Making certain that engines, freight and passenger cars, tracks, signals, and communications equipment are in perfect working order is the responsibility of the maintenance department. Maintenance workers install and maintain signal equipment, repair locomotives and train cars, and monitor miles and miles of track to ensure they are safe for travel. In trains with passenger service, additional workers are needed to clean the cars, restrooms, kitchens, and dining areas. Workers in the maintenance side of the business work in almost every state, both in small towns or large cities. If they are responsible for maintaining many miles of track, they may spend part of their time away from home. In addition to the major railroads, short-line (or feeder) railroads still exist as well. There are approximately 545 of these smaller railroads, found in all 50 states. Short-line railroads operate over one-third of the nation’s rail route miles and employ 11 percent of all railroad workers, according to the American Short Line and Regional Railroad Association. They generate about 9 percent of all rail revenue. Short-line railroads do not have the number or variety of jobs that the large systems do. While someone must perform the duties of engineer, conductor, signal worker, dispatcher, and shipping and receiving clerk, in smaller systems several of these duties may be performed by the same person. Also, most short-line railroads do not have the need for a full-time attorney, accountant, or computer specialist. While some short lines may have employees who perform sales and marketing functions, they typically do not have entire departments devoted to those tasks. An additional category of railroad employment includes government employment, which can range from the subway and streetcar operators who work for municipally operated lines to inspectors for the Federal Railroad Administration. Federal railroad inspectors inspect rail lines for compliance with federal regulations and conduct accident investigations.
■ Outlook The 1960s and 1970s were decades of such intense decline for the American railroad industry that many people wondered if it might become obsolete altogether. As freight revenues fell and passenger traffic dropped, the railroad became perceived as a dinosaur—useful only as a relic of the past. However, the railroads that were stagnating 30 years ago are once again thriving and are expected to endure. There are several reasons for the railroads’ turnaround. The passing of the 1980 Staggers Act allowed railroads to negotiate shipment rates with customers, offering vol-
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Intermodal freight service is used to transport cargo between points not served directly by rail. The double-stack container cars shown here can each carry 10 containers. (Norfolk-Southern Corporation.)
ume discounts. Prior to 1980, this had been prohibited by government regulations. A second reason for the improvement in the industry is the development of better containers for carrying freight. The beginning of this trend was piggybacking. In piggybacking, truck trailers and containers are carried on railroad flat cars. An improvement to piggybacking came with the development of standard cargo boxes that can be carried easily by train, truck, or ship. This type of shipping, called intermodal shipping, allows railroads to engage in partnerships with other forms of transport, and therefore boost productivity and usefulness. A final reason for the recovery of the railroads, paradoxically, is the decrease in rail employment. As technology has been incorporated into the railroads, the need for human labor has been reduced. Computers are used to keep track of freight cars, match empty cars with the closest loads, and dispatch trains. Computer-assisted devices alert engineers to train malfunctions and new work rules have become widespread allowing trains to operate with two- or three-person crews instead of the traditional five-person crews. While this is clearly beneficial for the industry itself, it unfortunately does not indicate a good outlook for railroad job seekers. The U.S. Department of
Labor predicts a decline in railroad transportation positions overall through 2014. Long-distance train crews will have better opportunities than those who work in rail yards. Employment for subway and streetcar operators is expected to grow as large cities add new lines as commuters turn to rail to escape congested highways.
■ For More Information For information on short-line railroads in the United States, contact American Short Line and Regional Railroad Association 50 F Street, NW, Suite 7020 Washington, DC 20001-1507 http://www.aslrra.org
For general information on railroading in the United States, contact the following organizations Association of American Railroads 50 F Street, NW Washington, DC 20001-1564 Tel: 202-639-2100 Email:
[email protected] http://www.aar.org
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For information on union representation, contact the following organizations Brotherhood of Railroad Signalmen 917 Shenandoah Shores Road Front Royal, VA 22630-6418 Tel: 540-622-6522 Email:
[email protected] http://www.brs.org
For information on the federal government’s role in the railroad industry, contact Federal Railroad Administration 1120 Vermont Ave, NW, Stop 35 Washington, DC 20005-3523 Tel: 202-493-6000 http://www.fra.dot.gov
For information on union membership, contact Brotherhood of Locomotive Engineers and Trainmen Standards Building, Mezzanine Floor 1370 Ontario Street Cleveland, OH 44113-1701 Tel: 216-241-2630 Email:
[email protected] http://www.ble.org
Transportation Communications International Union Three Research Place Rockville, MD 20850-3279 Tel: 301-948-4910 http://www.tcunion.org
United Transportation Union 14600 Detroit Avenue Cleveland, OH 44107-4250 Tel: 216-228-9400 http://www.utu.org
■ Related Articles Airlines; Shipping; Transportation; Travel and Tourism; Trucking; Diesel Mechanics; Locomotive Engineers; Railroad Clerks; Railroad Conductors; Reservation and Ticket Agents; Signal Mechanics
Real Estate ■ Background The real estate business helps fulfill one of our most basic needs: shelter. For many people, this shelter is a house.
But real estate is more than just shelter and houses. It includes apartments, condominiums, cooperatives, farms, retail stores, office buildings, shopping centers, warehouses, industrial plants, medical centers, and many other types of property. Hundreds of thousands of licensed professionals sell, lease, manage, appraise, or otherwise work full time in the real estate industry. The industry also provides employment for many part-time and support personnel. The right to possess property has existed in some form since the beginning of civilization. Early nomadic societies distributed property rights among tribes and families and were probably the first to maintain communal ownership of specific plots. For those nomadic societies where land was bountiful, tribes had no need to secure individual plots of land or establish permanent residences. The urban orientation of ancient Greece caused the dissolution of communal properties. Individual and familial ownership of land was the norm. This notion of the absolute right of ownership continued until the end of the Roman Empire. With the decline of the Roman Empire and the subsequent barbarian invasions, families and landowners had little with which to guard their belongings and protect their land. The ensuing desire for security led to the feudal system of the Middle Ages. In feudalism, a lord held vast lands in his dominion (hence the word landlord). Those who lived on his land and farmed it were called vassals. Vowing homage and fealty (fidelity) to their lords, vassals were guaranteed protection of their lives and their chattel, or possessions. The lord, in turn, owed homage to his king, acting as the king’s vassal. So strong was the bond between vassal and lord that vassals were not considered free. However, they were not slaves either: They were more like tenants who paid their rent with the products they farmed. They were also expected to perform military services in times of war. While the lord presided over the land, vassals farmed individual plots of land and passed the rights to their offspring. With the dissolution of the feudal system in the 13th century, vassals were able to claim true ownership of the land that they farmed. In France, however, homage and fealty were not abandoned completely until the revolution in the late 1700s, when the aristocracy was abolished. At that time, the common person obtained unconditional freedom and with it the right to own land. Such rights had not been in existence in France since the Roman Empire nearly 1,300 years earlier. Ironically, while common people were asserting their rights to the ownership of land in Europe, European nations were establishing vast empires overseas, claim-
Real Estate
government to private ownership, until Congress abolished the act in 1891. During this time, some individuals developed fortunes in land holdings without actually farming the land as was required by law. So began the American system of real estate. Once private ownership of land became widespread, the need to monitor and facilitate the exchange of property grew. A number of different careers developed from this need. The real estate industry in the United States has grown dramatically over the last 20 years. With property values increasing, transactions becoming more complicated, and property changing hands more frequently, more people are turning to real estate professionals for help in the task of buying or selling real estate.
■ Structure
A big part of real estate is development, where real estate developers buy huge tracts of land and develop it by building properties and then selling them. (Zigy Kaluzny, Tony Stone Images.)
ing foreign lands as their own and subjecting the native inhabitants to their system of rule. The Spanish and the Portuguese took over Central and South America. The French dominated parts of North America, Southeast Asia, and northern and western Africa. The British annexed India, parts of North America, eastern and central Africa, Hong Kong, Australia, and numerous other areas. It was said during Britain’s peak that the sun never set on the British Empire because Britain claimed land in every part of the world. Through various treaties and purchases, the United States acquired all of its land (with the exception of Alaska and Hawaii) by the 1850s. As the American frontier opened up in the 19th century, pioneers claimed open public lands. By clearing the unclaimed land, farming it, and building a home on it, the settlers felt that they had earned the right to the land’s title for free or for a nominal price. This established what now is known as squatter’s rights. The Pre-emption Act of 1841 officially declared squatter’s rights as legitimate, gaining the support of the U.S. government because it encouraged citizens to settle west of the established states. For another 50 years, more than 200 million acres of land changed from
The real estate industry is essentially a service business. There is no product to manufacture, assemble, or sell. The current or prospective owner of a property employs or contracts professionals to perform various functions, including real estate sales, management, development, leasing, and appraising. The types of properties handled by real estate professionals include houses, condominiums, apartments, farms, vacant land, office buildings, stores, shopping centers, warehouses, factories, and other industrial properties. Upon deciding to sell a property, the owner usually contacts a local real estate agent. The owner and agent discuss the price at which the property is to be offered, the plans for advertising and creating interest in the property, and the terms under which the owner will sell. The owner then commonly gives the real estate firm a contract authorizing it as the agent for a certain period of time (several months) in trying to find a buyer for the property. Selling real estate requires the ability to price property accurately, devise and use imaginative sales and advertising methods, and deal capably with prospective buyers. Good real estate agents, for instance, develop a knowledge of the neighborhoods they serve; they know the taxes, the schools, and the value of different locations. In selling homes, good agents know the houses extremely well, both their strengths and weaknesses. For instance, they know how much it costs to heat a given house per year, the amount of taxes paid monthly, and the age and condition of the structure. Some real estate agents specialize in specific types of property. These agents must be particularly knowledgeable in their specialties. For example, agricultural real estate agents deal with rural properties and must know a great deal about the types of soil, the water supply and drainage, and the cost of labor in the area.
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Words to Know Amenity: A feature of real property that enhances its attractiveness and increases the occupant’s or user’s satisfaction although the feature is not essential to the property’s use. Natural amenities include a pleasant or desirable location near water, scenic views of the surrounding area, and so forth. Manmade amenities include swimming pools, tennis courts, community buildings, and other recreational facilities. Appreciation: An increase in the value of a property due to changes in market conditions or other causes; the opposite of depreciation. Broker: A person who, for a commission or a fee, brings parties together and assists in negotiating contracts between them. Certificate of title: A statement provided by an abstract company, title company, or attorney stating that the title to real estate is legally held by the current owner. Closing: A meeting at which a sale of a property is finalized by the buyer signing the mortgage documents and paying closing costs; also called “settlement.” Condominium: A real estate project in which each unit owner has title to a unit in a building, an undivided interest in the common areas of the project, and sometimes the exclusive use of certain limited common areas. Cooperative (co-op): A type of multiple ownership in which the residents of a multiunit housing complex own shares in the cooperative corporation that owns the property, giving each resident the right to occupy a specific apartment or unit. Credit history: A record of an individual’s open and fully repaid debts. A credit history helps a lender determine whether a potential borrower has a history of repaying debts in a timely manner.
Deed: The legal document conveying title to a property. Earnest money deposit: A deposit made by the potential home buyer to show that he or she is serious about buying the house. Escrow: An item of value, money, or documents deposited with a third party to be delivered upon the fulfillment of a condition. For example, the deposit by a borrower with the lender of funds to pay taxes and insurance premiums when they become due, or the deposit of funds or documents with an attorney or escrow agent to be disbursed upon the closing of a sale of real estate. Fannie Mae: A congressionally chartered, shareholder-owned company that is the nation’s largest supplier of home mortgage funds. Home inspection: A thorough inspection that evaluates the structural and mechanical condition of a property. A satisfactory home inspection is often included as a contingency by the purchaser. Lease: A written agreement between the property owner and a tenant that stipulates the conditions, including rental fees, under which the tenant may possess the real estate for a specified period of time. Lien: A legal claim against a property that must be paid off when the property is sold. Mortgage: A legal document that pledges a property to the lender as security for payment of a debt. Principal: The amount borrowed or remaining unpaid; the part of the monthly payment that reduces the remaining balance of a mortgage. Title insurance: Insurance that protects the lender (lender’s policy) or the buyer (owner’s policy) against loss arising from disputes over ownership of a property.
Industrial real estate also demands special knowledge from real estate brokers and agents. A successful industrial broker must know about the needs of different types of industries in order to find a suitable buyer for a property. The broker should know about transportation facilities; labor forces; local building, zoning, and tax laws, and factors such as housing, parks, and school facilities for the potential employer’s employees. Real estate agents also may be involved in the sale or development of industrial parks, which are large areas
designated for industrial use. Another example of land development is housing developments, which can be just one block of houses or an entire community with shopping centers, schools, and police and fire protection facilities. Land development requires a broad knowledge of all phases of real estate: financing, construction, appraisal, leasing, and management. The developer’s first step is selecting the site and buying the necessary tracts of land. Usually, after borrowing money to finance the building,
the developer engages a contractor to build houses or other buildings. A real estate broker hired by the developer or through the developer’s own real estate business puts the buildings up for sale. Another branch of real estate involves building management. Real estate management is concerned with representing the owner in maintaining the property, paying operating expenses, and directing the work of the building employees. Real estate managers must account to the owner each month concerning these activities. Owners of office buildings, apartments, shopping centers, and other types of income-producing real estate generally hire a real estate firm to manage their property, although sometimes the manager is an individual working for the owner. The managing agent often acts as a leasing agent on behalf of the owner and must have sufficient knowledge of rental market conditions and rent control laws to attain the highest degree of occupancy as well as the largest income for the property. A leasing agent is responsible for representing the property owner in leasing the units of a property, collecting rent, and paying operating expenses. Leasing procedures differ somewhat according to whether the property is new and being leased for the first time or whether it is an existing property with previous or existing leases. New properties require careful analysis by the agent to ensure that the rent will represent an accurate estimate of the market. Owners want to obtain the highest possible rents, but it is also essential that the property rent quickly without long exposure to the market. The leasing agent uses advertising, open houses, personal calls to potential tenants, and other sales devices in the process of leasing a new property. The same sales techniques are used in leasing existing properties, but often in these cases only one or two leases are up for renewal at a time. Appraising real estate is another specialized segment of the business. An appraiser writes a report called an appraisal that is used to determine the market value of a property. Banks and mortgage companies usually require an appraisal on a property being financed to verify that the property is adequate security for a loan. Individuals hire appraisers to verify a property’s market value. Appraisers working for the local government to determine the assessed value of property for tax purposes are usually called assessors. The property appraisal must take into account the selling prices of similar pieces of property and also include specific mention of any neighborhood characteristics that detract from or increase the property’s value. The appraisal report includes the structural condition of a piece of property, which is also part of the market value.
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■ Outlook The real estate industry is subject to fluctuations of the economy. Low interest rates encourage people to seek mortgages and buy property, which stimulates the real estate industry. The real estate market can be strong in some parts of the country and weak in other parts of the country. Often, an area will be strong for a certain amount of time, followed by a decrease in the number of real estate transactions. The U.S. Department of Labor indicates that employment for real estate agents and brokers will grow about as fast as the average through 2014. Technology is improving the productivity of agents and brokers. Real estate companies and sellers are making more information available on the Internet and agents are able to serve a much larger number of customers. The use of advanced technology is likely to discourage part-time and temporary real estate work because of the investment costs and the competition with full-time workers. There is a trend among real estate customers to want more of a partnership with their agents instead of turning over all aspects of transactions to their agents. Agents who are willing to be flexible in how they serve clients will be more successful.
A real estate agent marks a home as sold. (Rubberball Productions.)
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Opportunities should be good for property managers as the number of apartments increases and more new homes are increasingly being organized with community or homeowner associations that require professional management to provide community services and oversee jointly owned common areas.
■ For More Information For information on the field of title searching and examining, contact American Land Title Association 1828 L Street, NW, Suite 705 Washington, DC 20036-5107 Tel: 800-787-2582 Email:
[email protected] http://www.alta.org
For information on appraiser careers, publications, professional designations, scholarships, and education, contact Appraisal Institute 550 West Van Buren Street, Suite 1000 Chicago, IL 60607-3805 Tel: 312-335-4100 http://www.appraisalinstitute.org
For information on a career as a property or real estate manager, contact Institute of Real Estate Management 430 North Michigan Avenue Chicago, IL 60611-4011 Tel: 800-837-0706 Email:
[email protected] http://www.irem.org
For information on real estate agents and brokers, contact National Association of Realtors 30700 Russell Ranch Road Westlake Village, CA 91362-6399 Tel: 805-557-2300 http://www.realtor.com
For information on the field of commercial real estate agents, contact Society of Industrial and Office Realtors 1201 New York Avenue, NW, Suite 350 Washington, DC 20005-6126 Tel: 202-449-8200 Email:
[email protected] http://www.sior.com
■ Related Articles Banking and Financial Services; Insurance; Assessors and Appraisers; Insurance Policy Processing Workers; Insur-
ance Underwriters; Property and Casualty Insurance Agents and Brokers; Property and Real Estate Managers; Real Estate Agents and Brokers; Real Estate Developers; Risk Managers; Surveyors; Title Searchers and Examiners
Recreation ■ Background Ancient people, after daily chores such as gathering food and mending clothing, devised ways to amuse and relax themselves. Often, the conclusion of a good harvest was celebrated with dancing, music, and other merriment. However, because most food, clothing, and other necessities were grown or handmade, little time was left for recreation. Sporting events have a long history. The Olympic Games of Greece, first held in 776 b.c., originally had religious significance, but developed as a celebration of athletics and competition. The ancient Greeks held athletics on the same level of study and participation as music, art, and scholarship. Ancient sports such as wrestling, boxing, archery, and track and field are still enjoyed today, by both athletes and spectators. During the Middle Ages there were sports activities for people of all classes. The nobility enjoyed hunting, swordsmanship, and jousting while the common people played various ball games. Skill in all sports and athletic activity was considered a desirable attribute. The perfect Renaissance man, an idea developed during the 14th century, excelled in music, art, and sports, as well as in academia. Today, people still view professional sportsmen and women with high regard; some have reached legendary status. Top athletes such as Lance Armstrong and Alonzo Mourning are respected for their activities off the field, as well as their performance in the arena. Amateur-level sports make up a large part of the recreation industry. Organized leagues offer soccer, basketball, bowling, and baseball, among others, to people who love the competition and activity. Children’s games and leagues, organized by schools, park districts, and private groups, are also gaining in popularity. The recreation industry also includes amusement facilities. The early theme parks and carnivals were built as a source of weekend entertainment. People often brought their families for a day of picnics, games of chance, and simple rides. A day at an amusement park remains a popular family activity. However, to keep fresh and to attract repeat customers, parks are constantly adding bigger rides and more elaborate shows and parades to suit the publics’ ever-changing tastes and attitudes.
The performing arts have provided relaxation and recreation for thousands of years. Theater developed centuries ago from religious dances and rituals. Poetry read aloud in ancient Greece was the forerunner of modern-day tragedy plays. The popularity of theater declined after the rise of Christianity but enjoyed renewed success with the introduction of miracle plays in the 10th century. Theater was not common in the United States until the 18th century. Many cities had resident companies but welcomed performances by traveling acting troupes. Dance is the rhythmic and expressive movement of the body, usually done to music. Dancing can be classified as ceremonial, social, and theatrical. Theatrical dance is a form of recreation enjoyed by many people. Performed by professional dance troupes, theatrical dance is a choreographed dance for performance, such as ballet, modern dance, jazz, and show dance. Social dance, such as folk dance, ballroom dance, and club dance, does not necessarily require professional training, and so provides entertainment and recreation for people of all ages and backgrounds. Ceremonial dance is practiced in association with religious or cultural events. Automation, growing incomes, and more leisure time have prompted tremendous growth and choices in the recreation industry. Recreation is now commonly considered an important part of one’s health and peace of mind. Just about any interest and activity are available to people of all ages, intellects, and incomes. Vacations are planned around the types of recreational facilities available. At times, travel is part of the activity, as is the case with cruises. City budget directors now plan for outdoor activities, stadiums, and theater buildings, knowing that such recreational facilities will attract tourist dollars. Recreational programs are used as physical and emotional therapy for the elderly and people with disabilities. Growing interest and participation points to a bright future for the recreation service industry.
■ Structure The U.S. Department of Labor estimates that there are more than 100,000 businesses in the United States that serve the recreation industry. They range in size from huge theme parks, such as Disney World, to local YMCA centers. Each business provides an outlet for leisure activity that usually falls into one of three large categories—sports, amusement, and performing arts.
Sports Fitness and health clubs are popular forms of sports recreation. Such clubs offer swimming, exercise equipment, weight training, and classes such as aerobics, yoga, and boxing. Some clubs, such as the YMCA and local park
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Words to Know Amateur: A person who competes in sports for pleasure, as opposed to a professional who earns a living from his or her participation. Arcade: A designated room or building housing pinball machines, virtual-reality games, and other coin-operated games of chance. Calisthenics: Exercises done to a particular rhythm or speed, without weights or machinery. Choreography: The art of creating and designing dance steps or stage movements. Leisure: Time away from work or duties. Leisure professional: A person trained, educated, and sometimes certified in the field of leisure studies and recreation. Leisure professionals manage park district activities and programs, sports events, and senior events, among others. Opera: A stage production with all dialogue sung to the accompaniment of an orchestra. OTB: Off track betting parlor; a racetrack satellite facility. Point spread: The numerical difference between the winning and losing score. People often bet for or against the point spread. Recreation: Refreshment of strength and spirit after work or other exertion; a means of diversion. Recreational vehicle (RV): A motorized vehicle used as temporary living quarters during camping or travel. Amenities such as electricity, bathrooms and showers, and sleeping quarters are commonly found in RVs. Comfort and luxury depends on the style and size of the vehicle. Spectator sports: Popular sports that regularly attract large crowds, such as basketball, baseball, football, soccer, and hockey. Theater: A branch of the performing arts connected with the presentation of plays and musicals. Therapeutic recreation: Leisure experience for people with disabilities. Therapeutic horseback riding is an example of therapeutic recreation. Water park: A type of amusement park with a water theme. Swimming and wave pools, water slides, splash pools, and tubing tunnels are available for recreational purposes.
districts, are open to the public, but the majority of fitness clubs are operated on a membership basis. Sports clubs offer just about any type of organized activity such as tennis, racquetball, golf, and yachting. Batting cages, archery, hunt clubs, and shooting ranges, both indoor and outdoor, are included in this category. Private clubs are open only to paying members and their
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guests; public clubs have facilities available for a small fee. Most bowling alleys are open to the public, although many reserve key times or lanes for organized leagues. The largest sports category is commercial sports organizations and facilities that promote professional athletic events such as basketball or hockey. For example the sports organization that owns and manages the Chicago Bulls basketball team also promotes their games at the United Center sports facility. Baseball, soccer, wrestling, dressage, polo, professional ice skating, boxing, and football, among others, are all represented by commercial sports organizations and facilities. Nonprofessional sports are also sometimes organized and offered by large facilities, such as amateur or collegiate versions of all sports, stock car races, and fishing contests. Racing facilities also fall under this category, including tracks for horse, dog, and automobile racing. Employment opportunities in this sector of the recreation industry include athletes, administrative workers, coaches, trainers, managers, instructors, marketing and sales workers, promoters, groundskeepers and groundsmanagers, security workers, stadium and ticket office attendants, and food concession attendants. A very small percentage of people in this field are fortunate and talented enough to make their living as professional athletes or performers.
attractions for positions ranging from retail clerks and service attendants to facility managers and lifeguards. Resorts and ranches, offering activities such as skiing, horseback riding, swimming, along with comfortable hotel accommodations, are found throughout the United States. An increasingly popular recreation option is the youth-oriented facility. Obstacle courses composed of ball pools, mazes and tunnels, padded slides, arcade games, and entertainment provide hours of fun to children of all ages. Many kid zones require children and parents to wear matching badges or some form of identification; such precautions allow children to roam the facility freely and safely. Children’s museums engage the interest, curiosity, and imagination of youngsters with interactive displays, arts and crafts, and hands-on learning experiences. Cruise ships, sailing to just about every port in the world, are quickly gaining in popularity as an all-inclusive source of amusement. Activities and entertainment are offered at a nonstop pace, no matter the length of the cruise. Activity personnel, entertainers, cooks, dining attendants, and housekeepers are some of the recreation workers needed to staff a cruise ship. Camps and campgrounds also provide recreation options for a fee. Day and summer camps offer organized activities ranging from sports, hiking, arts and crafts, and other outdoor events. Campgrounds provide a safe area where people can set up their campers, recreational vehicles, or mobile homes for a short time or extended vacation. Campgrounds usually offer electric and water hook ups, cooking facilities, and bathroom and shower facilities. Some also have tennis and basketball courts, fishing ponds, and common entertainment facilities and activities. Gambling venues such as casinos and riverboats are major players in the recreation industry. Not only do they provide countless jobs ranging from dealers to change attendants, they are important sources of revenue for their states. Large casinos, especially those located in Las Vegas and Atlantic City, are affiliated with hotels or resorts. Many gaming facilities are operated by Native American tribes on reservations throughout the United States.
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Theme parks, amusement parks, carnivals, and arcades are popular recreational destinations. Water parks, which offer a variety of water slides, swimming pools, and wave pools, are also included in this category. Such places employ thousands of workers to manage the park and
Musical entertainment such as classical, jazz, rock, hip hop, blues, folk, or ethnic music is a form of recreation. Similar to professional sports, this is a tough and competitive field; very few people are able to make performing or entertaining a full-time job. Most employment opportu-
A park ranger talks with visitors at Lost Creek Dam, Oregon. (U.S. Army Corps of Engineers.)
nities are in the production side of the industry—agents, managers, advertising and marketing workers, security workers, stage and lighting workers, designers, and concessions workers. The theater provides many employment opportunities for the recreation industry. Theatrical productions, whether full scale Broadway shows or small dinner theater numbers, need performers, promoters, set decorators, ushers, directors, producers, musicians, and stage crews. The theater classification includes live musical productions, opera, and dance productions such as ballet, jazz, and cultural dance events. Alternate forms of theater include live comedy, performance art, and the circus.
■ Outlook According to the U.S. Department of Labor, the amusement and recreation services industry provided about 1.8 million jobs in 2004. The industry is characterized by a large number of seasonal and part-time positions and workers who are younger than the average for all industries. Almost half of workers are under the age of 35. Many businesses in the industry increase hiring during the summer, often employing high school- and college-age workers. The recreation industry should grow faster than the average for all career fields through 2014; an increase of about 25 percent is expected. Several factors contribute to the health of the industry. Today, people earn more— families often benefit from two incomes—and enjoy a greater amount of leisure time than ever before. Since people are more aware of their health and the benefits of physical fitness, they view physical activity less as a hobby, and more as a necessity. The largest growth will be for jobs at facilities catering to the growing middle-aged and elderly population. Golf courses, cruise lines, bingo centers, and other facilities that target the 50- to 75-year-old age group will hire more employees to help keep their businesses running smoothly. Sports facilities, health spas, and fitness centers are popular outlets for the health-conscious public and younger adults with steadily rising incomes. Gambling venues will continue to provide jobs for the industry, as many more states pass legislation in favor of land-based casinos. Many cities and nearby suburbs house satellite betting parlors that employ thousands of workers. Possibilities for the recreation industry are almost endless. Theme parks and amusement parks are constantly expanding and modernizing their attractions to appeal to the public. As estimated by the U.S. Depart-
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ment of Labor, service-oriented jobs, recreation and amusement attendants, in particular, make up about 30 percent of workers in the industry. Job opportunities look good for young workers willing to work part-time at recreation facilities or as seasonal help; unskilled workers should be able to easily find entrylevel positions. Many colleges and universities now have associate and bachelor degree programs in recreation. Advanced training and education is available for those who desire a position in management or administration. However, about 40 percent of all workers in the recreational industry have no formal education beyond a high school diploma. The outlook for the performing arts is strong as the demand for quality entertainment-theater, music, dancecontinues to grow. Employment opportunities for performers and musicians will be competitive as many find this field appealing; only the most talented actors, dancers, or musicians will find steady work. Technical positions, however, should remain plentiful. Unlike other industries, recreation is little affected during economic recessions. When the economy is poor, many people will seek out a sporting event, a day at the carnival, or a musical performance as an escape from tension and stress.
■ For More Information For information regarding industry trends, education, and scholarships, or for a copy of Leisure Today, contact American Association for Leisure and Recreation 1900 Association Drive Reston, VA 20191-1502 Tel: 703- 476-3472 http://www.aahperd.org/aalr
For background information regarding the gaming industry, including salary and industry statistics, contact American Gaming Association 555 13th Street, NW, Suite 1010 East Washington, DC 20004-1109 Tel: 202-637-6500 Email:
[email protected] http://www.americangaming.org
For information on the history of amusement parks and attractions, industry publications, conventions, or membership information, contact National Amusement Park Historical Association PO Box 83 Mt. Prospect, IL 60056-0083 http://www.napha.org
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For information on the Native American gambling industry, contact National Indian Gaming Association 224 2nd Street, SE Washington, DC 20003-1943 Tel: 202-546-7711 http://www.indiangaming.org
For information on the recreation industry, career opportunities, and certification qualifications, contact National Recreation and Park Association 22377 Belmont Ridge Road Ashburn, VA 20148-4150 Tel: 703-858-0784 Email:
[email protected] http://www.nrpa.org
For information on careers in therapeutic recreation, contact National Therapeutic Recreation Society 22377 Belmont Ridge Road Ashburn, VA 20148-4150 Tel: 703-858-0784 Email:
[email protected] http://www.nrpa.org/content/default. aspx?documentId=530
For industry and certification information as a ski instructor, contact Professional Ski Instructors of America 133 South Van Gordon Street, Suite 101 Lakewood, CO 80228-1706 Tel: 303-987-9390 Email:
[email protected] http://www.psia.org
For information on a lifeguard career, certification, and the junior lifeguard program, contact The United States Lifesaving Association Tel: 866-FOR-USLA http://www.usla.org
The University of Maine at Farmington (UMF) offers the Ski Industries certificate program. This specialized program combines a bachelor’s degree with a certificate concentration in the ski industry. For more information, contact UMF Ski Industries 228 Main Street Farmington, ME 04938-1911 Tel: 207-778-7385 http://ski.umf.maine.edu
For career information, employment opportunities, audition schedules, or to submit a resume electronically, contact The Walt Disney Company http://disney.go.com/DisneyCareers
■ Related Articles The Environment; Hospitality; Parks and Public Lands; Travel and Tourism; Adventure Travel Specialists; Amusement Park Workers; Baggage Porters and Bellhops; Bartenders; Caterers; Cooks and Chefs; Cruise Ship Workers; Food Service Workers; Gaming Occupations; Health Club Owners and Managers; Hotel and Motel Managers; Hotel Concierges; Hotel Desk Clerks; Hotel Executive Housekeepers; Inbound Tour Guides; Lifeguards and Swimming Instructors; Recreation Workers; Reservation and Ticket Agents; Resort Workers; Restaurant and Food Service Managers; Security Consultants and Guards; Spa Attendants; Tour Guides; Travel Agents
Religious Ministries ■ Background The largest religions in the United States are Christianity (including both Protestantism and Roman Catholicism) and Judaism. Among Americans professing a religious faith, about 52 percent are Protestant, 24 percent are Roman Catholic, 1 percent are Jewish, 1 percent are Muslim, and 22 percent practice other religions, including Buddhism, Hinduism, and hundreds of others. Only the major religious groups (in terms of numbers of adherents) are discussed here. Hinduism is the oldest of the world’s organized religions and the only one without a founder. It began in India sometime during the second millennium b.c., when its sacred texts, called the Vedas, were written and collected. Hinduism has one supreme God but recognizes many other gods and goddesses. It believes in reincarnation and the law of karma, or cause and effect. It has about 200 sects. Buddhism developed in India in the sixth century b.c. as a reform movement within Hinduism. Its founder was Siddhartha Gautama, known as Buddha. The religion spread into other eastern countries and largely disappeared from India. It also believes in reincarnation and the law of karma. Buddhism has two main branches—
Theravada Buddhism and Mahayana Buddhism—and numerous sects with varying practices and beliefs. Judaism had its beginnings among nomadic Jews about the 14th century b.c., but did not reach developed form until many centuries later in Palestine. It is a monotheistic religion based on the idea that the Jews are chosen by God to be a priest-people to the world. The Torah is the commandment of God to the Jewish people and also records the history of their religion. The Torah includes the Talmud, which interprets Biblical commandments and deals also with many fields of knowledge. Rabbis are the spiritual leaders in Judaism. Beginning in the 1700s, differences in ideology led some Jews to form new movements. Today in America, there are four branches of Judaism: Orthodox, Conservative, Reform, and Reconstructionist. Each movement has its own distinct institutions, rabbis, and forms of observances. Jews adhere to commandments; recite daily prayers; attend services and honor a weekly holy day (the Sabbath); observe dietary laws; hold ceremonies for circumcision, coming of age (bar and bat mitzvah), marriage, and death; and celebrate several annual holidays, among other religious observances. Christianity arose out of Judaism in the first century a.d. Jesus Christ, a Palestinian Jew, claimed to be the Messiah, sent from God to reveal God’s will and redeem the people. Jewish authorities refused to accept him as the Messiah and he was crucified as a political troublemaker. A group of his followers won converts by preaching redemption and salvation through Christ. Christianity spread throughout the Roman Empire and struggled against persecution, but eventually prevailed throughout Europe. After some 1,000 years of solidarity, in 1054, ideological and cultural differences led to a split between Christians in eastern and western churches. In the East, believers formed the Orthodox churches, while believers in the West maintained their allegiance to the Bishop of Rome, thus forming the Roman Catholic Church. Another large group of Christians broke away from the Catholic Church in 1517 after a young monk named Martin Luther protested various doctrines and practices within the Roman Catholic Church, such as the sale of indulgences and certain sacramental practices. A period called the Reformation followed this event, during which Protestantism grew and spread throughout Europe. Protestants split into several groups and subdivided again and again, each group with its own church, leaders, and belief systems. The largest Protestant churches in America are the Baptists, Lutherans (named after the original reformer), Methodists, and Presbyterians. Most Protestants, but not all, use the Bible as a source of guidance,
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Words to Know Church: A Christian place of worship. The word “church” can also refer to an entire religion, such as the Roman Catholic Church or the Church of Scientology. Ministers: Protestant Christian religious leaders who manage churches, lead religious ceremonies and services, and offer religious guidance and education to a congregation, its individual members, and the community. Monks: Men who devote their lives to worship, prayer, meditation, teaching, and other practices associated with their religions. They often live in cloistered communities. Roman Catholic, Buddhist, and Hindu religions all have communities of monks. Mosque: An Islamic place of worship. Nuns: The female counterpart to monks. Roman Catholics and Buddhists have nun communities. Ordination: The ceremony in which seminarians conclude their training and receive holy orders; Roman Catholic priests, Jewish rabbis, and Protestant ministers must all be ordained before they can formally begin their ministries. Priests: In the Roman Catholic and Episcopalian churches, people trained and ordained (in the sacrament of Holy Orders) to serve God and the church; the only people who can celebrate all seven sacraments. Rabbis: Jewish religious leaders who decide questions of Jewish law and ritual, conduct religious services and ceremonies, and offer religious guidance and education to a congregation, its individual members, and the community. Seminary: A religious institution dedicated to the education of those training for ordination: Catholic priests, Jewish rabbis, or Protestant ministers; such students are seminarians. Synagogue: A Jewish place of worship. Temple: A place of worship. This word is used by Jews, Buddhists, Bahá’í, Hindus, and some Protestant Christian denominations. Ulemas: Muslim religious leaders who supervise religious and theological education, handle legal cases in court regarding Islamic law, supervise mosques, and preach Islam, among other responsibilities.
believe in the Holy Trinity (God the Father, God the Son, and God the Holy Spirit) and recognize the sacraments of Holy Communion and baptism. Islam was founded in Arabia by Mohammed in the seventh century a.d. Followers of Islam are called Muslims, meaning “those who submit” (to the will of God). Islam is an extension of Judaism and Christianity, but Muslims believe the Christian Trinity is blasphemy. They acknowledge Jesus Christ as a prophet, but deny
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Topsfield Congregational Church in Massachusetts is typical of the churches found throughout New England. Many of them, like this one, are based on designs made by Sir Christopher Wren for masonry churches in England. (Jean Perley Warren, New Standard Encyclopedia.)
his divinity. They believe in one God, called Allah, and the Koran is their basic source of Islamic law and ritual. Religious obligations include profession of faith, prayer, almsgiving, fasting, and a pilgrimage to Mecca at least once during a Muslim’s lifetime. The two major branches of Islam are the Sunnites, or traditionalists, and the Shiites, who broke from orthodox Islam about a.d. 679 and have since split into a number of groups. There are hundreds of religions in the world today and thousands of branches, denominations, and sects. Ideological differences within groups are likely to continue causing splits and development of new religious groups.
■ Structure Within the Christian religion are two branches: Roman Catholicism and Protestantism.
Roman Catholics recognize the pope as the head of the church and the ultimate authority on faith and morals. The pope is elected by cardinals who also serve as an advisory council to the pope. In addition, the pope is advised on church matters by a synod of bishops and on church government by the Curia Romana (the secretariat of state and various congregations, councils, tribunals, and offices that handle church administration). Most of the world is organized into dioceses, or sees, each headed by a bishop. Dioceses are grouped into church provinces, or archdioceses, each under an archbishop. Dioceses are divided into parishes, each served by at least one priest. Priests, addressed as “father,” are ordained ministers empowered to celebrate Mass and administer the sacraments. Unordained members of religious orders are addressed as “brother” or “sister.” Deacons perform the duties of priests except for celebration of Mass and administration of the sacrament of penance and reconciliation. The Protestant branch of Christianity has several denominational families, the major ones being the Lutheran churches, Anabaptist groups (Amish, Mennonite, and Hutterian Brethren), the Anglican or Episcopalian church, Calvinist churches (Presbyterian and Reformed), Congregational churches (Independent, United Church of Christ), Baptist churches, Methodist churches, and Revivalist groups (Adventists, Pentecostals, and Disciples of Christ). Each of these families has several divisions, or religious bodies, which differ slightly in certain doctrines and practices. For example, the Southern Baptist Convention and the National Baptist Convention USA Inc. are separate bodies of the Baptist denominational family. The Evangelical Lutheran Church, The Lutheran Church-Missouri Synod, and the Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod are bodies that belong to the Lutheran denominational family. In most Protestant denominations, the congregation is the unit of church organization and the source of authority. Denominational bodies may act as advisory bodies or have a considerable amount of authority over congregations. Most congregations have at least one minister, sometimes called a preacher or pastor, who is usually ordained, and presides over religious services, delivers sermons, and leads liturgies and ceremonies. Ministers also take care the congregation’s needs, including education, counseling, visiting the sick and dying, and social and community outreach. Many ministers are involved in evangelical work, or preaching their beliefs to others outside the congregation. Ministers may be assisted by other ministers, elders, deacons, music directors, school teachers, financial managers, and others, depending on the size of the congregation.
The Jewish religion in the United States has four movements: Orthodox, Conservative, Reform, and Reconstructionist. Each movement has a central organization, and synagogues, or temples, are often affiliated with these organizations, but synagogues are usually independent community organizations. The spiritual leader of a congregation is the rabbi—a title taken from the Hebrew word meaning master—who is an authority and teacher of Jewish law. A rabbi can perform rituals and conduct services, but has no more authority to do so than any other adult male member of the Jewish community. In fact a synagogue can operate without a rabbi and have services led by lay people. Rabbis decide questions of Jewish law and ritual. They are teachers who instruct the congregation and resolve disputes about Jewish law. Smaller synagogues may have only one rabbi while larger synagogues may have a chief rabbi and one or more assistant rabbis. Most congregations also have a cantor, or hazzan, who leads liturgies and prayers. Cantors are trained in both music and religious education. Both rabbis and professional cantors are ordained clergy and both have the authority to conduct weddings, funerals, visit sick synagogue members, and teach adult education classes. The religion of Islam has two branches. The majority of Muslims are Sunnites and are orthodox. The Shiites broke away from the Sunnites because of differences in beliefs about the rulers of Islam, called imams. The Shiites are divided in a number of groups, including the Imami, the Zaidis, and the Ismailis. Muslims say prayers privately in their homes or at a mosque. A weekly worship service is held on Fridays, which includes the ritual prayers, a reading from the Koran, and a sermon. Islam has no universal leader and no ordained clergy or priesthood. Religious teachers, called ulemas, or mullahs, supervise mosques, religious and theological education, handle legal cases in court regarding Islamic law, and preach Islam, among other responsibilities. Hinduism has about 200 sects that seem to be separate religions, but they all come from common traditions. Beliefs range from primitive forms of animism to the highest reaches of mysticism and philosophy. Most sects have a mystic strain and all stress nonviolence. Hindu worship for the most part takes place in the home. A Hindu temple or shrine is considered an abode of a deity and is not used for communal worship. There are many kinds of Hindu clergy. Temple priests collect offerings and care for temples and shrines. Domestic priests perform rites involving births, marriages, and deaths. Gurus are spiritual teachers. Sadhus are monks;
Religious Ministries
most live in monasteries, but many live as wandering mendicants (beggars). Buddhism has two major divisions: Theraveda Buddhism and Mahayana Buddhism. There are numerous sects with varying practices and beliefs. Theraveda Buddhism is an austere religion that requires solitude, meditation, and self-mastery through which each member hopes to achieve Nirvana. Many of its followers are monks and nuns who spend most of their time in meditation and teaching. Mayahana Buddhism is less austere and emphasizes liberation for everyone through good faith and good works. Mayahans have elaborate temples presided over by priests. They have colorful festivals and solemn rituals. The many Mahayana sects include Zen, Jodo, Shin, Tendai, and Nichiren Shoshu. Some sects, such as Zen, have monks and maintain monasteries. In the United States, there is no national Buddhist organization. Some groups have ties to organizations in Asia and some have networks of affiliated communities in this country, but for the most part, American Buddhism is divided into many different groups and factions, each with its own organizational structure, teachings, and practices. Although only the major religions in the United States are discussed here, many of the smaller religions are patterned after the larger ones in how they are organized and run. Most have some type of building, such as a church or temple, or simply a designated meeting place for adherents to gather and worship, pray, hold rituals, and teach according to their belief system. Most religions have clergy or leaders who guide, teach, and organize adherents, and who are knowledgeable in the religion’s laws, writings, chants, prayers, and songs. Some congregations have full- and part-time paid positions, particularly for clergy. Most congregations have a combination of paid and nonpaid positions. Larger congregations that are affiliated with major religious groups can pool resources and afford to hire officials. Some religions and congregations provide room and board for officials and pay them a small stipend in addition for living expenses. Paid workers in congregations can include clerical/administrative workers, building and ground managers, musicians, librarians, and teachers at all levels, kindergarten through high school. Some churches, temples, and mosques have schools associated with them to provide both general and religious instruction to children of all ages. Most of the major religions also have colleges and seminaries where their ordained clergy are trained. Smaller religious groups may have very little or no funding. Officials may volunteer or be elected by
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adherents. The adherents volunteer their time, talents, and financial resources to support the congregation.
■ Outlook Prospects are generally favorable for those interested in the ministries of the major religions of the United States. Those who feel called to ministry may not always find positions in their preferred locations or circumstances, but their religion will almost always find a position for them somewhere. Jobs in the religious ministries are not generally highly sought after. The hours are long, working conditions can be poor, the pay is low, and the emotional toll is high. People who seek religious careers do so because of strong belief and conviction to serve in their faith. There is a shortage of Roman Catholic priests, which is expected to continue, resulting in a very favorable job outlook. The growing number of Catholics and new parishes combined with declining seminary enrollments are leaving many churches in need of leadership. In response to the shortage of priests, permanent deacons and teams of clergy and laity increasingly are performing certain traditional functions within the Catholic Church. Deacons cannot celebrate Mass or administer the sacraments of Reconciliation and the Anointing of the Sick, but they are allowed to perform some liturgical functions, such as baptisms, marriages, and funerals, and nonliturgical functions, such as hospital visits, religious teaching, and community service. The number of ordained deacons has increased five-fold over the past 20 years, and this trend should continue. The issue of women in the priesthood is highly controversial in the Catholic Church. Some believe the shortage of male priests suggests a strong need to consider allowing women into the priesthood. Other controversial issues that have arisen to address the priest shortage are opening the priesthood to married men and allowing lay church members to perform some priestly duties. Church membership in Protestant congregations has seen slow growth, while the number of qualified ministers is increasing. Competition will continue to be strong for paid positions through the next decade. Graduates of theological schools should have the best prospects. The degree of competition for positions varies among denominations and geographic regions. For example, relatively favorable prospects are expected for ministers in evangelical churches, but opportunities in large, urban congregations are few. Ministers willing to work part time or for small, rural congregations should have better opportunities. Some denominations ordain women ministers and welcome female leadership in the church, but similar to Roman Catholic and Judaic clergy, the Protestant clergy is overwhelmingly male. It is estimated that U.S. Protestant seminary enrollments are nearly one-third female.
Newly ordained Protestant ministers who are unable to find church positions can find work in youth counseling, family relations, and social welfare organizations; teaching in religious educational institutions; or serving as chaplains in the military, hospitals, universities, and correctional institutions. Opportunities for rabbis are expected to be excellent in all four of the major branches of Judaism, particularly in smaller and poorer communities. Seminary enrollments are remaining steady in the Conservative and Reconstructionist movements and declining slightly in the Reform movement, but the number of positions available far outnumbers the number of ordained rabbis. Newly ordained rabbis are increasingly seeking nonpulpit jobs, such as teaching in Jewish studies programs at colleges and universities; serving as chaplains in hospitals, colleges, or the military; or working in one of the many social service or Jewish community agencies. The three non-Orthodox movements ordain women as rabbis and their ranks are increasing, but there is still an overall shortage, except in large, urban congregations. The Conservative, Reform, and Reconstructionist movements are considering ways to increase the numbers of rabbis, such as recruiting new rabbis for underserved congregations in exchange for forgiving student loans, fast-track seminary programs that can be completed in less time than the standard four to five years, and training more people for administrative duties to relieve rabbis of some congregational responsibilities. Islam has no central organization and no ordained clergy. Muslim leaders are ulemas or mullahs who are scholars and teachers of Islam. They preside at prayers and services and supervise mosques. Mosques with associated schools may hire professional ulemas to instruct students in Islamic law and tradition. Hinduism has no central organization, no ordained clergy, and no congregational worship. There is such a large variety of sects that it would be impossible to name any consistencies in leadership or hierarchy. There are no guidelines for the relationship between clergy and lay people. Various sects have monks, priests of different kinds, and bishops, but there is no particular training program, and religious leaders do not have any political or administrative influence. There is no central national group for Buddhists in the United States, so congregations vary widely in beliefs and practices, size, and organization. Some congregations only have a few members who meet to meditate at someone’s home. Some are large and include residential meditation centers, monasteries, and businesses. Some congregations have little distinction between lay and clerical roles. Others maintain strong divisions between monks and lay people and place greater emphasis on rituals and ceremonies.
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There is a growing need in North America for qualified Buddhist clergy. The larger organizations have seminaries for training monks, priests, lay ministers (teachers), and community workers. Seminary graduates can become full-time priests or monks or part-time teachers. Some choose to start their own temples as affiliates or run their own independent temples. Many people in America devote their lives and careers to religious ministries with no ambition to work as clergy or congregational officials. Hundreds of colleges and universities offer undergraduate and graduate, non-seminary programs in religion and philosophy. People who study religion can become academic theologians, social workers and teachers in religious-affiliated organizations and schools, journalists for religious publications, congregation-based community activists, and music directors. Those who do not have advanced religious training can find positions in their congregations as secretaries and janitors and other paid and nonpaid jobs.
■ For More Information Since there are no central national organizations for Islam, Buddhism, and Hinduism, it’s best to contact local congregations for information. The National Council of Churches of Christ USA encompasses more than 50 Protestant, Orthodox, Anglican, and other denominations—most of which you can link to via the following Web site National Council of Churches (USA) 475 Riverside Drive, Suite 880 New York, NY 10115-0002 Tel: 212-870-2227 http://ncccusa.org
The NRVC can provide information about all kinds of Roman Catholic vocations. National Religious Vocation Conference (NRVC) 5420 Cornell Avenue Chicago, IL 60615-5604 Tel: 773-363-5454 Email:
[email protected] http://www.nrvc.net
To read Vision, a Catholic vocation discernment guide available in print and online form, contact Vision 806 West Washington Boulevard, Suite 201 Chicago, IL 60607-2302 Tel: 800-942-2811 Email:
[email protected] http://www.visionguide.org
Contact these organizations for information on each of the four Jewish movements Hebrew Union College-Jewish Institute of Religion (Reform) One West 4th Street New York, NY 10012-1186 http://www.huc.edu
Jewish Theological Seminary (Conservative) 3080 Broadway New York, NY 10027-4650 Tel: 212-678-8000 http://www.jtsa.edu
Rabbinical Council of America (Orthodox) 305 Seventh Avenue, 12th Floor New York, NY 10001-6008 Tel: 212-807-7888 Email:
[email protected] http://www.rabbis.org
Reconstructionist Rabbinical College (Reconstructionist) 1299 Church Road Wyncote, PA 19095-1824 Tel: 215-576-0800 Email:
[email protected] http://www.rrc.edu
■ Related Articles Active and Contemplative Religious Sisters and Brothers; Protestant Ministers; Rabbis; Roman Catholic Priests
Restaurants and Food Services ■ Background The food service industry includes all types of establishments that prepare, supply, and serve food outside the home. This includes restaurants, carryout operations, cafeterias, school and college dining rooms, catering and vending companies, hotels and motels, and retirement centers. Food service operations primarily serve food to their customers, but they also may provide entertainment, group accommodations, and other services. They range in size from modest neighborhood establishments to luxurious restaurants to nightclubs. Whatever their size,
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A caterer contacts a client to go over the menu they have selected. (Corbis.)
they pay careful attention to purchasing, preparing, and serving food, and many other activities that ensure they meet the expectations of their clientele. Inns with food service and dining halls can be traced back to the Roman Empire. These establishments offered meals to travelers who stayed at the inn and may have provided meals to other guests as well. With the development of roads and the increase in travelers abroad, such as pilgrimages to the Holy Land, the number of dining halls and inns increased throughout Europe and Asia. Places where one could stop to have a meal were founded in England in the 1500s. Taverns also functioned to provide travelers with food and drink. Sometime during the 17th century, coffee was introduced in Europe from Turkey. The beverage became quite popular, and public establishments that specialized in coffee developed. The first coffeehouse is believed to have opened in Vienna in 1645. London had one by 1652. They became regular meeting places for local residents.
The origin of the term restaurant and the history of the modern eating establishment may be traced to France. In 1765, a Paris soup vendor, A. Boulanger, advertised restaurers, or restoratives, and offered choices from a menu of dishes at his modest establishment. Previously, inns and other public rooms had served paying guests, but Boulanger, the soup entrepreneur, is credited with making the restaurant the first public place where any person could choose from a menu listing a variety of food dishes. When the French Revolution brought down the aristocratic houses, displaced kitchen staff members opened their own restaurants. Fine dining halls and restaurants flourished during the late 1700s, and by the early 1800s Paris had more than 500 restaurants. In the United States, a cafeteria-style restaurant opened for gold miners during the 1849 gold rush in San Francisco. The cafeteria offered the miners an opportunity to choose food from the counter and pay for their meal before sitting down to eat. By the beginning of the 1900s, the country’s first diners had opened, as well as the precursors to fast food restaurants. Fast food offered quick service and a limited menu. In 1955, in Des Plaines, Illinois, the first McDonald’s opened. McDonald’s was to become the most extensive fast food franchise in the world. The restaurant and food service industry is the largest employer in the private sector, and it continues to get larger every year. In 2006, the restaurant industry comprised 925,000 locations, employed 12.5 million workers, and had $511 billion in sales, according to the National Restaurant Association.
■ Structure The food service industry is composed of two important parts: operations that prepare and serve food and organizations that produce and distribute the food, equipment, and services that the food providers require. The establishments that prepare and supply food to customers, such as restaurants, coffee shops, fast food chains, food outlets in hotels, catering firms, and a host of other establishments, have specific methods of preparing and serving food. Each fulfills a vital role in providing alternatives to the hungry consumer. For patrons who want a nice leisurely meal, for example, there are traditional, sit-down restaurants. For those who need to eat in a hurry, a fast food eatery provides a good option. Other food service establishments provide dining accommodations in a variety of settings. A caterer, for example, can provide food in a large hall or in the privacy of a client’s home. Hotels can serve food in a banquet hall or in a cozier setting. Hospitals and other institutions often provide food in a cafeteria setting.
The simplest way to describe the work of employees that prepare and serve food is by whether they are front staff or back staff. Employees working in the front of the restaurant are wait staff, host staff, maitre d’s, and bartenders. They have the important responsibility of dealing directly with the public. Those in the back of the house are the kitchen staff. The kitchen staff has the equally important responsibility of producing quality food and drinks so that the customers will return. Throughout the food service industry there is a close working relationship between the preparers and the servers that makes the ability to get along with others very important. It is important that those who work directly with customers have a natural liking and tolerance for the almost infinite variety of customer temperaments. In the food service industry, the customer is almost always considered right because if the customer is not happy, business suffers. Employees who work in the kitchen, such as dishwashers, salad and sandwich makers, and chefs at different levels, depend a great deal on close teamwork. For example, if the dining room attendant does not sort the dishes properly, the busperson, or busser, may have to do extra work and the waiters may not have clean tables ready to seat customers. Food service usually begins with menu selection. From caterers who are selecting the items for a single evening’s affair, to restaurants that are picking specialties that will remain with them for years, the selection of the menu is the single most important factor in distinguishing one facility from another. A menu is decided by owners, managers, chefs, dietitians, caterers, and others who have a good understanding of the type of food and service they will be offering. The combination of foods is selected for ease in purchase, preparation, variety, nutritional value, and attractiveness. Gourmet restaurants are more likely to select items that require patience, expensive ingredients, and great skill in preparation. Hospital food services focus on nutritional content and dietary concerns. Fast food restaurants are concerned mostly with speed of preparation and cost. Fresh Maine lobster is unlikely to be found in fast food restaurants, for example. Modern operating methods are becoming essential in today’s food service industry. Restaurant companies that have devised systems to maximize labor and cut costs generally prosper. But this does not mean that the food service worker is going to be replaced by machinery. Despite increased automation, the need remains for personal service to customers and skill and imagination in the kitchen. Cooks, chefs, bakers, and other food preparers are trained to prepare meals. They may be responsible for
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stocking and purchasing the items, or another staff member may be the buyer. Additionally, they determine kitchen assignments and roles to establish the most efficient method of food preparation. For one kitchen, it may be best to have one chef who makes the main dishes and other heated foods. For another kitchen, it may be better to have a sauce maker, a dessert maker, and an entree preparer at three different stoves. It is up to the managers and owners to determine the best method of staff and kitchen organization.
Words to Know Bar back: Helps bartender by taking care of bar stock, cleaning glassware, keeping ice in good supply, and cleaning the bar area. Bartender: Serves customers, fills drink orders for waiters, sometimes places supply orders and stocks bar. Busperson: Clears and resets tables with fresh linen and silverware, refills water glasses; assists wait staff in serving and housekeeping chores in the dining area. Cook: Prepares and puts food on plates. In large operations, the cook may be responsible for specific foods, such as soups, vegetables, meats, or sauces. Dining room manager: Supervises all dining room staff and activities, including staff training, scheduling staff, keeping time records, and assigning workstations. Executive chef: Responsible for all quantity and quality food preparation, supervision of sous (support) chefs and cooks, and menu and recipe development. Food checker: Verifies each food order as it leaves the kitchen. Host/hostess: Greets patrons, takes care of reservation lists, and shows guests to tables; makes sure there is order and cleanliness in the dining room; may handle complaints. Kitchen assistant: Assists cooks, chefs, and bakers in measuring, mixing, and preparing ingredients. Pastry chef: Bakes cakes, cookies, pies, and other desserts, as well as bread, rolls, and quick breads. Waiter: Takes customers’ orders and passes them to the kitchen with any special instructions, serves food and beverages, makes out checks, and sometimes takes payment. Waiters may be asked to recommend menu items and wines and are often responsible for setting up workstation. (Some establishments use the term waitress to refer to female wait staff, but waiter is widely accepted as the term for both male and female wait staff.) Source: National Restaurant Association
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A pastry chef pipes a cream decoration onto a cake. (Michael Rosenfeld, Tony Stone Images.)
The service side of the food industry also is quite varied. Sit-down restaurants rely on waiters to take orders, bring food to the table, and assist the customers in ordering from the menu. Fast food restaurants have counter workers that take orders, receive money, and either bag the food or have another helper deliver the food to the customer. Cafeteria-style restaurants allow customers to take food directly from display counters, minimizing the need for wait staff. Clearing the tables of dirty plates may be the only table help hired. The organization of the staff is determined by the style, size, and service goals of the establishment. The types of restaurants are plentiful. They may fall into one category or they may provide a few types of service. It is not unusual for sit-down restaurants also to offer takeout and delivery of food. Some restaurants have counters and tables. Others offer private, catered banquet facilities. Owners of restaurants take all this into consideration when designing the format of a new eatery. Chain operations, which have grown in size and number, offer excellent opportunities for success in the food service industry. Chains and franchise operations have certain advantages over individual operations. They may make bet-
ter use of a menu item, a promotion piece, an equipment arrangement, or a formula for doing things that has been worked out carefully and proven successful. The idea can be transferred to other similar operations without the cost of developing and testing it all over again. The chain also has the advantage of headquarters specialists, which individual operators usually cannot afford. A small restaurant may not be able to justify the cost of an elaborate advertising campaign or a series of radio and television commercials. Other opportunities in chain organizations are in accounting, in purchasing, and in the supervision of food and food service by dietitians and managers. Franchise restaurant operations have been growing rapidly and profitably. Their chief appeal is to people who can invest in their own businesses. Franchisees have the advantage of support from nationwide chains, while at the same time they exercise some individual control over food products. Today’s management problems are complicated. Financing is complex, and the required paperwork has multiplied. As in many industries, computers play an increasingly important role in administrative functions. Computer programs are available, for example, that help monitor food inventories, thus making it easier to know when to reorder supplies. Computers also are being used increasingly by food service staff to enter and expedite orders and produce itemized bills. Purchasing is a specialized function in any sizable food service operation. It involves detailed knowledge of hundreds of food products, their suppliers, and the specifications needed to get the right product at the lowest price. Those in the food service industry must be alert to changes in society. Now that the population in the United States is aging, more restaurants are catering to older customers. They have introduced senior citizen discounts and special menu choices for such patrons. In addition, the focus on eating well and eating healthy has resulted in a number of health food restaurants entering the market that feature salads and fresh fruits and vegetables. So strong is the urge to watch calories and fat intake that many restaurants are finding it necessary to add lite dishes, or entrees with reduced sodium, calories, or fat. Some restaurants also offer choices of portion size to accommodate their patrons’ tastes. Ethnic restaurants and restaurants that specialize in particular foods and beverages, such as international coffees, pancakes, or salads, are increasing. The low pay and demanding hours of the food service industry have created a situation where there is a high turnover rate among employees. This is especially pro-
nounced in the fast food segment of the industry, where it is estimated that a fast food position is filled about four times a year. Equipment suppliers are an integral part of the food service industry. Salespeople are needed to inform food service establishments of the latest ovens, kitchen utensils, and other types of supplies. Food service establishments are able to enlist the latest technology in the age-old quest of providing quality food to customers. All kinds of sources exist for the restaurant worker to find out about new equipment, new trends, and education opportunities. Magazines, books, seminars, and associations that specialize in every aspect of the food industry are available to anyone interested in learning more about the food service industry.
■ Outlook The National Restaurant Association reports that there are 12.5 million employees in the restaurant industry, making it the largest private-sector employer in the United States. Only the government employs more workers. One-third of all adults in the United States have worked in the restaurant industry at some time during their lives. In 2004, chefs, cooks, and other kitchen workers held nearly 3.1 million jobs, 892,000 of which were filled by short-order and fast food cooks. Restaurant cooks held 783,000 positions, institutional and cafeteria cooks held 424,000, and food preparation workers and other kitchen workers held 889,000 jobs. Nearly 66 percent of all these employees worked in restaurants and other retail eating and drinking establishments. Almost 20 percent worked in schools, universities, hospitals, and nursing homes. The rest worked in hotels, government and factory cafeterias, grocery stores, private clubs, and other organizations. Food service managers held about 371,000 jobs in 2004, and food and beverage service workers held over 8.9 million jobs. Waiters held about 1.9 million of these jobs; dishwashers, 390,000; dining room and cafeteria attendants and bartender helpers, 267,000; bartenders, 337,000; and hosts and hostesses, 282,000. The restaurant industry in general is expected to grow slightly faster than the average for all industries through 2014. There should be plenty of jobs available for chefs, cooks, and other kitchen workers. Fast food restaurants have been suffering from high turnover and labor shortages, and it is expected that recruiting and retaining employees will be a major challenge in the next few years. In all restaurants, food service employees remain among the lowest paid workers in the United States. Many workers earn close to the minimum wage, and even experi-
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enced workers often earn very low salaries. Restaurant owners will use improved training and advancement programs, bonuses, scholarships, and profit sharing as methods to attract and keep workers. Changes in the economy will have an effect on eating and drinking establishments. When consumers are forced to cut spending, one of the first expenditures they cut is dining out. Anyone involved in the restaurant industry must also consider the strong competition for business and for qualified employees. Restaurants open and close at a rapid pace, and turnover will continue to be high.
■ For More Information For information about careers in food service, contact American Culinary Federation 180 Center Place Way St. Augustine, FL 32095-8859 Tel: 800-624-9458 Email:
[email protected] http://www.acfchefs.org
General career information is available from International Food Service Executives Association 304 West Liberty, Suite 201 Louisville, KY 40202-3035 Tel: 502-583-3783 http://www.ifsea.com
This trade association offers information on certification and other career information. National Association of Catering Executives 9881 Broken Land Parkway, Suite 101 Columbia, MD 21046-3015 Tel: 410-290-5410 http://www.nace.net
For information on the restaurant industry and careers, contact National Restaurant Association 1200 17th Street, NW Washington, DC 20036-3006 Tel: 202-331-5900 http://www.restaurant.org
This trade association offers information on food service employee requirements and training. National Restaurant Association Educational Foundation 175 West Jackson Boulevard, Suite 1500 Chicago, IL 60604-2814 Tel: 800-765-2122 http://www.nraef.org
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For employment opportunities in the Canadian restaurant and food service industry, contact Canadian Restaurant and Foodservices Association 316 Bloor Street West Toronto, ON M5S 1W5 Canada Tel: 800-387-5649 Email:
[email protected] http://www.crfa.ca
■ Related Articles Food Processing; Hospitality; Travel and Tourism; Bartenders; Beverage Industry Workers; Cashiers; Caterers; Cooks and Chefs; Fast Food Workers; Food Service Workers; Food Technologists; Franchise Owners; Health and Regulatory Inspectors; Hotel and Motel Managers; Meatcutters; Restaurant and Food Service Managers; Retail Business Owners; Retail Managers
Rubber ■ Background Natural rubber is a pliable, stretchy material made from the milky juice of various tropical plants. Synthetic rubber, synthesized from petroleum and other minerals, was developed as a substitute for natural rubber. The material is called rubber because it appeared that one of the most practical uses of the gum would be to rub out, or erase, pencil marks. Rubber, whether natural or synthetic, is an essential raw material. No other material is as good for holding air, keeping out moisture, resisting electricity, and stretching. Much synthetic rubber is used today, owing to the greater variety of uses to which it can be applied and the different ways it can be altered for use. Well over half of all the rubber produced is used for tires and tubes for automobiles, trucks, and other vehicles; it is also used in making rainwear, shoes, rubber gloves, and syringes for medical use, large storage containers, floor coverings, balls for sports, insulating materials, and many other products.
Today’s Rubber Industry Today’s rubber industry is 60 percent tire manufacture and 40 percent rubber components supplied to the aerospace, appliance, medical, transportation, construction, electrical, and electronic industries.
Christopher Columbus, while on one of his voyages to the New World in the 1490s, observed natives in Haiti playing with a ball that bounced. It was made from a sticky substance drained from a certain tree through a cut in the bark. Later explorers observed American Indians using the substance to make footwear by applying the substance to earthen molds and allowing it to dry. For a long period of time, people tried to use the milky substance to waterproof their clothing. It worked in the rain but melted in the sun. This problem plagued the would-be users of this promising material for centuries. In 1839, however, Charles Goodyear, an American who had become obsessed with finding a way to make rubber useful in all seasons, discovered the process known as vulcanization. He dropped a glob of rubber mixed with sulfur on a hot stove. When the mixture cooled, it remained pliable in the cold and did not become sticky when exposed to heat. Goodyear’s discovery spawned the rubber industry because it made rubber practical for countless uses. Rubber manufacturing plants were established in New England and later in other parts of the country. Rubber manufacturing moved to the Midwest in the 1870s. This was the hub of the carriage-making industry to which the rubber industry supplied solid, and eventually pneumatic (air-filled), tires. Many of the carriage makers went into automobile manufacturing in the early part of the 20th century, establishing the Midwest as the country’s most important rubber manufacturing area, with Akron, Ohio, as its capital. As the industry grew, manufacturing tended to become centralized in large plants at one location. During the 1930s, however, the trend toward decentralization began. Los Angeles was established as a center on the West Coast, and later, many factories were opened in Southern and other Midwestern states. Meanwhile, export trade expanded. But tariff barriers and import quotas imposed by foreign countries, as well as monetary exchange problems, led to the development of American-owned rubber factories and plantations in foreign countries. The larger companies in the rubber industry are multinational organizations that manufacture and sell their products around the world.
■ Structure Natural rubber usually is grown on plantations in hot, moist climates. Most of the world’s natural rubber is grown in the Far East, primarily Indonesia and Malaysia. Although natural rubber still accounts for some of the rubber used today, synthetic rubber is used more widely. Synthetic rubber can be produced at a cost that makes
Rubber
Words to Know Coagulate: To change from a fluid into a thickened mass. Crude: In a raw or unprepared state; unrefined. Elastomer: A natural or synthetic elastic substance. Latex: A milky liquid in certain plants that coagulates when exposed to air. Manufacture: To convert into a useful form or useful objects. Natural: Produced or existing in nature; not artificial or manufactured. Petroleum: An oily, flammable, liquid solution of hydrocarbons that occurs naturally and is commonly obtained by drilling.
it competitive with natural rubber, and synthetic rubber has more applications. For example, some synthetic rubber has superior air retention, an important consideration in the manufacturing of tires and many other rubber products. The United States is the world’s leading producer of synthetic rubber, accounting for more than a quarter of world production. Natural rubber comes from latex, the milky substance of a number of plants, including the rubber tree. Rubber trees generally need six to seven years of maturity before rubber can be produced. Workers collect the latex by cutting a narrow groove in the bark of the tree and catching the latex in a cup as it flows out of the tree. Trees of rubber plantations may be tapped every day for about two weeks and then allowed to rest, or the trees may be tapped every other day. Since natural latex is only about 30 to 40 percent rubber (the other two-thirds being mostly water, with some resin and protein as well), plantations make crude rubber through a coagulation process that separates the rubber from the other components of latex. Synthetic rubber can be produced in a variety of ways, depending on its final use. For example, styrenebutadiene synthetic rubber, which accounts for more than a third of all synthetic rubber produced, is made from mixing a gas (butadiene) and a liquid (styrene). These chemicals are combined in specific proportions in a big tank containing soap and water. The ingredients are heated or cooled and then mixed until the chemicals form a milky fluid called latex. The latex is coagulated to yield rubber. Rubber manufacturers obtain dry rubber from plantations or from synthetic-rubber manufacturers. Rubber goods are formed from the dry rubber or sometimes from latex, which is shipped to the manufacturing plant
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Pneumatic: Operated by air or by the pressure or exhaustion of air. Raw material: Material before being processed or manufactured into a final form. Recycle: To treat or process in order to use again. Resilient: Bouncing or springing back into shape after being stretched, bent, or compressed. Synthetic: Produced by a chemical process rather than of natural origin. Toxic: Poisonous. Vulcanization: The process of treating crude rubber with sulfur or its compounds and subjecting it to heat in order to make it nonplastic and to increase its strength and elasticity.
in tank cars. Different rubber products are produced through different manufacturing processes, but generally all rubber is heated, shaped, and finished. Most of this work is done by machine. The first step in rubber goods production is breaking up and mixing the crude rubber. Rubber cutters cut bales of crude rubber into pieces. Rubber-mill operators then
Latex forms fine crumbs after being coagulated. (Goodyear Tire and Rubber Company.)
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mix, blend, knead, or refine the crude rubber by running it through a mill with corrugated rolls that break it apart and soften it. Plasticator machines also grind and soften rubber, making it easier to mold. The rubber is then mixed with chemicals, such as carbon black, to impart desirable properties. The rubber then goes through a series of steps designed to blend and shape it into its final form. These steps include compounding, shaping, and vulcanization. Once the rubber is produced, manufacturers must find markets for the finished product. Career opportunities in sales and marketing throughout the rubber industry are among the most diversified anywhere. The industry offers careers in retailing, industrial products, chemicals, packaging and sheeting films, and foam products materials. For the various companies within the industry to maintain a strong market position, each must obtain its share of the available business in all markets. Since markets are constantly changing, a company’s distribution network must adapt to keep pace. To improve position, it must expand faster than the market. This means constant expansion of the various retail outlets that sell rubber products to the consumer. For the replacement tire market, the industry distributes its product mainly through independently owned
Latex crumbs, after being washed and heated, are formed into bales for shipment. (Goodyear Tire and Rubber Company.)
dealerships and company-owned retail stores. These retail organizations provide training for many people in the industry, including those who ultimately sell to manufacturers of original equipment, such as Detroit’s major automobile makers. The sale of tires accounts for roughly 60 percent of the industry’s sales volume. The other 40 percent of sales is derived from the general product areas, such as industrial products, chemicals, flooring, and metal products. Salespeople are concerned with the sale of raw materials and finished products to business and industrial firms in the United States and foreign countries. Typical examples are the sale of tires to car manufacturers, chemicals to paint companies, and rubber piping to the oil industry.
■ Outlook Career growth in the rubber industry will be limited in coming years due to increased automation in rubber manufacturing facilities. In addition, technological advances are making rubber goods more durable and longer lasting, which may slow production somewhat. Because an important part of the rubber industry is devoted to tires for vehicles, rubber goods production will always be related to the state of the automobile industry. When fewer cars are being manufactured and sold, there is less need for workers who make tires. The advent of the long-wearing radial tire, combined with the increasingly expensive capital expenditures needed to stay competitive, has caused some long-established tire and rubber companies to diversify into other areas, leaving the bulk of the U.S. and world tire market to the healthiest of the American companies and to foreign competitors. During the 1990s there were several mergers and cooperative arrangements among major rubber producers, and this type of activity is expected to continue. Experts predict that a major concern for the industry in the next few years will be overcapacity as new plants open in Thailand, Indonesia, and South Korea. The rubber industry is primarily concentrated in seven states: Texas, Louisiana, Ohio, Kentucky, New Jersey, Indiana, and Florida. Texas employs the largest number of workers in the synthetic rubber business. The increasing awareness of environmental problems associated with the huge glut of scrap tires has fostered research into recycling and retreading. In 1990, largely as a result of efforts by the Rubber Manufacturers Association, the Scrap Tire Management Council was founded to promote environmentally friendly ways to dispose of scrap tires. In 2001, the American Society of Testing and Materials approved new standards for tire-derived fuel (TDF). Approximately 125 million tires are consumed annually as TDF, reports the Rubber Manufacturers
Sales
Association. The tire industry is also finding that shredded tires can help with landfill applications, such as liner material, closures, and gas venting systems.
■ For More Information This international not-for-profit trade association has 50 corporate members in 20 countries that produce 95 percent of the world supply of synthetic rubber. International Institute of Synthetic Rubber Producers 2077 South Gessner Road, Suite 133 Houston, TX 77063-1150 Tel: 713-783-7511 Email:
[email protected] http://www.iisrp.com
The following is the primary national trade association for the finished rubber products industry in the United States. It is recognized as the leading business advocate, resource, and information clearinghouse for and about today’s diversified rubber industry. Rubber Manufacturers Association 1400 K Street, NW, Suite 900 Washington, DC 20005-2403 Tel: 202-682-4800 Email:
[email protected] http://www.rma.org
The following is a one-stop resource for technical information and expertise used in designing, building, maintaining, and operating self-propelled vehicles for use on land and sea, in air or space. Society of Automotive Engineers 400 Commonwealth Drive Warrendale, PA 15096-0001 Tel: 724-776-4841 http://www.sae.org
■ Related Articles Automotives; Chemicals; Plastics; Chemical Engineers; Chemical Technicians; Chemists; Industrial Designers; Machine Tool Operators; Molders; Precision Machinists; Rubber Goods Production Workers; Tire Technicians
Sales ■ Background Sales is a complex and diverse field. It involves the selling of all types of physical goods, such as automobile parts,
pharmaceuticals, clothing, health care products, books, and food, as well as services, such as automobile repair or rug cleaning. The selling of physical goods usually requires both a wholesaler and a retailer. The wholesaler is a go between, or person in the middle, between producers of merchandise and retail stores. The wholesaler buys goods in large quantities directly from producers, stores the goods in warehouses, takes orders from buyers (typically retail stores), and arranges for delivery of the merchandise. The retail field consists of supermarkets, department stores, chain stores, specialty stores, variety stores, franchise stores, mail-order houses, and door-to-door sellers. Retail stores buy their goods from wholesalers, stock the goods, and resell them to individual consumers in small quantities. Retailers must know their customers’ needs and wants, and they must also advertise and attractively display the goods they sell. Until a little more than a century ago, the buying and selling of merchandise was relatively uncomplicated. Industrial concerns usually acquired or purchased local components for the goods they produced. Retail store owners periodically would travel to major seaports and manufacturing centers to purchase products for later resale. Retail stores generally could be divided into two kinds: small shops specializing in one type of merchandise and general stores featuring a great variety of goods. In addition, itinerant peddlers served customers in outlying areas by selling goods from house to house. The earliest wholesalers in the United States probably were the ship chandlers, or suppliers, in New England who assembled goods required by merchant and military ships. Ship owners found that a centralized supply source enabled them to equip vessels quickly. With the introduction of mass production and mass marketing techniques in the 19th century, wholesaling became a vital component of the buying and selling process. Individual manufacturers found they could sell more efficiently through the use of a wholesaler. Retail buyers found it more convenient to deal with a few sources of supply rather than hundreds of organizations. In the 1850s and 1860s, U.S. retailing experienced immense growth. Chain organizations such as the Great Atlantic & Pacific Tea Company were established. Such firms as Macy’s and Marshall Field’s grew into sizable department stores. The introduction of low postal rates gave rise to large mail-order firms, such as Montgomery Ward and Sears & Roebuck. F. W. Woolworth organized another familiar type of retailing, the five-and-ten-cent store, better known today as the variety store. Following World War I, self-service was introduced in the clothing and accessories fields and in the grocery
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Learn More about It Darnay, Arsen J., and Joyce Piwowarski (eds.) Wholesale and Retail Trade USA: Industry Analyses, Statistics, and Leading Companies. 2nd ed. New York: Thomson Gale Group, 1998. Gitomer, Jeffrey H. The Sales Bible. Hoboken, N.J.: John Wiley & Sons, 2003. Holden, Jim. World Class Selling: The Crossroads of Customer, Sales, Marketing, and Technology. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1999. Kursmark, Louise M., and Edward R. Newill. Sales Careers: The Ultimate Guide to Getting a High-Paying Sales Job. Indianapolis, Ind.: JIST Works, 2003.
business. In self-service stores, the merchandise and displays, rather than salespeople, were used to induce customers to buy. Horse-drawn streetcars and, later, electrified streetcars brought people to central locations in cities to do their shopping. The movement of people to the suburbs in the 1950s and 1960s stimulated the creation of a new type of merchandising, the one-stop shopping center, smaller than but similar to today’s malls, where all types of merchandise were located in an easily accessible area. Ample parking space generally was available. At the same time, some large department stores, specialty stores, and mass merchandisers, aware that suburban customers no longer made frequent shopping trips to the city, established branch stores in the suburbs. Today, one-stop shopping has been pushed to the extreme, with megamalls that include retail stores, food courts, and entertainment centers. Independent retailers in small cities and towns have been replaced by superstore chains that carry virtually every type of merchandise from groceries to clothing, hardware to DVDs, all under one roof. In the past few decades manufacturing of products has declined and the service industry has increased. Printing, pest control, telecommunications, computer maintenance, lodging, and transportation are among a huge variety of services that employ sales forces. Originally, services sales were accomplished through individual contact with potential buyers. That method is still used today, along with direct mail, telephone, the Internet, and print and media advertising. Both product sales and services sales are closely connected with the advertising, printing, mailing, transportation, and broadcast industries. (The rest of this chapter discusses product sales. For
more information about services sales, see the article “Services Sales Representatives.”)
■ Structure Wholesalers are experts in their particular line of work. They must know everything there is to know about their products and also keep up to date on what competing wholesalers are doing. There are three main types of wholesalers: merchant wholesalers, manufacturers’ sales branches, and merchandise agents and brokers. Merchant wholesalers buy large quantities of merchandise from manufacturers, process and store the merchandise, and then resell it, usually to retail shops. They operate as independent businesses and make their profit from the markup in price they add to goods as they sell them. Merchant wholesalers make up the largest number of wholesalers and are responsible for a great percentage of the total sales in the industry. They usually hire sales workers to call on retail customers. Manufacturers’ sales branches are another important component of the wholesale industry. These businesses are established by manufacturers for selling goods directly to retail shop owners. Manufacturers’ sales branches tend to be set up by large manufacturers. Merchandise agents and brokers represent either the buyer or the seller in a transaction. Unlike the manufacturers’ sales branches or the merchant wholesalers, the agents and brokers do not buy or take direct control of the goods being sold. Rather, they act as intermediaries for either the buyer or seller and receive commissions for their services. Agents often contract with a manufacturer to sell a product or group of products to retail stores, industrial plants, and local distributors in a specific geographic region. They often represent more than one manufacturer. Wholesalers provide either full or limited service. Fullservice wholesalers operate warehouses, supply credit, employ sales workers, and make deliveries. They also may be involved in advertising, packaging, and providing other services to customers. Limited service wholesalers, on the other hand, may only ship merchandise from the manufacturer to the retailer or sell and deliver merchandise directly from their truck. Limited service wholesalers are smaller operations but often can deliver products at a lower cost. There are two types of sales workers in the wholesale industry: those who work in an office and those who do most of their work on the road. Inside sales workers usually work by phone, taking and soliciting orders. They also monitor inventory levels for their customers and process orders. Outside sales workers call on retail store owners and try and persuade them to buy their products.
They make periodic calls on regular customers; inform customers of new and old products, availability of supply, and prices; help with inventory control; arrange for delivery or installation; handle customer complaints; check on the competitors’ activities and products; attempt to lure customers away from other companies; and in general, do all they can to most effectively represent their companies. Sales workers must be familiar with all the elements of their products: their purpose, construction, durability, quality, and style. In addition, sales workers must be well acquainted with the best sources of supply for each type of goods they purchase. A wholesaler who handles sporting goods equipment, for example, must keep up to date on the latest athletic products and keep in constant contact with coaches, athletic directors, and other experts in the field. Similarly, a wholesaler who sells food products reads the latest literature and speaks to experts in the food industry. Sales workers who sell highly technical machinery, such as that sold to steel producers, need to analyze a customer’s business and then adapt products to the customer’s specialized needs. They usually prepare an extensive sales presentation that includes information on the equipment’s specifications, the cost of the equipment, and the total effect upon the customer’s profits or quality of service. Modern technology plays an increasingly important role in wholesaling. For example, computer systems now can expedite the ordering of materials, allowing sales representatives to know at the touch of a button when a customer needs to reorder merchandise. Computers also are being used to improve the delivery of shipments and handling of inventories. Because of its favorable location, excellent port facilities, and large population, New York City is considered the leading wholesale trade center in the United States. Other important wholesale trade centers include Chicago, Kansas City, St. Louis, New Orleans, and Los Angeles. Although shopping in a retail store, from a catalog, or from the Internet is a common activity, the actual work of a retail organization is a mystery to most people. One of the primary tasks of retail stores is to be constantly aware of the changing lifestyle habits, needs, and desires of its customers. They must anticipate the customers’ wishes days, weeks, and even months ahead of time. In addition, because of their competition, retailers must race to get the merchandise first, to offer the best service, and to provide the most attractive setting so that customers are drawn into their particular establishment. In general, stores can be divided into two major groups: specialty stores and general merchandise stores.
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A salesperson helps a customer select an outfit. (Steve Leonard, Tony Stone Images.)
Specialty stores carry just one category of merchandise or several types of closely related merchandise. Specialty stores include apparel shops, building supply stores, automobile dealers, gas stations, household appliance stores, florists, optical goods stores, newsstands, drugstores, shoe stores, sporting goods stores, computer sales outlets, grocery stores, and supermarkets. General merchandise stores include variety stores, junior department stores, and department stores. They stock a multitude of different items under one roof. Variety stores carry broad assortments of goods at limited prices. Junior department stores carry various categories of merchandise in somewhat broader price ranges. Department stores carry large assortments of apparel, home goods, and staple items in even more extensive price ranges. When specialty stores or general merchandise stores feature self-service and bargain prices, they usually are called mass merchandisers. Some stores have only a single location, while others, such as chain organizations and franchise operations, have more than one. The largest stores have several thousand locations. Chain organizations are parent stores with branches. Franchise operations allow individually owned stores to market or sell their line of goods. The major functions of retailing may be divided into five categories: merchandising and buying, store operations, sales promotion and advertising, bookkeeping and accounting, and personnel. Merchandising and buying determines the assortment and amount of merchandise to be sold and displayed. Store operations maintains the retailer’s building. Sales promotion and advertising informs customers and potential customers about the available goods and services. Bookkeeping and accounting workers keep records of money spent and received,
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as well as records of payrolls, taxes, and money due from customers. The personnel department staffs the store with qualified people. Many people are involved in buying merchandise in large organizations, whereas in small stores one or two persons may do all the buying. Before merchandise can be purchased from wholesalers, however, store executives plan for the kinds and amounts of merchandise to be bought. Analyses of previous sales reveal how successful the store was in selling similar merchandise during a comparable period. After these records are examined and the amount of such merchandise already in the store is determined, executives decide on the amount of new merchandise to be purchased. The person who does this kind of planning and supervising in a large organization may be called a merchandiser or merchandise manager. After the general buying plan has been established, the buyer must go to manufacturers’ showrooms or to factories in the United States or abroad to look at the merchandise and select from the available items what the executives have determined will be in demand for the coming season. Contracts then are signed for the delivery of the goods. Buying may be completed as much as six
Words to Know Department store: A store that sells a variety of merchandise organized into individual departments, such as men’s, women’s, and children’s apparel, home furnishings, and accessories. Discount/mass merchandiser: A self-service store that sells all kinds of merchandise at lower overall profit margins than other retailers. Factory outlet: A factory-type location where retailers display and sell clearance merchandise received from other retailers or manufacturers. Factory outlets also include vendors who use a factory or outlet store location to sell their own goods (excess stock, seconds, and returns, etc.) at sharply discounted prices. Specialty store: A store that sells a particular kind of merchandise, such as jewelry, furniture, books, or men’s or women’s apparel. Warehouse club/superstore: A self-service store with cash-and-carry check-out operations and offering few, if any, extra services such as advertising, credit purchases, or deliveries. Some of these retailers require membership. Wholesale club: A self-service retailer that offers nationally advertised brand name goods at wholesale prices to businesses and group members only.
months before the buyer anticipates selling the goods in the store. Store managers of chain stores and department managers in branch stores are responsible not only for merchandise but also for department or store operations. The department manager acts as a departmental supervisor for the buyer in the branch store but does not have the responsibility for actual selection and purchase of merchandise. In a small store, usually one store manager has final responsibility for all operational activities. In a larger organization each function may be supervised by a separate manager. Managers could be in charge of receiving goods, marking them, placing them in the stockrooms or warehouse, and subsequently moving the goods to the selling floor. After the merchandise is sold, other managers may be in charge of wrapping stations and delivery services. Supervision of the selling floor and handling of customer returns and complaints also are activities carried out by operating personnel. Elevator service, housekeeping service, and the relocation of goods for special selling seasons are further responsibilities of operating personnel. Many large retail organizations maintain sales promotion, advertising, and display staffs. The people who work in these fields are responsible for the overall impression that the store creates. A favorable image generates more business for the retailer. Those who produce advertising include the advertising manager, copywriters, graphic designers, desktop publishing specialists, artists, and photographers. Most of the positions in marketing require creative talent. Therefore, those who apply for these jobs usually excel in writing or artwork, or they have had experience in staging shows or running school publicity events. In small stores, most owners or managers employ part-time accountants to take care of the financial records of the firm. The finances of a large store or chain of stores usually are administered by a controller, who has an accounting background and knowledge of computer systems.
■ Outlook According to the U.S. Department of Labor, wage and salary jobs in the wholesale trade are expected to grow about 8 percent through 2014, which is slower than the average for all industries combined. Industry trends in the next decade will include consolidation into larger firms and the spread of new technology, both of which should slow growth in some occupations. Heightened competition and pressure to lower operating costs should continue to force mergers. The result will
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be reduced demand for some workers. More jobs should be available in customer services as consolidation and competition encourage expansion of these services. There also will be employment opportunities for workers in financial, logistical, technical, and advertising positions. Electronic commerce and other types of new technology are expected to affect employment, particularly administrative support and marketing and sales positions. Those jobs are expected to decline as computer technology improves worker productivity. Much of the record keeping, ordering, and processing in wholesaling will be automated, as will inventory management and shipping. E-commerce will lessen the need for bookkeeping, accounting, and auditing clerks. E-commerce will also affect sales workers. Inside sales workers’ jobs will become more technology-dependent as they use computers to track inventory, solicit new business, and provide customer service. Outside sales workers’ jobs will focus more on customer service. The U.S. Department of Labor projects that employment for retail sales workers is expected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations through 2014 due to anticipated growth in retail sales created by a growing population. There will continue to be many opportunities for part-time and temporary workers during peak selling periods. However, during economic downturns, sales decline and the demand for sales workers also declines.
A barge navigates the Cumberland River in Tennessee. (U.S. Army Corps of Engineers)
sentatives; Counter and Retail Clerks; Florists; Franchise Owners; Jewelers and Jewelry Repairers; Merchandise Displayers; Personal Shoppers; Purchasing Agents; Retail Business Owners; Retail Managers; Retail Sales Workers; Sales Representatives; Stock Clerks; Supermarket Workers; Wireless Sales Workers
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■ For More Information
■ Background
For material on educational programs in the retail industry, contact National Retail Federation
The waters of the world have carried civilization around the globe. Today they continue to carry goods worldwide, and the shipping industry is where this activity is centered. Unless you live near ocean ports or busy riverways, you might not realize the extent of this business, also called the maritime industry. All around the world, freighters and container ships move cargo, tankers move oil, and rollon/roll-off ships move cars and other vehicles. The first waterborne vessels were probably used on the rivers of ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia around 4000 b.c. Hollowed-out logs, bundles of papyrus or reeds, and inflated animal skins carried people and trade items along the Nile. Later, the shallow waters of the Mediterranean and Red Seas became traffic routes as well. Trade items were a bit different than they are today, but just as diverse—copper, precious stones, ivory, rare woods, foods, fabrics, and incense. (The Nile, the longest river in the world, continues to be a vital waterway for moving people and cargo in Africa.) Trading vessels were specially designed for their function. They were built rather round so they could hold
325 7th Street, NW, Suite 1100 Washington, DC 20004-2818 Tel: 800-673-4692 http://www.nrf.com
For information on scholarships, internships, and general information about the retail industry, contact Retail Industry Leaders Association 1700 North Moore Street, Suite 2250 Arlington, VA 22209-1933 Tel: 703-841-2300 http://www.imra.org
■ Related Articles Business; Entrepreneurs; Grocery Stores; Antique and Art Dealers; Auctioneers; Automobile Sales Workers; Buyers; Cashiers; Computer and Electronics Sales Repre-
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A freighter unloads its cargo at the port of Charleston, South Carolina. (U.S. Army Corps of Engineers.)
as much as possible with very small crews. Ship design became important, and the use of oars developed into the use of sails to take advantage of the wind. During early centuries, ship speed was dependent on the number of rowing oarsmen; later, and until as recently as the 19th century, speed became dependent on the design and number of sails. By a.d. 1200, the standard sailing ship in Europe had square and triangular sails mounted on two masts. In China, the standard vessel was the junk, a flatbottomed ship with a high stern. Junks were the largest and strongest ships in the world until the 19th century. The shipping trade gradually became a big industry, with vessels transporting more goods with increasing frequency. Large, full-rigged ships weighed hundreds of tons. Types of vessels fell basically into two categories: military (naval) and mercenary (merchant marine). The largest merchant marine fleets belonged to nations, such as Holland and England, countries that engaged in fierce competition for the riches they wanted from the East, specifically India and China. The British East India Company exploited trade with East and Southeast Asia and India from 1600 to 1708; the Dutch East India Company prospered in the 1600s for the powerful Dutch commercial empire.
The establishment of the United States as a political entity after the colonies’ independence from England marked a new phase in the development of shipping. When the North American colonies were ruled by England, their inhabitants were major customers for British goods, sent over by British ships. But colonists eventually found that they could make their own products. After independence, Americans began to build excellent ships more cheaply than other countries; they also staffed and operated them less expensively. Thus the United States became a major player in the shipping industry. As in all industries, progress was put into very quick motion during the industrial revolution of the 1800s. The steam engine, which eventually replaced the use of sails in water vessels for trade, was born at this time. By the late 19th century, the sailing ship was disappearing, replaced by machine-powered vessels. Most advances in steam shipping took place on the North Atlantic, and the United States became the world’s largest marine power. From 1840 until the Civil War, competition in the industry was mainly between Britain and the United States. From the turn of the century until World War II, the United States was a star in the maritime industry. During
wartime, the government relied upon merchant vessels to assist the navy in carrying out procedures such as delivering war materials and other supplies. The world wars gave shipbuilders the motivation to build high-quality vessels, which were ordered by the defense industry. Even today, the government relies on merchant marine vessels to be prepared to help if war occurs. Therefore, in the United States the federal government has traditionally nurtured its shipping industry by giving subsidies to the merchant marine and by passing laws that protect U.S. shipping companies. In 1920, the U.S. Congress made it a requirement that cargo moving between U.S. ports had to be carried in ships built in the United States, owned by U.S. companies, and operated by U.S. crews. The government also eliminated a lot of the competition among U.S. shipping companies by allowing them to join together and set prices and coordinate services. In 1936, the Merchant Marine Act gave cash payments to U.S. vessels to offset the increasing cost of building vessels in the United States. Many believe that the industry shouldn’t be regulated by the government in this way; they believe that such regulation has caused the success of the U.S. shipping industry to decline since the 1940s. The United States is no longer the greatest merchant marine power in the world. The industry is not as cost-effective as it used to be. To begin with, ships built in the United States are at least twice as expensive as foreign ones (yet, as mentioned earlier, current law allows only U.S.-built ships to receive subsidies and carry cargo between domestic ports). In fact, the United States depends on foreign ships and tankers to carry most of its cargo.
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Maritime Education The following institutions offer maritime programs that enable you to train for a maritime career while earning a college degree. Visit their Web sites for more information. Massachusetts Institute of Technology (Cambridge, Mass.) Center for Ocean Engineering http://oe.mit.edu Texas A&M University (College Station, Tex.) Department of Oceanography http://oceanography.tamu.edu University of Michigan (Ann Arbor) Naval Architecture and Marine Engineering http://www.engin.umich.edu/dept/name University of New Orleans School of Naval Architecture and Marine Engineering http://www.name.uno.edu/index.htm Webb Institute (Glen Cove, N.Y.) http://www.webb-institute.edu Stevens Institute of Technology (Hoboken, N.J.) Center for Maritime Systems http://www.stevens.edu/engineering/cms University of Delaware (Newark) College of Marine and Earth Studies http://www.ocean.udel.edu University of Washington (Seattle) Sea Grant College http://www.wsg.washington.edu
■ Structure The U.S. shipping industry, also known as the water transportation industry, is responsible for transporting cargo on the country’s own waterways (known as domestic transport) and to foreign countries (usually known as deep-sea foreign transport). The domestic trade involves shipments of cargo on the Great Lakes, the St. Lawrence Seaway, inland waterways such as the Mississippi and Ohio rivers, and other local waters. Deep-sea foreign and domestic shipping includes three categories: general cargo, dry bulk, and liquid bulk. General cargo includes various types of traded merchandise, such as steel, clothing material, and food items. Dry bulk includes items such as grain, loaded onto ships by large pouring mechanisms. Liquid bulk includes merchandise, such as fuel oil, loaded in tankers rather than shipped in packaged forms like barrels, as in the past. Domestic trade includes movement between the U.S. mainland and Alaska, Hawaii, Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Wake and Midway Islands; trade between the Great Lakes and the three ocean coasts; and the intercoastal trade between the Atlantic or Gulf and Pacific coasts by
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way of the Panama Canal. Inland waterway operations consist of towboats and barges operating on a system of 26,000 miles of navigable waterways, 11,000 of which are considered to be commercially significant. Shipments of Alaskan North Slope crude oil to the lower 48 states, as well as coastal movements of refined petroleum products, provide employment for a large part of the domestic fleet. The Great Lakes sector relies heavily on the steel industry for its cargo. There are differences among the various types of vessels that carry cargo. The merchant marine fleet includes tankers, container ships, barge-carrying ships, and rollon/roll-off ships, among other types of vessels. Vessels that are owned by companies in the United States but that ship cargo to other countries are called U.S.-flag ships. The U.S.-flag, deep-sea foreign trade shipping industry carries merchandise between U.S. and foreign ports in direct competition with other merchant vessels in the world.The two largest U.S. shipping companies are Sea-Land Service Inc. and American President
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Words to Know Barges: Long, large, usually flat-bottomed boats towed or pushed by other watercraft. Bow: The forward part of a ship. Cargo: Merchandise carried in a vehicle of transportation such as a ship or airplane. Container ships: Ships designed to carry cargo packaged in special standardized containers that are loaded directly into the vessel. Mast: The pole to which the sail is attached. Port: The left side of a vessel looking forward. Roll-on/roll-off ships: Vessels that can allow vehicles such as cars to be driven onto and off of easily. Starboard: The right side of a vessel looking forward. Stern: The back of the ship. Tankers: Ships that carry bulk liquids, especially oil.
Lines Ltd. Most of the U.S.-flag ships employed in foreign trade are engaged in liner service and carry relatively high-value cargo. The U.S.-flag foreign trade liner fleet consists of general cargo and intermodal container ships, and other ships designed to carry noncontainerized cargo. Intermodal ships consist of container ships, roll-on/roll-off vessels, and container/barge carriers. There are basically three ways that a shipping company might operate, usually based on the most cost-efficient method for the customer: tramp trade, liner trade, and the captive fleet. In tramp trade, the customer (for example, a clothes manufacturer purchasing a cargo of wool) purchases freight service in an environment similar to a stock exchange or commodities market. The services of shipping companies are matched with cargoes by brokers who meet on a trading floor. Most of the world’s tramp trade is done in the Baltic Exchange in London. Smaller, more specialized brokers (as for oil transport) are often based in various ports around the world. In the liner trade, ships go to and from designated ports on fixed schedules and for more standard rates. Liner companies belong to an international conference system that includes shipping companies of various ownership and nationality. These companies provide regular sailings and maintain their own staffs in ports to handle and dispatch cargo. The third method involves captive fleets, which are shipping companies that are part of larger companies that move their own cargo. For example, the fleets owned by major oil companies to transport and distribute their product are captive fleets.
General cargo operations, mainly working with finished and semifinished goods, usually are performed by vessels called common carriers, following regularly scheduled liner services. Dry bulk cargoes, such as grain, coal, and some wood products, move in specialized vessels under contract or by private carriers. Liquid bulk cargoes, mainly crude oil and refined petroleum products, are carried in tankers and tank barges.
■ Outlook According to the U.S. Department of Labor, employment in water transportation occupations is expected to grow more slowly than the average through 2014. Employment in deep-sea shipping should stabilize after several years of decline. This is due in part to new international regulations for higher standards of safety, training, and working conditions. The regulations should lessen competition from ships that sail under foreign flags of convenience (FOCs). FOCs will have to pay higher insurance rates if they do not comply with the new standards. However, insurance rates for ships under industrialized countries’ flags, including that of the United States, should become less expensive, increasing the amount of international cargo carried by U.S. ships. Shipments of products carried by Great Lakes vessels, such as coal, iron ore, petroleum, sand and gravel, grain, and chemicals, are expected to grow through 2014, but that is likely to be offset by the vast growth of imported foreign steel, which is dampening employment in that area of the country. There are good chances for employment in transport on the Mississippi River system. Employment in shipping will be affected by newer ships designed to be operated by much smaller crews. Automated controls and computerized monitoring systems in navigation, engine control, watchkeeping, ship management, and cargo handling are some technologies that are reducing the need for large crews. Possible future developments include oceangoing cargo vessels that use jet propulsion, called fast ships. These new vessels would decrease ocean-crossing times and in turn, increase business and employment. Crew responsibilities, however, will change and they will need training to learn new skills. The U.S. Department of Labor reports that 72,000 people were employed in the water transportation industry in 2004. At certain points in the year this number may have been twice as large, since many merchant marines and seamen work only part of the year.
■ For More Information For information about the transportation industry, contact the following American Society of Transportation and Logistics 1700 North Moore Street, Suite 1900
Social Sciences
Arlington, VA 22209-1904 Tel: 703-524-5011 Email:
[email protected] http://www.astl.org
Maritime Administration U.S. Department of Transportation 400 7th Street, SW Washington, DC 20590-0001 Tel: 800-996-2723 http://www.marad.dot.gov
■ Related Articles Airlines; Military Services; Railroads; Transportation; Travel and Tourism; Trucking; Aerospace Engineers; Locomotive Engineers; Marine Services Technicians; Merchant Mariners; Public Transportation Operators; Railroad Clerks; Reservation and Ticket Agents; Signal Mechanics; Stevedores
Social Sciences ■ Background Have you ever wondered what future generations will make of our culture? What do you think they’ll dig up on the archaeological digs of tomorrow? Old Beanie Babies? iMac computers? Volkswagen beetles? If you’ve got a bit of the social scientist in you, you may be intrigued by the bit of history or the period of time those artifacts represent. The social sciences are a variety of disciplines and careers concerned with society, its development, history, institutions, and ideas. Anthropologists, sociologists, archaeologists, historians, genealogists, psychologists, economists, and political scientists all work in the social sciences. Historically, social scientists have focused on the past and on aboriginal cultures; today, the field of social sciences has expanded to include the business sector, the government, the environment, and many other concerns and segments of contemporary society. Interest in the history of civilization, the age of the world, and the origins of humankind is practically as old as civilization itself. For many civilizations, religion attempted to answer the questions people had about life and death. From the fifth to the 15th centuries a.d., theories based on the Bible were not only promoted in Europe but excluded all other thinking. Those with differing theories about human existence were subject to imprisonment. These religious cultures of the past are a major area of study for some social scientists today who specialize in the development of religious belief and its impact on society.
Despite the centuries of curiosity, modern anthropology, archeology, and other areas of social science didn’t become established disciplines until the 1800s. But the social sciences still had a way to go; European research of the time was greatly hindered by ethnocentrism. These scientists believed European people to be at the pinnacle of human development. Not only did they consider themselves biologically superior to all other people, but they also believed their society to be culturally superior, overlooking the poverty, crime, and other failings of their cities. This attitude helped European countries to justify their imperialism as they conquered peoples and cultures whom they believed to be inferior and incapable of surviving and developing on their own. By the 20th century, the social sciences became more enlightened, devoted to preserving and appreciating the practices of other cultures. But controversies do still arise. For example, some social scientists adhere to the belief that some Native American tribes practiced cannibalism, while other scientists argue that there is no real evidence to support such beliefs. Controversy also surrounds the removal of artifacts from their archaeological sites and the uncovering of ancient dwellings to be exposed to the elements. In Egypt, the pyramids suffer from the abuses of tourism and mismanagement. To prevent the loss of historical artifacts, social scientists of the 21st century will focus on legislation, organizations, and technology that will preserve these cultural resources for future generations. Social scientists, however, do not just concern themselves with the past. Today, they study and analyze current societies and look for solutions to social, business, personal, governmental, and environmental problems. Most social scientists spend much of their time in research, interviewing, surveying, analyzing historical records, conducting laboratory experiments with human or animal subjects, giving tests and questionnaires, and preparing maps and computer data.
■ Structure Social scientists study all aspects of past and present society. They help us understand how people interact with each other, respond to events, make decisions, and organize themselves in groups. Their research helps us identify societal problems and find solutions. Anthropology is a broad social science that studies human origins and our physical, social, and cultural development and behavior. Physical anthropologists study the physical characteristics of people through the ages and across cultures. They search for the earliest human remains and study the evolution of Homo sapiens and how culture and biology influence one another.
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Words to Know Aggregate: A sum, or total, of the particulars in a study. Anthropomorphic: Those artifacts and pieces of art that appear to feature humans. Antiquities: Monuments and relics of ancient times (before the Middle Ages). Artifact: An object made or changed by a human. Cairn: Stones that have been arranged by humans. Catalog: Descriptions of artifacts recovered in archaeological research. Census: A study of a specific population, detailing age, sex, occupation, income, etc. Demographics: The statistical data of a population study. Ethics: Moral values and principles. Ethnography: A branch of anthropology dealing with the study of cultures. Fieldwork: Research done on a specific site. Hominid: A member of the Hominidae, a family which includes humans. Mechanization: Replacement of human and animal labor with machines. Remote sensing: A general term for survey techniques that don’t disturb subsurface archaeological deposits.
Archaeologists study tools, pottery, human remains, and any artifacts from sites around the world in an effort to understand past societies. Cultural anthropologists study past and present cultures and their customs, values, social patterns, family relationships, religions, governments, and languages. Some anthropologists study all the physical
A contract archaeologist works on an archaeological dig at the site of a flood control project near La Crosse, Wisconsin. (Ken Gardner, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers.)
and cultural aspects of one particular region of the world. Other anthropologists specialize in a specific aspect of culture. Linguists concentrate on language and its sounds, structure, grammar, vocabulary, idioms, and development through time. Ethnobotanists study how cultures use plants, trees, and bushes for medicines, food, and building materials. Ethnomusicologists study the music, musical instruments, and musical traditions of different cultures. Urban anthropologists focus on the physical and cultural patterns of people who live in large urban centers. Geographers are social scientists who study the relationship of physical features and cultures and how they are arranged on local, regional, continental, and global levels. Physical geographers study climate, vegetation, soil, and landforms, and how they influence human behavior and development. Economic geographers study natural resources and economic activities. Other geography specialists include political geographers, cultural geographers, urban geographers, and medical geographers. Historians research, analyze, and interpret the past. They research government records, newspapers and other periodicals, church records, photographs, interviews, films, and personal diaries and letters. Historians usually specialize in a country or region, a particular time period, or a particular cultural aspect, such as social, political, or diplomatic history. Biographers collect detailed information on individuals. Genealogists trace family histories. (Anthropologists also study genealogies to trace family histories and study family relationships.) Some historians preserve archival materials, artifacts, and historic buildings and sites. Political scientists study political systems and public policy. They examine the relations between countries or the institutions and political organization of nations, small towns, and cities. Research topics include public opinion, political decision-making, ideology, public policy, government operations, and various political entities. Sociologists study social behavior by analyzing groups and institutions, including social, religious, political, and business organizations. They analyze the effects that groups have on individual behavior and vice versa, and they study how groups interact with each other. They examine how social traits such as sex, age, and race affect a person’s daily life. Sociological research helps educators, lawmakers, administrators, and others identify social problems and design public policy. The various disciplines in social sciences often overlap since it is impossible to isolate and study one aspect of human life without considering many other aspects. Research is the foundation for all social sciences. For example, archaeologists perform fieldwork at sites, or “digs,” where they excavate artifacts and fossils. Some
research takes place in laboratories, where scientists determine the age of artifacts or conduct social and behavioral experiments on human and animal subjects. Research also includes reading historical documents and other printed material, conducting personal interviews, taking surveys, and gleaning information from computer databases. Most social scientists hold doctoral degrees and most hold academic positions at colleges and universities. Since there is strong competition for academic positions, social scientists are increasingly finding work in government agencies, social service agencies, research and testing services, and management consulting firms. Other employers include international organizations, associations, museums, and historical societies. Jobs are also available in the business sector. For example, advertisers hire social scientists to research the habits of certain groups of consumers; corporations involved in foreign business need translators and cultural advisers; and computer programmers need insight into the nature of human communication in order to create special software.
■ Outlook Overall employment of social scientists is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations through 2014, according to the Occupational Outlook Handbook. Social scientists held about 18,000 jobs in 2004. Prospects are generally best for those with advanced degrees. Anthropologists and archaeologists, should experience average employment growth, while geographers, sociologists, historians and political scientists will experience slow growth, as it is more difficult for them to find work outside of government and academic settings. Most social scientists traditionally have worked for colleges and universities. This is now changing as college humanities and social science programs suffer cutbacks in funding, department size, and faculty hiring. Social scientists are finding many job opportunities outside of academia. Even those with only master’s degrees are finding opportunities with corporations and government agencies. Self-employment also is an option for social scientists. Many self-employed professionals work as consultants, freelance writers, interpreters, and marketing analysts while conducting research for personal projects through the aid of grants and other funding. As a result of these applied sciences, colleges are beginning to offer more practical courses to better prepare students for these jobs. A major influence in the social sciences will be cultural resource management—the maintaining of historical sites, buildings, and other resources of value. In addition to their training in the interpretation and uncovering of artifacts, social scientists will have to learn more about
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World Monuments Watch The World Monuments Watch program selects 100 cultural landmarks around the world that are in need of immediate rescue. As part of the World Monuments Fund, the program develops public-private partnerships aimed at the preservation of seriously threatened monuments. Sites on the 2006 list include the Haji Piyada Mosque in Balkh, Afghanistan; the Riga Cathedral in Riga, Latvia; and the Gulf Coast and New Orleans in the United States. To see a complete list of landmarks on the World Monuments Watch, visit the organization’s Web site at http://wmf.org.
preservation and how to protect cultural sites when presenting them to the public. Technology will continue to affect the social sciences in a variety of ways. With increased public interest in history, more museums, preservation societies, and other institutions and groups devoted to keeping records will make documents and archives available through the Internet. Remote-sensing, sonar, and sensors will enable scientists to explore areas without disturbing them. DNA studies will help scientists learn much more about early humans and human origins.
■ For More Information At the AAA’s Web site, you can read valuable information about anthropology and archaeology, and about current issues affecting social scientists. The AAA also has a student association. American Anthropological Association (AAA) 2200 Wilson Boulevard, Suite 600 Arlington, VA 22201-3357 Tel: 703-528-1902 http://www.aaanet.org
Information on careers for historians is available from American Historical Association 400 A Street, SE Washington, DC 20003-3889 Tel: 202-544-2422 Email:
[email protected] http://www.historians.org
The ASA offers many free career publications, lists of accredited schools, and college student membership, as well as job information. American Sociological Association (ASA) 1307 New York Avenue, NW, Suite 700 Washington, DC 20005-4712
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Tel: 202-383-9005 http://www.asanet.org
For information about careers in archaeology, contact Archaeological Institute of America 656 Beacon Street, 4th Floor Boston, MA 02215-2006 Tel: 617-353-9361 http://www.archaeological.org
For information about careers in geography, contact Association of American Geographers 1710 16th Street, NW Washington, DC 20009-3198 Tel: 202-234-1450 Email:
[email protected] http://www.aag.org
To learn about opportunities to work alongside scientists, contact Earthwatch Institute 3 Clock Tower Place, Suite 100 Box 75 Maynard, MA 01754-2574 Tel: 800-776-0188 Email:
[email protected] http://www.earthwatch.org
The SFAA’s Web site has career listings and publications for those wanting to read more about current topics in the social sciences. Society for Applied Anthropology (SFAA) PO Box 2436 Oklahoma City, OK 73101-2436 Tel: 405-843-5113 Email:
[email protected] http://www.sfaa.net
■ Related Articles Anthropologists; Archaeologists; Ethnoscientists; Family and Consumer Scientists; Genealogists; Geographers; Historians; Linguists; Paleontologists; Political Scientists; Sociologists
Social Services ■ Background In the earliest civilizations, those in need were faced with prejudice and discrimination. Ancient civilizations
believed that people with mental disorders were being penalized by the gods and punished or banished them from society. It wasn’t until 1597 that the Poor Laws were established in England to handle the needs of the poor, aged, and ill; these laws would later be accepted in the American colonies, as well. Prior to government intervention, the needy relied on monasteries and churches for charitable donations of food, clothing, and money. Almoners, distributors of alms to the poor, were common by the 13th century. With the establishment of the Poor Laws, the government took on the responsibility of aid for the first time. Almshouses were established to provide the poor with work and shelter. However, many people were turned away. People had to be qualified to receive this assistance, resulting in the exclusion of alcoholics, prostitutes, and sturdy beggars (beggars seen as able-bodied enough to find employment). Allowing children to labor in the workplace was once considered an aid to poor families, but in the late 19th and early 20th centuries social services went to great lengths to end exploitation of child workers. People with disabilities were often placed in separate communities, taught in separate schools, and employed in separate settings. Though this separation was viewed as beneficial, today, social service professionals recognize the need to help disabled people become actively involved in the larger community. Prejudices like these continued into the 1800s with the work of religious individuals called “friendly visitors.” Mainly middle-class women, friendly visitors made great efforts to help poor families, but their work often focused on moral instruction. Poor people were left to feel responsible for their own miseries. By the late 1800s, charitable organizations in American and Canadian cities began to recognize the need to become more familiar with the experiences and problems of their clients. The visitors were encouraged to learn about those in need focus on beneficial social work rather than moral education. Still, exceptions remained, particularly for alcoholics or those with a history of crime. The settlement houses of the late 19th century brought more enlightened views to social services. These houses, such as Hull House of Chicago, employed well-educated people with a strong desire to see social change. The staff lived in the settlement houses with their clients and were better able to understand their clients’ experiences and backgrounds. Jane Addams, who established Hull House in 1889, wrote extensively of the problems of the poor, and her efforts to provide solutions led to the foundation of social work education. She emphasized the importance of an education specific to the concerns of the social worker and, by the 1920s, many universities had established degree programs in social work.
Many social agencies and federal programs were developed after World War I. The Vocational Rehabilitation Act of 1920 resulted in the development of counseling and employment services for people with disabilities. Social security was established in the United States in the 1930s. The Prat-Smoot Act of 1931 established book programs for the blind, bringing Braille and recorded materials to regional libraries. Today, federal, state, and local governments spend hundreds of billions of dollars on social welfare programs in areas such as public aid, food stamps, medical insurance and assistance, and housing. Housing assistance, through such programs as low-income housing rent and housing costs subsidies, makes up less than 2 percent of the welfare budget. Social security, employee disability, workers’ compensation, and other social insurance programs receive more than half of the welfare budget. All these efforts have led to a thriving social services industry. Although new social problems develop every day, many current problems go unrecognized by society. Federal, state, and local governments work alongside many private and volunteer organizations to identify and offer solutions to these problems.
■ Structure There are four categories of social services: individual and family services, residential care, job training and vocational rehabilitation services, and miscellaneous social services. Individual and family services provide counseling and welfare services, including refugee, disaster, and temporary relief aid. This category includes the government offices that supply welfare assistance, rent supplements, and food stamps. It also includes agencies that provide adult day care and in-home services, such as delivered meals, home health care, and chore services. Other services are child-oriented, such as big brother/big sister programs, child protective services, and adoption services. Individual and family services also include individual, child, marriage, or family counseling offered by crisis centers. Residential care is round-the-clock personal and social care (excluding medical care) provided for the homeless, runaways, children, the elderly, alcohol and drug abusers, the mentally ill, the developmentally disabled, and others who are unable to care for themselves. Job training and vocational rehabilitation services help the unemployed, disabled, and poorly educated learn new job skills or find jobs that fit their current skills. Miscellaneous social services include groups that focus on social change and community improvement,
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A social services workers uses a puppet during a nutrition lesson at a Head Start program for the children of migrant workers. (Associated Press/Pat Christman.)
such as advocacy groups, health and welfare councils, and antipoverty boards. They work at the administrative level to change social policy and raise and distribute funds to appropriate agencies. Shelters demonstrate the variety of jobs available in social services, from helping someone budget for rent and groceries, to building a house for a homeless family, to campaigning for funds and writing grant proposals. Social services employ everything from data-entry clerks to psychologists, research assistants to community planners. Before a shelter can open, policymakers conduct research through surveys, interviews, and evaluations. They decide how to operate and finance the program. They answer questions such as: Is there a need for the shelter? Where is the best location? How many people will be served? How many people will be employed? Where can the money come from? What services will be available? and What impact will the shelter have on the neighborhood? Fund-raisers and grant writers inves-
Profile: Julia Clifford Lathrop Julia Lathrop (1858–1932) was the first chief of the Children’s Bureau of the U.S. Department of Labor, from 1912 to 1921. She was also the first woman in charge of a bureau of the federal government. After 1925, she served as an official of the Child Welfare Committee of the League of Nations. Lathrop was born in Rockford, Illinois. She graduated from Vassar College in 1880. In 1890, she began working with Jane Addams at the Hull House in Chicago. As a member of the Illinois Board of Public Charities, she was an early advocate of occupational therapy for the mentally ill.
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Words to Know Child care workers: Individuals specifically trained to work with small children, from infants to those in elementary school, who require care while a parent works. Corrections workers: Individuals who work with and help persons incarcerated in any of several different types of correctional facilities, from the juvenile delinquent center to the maximum security prison. In high demand are parole and probation officers and prison social workers and psychologists. Crisis counselors: Specially trained workers who talk to people who are in desperate need and may be in danger of hurting themselves or being hurt. Usually, they answer calls from toll-free crisis hotlines that operate 24 hours a day. Emergency assistance and relief workers: Workers with the Red Cross and other agencies that provide emergency assistance and relief to flood, hurricane, and earthquake stricken areas. Financial services workers: Individuals who assist people with the economic aspects of their lives. Financial problems and a person’s inability to cope with stress frequently result in a whole range of problems, from sudden homelessness to the physical or emotional abuse of a child or spouse.
tigate the financial resources available for the project. Once funding is awarded and operating expenses can be met, the fund-monitoring staff keeps track of the money, a key aspect to the continuing survival of an organization. Reviewers frequently evaluate programs and methods of operations to assure the quality of the program. Publicity is necessary for a shelter to inform the community of the services available and to convey the quality and success of the program. For example, a community outreach director educates the community about the problem of teen runaways. A public relations specialist posts notices about the shelter in areas frequented by runaways. A shelter needs people to work directly with clients. Counselors and therapists conduct individual and group counseling sessions. They manage hotlines and provide counseling in crisis situations. Social workers and psychologists work with individuals to help them return to school or their homes or to help them prepare for foster
Fund-raisers: Workers who apply for grants, solicit contributions, and seek other sources of revenues. Essential to most social work organizations, the fund-raiser combines the skills of a writer, researcher, and investigator to develop as large a revenue base as possible. Home health care aides: Workers who provide assistance for the elderly, the disabled, and the ill in the client’s residence. The level of assistance is determined by the clients’ needs and the aides’ training, but can include cooking, cleaning, assisting in bathing and exercise, and all other aspects of daily care that would allow a client to remain in his or her home. Rehabilitation counselors: Those who provide guidance to people with disabilities and train them to gain or regain skills needed for self-help and vocational training. Services administrators: Supervisors of the staff of social workers and human services workers. These workers assign tasks, set schedules, hire and fire personnel, and handle clerical and administrative tasks essential to the management of the facility. Therapists: Specialists who aid clients with a variety of physical or emotional problems through dance, art, or physical movement.
homes. These professionals also evaluate client needs and recommend extended services. A staff at a shelter might include tutors to conduct individual lessons and study groups or trainers to help runaways get involved in school or community sports teams. Employee assistance personnel might provide job counseling, interview skills, and special training. Shelters also require security guards, live-in residential assistants, a custodial crew, cooks, and other positions.
■ Outlook The U.S. Department of Labor (USDL) predicts that employment for social workers will grow faster than average through 2014. Competition for jobs in cities will be high due to the number of qualified candidates, but openings in rural areas may be easier to obtain. The steadily increasing elderly population will keep demand high for health and social service workers who specialize in helping senior citizens.
Space Exploration
Most communities recognize the importance of social services. New social problems develop every day. Most social programs require government funding to continue operating, and bureaucracy and budget cuts can make it difficult to keep a social service running. New initiatives in job retraining and welfare reform could brighten prospects for social services workers, but much depends on government policies. Opportunities for private social workers or social workers in the private sector are expected to grow. Substance abuse is one area identified by the USDL that will increase rapidly. Jobs for school social workers are also predicted to increase. As client groups change, so will social services. For example, as gays and lesbians continue to assert their civil rights and to seek legislation protecting them from discrimination, the social services worker will become more involved in providing them advocacy and legal aid. Changes in immigration policies also will change the kinds of social services available to legal and illegal immigrants.
Volunteers help to fix a home in a charity project for a poor family. (Robert E. Daemmrich, Tony Stone Images.)
Washington, DC 20002-8011 Email:
[email protected] http://www.naswdc.org
■ For More Information
■ Related Articles
For career and industry information, contact American Counseling Association
Alternative Health Care; Education; Health Care; Religious Ministries; Adult Day Care Coordinators; Alcohol and Drug Abuse Counselors; Career and Employment Counselors and Technicians; Child Life Specialists; Creative Arts Therapists; Elder Law Attorneys; Geriatric Psychiatrists; Geriatric Social Workers; Grant Coordinators and Writers; Grief Therapists; HIV/AIDS Counselors and Case Managers; Home Health Care Aides; Hospice Workers; Human Services Workers; Interpreters and Translators; Medical Assistants; Nonprofit Social Service Directors; Occupational Therapists; Orientation and Mobility Specialists; Parole Officers; Psychiatric Technicians; Psychiatrists; Psychologists; Recreational Therapists; Registered Nurses; Rehabilitation Counselors; Sign Language and Oral Interpreters; Social Workers
5999 Stevenson Avenue Alexandria, VA 22304-3304 Tel: 800-347-6647 http://www.counseling.org
This alliance of colleges, universities, and nonprofit organizations prepares undergraduates for careers with youth and human services agencies. For more information, contact American Humanics 1100 Walnut Street, Suite 1900 Kansas City, MO 64106-2239 Tel: 816-561-6415 http://humanics.org
For information on careers in social services, job listings, and educational programs, contact American Psychological Association 750 First Street, NE Washington, DC 20002-4241 Tel: 800-374-2721 http://www.apa.org
For information about careers, colleges, technical institutes, and scholarships, contact National Association of Social Workers 750 First Street, NE, Suite 700
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Space Exploration ■ Background Space exploration began in the second half of the 20th century, but its roots can be traced back to 1926 with the launch of the first vehicle propelled by ejection of gases, the rocket. Russian Konstantin E. Tsiolkovsky and American Robert Goddard developed and launched this early fuel rocket. During World War II, a German team developed
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the V2 rocket, the first long-range guided missile. The era after World War II marked a time of rapid development in space exploration technology. The war had created an atmosphere of distrust among some nations. Both the United States and Russia quickly responded to Germany’s development of the potent V2 rocket, and the arms and space race began. In America, the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA), founded in 1915, pursued research in rocketry with an eye toward developing rockets for use as weapons as well as to put men into space. At this time, scientists were laying the foundation for physically exploring space. Men could reach space via rocket, but what kind of environment would they find there and what kind of equipment would they need to survive? More importantly, how could they return safely? In 1958, the United States reorganized and expanded its space exploration efforts. The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) began operations in October 1958. It absorbed NACA and all of its resources as well as already existing military operations with space laboratories, including the Naval Research Laboratory in Maryland, the Jet Propulsion Laboratory managed by the California Institute of Technology for the army, and the Army Ballistic Missile Agency in Huntsville, Alabama. NASA began conducting space missions shortly after its creation, answering to early Soviet success with the launch of the first man-made Earth satellite, Sputnik. In 1961, it was evident how close the United States and the Soviet Union were in the space race. On April 12 of that year, Russian cosmonaut Yuri A. Gagarin became the first person to travel in space; 23 days later, American astronaut Alan Shepard became the first American to
Useful Acronyms AAA: Anti-aircraft artillery. ALCM: Air-launched cruise missile. BVR: Beyond visual range. ELINT: Electronic intelligence. g: Force of gravity (9.8 m/s2). GPS: Global positioning system. INS: Internal navigation system. Mach: Speed of sound (Mach 1=1,223 km/hr at sea level). SAC: Strategic air command. SAM: Surface to air missile. STS: Space Transportation System TAC: Tactical air command. TOW: Take off weight. VTOL: Vertical take-off and landing. Yaw: Rotation of aircraft about vertical axis.
travel in space. A series of other firsts in space followed: John Glenn became the first American to orbit Earth in February 1962; in 1964, the Soviets placed in orbit the first spacecraft that carried more than one person; and in 1965 Russian cosmonaut Alexei Leonov became the first person to step outside a spacecraft. The space race reached its climax in 1969 when American astronauts Neil Armstrong and Edwin Aldrin Jr. became the first people to set foot on the moon. A major practical use of space technology has been communications satellites. In 1963, the United States launched the first geosynchronous satellite, one that orbits over a fixed location on Earth, moving in sync with the planet’s rotation. Today, the International Telecommunications Satellite Organization oversees the satellites that transmit radio, television, and telephone signals all over the world. Today, much of the work performed by NASA in space is directed at improving our understanding of many biological, chemical, meteorological, and other scientific processes. Developments, such as the reusable space shuttle, the Hubble Space Telescope, the International Space Station (a permanent orbiting laboratory in space), the Mars Exploration Program, and the new Crew Exploration Vehicle (which will replace the shuttle by 2011) have renewed our ambitions toward exploring space. A new and potentially important trend is the move toward serious, private efforts to achieve space travel, which could result in new technology and new discoveries.
■ Structure Space exploration draws on a wide variety of technologies, sciences and industries. The exciting images of rockets blasting toward the heavens and astronauts walking through space present only part of the story—thousands of people here on Earth make those missions possible. In total, only 321 astronauts have been selected in the19 groups from 1959 through 2004. Many other professions contribute to space travel efforts, and a career in engineering or science, for example, may present a more realistic option for students determined to enter this field. A seven-day space shuttle mission, for example, is the culmination of months, possibly years of work by hundreds of professionals. Engineers, scientists, technicians, computer programmers, pilots, mechanics, graphic artists, and administrators are only some of the different professionals needed to run this industry, and many work for NASA, the major employer of space exploration professionals. Aerospace careers specific to space exploration include those in the sciences such as physics and biology. Physics
Space Exploration
plays an important part in the development of new types of aircraft, weapons, and missiles; chemistry research provides new materials for use not only on Earth but also in space. Biologists explore the effects of speed, gravity, and space on the human body, and may also develop vaccines or medical treatments based on research conducted in space. Engineers, technicians, and production workers play a major role in space exploration. They conduct studies of the atmosphere and space; improve the usefulness, performance, speed, safety, and efficiency of combat, aeronautical, and space vehicles; and develop and operate vehicles capable of carrying instruments, equipment, supplies, and living organisms through space and through the atmosphere. Aerospace engineers are highly trained scientists who develop, design, and oversee the assembly of all types of aircraft, including space shuttles, missiles, commercial planes, and military jets. More specialized jobs include the following: applications engineers who analyze the marketplace and help determine which products are needed n chemical engineers who design the processes to produce the chemicals and other materials needed by the aerospace industry n control dynamics engineers who use computers to design flight control systems and analyze their stability n materials engineers who test and analyze various metals, ceramics, plastics, and other materials for the applicability to aerospace manufacture n navigation systems engineers who are responsible for the development and testing of navigation, guidance, and control systems applied to aircraft and spacecraft n
Astronautical and aerospace technicians assist engineers in the design, construction, testing, operation, and maintenance of air and spacecraft. Such assistance includes preparing drawings, diagrams, blueprints, and scale models of the planned craft. Astronauts are the pilots and crew of spacecraft. Highly skilled and educated experts in various fields, they are recruited and trained by NASA to perform a range of sophisticated tasks, such as flying the spacecraft, deploying satellites, and performing scientific experiments on animals, plants, and themselves in a gravityfree environment. Astronomers study the universe and its celestial bodies by collecting and analyzing data obtained through observation and through information obtained by means of spacecraft and Earth satellites. Closely related is the work of astrophysicists, whose investigations focus primarily on studying the physics of the universe. Both astronomers
An astronaut maneuvers near the end of the Space Shuttle Endeavor’s remote manipulation system arm. (NASA.)
and astrophysicists may apply their findings to aerospace manufacturing and space research and flight. Each spacecraft is developed differently. NASA may contract with a company or companies to build to their specifications, or a manufacturer may develop a technology on its own and then try to sell NASA on its usefulness. The construction of the space shuttle is a good example. The shuttle’s orbiter was placed under the responsibility of the Johnson Space Center in Texas, and its principal contractor was Rockwell International. The Marshall Space Flight Center in Alabama, meanwhile, contracted with both Morton Thiokol Chemical Corporation and Martin Marietta Aerospace for the shuttle’s solid-fuel booster and liquid-fuel propellant. While there are only 50 or so major aerospace manufacturers, thousands of subcontractors, from very large to very small companies, supply parts, supplies, materials, and subassemblies to the principal contractors. Manufacturers generally compete for contracts for military, commercial, and space aircraft.
■ Outlook Space exploration is an expensive endeavor for the U.S. government. In recent years, NASA’s budget has been cut more frequently than it has been maintained or increased. The agency underwent a restructuring and streamlining program that included a goal of reducing its civil-servant staff. In 2004 the trend reversed when President George W. Bush called for a new initiative to further space travel and exploration, and as a result NASA projected a $1 billion budget increase over the span of five years. This was expected to positively affect the NASA workforce. Space exploration technology is just one sector of the aerospace industry, which covers the larger industry
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The New Space Race In the tradition of aviation contests and prizes of the early 20th century, the Ansari X-PRIZE was founded in 1996 to spur the growth of space tourism and private space travel efforts. With $10 million put up as prize money, it was hoped that the contest would attract entrepreneurs and engineers who would fund and develop new technologies. The rules are simple. To win, a team must: ■
Privately build and launch a ship that can carry three passengers into space, 62.5 miles above the Earth
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The craft must return to Earth safely
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The team must be able to repeat the flight within two weeks with the same vehicle
On October 4, 2004, SpaceShipOne, which was built by Mojave Aerospace, became the first privately funded, manned craft to reach space and return.
of commercial aircraft production. Many people work for the private aerospace companies that develop and manufacture space equipment. In 2005, the U.S. aerospace industry generated a record $170 billion in sales, according to the Aerospace Industries Association (AIA). The association predicts that aerospace industry sales to NASA and other nondefense federal agencies will increase during the next several years. The AIA reports that employment in this industry (which includes aerospace products and parts, plus search, detection, and navigation instruments) increased to 612,300 in 2005, marking the second straight year of employment growth. The U.S. Department of Labor predicts an 8 percent increase in jobs through 2014—a percentage that is lower than the average predicted for all industries. This slow growth is due mainly to foreign competition plus a decline in air travel and demand for new commercial aircraft. Other areas, such as military aircraft and missiles, will experience better growth. Opportunities are likely to open up steadily as people retire or leave the industry, but competition for employment will be stiff. Terrorism has had a major impact on the aerospace industry, particularly on commercial air travel and airlines, which have experienced a drop in business. Areas of the industry serving the military have grown in response to the terrorist threat, and this has most likely included some spending for space activities such as surveillance satellites. A report from AIA indicated a steady increase in spending by NASA and related agencies in recent years. Aerospace companies will be likely looking for qualified technicians in fields such as laser optics, mission
operations, spacecraft integrations, hazardous materials procedures, production planning, materials testing, computer-aided design, and robotic operations and programming. Students interested in space exploration careers may do well to take advantage of the improvement in the commercial aircraft market to gain experience that helps them gain the upper hand for the more competitive space exploration jobs in the future.
■ For More Information For information on industry news, statistics, and current issues, contact Aerospace Industries Association 1000 Wilson Boulevard, Suite 1700 Arlington, VA 22209-3928 Tel: 703-358-1000 http://www.aia-aerospace.org
These astronomy organizations offer current information on space events such as meteor showers and comets and information on telescopes and other equipment. Amateur Astronomers Association of New York Gracie Station PO Box 383 New York, NY 10028-0004 Tel: 212-535-2922 http://www.aaa.org
American Astronomical Society 2000 Florida Avenue, NW, Suite 400 Washington, DC 20009-1231 Tel: 202-328-2010 Email:
[email protected] http://www.aas.org
For information on careers, the industry, and educational programs, contact American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics 1801 Alexander Bell Drive, Suite 500 Reston, VA 20191-4344 Tel: 800-639-2422 http://www.aiaa.org
This government organization operates the U.S. space program and offers extensive educational and career information on its Web site. National Aeronautics and Space Administration Public Communications and Inquiries Management Office, Suite 1M32 Washington, DC 20456-0001 Tel: 202-358-0001
Sports
http://www.nasa.gov http://www.hq.nasa.gov/hq/index.html
This organization works to advance students’ understanding of space exploration. Students for the Exploration and Development of Space MIT Room W20-401 77 Massachusetts Avenue Cambridge, MA 02139-4307 Email: mitseds-officers@mit http://www.mit.edu/~mitseds
For more information on career choices and schools, contact Aerospace Industries Association of Canada 60 Queen Street, Suite 1200 Ottawa, ON K1P 5Y7 Canada Tel: 613-232-4297 Email:
[email protected] http://www.aiac.ca
■ Related Articles Aerospace; Aeronautical and Aerospace Technicians; Aerospace Engineers; Astronauts; Astronomers; Astrophysicists; Electrical and Electronics Engineers; Engineers; Industrial Engineers; Mechanical Engineers; Pilots; Robotics Engineers and Technicians
Sports ■ Background The first organized athletic events took place in Greece in 776 b.c., with the advent of the ancient Olympic games. The Olympics featured running races, throwing contests, and other competitive events, with the greatest athletes from the Greek empire competing. The Olympics, even then, were colorful events and people from nearby countries gathered to watch. The ancient Romans, although initially scornful of sports, also participated, largely as spectators, in athletic events such as chariot races and gladiator battles. Different cultures and societies developed different sporting pastimes. Bowling, for example, has been around for centuries; a stone ball and nine stone pins were found in the tomb of an ancient Egyptian child. North American Indian tribes played lacrosse with webbed sticks and hard wooden balls centuries ago. Historians believe soccer, perhaps the most widely played sport, dates back to about a.d. 200 in England.
Participation in world-class sporting events demands concentration, dedication, and talent. (Tony Henshaw, Tony Stone Images.)
Although interest in sports diminished during the Middle Ages, sports for entertainment reemerged around 1200 in various European countries. In France, for example, teams played a hockey-like game called la soule. Although la soule was discouraged by authorities because it was thought to be too rough, the sport generated an interest in other games like tennis, which became popular in the 1400s. In the United States, interest in sports grew during the 1800s. The English sport of rugby led to the development of American football, and in 1869, Rutgers and Princeton played the first intercollegiate football game. Many other sports soon followed. Baseball, which stems from the British games of cricket and rounders, was played in its earliest form in 1839 when two teams of schoolboys in Cooperstown, New York, competed in a game of town ball. Town ball, although a popular game, had many problems, among which were its lack of standardized rules and the fact that all hits were fair. Players frequently ran directly into one another. In 1845 Alexander Cartwright brought some standardization to the game, including the shape of the playing field. However, the rules of baseball went through many changes and developments before the game became widely accepted and played in later decades. Basketball has a more easily traceable history. This sport was invented by Dr. James Naismith, a physical
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education instructor at the International Young Men’s Christian Association Training School in Springfield, Massachusetts (today’s Springfield College), in 1891. In the fall, Dr. Naismith’s students played football outside, and in the spring they returned outside for baseball. But during winter, the students and staff were forced to stay in the gym to do calisthenics and march. The students were miserable during these winter activities and complained constantly, and so Dr. Naismith invented a sport for indoor play. He started with the idea of a ball large enough to eliminate the need for sticks, bats, or other equipment. To keep students from being injured indoors by balls traveling straight at them as in soccer, he raised the goals so that the ball would go in a gentle arc. He hung two peach baskets from 10-foot balconies at each end of the gym. To prevent tackling, he insisted that players not run with the ball. In all, Dr. Naismith’s game had 13 rules, and the sport was designed for any number of players. The first game, in December of 1891, had nine men per side shooting at the peach baskets with a soccer ball. Thrilled with the invention, Dr. Naismith’s students went home for Christmas break and taught the game to hometown friends. The new sport caught on quickly. In 1892 Naismith took his students on an exhibition tour of New England, and in 1895 Minnesota State School of Agriculture beat Hamline College 9 to 3 in the first-ever
Extreme Sports Extreme sports are becoming more popular every year. Whether it’s skysurfing, street luge, or sport climbing, extreme athletes perform challenging, risky activities in the name of competition or expanding their chosen sport. The unbelievable abilities of these athletes and the danger they brave draw fans to these sports. People who have never attempted to dive off a cliff or ride a bike down a steep mountain enjoy watching those that will for the competitive thrill of it all. The popularity of extreme sports was recognized in 1991, when both ESPN and MTV began covering extreme sporting events. ESPN also hosts the X Games which has attracted hundreds of extreme athletes in the past few years. Athletes compete for large sums of prize money and other rewards, like lucrative endorsement deals as spokespeople for companies like Nike. Some popular extreme sports include base jumping, street luge, inline skating, motocross, rock climbing, skateboarding, skydiving, snowboarding, surfing, wakeboarding, and windsurfing.
intercollegiate basketball game. By 1915 the rules to the game had been expanded and standardized, but the game changes even today. Modern developments in basketball include the shot clock and the three-point shot. Soon after basketball became popular, golf and tennis were organized into competitive events, and the first boxing championship was held in New Orleans in 1892. As the popularity of sports grew, so, too, did employment opportunities in sports-related occupations. The increasing number and variety of professional sports teams not only created a need for professional athletes but also introduced opportunities for coaches, managers, trainers, and scouts. High school and college athletic programs became highly organized, and many additional jobs were created. The 20th century has seen a rapid growth of sports in the United States, both professional, emphasizing the business of public entertainment, and amateur and recreational sports, underscoring participation. Professional sports, with their strong spectator appeal, monopolize the sports pages and a large portion of TV programming, especially on weekends. Organized competitive school sports also draw vast audiences of spectators. The general population is participating in sports of all kinds in unprecedented numbers. Biking, swimming, hiking, skiing, boating, and many other recreational sports have become more and more popular. Golf, traditionally regarded in the United States as the pastime of doctors, bankers, and wealthy retirees, is also rapidly increasing in popularity with the general public. Much of the current golf craze can be attributed to Tiger Woods, who at the age of 25 became the first player to hold all four major professional golf titles at the same time. With the birth of two professional women’s basketball leagues, the Women’s National Basketball Association (WNBA) and the American Basketball League (ABL) in 1997, and the gold medal-winning U.S. Olympic 1996 softball and 1998 hockey teams, women’s sports became increasingly appreciated. Unfortunately, in late 1998, the ABL filed for bankruptcy, leading many former ABL stars to find positions with WNBA teams. Olympic and World Cup wins by the U.S. women’s soccer team, featuring players like Mia Hamm, Julie Foudy, and Brandy Chastain helped women’s soccer skyrocket in popularity. A women’s soccer league, the Women’s United Soccer Association, started in April 2001 with eight professional teams but, due to financial difficulties, ended operation in 2003. National Pro Fastpitch (NPF), a professional softball league for women, was founded in 2004 and continues to attract fans throughout the United States. These leagues and competitions not only offer women
athletes new and much-needed venues for participation in professional sports, but also provide many jobs in the industry: coaches, administrators, broadcasters, trainers, referees, umpires, and uniform designers, to name a few.
■ Structure In the United States, the five major team sports are baseball, basketball, football, hockey, and soccer. There are also a wide number of individual sports, including tennis, golf, boxing, wrestling, horse racing, running, and race car driving, among others. Most sports teams are owned by one person or a number of people. These owners not only pay the salaries of the athletes and other personnel, but they also exert a strong influence on the personality of a team. Owners select athletes who appeal to them, and they set rules and regulations that create a particular atmosphere in the clubhouse or locker room. Owners view their team as a business, and teams may be bought and sold at the owner’s discretion. Professional team sports are divided into leagues and divisions that act, for administrative purposes, as a subset of the larger sports commission. For example, baseball is divided into the American and National leagues and within these leagues are divisions. Administrators and other staff members working for sports leagues and divisions are involved in scheduling games and tournament play, reviewing and changing policies and procedures, and hiring league personnel such as umpires, among other duties. Many sports team employees work in an administrative capacity in business, management, and consulting offices. Others work as athletes or directly with the athletes, and still others are involved in officiating, sales, concessions, and many other game-day duties. Professional sports are divided into seasons. However, even though the fans might ignore a sport when it’s not being played, most sports league and team employees work year-round. Similarly, an actual sporting event may take only a few hours to play, but most workers in the industry arrive several hours early to prepare for the competition and often stay well after the contest. Many of the games are played at night, on weekends, or even on holidays, when the majority of fans can attend a game or watch on TV. There may be a number of games a week or only one or two. The media have always been an important part of the sports industry. Newspapers, magazines, television, and the Internet do much to publicize the exploits of the athletes, and live radio and television broadcasts bring the
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Words to Know Calisthenics: Exercise to promote physical fitness. Cooperstown: Home of the Baseball Hall of Fame, located in New York State. Curling: Olympic sport in which players shoot a large smooth stone across ice while teammates sweep the area in front of the stone with a broom. Hand checking: In basketball, the illegal use of hands in defense that impedes a player’s progress. International Amateur Athletic Federation: International governing body for track and field. Kinanthropametric technician: Professional who measures the body composition of athletes. Louisville Slugger: A baseball bat-making company that provides bats to Major League Baseball. It was founded in 1884. Power play: In hockey, when a team has more players on the ice than the opponent because of a penalty against the other team. Scout: A professional who attends sporting events in search of new talent. Spalding: Oldest full-line sporting goods company in the United States. Sports agent: Professional who represents professional athletes. Sports commentator: Professional who describes the action in a sporting event for television or radio audiences. Team marketing director: A professional who creates a plan to market a team. Triathlon: An athletic contest in which each competitor takes part in three events: a swimming race, a bicycle race, and a footrace.
games to large audiences. Today, television has become the dominant financial factor in professional sports. On the Internet, most professional teams maintain Web sites and dedicated fans sometimes post sites of their own to support their favorite players and teams. Besides the media, sports touches on a wide variety of other industries. There are companies that design, manufacture, and sell sporting goods; develop sports technology; and publish sports material in books, magazines, and on the Internet. Advertising and marketing workers help attract the public’s interest to sports and use sports to attract the public to other products and services. The structure of nonteam sports such as figure skating, golf, and boxing is similar to that of team sports except
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A swimming coach briefs his team on a new training drill. (Keith Wood, Tony Stone Images.)
that instead of being paid by team owners, employees earn money from sponsoring associations, prize winnings, participation in special tours and performances, and endorsements. The line between amateur and professional sports has begun to blur in recent years. For example, the Olympics traditionally stood as a venue for amateur athletes, but sometimes countries that claimed to have no professional teams sent full-time, state-supported athletes to compete. In 1992, when the U.S. men’s Olympic basketball team, known as the Dream Team, hit the Barcelona courts with such players as Magic Johnson and Charles Barkley, any notion that the Olympic games were for amateurs disappeared forever. Today, professionals compete in Olympic hockey, basketball, volleyball, tennis, soccer, and other events.
■ Outlook The greatest number of job opportunities exists with professional teams. At the highest male professional level, there are 32 National Football League franchises,
30 Major League Baseball franchises, 30 National Basketball Association franchises, 30 National Hockey League franchises, and 13 Major League Soccer franchises. The Women’s National Basketball Association has 14 franchises. The Occupational Outlook Handbook predicts that employment for athletes, coaches, umpires and referees, and related jobs will grow faster than average for all occupations through 2014. The growth will be driven by increasing interest in sports and the retirement of baby boomers, expected to spend much time participating and watching sports. Growing interest in fitness among amateurs will create demand for qualified coaches and trainers. Expansion of school athletic programs will also contribute to job growth. The number of professional teams, in all sports, is relatively stable. This means, however, that the number of jobs is also relatively stable. Specifically sports-related jobs, such as managers, coaches, umpires, and referees, will open only as people retire or otherwise leave the profession. Some jobs will emerge with the birth of expansion teams, such as the Arizona Diamondbacks, which joined professional baseball in 1998, and the less common advent of new leagues or sports, such as the new women’s basketball and softball leagues. For occupations that are also related to other fields, such as journalists, publicists, business managers, and attorneys, there is some movement of trained individuals into and out of the sports sector. The competition for all these jobs is fairly keen. The number of people interested in working in sports in any capacity far exceeds the number of openings. Competition for a job as a professional athlete is much tougher. In college football, for example, there are almost 200 Division I football teams and countless other teams in other divisions, but only 32 American professional football teams in the National Football League. Out of all of the college athletes who wish to make the pros, few will be chosen. Of those chosen, many will not last the season; others will not play for more than a couple of years. Few professional football players are able to make a career of the sport. The same is true for other sports as well. Golf, tennis, and other individual sports enable professionals to play at the international level; however, the financial incentive for players who do not win tournaments is limited. Only a few players will earn the large incomes of athletes on the level of Maria Sharapova, Derek Jeter, or Dwayne Wade. As the field of technology grows, so does its application in the sports industry. Programmers are needed to improve computer-based timing equipment while other workers in sports technology design more aerodynamic bicycles and create swimming pools with minimal wave
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interference. Clothing and fabric designers design athletic wear that allows freedom of movement, low water or air resistance, or support for the feet. Sports medicine is a relatively new addition to the industry and has good growth potential. Sports doctors and surgeons are beginning to specialize in the injuries particular to athletes, and more and more teams and athletes are employing massage and physical therapists, chiropractors and kinesiologists, sports nutritionists, and skilled trainers. In addition, there has been a recent boom in written information on health and sports medicine, including many books and magazines that focus specifically on these issues.
■ For More Information For a free brochure and information on the Junior Olympics and more, contact Amateur Athletic Union PO Box 22409 Lake Buena Vista, FL 32830-2409 Tel: 407-934-7200 http://www.aausports.org
For certification information, trade journals, and other publications, contact American Alliance for Health, Physical Education, Recreation and Dance 1900 Association Drive Reston, VA 20191-1598 Tel: 800-213-7193 Email:
[email protected] http://www.aahperd.org
For a variety of free and inexpensive publications, contact National Association for Girls and Women in Sports 1900 Association Drive Reston, VA 20191-1598 Tel: 703-476-3400 http://www.aahperd.org/nagws/template.cfm
For industry news, special programs, and publications, contact National Association for Sport and Physical Education 1900 Association Drive Reston, VA 20191-1598 Tel: 703-476-3400 http://www.aahperd.org/naspe/template.cfm
For a 15-page publication, NCAA Guide for the CollegeBound Student-Athlete, that addresses academic eligibil-
ity, core-course requirements, financial aid, recruiting, the national letter of intent, professionalism, agents, and other topics, contact National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) 700 West Washington Street PO Box 6222 Indianapolis, IN 46206-6222 Tel: 317-917-6222 http://www.ncaa.org
For market reports and studies, contact Sporting Goods Manufacturers Association 1150 17th Street, NW, Suite 850 Washington DC 20036-4616 Tel: 202-775-1762 Email:
[email protected] http://www.sgma.com
For information on sports careers, contact Women’s Sports Foundation Eisenhower Park East Meadow, NY 11554 Tel: 800-227-3988 Email:
[email protected] http://www.womenssportsfoundation.org/cgi-bin/ iowa/index.html
■ Related Articles Broadcasting; Radio; Recreation; Television; Aerobics Instructors and Fitness Trainers; Golf Course Superintendents; Groundsmanagers and Groundskeepers; Jockeys; Professional Athletes—Individual; Professional Athletes—Team; Recreation Workers; Sports Broadcasters and Announcers; Sports Equipment Managers; Sports Executives; Sports Facility Designers; Sports Facility Managers; Sports Instructors and Coaches; Sports Physicians; Sports Psychologists; Sports Publicists; Sports Scouts; Sports Trainers; Sportswriters; Stadium Ushers and Vendors; Umpires and Referees
Stone, Concrete, Ceramics, and Glass ■ Background The stone, concrete (cement mixed with gravel or crushed rock), ceramics, and glass industries represent
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Producing glass is a delicate process. Finished glass must be carefully stacked to prevent breakage. (Glass Container Institute.)
human creativity and resourcefulness in using material from the earth to make things that can make our lives easier. From the earth come all the elements needed to construct things such as roads, buildings, bathroom fixtures, and rocket components. Stone is hard earthy matter quarried from the ground. Concrete is made by mixing such materials like powdered alumina, silica, and limestone with water to make a solid mass. Ceramics are made from earthen materials like clay. Glass is made from elements like lime, soda, and sand. These materials are essential in manufacturing. Stone and concrete are the primary materials used in the building industries for making structural products, such as altars, paving blocks, roofing, tombstones, prefabricated housing products, building columns, monuments, and sewer pipe. Ceramics and glass are highly adaptable materials used to make everyday items such as eyewear, dishes, and windows, as well as more specialized items, such as the nose cones of missiles and the fiber optics for telephone and television transmission signals. Natural materials from which stone, concrete, ceramics, and glass are extracted have been in the earth for millions of years, and humans have utilized them since prehistory. Thousands of years ago, people made functional articles from simple earthen materials, usually clay hardened by heat. As early as 6500 b.c., the ancient Sumerians made bricks and pottery. Stone and concrete also have been used for thousands of years as building materials. Ancient Egyptians built many structures of
brick and stone. The Romans developed natural cement materials to erect many of their public structures and aqueducts; they introduced masonry construction to the rest of Europe and made innovations in bricklaying, including the use of mortar and different types of patterns. An 18th century English engineer developed cement that set under water. The first portland cement mixture was made in 1824 by burning and grinding together limestone and clay; it soon became the most widely used cement because of its strength and resistance to water. Today, concrete is one of the most common building materials in the world. Metal reinforcement and efficient handling machinery have made concrete useful for building fence posts, swimming pools, sculptures, roofs, bridges, highways, dams, helicopter pads, missile launching sites, and a wide range of other structures. The oldest known piece of man-made glass dates from about 7000 b.c. By 1500 b.c. Egyptians were making colored beads and containers entirely out of glass; the glass industry flourished in Egypt for the next 300 years. By 500 b.c., Syria and other Mediterranean countries also became glass manufacturing centers. Early glassmaking was slow, costly, and painstaking. Glass items were sculpted from solid blocks, until it was discovered that extreme heat allowed glass to be worked more easily. Heating methods, however, were often insufficient because furnaces were small, and the clay pots used to heat the sand mixture were of poor quality. The technique of glassblowing changed that. Historians believe that glassblowing was invented in Syria around 50 b.c. by the Phoenicians. The first golden age of glass, from a.d. 100 to 400, occurred when the art of glassblowing flourished in the Roman Empire. Glass was no longer the luxury it had once been. The second golden age of glass began around 1200. Crusaders returning from the Middle East brought some of the best glassmakers to Venice, where there were large quantities of high-quality sand and other necessary raw materials. To keep the skills of their craft secret, Venetian glassmakers at one time were forbidden to leave Venice and tell anyone of their techniques, except to pass them down to their children or apprentices. By the late 1400s and early 1500s, glassmaking had become an important industry in Germany and other northern European countries for manufacturing containers and drinking vessels. The invention of lead crystal marked the beginning of modern glassmaking. Glassmaking was one of the first industries in the United States. A glass production house was built at Jamestown, Massachusetts, where raw materials and fuels were available. In the early 1800s, the greatest demand on
the glass producers was for window glass. In 1825, the Boston and Sandwich Glass Company heralded a new machine that pressed glass into what came to be called sandwich glass; it allowed for cheaper and faster production of glass in different sizes and shapes. Plate glass was developed for mirrors and other products needing highquality, flat glass. Specialized glass emerged as needs arose or changed. Heat-resistant glass, insulated glass, and shatterproof glass all became part of manufacturers’ product lists. In the 1930s, the Corning Glass Works and Owens-Illinois Glass Company developed fiberglass, which consists of tiny, solid glass rods that are usually much finer than human hair. It is heat-resistant, incombustible, and a nonconductor of electricity. Applications for fiberglass now range from aircraft parts to insulation to fiber optics. In 1970, Corning Glass Works fabricated fused silica glass fibers as a lightwave conduit, and fiber optics emerged. The use of fiber optics has since created revolutions in computers, data transmissions, data storage, and telephone and radio communications. The understanding of fundamental principles of bonding mechanisms (how atoms are held together in a solid) and the resulting properties of certain materials spurred the development of vastly improved clayand sand-based substances—refractories (materials that are resistant to heat), cements, and especially glass. In addition, the relatively new industry of ceramics science developed. We have learned how to use high-temperature processing to blend ingredients and create new and useful things. Many industries now depend on ceramic materials: brick, cement, tile, pipe, and glass in construction; glassware, chinaware, bathroom fixtures, pottery, and spark plugs in consumer goods; refractory materials, electrical insulators, cutting tools, and bearings in industrial products; diodes, capacitors, and computer memory packages in electronics; and high-temperature tile insulation and composite materials in space technology. The ceramics industry is more difficult to trace than the stone, concrete, and glass industries. From 1500 to 1000 b.c. the Chinese produced high-quality ceramic articles. In the late 1800s, scientists learned more about the nature of chemical bonding, providing explanations for the difference in properties between metals and ceramics, especially the high-temperature properties for which ceramic materials are known. Technological advances of the past 150 years have helped ceramics engineers and scientists better understand the nature of earthen materials. The discovery and application of X rays, for example, enabled ceramics engineers to understand the crystal structure of materials.
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Words to Know Alumina: A metallic element found in the earth that has good electrical and heat conductivity; it is mixed with other elements and water to make concrete. Ceramic: Something that relates to the making of products made from nonmetallic elements (like clay) taken from the earth. Concrete: A strong building substance made from some kind of binding material (like alumina, silica, and lime), sand or gravel, and water. Fiber optics: Very thin fibers of see-through glass that transmit light. Glassblowing: The art of shaping heated glass by blowing air into it through a tube. Gypsum: A mineral used in making cement. Kiln: A heated enclosure, like an oven or a furnace, that is used for burning, firing, and drying ceramics or glass. Kiln firers: Employees who supervise the operations of the kilns for heating clay for ceramics; they make sure the temperature remains at the correct level as the clay moves through the kiln tunnel. Limestone: A rock found in the earth that forms from the buildup of calcium elements, such as shells or coral; it is used for building material. Mold makers: Employees who construct the plaster molds required in most ceramic-ware processes; while building the plaster molds, they work with the designer’s plans. Nose cone: The part of a space vehicle that protects its front end. Plate glass: Glass that is rolled, ground, and polished into the form of sheets and used for such things as windows. Silica: An element, such as quartz or sand, found in the earth and used to make concrete.
Pressure to develop new ceramic materials unknown in nature has come from various sources, such as manufacturers of jet aircraft, automobiles, space missiles, nuclear power plants, electronics, and communications equipment. For example, a ceramic tile was developed to protect the exterior surface of the space shuttle from searing heat during reentry into Earth’s atmosphere. In the electronics industry, ceramics engineers and physicists combined their efforts to produce very pure crystals of silicon, the basis of the entire transistor industry. This allowed miniaturization of all electronic circuitry, resulting in low-cost pocket calculators, digital watches, and small computers. The material in the emission-control system of a modern automobile is a ceramic that must
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withstand sudden changes in temperature as well as a very corrosive environment. As the ceramics industry has developed, so have new products, such as glass with very low thermal expansion that can withstand sudden changes in temperature. Other new products include unbreakable dinnerware and glass engineered to be crystalline which has unusual strength. Other areas that benefit from ceramics include medicine, nuclear science, electronics, and computer technology.
■ Structure The stone, concrete, ceramics, and glass industries are parts of the broader manufacturing and construction industries. Companies that are in the stone business take rock from the earth and manufacture it into either cut stone or partly finished stone. The products made from stone are grouped into nearly 20 different categories, including cut stone altars, baptismal fonts, benches, monuments, paving blocks, pulpits, tombstones, urns, and vases, as well as slate blackboards, burial vaults, curbing, marble pedestals and statues, slate roofing, and marble table tops. Stone is a durable, adaptable material for building purposes, although one of its drawbacks is that it may be much more difficult to cut and transport than alternative materials. Today it remains popular, particularly as a material for enhancing the appearance of important structures, such as hotels, public buildings, and churches. In modern construction, a covering of stone veneer about two inches thick is applied in various patterns to exterior surfaces of buildings; the veneer is anchored and supported on a steel frame. Concrete products are even more numerous than stone. This group also includes things made of gypsum, which is a material used in making plaster of paris and is thus useful for coating walls and ceilings. Some factories make only concrete blocks and bricks, which are used by builders. Others make more specialized items, such as bathtubs, burial vaults, ceiling squares, doorframes, fireplaces, water fountains, incinerators, irrigation pipe, storage tanks, and septic tanks. Some companies produce ready-mixed concrete, orthopedic plaster, and wallboard. The ceramics and glass industries use similar raw materials and the same basic technology to create adaptable, long-lasting products. Making both ceramic and glass products involves heat; the difference is that for glass, the materials are usually heated first and then formed, whereas for ceramics, the materials are usually formed first and then heated. Ceramics and glass companies manufacture flat glass and other glass products, structural clay products, pottery, and other products
from materials taken mainly from the earth in the form of clay and sand. The glass and ceramics manufacturing industries are highly diversified and have direct impact on other industries, such as space technology, telecommunications, food chemistry, medicine, nuclear technology, and computer technology. One glass manufacturer alone has developed more than 65,000 different varieties of glass. The glass industry is categorized into companies that make products within the following main divisions: flat glass, glass containers, pressed and blown glass and glassware, and glass products made of purchased glass. The first category mainly includes companies that produce flat glass, such as building glass, cathedral glass, insulating glass, optical glass, picture glass, sheet glass, structural glass, and window glass. It includes companies that treat raw glass with special coating, such as tempered and laminated glass. Tempered glass is heat-treated for strength and resistance; when it breaks, the edges are not jagged and thus are safer than nontempered glass. This type of glass is used for shower stalls, storefront doors, and fireplace screens. Laminated glass improves sound control, security, solar energy control, glare reduction, and resistance to windblown debris. The second group includes companies that make glass containers for commercial packing and bottling and for home canning. Items produced include medicine bottles, vials, water bottles, food jars, and wine and beer bottles. These companies make basically two types of container: those with a narrow neck and those with a wide mouth. Beverages are usually packaged in narrow-neck bottles; foods usually come in wide-mouth jars. The pressed and blown glass section makes products ranging from tableware and Christmas tree ornaments to TV tubes and fiber optic cable. Also in this group are companies specializing in textile glass fibers and pressed lenses for vehicle lights, beacons, and lanterns. Another category includes secondary glass manufacturing firms. Their products are made not from raw glass but from glass purchased from other companies. Products in this group are diverse and numerous, including everyday items, such as shower doors, picture glass, clock glass, and oven door panels. These glass items are also used in many industrial, technical, and other nonhousehold applications, such as bulletproof glass and gravity-sensing electrolytic transducers. Some of the more common glass products in this category, which represent various manufacturing methods, include lab glass, mirror glass, ornamental glass, safety glass, and stained glass. Other companies are more on the cutting edge of technology, producing items like glass wool insulation
products, insulated fiber optic cable, and fiber optic medical devices. The ceramics industry is similarly categorized into companies that manufacture different kinds of ceramic products. The list is a bit longer, however, and includes companies that make brick and structural clay tile, ceramic wall and floor tile, clay refractories, structural clay products, china plumbing fixtures, earthenware table and kitchen articles, porcelain electrical supplies, pottery products, and mineral wool. Products made in the brick and structural tile group are used mainly for their structural properties rather than for decorative purposes. They are used for building and paving. On the other hand, ceramic wall and floor tile is mainly decorative and is made for its aesthetic quality. Refractories are products, such as brick, that are resistant to intense heat, making them ideal for walls, ceilings, blast furnaces, cement kilns, and open hearth furnaces. They are mainly used in fire-resistant construction materials for industrial buildings. Sewer pipe is a common structural clay refractory product. Other refractories are roofing tile, stove and flue lining, and architectural terra cotta. Some companies make plumbing fixtures such as drinking fountains, urinals, flush tanks, and sinks; faucet handles and towel bar holders; china tableware and cookingware; and commercial and household earthenware for cooking and serving food. Earthenware is porous, coarse, and opaque, unlike porcelain and bone china; these are all made with clay but earthenware is fired at lower temperatures and is more breakable than porcelain and china. Unlike other ceramic sectors, the porcelain electrical supplies group involves high technology. These products, such as porcelain electronics insulators and spark plug porcelain, are good insulators for electricity because of how they channel heat. Low-tech companies, on the other hand, make art and ornamental pottery and industrial and lab pottery, and some fire and decorate white china and earthenware. In this group, manual labor is more common than automation, and a lot of the machinery used has not changed much in the last 50 years. The last group, mineral wool, produces two main products: mineral wool for thermal and acoustical insulation and mineral wool for industrial, equipment, and appliance insulation. Products made in this group include acoustical board and tile, fiberglass insulation, glass wool, and roofing mats. Other branches of the glass and ceramics industry involve nonmanufacturing elements. In addition to production, companies also are involved in research, devel-
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opment, and distribution. Many companies are in the business of supplying raw materials to the industrial ceramics and glass industries, including such materials as clays, silica, alumina, feldspar, metallic oxides, special glasses for enamels, ferrites for ceramic magnets, and a multitude of other materials for various special applications. Today, it is essential that suppliers be knowledgeable about the materials they sell. Many suppliers hire engineers who oversee the development of their materials and products. The raw materials industry is highly competitive, demanding close control over material composition and properties. The material supplier must always be ready and willing to assist the customer with technical problems. Raw materials are usually sold to suit specific products. An engineer develops a new concept and tells the developers and researchers what is required on the production line, what new products a customer needs, and what current problems the customer or industry is encountering. At this stage, developers and researchers begin the creation of new products. The researcher then examines the raw materials with sophisticated types of analytical equipment, such as electron microscopes, mass spectrometers, X-ray diffractors, many types of spectrographs, differential thermal analysis devices, thermogravimetric analysis equipment, and sophisticated high-temperature furnaces. Next, development engineers work with production personnel to produce finished articles. Production workers use processing and operating equipment such as grinders, milling machines, sieves, mixing equipment, presses, and spray driers to aid in this process. When a product is completed, salespeople create or expand the market for the item and sell it to clients. The salesperson is active in the development aspect, providing consumer feedback and other marketing information.
■ Outlook The outlook is not rosy for the stone, concrete, ceramics, and glass industries. The industries producing ceramic products are expected to see declines in employment, particularly among assemblers and fabricators; furnace, kiln, oven, and kettle operators; crushing and mixing machine operators; precision inspectors; and grinders and polishers. Declines here are often partly the result of increased automation and decreased demand for products. There will be more opportunities for workers in research and testing, health, and engineering and architectural services. Ceramic materials have been touted as having the potential to solve many of the world’s industrial and environmental problems. Although scientists are finding many new
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uses for ceramic materials, the development of many new materials is still in its infancy. Ceramic materials provide a good solution to the energy problems posed by the high-temperature, corrosive environments involved in solar heating, nuclear reactors, geothermal heat production, and gas turbines, for example. In all four industries, the number of engineering jobs will probably be higher than the number of jobs for production workers. Employment of engineers is expected to grow in the next five years. The growth will be necessary to meet the demands for new materials and to adapt existing products to new applications. The stone, concrete, ceramics, and glass industries are quite dependent on other industries, especially construction and automaking. This means that if the other industries are very active, demand will increase.
■ For More Information This international association provides the latest technical, scientific, and educational information to its members and others in the ceramics and related materials field. American Ceramic Society 735 Ceramic Place, Suite 100 Westerville, OH 43081-8728 Tel: 866-721-3322 Email:
[email protected] http://www.ceramics.org
The following labor union promotes quality construction, builds markets for general contractors, and helps implement training through its National Center for Construction Education and Research and its apprenticeship programs. Associated General Contractors of America 2300 Wilson Boulevard, Suite 400 Arlington, VA 22201-5426 Tel: 703-548-3118 Email:
[email protected] http://www.agc.org
The Minerals, Metals, & Materials Society 184 Thorn Hill Road Warrendale, PA 15086-7514 Tel: 724-776-9000 Email:
[email protected] http://www.tms.org
The NGA is a nonprofit trade association that represents the flat-glass industry and offers educational and certification programs. National Glass Association (NGA) 8200 Greensboro Drive, Suite 302 McLean, VA 22102-3881 Tel: 866-342-5642 http://www.glass.org
This multinational union affiliated with the AFL-CIO offers a quarterly. Operative Plasterers’ and Cement Masons’ International Association 14405 Laurel Place, Suite 300 Laurel, MD 20707-6102 Tel: 301-470-4200 Email:
[email protected] http://www.opcmia.org
■ Related Articles Manufacturing; Metals; Plastics; Bricklayers and Stonemasons; Cement Masons; Ceramic Engineers; Glass Manufacturing Workers; Glaziers; Industrial Designers; Industrial Engineers; Marble Setters, Tile Setters, and Terrazzo Workers; Plastics Products Manufacturing Workers
Telecommunications ■ Background
This museum and educational site has 45,000 objects of glass on view, a comprehensive library on the art and history of glass, and a studio that offers classes for all skill levels. The Corning Museum of Glass One Museum Way Corning, NY 14830-2253 Tel: 800-732-6845 Email:
[email protected] http://www.cmog.org
For information on careers, schools, college student membership, scholarships and grants, and other resources, contact
The telecommunications industry, which consists of the telephone, computer, and cable TV industries, has its roots in the telephone industry. The telephone industry is the nerve system of the United States, consisting of millions of telephones and a vast network of switching and transmission systems. To provide the kind of service required for constantly increasing communications, this industry employs many people in many kinds of jobs. Competition and technological innovation characterize the telecommunications industry. Although the telephone industry is big business, it is also a retail and service organization in each community. Its business is to send individual calls, install and service
individual phones, and serve the needs of the smallest as well as largest community. Alexander Graham Bell invented the telephone in 1875. Bell, a speech teacher who studied electricity as a hobby, wanted to develop a harmonic telegraph so that two or more telegraphic messages could be sent over a single wire at the same time. By chance, the essential principles of the telephone were discovered. The telephone earned praise when it was demonstrated at the Centennial Exposition in Philadelphia in June 1876, but it did not gain widespread support until 1877, when Bell gave a number of public demonstrations of his invention. By 1892, Chicago and New York were linked by long-distance telephone lines, and by 1915 it was possible to make a telephone call between New York and San Francisco. The Bell System, which operates most of the nation’s phones, was once one giant corporation supervising the work of local operating companies. American Telephone and Telegraph Company (AT&T), the parent corporation, was the subject of a successful antitrust suit by the U.S. Department of Justice. Effective January 1, 1984, the local companies, organized into seven regions, were divested (separated from the control of AT&T) and given autonomy over local phone service. Independent companies were meanwhile offering competitive long-distance call packages, taking some business away from AT&T. The two systems, the independent and Bell, offer many of the same services. The partial deregulation of the industry, dating from the late 1960s, and the AT&T divestiture of January 1984, led to major changes in the telecommunications industry. The regional Bell operating companies were allowed to enter new markets, such as computers and software, that formerly were restricted to them. Likewise, markets within the telephone industry were opened up to companies that previously had not been allowed to operate in them. Hence, the divestiture of AT&T paved the way for companies to explore new transmission methods and to invest in technologically advanced equipment that today provides many new services and products. Common telephone services today that are the result of relatively recent technology include features such as call waiting, three-way calling, call tracing, automatic number identification or caller ID, voice messaging, and audio conferencing. Long-distance calls can also be connected much more quickly than in the past, with satellites making it possible to connect overseas calls in a matter of seconds. Voice processing equipment allows callers to access computers and, through the use of touch tone telephones, communicate with them. Banks, utility companies, and businesses are increasingly using voice response systems
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This is a fiber optic submarine cable. The individual fibers are embedded in a plastic core surrounded by steel-strengthening cables and an outer protective plastic jacket. (AT&T)
to route calls and allow people to request information and place orders without the need to talk to a person. A significant change in the last few decades is advanced technology in wireless communications. For over a century, the telephone industry relied primarily on wires to transmit and receive sound. Cellular technology, which relies on low-powered radio transmissions rather than wire transmission, existed as far back as the 1930s, when mobile radios were first used by law enforcement and fire fighting personnel. In 1982, the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) allowed non-telephone companies to receive cellular licenses, which allowed them to use specified radio frequencies, and by 1983, the first commercial cellular mobile telephone came out. Telephone users eagerly embraced cellular telephones and their use became widespread. Wireless technology includes the use of microwave radio systems and satellite communications systems. Telecommunications providers use earth stations, such as satellite dishes, to send and receive video, data, telephone, and fax information to and from a satellite. The number of earth stations and cell sites (used in cellular technology) expands every year. The traditional lines between the telephone, computer, and cable TV industries are fading as all three areas now are referred to as telecommunications. In 1996, the Telecommunications Act was passed, which deregulated the telecommunications industry. It contained changes to existing laws that allow cable TV companies to offer telephone service and telephone companies to enter into the cable TV business, abolishing many of the restrictions that in the past prevented companies from operating within certain markets.
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Historical Notes ■
Samuel Morse, inventor of the Morse code, used a printer’s tray to determine how frequently certain letters were used in the language. He then assigned the shortest codes to the most common letters.
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An automatic switchboard was patented in 1892 by an undertaker in Kansas City, Missouri, who was afraid the local telephone operators were connecting all his calls to rival undertakers.
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Alexander Graham Bell never really understood the principles of electricity, the key element of his invention, the telephone.
The computer industry is linked very closely to the telephone industry. Telephone lines allow for the delivery and integration of many services provided by computers. For example, computers are hooked up to telephone lines through modems that allow the transmission of data, video, and audio. Computers can be linked to other computers through telephone lines and transmission systems. The Internet is an example of a vast global computer network, with computers linked by wires, fiber optics, cables, and microwave and satellite communications links. The linking of computers and telephones provides services such as email, voice messages, faxes, electronic data searches, data transmission, and electronic banking. The coaxial cables used to bring cable TV into homes also have the capability to link computers. ISDN, or Integrated Services Digital Network, allows for the simultaneous transport of voice, data, and video signals over a single telephone line, and is available in many markets. This technology allows for high-speed access to services with advanced digital technology. Applications include video-teleconferencing, distance learning, highspeed access to the Internet, electronic transfer of funds, advanced voice recognition technology, and access to online interactive services.
■ Structure All companies providing telephone service come under regulation by the FCC for interstate rates and services and have been required to follow a uniform system of accounting. State commissions have jurisdiction over intrastate services and rates, and in some instances, local governments have certain regulatory powers. Companies that provide telephone service can be classified by the types of service they provide. The major suppliers of telephone service are the local telephone service
providers, long distance carriers, competitive access providers, cellular providers, and personal communications services (PCS) providers. Some cable TV operators also provide telephone service. The local telephone service providers are the regional Bell operating companies (the holding companies formed when AT&T divested in 1984). Long distance providers include AT&T, MCI, Verizon, and Sprint. Cellular services are provided by both local and long distance providers and a multitude of companies that sprung up in the 1980s when the first commercial cellular mobile telephone came out. Cellular providers also include companies that provide paging services. PCS is a relatively new segment of the industry. PCS is digital, wireless service that allows for more clarity of sound than traditional cellular service. PCS uses microwave frequencies to support portable, wireless voice and data communications. It uses higher frequencies than those used by cellular providers. It also gives the subscriber additional options, such as caller ID and voice mail. PCS may eventually allow people to use one phone for all of their phone needs, with the same phone used in their homes as in their cars or other mobile locations. Telephone companies are preparing to build networks of cables and other equipment that will allow them to offer cable services, and cable television companies are entering the telephone business. Cox Communications, MediaOne, and Cablevision are some of the cable operators offering phone service to homes and businesses in a growing number of markets. Laws restrict what type of service a provider can offer, but deregulation should eventually allow a provider to offer more than one type of service. Telephone services soon will be offered by companies that provide a package of services: local, long distance, wireless, wireline, and cable TV. When a person makes a telephone call using a traditional, noncellular phone, the sound waves of the caller are converted by a transmitter into a pattern of electric waves that travel over a series of wires. The phone receiver getting the call converts the electric waves back into sound. A local telephone call travels over wires or by radio to a central office. Switching equipment is then used to connect the telephone call to the appropriate phone line. If the local call is to a person served by the same central office as the caller, the call is connected by the central office that serves both parties. However, if the call is to someone served by another central office, the call must travel along a trunk cable that connects numerous central offices. Telephone calls are connected automatically through electrical switches.
Long distance telephone calls can use the same types of wires and cables as local calls. However, the electrical signals used to transmit the sound waves are often not strong enough to carry over tremendous distances. Therefore, long distance telephone lines are equipped with amplifiers that strengthen the signals as they pass along the wires. With local telephone calls, the wires and cables needed to transmit a call are placed underground or strung along telephone poles. Long distance calls often use radio relay systems to transmit calls via radio waves. Cellular technology uses radio waves to send and receive sound, data, and picture transmissions. This technology includes cell sites with low-power radio transmitter-receiver units, antennas, and sophisticated computer-controlled call switching systems. When a person makes a call using a cellular phone, voice signals are transmitted to a cell-like base station through an assigned radio or microwave frequency. These stations connect to main switching centers that then connect the caller to the public switched telephone network. Cellular services have changed dramatically since the time of the first cellular phone. Technology now exists that allows cellular phones to be used for two-way paging, conference calls, electronic mail, faxing, and data transmission from a computer. Today, most telecommunications providers use advanced technology and materials to create their telecommunications infrastructures. These infrastructures are networks of equipment that provide transmission capabilities. In the past, telephone companies relied primarily on twisted pairs of copper wires and manual switching centers. Now, the technology most frequently used for new systems and to upgrade existing systems includes fiber optic equipment, digital telephony switches, satellite and digital microwave transmission systems, and cellular infrastructure equipment. Changes in equipment have reduced the need for many of the traditional workers in the telephone industry, such as line installers and repairers, telephone operators, and communications equipment technicians. New equipment is more maintenance-free and automated systems have self-diagnosing features that make it possible to detect faults within a system and reroute operations around a trouble spot until it can be fixed. Deregulation has had limited effect on the telecommunications industry. While businesses have benefited greatly from the increase in competition, the residential customer has yet to see more choices and better prices. Telecommunications companies are also unable to offer universal service, including service to rural and lowincome areas, due to some regulations that still exist.
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The FCC is planning to make changes in the next few years that should allow for more deregulation in keeping with the Telecommunications Act of 1996. The Act, however, has already resulted in a more competitive marketplace, with telecommunications compa-
Words to Know Analog: A signal that varies continuously in frequency or amplitude. Digital transmissions of data, which can be compressed for better quality, are replacing analog. Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Lines: An Internet connection via phone lines that allows for voice and digital transmissions to occur simultaneously. Bandwidth: The smallest range of frequencies in which a signal can be transmitted without distortion. Coaxial cable: A cable used for transmitting telecommunications signals; consists of a conducting tube and a central, insulated conductor. Digital: A transmission, by a computer, composed of a discontinuous signal; replacing analog signals in telecommunications. Ethernet: A computer-networking system allowing computers to communicate with each other at high speeds. Fiber optics: Pulses of light used to send communications through transparent fibers. HDTV: High definition television; linked to satellite, cable, and computer networks to provide better resolution than current systems. LAN: Local area network; data networks serving small areas of linked computers, such as in an office. Ethernet is a LAN. Microwave: An electromagnetic wave of extremely high frequency; used in wireless communications. Network: Equipment that allows for the communication of multiple users, i.e., a group of computers or public telephone lines. Ohm: A unit used to measure the resistance of an electrical current. PBX: Private branch exchange; an automated telephone facility that handles calls within a hotel, office building, or organization. PCS: Personal communication system. Telephony: A system of communications in which telephones are used. Wireless: Radio-based systems that transmit signals through the air. Wireline: Systems that transmit signals through coaxial or fiber optic cables.
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nies investing billions of dollars in new equipment and advanced technology. This will create many new jobs for electrical and electronics engineers, information technology specialists, computer network specialists, and other professionals involved in research and design activities. The challenges are great and the rewards commensurate for recent engineering, technical, and business graduates and seasoned marketing specialists with the abilities to sell and deliver the integrated, multifunctional, dataoriented systems that will support communications now and in the years ahead.
■ Outlook According to the 2006 Industry Playbook of the Telecommunications Industry Association, the overall U.S. telecommunications market (including sales of equipment and services) had revenues of $856.9 billion in 2006. The association projects that demand for equipment and services and technological advancements will continue to grow in tandem well into the future. Canada, Mexico, India, and Japan continue to be both the largest exporters and importers for telecommunications equipment, but China is the world’s largest telecommunications market in all categories. Employment in the industry is predicted to decline by 7 percent through 2014 due to industry consolidation and strong price competition among telecommunications companies, but growth is expected to resume at a higher rate as demand increases. Widening demand for wireless communications and the continuing expansion and upgrading of wireless systems should help that branch of the industry. Other technology advances, however, will lead to increased productivity for fewer workers. New and combined technologies will create constant change in the industry. Internet-based telephone services will increase competition and bring many technological functions closer together. Now available are ADSLs (asymmetric digital subscriber lines), which send data over phone lines and allow for quicker Internet downloads and service and allow customers to take data and voice calls at the same time. Advanced technology is also allowing for better television quality. DirectTV services allow subscribers to receive digital satellite signals with their own minidishes. These services are often less expensive than cable television and provide better sound and image. Another development is HDTV (high definition television). HDTV sets have dropped in price in recent years and some may now be purchased for around $500. They provide viewers with audio and visual quality that far exceeds traditional TV sets. These sets, equipped to receive the digital signals, will continue to come down in price as the technology becomes more common.
In order to succeed, companies will need to invest heavily in new technology and equipment that allows them to offer the best services and products. The growing use of wireless technology, the introduction of more dependable equipment, and the outsourcing of existing positions to specialized contractors will reduce employment for telecommunications equipment installers and repairers. Little change in employment is expected for electrical and electronics engineers and computer professionals—although new expenditures in research and development will create some new positions for these professionals.
■ For More Information For information about wireless technology (PCS, cellular, and satellite), visit the PCIA’s Web site. Personal Communications Industry Association (PCIA) 500 Montgomery Street, Suite 700 Alexandria, VA 22314-1560 Tel: 800-759-0300 http://www.pcia.com
For current industry facts, contact Telecommunications Industry Association 2500 Wilson Boulevard, Suite 300 Arlington, VA 22201-3834 http://www.tiaonline.org
For general information about the telephone industry, visit the USTA’s Web site. United States Telecom Association (USTA) 607 14th Street, NW, Suite 400 Washington, DC 20005-2051 Tel: 202-326-7300 http://www.usta.org
For information about conferences, special programs, and membership, contact Women in Cable Telecommunications 14555 Avion Parkway, Suite 250 Chantilly, VA 20151-1117 Tel: 703-234-9810 http://www.wict.org
■ Related Articles Broadcasting; Computers; Electronics; Film; The Internet; Television; Cable Television Technicians; Communications Equipment Technicians; Computer and Electronics Sales Representatives; Computer Network Administrators; Computer Programmers; Electrical and Electronics Engineers; Electronics Engineering Techni-
cians; Electronics Service Technicians; Engineers; Line Installers and Cable Splicers; Telephone and PBX Installers and Repairers; Telephone Operators; Wireless Sales Workers; Wireless Service Technicians
Television
Television
Historical Facts ■
When the concept of television was discussed in the 1880s, it was referred to as “seeing by electricity.”
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The first TV camera and TV tube were patented by Vladimir K. Zworykin in 1923 and 1924. These inventions, along with the first practical model of a TV in 1938, earned him the title “father of television.”
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Television was given a public demonstration by John Logie Baird in London as early as 1926. He televised a ventriloquist’s dummy.
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The first people to appear on TV were those involved in Baird’s experiments. In 1926, Bill Taynton, a 15-yearold office boy, was the first person to be televised, followed in 1930 by Irish actress Peggy O’Neil at a home exhibition. Television sets were then known as televisors.
■ Background Modern television developed from experiments with electricity and vacuum tubes in the mid-1800s, but it was not until 1939, when President Franklin Roosevelt used television to open the New York World’s Fair, that the public realized the power of television as a means of communication. Several television stations went on the air shortly after this demonstration and successfully televised professional baseball games, college football games, and the Republican and Democratic conventions of 1940. The onset of World War II limited the further development of television until after the war was over. Since television’s strength is the immediacy with which it can present information, news programs became the foundation of regular programming. Meet the Press premiered in 1947, followed by nightly newscasts in 1948. People who bought early TV sets just for the novelty of it, or to gather everyone around the tiny, snowy screen to see a favorite niece sing on a locally broadcast talent show, were soon rewarded by the rapid expansion of the industry in the 1950s. The Federal Communications Commission lifted a freeze on the processing of station applications, and the number of commercial stations grew steadily, from 120 in 1953 to more than 1,700 stations in 2004. It was in the 1960s that television’s power became most apparent: Together the country mourned the death of President Kennedy; witnessed the murder of his alleged assassin, Lee Harvey Oswald, by Jack Ruby; and formed opinions on the Vietnam War based on live TV news footage. The successes and failures of NASA programs brought viewers together, from the first steps on the moon to the famous, near-fatal mission of Apollo 13 and from the first space shuttle launch to the tragic explosions of the Challenger and Columbia. On September 11, 2001, television broadcast live images of the terrorist attacks on the Pentagon and the World Trade Center around the globe, and nearly every channel in the U.S. preempted regular programming to provide coverage of the story. Today, there are an estimated 110.2 million TV households in the United States. According to the National Association of Broadcasters, 98.2 percent of U.S. households own TV receivers.
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The big three networks (NBC, ABC, and CBS), which, along with PBS, reigned for many years as primary sources of information and entertainment for millions of people in the United States, have consistently lost viewers to cable, satellite TV, the Internet, computer games, and video rentals. Network TV viewership drops every year, but this trend hasn’t stopped new networks, such as FOX and CW, from developing and competing. And although more and more people are looking to the World Wide Web as a source of information, its possible effect on TV viewing is still uncertain. Some reports find that personal computer and Web use may actually increase the number of TV viewers, while others indicate that Internet use causes people to watch less television. A 2004 report on Internet and other media use by Arbitron/Edison Media Research found that among the general U.S. population television remains more popular than the Internet and radio.
■ Structure Keep track of the number of hours you and your family spend in front of the TV and compare it to the national average—seven hours, and 40 minutes a day for each household. In any given hour, a cable or satellite viewer may have a choice of 100 programs; this number is increasing as more specialized cable channels develop original programming, and as digital television makes it possible to receive well over 100 channels in your home. As we channel-surf with ease, sitting back with our remote controls, thousands of people are hard at work to bring us these programs. Some people in TV, such as talk show hosts, news anchors, and sportscasters, are prominent across the
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Workers at the DirectTV International Broadcast Center. (Alan Levenson, Tony Stone Images.)
nation or in their local communities. Others work behind the scenes, putting together the many programs aired on broadcast television and cable on any given day. For example, broadcast engineers and technicians maintain the broadcast equipment and salespeople sell airtime to advertisers to keep the station profitable. Large stations located in metropolitan centers can employ several hundred people, whereas a small station in a small city may employ as few as 35 people. Some programs are put together by people working on a freelance basis; producers, directors, and writers can be employed by a station or a production company to work on a single project or production. A local FOX channel doesn’t have the resources to put together an episode of 24. So how does the show manage to find its way piped into your home by a local station? Many television stations are affiliated with one of the national networks (such as FOX, ABC, CBS, and NBC). An affiliate station is not owned by the network but merely has a business contract with the network to obtain a large amount of its programming. 24, along with most of the original comedies, dramas, and news magazines in prime-time television, are supplied by the networks, while the affiliate stations put together local daily news broadcasts, coverage of local sporting events, and specials of regional interest. Have you ever been frustrated by the sudden cancellation of a favorite TV show? Well, you may have been the only fan of this program. Ratings systems determine what people are watching and when. Maybe you’ve even served as a Nielsen family, filling out a diary, listing the programs you watched during a specific week. With numbers compiled by Nielsen ratings surveys, networks and affiliates
determine what to charge advertisers for airtime during their programs. However, the highest-rated programs don’t always have the highest ad rates. Nielsen surveys also provide numbers about the kind of audience (such as young or old, women or men) watching a specific program, and some advertisers prefer to target specific age groups and genders. Because commercial TV stations rely on advertising revenue to stay successful, much in the broadcasting industry (scheduling, staff, salaries) is determined by ratings. Cable television networks operate under some of the same arrangements as commercial television stations. Some cable networks are advertisersupported. Although one cable station may seem to rely entirely on reruns of M*A*S*H, Seinfeld, and other old, commercial-television products, others create their own programs. Cable networks that focus on specific subjects of interest, such as The Travel Channel and the Food Network, create special programming for their audiences. Other cable networks (such as HBO and Showtime) are subscriber-supported and run motion pictures, athletic games, entertainment events, and movies produced specifically for cable. Today, more than 110 million households have cable television, approximately 59.2 percent of television households, but increased available channels does not translate directly into increased viewing. According to TV Basics, the average viewer looks at up to only 19 channels even when presented with more than 100. Cable operators are currently upgrading their systems to offer even more services, such as digital and HDTV programming and high-speed Internet access. Even the worst program on TV takes up its fair share of space in the air as it’s transmitted along electromagnetic waves. So, as an attempt to keep things in order in a variety of ways, the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) was created in 1934. The FCC is involved in many aspects of broadcasting, from business matters to the content of programs. The FCC supervises and allocates air space, makes channel assignments, and licenses television stations to applicants who are legally, technically, and financially qualified. The commission also sets limits on the number of broadcasting stations that a single individual or organization can control. These limits were relaxed, however, in the mid-1980s. Broadcasters today no longer must perform as many public affairs and public service functions, the license renewal process is easier, ownership requirements are more lax, and it takes less time to buy and sell a station. In 1992, FCC regulations were relaxed even more, and this new leniency has paved the way for large station and network mergers in recent years. The Telecommunications Act of 1996 allowed phone compa-
Television
nies to enter wider cable markets. Part of the Act requires the FCC to review its media ownership rules every four years, and as part of that review in June 2003 the FCC revised several of its rules limiting broadcast ownership. Among the changes were an increase from 35 percent to 45 percent of the national television ownership limit and changes to rules regulating ownership of local radio and television stations. The changes became the center of controversy and were delayed in taking affect due to challenges in federal courts. The FCC has also been involved in introducing digital television transmission. As of 2006 more than 1,500 stations were airing DTV signals. All other commercial stations in all markets are required to construct digital broadcast facilities by 2009.
■ Outlook According to the U.S. Department of Labor, employment in television broadcasting is expected to increase only 11
Words to Know Affiliate: A local station that is part of a network and allows the network to use a portion of its daily broadcast time. Analog: A signal that varies continuously in frequency or amplitude. Digital transmissions of data, which can be compressed for better quality, are replacing analog. Broadcast: To transmit programs from a TV station. Demographics: Specific data about a group of viewers, such as the viewers’ gender, age, etc. Digital: A transmission, by a computer, composed of a discontinuous signal; replacing analog signals in telecommunications. DVD: A disc resembling a CD and read by a laser. A DVD features movies and other recorded material and plays them back at a higher resolution than videotape. Edit: Assemble video, audio, and graphics into news, information, or entertainment segments for broadcasting. FCC: Federal Communications Commission; a board of the U.S. government that regulates broadcasting and other communication. HDTV: High definition television; linked to satellite, cable, and computer networks to provide better resolution than current systems.
percent over the 2004–14 period, slower than the average for all industries combined. Several factors will contribute to this slow growth rate. Consolidation of stations under large networks allows networks to share programming and make better use of workers. New computerized technologies require less specialized training for their operation, reducing the need for certain types of workers, particularly those in editing, recording, and graphics creation. Competition from cable systems, satellite and other pay television services, and from widespread use of the Internet may also contribute to the slower growth in employment. The bulk of television industry revenues come from advertising. TV Basics reports that television is the top advertising medium in the U.S. and has been steadily increasing its lead over the number two outlet, newspapers, since 1994. Television aired nearly $68 billion in advertising in 2005. The TV industry is being greatly affected by developments in digital programming. The cost of a high-definition
HUT: The number of “households using television” in a given region or time period. Interactive: Video games, CD-ROM programs, Web pages, and other multimedia that allow users to affect the direction of the presentation of material. Media: TV, radio, newspapers, and other forms of wide-reaching communication. Network: System for simultaneous broadcasting of programming on widespread television stations. Nielsen ratings: A listing of TV programs according to the number of viewers; compiled by Nielsen Media; ratings are used in determining advertising rates. Satellite: A device that orbits Earth and transmits television and other communications signals. Telecommunications: The transmission of signals across a large geographic area, by television, radio, and other stations. TelePrompTer: A monitor that displays the script for reading on air by a newscaster or other TV presenter. Television market: The business of television broadcasting. Top TV marketplaces are New York, Los Angeles, and Chicago. V-chip: A computer chip installed in a television to enable viewers to allow or block some kinds of programming.
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television (HDTV) set, capable of providing viewers with high-quality sound and image, is still too cost-prohibitive for average television viewers. In the next few years, however, broadcasters will be gradually converting to HDTV technology and phasing out the analog systems used today. The Federal Communications Commission has mandated that all stations be capable of broadcasting HDTV by February 17, 2009. Not only will broadcasters have to invest in new recording and transmission equipment, but consumers also will have to buy either a new television set or a set-top box that converts digital signals to analog signals. Interactive television is another new technology that is changing the television industry. In the mid-1990s, many experts predicted that interactive TV would never become popular, but analysts are now recognizing that interactive TV has huge profit potential. Television viewers can now play along with game shows, express opinions on social issues during broadcasts, or order custom programming that can be saved for later viewing. It is not yet certain how digital and interactive television will impact employment in the industry. The number of positions may not change greatly, but job responsibilities, education, and training requirements are likely to see significant changes. Behind-the-scenes television industry workers will need to be on the cutting edge of digital and Internet technology.
■ For More Information For information about broadcasting rules and regulations, contact Federal Communications Commission 445 12th Street, SW Washington, DC 20554-0001 Tel: 888-225-5322 Email:
[email protected] http://www.fcc.gov
For information about career publications, job listings, and industry statistics, contact National Association of Broadcasters 1771 N Street, NW Washington, DC 20036-2800 Tel: 202-429-5300 Email:
[email protected] http://www.nab.org
For information about careers in cable TV, contact National Cable & Telecommunications Association 1724 Massachusetts Avenue, NW Washington, DC 20036-1903 Tel: 202-775-3550 http://www.ncta.com
For a behind-the-scenes and systematic look at the people and institutions that bring you television and radio news in the United States, visit the following Web site Television and Radio News Research 3805 West Rollins Road Columbia, MO 65203-0321 http://www.missouri.edu/~jourvs
■ Related Articles Advertising and Marketing; Broadcasting; Film; The Internet; Telecommunications; Visual Arts; Actors; Advertising Account Executives; Art Directors; Audio Recording Engineers; Broadcast Engineers; Camera Operators; Cartoonists and Animators; Cinematographers and Directors of Photography; Composers and Arrangers; Costume Designers; Dancers and Choreographers; Film and Television Directors; Film and Television Editors; Film and Television Extras; FundRaisers; Graphic Designers; Lighting Technicians; Marketing Research Analysts; Media Planners and Buyers; Music Producers; Musical Conductors and Directors; Musicians; Photographers; Pop/Rock Musicians; Producers; Production Assistants; Real-Time Captioners; Screenwriters; Singers; Special Effects Technicians; Stage Production Workers; Stunt Performers; Writers
Textiles ■ Background The word textile originally referred only to fabrics made by weaving yarn on a loom. Today, the textile industry includes knitted goods, braids, and other fabrics that are made from fibers, yarns, and other materials. Textiles may be made from natural products, such as cotton, linen, wool, and mohair, or from synthetic materials, such as polyester, nylon, and rayon. The textile industry produces fabrics for clothing, as well as fabrics for home furnishings, carpeting, towels, and sheets; ribbons, webbings, and tapes for automobile seat belts and conveyor belts; textiles for parachutes, fire-resistant and bullet-resistant uniforms; nonwoven olefin and polyester products to control erosion and reinforce highways; fabrics for disposable surgical masks, gowns, and sheets; and material to make tea bags, felt-tipped pens, camping gear, and disposable diapers. People began weaving the four basic natural fibers— cotton, linen, wool, and silk—into cloth as early as the Stone Age. Pieces of woven cloth dating from about 4000
Textiles
b.c. have been discovered in Europe, Asia, South America,
and the Middle East. For a long time making cloth was a time-consuming task because everything had to be done by hand. When the industrial revolution began in the 18th century, textile manufacturing was one of the first industries affected by the development of the new machines. The machines used to produce textiles saved time and dramatically cut the cost of making clothing. Until 200 years ago, the United States manufactured almost no cloth; most was imported from England. The textile industry was so important to England that English officials refused to allow either the drawings of textile machines or the mechanics who operated the machines to leave the country. In 1789, however, an English textile mechanic named Samuel Slater disguised himself as a farmer and sailed to the United States. He carried the details of the machinery in his head. A few years later, he opened a spinning mill in Rhode Island. The first manufactured fibers were developed near the beginning of the 20th century. Since then, manufactured fibers have improved the function and versatility of textiles. For example, new fibers and finishes have made clothes less costly. Durable, soil-resistant synthetic carpets cover the floors of homes, schools, offices, and hospitals. The automotive industry uses these and other fibers in seat belts, upholstery, and the reinforcement of tires, belts, and hoses. Although the textile industry in the United States began in the Northeast, the majority of plants are now in the Southeast. Roughly three out of three textile jobs are located in three states—Georgia, North Carolina, and South Carolina. The textile industry is one of the largest manufacturing industries in the United States, employing more than 416,000 workers in 2004. The combined textile and apparel industries employ 701,000 workers, according to the U.S. Department of Labor. The textile industry also is among the largest employers of minorities. Fierce competition from overseas manufacturers has forced American textile companies to develop new technologies and processing methods. Computers have revolutionized the industry, speeding up such processes as knitting, weaving, and garment marking and cutting.
■ Structure The textile industry’s employees work in three major categories: research and development, production, and merchandising. Production employs by far the largest number of workers, who staff factories and manufacture all fabrics and textile products.
A textile worker weaves ribbon at a loom. (Mathew Hohmann.)
Research and development scientists create new synthetic materials, experiment with dyes and weaves, test fiber strength, and develop computerized equipment. Textile science facilities often include laboratories for product testing for qualities such as strength, durability, and soil resistance. Although technicians usually conduct testing, a scientist supervises the operation. While the research and development departments refine the process of textile production, stylists and fabric designers generate fabric designs. The textile industry offers careers in styling and design for creative people with a love of color and artistic talent. More and more design work is being done by computer. Computer-aided design (CAD) and computer-aided manufacturing (CAM) technicians use computer-controlled systems to create the diagrams and drawings required for textile manufacturing Once a design is approved, the textile is ready to be manufactured. The first step is to purchase the material needed to produce the fabric. Textile firms divide purchasing into two categories: raw fiber and general purchasing. Raw fiber procurement is a highly specialized
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Words to Know Bonding: Pressing fibers into a thin sheet and treating them with adhesive, heat, or solvent to hold the fibers together and form a fabric. Crocheting: Forming one yarn or thread into a series of connecting loops by the use of one needle with a hook on the end. Felting: Compressing loose fibers into a thick, compact fabric by applying heat, moisture, and pressure. Fiber weaving: Manipulating fibers with thousands of needles (in a special machine) to entangle them to form a fabric. Knitting: Forming one or more yarns into a series of interconnecting loops by the use of needles. Lacemaking: Looping, interlacing, braiding, knotting, or twisting one or more threads to form a fabric with decorative designs. Laminating: Cementing two or more fabrics together with adhesive, or securely attaching fabric to a foam backing. Netting: Knotting or twisting thread or yarn together at regular intervals to form a mesh fabric with geometrically shaped openings.
field and requires knowledge of fabrics, market prices, market demand for various textiles, and other topics. General purchasing includes everything from office supplies to large machinery. With the materials procured, the production of the fabric begins. Textile plant operations include many processes: opening bales of fibers, cleaning the fibers, carding them so that the strands lie parallel, twisting and roving the fibers, spinning the fibers into yarn, weaving or knitting the yarn into fabric, fusing or bonding fibers with a cementing medium, and chemically finishing the fabric. Each of these steps requires special machinery. Most fabrics are produced by weaving or knitting. Woven materials are made from two sets of yarns. One set of yarn (called the warp) is threaded lengthwise through a series of frames. During the manufacturing process, some of the warp yarn is raised and some is lowered. This creates a space through which the other set of yarn (called the filling or weft) is pulled to form the crosswise pattern. Various patterns are formed depending on the amount and type of spacing between the warp and filling. Knitted materials can be made either from a single yarn or a set of yarns. A knitting machine with automatic needles is used to make loops in the yarn and join the loops together, thereby producing cloth.
Textile plants have many kinds of machines doing different kinds of jobs. Materials flow constantly between departments in plants that operate around the clock. The machines are complicated and must be handled with skill by operators who control them and correct malfunctions, often without supervision. Color and pattern are important features of many textile products. Computers are often used in the formulation of dyes and matching of colors to ensure uniform quality, but expert dyers supervise the adding of color to yarn or fabric. Die-range operators control the dyeing machines, in which widths of cloth are spread on a dye pad and then dried. After textile products are woven, knitted, or bonded, they are treated to give them special properties. This operation is known as finishing. Finishing processes are chemically based and enable fabric to resist shrinkage, repel soil, resist burning, or hold its shape. Manufactured textiles are purchased by apparel makers and other producers of textile products. The fabrics are measured, marked, cut, sewn, formed, finished, inspected, and shipped to customers. To satisfy the ever-changing needs, tastes, and values of consumers, the textile industry employs workers to take on the challenging and extremely competitive task of merchandising: the business of selling fabric and consumer products. Marketing workers help determine which products will meet consumers’ needs and work with store managers, garment makers, and clothing designers to produce and distribute high-quality products. Advertising and sales promotion workers must create demand for textile products with a variety of communications tools. Methods used include television advertisements and ads in consumer and trade magazines. Other promotional activities include point-of-sale displays, attractive packaging, exhibits at fashion shows, and promotions within department stores. Another textile-related field involves textile conservation. Textile conservators restore and repair damaged historical or valuable textiles using highly technical methods. The most common problems are due to the normal wear and tear of fabrics. Some of the textiles are found buried, which leads to even further disintegration. Some basic tasks of conservators include analyzing dyes, identifying fibers through microscopy, documenting fabric construction, assessing the proper construction of exhibition mounts, determining methods of storage, and repairing damaged textiles. Roughly half of the conservators are employed by museums, while the remaining conservators have private practices, where they assist the general public and smaller museums that have no conservation labs. Conservators
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use X-ray machines, scanning electron microprobes, and microscopes to locate problems and analyze the fibers.
■ Outlook The textile and apparel industries are undergoing a period of major decline. The U.S. Department of Labor projects a 46 percent decrease in the number of jobs available in the textile mills and products industry through 2014. Factors contributing to the decline include increased worker productivity due to automation, fierce competition, mergers, and rising imports. When trade quotas were lifted in 2005, textile and apparel imports increased due to cheap labor markets in countries like China which make it difficult for U.S. firms to compete. Openings in the textile industry will come about as older workers retire or change jobs. Some textile branches, such as producers of industrial carpets, fabrics, and specialty yarns, are highly automated and may remain competitive due to lower production costs coupled with specialized facilities. The U.S. remains the world leader in discovering new fibers and new uses for high-tech textiles, indicating that jobs may be available for textile scientists and researchers. New jobs in apparel business will open mainly as current workers leave the field. The North American Free Trade Agreement and the Agreement on Textiles and Clothing of the World Trade Organization will continue to open export markets for textiles produced in the United States, but at the expense of American jobs, particularly low-skill, low-wage jobs. There is a general nervousness and pessimism in the textile industry surrounding the WTO agreement, and workers face job insecurity. Some positive effects of NAFTA include easier imports to Canada and Mexico, which account for 50 percent of U.S. textile exports and the retention of high-tech, computer-oriented, and science-related jobs in the United States, though it is not clear that this successfully balances out the massive job loss. The textile industry continues to create new products and expand its client base by supplementing other industries. Recent developments include producing materials for highway construction, erosion control, and space exploration. New methods of spinning, new weaving machines, better printing processes, and increased adaptation of computers to manufacturing operations have made the U.S. textile industry one of the most efficient and productive in the world. As new machines and methods are developed and put into place, technical jobs will increase, but machine operating jobs will decrease. Computers have also improved the marketing aspects of the textile industry. Computer programs have created efficient electronic linkages among manufacturers,
A manufacturing supervisor inspects the uniformity of the weaving quality of upholstery fabric on a fully automated loom. (American Textile Manufacturers Institute.)
wholesalers, and retailers. These programs shorten the response time between the demand for products and the supply of them, saving time and money. Recent concerns for the environment have led to efforts to reduce the amount of pollution generated by manufacturing plants. For the textile industry, environmental awareness can mean such steps as changing ingredients in dyes, building a water purification system, making a financial contribution for the construction of a municipal waste-treatment facility, or studying the recycling of liquids. In the future, there will be an increased demand for people who are trained to protect the natural environment, such as chemists, chemical laboratory technicians, environmental law specialists, environmental engineers, and other specialists.
■ For More Information This is a national trade association for the apparel, footwear, and fashion industries and their suppliers. For education and career information, contact American Apparel and Footwear Association 1601 North Kent Street, Suite 1200 Arlington, VA 22209-2105 Tel: 800-520-2262 http://www.apparelandfootwear.org
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This trade association is for U.S. companies that manufacture and sell synthetic and cellulosic fibers. American Fiber Manufacturers Association 1530 Wilson Boulevard, Suite 690 Arlington, VA 22209-2418 Tel: 703-875-0432 Email:
[email protected] http://www.afma.org
This national membership organization of conservation professionals is dedicated to preserving art and historic facts, including textiles. American Institute for Conservation of Historic and Artistic Works 1717 K Street, NW, Suite 200 Washington, DC 20036-5346 Tel: 202-452-9545 Email:
[email protected] http://aic.stanford.edu
This research and graduate education organization offers a master’s degree in textile technology. It also offers fee-based library and information services. Institute of Textile Technology North Carolina State University College of Textiles 2401 Research Drive Box 8301 Raleigh, NC 27695-8301 Tel: 919-513-7704 http://www.itt.edu
Contact this national trade association for information on the U.S. textile industry. National Council of Textile Organizations 910 17th Street, NW, Suite 1020 Washington, DC 20006-2623 Tel: 202- 822-8028 http://www.ncto.org
■ Related Articles Chemicals; Fashion; Home Furnishings; Machining and Machinery; Manufacturing; Apparel Industry Workers; Chemical Engineers; Chemical Technicians; Chemists; Conservators and Conservation Technicians; Fashion Designers; Industrial Engineering Technicians; Industrial Engineers; Industrial Machinery Mechanics; Interior Designers and Decorators; Knit Goods Industry Workers; Laboratory Testing Technicians; Museum Technicians; Precision Machinists; Purchasing Agents; Tailors and Dressmakers; Textile Manufacturing Workers; Textile Technicians
Theater ■ Background Theatrical performance is among the oldest of human art forms. It probably began with storytelling to recount recent and historical events in small communities. Ancient peoples often performed elaborate rituals to ask spirits or gods for success in hunting or in battle. Sometimes community leaders or religious officials wore masks and colorful costumes. Ceremonies also were held to pray for the health of individuals, mourn the dead, ward off evil spirits, or promote the welfare of the society. Later societies enacted the myths and stories involving their gods and heroes. For example, Egyptian dramas often centered around the god Osiris. The Greeks refined drama as an art form as early as 500 b.c. Their plays explored a variety of moral dilemmas. Actors wore masks and costumes, and dramas used scenery, props, and music. Greek dramas often featured several actors and a large chorus, although usually only two or three actors were on the stage at the same time, and men played the parts of women. The playwright often performed in the play, as well as directed the action and choreographed the movements on the stage. The Romans continued many of the traditions of tragedies and comedies initiated by the Greeks. Theater became a popular form of entertainment in ancient Rome, and its actors could become quite famous. The rise of the Christian church, however, put an end to theater, and by the seventh century, theater had largely vanished from most of the former Roman Empire. It was not until the Middle Ages that theater once again took hold in Europe. Based primarily on religious themes and biblical history, a single performance could take more than a month to complete. Nonreligious theater rose into prominence in Europe during the 16th century, often being performed at royal courts and academies. The first dedicated theater was built in 1576 in London, followed by many other theaters, including the famous Globe Theater, where the work of William Shakespeare was performed. Dramatic presentations were performed on large, open-air stages. Performances usually began in the afternoon and ended just before nightfall. Shakespeare was and still is considered the greatest English playwright, but other notable dramatists include Ben Jonson, Thomas Middleton, and Richard Sheridan. Among the most famous actors were Will Kemp and Richard Burbage. In France, Moliere wrote and often acted in his own plays. Women were not allowed to act until the mid-17th century, and young boys filled any female roles.
The first American acting company was established in Williamsburg, Virginia, in 1752. Early American drama (from the 1700s until the early 20th century) was largely patterned after European theater. Some of the more prominent American actors of the 18th and 19th centuries were Edwin Forrest, Fanny Kemble, Charles Kemble, William Charles Macready, and Joseph Jefferson. Important American dramatists from the 20th century include Eugene O’Neill and Thornton Wilder. More recently, Arthur Miller, Tennessee Williams, and David Mamet have contributed important plays. The minstrel shows, which began in the mid-1800s, were the first authentically American form of show business. Minstrel shows featured comedy routines, dances, and short skits. They foreshadowed vaudeville and variety shows. In minstrel shows, white performers darkened their faces to appear black. Vaudeville and burlesque shows were extremely popular in the early 20th century, leading to the creation and development of what is widely considered the most American form of theater, the musical comedy. A major breakthrough came with the Rodgers and Hammerstein musical Oklahoma!, believed to be the first truly modern musical because, rather than having the songs interrupt the story, the songs actually moved the story forward. Other major American musical comedy composers include Jerome Kern, Cole Porter, Leonard Bernstein, Jerry Herman, and Stephen Sondheim. Acting styles have evolved considerably over the centuries. Early performances were highly stylized, with exaggerated, elaborate gestures and speech, until David Garrick introduced a more natural style to the stage in the mid1700s. Until the late 19th century, stars dominated the stage. But in 1874, George II, Duke of Saxe-Meiningen, formed a theater troupe in which every actor had equal prominence. This ensemble style gave rise to naturalism, which featured more realistic characters and settings than ever before. In the 20th century, the Moscow Art Theater’s Konstantin Stanislavsky developed an influential style of acting, “method acting,” which had a major impact on the Group Theater in the United States. One of its members, Lee Strasberg, eventually founded the Actors Studio in New York, which became an important training ground. Although New York, and Broadway and off-Broadway in particular, remains the theatrical center of the United States, the regional nonprofit theater movement has expanded tremendously since the 1970s. Important new plays and actors making their names have inspired active professional theater communities in Chicago, Seattle, Los Angeles, Minneapolis, San Francisco, and other areas. Asian theater developed very differently from that in Europe, with the dancing and chanting of early rituals
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Learn More about It Botto, Louis and Robert Viagas. At This Theater: 100 Years of Broadway Shows, Stories, and Stars. New York: Applause Theater Books, 2002. Brown, John Russell. The Oxford Illustrated History of Theatre. New York: Oxford University Press, 2001. Cohen, Leah Hager. The Stuff of Dreams: Behind the Scenes of an American Community Theater. New York: Viking Press, 2001. Kantor, Michael, and Laurence Malson. Broadway: The American Musical. New York: Little, Brown & Company, 2004. Terkel, Studs. The Spectator: Talk About Movies and Plays with the People Who Make Them. New York: New Press, 2001. Wilmeth, D. B., and T. L. Miller (eds.) The Cambridge Guide to American Theatre. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996. Wilson, Edwin. The Theater Experience. 9th edition. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2003. Wilson, Edwin, and Alvin Goldfarb. Theater: The Lively Art. 5th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill Text, 2004.
remaining an important part of drama. In India, Hindu drama flourished from the fourth to 10th centuries, but died out after the Moslems came in the 11th century. Theater became a way of preserving Chinese identity after the Mongol conquests of the 13th century. During the Cultural Revolution, traditional theater was banned in favor of more propagandistic modern plays, but since the death of Mao more traditional drama, as well as Western-style plays, has been performed. Japanese theater had its origins in Chinese dances, developing into noh plays and Kabuki theater, both highly stylized and involving chanting, elaborate costumes, and exaggerated speech and movement.
■ Structure For any theatrical performance, the staff involved in executing the production extends far beyond the talent seen on the stage. Workers range from directors to lighting technicians to costume designers to ticket booth clerks and ushers. The performer, however, is the most visible and the best-known theater employee. Actors and actresses perform parts in plays to entertain and inform audiences. They use facial expressions, body movements, voice modulation, and other devices in the performance of their roles. They memorize lines
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A thrust stage at an outdoor theater in Wisconsin is of the type used in the time of Shakespeare. (David Hayes, New Standard Encyclopedia.)
and recite them according to the director’s instructions. Actors and actresses in musicals must be able to sing and dance, as well as act. Musical plays require musicians to accompany the singers and play the production’s score. Depending on the theater’s budget and union requirements, the production may employ only a single instrumentalist or a full orchestra of musicians. Musical directors coach the actors on the songs they are to sing during the performance and supervise rehearsals of the musical accompaniments to be performed by the ensemble or orchestra. They may also act as conductors. Conductors stand at the head of a musical group and lead a specific performance. They not only set the tempo but also guide the musicians toward a particular interpretation of the music. Talent agents represent actors, actresses, or other performers and find them appropriate parts. They often know a wide range of producers, directors, and other people capable of hiring talent. Casting directors assist in selecting the appropriate talent for a performance. They work alongside the producer and director of a production. Producers select plays and scripts to be performed. They raise funds to finance the performance and decide
on the size of the production. Producers usually are responsible for hiring the director, the principal members of the cast, and writers. Directors supervise the production of plays and other performances. They conduct rehearsals and select actors and actresses from auditions. They meet with playwrights or scriptwriters and discuss how to present plays in the most effective manner. They consult with the producer, stage manager, and designers about issues such as scenery and selecting actors. They formulate budgets and schedules. They supervise rehearsals, instructing actors on blocking and the delivery of their parts. They plan how to handle lighting, special effects, and costumes, refining their decisions as the preparations for performance proceed. Throughout the process, stage directors report regularly to the producer on the status of a show, noting any special problems and how closely the show is sticking to the projected budget. Assisting the direction are stage managers, who help run auditions, attend rehearsals, and write down changes to direction during rehearsal so they can be incorporated into the master directing plan. Stage managers often are in charge of the actual performance, ensuring that the stage is set properly before the show begins and that all
the actors and technical crew have arrived on time, as well as giving the cues to the lighting and sound technicians during the performance. Assistant directors may direct some elements of the performance and focus on particular performers for coaching and training. For musical plays, choreographers create the movements that accompany songs and other music and then teach it to the performers. Playwrights are the authors of plays. Some theater companies stage plays that have been produced elsewhere; for these, they must obtain the rights from the script’s publisher and pay royalties based on the number of performances, size of the theater, and ticket prices. Other theaters are dedicated to producing new works and work closely with playwrights on the first production of their plays. The setting of a performance may be on a stage, in a hall, or even outdoors. Where the piece is performed has a direct influence on the effect the piece has on the audience. The majesty, the intimacy, or the openness of the arena all contribute to the style of performance. How the stage is set is one of the most fundamental elements of how well received a performance may be. Scenery behind the performers sets the mood and the location. Lighting sets mood and highlights movements and performers at key points in the presentation. Properties, more commonly known as props, are either set props or hand props. Set props are furniture, moving pieces, and other large elements of the stage design that extend from or are separate from the background scenery. Hand props are the things that the performers carry, such as flowers, canes, swords, suitcases, or umbrellas, that help tell the story, embellish the mood, or establish the time period. Set designers handle all background scenery, props, and stage decorations. To make a set that helps tell the story and establishes time and place, designers must be innovative and creative. Scene designers draw up plans depicting how each scene is to be decorated. Scenery painters, assemblers, and stagehands make and move the scenery as needed for a performance. A set is created by set painters, stage craftsworkers, and other people involved in conceptualizing what will happen behind and around the performers. The lighting designer also draws up plans for how each part of the show will be lit. The general lighting, specific illuminations (such as spotlights), and the special-effects lighting are all charted, timed, and choreographed to the performance. Sound amplification, sound effects, and recordings are also well plotted before the performance begins. If microphones are to be used, the sound technicians decide
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where to place them, how much to amplify them, and when to switch them on and off. Body microphones, floor microphones, and boom (hanging) microphones all allow for emphasizing different sounds. Sound effects are recorded in advance, if needed, or are recreated by sound technicians during a performance. Sound boards that control effects, amplification, and recording are controlled by the technicians during the performance. Prompters follow the script of the performance and cue performers as to the timing of their lines. Prompters are often used in musical productions, where they serve as intermediaries between the orchestra and the performers. Makeup and costuming augment the appearance of the performers and reinforce the mood and story. Even the most basic and simple costumes have been carefully chosen to help tell the story or present the spirit of the piece being performed. Costume directors select and help create the costumes for theater performances. They often work with the director and producer. Costume directors oversee the production of the costumes by designers and seamstresses. Such work often involves research. This is especially true for period pieces, where the performers must look as authentic as possible. Makeup artists apply makeup and other material to performers. They often create elaborate facial decorations to depict age, scars, or injuries. Theater managers, or house managers, are responsible for the smooth running of the theater’s business functions. They supervise box office cashiers, ticket takers, ushers, and other employees who interact with the audience. They oversee the maintenance of the physical facilities both inside and outside the theater, and they ensure that the theater is clean. Managers are often responsible for counting and depositing money from ticket sales. They usually order food and other supplies for refreshment counters, as well as any other supplies needed for the upkeep of the theater. Managers may help locate additional crewmembers or stage materials on short notice for a performance. They are on hand before and during a performance to answer customer questions and handle any last-minute problems. Road production managers oversee and coordinate the business and operations of a touring theatrical company. They arrange with local unions and government officials to hire stagehands and secure the proper performance permits. They inspect theaters to make sure that the theater’s facilities are appropriate for the production. Road production general managers have various administrative duties, such as accounting for expenditures and receipts, paying the cast and crew, and
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arranging accommodations for the cast and crew. They plan newspaper advertising and publicity announcements and do whatever they can to increase attendance and promote good public relations for the production. Theaters with large administrative staffs also may employ managers to handle marketing, public relations, group sales, fund-raising, and development. Professionals in theater have employment opportunities in a variety of places beyond the traditional theater and stage. For example, summer resorts, cruise ships, gambling casinos, state fairs, and theme and amusement parks all hire actors, singers, and other performers. A number of traveling carnivals still employ performers, as do circuses. Although many theater companies operate on a seasonal basis, some of the larger houses offer year-round schedules. Except for commercial productions, which often run until audience interest wanes to the point that expenses exceed income, most plays run for a number of weeks and then close. A theater that operates a subscription season, as most nonprofit regional theaters do, may have some leeway in extending a production beyond
Words to Know Apron: A slight extension of the stage beyond the proscenium arch. Blocking: The stage movement and locations that the director chooses for the actors; for example, the director may instruct an actor to cross from one side of the stage, stand up, or sit down on a specific line, which the actor must do each time. Cutting or side: An excerpt from a script that a director or casting director uses to audition actors for roles in a play. Downstage: The part of the stage at the front, or closest to the audience; see “Raked stage.” Flat: A wooden framed panel, usually covered in canvas, that is painted and used as part of the scenery. Flies: An area above the stage where scenery may be hung for storage or until it is needed at a certain point in a performance. Orchestra pit: A sunken area in front of the stage where the musicians sit. Properties, or props: Items and accessories that decorate a set and/or are handled by the actors during a performance.
its originally scheduled time period, but the production must close to make way for the next production on the season’s roster. Most theater companies perform primarily in their resident locations, while others spend much of the year touring the country or even overseas. Theater productions normally put on several evening performances a week, with one or two matinee performances. Rehearsals for many professional theaters are often during the day, but may also take place in the evenings and on weekends if the budget is too tight to pay a living wage, requiring performers to find outside work to support themselves. Most producers and directors prefer to hire those who have experience. This sets up the age-old problem of how to get that first job. For many, the way to get an opportunity is through an audition. Producers or directors look for many things in an audition. They may be only mildly interested in talent and far more interested in physical type. An applicant may perform a brilliant reading, song, or dance, only to be rejected as too tall, too short, too fat, or too thin for the part being cast.
Proscenium arch: The frame around the front of the stage that creates the opening through which the audience views the play. Raked stage: A stage in which the front portion is lower in height than the rear portion; this is the derivation of the terms downstage and upstage, even though the terms are used today on level stages as well. Set: The scenery and furnishings of a play or scene. Stage right and stage left: Terms used to indicate the direction in which actors must travel during the play, from the actor’s point of view (and thus the opposite of the audience’s point of view). Teaser: A flat or curtain running across the top of the proscenium opening. Theater in the round: An arena playhouse, or one in which the audience seating completely surrounds the stage area. Thrust stage (or three-quarters) theater: A theater in which the stage apron extends into the auditorium, allowing for seating around three sides of the stage. Upstage: The part of the stage at the rear, or furthest from the audience; see “Raked stage.” Wings: The areas at the sides of the stage not visible to the audience.
Auditions are held in theaters, rented rehearsal halls, broadcast studios, corporation boardrooms, and church basements. A closed audition means that only performers who are union members may apply. For an open call, anybody may appear, even amateurs. Should an outsider be hired, he or she may be required to join a union for performers, such as Actors’ Equity Association. In most cases, acting careers do not last a lifetime. Scores of once prominent entertainers have become business people, managers, or agents, or have dropped out of the industry entirely. And for every performer who even briefly has had a period of fame, there are thousands who never accomplish their goals. The same is true for the workers behind the scenes. The competition for positions in the arts is extremely keen. Most successful theater workers, from makeup artists to actors, will say that luck plays as much a role as talent. One of the things that continues to attract the thousands of would-be artists is the fame and fortune associated with the theater. Indeed, the financial rewards that flow to famous stars, virtuosos, producers, directors, and playwrights make them symbols of success alongside sports figures and industrialists. The great figures in the performing arts are admired and watched, not only because they are talented but because they are celebrities. Most theater artists, however, do not enjoy this fame.
■ Outlook Theater will continue to offer employment opportunities to skilled artists. However, it is important to remember that there are very few stars. There are always three or four failures for every one hit. People who aspire to careers in the performing arts should recognize that although the possibilities of success exist and excite the imagination, the possibilities of disappointment are all too real. The employment picture is clouded by fierce competition and an abundance of applicants. Typically, theater professionals make ends meet by branching out. They find a job here, a job there, in television, film, radio, or the industrial arena. During the summer they may hope to connect with a stock company at a resort or with musical or dramatic road companies. Acting unions report that about 80 percent of registered actors make an insufficient income from acting, and at least 30 percent of registered actors make no money from acting at all in any given year. Many people well trained in music, drama, or dance find work as teachers in arts schools or as private instructors in order to make a living. For those who do succeed, a career path often includes a variety of jobs. The expansion of cable and satellite television, the growth of the market for direct to DVD or video mov-
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ies, and the demand for syndicated television shows, should create employment opportunities outside the theater for actors, directors, producers, costume and set designers, and other support positions. Growth for all of these groups, though, is expected to be about as fast as the national average through 2014. In theater itself, the outlook is mixed, as cultural budgets are slashed and many theaters, particularly in the nonprofit sector, are unable to survive. Theater Communications Group indicated healthy signs for non-profit theater groups in the United States. About one quarter of non-profit theaters responded to a survey, reporting a combined audience of more than 32 million, suggesting that the total audience is much higher. Attendance at stage productions is expected to grow. Touring productions of Broadway plays and other large shows are providing new opportunities for actors and directors, and there is a rising foreign demand for American productions. In times of economic recession, less money will be spent on leisure activities and growth of careers in theater will suffer accordingly. Employment may be adversely affected by fluctuations in government funding of the arts. The arts face continued competition not only within their own areas but also from new sources of leisure and entertainment, such as video and computer games. However, many people still want the warmth and human connection that only live theater provides.
■ For More Information This labor union represents technicians, artisans, and crafts persons in the entertainment industry, including live theater, film, and television production. It negotiates salaries and offers pension, insurance, and educational programs. International Alliance of Theatrical Stage Employees, Moving Picture Technicians, Artists and Allied Crafts of the United States, Its Territories, and Canada 1430 Broadway, 20th Floor New York, NY 10018-3348 Tel: 212-730-1770 http://www.iatse-intl.org/splash.html
This accrediting agency for colleges, universities, and nondegree professional theater education institutions has a directory of member institutions. National Association of Schools of Theater 11250 Roger Bacon Drive, Suite 21 Reston, VA 20190-5248 Tel: 703-437-0700 Email: info@ arts-accredit.org http://nast.arts-accredit.org
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This resource organization is for professional nonprofit theaters. It has educational programs, surveys, and career development publications. Theater Communications Group 520 Eighth Avenue, 24th Floor New York, NY 10018-4156 Tel: 212-609-5900 Email:
[email protected] http://www.tcg.org
Related Articles Dance; Film; Literary Arts; Music; Television; Actors; Circus Performers; Clowns; Comedians; Costume Designers; Dancers and Choreographers; Lighting Technicians; Magicians; Makeup Artists; Music Conductors and Directors; Musicians; Screenwriters; Stage Production Workers; Stunt Performers; Writers
Toys and Games ■ Background Toys and games have been around for centuries. In 1600 b.c., children used swings on the island of Crete. Dice have been found in 2,000-year-old Egyptian tombs. American Indian, Chinese, and African dice and other playing pieces have also been found in archaeological digs. Dice are the oldest known game pieces, and they were used with a variety of games designed by different cultures. Both physical games, such as tag, capture the flag, and hopscotch, and intellectual games, such as chess, guessing
A market researcher watches a child tester as she plays with a variety of toys. (Fisher-Price.)
games, and riddles, have been traced back through many generations in many civilizations. Games provide an opportunity to train children in specific skills and serve as entertainment and exercise. They typically use simple rules and activities and involve two or more people. The earliest dolls and wooden soldiers were made by parents or craftworkers. Balls, hoops, pull toys, and toy animals, the oldest types of toys, were simple to make and provided entertainment to people of different age groups. Early toys were made from clay, wood, ivory, or stone. The earliest dolls found by archaeologists in Egypt were not for play; they were used to symbolize aspects of religious beliefs. However, Greek historians have noted that toy dolls used as playthings were part of their culture. Dolls became less prominent during the Middle Ages. Society’s attitudes toward children shifted. Childlike behavior was less accepted and children were expected to act like small adults. Toys and games that taught a skill or modified behavior were popular; playthings used merely for entertainment were less common. Manufactured games were developed in the 1600s for instruction in schooling. For example, a geographical game consisted of countries cut into separate pieces, and the student would fit the pieces back together by placing the countries in their proper configuration. This was the earliest version of a jigsaw puzzle. By the 19th century, people once again acknowledged a child’s need for playthings. Toy manufacturing became a fledgling industry. Germany had been the forerunner of the toy-making industry starting in the 1600s, and with the new international interest in toys, Germany found itself in the best position to make use of its experience in toy development. The country had hosted toy fairs as early as the Renaissance, with one of the largest annual fairs held in Nuremberg. As toy sales expanded, Germany continued to build its reputation for training master toy craftspeople. The development of new materials and the relative cheapness of others allowed for production of new types of toys. Rubber was an excellent substance for making balls that bounced. Once paper became cheaper to manufacture, China began to export kites. Germany developed several of the most popular types of dolls, starting with wooden dolls in the 1800s. German manufacturers crafted papier-mâché dolls at this time as well; these were easily molded when wet and became strong and hard when dry. Companies produced full dolls and also sold papier-mâché doll heads separately, so families could make cloth bodies at home. Later, manufacturers dipped papier-mâché in wax to achieve a finer quality for the skin of the doll.
France followed as a large manufacturer of toys, particularly dolls. Porcelain dolls, which originated in Germany, were further developed into luxury dolls in France. French companies dressed the dolls in elegant, formal outfits. Owners could change the outfits and purchase wardrobes for the dolls. Baby dolls were not manufactured widely until Augusta Montanari and her son, Richard, produced wax baby dolls in England in 1850. Eventually, baby dolls became the most popular type of doll, with Kewpie, ByeLo, Raggedy Ann, and other popular mass-produced dolls selling by the hundreds of thousands. As the industry grew, the mass production of games and toys became a more profitable enterprise. Board games, inexpensive to produce, increased in popularity with both adults and children. Shoots and Ladders first appeared in the 19th century and is still produced in various forms today. Monopoly was developed in 1933 and has expanded with many international versions to become the best-selling board game ever. Originally hand cut, puzzles grew less expensive with the growth of mass production. Barbie and G.I. Joe became popular worldwide, combining the wardrobe variety of the early French luxury dolls and the durability of a play toy. G.I. Joe was the first internationally popular doll for boys. Toys and games eventually became more mechanized. Dolls were developed that could move their heads, arms, and legs. Some could talk, walk, and move with the aid of a remote control. Companies created electronic versions of board games so that they no longer required a partner. One could play against a computer or other machine. With the advent of the home computer, companies developed computer games such as Ping-Pong and eventually moved into three-dimensional graphics. Today, computer and video games are a fast-growing segment of the U.S. entertainment industry. In fact, the NPD Group, a market information provider, reports that sales of video game hardware, software, and accessories reached $11.2 billion in 2003. Simple toys like hoops, balls, jacks, yoyos, and cloth dolls are also subject to cycles of popularity. Partly because of the quick rise and fall of the more complex, expensive video and computer games, simpler toys are touted by some as the better investment for a child’s entertainment and education. Both types of toys, however, maintain strong sales in the marketplace.
■ Structure The toy and game industry places toys into two major categories—traditional toys, which includes action figures, building sets, dolls, games and puzzles, vehicles, and other similar toys, and video games. Major U.S. toy
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Yo-Yos of Yore The yo-yo has been around for a long time in various forms throughout the world. A 3,000-year-old yo-yo has been found in Greece, and historians have found evidence of yo-yos in ancient China. The French version, the joujou, provided entertainment in the royal court during the 1700s. It wasn’t until 1928 that businessman Donald F. Duncan happened to see a young man named Pedro Flores demonstrating how to play with a yo-yo in Los Angeles. Fascinated, Duncan bought Flores’s small yo-yo company for $25,000. He hired hundreds of “yo-yo men” to travel the country demonstrating yo-yo tricks, like “walking the dog” and “around the world,” while drumming up sales of the toy. The yo-yo was a huge success.
producers include Mattel, which markets American Girl, Barbie, Matchbox Cars, and Fisher-Price toys and Hasbro, which produces Star Wars, Pokemon, Milton Bradley, Parker Brothers, and Playskool products. Small toy companies exist, but they often have difficulty keeping up with demand for successful products. Larger companies sometimes acquire smaller competitors who add the popular item to the their product line. All dolls, games, and toys are conceived in the design department. Toy designers start with an idea for a new game or toy and evaluate its prospective use. They determine the age group that might play with the toy, the competition for the toy in the market, and the way to manufacture the toy. Toy manufacturers consider products from both in-house design staff and outside designers interested in selling new designs. In some of the larger companies, outside designers create at least one-third of the designs produced. The designer creates several sketches of possible designs for a new toy. The designer also lists the materials for constructing the toy and the potential cost to produce it. In the research and product development department, researchers review the sketches and estimate the potential sales of the new toy. They investigate the toy’s appeal, the age group that might use the toy, and how well similar toys have sold in the past. If a company sees enough potential in the new design, it makes models of the toy. Engineers, artists, and model makers construct prototypes so that the development and testing departments can judge quality and determine consumer interest. Testing a toy involves letting children play with it while trained observers, or testers, take notes
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Larry Wood, a chief designer of Hot Wheels for 35 years, examines a rack of car parts. (Associated Press/Nam E. Huh.)
on their reactions and responses. The observers share suggestions for improvement in design, size, color, and other features with the design department for potential incorporation into the next stage of the toy’s design. After modification, a toy may go through another period of trial and observation. Child testers, the children who use the toys during the testing period, are usually participants in a companysponsored or university-sponsored playgroup. Child care centers and school groups may also be participants. Observers are often specialists in child development, child psychology, or pediatrics. With the help of one-way mirrors or unobtrusive viewing positions, trained staffers note which toys are used frequently and creatively and which toys are ignored or used only briefly. The collection of toys on the floor may include several of the company’s toys, some of the competition’s, and the experimental toys. Meanwhile, the marketing research team conducts consumer research by asking parents about the toys they have purchased and their experiences with them. Market researchers may stand in a shopping mall and question parents as they leave a toy store, send questionnaires to customers, or conduct in-depth phone interviews with parents. They use the information they gather to determine the quality and desirability of the products on the market and help determine the types or styles of toys parents would like to see. For example, through consumer marketing research, the toy industry discovered a demand for ethnic and male dolls. Engineering and safety experts also investigate the new toy’s viability. They conduct stress tests to make sure it is safe, reliable, and relatively indestructible in the hands of a child. They test mechanical and functional parts for
wear and strain. If the toy is for small children, the size of its pieces have to be checked to be sure they cannot be swallowed. Each age group has certain limitations for safety in a toy design. The U.S. government has established a voluntary age grading guideline to assist parents in selecting toys appropriate for their children. The guidelines are based on four areas: physical ability, mental ability, play needs and interests, and safety aspects. For a child under a few years old, small objects that could be swallowed are avoided. Even for a child above average in mental skills, the physical coordination required for toys in the next age group category may be beyond his or her capacity. The toy maker must consider all four aspects of the toy’s use and, in cases where the toy may be dangerous to younger children, include additional warnings on the package. For example, electrical toys are not considered safe for children under the age of eight, and most electrical toys include a warning to buyers about the dangers of allowing younger children to use them. The U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission tests and judges the safety levels of toys and games. If a toy has a repeated history of accidents, the commission will recall it from the market. If the toy’s design is inherently dangerous, the commission can ban the toy permanently from sale, as it did in the case of lawn darts. The commission samples several thousand toys each year for safety inspection, but does not investigate all toys before they enter the market. Toys sold abroad must meet the safety standards of the country in which they are sold. Toys imported for sale in the United States have to meet U.S. standards. However, the sheer quantity of toys brought in exceeds the number of toys that can be tested by the Safety Commission, so parents must also assume responsibility for checking toys to make sure they are safe. Before the toy is approved for production, the company completes feasibility studies on sales, which provides an idea about the toy’s sales potential. The cost of producing reasonably priced, safe, durable toys depends on the projected sales figures. A toy that sells millions of copies costs less per item in production than a toy that only sells several thousand copies. In both cases, the company incurs costs for production labor and equipment, the molds used to make the toy, the package designers, and many other costs. The company also discusses and determines the toy’s color or colors, packaging, and other design characteristics, as well as effective advertising campaigns and marketing strategies, such as the toy’s placement on the store shelves. Based on all this information and the report from the research and design staff, management decides to proceed with or cancel the production of a toy.
Once the toy has been approved for production, the manufacturing and purchasing departments begin their part of the work on the new design. The manufacturing staff orders raw materials and sometimes partly assembled pieces from other companies. For dolls, for example, it is frequently easier and more cost effective to buy the clothing wholesale from an independent manufacturer than to initiate on-site production of the item. The company tests items it purchases wholesale for durability and safety, too. Inspectors are on site at the factory to perform random checks on production. Inspectors also check random samples of the shipped products during quality-control inspections. Once the toy is made, boxed, and ready for sale, the company sends quantities to the stores that will sell it. Toy sales peak just before Christmas and Hanukkah, so manufacturers try to get new toys on the market during the three-month period before these holidays. Competition for shelf space in stores is strong, and the manufacturers try to arrange for the best location and sales point for their products. One standard way to encourage store owners to purchase their toys is to allow stores to order toys in the third quarter of the year and not make payments on the shipment until the fourth quarter. Once the toys are on the shelf and the advertising campaign has begun, the consumer decides which products will be big sellers. Having a single large-selling product, such as a G.I. Joe, can ensure a toy company’s success for a few years, but if sales decline, the company may not remain profitable. For most large toy manufacturers, there is one toy or game that continues to be a bestseller, establishing the company’s place in the market in two ways: It provides the company a guaranteed money-making product, and it encourages consumers to try the company’s other products. For toy manufacturers, the company’s public image contributes a large share of its success in sales.
■ Outlook The United States is the largest market for the entire industry, making up 41 percent of the global traditional toy market. The U.S. also leads the world in toy development as well as in the marketing, advertising, and promoting of toys. In addition, American toy makers are known for invention and design, and their toys are extremely popular abroad. After years of strong increases, toy sales in 2005 dropped approximately 4.0 percent, according to a report by The NPD Group. Categories that remained stable or that experienced growth from 2004 to 2005 included action figures and accessories, dolls, and learning and
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Words to Know Copyright: The exclusive legal right to reproduce, publish, and sell a work (literary, musical, or artistic work). CPSC (Consumer Product Safety Commission): The government agency that tests products for safety and sets safety and quality standards. Patent: A legal order securing to an inventor for a term of years the exclusive right to make, use, or sell an invention. Prototype: An original model on which something is patterned; a first full-scale and usually functional form of a new type or design of a construction. Recall: A public call by a manufacturer for the return of a product that may be defective or unsafe. Trademark: A device (such as a name or word) pointing distinctly to the origin or ownership of merchandise to which it is applied and legally reserved to the exclusive use of the owner as maker or seller (e.g., Kleenex). Traditional toys: Action figures, building kits, dolls, games, puzzles, vehicles, and similar toys as opposed to computer and video games.
exploration. Today, most toys sold in the United States are no longer produced in this country. Thus, while toys and games remain a major U.S. industry, the outlook for new jobs is not entirely positive. Another reason for the toy industry decline is the trend away from traditional toys and games and the overwhelming popularity of interactive, computerized toys. The majority of these, like traditional toys, are manufactured overseas. One factor in declining toy sales is a decline in the childhood population. For example, the Toy Industry Association reports that families are shrinking and parents are having fewer children. A possible balance for this may be the growing world market, which some analysts expect to eventually comprise up to 50 percent of revenue. Internet retailers may be able to reach more customers with a wider variety of products than that available in stores, but it’s not yet certain how online sales will affect the entire industry.
■ For More Information For a list of accredited schools in design, contact National Association of Schools of Art and Design 11250 Roger Bacon Drive, Suite 21 Reston, VA 20190-5248 Tel: 703-437-0700 Email:
[email protected] http://www.arts-accredit.org/intro.jsp
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The following is a trade association for U.S. producers and importers of toys and holiday decorations. Toy Industry Association 1115 Broadway, Suite 400 New York, NY 10010 Tel: 212-675-1141 Email:
[email protected] http://www.toy-tia.org
■ Related Articles Computers; Electronics; Manufacturing; Sales; Sports; Computer and Video Game Designers; Sporting Goods Production Workers; Toy and Game Designers; Toy Industry Workers
Transportation ■ Background The transportation industry includes air, rail, road, and water travel, and its core business is transporting passengers and moving freight. Each branch of the transportation industry employs workers in a variety of positions, from managers who coordinate shipping schedules to freight handlers to customer service representatives to conductors and even safety inspectors. Many workers are needed just to operate and maintain the various means of transportation, such as drivers, pilots, mechanics, and engineers. The nature of transportation changes often, spurred by increasingly efficient vehicles, market competition,
and public desire for new modes of travel and to reach new destinations. Overall the industry has grown steadily in recent decades, though transportation businesses tend to be very sensitive to economic setbacks. Job opportunities are, therefore, generally good, and employees’ prospects are stable. Advances in transportation technology may eliminate some jobs, but they also create new employment opportunities for people with technological training. Following the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, the transportation industry found itself facing a new challenge—coping with the threat of terrorism. This has instigated changes within the industry and has also been a source of economic difficulty for some transportation businesses. The U.S. Department of Labor offers the following employment predictions by industry through 2014: air transportation, more slowly than the average; rail transportation, decline; road transportation, about as fast as the average; and water transportation, more slowly than the average. Read the individual article for each transportation branch for more details and specific outlook information.
■ Related Articles Airlines; Railroads; Shipping; Travel and Tourism; Trucking; Air Traffic Controllers; Airplane Dispatchers; Civil Engineering Technicians; Civil Engineers; Customs Officials; Diesel Mechanics; Flight Attendants; Helicopter Pilots; Industrial Traffic Managers; Locomotive Engineers; Merchant Mariners; Pilots; Public Transportation Operators; Railroad Clerks; Railroad Conductors; Reservation and Ticket Agents; Route Drivers; Signal Mechanics; Stevedores; Taxi Drivers; Toll Collectors; Traffic Engineers; Truck Drivers; Urban and Regional Planners
Did You Know? ■ More than 9.5 million people were employed in transportation and material moving occupations in 2005.
The median salary for workers in this field was $24,750 in 2005. Salaries ranged from less than $14,690 to $46,260 or more. ■
■ The United States has more than 3.9 million miles of roads and highways. ■ The Interstate Highway System was authorized by the Federal-Aid Highway Act of 1956. The system has a total length of 46,726 miles.
Sources: U.S. Department of Labor, American Road and Transportation Builders Association
Travel and Tourism ■ Background People have always traveled. In ancient times, people moved from area to area to search for food or better living conditions. When the Roman Empire was at the peak of its power in a.d. 100, it built the first great system of roads (29 highways in all) connecting Rome to other cities in its vast empire. These cobblestone roads were the most extensive, well-constructed roads ever seen and spanned more than 50,000 miles. Some roads, such as the Appian Way, are still in use today. This road system was constructed by and for the Roman troops, but it was used mainly to transport goods between Rome and other cities. Eventually, inns and
restaurants developed along the roads to accommodate the needs of travelers on long journeys. As transportation improved, the number of travelers increased. Pilgrimages to holy lands, sacred places, and the sites of miracles became common undertakings during the Middle Ages. Later, those seeking adventure or business opportunities began to make voyages of several hundred or several thousand miles, and after a time even the idea of traveling simply for pleasure became accepted. For those with sufficient time and wealth, traveling provided a diversion. Technology began to make travel much easier and more affordable in the 19th century. Until then, most travel was done by horse and carriage or by foot. Starting in the late 18th and early 19th centuries, inventors competed to develop the first steam-powered locomotives. In the United States, by the 1830s, the first workable engines and rail lines carried goods and passengers throughout the Atlantic states. In 1852, the first train reached Chicago, and soon the new towns in the Mississippi Valley had railway service to the Eastern seaports. The West and East were finally linked by a rail line in 1869, when the First Continental Railway was completed. The rise of the railroads increased the demand for hotels and inns. A railroad stop was usually a boon to small towns. Hotels often sprang up near the train station and grew to accommodate increasing numbers of travelers. Starting in the second half of the 19th century, steamships gradually replaced sailing vessels on the world’s trade and passenger routes. Passenger travel between Europe and the United States increased. Luxury cruise ships that carried passengers to and from Europe offered accommodations, equal to those of fine hotels. These vessels featured orchestras, ballrooms, dining halls, and private suites. The Queen Elizabeth was probably one of the best known and most traveled of the luxury liners. Ship travel was intended to be leisurely. Crossing the Atlantic by ship took two weeks. New methods of travel made tourism possible for others besides the idle rich. The working class could afford train fare to the countryside or the big cities. For Americans, a trip to Europe became an achievable goal. Although the cost was still quite high, it was within the reach of many people to save for and plan the trip. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, a trip abroad was a typical gift to the graduating college student. Commonly referred to as a grand tour, it was seen as a reward as well as a learning experience. A new age of travel began when the Wright brothers made the first successful powered flight of a heavierthan-air craft in 1903. Within a few decades, the airplane had secured its place as a vital means of transportation.
Travel and Tourism
In the Rocky Mountains, a group of skiers takes lessons. Taught by experts, the classes encourage nonskiers to try the sport. (George Hunter, Tony Stone Images.)
As the airline industry developed, advancements in plane design allowed for a greater number of passengers to be transported on a greater number of routes. Small cities were able to establish airports for smaller vehicles, and large cities found themselves with large, international airports, multiple runways, and substantial air traffic. Travel by automobile became especially popular after the end of World War II. Better production technology made automobiles more affordable. An increased number of families could buy cars, and with a healthy economy and growing amounts of leisure time, more people were traveling, dining out, and vacationing than ever before. Due to the growing interest in and popularity of commercial travel, the need for people who could plan trips increased. Travel agents who knew which hotels were good, how to get reservations, and how to make travel plans, found themselves increasingly in demand. Thomas Cook, in England, began his guided tour business in 1841. He specialized in excursions that serviced hundreds of thousands of people a year. Cook tours opened exotic places, such as Egypt and the Orient, to interested travelers. Travel agencies developed everywhere in the West. Travel specialists who could arrange tours and travel guides who knew the ins and outs of faraway places became sought-after businesspeople. The booming travel industry relied on experts to steer tourists to their establishments. The advent of travel services available on the Internet has had a major impact on the travel industry. Web sites such as Expedia.com and Priceline.com allow travelers to do their research, plan their own trips, hunt for the best price, and book their own vacations. Most hotels, entertainment venues, and airlines maintain Web sites that allow direct contact with the public and offer much of the information traditionally provided by travel agents.
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Another major development in the travel industry has been the need for heightened security in the face of terrorism. The terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, struck a blow against many travel-related businesses, particularly airlines, as tourists elected to drive rather than fly or chose to vacation closer to home. Much of that business has returned, but travel has been permanently changed. Air passengers are subjected to close scrutiny
Words to Know Adventure travel outfitters: Guides that plan and/or lead tours designed for the physically active, or sports-minded, individual. Airlines Reporting Corporation (ARC): The corporation that governs and regulates payments made to airlines and commission fees to travel agencies. Bulkhead: Airline walls that divide the cabin into sections. Cabin: The passenger compartments of an airplane. City codes: Three-letter codes used to identify cities or their airports. Each city or airport is designated with its own unique code. Coach: Airline travel priced less than that of first class travel. Customs: The government agency that supervises the flow of goods in and out of its country. Duty free: Nontaxed goods. Ecotours: Travel packages that take vacationers to natural environments where they can visit exotic ecosystems. Ground arrangements: Services covering the land portion of a package trip: lodging, transportation, sightseeing, and meals. Itinerary: A travel schedule. Package: A travel product bundling several vacation elements, such as air travel, a rental car, and hotel accommodations. Passport: A formal identification document issued by a country to one of its citizens; necessary for travel from one country to another. Port of call: An itinerary stop, usually referring to cruise stops. Terminal: An airport, train station, or bus station. Transportation Security Administration: Government agency created in 2001 to improve safety and passenger screening on the nation’s transportation channels, especially airlines. Visa: A document, or a stamp in a passport, authorizing the bearer to visit a country for a specific purpose and for a limited amount of time.
and thorough security checks before boarding, and hotels and nightclubs have become potential terrorist targets. Still, travel remains a robust part of everyday American life. Whether its purpose is for leisure or for business, travel choices have never been so abundant. In turn, career opportunities within the travel and tourism industry are plentiful, from travel agents to cruise directors to adventure travel guides.
■ Structure There are four basic necessities of travel: transportation, lodging, dining, and entertainment. When planning a trip, most travelers first gather information on these four elements by checking the current availability and cost of transportation, lodging, food at their planned destination, and entertainment offerings. Some locations are interesting for their historical or cultural relevance, while others provide pleasant natural surroundings, and still others provide physical adventure. Tourists may choose to combine one or more elements in a package plan that someone else arranges, or they may choose to create a vacation and handle all the planning personally. In both instances, travel specialists or travel agents may provide guidance, information, and services to the traveler. If the traveler is planning a trip without the aid of a travel specialist, the available resources vary, depending on the destination. Written travel guides are available for almost every major destination, whether it’s a city or a natural area, and travel guides for entire regions and countries are also abundant. In recent years the Internet has become a remarkably powerful tool for gathering travel information, making plans, and booking accommodations. Language books for travel abroad give translations and pronunciation guides for commonly used phrases. Classes, television shows, and an endless variety of CD-ROMs, cassettes, and books are available for foreign language instruction specifically geared to the traveler. All the commonly studied languages are widely available, as are many unfamiliar languages, such as African tribal languages. Many travelers find it easier to let a professional handle the information gathering and planning. In such cases, they consult a travel agency. The goal of travel agents working for a travel agency is to help their clients plan a trip that meets their desires and fits within their travel budget. Specifically, they check rates on transportation and accommodations and make transportation and hotel reservations. Agents also provide information such as visa and medical requirements for travel abroad, and they can supply additional directions specific to the traveler’s needs.
Travelers seeking an even simpler plan have another option: the packaged tour. Packaged tours, which can range from several days to several weeks, are available for those who wish to have many aspects of a trip planned in advance. They may cover a number of countries or they may include just one city. Tourists have a wide variety of tours to choose from to meet their specific needs and interests. Travel agencies, private groups, museums, universities, and other institutions are just some of the organizations that provide packaged tours. One type of packaged tour is adventure travel, which has become one of the fastest-growing segments of the travel industry. This travel is geared toward the physically active traveler who enjoys both seeing great wonders and exploring them. Adrenaline-pumping activities such as kayaking, whitewater rafting, and hiking are some of the pursuits available to the adventure traveler. Hundreds of outfitters make a living organizing and guiding such trips, which may include a weeklong trip sea-kayaking in Baja or whitewater rafting in the Grand Canyon. Outfitters usually specialize in one sport, but bigger companies take on several sports. Outfitters usually take groups of eight or more people on their trips. For tourists interested in spending much of the time actually moving from one point to another, cruise ships provide a slower, more leisurely type of travel. Cruise ships were the only form of travel across the oceans for many years. With the onset of air travel, cruise ships fell out of favor. Shorter cruises, in the Caribbean, for example, have again gained in popularity. Cruise ships provide so much entertainment that some passengers regard them as floating vacation spas. The locations visited by the ship may not be important to the cruise passengers who choose whether or not to disembark at ports. Cruises usually run from three days to a few weeks and may dock in two or three cities. Some of the most popular cruises today are to the Caribbean, the Bahamas, and Alaska.
■ Outlook Travel and hospitality is one of the largest retail service industries in the United States. Total 2005 expenditures for domestic and international travelers in the United States were more than $646 billion, according to the Travel Industry Association of America (TIA). TIA reports that more than 7.4 million jobs were directly supported by tourism spending. The TIA reports that overall domestic travel grew by 12.1 percent from 1994 to 2004. Additional statistics show that 81 percent of travel in 2004 was for leisure activities, 12 percent for business, and 7 percent combined business with pleasure. The vast majority of travelers, 84 percent,
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What “vacation” means for many people is a resort hotel in a tropical paradise, in this case, Acapulco, Mexico. (George Hunter, Tony Stone Images.)
used ground transportation. The top three travel activities for domestic travelers were shopping, attending a family event, and outdoor activities. The positive outlook for the travel and tourism industry took a sudden downturn after the terrorist attacks of September 2001. The threat of more terrorism has affected consumer confidence and corporate travel policies. Air transport and corporate and convention travel were particularly hard hit, with air travel being reduced to 1995 levels. Foreign travel to the United States has also been affected. Though many sectors of the travel industry have returned to normal business, some, such as airlines, are still struggling with the repercussions of terrorism and with carrying the expense of new, strict requirements imposed in the aftermath. Regardless, air travel remains one of the most popular modes of transportation and The U.S. Department of Labor projects jobs in this industry will increase by 9 percent through 2014; employment in hotels and other lodging establishments is expected to increase 17 percent for the same period. Lodging and transportation organizations are working with the government to make facilities more secure and to encourage people to continue traveling. U.S. Secretary of Commerce Don Evans convened and chaired a meeting of the Tourism Policy Council in October 2001 to address the continuing impact of the attacks on the American travel and tourism industry. “This administration is committed to getting rid of the terrorists and bringing back the tourists,” said Evans. “The Tourism Policy Council says to travelers and
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those who work in the travel and tourism industry that this Administration means business when it comes to their business.” The Tourism Policy Council is an interagency committee established by law to ensure that the nation’s tourism interests are considered in federal decision-making. Before the terrorist events, there was a trend toward more frequent, shorter vacations. Three- and four-day weekends were replacing the two-week vacations that were common in the 1960s and 1970s. As the working population in the United States finds it more difficult to take extended vacations, many travel organizations had designed their programs around shorter trips. That trend is likely to continue. Another trend was the growth in adventure travel and ecotourism, which involves visiting a pristine natural area, learning about its ecosystem, perhaps even performing some environmentally helpful work while there, and making every effort to preserve and protect that ecosystem without altering it by the act of traveling there. Ecotours to such places as the Galapagos Islands and Costa Rica have become very popular. Public interest in environmental issues is likely to encourage this trend in the future, although travelers may choose domestic rather than foreign destinations. While adventure travel, ecotours, and cruises were gaining in popularity, the traditional package tour lost ground. This may be due in part to how much easier travel planning has become with increasing access to the Internet. A computer user can now sit at home, access almost all the necessary information about any given location, and plan his or her own package tour, diminishing the demand for others to do this. This easy access, along with the increasing popularity of making reservations online, may ultimately affect travel agencies as well. Attempting to target the specific needs of their clientele has proven to be effective for many travel companies, for example tailoring services to the business traveler who works for a small firm. To compete with the larger travel agencies, local and regional agencies use a focused approach to attract small businesses. This is expected to result in additional careers in the industry, particularly in marketing and sales. These trends may change completely in the near future. The entire travel and hospitality industry is very sensitive to political crises, such as terrorist acts or civil wars, and shifts in economic conditions both at home and abroad. The decline in the travel industry has not been experienced in the United States alone but worldwide. Tourism is the single most important industry in many cities and countries, and many areas suffered greatly because of the slowdown. The number of overall job opportunities will fluctuate widely in the next few years.
■ For More Information For information on airline career opportunities, contact Air Line Pilots Association, International 1625 Massachusetts Avenue, NW Washington, DC 20036-2212 Tel: 703-689-2270 http://www.alpa.org
For career, education, or scholarship information for the airline industry, contact Air Transport Association of America 1301 Pennsylvania Avenue, NW, Suite 1100 Washington, DC 20004-1707 Tel: 202-626-4000 Email:
[email protected] http://www.airlines.org
For information on studying, working, and traveling abroad, contact Council on International Educational Exchange Three Copley Place, 2nd Floor Boston, MA 02116-6503 Tel: 888-COUNCIL http://www.ciee.org
For information on careers in aviation, schools, internships, and scholarships, contact Federal Aviation Administration 800 Independence Avenue, SW Washington, DC 20591-0001 Tel: 866-835-5322 http://www.faa.gov
For information on careers, education, and training in the ecotourism industry, contact International Ecotourism Society 1333 H Street, NW, Suite 300, East Tower Washington, DC 20005-4707 Tel: 202-347-9203 Email:
[email protected] http://www.ecotourism.org
For information on education, internships, scholarships, or certification in travel and tourism, contact National Tour Association 546 East Main Street Lexington, KY 40508-2342 Tel: 800-682-8886 Email:
[email protected] http://www.ntaonline.com
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For information on education or career opportunities in outdoor recreation, contact Outdoor Industry Association 4909 Pearl East Circle, Suite 200 Boulder, CO 80301-2499 Tel: 303-444-3353 Email:
[email protected] http://www.outdoorindustry.org
For information on travel careers in the U.S. government, contact Society of Government Travel Professionals 6935 Wisconsin Avenue, NW, Suite 200 Bethesda, MD 20815-6110 Tel: 301-654-8595 Email:
[email protected] http://www.government-travel.org
A trucker stops to get his load weighed at a Department of Motor Vehicles weigh station. (Charles Gupton, Tony Stone Images.)
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Trucking ■ Background The trucking industry is an integral part of the nation’s economy. Along with ships, airplanes, and railroads, trucks move freight quickly and efficiently, from city to city. Almost everything Americans eat, wear, or use at home or in business has completed some part of its journey from the manufacturer to the merchant via truck. Many of the first trucks were nothing more than converted automobiles, which weighed more than the loads they could carry and could not travel long distances without breaking down. For these reasons, trucks were confined to city driving. In the early 1900s, the nation depended on railroads for the distribution of freight across the country. The poor condition of roads and the absence of a national highway system, as well as the
mechanical limitations of trucks, simply made the shipment of goods by truck impractical. In 1904, there were only about 500 trucks in the United States. Despite these initial obstacles, the first long-distance trip made by a truck carrying freight occurred in 1911. The truck was called the Pioneer Freighter, weighed 7 tons loaded, and traveled from Denver to Los Angeles in 66 days. Five years after the Pioneer Freighter’s debut, the number of trucks in the United States had grown to about 1 million. Still, trucks were mainly used to deliver goods within short distances, as trucks were faster and had more flexible schedules than trains. During the Great Depression, the trucking industry also experienced increasing competition among carriers. With many people out of work, anyone with a car could convert it into a truck and offer their services to merchants. This practice led to dangerous and unsafe shipping, as these trucks were often overloaded and mechanically unsound. In 1933, the American Trucking Association helped legitimate carriers bring regulation to the trucking industry. Upon the ATA’s recommendations, the government passed the Motor Carrier Act (MCA) of 1935 to prevent destructive competition. For 40 years, the Motor Carrier Act ensured that large cities and small towns, as well as large and small industries, received equal service from carriers. A small company could exist without the threat of being driven out of business by a larger carrier that could afford to cut its rates, since the MCA required equal rates for equal services. In addition to benefiting from protective regulations, the trucking industry began to flourish with the development of new and more specialized trucks. Tank trucks
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Satellites For years, a CB radio was the only method of communication truck drivers used. Today, truck drivers have joined the ranks of so many other professionals whose work is made easier with new communication technology. Truckers have embraced in-cab communication advancements over the years, according to Transport Topics, trucking’s electronic newspaper. Developments in satellite communications and the evolution of truck stops allow truckers to do chores on the road. Drivers can communicate with their companies and families, learn about potential loads and traffic hazards, and transmit their location and vehicle performance to headquarters. A survey by Park ‘N’ View, a provider of Internet and cable television hookups at truck stops, found that many drivers on the road today use some type of in-cab satellite technology. The new technology has eliminated the inconvenience of drivers waiting by a pay telephone to find out if a shipment is available. Instead, a driver can rest in his or her cab, and when a load is found, the employer sends an electronic message via satellite to an on-board computer, which beeps to alert the driver. Satellite systems are also used by carriers to track loads and keep customers informed about where their shipments are at any given time.
were built to carry fuel, and trucks were designed for transporting livestock, produce, milk, eggs, meat, and heavy machine parts. The development of the detachable trailer further increased truck efficiency. Depending on what needed to be shipped, a different trailer could be hooked up to the tractor, allowing carriers to provide specialized services to a greater variety of customers. Increased manufacturing output during World War II and the economic prosperity that followed the war continued to boost the trucking industry. The efficiency of shipping freight by truck improved further when the Federal Highway Act of 1956 mandated the building of 42,500 miles of interstate highways. By 1970, revenue from trucking was $14.4 billion, while the revenue from railroads was only $11.1 billion. In the 1970s, many critics argued that while the MCA of 1935 had been necessary to protect this growing industry, it was now a detriment because it did not allow for competitive rates. The result of this argument was the Motor Carrier Act of 1980, otherwise known as deregulation. The MCA of 1980 allowed companies to expand the number of routes they could serve. The act also allowed many nonunion companies to spring up. In many cases, these nonunion companies were able to
charge clients half of what union companies charged for shipping. Between 1980 and 1986, more than 32,000 new carriers received operating licenses from the Interstate Commerce Commission. Many companies were hurt by deregulation; however, the competitive climate in the trucking industry, while still strong, is less chaotic than it was in the 1980s. Many carriers and shippers found that too much rate cutting led to a serious decline in the quality of service available. Deregulation changed the way many trucking companies operate. Today, employers must face the challenge of attracting and keeping qualified drivers, as well as the threat of terrorism, a new development for the trucking industry. The prospect of terrorist attacks has had a significant impact on safety and security measures and how trucking companies conduct their business.
■ Structure Trucking companies, or carriers, generally have a home office or terminal from which they run their businesses. At the terminal there are loading docks where trucks pull up to drop off and pick up their loads. The terminal also houses a maintenance area for repairs and safety checks on trucks, a warehouse where dockworkers work, and an office area where terminal managers, sales representatives, customer service representatives, and dispatchers work. Some terminals also offer amenities for drivers, including laundry facilities, showers, telephones, and wash bays. A carrier may transport two types of freight shipments: truckload (TL) and less than load (LTL). Truckload shipments are made when a driver picks up a load from a shipper and delivers the entire load to a single company in another city. LTL shipments are made when a customer needs a shipment of cargo that cannot fill a large truck. A company that makes LTL shipments picks up cargo in small trucks and then delivers the loads to the terminal where the cargo is sorted and loaded onto larger trucks. The larger truck then delivers the freight to a terminal in a different city, where the cargo is sorted again and loaded onto smaller trucks for delivery in the city. TL shipment is less expensive than LTL shipment, because it is a more efficient use of space. Also, companies that deliver TL shipments can use nonunionized labor. LTL companies are the most highly unionized sector of the trucking industry. There are two main groups of carriers in the trucking industry. A private carrier is part of a larger business that has its own fleet of trucks to ship its products. A for-hire carrier transports someone else’s freight either intrastate or interstate. Intrastate shipping is subject to state regulations, whereas interstate shipping is subject to federal regulations. The competition among for-hire
carriers is intense, because in a sense they compete with private carriers. In many cases it is cheaper for large business to ship by for-hire carriers than to maintain a large, expensive fleet. For-hire carriers are the largest employers and offer the best wages in the trucking industry. They are divided into two groups: common carriers and contract carriers. Common carriers serve the general public, while contract carriers specialize in services for an individual shipper with whom they have a contract. Common carriers provide pickup and delivery services, as well as long-distance shipping. Pickup and delivery operations transport general freight to specific distribution terminals, and this is a heavily unionized sector of the trucking industry. Carriers that provide long-distance shipping often transport special commodities and offer point-to-point service or deliver to distribution terminals in cities. Contract carriers include owner-operator drivers, who are independent businesspeople that either have contracts with a variety of companies or lease their services to a certain company. About one out of 10 truck drivers is self-employed, and a significant number of these drivers are owner-operators. In addition to drivers, the trucking industry employs many support personnel. Of the approximately 1.9 million people employed in trucking and related industries, such as warehousing, 55 percent do not drive a truck. Several different classes of workers serve as administrative support personnel. Dispatchers coordinate the movement of freight and trucks and stay in contact with drivers as well as with freight customers, often by radio or telephone. Traffic, shipping, and receiving clerks keep records of shipments arriving and leaving and verify the content with shipping logs. Billing clerks maintain company records of negotiated shipping rates and prepare customer invoices. Diesel mechanics perform all types of maintenance and repairs, including engine rebuilds on trucks. Mechanics are sometimes promoted to parts managers in charge of keeping the supply of replacement parts. Helpers, laborers, and material movers help load and unload freight from trucks. Executive and managerial staff provide general direction to the trucking company. Logistics engineers work with customers to help plan the best way to ship their goods.
■ Outlook According to the U.S. Department of Labor, the number of wage and salary jobs in the trucking and warehousing industry is expected to grow 14 percent from 2004 through 2014, as fast as the expected rate for all industries combined. However, growth depends on the general economy.
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If orders and shipments slow down during a recession, trucking suffers. There is strong competition in the industry, both among trucking companies and with the railroad industry. Some trucking companies are expanding their businesses to include logistical services, such as inventory management and just-in-time shipping. Trucking companies have also been forced to tighten security and make adjustments in response to threat of terrorism. Trucks have been identified both as potential weapons, for use as truck bombs, and targets, such as tanker trucks and trucks transporting hazardous materials. This has led to greater background checks for employees and stricter monitoring of trucks, which can cause delays and incur extra costs. Despite all this, the outlook is good for truckers. Jobs for drivers are expected to grow about as fast as average, according to the Occupational Outlook Handbook. Still, opportunities for qualified candidates should be strong due to the difficulty in locating skilled drivers. The Professional Truck Driver Institute of America predicts that approximately 80,000 drivers will be needed each year for the next decade. Employment in business, management, financial, sales, and maintenance occupations is projected to increase faster than the average for all occupations through 2014.
Words to Know FOB: Free on board. If a load is shipped FOB, it is the receiver’s responsibility to have it removed from the truck. GPS: Global Positioning System; a satellite system used to pinpoint exactly where a truck is at any given time. Intermodal: The practice of using various transportation methods to ship one product, such as sending a product part of the way by truck and the rest of the way by rail. JIT: Just-in-time delivery; manufacturers keep less inventory on hand to save on storage costs and have small quantities of goods shipped from suppliers just in time for use. Layover: Occurs when a driver, for whatever reason, stops driving before reaching his or her destination, such as a required rest after 10 hours of driving or when waiting for a load to be prepared. LTL: Less than load. OTR: Over the road; carriers that work in more than one metropolitan area. Piggybacking: The practice of separating a loaded tractor trailer from a truck and loading it onto a railroad car for transport. STB: Surface Transportation Board; federal government agency that oversees transportation of goods between states.
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There is a considerable amount of turnover in the field and beginners are able to find many openings. Competition is expected to remain strong for the more desirable jobs, such as those with large companies or the easiest routes. The Career Guide to Industries reports that in 2004 there were about 27,000 local trucking businesses, 39,000 long-distance trucking firms, and 46,000 specialized freight establishments. The increase of Internet retail sales should increase business for parcel and package carriers, such as the U.S. Postal Service, United Parcel Service, and Federal Express. Current issues that the trucking industry must face include highway transportation safety, now regulated by a separate motor carrier safety administration established in 1999. Trucking formerly was a part of the Federal Highway Administration. The trucking industry must comply with environmental regulations, such as diesel engine emissions rules and water quality standards at maintenance facilities. The Department of Transportation governs work hours and other conditions, and the trucking industry is also working with labor and safety groups to improve hours-of-service rules for drivers. It is promoting 24-hour work-rest schedules, with a maximum of 14 hours of on-duty time followed by a minimum of 10 consecutive hours of off-duty time.
■ For More Information For information about careers in the trucking industry, contact the following organizations American Trucking Associations 2200 Mill Road Alexandria, VA 22314-4654 Tel: 703-838-1700 http://www.trucking.org
Professional Truck Driver Institute of America 555 E. Braddock Road Alexandria, VA 22314 Tel: 703-647-7015 Email:
[email protected] http://www.ptdi.org
Truckload Carriers Association 555 E. Braddock Road Alexandria, VA 22314 Tel: 703-838-1950 Email:
[email protected] http://www.truckload.org
■ Related Articles Letter and Package Delivery; Railroads; Shipping; Transportation; Household Movers; Industrial Traffic Manag-
ers; Public Transportation Operators; Route Drivers; Toll Collectors; Traffic Engineers; Truck Drivers
Visual Arts ■ Background Georgia O’Keefe’s painting Black Iris, Michelangelo’s sculpture David, and Robert Mapplethorpe’s photograph Fish, all express the diversity of the visual arts. Today, visual arts include not only the traditional fields of painting, drawing, and sculpture but also illustration, photography, filmmaking, needlework, even computer animation, as well as many others. Works of art are wonderful to look at, and they enhance our lives and help us understand ourselves and our societies. They inspire us, comfort us, touch us. They reflect our imagination and excite our vision. Many of the visual arts have their origins in prehistoric times, and we know by looking at artifacts that the visual arts have been important in virtually every human society. World cultures offer an abundance of styles and media in the visual arts. The earliest examples of Western painting are found not on the walls of elegant museums but on the walls of caves in southern Europe. Famous ancient cave art is found at Lascaux in southwestern France and Altamira in northern Spain. It is believed that some 20,000 years ago, humans painted pictures of animals, such as bison, horses, and deer, on cave walls as part of magic rituals to benefit their hunting trips. Scientists have determined that their paint was made of various minerals mixed with animal fat, egg whites, plant juices, fish glue, or blood, and the first paintbrushes were made of twigs and reeds. Prehistoric sculpture is represented by small animal figures and fertility statuettes, such as the Venus of Willendorf. These are found from Eastern Europe to Siberia but mainly in Austria, the Czech Republic, and Hungary. Egyptians around 3000 b.c. used visual art to honor their pharaohs. They painted the walls of their tombs with mythological figures and depictions of everyday activities, such as hunting, fishing, and banquets. Minoans (ancestors of the Greeks) of the 1500s b.c. left paintings on the walls of palaces in Crete and on pottery. The Romans adopted many Greek artistic techniques, decorating their floors with mosaics and creating wall frescoes that portrayed rituals, myths, landscapes, and scenes of daily life. In the thousands of years since the ancient Romans and Greeks, some aspects of the visual arts have remained
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Modern Art Movements Impressionism: This painting movement began in mid-19th century France with artists Monet, Renoir, Pissarro, Degas, Morisot, Cezanne (in his early years), and the American painter, Cassatt. These artists worked from life, mostly out-ofdoors. Impressionism sometimes describes the technique of breaking up the picture surface into small dabs of broken color that would be blended together by the viewer’s eye. Post-Impressionism: This type of painting followed Impressionism in France, and included the work of artists such as Cezanne, Gauguin, Seurat, and Van Gogh. It was less naturalistic than Impressionism and led to the notion of painting as essentially colors and forms on a flat surface. Symbolism: Symbolism began in the 1890s in Europe and was influenced by Art Nouveau and Post-Impressionism. Symbolist artists included Redon, Bonnard, and Vuillard. Fauvism: This movement emphasized bright colors and shapes not conforming to objective reality, and includes the art of Matisse and Derain. Cubism: Cubism began in France with Picasso and Braque, who were inspired by African sculpture and Cezanne’s paintings. It was characterized by images shown as geometrical shapes, and the use of multiple perspectives. Other artists included Gris and Feininger. Abstraction: Abstract art modifies or distorts objective reality. Some of the first abstractionists were Kandinsky and Mondrian. Dada: Dadaism included the work of Marcel Duchamp. It tried to shock, defy conventions, and question the very definitions of art. Surrealism: Surrealistic painters, such as Dali, Miro, Ernst, and Magritte, experimented with the
ideas of the subconscious and dreams in art, the importance of the element of chance, and the concept of an absolute in art. Abstract Expressionism: Abstract Expressionism began mainly in America in the 1940s, with the work of Pollock, Newman, and Rothko. Common elements included a spiritual nature of the work, the elements of chance and the unconscious, and the absence or distortion of objective reality. Expressionism: Expressionism is sometimes considered the German version of Fauvism. It focuses on the expression of emotion, rather than a description of physical reality. Kirchner and Nolde were Expressionists. Pop Art: Pop artists made art that separated the artist’s personality from the work, in contrast to Expressionism. Images were often taken from advertising and the contemporary world. Pop Art’s early artists were Rauschenberg, Johns, and Warhol. Op Art: Op art was a strictly visual exploration of colors and other optical effects in painting. Artists included Vasarely and Albers. Earth or Environmental Art: Environmental artists use the natural world as its material and content. Christo and Jeanne-Claude are the best known environmental artists. Their art explores concepts and often has poetic and art-for-all qualities. Conceptual Art: Conceptual art emphasizes the idea of the work of art as opposed to the object itself. It can be an act done by an artist or a physical object made by the artist. Hamilton and Boltanski are conceptual artists who explore ideas about the nature of reality. Installation Art: Installation art describes very large, usually three-dimensional collections of objects and forms, often filling a large gallery or museum space. Examples of Installation artists are Kienholz, Segal, and Pfaff.
constant while others have changed. In wealthy societies certain classes of people are able to pay professional artists, as Sumerian priests and Renaissance princes did, and as art collectors and corporations do today. The physical resources of a society have always affected the medium in which an artist works. In Mesopotamia, Sumerian architects built with brick because stone was not available. Nomadic Asian herders wove wool from their flocks into rugs. Medieval European painters worked on wood panels, plaster walls, and stained-glass
windows, and calligraphers drew letters on parchment in an era before paper was known in the West. Because of mass production and world trade, modern artists have an enormous range of materials from which to choose. Today, anything goes—artists create works not only with paint and paper but with metals, glass, fabric, even household appliances. Local tradition also affects art styles. Pottery design in one area and period may be geometric; in another, naturalistic. Because of Indian traditions, artists depicted
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countries, art served the state. In most Western countries, artists have great freedom to choose the subjects that they desire to explore and express. Art movements, or schools of thought, are numerous: impressionism, postimpressionism, expressionism, surrealism, cubism, Dadaism, fauvism, futurism, abstract expressionism, and minimalism, to name a few. Although these movements change with time and space, visual art continues to be a power that confronts us, challenges us, and allows us to comment on life in expressive ways.
■ Structure An art conservator painstakingly restores Pieto by Jose de Ribera. (Robert Frerck, Tony Stone Images.)
the Buddha with tightly curled hair. Western tradition decreed that the Madonna be shown with a blue robe. Eastern artists seem to have disregarded scientific perspective, which was a major concern of painters in the European Renaissance. In ancient Egyptian culture, which was dominated by the state and religion, painting, sculpture, and architecture glorified the pharaoh and life after death. In pious medieval Europe, most visual arts had Christian themes. In 20th-century totalitarian
Profile: Norman Rockwell Norman Rockwell (1894–1978) was the most successful illustrator and artist in American history. His paintings captured a wide breadth of American settings and values and often portrayed humorous circumstances in realistic settings. He is most famous for his “Four Freedoms” series from 1942 and for painting the covers of The Saturday Evening Post, a showcase he held for more than 40 years. Rockwell also created a famous depiction of Santa Claus used in a long-running marketing campaign by Coca-Cola. Though he left high school to attend art school, Rockwell found success early when he began contributing to Boy’s Life magazine. Over the span of his career he created many of the most memorable images of “Americana,” and contributed to countless magazines and other venues. Some critics and historians debate whether Norman Rockwell’s work can be considered fine art or only commercial illustration. Rockwell thought of himself mainly as an illustrator. Still, he reached perhaps the greatest audience of any American artist and his work is studied and appreciated today long after his death. The Norman Rockwell Museum in Stockbridge, Massachusetts is dedicated to preserving and exhibiting Rockwell’s work.
The visual arts can roughly be divided into four categories: commercial art, fine art, craft, and multimedia art. Commercial art is art used by advertising, publishing, public relations, and other business enterprises to attract attention, sell products and services, illustrate concepts, convey messages, and document events. Commercial artists include illustrators, graphic designers, art directors, and photographers. Some commercial art, particularly some illustration and photography, is also considered by some to be fine art. Most commercial art combines pictorial elements with text, and artists use a variety of media to create primarily two-dimensional works that can be easily reproduced. Computers are an important tool commercial artists use to design page layouts, specify type fonts and sizes, scan photos and artwork, separate colors for printing, create illustrations, and manipulate photos. In many cases art directors develop or approve specific concepts that a commercial artist then executes for a given project. Fine art is art created more for personal expression than financial gain. Although some fine artists are commissioned to create works for a particular place, such as a park or an office building, usually the art comes from the artist’s own ideas. The list of materials fine artists use to create their art is inexhaustible. Painters use oil, acrylic, or watercolor paints on various surfaces, such as paper, canvas, wood, and plaster. Sculptors use materials, such as clay, metal, wood, stone, papier mâché and plastic, to build, carve, sandblast, cast, or mold three-dimensional forms. Calligraphers use ink, pencil, paper, books, wood, even gold and silver. Printmakers make prints from carved blocks, etched plates, and silk screens. Ceramic artists use clay and glazes to create sculpture, tableware, beads, tiles, or architectural decorations. Other fine artists use airbrush, pastels, charcoal, collage or mixed media, to name a few of the more traditional media. Only a few fine artists make a living from their art. Most earn income from other occupations while making art in their free time. The most common way for fine artists to show and sell their art is through galleries.
Galleries hold single-artist shows, group shows, theme shows, and competitions. They also represent specific artists and act as art brokers between artists and buyers. Artists assemble a portfolio of slides of their most representative work and present it to gallery owners and operators. The gallery operators consider the artwork’s appeal, its theme or concept, the media and technique used, the artist’s skill, and the work’s salability. When gallery operators consider representing an artist, they look at the artist’s body of work. They like to see a progression of concept or technique and to know that the artist is likely to continue producing quality work. After a work or works are accepted for exhibit, they are installed in the gallery. There is usually an opening reception, to which interested viewers, critics, and potential buyers are invited to meet and talk with the artist. The installation or exhibit may be open for public viewing for a week or several months. Fine artists also display their art in public buildings, restaurants, museums, office buildings, hotels, and on the Internet. In fact, fine artists are using the Internet more and more to make their works visible and available to a much wider audience than is possible by galleries and other exhibiting venues. There are many other fields open to artists. Some artists, such as illustrators, straddle the line between fine art and commercial art. These artists often accept assignments, but may also produce art simply for personal expression with less commercial value. Technical artists, such as medical and scientific illustrators, usually have an extensive knowledge of their subject and produce precision drawings to illustrate important concepts. Cartoonists and comic book artists specialize in producing sequential images that convey a story. Caricaturists may work in amusement parks or public places, selling their drawings directly to the public, or they may produce caricatures of celebrities and public figures for use in news media. The field of visual arts also includes craft, sometimes called handcraft, or arts and crafts. Craft refers to art objects that usually, but not always, have a function. Needle arts, jewelry making, basketry, wood carving, mosaic, some ceramics, and bookbinding are examples of crafts, although there is some disagreement about what is craft and what is fine art. Crafters sell their works through retail stores, fairs, catalogs, the Internet, and galleries. A recent branch of the visual arts includes work that is primarily created using computers and other digital and electronic tools and is often meant to be reproduced or distributed through similar means. Multimedia artists create everything from animated logos for a Web site to
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Words to Know Calligraphy: Beautiful writing with artistic, stylized, or elegant lettering; the art of producing such lettering. Collage: Art composed of a variety of materials, such as paper, cloth, wood, and metal, glued to a surface. Etching: The art of producing pictures or designs by printing from a metal plate that has been etched with a substance like acid or a laser beam. Masterpiece: A work of art done with extraordinary skill; a supreme artistic achievement. Medium: The material an artist chooses to work in, such as marble, oil paint, and ink. Mixed media: More than one type of medium (like paint, thread, and metal) used to create a work of art. Needlework: Handcraft involving fabrics, such as embroidery, knitting, crocheting, needlepoint, quilting, lace making, and weaving. Potter: An artist who forms clay into earthenware objects and figures. Printmaking: Making an original work of art (like a woodcut, etching, or lithograph) that is intended to be graphically reproduced. Sculpture: A three-dimensional work of art. Watercolors: Paints made of pigment and water dispersed in a binding material.
breathtaking fantasy backgrounds for the latest Hollywood blockbuster. Some specialize in storyboards (still drawings that outline actions and scenes) and others work solely as animators, bringing cartoon characters and computer-generated heroes to vivid life for film, television, and video.
■ Outlook As long as the visual arts continue to be an outlet for creative expression, people with artistic skills and dreams will continue to work in this field. The large number of art exhibits, galleries, and Web sites will continue to offer employment opportunities to skilled visual artists. However, those who aspire to a career in this field should recognize that although the possibilities of success exist and can be fulfilling, the potential for disappointment is also real. More than 60 percent of artists are self-employed, and those who are not tend to work in the advertising, computer, film, publishing, and software industries. The employment picture for graphic artists is clouded by fierce competition and an abundance of applicants, for both salaried positions and freelance work. Fine artists and crafters often find it difficult to support themselves
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financially by their artwork alone. The visual arts are a highly subjective area, and success depends a lot on the aesthetic perceptions and choices of the audiences who view works of art. Another job option for visual artists is teaching. However, even with heavy competition and different opinions of beauty, according to the Occupational Outlook Handbook, it is expected that employment of visual artists will grow as fast as the average for all occupations through 2014. The industry will grow in proportion to its ability to attract audiences. Also, the growth of the Internet will create lots of opportunities for all artists. Chances for artists to exhibit their work also often depend on the amount of government funding available. The National Endowment for the Arts and other local arts agencies offer various financial grants to artists, for which competition is heavy.
■ For More Information This professional association for graphic designers and related professionals is dedicated to the promotion of excellence in the field of design through publications, exhibitions, competitions, seminars, and conferences. American Institute of Graphic Arts 164 Fifth Avenue New York, NY 10010-5901 Tel: 212-807-1990 Email:
[email protected] http://www.aiga.org
This organization promotes and protects the economic interests of members and is committed to improving conditions for all creators of graphic art and to raising standards for the entire industry. It is a union that embraces creators at all levels of skill and expertise who produce graphic art intended for presentation as originals or reproductions. Graphic Artists Guild 90 John Street, Suite 403 New York, NY 10038-3202 Tel: 212-791-3400 http://www.gag.org
Visit the NASAD’s Web site for information on schools. National Association of Schools of Art and Design (NASAD) 11250 Roger Bacon Drive, Suite 21 Reston, VA 20190-5248 Tel: 703-437-0700 Email:
[email protected] http://nasad.arts-accredit.org
This society promotes the appreciation and advancement of the art of illustration, strives to set high standards, and offers a forum for industry discussion. Society of Illustrators 128 East 63rd Street New York, NY 10021-7303 Tel: 212-838-2560 Email:
[email protected] http://www.societyillustrators.org
■ Related Articles Advertising and Marketing; Fashion; Photography; Publishing; Art Directors; Artists; Fashion Designers; Fashion Illustrators and Photographers; Graphic Designers; Illustrators; Jewelers and Jewelry Repairers; Medical Illustrators and Photographers; Photo Stylists; Photographers
Waste Management ■ Background Most people rarely give a second thought to garbage. We throw away what we don’t need, and it is “out of sight, out of mind.” But were the waste-management industry to grind to a halt, Americans would quickly discover how much our way of life has come to depend on someone swiftly and safely removing the waste we produce. Centuries ago, waste management wasn’t much of an issue. Relatively few people inhabited the earth. Trees were cut for fuel and burned without too much adverse effect, and smoke from widely scattered fires dissipated in the atmosphere. Sewage and garbage could be disposed of by individuals on their own property. City efforts to deal with residents’ waste go back to at least 500 b.c., when the first known dump was created outside of Athens. The ancient Romans created basic sewer systems. They also had trenches outside of cities where people threw trash, a practice that periodically led to epidemic diseases. As early as 1300, London began suffering ill effects from the widespread use of coal as a fuel. With the advent of the Industrial Revolution in England in the mid-1700s, the problems of managing wastes grew far more serious. City populations swelled as people were drawn from rural areas to work in factories. This generated unprecedented quantities of concentrated garbage, sewage, and other wastes. Factories churned out tons of solid, liquid, and gaseous wastes, in the form of unused or spent manufacturing materials and chemicals,
wastewater produced during the manufacturing process, and air emissions (smoke) from burning coal and wastes. By the 1800s, smog engulfed London and all manner of wastes were dumped into the Thames River. Thousands of people became ill with typhoid fever when the drinking-water supply became contaminated. The United States experienced the same types of problems as industrialization grew in the 1800s and early 1900s. Factories sprang up, urban populations exploded, and wastes began to grow out of control. Cities began to experiment with methods of handling the higher volumes of garbage, including burning it in incinerators. By the early 1900s, there were about 300 incinerators in North America. Municipalities also created landfills, basically dumping the week’s trash in a mound, compressing it, covering it with dirt, and repeating the process with the next week’s load of trash. Early landfills were havens for rats and often leaked wastes into surrounding land and water, including groundwater used for drinking. Alarm about municipal and industrial waste-handling practices climbed steadily in the early part of the 20th century. Scientists and other experts tried to warn others that poor waste management was a threat to human health and safety. It also was destroying the environment. Not until after World War II, however, did the general public begin to see the air, water, and land as deteriorating because of pollutants. Lakes, streams, and rivers were becoming choked with chemicals that were killing off fish and other wildlife. Burning of wastes containing toxic chemicals, such as mercury, was seriously contaminating the air, leading to an increase in respiratory problems and other ailments. Insecticides, toxic chemicals, and other lethal substances were finding their way into soil used for agriculture and water used for drinking. Finally, in the mid-1960s, the federal government took action. Studies about industrial and municipal waste handling were conducted. Funds were made available to states to develop waste-handling strategies for their municipalities and industries. The first waste-management legislation was passed in 1965. The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) was created in 1970 to implement waste handling and other environmental regulations. Laws, such as the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act of 1970 and its 1976 amendments, defined different types of wastes and described minimum actions for waste handling. Stricter laws about what types of wastes industry could discharge, what types of materials they could no longer use, how the wastes had to be disposed of, as well as rules about municipal landfills, incinerators, and other matters fueled the growing waste-management industry.
waste management
Heavy machinery is used to plow garbage at a landfill site. (Mathew Hohmann.)
Today, waste management is a major U.S. industry, as well as the largest and fastest-growing part of the environmental industry. Waste primarily falls into two categories: hazardous and nonhazardous. Both include a wide variety of materials, but generally, hazardous waste falls under stricter regulations and covers a range of chemical and other wastes. Nonhazardous waste is known as municipal solid waste (MSW) and is what we think of as garbage, including household waste. The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) reports that in 2003 more than 236 million tons of MSW were generated in the United States. The United States generated 40.82 million tons of waste classified hazardous under the RCRA and nearly 2,500 treatment, storage, and disposal facilities were in operation around the country in 2001, according to the National Solid Wastes Management Association. Waste management covers a wide range of public and private efforts to cut the volume of solid, liquid, and gaseous wastes; reduce waste toxicity; and collect, process, and recycle or dispose of waste. As the waste management industry has grown, our handling of waste has improved, although some would say not enough to keep up with the increasing amount of waste we produce.
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The Disposable Society The driving force behind the growth of the wastemanagement industry is, quite simply, the increase in the amount of waste produced in America. While professionals in the waste-management industry concern themselves with how to best handle this waste, social scientists have done studies to understand why we produce so much waste. The average U.S. citizen produces about 4.5 pounds of waste each day, according to the Environmental Protection Agency. That amount increased steadily from 2.7 pounds in 1960 until it peaked in 2003 at 4.5 pounds. Factors contributing to the increase include population growth and an increase in the number of households. Cultural changes that have affected this are greater impulse buying of household products which are eventually discarded, more shopping by mail which requires additional packaging, and higher fast food consumption. Much progress has been made in recycling to counter this trend. In 2003, 72 million tons of material were recycled, marking a record high 30.6 percent of all municipal solid waste that would otherwise have been dumped in landfills or incinerated. Still, with a growing population and steady consumer demand for new products, waste disposal and recycling are certain to remain significant issues in the future.
Recycling efforts in 2003 kept 72 million tons of MSW from reaching incinerators and landfills, an increase of 57 million tons from 1980. This demonstrates the success of recycling programs, more than 8,870 of which served about half of Americans by 1999. The waste management industry is vital to finding a balance between our push for a cleaner environment and our increased generation of waste. Paper, including containers and packaging, made up the largest volume of MSW, accounting for 35.2 percent of the total waste generated, according to the EPA. Yard waste was next at 12.1 percent, followed by food waste at 11.7 percent and plastics at 11.3 percent. Industrial solid waste (ISW) has long been, and continues to be, the single biggest category of waste. The EPA reports that approximately 7.6 billion tons of ISW result from manufacturing and processing activities each year. Every manufacturing process produces wastes, but the biggest generators include chemical companies, paper and food manufacturers, utilities, leather, plastic, and metals manufacturers, textile manufacturers, petroleum companies, and machinery manufacturers. As a result of environmental legislation and public outcry during the last 30 years, U.S. industry has dramatically changed the way it handles solid waste. Their methods include reduc-
ing the amount of waste generated, such as by changing a manufacturing process, treating waste to make it less toxic to the environment, reusing and recycling process wastes, hiring waste-management firms and consultants to help them improve their waste-handling activities, and opening their facilities to state and local environmental and health inspectors, and sometimes the public. In recent years, pressure from consumers has had a major impact on how industry handles its waste. No manufacturer wants to be known as a polluter. Today, companies such as, Polaroid, 3M Company, Dow Chemical Company, Monsanto, ExxonMobil Corporation, Merck, AT&T, and S.C. Johnson have developed multimillion-dollar waste management strategies to comply with environmental regulations. Legally, hazardous waste is different from solid waste. Hazardous wastes are toxic substances posing a serious threat to human health or the environment. Exact lists of hazardous substances differ, and the amount of a hazardous substance in the air, soil, or water that is acceptable to specific federal, state, or local authorities may differ, or even change, in quantity over the years. However, hazardous wastes typically encompass chemicals and chemical compounds with links or suspected links to cancer, heart disease, respiratory ailments, and other serious health problems. For example, one common hazardous waste is benzene, a component in fuel, It has been identified as a carcinogen (cancer-causing agent). Other hazardous wastes include solvents used in paint and other manufacturing and in service operations like dry cleaners, certain metals from manufacturing processes, chemicals like PCBs (polychlorinated biphenyls), and other substances. A special category of hazardous waste is radioactive waste. Disposal of radioactive waste is a unique problem because it can remain hazardous for hundreds of years. Nearly every industry produces hazardous waste, from food, textiles, metals, petroleum, plastics, and paper manufacturing to dry cleaning services, printing, and more. According to the EPA nearly 280 million tons of the total 13 billion tons of agricultural, commercial, industrial, and household waste generated in the United States classify as hazardous. Basic chemical manufacturing comprises the majority of the waste produced, with petroleum and coal products manufacturing following. Old municipal landfills have mixtures of hazardous and solid wastes, and households continue to produce small quantities of hazardous wastes such as those from household cleaning products. There are many municipal and industrial hazardous waste sites in the United States. In addition, the U.S. federal government owns many hazardous waste sites, including in-use
and closed military bases, military production sites, and other sources. (Domestic military bases produce more hazardous waste than the top five chemical companies.) Superfund cleanup sites are high-priority and low-priority hazardous waste sites specifically targeted for cleanup by the federal government under the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act of 1980. It is estimated that more than 40 million people live four miles or less from a Superfund site. Great strides have been made in waste management in the last 30 years. But hundreds of millions of tons of municipal and industrial solid and hazardous wastes continue to be generated every year. Properly handling all the waste is the job of the waste management industry.
■ Structure Waste management is an enormous industry encompassing workers who handle waste in its various forms and stages of treatment or disposal. Waste management workers, from refuse collectors who cover every street across the nation to scientists in labs who devise better ways to reduce pollution, work toward a common goal: preserving human health and the environment. The field of waste management can be divided several different ways. Workers may work with hazardous waste or nonhazardous waste; they may be employed in the private sector or the public sector. Waste management careers may focus on air, water, or soil concerns; waste produced by industries; or government agency regulation of such industries. The choices for those who are interested in the field are varied, as are the requirements for various types of jobs. Those who enjoy working outdoors and aren’t interested in pursuing postsecondary schooling may find jobs as refuse collectors, landfill workers, or assistants to professionals in the waste industry. With some postsecondary education, the opportunities increase. Equipment operators are needed in such waste operations as landfills, wastewater treatment plants, and some industries. Technicians who take samples and work in labs work in all stages of waste treatment and environmental study. Engineers devise ways to improve waste management systems and scientists study effects on the environment and humans. Employment opportunities exist with private wastehandling firms like the giant Waste Management, Inc. (WMI) and with smaller, independent collectors, haulers, and processors. There are jobs on in-house staffs of generators of high volumes of waste including chemical, food, and metals manufacturers. Other employers include state and regional EPA authorities, local municipal authorities, engineering consulting firms, and emergency response companies.
Waste Management
Although opportunities certainly still exist in the public sector, trends are definitely toward privatization, and many waste management jobs of the future will be in the private sector. According to a 2001 report sponsored by the Environmental Research and Education Foundation, approximately 45 percent of the 27,000 waste management organizations in the U.S. were privately held companies. This sector of the industry generated about 76 percent of the $43.3 billion in total revenue. The report also indicated that the majority of workers in the solid waste management industry, 41.1 percent, were employed at private sector organizations. A National Solid Wastes Management Bulletin stated that communities were looking to privatization to lower costs, improve quality of service, and more efficiently manage waste removal. Private sector employers in the waste management industry include the following: Disposal companies. Regulations for solid and hazardous waste state how companies must transport, treat and dispose of waste. So special companies have evolved that do nothing but dispose of other companies’ waste for them. Multibillion-dollar companies such as Waste Man-
Wearing safety goggles and a helmet, a worker monitors gas leakage at a landfill site. (Mathew Hohmann.)
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agement Inc. (WMI) own operations across the nation and employ many types of waste management professionals. Large companies grow even larger by acquiring smaller companies all over the country. For example, WMI merged with USA Waste in 1998 and as a result serves almost 21 million customers nationwide, providing commercial, industrial, municipal, and residential services. Smaller firms that specialize in treating one type of waste, such as waste from metal finishing, have also been affected. Stricter laws and efforts to be cost-effective have put pressure on small, local waste-hauling or disposal companies. In many cases, these firms, no longer able to compete in their markets, have been purchased by larger companies such as WMI. Industry. Today, large industrial firms and others that generate significant amounts of waste are likely to have their own in-house environmental staffs to ensure their companies are in compliance with waste-related environmental regulations. The environmental staff at a large company may include scientists, engineers, technicians, attorneys, and communications professionals. Smaller companies may have a professional or two on staff or hire out all their work to consultants. Industry has sunk billions of dollars into waste-management and other compliance. Good public relations, high costs for disposal, soaring costs for noncompliance, including the threat of lawsuits, and other factors demand vigilance in current waste-management activities and initiative in developing new waste-management processes and strategies. Consultants. Consulting companies advise other companies how to handle solid or hazardous waste problems, design waste-management plans and provide manpower to carry them out, and provide routine wastemanagement monitoring and consulting. Some large consulting firms have their own testing and laboratory services. There are approximately 100 large environmental consulting firms in the United States, plus hundreds of smaller operations, including many one-person outfits. Emergency response companies. A few companies specialize in handling emergency waste-management situations, such as when there’s a tank fire or a train collision producing leaking toxic and flammable chemicals. Because the work is very hazardous and involves a lot of liability, there aren’t many such companies. Large private industrial companies, such as DuPont, Dow Chemical Company, and Monsanto, usually have their own inhouse response teams. Public sector employers include the following: Federal agencies. The EPA is just one federal government agency that uses solid and hazardous waste management experts and technicians. The U.S. Forest Service,
National Park Service, Bureau of Land Management, and Fish and Wildlife Service all have waste management needs and employ scientists and other professionals accordingly. The government contracts with private waste management consultants and firms for some projects, such as almost all of the cleanups of governmentowned hazardous waste sites. State and local agencies. Jobs include state regulatory and inspection officials; state EPA scientists, engineers, technicians, and other professionals; and administrators, engineers, technicians, and laborers in municipal public works departments, at municipal water plants, and at other public facilities. Local authorities have long been responsible for handling municipal solid waste. There also is a trend now toward increased work in hazardous waste management at the local level by states and counties or municipalities. Increasing reluctance to use incinerators and landfills is changing how the United States handles MSW. According to the EPA, recycling accounted for 72 million tons of material otherwise bound for incinerators and landfills in 2003. This was an increase of 57 million tons since 1980, marking a steadily growing trend. More municipalities are developing waste management plans, including formal recycling programs, in order to reduce, recycle, and compost more waste and to use other methods less. In addition to the areas described so far, there are subspecialties and special niches in waste management. For example, a part of the hazardous waste-management field is the handling and disposal of medical wastes generated by hospitals, labs, health care facilities, and pharmaceutical companies and the handling of other small-volume generators, such as university research facilities and even households. Another area is international waste management work. As the United States learns to manage and control its own wastes, it is also starting to sell its expertise abroad in places, such as Eastern Europe and the Middle East. Some of the large U.S. waste management and engineering/ environmental consulting firms work all over the world. Waste Management Inc. is one such company. Compliance with strict government regulations can be costly for industries. Working for companies to help them find cost-effective ways to comply with regulations is a growing area of the waste management industry. Being environmentally friendly is expensive for many industries, but it is usually in the company’s best interests, both from a public relations standpoint and the company’s bottomline. In many cases, reducing waste forces a company to find a better process or material and in the end can actually save the company money.
Waste Management
Words to Know Abatement: Reducing the degree or intensity of, or eliminating, pollution. Biodegradable: Capable of decomposing under natural conditions. Bioremediation: Use of living organisms to clean up oil spills or remove other pollutants from soil, water, wastewater; use of organisms such as nonharmful insects to remove agricultural pests or counteract diseases of trees, plants, and garden soil. Byproduct: Material, other than the principal product, generated as a consequence of an industrial process or as a breakdown product in a living system. Contaminant: Any physical, chemical, biological, or radiological substance or matter that has an adverse effect on air, water, or soil. Diversion rate: The percentage of waste materials diverted from traditional disposal such as landfilling or incineration to be recycled, composted, or reused. Effluent: Wastewater, treated or untreated, that flows out of a treatment plant, sewer, or industrial outfall. Generally refers to wastes discharged into surface waters. Garbage: Animal and vegetable waste resulting from the handling, storage, sale, preparation, and serving of foods. Groundwater: The supply of fresh water found beneath Earth’s surface, usually in aquifers, that supplies wells and springs. Hazardous waste: Byproducts of society that can pose a substantial or potential hazard to
human health or the environment when improperly managed. National Priorities List: EPA’s list of the most serious uncontrolled or abandoned hazardous waste sites identified for possible remedial action under Superfund. Pollution: The presence of a substance in the environment that because of its chemical composition or quantity prevents the functioning of natural processes and produces undesirable environmental and health effects. Primary treatment: First step in wastewater treatment; screens and sedimentation tanks remove most materials that float or will settle. Remediation: Cleanup or other methods used to remove or contain a toxic spill or hazardous materials from a Superfund site. Secondary treatment: The second step in most waste treatment systems in which bacteria consume the organic parts of the waste. Source reduction: Reducing the amount of materials entering the waste stream from a specific source by redesigning products or patterns of use. Superfund: The government program that funds and carries out EPA solid waste emergency and long-term removal and remedial activities. Tertiary treatment: Advanced cleaning of wastewater that removes nutrients such as phosphorus, nitrogen and most suspended solids. Waste stream: The total flow of solid waste from homes, businesses, institutions, and manufacturing plants that is recycled, burned, or landfilled.
The EPA operates WasteWise, a program begun in 1994 that has grown to more than 1,300 corporations, government agencies, universities, hospitals, and other organizations committed to cutting costs and conserving natural resources through solid waste reduction. WasteWise’s “Partners of the Year” for 2004 included AnheuserBusch Companies Inc., which reduced the amount of aluminum used in its cans by 5.1 million pounds; reduced the thickness of its cardboard packaging, saving 7.5 million pounds of paperboard; and maintained an expansive waste reuse program. Pitney Bowes Inc. set up a nationwide toner cartridge recycling program, as well as recycled 11.4 million pounds of materials in 2003.
Another WasteWise partner, Guardian Automotive, was recognized for cutting waste and becoming an industry leader in recycling at its Ligonier Plant in Indiana. Companies are using similar methods to better handle toxic waste and other environmental needs. Those include: Source reduction. For a long time, waste management and pollution control focused on end-of-the-pipe measures, such as scrubbers to clean up emissions and incinerators to burn wastes. More recently, companies have been focusing on ways to reduce waste at the source by using different raw materials or processing chemicals, for example, or by changing product packaging. Source
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reduction usually costs less than end-of-the-pipe measures because there’s less waste to treat, haul away, or otherwise handle. One source reduction success story reported by the non-profit National Recycling Coalition is Federal Express. The company saved $20 million through various reduction strategies, including reducing the thickness of their shipping envelope by 40 percent. Chemical substitution. The paper processing company Intertox America started using hydrogen peroxide instead of using toxic chlorines to bleach paper. Industrial partnering. Household cleaner manufacturer S.C. Johnson asked companies that supply its raw manufacturing materials to help Johnson develop less wasteful packaging and reduce toxic chemicals in its products. This industrial partnering resulted in much faster research and development than if Johnson had done everything on its own. Green labeling. Manufacturers who can label their products as “green” (friendly to the environment) stand to appeal to environmentally conscious consumers. In 1992, the Federal Trade Commission (FTC) provided guidelines for how manufacturers can advertise and label green qualities. Among other things, it asked businesses not to use broad, unspecific terms, such as earth friendly or environmentally safe, not to claim long-existing positive environmental qualities as if they were just developed, and to distinguish between environmental qualities of the product and environmental qualities of the packaging. The FTC revised those guidelines in 1998. Now, packages can be labeled as recycled, for example, if they contain reused, reconditioned, or remanufactured materials, as well as recycled raw material. According to the FTC, the expansion of these terms is consistent with increased consumer understanding of recycling.
■ Outlook Every part of the country employs waste management professionals. Heavily industrialized areas and areas experiencing strong economic growth are prime users of waste management professionals. The general condition of a region, its markets for scrap materials and recyclable materials, and other factors affect jobs available. Political support for the environment and the state of the U.S. economy also play roles in the number of jobs available at any given time. Most waste-management work hinges on whether new regulations are being passed and whether existing regulations are being enforced. When times are hard, the federal government is less likely to have the funds, manpower, and political nerve to start passing tougher laws and prosecuting violators. During such times, the number of new jobs grows more slowly.
Still, the waste management industry is very well entrenched in this country and promises to continue to employ hundreds of thousands of people in the coming decades. The U.S. Census Bureau projects that the population will increase from an estimated 282 million in 2000 to more than 419 million by 2050. If current waste practices continue, the number of jobs available in the industry will certainly increase as well. Spending on waste management has skyrocketed in recent years. The public and private sectors will continue to spend billions of dollars on waste management through the early part of the 21st century. U.S. industry’s need to comply with federal, state, and local regulations relating to waste management has created a strong market for those with an expertise in waste management. New strategies for source reduction, recycling, volume reduction, toxicity reduction, treatment, and disposal are needed at the municipal and industrial levels. If the government is strict about enforcing environmental legislation, private businesses will hire more people to ensure compliance. A 2002 report by the EPA cited a 40 percent increase over 2001 in the number of criminal cases initiated and a 26 percent increase in the number of companies self-reporting violations. Professionals who can help companies avoid such fines will indeed be valuable. While these fines are concerned largely with hazardous waste, companies also will invest in developing alternative disposal techniques and waste-reduction plans for nonhazardous solid waste.
■ For More Information For information on the waste management industry, contact Air and Waste Management Association 420 Fort Duquesne Boulevard One Gateway Center, Third Floor Pittsburgh, PA 15222-1435 Tel: 412-232-3444 Email:
[email protected] http://www.awma.org
For information on careers, schools, and other resources, contact American Industrial Hygiene Association 2700 Prosperity Avenue, Suite 250 Fairfax, VA 22031-4319 Tel: 703-849-8888 Email:
[email protected] http://www.aiha.org
For your state’s EPA offices, look in the blue pages at the front of your local phone book. (Other listings to check in the phone book: pollution control, recycling centers, and waste reduction.)
Wood
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) Ariel Rios Building 1200 Pennsylvania Avenue, NW Washington, DC 20460-0001 Tel: 202-272-0167 http://www.epa.gov
For industry information, free brochures, and recycling statistics, contact Institute of Scrap Recycling Industries 1325 G Street, NW, Suite 1000 Washington, DC 20005-3134 Tel: 202-737-1770 Email:
[email protected] http://www.isri.org
National Recycling Coalition 1325 G Street, NW, Suite 1025 Washington, DC 20005-3134 Tel: 202-347-0450 Email:
[email protected] http://www.nrc-recycle.org
For additional information, contact National Solid Wastes Management Association 4301 Connecticut Avenue, NW, Suite 300 Washington, DC 20008-2304 Tel: 202-244-4700 http://www.nswma.org
■ Related Articles The Environment; Asbestos Abatement Technicians; Environmental Technicians; Hazardous Waste Management Specialists; Hazardous Waste Management Technicians; Recycling Coordinators; Refuse Collectors; Wastewater Treatment Plant Operators and Technicians
Wood ■ Background You can’t get away from it. It’s in your home. It’s in your school. It’s in your books and your paper and even your cereal boxes. Because wood is used for so many different purposes, you probably come in contact with it, in one form or another, several times every day. Wood is a primary product of the forest. It is used to build houses, furniture, flooring, shipping containers, and many other products. It is also used to produce
the pulp needed for making paper. Wood used to make commercial products is referred to as lumber. There are many steps, or lumbering processes, that must occur in order to turn a tree into a commercial product. These steps include the harvesting and removal of trees, the conversion of the raw material into finished products, and the marketing and distribution of these products. This article primarily focuses on the lumbering industry. (Also see the article Pulp and Paper.) Throughout history, wood has been used as a source of heat and as material for shelter and other types of construction. The Phoenicians and other early civilizations used wood to build boats and rafts and to make the pilings used in docks and piers. The early Romans used thin slices of wood called veneer for ornamental and other purposes. Today, veneer is still used in this manner. As civilizations advanced technologically, the uses of wood changed to meet the needs of the day. With the growth of the railroad, for example, wood was used in the crossties of railroad tracks. With advances in wood chemistry, wood was used in clothes, plastics, and a host of other products. In many less developed countries, wood is still a primary source of fuel. When the Pilgrims first arrived, forests covered huge areas in North America. These early settlers cleared the forests so they could build shelters and farm the land. As settlements expanded westward, large portions of the forested area were cleared, and most of the trees suitable for prime lumber were removed. As the population grew and much more land was cleared during the 19th century, foresighted people began to realize that unless forests were managed wisely, they would disappear. Laws enacted by Congress and state governments around this time slowed the consumption of the forests. In 1905, the U.S. Forest Service was established in the Department of Agriculture, and assumed responsibility for the newly proclaimed national forest reserves, renamed the National Forests in 1907. Most of the nation’s lumber production comes from commercial forests; about half a billion acres of commercial forests throughout the United States produce 90 percent of the nation’s lumber requirements. In the last several decades, there have been vast improvements in forest management techniques in the United States, portions of Europe, and other areas. In earlier years, loggers would simply cut down all the trees in a particular area, often destroying vast forests. As foresters and others came to realize that the forests had to be managed, however, trained forest scientists were enlisted to protect the forests from fire, insects, and diseases, and to manage
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Scantlings, Flitches, and Batten No, they’re not names of exotic birds, but actually classifications of lumber sizes. Like most industries, the lumber industry has its own terminology, and it can be confusing if you aren’t familiar with it. ■ A strip of lumber is under 3/4 inch thick and up to 3 inches wide. ■
Batten is at least 3/4 inch and under 1 1/2 inches thick and from 1 to 3 inches wide.
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Boards are 3/8 inch to 1 1/2 inches thick and 3 inches and over wide.
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Planks and scantlings are over 1 1/2 inches and up to 4 inches thick and over 6 inches wide.
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A flitch (also called heavy scantling or baulk) is over 4 inches thick and/or over 6 inches wide.
ber industry is primarily located in the Northwest, the Northeast, the South, and around the Great Lakes. Lumber is divided into two main classes: hardwood and softwood. These terms do not refer to the actual hardness or softness of the wood, but rather to the type of tree from which the lumber comes. Hardwoods come from deciduous trees, which have broad leaves that fall off in autumn. Hardwoods used for lumber include oak, birch, maple, and elm. Softwoods, also called evergreens, come from conifers. Softwoods used for lumber include pines, Douglas firs, redwood, and spruce. Lumber is sawed to a variety of widths and thicknesses depending on its final use. Factory and shop lumber is recut in the manufacture of furniture, baseball bats, and other objects. Any piece of lumber less than 5 inches thick is considered yard lumber, which is used for general building purposes. Timbers are large pieces more than 5 inches wide or thick. Timbers are widely used in the construction industry.
■ Structure the forests so that only selected types and numbers of trees were removed. Many lumber companies also began to maintain tree nurseries to replant the timberlands. Young trees from the nurseries are planted where trees have been harvested. Although forests are now better managed, there is still a degree of controversy regarding foresting techniques. Many old-growth forests support wildlife and plant life that cannot exist in any other ecosystem. In the Pacific Northwest and other parts of the country, there is a continuing debate over how much oldgrowth forest should be cut down for economic purposes and how much old-growth forest should be retained for environmental reasons. In the United States, the lum-
By harvesting select young trees, foresters can make long-term plans for forests and preserve valuable old-growth forests. (Weyerhauser.)
The wood industry is like a chain composed of several different links, from the foresters and forestry technicians who plant, tend, and harvest trees, to the manufacturing workers who convert raw lumber into finished wood products for consumers to buy and use. The chain begins in the forests, where the trees are grown for lumber. Trained workers, such as foresters and forestry technicians, decide the types and numbers of trees to be planted, plant and care for them, calculate how much lumber they will provide, and eventually harvest them. The harvesting of trees is called logging. Logging companies harvest trees in large numbers from designated forests. After an appropriate area has been located and the trees suitable for logging have been marked, the next step in logging is the felling of the trees. The timber faller, often called a cutter, typically uses a chain saw to cut the trees. In many areas of the United States and Europe, much of the logging is done by mechanical harvesters. In mechanical harvesting, trees are felled and bunched by machines called feller/bunchers or shearers. These mechanized operations are decreasing the use of chain saws in the logging process. Once the trees have been felled, a tractor, or skidder, is used to move them to a clearing, where they are loaded onto trucks or train cars for transport to processing mills. Large trees are bucked, or cut into shorter logs, so they can be loaded more easily. With small trees, only the branches and tops of the tree are removed. At the sawmill, the logs are turned into lumber. A moving conveyor carries the logs from the truck or train
up a chute into the mill. A laser scanner is used to measure the exact dimensions of each log. These dimensions help determine the best lengths in which to cut the wood so that it yields the most valuable lumber. As the logs proceed through the mill on a conveyor, they are usually debarked either by a mechanical debarker or with strong streams of water. The debarked wood is then run through a series of four saws: a bucking saw, a headsaw, a resaw, and a trimmer saw. The bucking saw cuts large logs into shorter lengths. The headsaw slices each log into cants (partly trimmed logs) or other types of lumber. The resaw is then used to cut the cants to the desired thicknesses with straight and even sides. The trimmer saw makes the ends of the boards square and cuts the lumber to standard lengths. After the lumber is cut by the saws, it moves along a conveyor belt and is manually graded by graders according to quality, size, and type of wood. Hardwoods are usually graded on a scale from one to eight, with one being the highest grade of wood. Softwoods are generally graded from one to five, with one being the highest grade. Rough lumber may be transported from the sawmill to other mills that finish and shape the boards and produce lumber products. Often, wholesalers buy lumber in large quantities and then resell it to retail lumber yards or other large users of the lumber. The retailers and others then sell the lumber to individual customers. Seasoning is the process by which moisture is removed from the wood. Since wood cut in the forest has a high moisture content, it is often necessary to make it drier. Lumber can be seasoned by air drying or kiln drying. (A kiln is a large oven used to dry or fire a substance.) In air drying, the lumber is piled outside and left to dry in the sun and wind. Kiln drying is much quicker, but also more costly. Different woods are dried at different temperatures and speeds. Woods are also dried according to where they will be used. For example, wood that will be used in a dry climate will be seasoned to a lesser moisture content than wood that will be used in a moist climate. Once wood is cut and seasoned, it is ready to be used in the production of various products. Numerous industries use lumber, but the construction and building sector is easily the largest market. A great deal of wood is also used in various manufacturing industries, such as in the making of furniture, cabinetry, toys, or tools. These industries require various types of wood shaped in various sizes. The final link in the wood industry chain is the marketing and selling of wood products. This area of the industry involves basic business management and marketing techniques, as well specific knowledge of wood qualities and methods of processing.
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Words to Know Adult wood: Wood that has relatively constant cell size, well-developed structural patterns, and stable physical behavior; also called mature wood. Bull chain: A conveyor that carries the log from the water to the upper levels of the sawmill; sometimes also called a jack ladder. Commercial forestland: Land that grows trees of marketable quality for the lumber industry, and the main source of the nation’s lumber production. Cord: A unit of measurement equaling 128 cubic feet true measure. Decorative veneer: A thin sheet originating from valuable wood used as the surface of some wood products due to its attractive qualities. Earlywood: That portion of a growth increment that is formed at the beginning of the growing season; also called springwood, it is less dense and weaker than latewood.
■ Outlook The United States has the most competitive and highest-volume wood products industry in the world. There are several reasons for this, including the availability of forests that include some of the top tree-growing land in the world, an efficient transportation and distribution system, a skilled labor force, technological advances in the forestry and lumber industries, and adequate energy and water resources. The United States produces about 25 percent of the world’s wood products and consumes nearly one-third. Approximately 90 percent of the wood products produced in the United States are used in the United States. The remainder is exported for foreign markets. The largest foreign markets for U.S. wood and paper products are Canada, Mexico, the European Union, and Japan. The entire industry is highly sensitive to economic cycles. When the economy is depressed, people buy less of the things that wood is used to make. The wood industry is linked especially closely to trends in housing construction, repair and remodeling construction, and furniture production. The U.S. Department of Labor predicts that employment in the construction industry will grow by 11 percent through 2014, or slightly slower than the average for all industries. U.S. Forests Facts & Figures, 2001, published by the American Forest & Paper Association and Clemson University, reports that the long-term outlook for wood exports has been improved by recent international agreements, but short timber supply and increased production
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from other nations have hindered the United State’s wood industry. The major markets for United States wood products are Canada, Europe, Japan, and Mexico. The Occupational Outlook Handbook reported approximately 92,000 workers employed in forestry and logging jobs in 2004. Employment for timber cutting, logging, and sawmill workers should decline slightly over the next decade. This is because increased mechanization will lessen the demand for these workers. For example, the increased computerization of the timber industry will lead to a reduction in the number of workers needed to process logs. Computers can now be used to perform such tasks as sorting logs on a conveyor belt and determining the most cost-effective method of cutting them. Furthermore, increasing imports will slow employment growth in this industry. There is an ongoing controversy between the logging industry and those who want to protect old-growth forests. In the Pacific Northwest and other locations, loggers and environmentalists continue to battle over whether these forests should be harvested. Environmentalists maintain that these forests are an important part of the ecosystem and, as such, provide an important habitat for wildlife and plants. Loggers maintain that local economies will suffer if loggers cannot harvest these trees. The ongoing debate on this issue will likely affect employment in some parts of the wood industry. The wood products market is relying less on standing timber (stumpage) from federal lands and more on private-land stumpage. The employment of foresters and conservation scientists is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations through 2014, according to the U.S. Department of Labor. Most of this growth will occur in state and local governments, where the demand for environmental protection and responsible land use will create jobs. Employment growth in the federal government will be slower due to budgetary constraints. The one area of the industry that is expected to grow more quickly than other areas is that of wood science and technology. Because of environmental pressures to maximize the use of and minimize the waste of wood being harvested, specialists in this field are becoming more necessary. In addition, wood products face increasingly stiff competition from plastics and other wood substitutes. Manufacturers need wood science experts to keep their operations profitable, efficient, and competitive.
■ For More Information For general information on the industry and paper and wood recycling, contact American Forest and Paper Association 1111 19th Street, NW, Suite 800 Washington, DC 20036-3603
Tel: 800-878-8878 Email:
[email protected] http://www.afandpa.org
For information on careers in lumber wholesaling, contact North American Wholesale Lumber Association 3601 Algonquin Road, Suite 400 Rolling Meadows, IL 60008-3181 Tel: 847-870-7470 Email:
[email protected] http://www.lumber.org
For information on careers in forestry, contact Society of American Foresters 5400 Grosvenor Lane Bethesda, MD 20814-2198 Tel: 866-897-8720Email:
[email protected] http://www.safnet.org
For information on careers in wood science and technology, contact Society of Wood Science and Technology One Gifford Pinchot Drive Madison, WI 53726-2398 Tel: 608-231-9347 Email:
[email protected] http://www1.fpl.fs.fed.us/swst
For general information on the forestry and wood industry, contact USDA Forest Service U.S. Department of Agriculture 1400 Independence Avenue, SW Washington, DC 20250-0003 Tel: 202-205-8333 http://www.fs.fed.us
For information on marketing and manufacturing careers in wood products, and distance learning, contact Western Wood Products Association 522 SW Fifth Avenue, Suite 500 Portland, OR 97204-2122 Tel: 503-224-3930 Email:
[email protected] http://www.wwpa.org
For information on the industry in Canada, contact Canadian Forestry Association 1027 Pembroke Street East Ottawa, ON K8A 3M4 Canada Tel: 866-441-4006Email:
[email protected] http://www.canadianforestry.com
Wood
Canadian Wood Council
■ Related Articles
99 Bank Street, Suite 400 Ottawa, ON K1P 6B9 Canada Tel: 800-463-5091 Email:
[email protected]. http://www.cwc.ca
Pulp and Paper; Foresters; Forestry Technicians; Furniture Manufacturing Workers; Logging Industry Workers; Paper Processing Workers; Wood Science and Technology Workers
483
Appendix 1 Career Resources and Associations for Individuals with Disabilities ■ Federal Agencies
Employment Security Service or mayor’s office for more information. The federal government offers a number of programs for those with specific disabilities. Again, many of these programs have state and local offices throughout the country. A selection of the programs is listed below.
The 1990 Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) continues to have a profound impact on the employment of people with disabilities. The law states that all businesses, with the exception of those that employ fewer than 15 people, must have facilities that accommodate disabled employees. This ranges from handicap access to office equipment. The ADA proclaims that businesses may not discriminate on the basis of a person’s physical disability. In addition, all new public transportation facilities must be accessible to people with disabilities. This law thus extends the rights of people with disabilities and allows them to gain employment in nearly all vocational areas. The addresses listed in this appendix serve as general sources. They will lead a person with disabilities to the related agencies at the state and local levels. In general, the federal government allocates funds to programs in states and cities. Each state determines the distribution of the funds and sponsors its own programs. For this reason, it is important to consult state and local agencies for specific information. The federal government sponsors various programs and agencies. Some deal with specific disabilities, such as deafness, while others simply disseminate information. Most federally sponsored programs for people with disabilities are run through the U.S. Department of Education. This department focuses on vocational rehabilitation, education, financial and medical assistance, civil rights, housing, tax benefits, and public transportation. The department can direct a person with disabilities to relevant programs. A particularly useful program, the Job Training Partnership Act (JTPA), prepares unskilled youth and adults for entry into the labor force. Many people with disabilities are eligible to join the program. Contact your State
For More Information The federal government offers a variety of programs for individuals with developmental disabilities. Many of the programs are sponsored through the individual states. Administration on Developmental Disabilities Administration for Children and Families 370 L’Enfant Promenade, SW Washington, DC 20201 Tel: 202-690-6590 http://www.acf.dhhs.gov/programs/add
The government offers financial assistance to citizens with disabilities who would like to start their own small businesses. These people are eligible for low-cost loans. For more information, contact Small Business Administration SBA Answer Desk 6302 Fairview Road, Suite 300 Charlotte, NC 28210 Tel: 800-827-5722 http://www.sbaonline.sba.gov
■ National Organizations There are many associations and programs in the private sector that rehabilitate individuals with disabilities and train them for professional occupations. Listed below is a selection of the associations available. 485
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■ For More Information American Counseling Association 5999 Stevenson Avenue Alexandria, VA 22304-3300 Tel: 800-347-6647 http://www.counseling.org
General vocational associations: Association for Career and Technical Education 1410 King Street Alexandria, VA 22314 Tel: 800-826-9972 Email:
[email protected] http://www.acteonline.org
Center on Education and Training for Employment Ohio State University College of Education 1900 Kenny Road Columbus, OH 43210-1016 Tel: 800-848-4815 http://www.cete.org
General associations for those with disabilities: Abilities! 201 I.U. Willets Road Albertson, NY 11507 Tel: 516-747-5400 http://www.abilitiesonline.org
Association on Higher Education and Disability 107 Commerce Center Drive, Suite 204 Huntersville, NC 28078 Tel: 704-947-7779 Email:
[email protected] http://www.ahead.org
Heath Resource Center National Clearinghouse on Postsecondary Education for Individuals with Disabilities George Washington University Graduate School of Education and Human Development 2011 I Street, NW, Suite 200 Washington, DC 20036 Tel: 800-544-3284 Email:
[email protected] http://www.heath.gwu.edu
International Center for the Disabled 340 East 24th Street New York, NY 10010-4019
Tel: 212-585-6000 http://www.icdrehab.org
Job Accommodation Network PO Box 6080 Morgantown, WV 26506-6080 Tel: 800-526-7234 http://www.jan.wvu.edu
National Dissemination Center for Children with Disabilities PO Box 1492 Washington, DC 20013-1492 Tel (Voice/TTY): 800-695-0285 Email:
[email protected] http://www.nichcy.org
National Industries for the Severely Handicapped 8401 Old Courthouse Road Vienna, VA 22182 Tel: 571-226-4660 Email:
[email protected] http://www.nish.org
National Organization on Disability 910 16th Street, NW, Suite 600 Washington, DC 20006 Tel: 202-293-5960 Email:
[email protected] http://www.nod.org
National Rehabilitation Association 633 South Washington Street Alexandria, VA 22314 Tel: 703-836-0850 Email:
[email protected] http://www.nationalrehab.org
National Rehabilitation Information Center 4200 Forbes Boulevard, Suite 202 Lanham, MD 20706 Tel: 800-346-2742 http://www.naric.com
Associations for the hearing impaired: Alexander Graham Bell Association for the Deaf and Hard of Hearing 3417 Volta Place, NW Washington, DC 20007-2778 Tel: 202-337-5220 Tel (TTY): 202-337-5221
Appendix 1
Email:
[email protected] http://www.agbell.org
American Academy of Audiology 11730 Plaza America Drive, Suite 300 Reston, VA 20190 Tel: 800-222-2336 http://www.audiology.org
American Association of the Deaf-Blind 8630 Fenton Street, Suite 121 Silver Spring, MD 20910-3803 Tel: 301-495-4403 Tel (TTY): 301-495-4402 Email:
[email protected] http://www.aadb.org
American Speech-Language-Hearing Association 10801 Rockville Pike Rockville, MD 20852 Tel: 800-638-8255 Tel (TTY): 301-897-5700 ext. 4157 Email:
[email protected] http://www.asha.org
Helen Keller National Center for Deaf-Blind Youths and Adults 141 Middle Neck Road Sands Point, NY 11050 Tel: 516-944-8900 Email:
[email protected] http://www.helenkeller.org
National Association of the Deaf 8630 Fenton Street, Suite 820 Silver Spring, MD 20910-3819 Tel: 301-587-1788 Tel (TTY): 301-587-1789 Email:
[email protected] http://www.nad.org
National Institute on Deafness and Other Communication Disorders National Institutes of Health 31 Center Drive, MSC 2320 Bethesda, MD 20892-2320 Email:
[email protected] http://www.nidcd.nih.gov
Hearing Loss Association of America 7910 Woodmont Avenue, Suite 1200 Bethesda, MD 20814 Tel (Voice/TTY): 301-657-2248 Email:
[email protected] http://www.hearingloss.org
National Technical Institute for the Deaf Rochester Institute of Technology 52 Lomb Memorial Drive Rochester, NY 14623-5604 Tel (Voice/TTY): 585-475-6700 http://www.ntid.rit.edu
Associations for the visually impaired: American Council of the Blind 1155 15th Street, NW, Suite 1004 Washington, DC 20005 Tel: 800-424-8666 http://www.acb.org
American Foundation for the Blind 11 Penn Plaza, Suite 300 New York, NY 10001 Tel: 800-232-5463 Email:
[email protected] http://www.afb.org
Associated Services for the Blind and Visually Impaired 919 Walnut Street Philadelphia, PA 19107 Tel: 215-627-0600 http://www.asb.org
Association for Education and Rehabilitation of the Blind and Visually Impaired 1703 North Beauregard Street, Suite 440 Alexandria, VA 22311 Tel: 877-492-2708 http://www.aerbvi.org
Council of Citizens with Low Vision International 1155 15th Street, NW, Suite 1004 Washington, DC 20005 Tel: 800-733-2258 http://www.cclvi.org
National Federation of the Blind Associations that offer resources and training for employers and deaf professionals:
1800 Johnson Street Baltimore, MD 21230
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Tel: 410-659-9314 Email:
[email protected] http://www.nfb.org
Washington, DC 20007-4226 Tel: 800-621-3141 Email:
[email protected] http://www.sbaa.org
National Industries for the Blind 1310 Braddock Place Alexandria, VA 22314-1691 Tel: 703- 310-0500 http://www.nib.org
National Library Service for the Blind and Physically Handicapped Library of Congress 1291 Taylor Street, NW Washington, DC 20011 Tel: 202-707-5100 Tel (TDD): 202-707-0744 Email:
[email protected] http://www.loc.gov/nls
Prevent Blindness America 211 West Wacker Drive, Suite 1700 Chicago, IL 60606 Tel: 800-331-2020 Email:
[email protected] http://www.preventblindness.org
Associations for amputees: American Amputee Foundation Box 250218 Hillcrest Station Little Rock, AR 72225 Tel: 501-666-2523 Email:
[email protected] http://www.americanamputee.org
Amputee Resource Foundation of America 2324 Wildwood Trail Minnetonka, MN 55305 Email:
[email protected] http://www.amputeeresource.org
Associations for people with mental disabilities: American Association on Mental Retardation 444 North Capitol Street, NW, Suite 846 Washington, DC 20001-1512 Tel: 800-424-3688 http://www.aamr.org
Vision Community Services
The Arc of the United States
Massachusetts Association for the Blind Administrative Offices 200 Ivy Street Brookline, MA 02446 Tel: 617-738-5110 http://www.mablind.org/vcs.htm
1010 Wayne Avenue, Suite 650 Silver Spring, MD 20910 Tel: 301-565-3842 Email:
[email protected] http://thearc.org
National Alliance on Mental Illness Associations for people with spinal injuries: Brain Injury Association of America 8201 Greensboro Drive, Suite 611 McLean, VA 22102 Tel: 703-761-0750 http://www.biausa.org
Colonial Place Three 2107 Wilson Boulevard, Suite 300 Arlington, VA 22201 Tel: 703-524-7600 http://www.nami.org
National Institute for People with Disabilities National Spinal Cord Injury Association 6701 Democracy Boulevard, Suite 300-9 Bethesda, MD 20817 Tel: 800-962-9629 http://www.spinalcord.org
Spina Bifida Association of America 4590 MacArthur Boulevard, NW, Suite 250
460 West 34th Street, 11th Floor New York, NY 10001-2382 Tel: 212-273-6100 http://www.yai.org
Associations for those with learning disabilities: Council for Exceptional Children Division for Learning Disabilities
Appendix 1
1110 North Glebe Road, Suite 300 Arlington, VA 22201-5704 Tel: 888-232-7733 Tel (TTY): 866-915-5000 http://www.cec.sped.org
Learning Disabilities Association of America 4156 Library Road Pittsburgh, PA 15234-1349
Tel: 412-341-1515 http://www.ldanatl.org
National Center for Learning Disabilities 381 Park Avenue South, Suite 1401 New York, NY 10016 Tel: 212-545-7510 http://www.ncld.org
489
Appendix 2 Internships, Apprenticeships, and Training Programs ■ Internships
sphere, there are general qualities that will help anyone gain an internship. Aspiring interns should be intelligent, focused, and career-oriented. They should have a special interest in an organization or an issue. Successful interns must be hard workers, willing to learn, and have good communication skills. Many companies look for wellrounded workers with ambition and some leadership qualities. It is important to keep in mind that the ideal internship experience should be mutually beneficial to both the intern and the sponsor involved. Sponsors seek students who are genuinely glad to learn as opposed to merely gaining credit hours. The sponsor benefits in that it gains a temporary or potentially permanent asset to the company. Interns must be able to feel that they are truly receiving training and learning skills that will help them to advance in their chosen profession. They need to be able to separate true on-the-job training from grunt work, which will not be helpful to them as they attempt to acquire job skills.
Internships are usually short-term (one semester or trimester) programs where the student works at the company in some beginning capacity in the field he or she is studying. Programs are frequently undertaken for college credit, although some programs will accept students who are not receiving college credit. Internships rarely offer pay. Stipends may be offered to students for living expenses. The college or university may provide funding for students to cover some expenses. It is unusual for the company providing the internship to make housing arrangements. Internships in the arts and journalism are among the most competitive and the most influential in providing an edge to graduating students looking for work. Internships with major organizations and companies have an impact on a student’s career because of the name recognition of the organization, but they may not provide the most educational experience. Because of union restrictions or departmentalization of the company, the intern may be limited in the capacity that he or she can work. Smaller companies may allow the intern to take on a larger role in the company during the student’s stay. Internships are available to college students, usually in their junior and senior years. Graduate internship programs are also widely available. High school internships are not as common. The most widely known is the page program in the United States Congress. Information on internships is customarily available through school placement offices and advisory staff at high schools and colleges. However, internships may be available with companies that do not regularly contact schools. It is worthwhile for the student to contact companies that are of interest for information on internship programs. Although companies look for different qualities in interns, depending on the company’s business and atmo-
■ For More Information The federal government offers a wide variety of internship opportunities. Most government agencies require a college degree or at least some college education. Interns must also be willing to relocate. A few of the larger agencies follow. Central Intelligence Agency Central Intelligence Agency Office of Public Affairs Washington, DC 20505 Tel: 703-482-0623 http://www.cia.gov/careers/student.html
Department of Energy 1000 Independence Avenue, SW 490
Appendix 2
Washington, DC 20585 Tel: 800-342-5363 http://energy.gov/scholarships&internships.htm
Department of Housing and Urban Development Personnel Department 451 Seventh Street, SW Washington, DC 20410 Tel: 202-708-1112 http://www.hud.gov/offices/adm/jobs/internship.cfm
Email:
[email protected] http://www.usaid.gov/careers/studentprograms.html
Contact the following sources for more information on internships: Council on International Educational Exchange 7 Custom House Street Portland, ME 04101 Tel: 800-407-8839 http://www.ciee.org
Department of State
Dynamy Inc.
ATTN: Student Programs Recruitment Division, SA-1 2401 E Street, NW, Fifth Floor Washington, DC 20522-0151 Tel: 202-647-4000 Email:
[email protected] http://www.state.gov/m/dghr/hr/student
27 Sever Street Worcester, MA 01609 Tel: 508-755-2571 Email:
[email protected] http://www.dynamy.org
Federal Bureau of Investigation J. Edgar Hoover Building 935 Pennsylvania Avenue, NW Washington, DC 20535-0001 Tel: 202-324-3000 http://www.fbijobs.gov
General Services Administration 1800 F Street, NW Washington, DC 20405 Email:
[email protected] http://www.gsa.gov
National Aeronautics and Space Administration Washington, DC 20546-0001 Tel: 202-358-1543 http://www.nasajobs.nasa.gov
The National Institutes of Health 9000 Rockville Pike Bethesda, MD 20892 http://www.jobs.nih.gov
National Security Agency NSA Recruitment and Staffing Tel: 866-672-4473 http://www.nsa.gov/careers/students.cfm
Social Security Administration http://www.ssa.gov/careers
The United States Agency for International Development
National Society for Experiential Education c/o Talley Management Group, Inc. 19 Mantua Road Mt. Royal, NJ 08061 Tel: 856-423-3427 Email:
[email protected] http://www.nsee.org
■ Apprenticeships Apprenticeships are offered to trainees in an occupational field. An apprenticeship differs from an internship in that it is almost always a paid position, the education and training elements are combined under one program, and the apprenticeship is usually offered directly by the company and not through a school. Required educational courses in the apprenticeship program may be offered through a local educational facility, but usually the sponsor arranges those courses. There are more than 28,000 active apprenticeship programs currently recognized by the Office of Apprenticeship of the Department of Labor’s Employment and Training Administration and the offices of the State Apprenticeship Councils (SAC). Of those programs, the majority are in the manufacturing and construction industries. Apprentices are paid wages lower than experienced personnel. They may maintain the apprentice wage throughout their training, or they may receive raises that put them at regular salary rates by the end of the program. The average apprenticeship lasts between three and four years. Apprentices may be responsible for buying their own tools and books and for paying their union dues. They may also have to provide themselves with transportation to the job site. Depending on their specific program, some apprentices may be eligible for health and life insurance, disability pay, and vacation time.
491
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Some apprenticeship programs have a residency requirement—from living in a particular town, county, state, or region to having lived in the area for a particular period of time, usually one year. Other programs may simply require residence in that particular region during the course of one’s training. There are certain careers, such as shipbuilding or theater work, that are concentrated in only one or two regions of the United States. You will most likely have to relocate in order to pursue this career interest. Information on specific apprenticeships is available through the local and regional offices of the Department of Labor’s Office of Apprenticeship. Contacting relevant unions is also helpful, as is contacting a company directly to see if a program is in place. Cooperative training programs involve a combined effort between a school and a sponsoring company. The programs vary, but the student will generally spend one portion of the school year at the company in a training program and the rest of the year in school. The student is paid for the work period (a trimester or semester, usually) and then attends school for the rest of the year in regular school programs. The co-op program routinely lasts three or four years during college. Some programs involve extending the undergraduate program to a five-year period because of the training periods.
■ For More Information The following is a list of government apprenticeship offices at the national, regional, and state levels.
National Office
Tel: 617-788-0177 Email:
[email protected] This regional office serves the following states: Delaware, District of Columbia, Maryland, Pennsylvania, Virginia, and West Virginia. Office of Apprenticeship, Region II USDOL/ETA/OA Suite 820-East 170 South Independence Mall West Philadelphia, PA 19106-3315 Tel: 215-861-4830 Email:
[email protected] This regional office serves the following states: Alabama, Florida, Georgia, Kentucky, Mississippi, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Tennessee. Office of Apprenticeship, Region III USDOL/ETA/OA 61 Forsyth Street, SW, Room 6T71 Atlanta, GA 30303 Tel: 404-302-5478 Email:
[email protected] This regional office serves the following states: Arkansas, Louisiana, New Mexico, Oklahoma, Texas, North Dakota, Colorado, Montana, South Dakota, Utah, and Wyoming. Office of Apprenticeship, Region IV USDOL/ETA/OA Federal Building 525 South Griffin Street, Room 317 Dallas, TX 75202 Tel: 214-767-4993 Email:
[email protected] Office of Apprenticeship Deparment of Labor, Employment and Training Administration Frances Perkins Building 200 Constitution Avenue, NW Washington, DC 20210 Tel: 202-693-2796 http://www.doleta.gov/oa
Regional Offices This regional office serves the following states: Connecticut, Maine, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, Rhode Island, and Vermont. Office of Apprenticeship, Region I USDOL/ETA/OA J.F.K. Federal Building, Room E-370 Boston, MA 02203
This regional office serves the following states: Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Michigan, Minnesota, Missouri, Nebraska, Ohio, and Wisconsin. Office of Apprenticeship, Region V USDOL/ETA/OA 230 South Dearborn Street, Room 656 Chicago, IL 60604 Tel: 312-596-5500 Email:
[email protected] This regional office serves the following states: Alaska, Arizona, California, Hawaii, Idaho, Nevada, Oregon, and Washington. Office of Apprenticeship, Region VI USDOL/ETA/OA 71 Stevenson Street, Suite 815
Appendix 2
San Francisco, CA 94105 Tel: 415-975-4007 Email:
[email protected] State Offices Alabama USDOL/ETA/OA Medical Forum Building, Room 648 950 22nd Street North Birmingham, AL 35203 Tel: 205-731-1308 Email:
[email protected] Alaska USDOL/ETA/OA 605 West 4th Avenue, Room G-30 Anchorage, AK 99501 Tel: 907-271-5035 Email:
[email protected] Arizona USDOL/ETA/OA 3221 North 1st Avenue, Suite 501 Phoenix, AZ 85025 Tel: 602-514-7007 Email:
[email protected] Arkansas USDOL/ETA/OA Federal Building, Room 3507 700 West Capitol Street Little Rock, AR 72201 Tel: 501-324-5415 Email:
[email protected] California USDOL/ETA/OA 1301 Clay Street, Suite 1090-N Oakland, CA 94612-5217 Tel: 510-637-2951 Email:
[email protected] Colorado USDOL/ETA/OA U.S. Customs House, Room 465 721 19th Street Denver, CO 80202 Tel: 303-844-4794 Email:
[email protected] Delaware USDOL/ETA/OA Temporarily closed For more information, call 215-861-4830
Jacksonville, FL 32202 Tel: 904-359-9252 Email:
[email protected] Georgia USDOL/ETA/OA 61 Forsyth Street, SW, Room 6T80 Atlanta, GA 30303 Tel: 404-302-5895 Email:
[email protected] Hawaii USDOL/ETA/OA 300 Ala Moana Boulevard, Room 5-117 Honolulu, HI 96850 Tel: 808-541-2519 Email:
[email protected] Idaho USDOL/ETA/OA 1150 North Curtis Road, Suite 204 Boise, ID 83706-1234 Tel: 208-321-2972 Email:
[email protected] Illinois USDOL/ETA/OA 230 South Dearborn Street, Room 656 Chicago, IL 60604 Tel: 312-596-5508 Email:
[email protected] Indiana USDOL/ETA/OA Federal Building and Courthouse, Room 528 46 East Ohio Street Indianapolis, IN 46204 Tel: 317-226-7001 Email:
[email protected] Iowa USDOL/ETA/OA 210 Walnut Street, Room 715 Des Moines, IA 50309 Tel: 515-284-4690 Email:
[email protected] Kansas USDOL/ETA/OA 444 SE Quincy Street, Room 247 Topeka, KS 66683-3571 Tel: 785-295-2624 Email:
[email protected] Kentucky USDOL/ETA/OA Florida USDOL/ETA/OA 400 West Bay Street, Suite 934 PO Box 10
Federal Building, Room 168 600 Martin Luther King Place Louisville, KY 40202
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Tel: 502-582-5223 Email:
[email protected] Louisiana USDOL/ETA/OA Temporarily closed For more information, call 214-767-4993
Nevada USDOL/ETA/OA 600 South Las Vegas Boulevard, Suite 520 Las Vegas, NV 89101 Tel: 702-388-6396 Email:
[email protected] New Hampshire USDOL/ETA/OA Maryland USDOL/ETA/OA Federal Building, Room 430-B 31 Hopkins Plaza Baltimore, MD 21201 Tel: 410-962-2676 Email:
[email protected] Cleveland Building, Room 3703 55 Pleasant Street Concord, NH 03301 Tel: 603-225-1444 Email:
[email protected] New Jersey USDOL/ETA/OA Massachusetts USDOL/ETA/OA JFK Federal Building, Room E-370 Boston, MA 02203 Tel: 617-788-0177 Email:
[email protected] 485 Route 1 South Building E, Third Floor Iselin, NJ 08830 Tel: 732-750-9191 Email:
[email protected] Michigan USDOL/ETA/OA
New Mexico USDOL/ETA/OA
315 West Allegan, Room 209 Lansing, MI 48933 Tel: 517-377-1746 Email:
[email protected] Minnesota USDOL/ETA/OA 316 North Robert Street, Room 144 St. Paul, MN 55101 Tel: 651-290-3951 Email:
[email protected] Mississippi USDOL/ETA/OA Federal Building, Suite 515 100 West Capital Street Jackson, MS 39269 Tel: 601-965-4346 Email:
[email protected] Missouri USDOL/ETA/OA
500 4th Street NW, Suite 401 Albuquerque, NM 87102 Tel: 505-245-2155 Email:
[email protected] New York USDOL/ETA/OA Leo O’Brien Federal Building, Room 809 North Pearl & Clinton Avenue Albany, NY 12207 Tel: 518-431-4008 Email:
[email protected] North Dakota USDOL/ETA/OA 304 East Broadway, Room 332 Bismarck, ND 58501-5900 Tel: 701-250-4700 Email:
[email protected] Robert A. Young Federal Building, Room 9-102E 1222 Spruce Street St. Louis, MO 63103 Tel: 314-539-2522 Email:
[email protected] Ohio USDOL/ETA/OA
Nebraska USDOL/ETA/OA
Oklahoma USDOL/ETA/OA
111 South 18th Plaza, Suite C-49 Omaha, NE 68102-1322 Tel: 402-221-3281 Email:
[email protected] 1500 South Midwest Boulevard, Suite 202 Midwest City, OK 73110 Tel: 405-732-4338 Email:
[email protected] 200 North High Street, Room 605 Columbus, OH 43215 Tel: 614-469-7375 Email:
[email protected] Appendix 2
Pennsylvania USDOL/ETA/OA Federal Building, Room 356 228 Walnut Street Harrisburg, PA 17108 Tel: 717-221-3496 Email:
[email protected] Rhode Island USDOL/ETA/OA Federal Building 100 Hartford Avenue Providence, RI 02909 Tel: 401-528-5198 Email:
[email protected] South Carolina USDOL/ETA/OA South Thurmond Federal Building, Room 838 1835 Assembly Street Columbia, SC 29201 Tel: 803-765-5547 Email:
[email protected] Tel: 804-771-2488 Email:
[email protected] Washington USDOL/ETA/OA 1111 Third Avenue, Suite 850 Seattle, WA 98101-3212 Tel: 206-553-0076 Email:
[email protected] West Virginia USDOL/ETA/OA One Bridge Place, Second Floor No. 10 Hale Street Charleston, WV 25301 Tel: 304-347-5794 Email:
[email protected] Wisconsin USDOL/ETA/OA 740 Regent Street, Suite 104 Madison, WI 53715-1233 Tel: 608-441-5377 Email:
[email protected] South Dakota USDOL/ETA/OA 2500 West 49th Street, Room 204 Pierre, SD 57105 Tel: 605-330-2566 Email:
[email protected] Tennessee USDOL/ETA/OA Airport Executive Plaza, Suite 541 1321 Murfreesboro Road Nashville, TN 37210 Tel: 615-781-5318 Email:
[email protected] Texas USDOL/ETA/OA 300 East 8th Street, Suite 914 Austin, TX 78701 Tel: 512-916-5435 Email:
[email protected] Utah USDOL/ETA/OA 1600 West 2200 South, Room 101 Salt Lake City, UT 84119 Tel: 801-975-3650 Email:
[email protected] Virginia USDOL/ETA/OA Federal Building, Suite 404 400 North 8th Street Richmond, VA 23219
Wyoming USDOL/ETA/OA American National Bank Building, Room 508 1912 Capitol Avenue Cheyenne, WY 82001-3661 Tel: 307-772-2448 Email:
[email protected] Labor Unions The following major unions offer apprenticeships: Amalgamated Transit Union 5025 Wisconsin Avenue, NW Washington, DC 20016-4139 Tel: 202-537-1645 http://www.atu.org
Communications Workers of America 501 3rd Street, NW Washington, DC 20001-2797 Tel: 202-434-1100 http://www.cwa-union.org
International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers 900 Seventh Street, NW Washington, DC 20001 Tel: 202-833-7000 http://www.ibew.org
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International Longshoremen’s Association
■ Training Programs
17 Battery Place, Room 930 New York, NY 10004 Tel: 212-425-1200 http://www.ilaunion.org
Admission into training programs at private companies consists of navigating the company’s regular application procedures. The applicant is hired into the program directly or, in some instances, he or she applies to the program after working at the company for some time. Trainees are paid regular wages throughout the training program, which may last anywhere from two weeks to two or three years. The programs vary widely. They may involve training in several departments or training only in one area. Training may include classroom experience. Trainees are almost always guaranteed positions with the company after completion of the training. Some companies require management staff to participate in the training program. Others may only train employees new to the management level. Training programs also may be ongoing for the duration of employment with the company. There may be annual or biannual classes to improve and retrain staff. Information on training programs can be obtained by contacting companies with which one wishes to work. Specifics about the availability of training programs will be provided by the personnel or human resources office. Some companies recruit from school placement offices through which they list job openings and perform on-campus interviews. Thus, interested students should remain in contact with the representative of these placement offices and the staff of their school’s career services office.
International Longshore and Warehouse Union 1188 Franklin Street, Fourth Floor San Francisco, CA 94109 Tel: 415-775-0533 Email:
[email protected] http://www.ilwu.org
Transport Workers Union of America 1700 Broadway, Second Floor New York, NY 10019 Tel: 212-259-4900 http://www.twu.com
UNITE (Union of Needle Trades, Industrial and Textile Employees) 275 Seventh Avenue New York, NY 10001-6708 Tel: 212-265-7000 http://www.uniteunion.org
United Food and Commercial Workers International Union 1775 K Street, NW Washington, DC 20006 Tel: 202-223-3111 http://www.ufcw.org
United Mine Workers of America
■ For More Information Information on training programs is also listed throughout the career articles in this encyclopedia, in the “Starting Out” sections. Other sources of information follow. Association for Experiential Education
8315 Lee Highway Fairfax, VA 22031 Tel: 703-208-7200 http://www.umwa.org
Internships and Apprenticeships 3775 Iris Avenue, Suite 4 Boulder, CO 80301-2043 Tel: 303-440-8844 http://www.aee.org
United Transportation Union
Department of Labor
14600 Detroit Avenue Cleveland, OH 44107-4250 Tel: 216-228-9400 http://www.utu.org
Utility Workers Union of America 815 16th Street, NW Washington, DC 20006 Tel: 202-974-8200 http://uwua.net
Employment and Training Administration http://www.doleta.gov
National Society for Experiential Education c/o Talley Management Group, Inc. 19 Mantua Road Mt. Royal, NJ 08061 Tel: 856-423-3427 Email:
[email protected] http://www.nsee.org
Appendix 2
For information on postsecondary scholarship programs for study and training abroad, contact Institute of International Education 809 United Nations Plaza New York, NY 10017-3580 Tel: 212-883-8200 http://www.iie.org http://www.iiepassport.org
Rotary International Rotary Foundation Scholarships One Rotary Center 1560 Sherman Avenue Evanston, IL 60201 Tel: 847-866-3000 http://www.rotary.org
For high school foreign study programs, contact AFS Intercultural Programs 71 West 23rd Street, 17th Floor New York, NY 10010 Tel: 212-807-8686 Email:
[email protected] http://www.afs.org
Youth For Understanding 6400 Goldsboro Road, Suite 100 Bethesda, MD 20817 Tel: 866-493-8872 Email:
[email protected] http://www.yfu.org
For information on the Congressional page program, contact U.S. House of Representatives Office of the Clerk Page Program Information Washington, DC 20515 Email:
[email protected] http://www.house.gov
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Accountants and Auditors
MOST NEW JOBS
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now counts the “beans,” allowing accountants to analyze and interpret the results. Their work has expanded to encompass challenging and creative tasks such as computing costs and efficiency gains of new technologies, participating in strategies for mergers and acquisitions, supervising quality management, and designing and using information systems to track financial performance.
n Overview
n The Job
Accountants compile, analyze, verify, and prepare financial records, including profit and loss statements, balance sheets, cost studies, and tax reports. Accountants may specialize in areas such as auditing, tax work, cost accounting, budgeting and control, or systems and procedures. Accountants also may specialize in a particular business or field; for example, agricultural accountants specialize in drawing up and analyzing financial statements for farmers and for farm equipment companies. Auditors examine and verify financial records to ensure that they are accurate, complete, and in compliance with federal laws. There are approximately 1.2 million accountants and auditors employed in the United States.
Accountants’ duties depend on the size and nature of the company in which they are employed. The major fields of employment are public, private, and government accounting. Public accountants work independently on a fee basis or as members of an accounting firm, and they perform a variety of tasks for businesses or individuals. These may include auditing accounts and records, preparing and certifying quick facts financial statements, conducting School Subjects financial investigations and furBusiness nishing testimony in legal matEconomics ters, and assisting in formulating Personal Skills budget policies and procedures. Following instructions Private accountants, someLeadership/management times called industrial or management accountants, handle Work Environment financial records of the firms at Primarily indoors One location with some travel which they are employed. Government accountants Minimum Education Level work on the financial records of Bachelor’s degree government agencies or, when necessary, they audit the records Salary Range of private companies. In the fed$24,677 to $50,770 to $200,000+ eral government, many accountants are employed as bank Certification or Licensing examiners (see the article “Bank Recommended Examiners”), Internal Revenue Service agents and investigators, Outlook Faster than the average as well as in regular accounting positions. DOT Within these fields, accountants 160 can specialize in a variety of areas. General accountants supervise, GOE install, and devise general account13.02.03 ing, budget, and cost systems. They NOC maintain records, balance books, 1111 and prepare and analyze statements on all financial aspects of O*NET-SOC business. Administrative officers 13-2011.00, 13-2011.01, 13-2011.02 use this information to make sound business decisions.
n History Accounting records and bookkeeping methods have been used from early history to the present. Records discovered in Babylonia (modern-day Iraq) date back to 3600 b.c., and accounts were similarly kept by the Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans. Modern accounting began with the technique of double-entry bookkeeping, which was developed in the 15th and 16th centuries by Luca Pacioli, an Italian mathematician. After the industrial revolution, business grew more complex. As government and industrial institutions developed in the 19th and 20th centuries, accurate records and information were needed to assist in making decisions on economic and management policies. The accounting profession in the United States dates back only to 1880, when English and Scottish investors began buying stock in American companies. To keep an eye on their investments, they sent over accountants who realized the great potential that existed in the accounting field and stayed on to establish their own businesses. Federal legislation, such as the income tax in 1913 and the excess profits tax in 1917, helped cause an accounting boom that has made the profession instrumental to all business. Accountants have long been considered “bean counters,” and their work has been written off by outsiders as routine and boring. However, their image, once associated with death, taxes, and bad news, is making a turnaround. Accountants now do much more than prepare financial statements and record business transactions. Technology
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Budget accountants review expenditures of departments within a firm to make sure expenses allotted are not exceeded. They also aid in drafting budgets and may devise and install budget control systems. Cost accountants determine unit costs of products or services by analyzing records and depreciation data. They classify and record all operating costs so that management can control expenditures. Property accountants keep records of equipment, buildings, and other property owned or leased by a company. They prepare mortgage schedules and payments as well as appreciation or depreciation statements, which are used for income tax purposes. Environmental accountants help utilities, manufacturers, and chemical companies set up preventive systems to ensure environmental compliance and provide assistance in the event that legal issues arise. Systems accountants design and set up special accounting systems for organizations whose needs cannot be handled by standardized procedures. This may involve installing automated or computerized accounting processes and includes instructing personnel in the new methods. Forensic accountants and auditors use accounting principles and theories to support or oppose claims being made in litigation (see the article “Forensic Accountants and Auditors”). Tax accountants prepare federal, state, or local tax returns of an individual, business, or corporation according to prescribed rates, laws, and regulations. They also may conduct research on the effects of taxes on firm operations and recommend changes to reduce taxes. This is one of the most intricate fields of accounting, and many accountants therefore specialize in one particular phase such as corporate, individual income, or property tax. Assurance accountants help improve the quality of information for clients in assurance services areas such as electronic commerce, risk assessment, and elder care. This information may be financial or non-financial in nature. Auditors ensure that financial records are accurate, complete, and in compliance with federal laws. To do so they review items in original entry books, including purchase orders, tax returns, billing statements, and other important documents. Auditors may also prepare financial statements for clients and suggest ways to improve productivity and profits. Internal auditors conduct the same kind of examination and evaluation for one particular company. Because they are salaried employees of that company, their financial audits then must be certified by a qualified independent auditor. Internal audi-
tors also review procedures and controls, appraise the efficiency and effectiveness of operations, and make sure their companies comply with corporate policies and government regulations. Tax auditors review financial records and other information provided by taxpayers to determine the appropriate tax liability. State and federal tax auditors usually work in government offices, but they may perform a field audit in a taxpayer’s home or office. Revenue agents are employed by the federal government to examine selected income tax returns and, when necessary, conduct field audits and investigations to verify the information reported and adjust the tax liability accordingly. Chief bank examiners enforce good banking practices throughout a state. They schedule bank examinations to ensure that financial institutions comply with state laws and, in certain cases, they take steps to protect a bank’s solvency and the interests of its depositors and shareholders. (For more information, see the article Bank Examiners.)
n Requirements High School If you are interested in an accounting career, you must be very proficient in arithmetic and basic algebra. Familiarity with computers and their applications is equally important. Course work in English and communications will also be beneficial.
Postsecondary Training Postsecondary training in accounting may be obtained in a wide variety of institutions such as private business schools, junior colleges, universities, and correspondence schools. A bachelor’s degree with a major in accounting, or a related field such as economics, is highly recommended by professional associations for those entering the field and is required by all states before taking the licensing exam. It is possible, however, to become a successful accountant by completing a program at any of the above-mentioned institutions. A four-year college curriculum usually includes about two years of liberal arts courses, a year of general business subjects, and a year of specific accounting work. Better positions, particularly in public accounting, require a bachelor’s degree with a major in accounting. Large public accounting firms often prefer people with a master’s degree in accounting. For beginning positions in accounting, the federal government requires four years of college (including 24 semester hours in accounting or auditing) or an equivalent combination of education and experience.
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Certification or Licensing Certified public accountants (CPAs) must pass a qualifying examination and hold a certificate issued by the state in which they wish to practice. In most states, a college degree is required for admission to the CPA examinations; a few states allow candidates to substitute years of public accounting experience for the college degree requirement. Currently 42 states and the District of Columbia require CPA candidates to have 150 hours of education, which is an additional 30 hours beyond the standard bachelor’s degree. Five additional states plan to enact the 150-hour requirement in the future. These criteria can be met by combining an undergraduate accounting program with graduate study or participating in an integrated five-year professional accounting program. You can obtain information from a state board of accountancy or check out the Web site of the American Institute of Certified Public Accountants (AICPA) to read about new regulations and review last year’s exam. The Uniform CPA Examination administered by the AICPA is used by all states. Nearly all states require at least two years of public accounting experience or its equivalent before a CPA certificate can be earned. The AICPA offers additional credentialing programs (involving a test and additional requirements) for members with valid CPA certificates. These designations include accredited in business valuation (ABV), certified information technology professional (CITP), and personal financial specialist (PFS). These credentials indicate that a CPA has developed skills in non-traditional areas in which accountants are starting to play larger roles. Some accountants seek out other credentials. Those who have earned a bachelor’s degree, pass a four-part examination, agree to meet continuing education requirements, and have at least two years of experience in management accounting may become a certified management accountant (CMA) through the Institute of Management Accounting. The Accreditation Council for Accountancy and Taxation confers the following three designations: accredited business accountant or accredited business advisor (ABA), accredited tax preparer (ATP), and accredited tax advisor (ATA). To become a certified internal auditor (CIA), college graduates with two years of experience in internal auditing must pass a four-part examination given by the Institute of Internal Auditors (IIA). The IIA also offers the following specialty certifications: certified financial services auditor and certified government auditing professional. Visit the IIA Web site for more information. The designation certified information systems auditor (CISA) is conferred by the Information Sys-
This business owner is reviewing receipts and financial information with his accountant during tax season. (Corbis)
tems Audit and Control Association to candidates who pass an examination and who have five years of experience auditing electronic data processing systems. Other organizations, such as the Bank Administration Institute, confer specialized auditing designations.
Other Requirements To be a successful accountant you will need strong mathematical, analytical, and problem-solving skills. You need to be able to think logically and to interpret facts and figures accurately. Effective oral and written communication are also essential in working with both clients and management. Other important skills are attentiveness to detail, patience, and industriousness. Business acumen and the ability to generate clientele are crucial to service-oriented
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Becoming a Certified Public Accountant How, exactly, does one become certified as a public accountant? Rules and regulations vary from state to state, but, in general, CPAs must have a certain amount of experience and pass a test. In New York, for instance, a potential CPA must be at least 21 years of age, of “good moral character” (i.e., not have been convicted of any crimes), and meet experience, education, and examination standards. The education requirements may be fulfilled by an accounting program registered by the New York State Department of Education or another program considered equivalent (such as a program in another state), or by 15 years of public accounting experience accepted by the State Board for Public Accountancy. The would-be CPA must also pass all four parts of the state-administered test (financial accounting and reporting, business law and professional responsibilities, accounting and reporting) within three years. Finally, they must also present evidence of at least two years’ experience in the field, including having worked in all aspects of public accounting, and pay a licensing fee.
businesses, as are honesty, dedication, and a respect for the work of others.
n Exploring If you think a career as an accountant or auditor might be for you, try working in a retail business, either part time or during the summer. Working at the cash register or even pricing products as a stockperson is good introductory experience. You should also consider working as a treasurer for a student organization requiring financial planning and money management. It may be possible to gain some experience by volunteering with local groups such as churches and small businesses. You should also stay abreast of news in the field by reading trade magazines and checking out the industry Web sites of the AICPA and other accounting associations. The AICPA has numerous free educational publications available.
n Employers More than 1.2 million people are employed as accountants and auditors. Accountants and auditors work throughout private industry and government. About one quarter work for accounting, auditing, and bookkeeping firms. Approximately 10 percent are self-employed. A large percentage of all accountants and auditors are certified.
n Starting Out Junior public accountants usually start in jobs with routine duties such as counting cash, verifying calculations, and other detailed numerical work. In private accounting, beginners are likely to start as cost accountants and junior internal auditors. They may also enter in clerical positions as cost clerks, ledger clerks, and timekeepers or as trainees in technical or junior executive positions. In the federal government, most beginners are hired as trainees at the GS-5 level after passing the civil service exam. Some state CPA societies arrange internships for accounting majors, and some offer scholarships and loan programs. You might also visit the Landing a Job section (http:// www.aicpa.org/nolimits/nav/career.asp) of the AICPA Web site. It has detailed information on accounting careers, hiring trends, job search strategies, resumes and cover letters, and job interviews. The section also has a list of internship opportunities for students.
n Advancement Talented accountants and auditors can advance quickly. Junior public accountants usually advance to senior positions within several years and to managerial positions soon after. Those successful in dealing with top-level management may eventually become supervisors, managers, and partners in larger firms or go into independent practice. However, only 2 to 3 percent of new hires advance to audit manager, tax manager, or partner. Private accountants in firms may become audit managers, tax managers, cost accounting managers, or controllers, depending on their specialty. Some become controllers, treasurers, or corporation presidents. Others on the finance side may rise to become managers of financial planning and analysis or treasurers. Federal government trainees are usually promoted within a year or two. Advancement to controller and to higher administrative positions is ultimately possible. Although advancement may be rapid for skilled accountants, especially in public accounting, those with inadequate academic or professional training are often assigned to routine jobs and find it difficult to obtain promotions. All accountants find it necessary to continue their study of accounting and related areas in their spare time. Even those who have already obtained college degrees, gained experience, and earned a CPA certificate may spend many hours studying to keep up with new industry developments. Thousands of practicing accountants enroll in formal courses offered by universities and professional associations to specialize in certain areas of accounting, broaden or update their professional skills, and become eligible for advancement and promotion.
n Earnings Beginning salaries for accountants with a bachelor’s degree averaged $43,269 a year in 2004; those with a master’s degree averaged $46,251 a year, according to the National Association of Colleges and Employers. Auditors with up to one year of experience earned between $28,250 and $45,000, according to a 2005 survey by Robert Half International. Some experienced auditors may earn between $52,000 and $200,000, depending on such factors as their education level, the size of the firm, and the firm’s location. According to the U.S. Department of Labor, accountants and auditors had median annual earnings of $50,770 in 2004. The lowest paid 10 percent earned less than $32,230, and the highest paid 10 percent earned more than $88,610. In the federal government, the average starting salary for junior accountants and auditors was $24,677 in 2004. Some entry-level positions paid slightly more if the candidate had an advanced degree or superior academic performance. Accountants working for the federal government in supervisory and management positions had average salaries of $74,907 a year in 2004; auditors averaged $78,890. Although government accountants and auditors make less than those in other areas, they do receive more benefits.
n Work Environment Accounting is known as a desk job, and a 40-hour (or longer) workweek can be expected in public and private accounting. Although computer work is replacing paperwork, the job can be routine and monotonous, and concentration and attention to detail are critical. Public accountants experience considerable pressure during the tax period, which runs from November to April, and they may have to work long hours. There is potential for stress aside from tax season, as accountants can be responsible for managing multimillion-dollar finances with no margin for error. Self-employed accountants and those working for a small firm can expect to work longer hours; 40 percent work more than 50 hours per week, compared to 20 percent of public and private accountants. In smaller firms, most of the public accountant’s work is performed in the client’s office. A considerable amount of travel is often necessary to service a wide variety of businesses. In a larger firm, however, an accountant may have very little client contact, spending more time interacting with the accounting team.
n Outlook Employment of accountants and auditors is expected to grow faster than the average through 2014, according to the U.S. Department of Labor. This is due to business
accountants and auditors
growth, changing tax and finance laws, and increased scrutiny of financial practices across all businesses. There have been several notable scandals in the accounting industry in recent years, and this accounts for much of the increased scrutiny and changing legislation in this industry. As firms specialize their services, accountants will need to follow suit. Firms will seek out accountants with experience in marketing and proficiency in computer systems to build management consulting practices. As trade increases, so will the demand for CPAs with international specialties and foreign language skills. CPAs with an engineering degree would be well equipped to specialize in environmental accounting. Other accounting specialties that will enjoy good prospects include assurance, forensic, and tax accounting. The number of CPAs dropped off a bit after most states embraced the 150-hour standard for CPA education. However, numbers are once again starting to rise as students realize the many opportunities this industry holds, especially in the wake of recent accounting scandals. CPAs with valid licenses should experience favorable job prospects for the foreseeable future. Pursuing advanced degrees and certifications will also greatly increase one’s chances of finding employment. Accounting jobs are more secure than most during economic downswings. Despite fluctuations in the nation’s economy, there will always be a need to manage financial information, especially as the number, size, and complexity of business transactions increases. However, competition for jobs will remain, certification requirements will become more rigorous, and accountants and auditors with the highest degrees will be the most competitive.
n For More Information For information on accreditation and testing, contact Accreditation Council for Accountancy and Taxation 1010 North Fairfax Street Alexandria, VA 22314-1574 Tel: 888-289-7763 Email:
[email protected] http://www.acatcredentials.org
For information on the Uniform CPA Examination and student membership, contact American Institute of Certified Public Accountants 1211 Avenue of the Americas New York, NY 10036-8775 Tel: 212-596-6200 http://www.aicpa.org
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For information on accredited programs in accounting, contact Association to Advance Collegiate Schools of Business 777 South Harbour Island Boulevard, Suite 750 Tampa, FL 33602-5730 Tel: 813-769-6500 http://www.aacsb.edu
For information on certification for bank auditors, contact Bank Administration Institute One North Franklin, Suite 1000 Chicago, IL 60606-3421 Email:
[email protected] http://www.bai.org
For more information on women in accounting, contact Educational Foundation for Women in Accounting PO Box 1925 Southeastern, PA 19399-1925 Tel: 610-407-9229 Email:
[email protected] http://www.efwa.org
For information on certification, contact Information Systems Audit and Control Association and Foundation 3701 Algonquin Road, Suite 1010 Rolling Meadows, IL 60008-3124 Tel: 847-253-1545 Email:
[email protected] http://www.isaca.org
For information on internal auditing and certification, contact Institute of Internal Auditors 247 Maitland Avenue Altamonte Springs, FL 32701-4201 Tel: 407-937-1100 Email:
[email protected] http://www.theiia.org
For information about management accounting and the CMA designation, as well as student membership, contact Institute of Management Accountants 10 Paragon Drive Montvale, NJ 07645-1718 Tel: 800-638-4427 Email:
[email protected] http://www.imanet.org
Acquisition Librarians n Overview Acquisition librarians build and maintain library collections, which include print references such as books and periodicals, and digital references such as CD-ROMs and DVDs, as well as music, art, and other resources available to library patrons. Acquisition librarians are also called collection development librarians and collection development specialists. Acquisition librarians are employed by all types of libraries, though the majority work in academic libraries.
n History Acquisitions and collection development has existed ever since the first library was created thousands of years ago. Early librarians acquired books, manuscripts, maps, and other materials to augment their existing collections. Today, acquisitions librarians acquire not only books but periodicals, CD-ROMs, music, videos, films, electronic downloads, art, photographs, and other resources. The Association for Library Collections and Technical Services (ALCTS), a division of the American Library Association, was formed in 1957 to serve the professional needs of acquisitions librarians and related professionals.
n The Job Acquisition librarians are responsible for building and maintaining a library’s collection of books and periodicals (including e-publications), CD-ROMs, music, videos, and other resources available for use. They must be able to balance the wants and needs of library patrons with the limitations of their budget. They work with library directors to assess the needs of the library and determine how to best allocate financial resources. Acquisition librarians rely on reviews in trade publications, information gathered at trade shows, suggestions from patrons, and the Internet to help them make purchasing decisions. Changing technology has created new challenges for acquisitions librarians; not only has information become more readily accessible with the advent and popularity of the Internet, it also comes in new formats. Acquisition librarians must determine what format is best for each resource. For example, they may choose to purchase a magazine subscription in online format to save storage space or to allow more people to access the resource. Or they may prefer hard copies of a particularly popular
reference material if there is a shortage of computer terminals in the library. In order to know what items are needed within the library, acquisition librarians must first be familiar with the resources that are currently held within the library. They work with cataloging and circulation librarians to find out what items are most popular and which ones might need to be replaced due to wear and tear or oversights in prior purchasing. They may even help these librarians catalog and maintain existing resources, conduct repair work on used items, and assess which books, magazines, and other items need to be replaced. When budget limitations restrict purchasing, some acquisition librarians seek out other sources of funding. They may write grants for public or private funding or lead donation drives to add to their collection.
n Requirements High School To prepare for this career, take college preparatory classes in business, science, English, mathematics, and foreign language. And take as many computer classes as you can. Because technology has greatly changed the way we receive and store information, those familiar with computers and related technology will have the greatest professional success.
Postsecondary Training Most acquisition librarian positions require a master’s degree in library science (M.L.S.), a master’s degree in library and information science (M.L.I.S.), or a master of science (M.S.) in information science degree. Some acquisitions librarians may even hold a Ph.D. in information or library science. A graduate degree from a program accredited by the ALA is highly regarded by employers. Some schools, such as the University at Albany–State University of New York (http://www.albany.edu/dis), offer a 10-semester program that combines a bachelor’s degree in arts or science with M.L.S. coursework and an internship. Visit the ALA’s Web site for a list of accredited schools nationwide, as well as distance learning opportunities, scholarships, and financial aid.
Certification or Licensing To date, there are no certification requirements for this library specialty. However, many librarians rely on annual conferences and continuing education classes to advance their knowledge. The ALCTS, for example, offers an online course on acquisition fundamentals. Topics include methods and basic functions of acquisitions, ethics, and creating and following a budget.
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Library Facts There are approximately 117,950 libraries in the United States. The American Library Association reports the following breakdown by type of library: School Libraries: 93,861 public schools: 76,807 private schools: 17,054 Public Libraries: 16,486 centrals: 8,986 branches: 7,500 Academic Libraries: 3,527 less than four year: 1,379 four year and above: 2,148 (Statistics for special libraries, armed forces libraries, and government libraries were unavailable.)
Other Requirements Acquisitions librarians should first and foremost have a love of information, as they are constantly in search of ways to improve their library’s collection and provide its patrons with useful resources. They should also have strong computer skills, be good at solving problems, and have business acumen to negotiate contracts and licenses for certain materials, such as e-subscriptions. Acquisitions librarians need strong communication skills since they work closely with library patrons, vendors, the library director, and other library professionals.
n Exploring There are many ways to learn more about the career of acquisitions librarian. You can read books and magazines about librarianship and visit the Web sites of library associations. (There is a good list available at http://archive.ala. org/alcts/publications/web/acq/ acqbib.html.) You might also visit the Web sites of library acquisitions departments to learn about issues that affect acquisitions librarians.
quick facts School Subjects
Business Computer science Personal Skills
Helping/teaching Leadership/management Work Environment
Primarily indoors Primarily one location Minimum Education Level
Master’s degree Salary Range
$18,000 to $47,400 to $90,000 Certification or Licensing
Required by certain states Outlook
More slowly than the average DOT
100 GOE
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5111 O*NET-SOC
25-4021.00
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ALA’s Web site, for example, offers links to employment opportunities throughout the country, as posted by different library organizations. It would also be prudent to check with your school’s career services office. Many employers work closely with academic institutions, especially if their programs are well regarded. Let your counselor know your area of specialty early on so he or she can help you find an internship or full-time job best suited to your needs.
n Advancement Acquisitions librarians with experience and advanced degrees may become managers of acquisitions departments or library directors. Others advance laterally by seeking employment at libraries with larger collections or facilities. Some acquisitions librarians become library science educators at the postsecondary level.
n Earnings According to a member survey by the Association for Library Collections and Technical Services, acquisitions librarians earned salaries that ranged from $18,000 to $90,000 in 2002. The U.S. Department of Labor reports that the median annual salary for all librarians in 2005 was $47,400. Most acquisitions librarians receive paid vacation time, holiday pay, compensated sick leave, various insurance plans, and retirement savings programs.
n Work Environment
Ask your school librarian about the acquisition or collection development aspects of his or her job. A librarian, teacher, or guidance counselor may be able to arrange an information interview with an acquisitions librarian.
Acquisitions librarians work in an intellectually engaging and fast-paced environment. The work can be challenging at times, as they must satisfy a variety of requests from patrons—from a student seeking an obscure book on medieval cooking to educators requesting a new series of historical biographies. Acquisitions librarians must be able to maintain their concentration and focus as they move from a critical budget meeting with the library director, to interacting with library patrons, to making the rounds at an important book fair, to poring over a new stack of publisher’s reviews.
n Employers
n Outlook
The Association for Library Collections and Technical Services, the major professional association for acquisitions librarians, has approximately 5,000 members. According to the Association, 75 percent of its members work in academic libraries and 11 percent in public libraries. The remaining 14 percent work in special libraries and other settings.
The U.S. Department of Labor predicts that employment for librarians will grow more slowly than the average through 2014, as more libraries will hire library technicians to take care of daily administrative tasks. However, many librarians will be reaching retirement age, which will create many vacancies within the field. Thus, opportunities for acquisitions librarians should be good. Today, libraries offer a wide variety of materials—including books, periodicals, electronic publications and music, CD-ROMs, music, and videos—to patrons, and acquisitions librarians will be needed to assess and acquire these
An acquisitions librarian surverys stacks and stacks of books. (Associated Press/Dennis Cook.)
n Starting Out To break into this career, turn to library association Web sites or publications for job listings and recruiters. The
active and contemplative religious sisters and brothers
materials. Opportunities will be best at libraries with large collections and a variety of media.
n For More Information For information on careers in law librarianship, contact American Association of Law Libraries 53 West Jackson, Suite 940 Chicago, IL 60604 Tel: 312-939-4764 Email:
[email protected] http://www.aallnet.org
For career information, a list of accredited schools, information on scholarships and grants, and college student membership, contact American Library Association 50 East Huron Street Chicago, IL 60611 Tel: 800-545-2433 Email:
[email protected] http://www.ala.org
For information on information science careers, contact American Society for Information Science and Technology 1320 Fenwick Lane, Suite 510 Silver Spring, MD 20910 Tel: 301-495-0900 Email:
[email protected] http://www.asis.org
For more information on careers in this field, contact Association for Library Collections and Technical Services 50 East Huron Street Chicago, IL 60611-2795 Tel: 800-545-2433, ext. 5037 Email:
[email protected] http://www.ala.org/ALCTSTemplate.cfm?Section=alcts
For information on careers in medical librarianship, contact Medical Library Association 65 East Wacker Place, Suite 1900 Chicago, IL 60601-7246 Tel: 312-419-9094 Email:
[email protected] http://www.mlanet.org
For information on careers in music librarianship, contact Music Library Association 8551 Research Way, Suite 180
Middleton, WI 53562-3567 Tel: 608-836-5825 Email:
[email protected] http://www.musiclibraryassoc.org
For information on working in a specialized library, contact Special Libraries Association 331 South Patrick Street Alexandria, VA 22314-3501 Tel: 703-647-4900 Email:
[email protected] http://www.sla.org
To receive information on librarianship in Canada, contact Canadian Library Association 328 Frank Street Ottawa, ON K2P 0X8 Canada Tel: 613-232-9625 Email:
[email protected] http://www.cla.ca
Active and Contemplative Religious Sisters and Brothers n Overview Within the Roman Catholic Church, the titles sister and brother are given to members of religious communities. Members take vows of poverty, chastity, and obedience and devote their lives to God. Sisters and brothers generally view their way of life not so much as a career but as a vocation—a calling. Another term for a sister or brother is a religious. Active religious sisters and brothers divide their time between private prayer, communal worship, and service work. Each active religious community has a particular mission for which it was founded, ranging from educating children to caring for the sick to missionary work. Contemplative religious sisters and brothers devote themselves entirely to private prayer and the celebration of the Mass. Through their hidden lives of contemplation, they praise God and intercede with him on behalf of the whole world. Cloistered contemplative sisters and brothers live apart from the rest of the world in monasteries
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and convents under papal enclosure, meaning that access to them is restricted. Contemplative brothers are often called monks (but are addressed as “brother”), while contemplative sisters are called nuns (but are addressed as “sister”). Active religious are usually just called brothers and sisters.
n History The history of contemplative religious sisters and brothers can be traced back to biblical times, when figures such as Elijah and John the Baptist sought intimate relationships with God in the solitude of the desert. Early Christian hermits who lived in the deserts of Egypt, Syria, and Palestine during the second and third centuries followed their examples. These men and women shunned the material and denied themselves all but the most basic possessions and links to the outside world, including family and sexual relations. In this isolation, they devoted their lives to prayer and to contemplation of spiritual matters. The history of active religious sisters and brothers can be traced quick facts back to the original 12 disciples School Subjects of Christ. They were the first misEnglish sionaries, and among their followReligion ers were men and women devoted Personal Skills solely to serving God through the Communication/ideas church, caring for the sick, helping Helping/teaching the poor, and teaching the Gospel. By the fourth century, monasterWork Environment Primarily indoors ies where monks lived together Primarily one location were established. St. Jerome was a prominent organizer of monMinimum Education Level asteries, setting up both male and High school diploma female communities. St. Benedict of Nursia, who Salary Range $0 to $15,000 to $30,000 lived during the fifth and sixth centuries, organized monasCertification or Licensing tic communities that spread None available throughout Western Europe over the next few hundred years. Outlook Much faster than the average Known as the Benedictines, these religious lived in a community, DOT working together within the 120 monastery while still maintaining a prayerful atmosphere. They GOE were required to take solemn 12.02.01 vows of obedience, permanence NOC within the monastery, and adher4217 ence to poverty and chastity. Other important male and O*NET-SOC female religious communities 21-2011.00 within the church followed the
Benedictines. The 13th century saw the emergence of the mendicant orders of the Carmelites, Dominicans, and Franciscans. Unlike those in earlier communities, mendicants commonly traveled, sometimes great distances, to preach their Christian messages. Many were involved in the newly created universities of the Middle Ages. The Jesuits, formally known as the Society of Jesus, were formed in the 16th century. St. Ignatius, their founder, introduced the practice of simple (as opposed to solemn) vows. Less stringent simple vows allowed for the ownership of personal property and made a more active mission possible. The Jesuits were especially important in the development of educational institutions and missionary work. When female counterparts to these orders were initiated, they were usually of a cloistered contemplative nature. By the 17th century, groups of women religious, or sisters, also began to take simple vows, allowing them to forgo cloistered life if they so chose. Sisters increasingly devoted themselves to aiding the sick and poor and teaching children religion and basic educational skills. The Daughters of Charity, formed in France during the mid-17th century, was one of the first active orders for women and became a model for later communities. Contemplative religious life underwent an important renewal in the 16th century when St. Teresa of Avila and St. John of the Cross reformed the Carmelite order in Spain. They believed that both the male and female branches of the order had become too lax and were no longer true to the ideals of the desert fathers, so they formed the much stricter Discalced Carmelite order (“discalced” means barefoot, a reference to their commitment to poverty). This and other reforms, like the Colletine reform of the Poor Clares in the 15th century, have kept contemplative communities vital and faithful. In the 20th century, the Second Vatican Council (1962– 65), known as Vatican II, unleashed far-reaching reforms for the religious communities, affecting such aspects of religious life as the wearing of habits and the selection process of new religious. Consequently, many brothers and sisters adopted a more comfortable, more publicly accessible lifestyle, while maintaining their vows and the missions of their orders. This was especially true of the active religious orders, who have since expanded their missions to include such modern concerns as caring for AIDS patients and those suffering from addictions. Cloistered contemplative orders are among the most traditional religious orders, but they have also made necessary changes after Vatican II.
n The Job Sisters and brothers form an important, though sometimes misunderstood, part of the Roman Catholic Church. Brothers, for example, are not priests, but lay
active and contemplative religious sisters and brothers
people. Not all brothers can be properly called monks, a term usually reserved for contemplative brothers. The term “nun” properly refers to a female contemplative, though a nun is addressed as “sister.” In the United States there are more than 300 Roman Catholic orders and congregations, many of which have both male and female communities and some of which have both active and contemplative religious. In total, there are approximately 75,500 sisters and 5,700 brothers serving the country today. Active religious brothers and sisters are primarily engaged in education, health care, social work, and spreading the Catholic faith, either as missionaries or through their daily work. Sisters and brothers who teach may work at the elementary, high school, or college level—usually, but not always, in Catholic-funded schools. Others may serve as librarians, counselors, or principals, or in other administrative positions. Those involved in health care work in hospitals owned by their religious order or by the local diocese, serving as nurses, physicians, pharmacists, medical technicians, administrators, physical therapists, or related positions. In impoverished areas in the United States, such as inner cities, active religious may live among the people, teaching basic literacy and life skills such as sanitary procedures and rudimentary job skills. They may conduct programs to help the poor or homeless, or work in homes for disadvantaged children. Sisters and brothers who work as missionaries may work in countries plagued by famine, disease, civil war, or places where the Catholic faith has not yet been established. More and more active religious are working in parishes as pastoral associates or directors of religious education. They may handle administrative duties, particularly if their parish does not have a priest of its own but shares one with another parish. Some serve as spiritual directors, counseling others on living the faith more deeply. Active sisters and brothers also work in communications, either on behalf of their order or their diocese. They might work in public relations or in the media, such as publishing books or producing video and audio recordings. Contemplative sisters and brothers generally live their lives entirely within the bounds of the monastery or convent. They spend several hours a day in chapel for Mass and the Liturgy of the Hours. They may spend their private prayer time in the chapel, in their rooms, or outside in the monastery grounds. An hour or so is usually devoted to study, learning about church history, the lives of the saints, and other issues. Much of the rest of the day is spent on manual labor, tending to the needs of the community. Gardening, laundry, cooking, cleaning, and household repairs are some of the tasks to which brothers and sisters are assigned.
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In many contemplative communities, particularly cloistered orders where there is little interaction with other people, an hour or two is set aside each day for recreation, when the religious can talk and relax in a less formal atmosphere. Meals are taken together, often in silence or while listening to a spiritual book on tape. Cloistered contemplative communities enjoy papal enclosure, which restricts access to their monasteries or convents. This ensures that a quiet, reverent, prayerful atmosphere is maintained. To enter the enclosure, people must have special permission from the bishop or a superior within the order—except in case of emergency. To leave the enclosure, religious must also have this kind of special permission, although most have standing permission to visit doctors and dentists as needed. Members of contemplative religious communities often perform additional work to raise money. Nuns, for example, traditionally earn funds by baking altar bread and sewing vestments. Cottage industries and small businesses such as crafts, a printing service, or wine and cheese production are now common.
n Requirements High School If you are interested in becoming a religious sister or brother, consider enrolling in a Catholic high school. However, this is
Sixth-grader Lawrence Garrison, 11, plays a little one-on-one basketball with Sister Mary Cecilia as he waits to begin his first day of school at Cathedral Academy Monday, October 17, 2005 in New Orleans, LA. (AP Photo/Mel Evans.)
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by no means a requirement. Take as many religion courses as possible as well as courses in English and speech in order to promote communications skills. These are crucial to participation in the liturgy and the religious studies that contemplative sisters and brothers pursue. Many active sisters and brothers are also skilled in secular professions. As a result, you should determine other career interests and take corresponding coursework to prepare for education in that field.
Postsecondary Training Requirements for becoming a sister or brother vary by community. Many religious orders will accept candidates with only a high school diploma, but more and more are advising applicants to attend college first. Many communities want prospective members to have life experience before becoming a sister or brother, as the vocation requires a high level of dedication and maturity. Such life experience may include dating, pursuing another occupation, and extensive reflection on Christianity and life goals. Although candidates must be single, previously married men and women are not disqualified from consideration. All sisters and brothers are trained for the religious life by the communities in which they take their vows. Training programs commonly last several years. In some orders, there are additional requirements. For active religious, additional education and training is necessary. Teaching communities, for example, may require that a candidate have a university degree, a teaching certificate, or both. Nursing communities generally require medical training. Some communities will assume all costs for obtaining a university degree or other education. Contemplative sisters and brothers may spend up to eight or nine years learning about the religious life before committing to it with final vows. They may take formal classes for young religious inside their communities or attend informal discussion groups with experienced religious. Their superiors, especially their novice master or novice mistress, will offer personal guidance and recommend books to help them grow in the life.
Other Requirements First and foremost, religious sisters and brothers must have a vocation to the religious life. They must believe that God is calling them to dedicate their lives to service of the church. Their religious communities must also feel certain that aspiring members are called. All sisters and brothers must take the traditional vows of poverty, chastity, and obedience. In taking a vow of poverty, religious commit to living simply and to sharing all things with their community. Excessive accumulation
of material possessions is not acceptable, even for active religious who earn outside income. The vow of chastity requires that brothers and sisters not have sexual relations or marry. This requirement is not a condemnation of sexuality in general. It simply allows them to devote all their love to God. Prior sexual activity does not disqualify a candidate. Obedience is understood as a listening vow. Sisters and brothers must listen to and faithfully serve the religious community, the church, and God. Each member is required to obey the superior (highest authority) of the community and follow the established rules of the order or congregation. In addition to the above requirements, candidates must be in good physical and emotional health, have a sound character, and be free from monetary debt. Religious communities are not looking for people who are trying to escape from everyday problems or are afraid of marriage and intimate relationships. Good emotional health and maturity is absolutely essential to living the religious life.
n Exploring There are many ways to explore the religious life. The first step is to get in touch with a religious community that interests you, either directly or through your priest. Religious orders will be happy to provide you with plenty of information about their history and their way of life. Some offer special retreats or similar programs to help potential sisters and brothers discern their vocation. You may have the opportunity to participate in the work of active religious orders, volunteering your time at their hospitals, religious education classes, or social services. Even if you are considering the contemplative life, it can be very rewarding to participate in the social work of active sisters and brothers. In both exploring the religious life and preparing for it, you should be conscientious about living the Catholic faith as fully as you can; that is the essence of the contemplative life. Attend Mass and other services frequently; read about church history, doctrine, and current events; take part in parish activities. Finally, religious sisters and brothers will tell you that the key to preparing for a vocation and to discerning it is prayer.
n Employers While the specific orders vary, all sisters and brothers ultimately serve the church. Active religious work in hospitals, colleges and universities, grammar schools, or high schools. Some work in parishes or church-run agencies. Other sisters and brothers work in foreign missions, urban slums, or rural areas. Essentially, members
Active and contemplative religious sisters and brothers
of active religious orders can be found virtually everywhere the church has a presence. As part of their vow of obedience, they may be required to serve wherever their community has made a commitment to minister. Contemplative religious are bound by their order’s rule of life and the way their particular community applies that rule. The variations between communities are another good reason to take your time in finding the mode of religious life that best suits you.
n Starting Out Although the process of entering an order or congregation varies from community to community, in most cases there are four steps. First, an interested candidate contacts the religious community and begins a process of becoming acquainted with the life and mission of the members. Meetings with a brother or sister and periodic invitations to take part in prayer and community work may be arranged. Second, the candidate is allowed to live within the community as a postulant but continues outside commitments, such as work or school. This allows the prospective member to more closely view the life of a religious and also gives the community a chance to evaluate the candidate. This step often takes one or two years. Third, the person officially enters the community as a novice. During this period, lasting at least one year, final decisions are made on whether the candidate is suited to the religious life. Fourth, the new member takes the vows of poverty, chastity, and obedience. These vows are at first temporary and may last for one, two, or three years. The length of the vow is decided by the brother or sister in consultation with his or her superior. Temporary vows are renewable up to nine years, after which the member must take final vows to remain in the community. Permanent vows can be made as early as three years after the first temporary vow.
n Advancement The goal of a sister or brother is not the achievement of personal advancement but carrying out the mission of the community and serving the church and God. Even so, a religious may over time assume greater responsibility, such as filling a supervisory role. For example, an active sister may oversee the work of all nurses at a particular hospital, or an active brother may serve as his community’s accountant. The highest authority of each community is the superior, a position of grave responsibility. Religious do not actively seek to become superiors; they are appointed by the community. Both active and contemplative religious sisters and brothers can advance in the form of continuing educa-
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From the Rule of St. Benedict, c. 530 5. Concerning Obedience The first grade of humility is obedience without delay. This becomes those who, on account of the holy service which they have professed, or on account of the fear of hell or the glory of eternal life, consider nothing dearer to them than Christ: so that, so soon as anything is commanded by their superior, they may not know how to suffer delay in doing it, even as if it were a divine command. Concerning whom the Lord said: “As soon as he heard of me he obeyed me.” 7. Concerning Humility The sixth grade of humility is, that a monk be contented with all lowliness or extremity, and consider himself, with regard to everything which is enjoined on him, as a poor and unworthy workman; saying to himself with the prophet: “I was reduced to nothing and was ignorant; I was made as the cattle before thee, and I am always with thee.” The seventh grade of humility is, not only that he, with his tongue, pronounce himself viler and more worthless than all; but that he also believe it in the inner-most workings of his heart; humbling himself and saying with the prophet, etc. The eighth degree of humility is that a monk do nothing except what the common rule of the monastery, or the example of his elders, urges him to do. The ninth degree of humility is that a monk restrain his tongue from speaking; and, keeping silence, do not speak until he is spoken to . . Source: Paul Halsall’s Medieval Sourcebooks page http://www. fordham.edu/halsall/source/rul-benedict.html
tion. They can also expect to grow spiritually through retreats and by working with their spiritual director, who may be their chaplain or confessor. There is also the possibility of moving from the active religious life to contemplative religious life. However, moving between religious orders is a complicated process and must be approved by the Vatican.
n Earnings Salaries for active sisters and brothers are comparable to those of other people in their fields with similar education and skills. Contemplative religious sisters and brothers have no individual earnings. Income from their cottage industries and private donations belongs to the community as a whole. All of their needs, such as food, clothing, and medical insurance, are paid for out of community funds. They are supported by their community throughout their lives.
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n Work Environment
n For More Information
The working conditions of religious depend on their community’s location and mission. Most religious can count on a pretty conventional life in the settings they have chosen, such as the hustle and bustle of an urban mission, the steady work of a suburban parish or school, or the serenity of a monastery. Still, it is important for sisters and brothers to be ready and willing to serve wherever they are needed. Religious tend to live in clean, sparsely furnished buildings, from convents and monasteries to large community houses, small homes, and apartments. The private room of a religious may consist of a simple bed, a desk, and a dresser. There is generally a common room for dining. They attend Mass with the rest of their community, usually in their own church or chapel, and they may also gather daily for recitation of the rosary or other common prayer. Cloistered religious usually have “speak rooms” in their communities, where they meet with priests and other visitors who sit in the part of the room that is located outside the cloister boundary. It can be difficult to adapt to the physical restrictions of contemplative life (and cloistered life, in particular). Yet the life of obedience frees brothers and sisters from constant decision-making and anxiety over such mundane matters as when to eat, what to wear, and who is going to do the household chores. Many active religious now have more contact with their family, friends, and other lay people. Manner of dress has also gained certain latitude since Vatican II. Many active and contemplative orders wear modified habits; for example, a sister might wear a plain suit with a simple veil and a crucifix. Other active sisters and brothers dress exactly like lay people. Religious sisters and brothers seek humility, trying not to set themselves above or apart from the rest of their communities; the uniform dress of the habit can help them do this. Most religious do not receive the habit until after they have completed their postulancy.
The NRVC offers many resources for those considering a religious life. National Religious Vocation Conference (NRVC)
n Outlook Opportunities for religious sisters and brothers are practically unlimited, for two major reasons. The first is that the Catholic Church wholeheartedly encourages those who have been called to live a life completely devoted to serving God. The second reason for the great opportunities in religious life is the decline in vocations over the past few decades. A majority of today’s sisters and brothers are aged 50 or over. As long as they are certain of their calling and are deemed suitable for the religious life, devoted Catholics will have plenty of opportunities to find a religious order to serve.
5420 South Cornell Avenue, Suite 105 Chicago, IL 60615-5604 Tel: 773-363-5454 Email:
[email protected] http://www.nrvc.net
Vision magazine, published annually by the NRVC through Claretian Publications, provides information about sisters, brothers, and priests including brief vocation stories and reflections. Vision Claretian Publications 205 West Monroe Chicago, IL 60606-5033 Tel: 312-236-7782 Email:
[email protected] http://www.visionguide.org
Many religious orders now have pages on the Internet, and more are going online all the time. These are the main sites for some active religious orders; you may be able to link to individual communities from there. Capuchin Franciscans of New York/New England http://www.capuchin.net
Daughters of St. Paul http://www.pauline.org
Order of Preachers (Dominicans) http://www.op.org
School Sisters of Notre Dame http://www.ssnd.org
Actors n Overview Actors play parts or roles in dramatic productions on the stage, in motion pictures, or on television or radio. They impersonate, or portray, characters by speech, gesture, song, and dance. There are approximately 63,000 actors working in the United States.
n History Drama, which began as a component of religious festivals, was refined as an art form by the ancient Greeks,
who used the stage as a forum for topical themes and stories. The role of actors became more important than in the past, and settings became more realistic with the use of scenery. Playgoing was often a great celebration, a tradition carried on by the Romans. The rise of the Christian church put an end to theater in the sixth century a.d., and for several centuries actors were ostracized from society, surviving as jugglers and jesters. Drama was reintroduced during the Middle Ages but became more religious in focus. Plays during this period typically centered around biblical themes, and roles were played by craftspeople and other amateurs. This changed with the rediscovery of Greek and Roman plays in the Renaissance. Professional actors and acting troupes toured the countries of Europe, presenting ancient plays or improvising new dramas based on cultural issues and situations of the day. Actors began to take on more prominence in society. In England, actors such as Will Kemp and Richard Burbage became known for their roles in the plays of William Shakespeare. In France, Molière wrote and often acted in his own plays. Until the mid-17th century, however, women were banned from the stage, and young boys played the female roles. By the 18th century, actors could become quite prominent members of society, and plays were often written—or, in the case of Shakespeare’s plays, rewritten—to suit a particular actor. Acting styles tended to be highly exaggerated, with elaborate gestures and artificial speech, until David Garrick introduced a more natural style to the stage in the mid-1700s. The first American acting company was established in Williamsburg, Virginia, in 1752, led by Lewis Hallan. In the next century, many actors became stars. Famous actors of the time included Edwin Forrest, Fanny and Charles Kemble, Edmund Kean, William Charles Macready, and Joseph Jefferson, who was known for his comedic roles. Until the late 19th century, stars dominated the stage. But in 1874, George II, Duke of Saxe-Meiningen, formed a theater troupe in which every actor was given equal prominence. This ensemble style influenced others, such as Andre Antoine of France, and gave rise to a new trend in theater called naturalism, which featured far more realistic characters and settings than before. This style of theater came to dominate the 20th century. It also called for new methods of acting. Konstantin Stanislavsky of the Moscow Art Theater, who developed an especially influential acting style that was later called method acting, influenced the Group Theater in the United States; one member, Lee Strasberg, founded the Actors Studio in New York, which would become an important training ground for many of the great American actors. In the early 20th century, vaudeville and burlesque shows were
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extremely popular and became the training ground for some of the great comic actors of the century. By then, developments such as film, radio, and television offered many more acting opportunities than ever before. Many actors honed their skills on the stage and then entered one of these new media, where they could become known throughout the nation and often throughout the world. Both radio and television offered still more acting opportunities in advertisements. The development of sound in film caused many popular actors from the silent era to fade from view, while giving rise to many others. But almost from the beginning, film stars were known for their outrageous salaries and lavish style of living. In the United States, New York gradually became the center of theater and remains so, although community theater companies abound throughout the country. Hollywood is the recognized center of the motion picture and television industries. Other major production centers are quick facts Miami, Chicago, San Francisco, School Subjects and Austin.
n The Job The imitation or basic development of a character for presentation to an audience often seems like a glamorous and fairly easy job. In reality, it is demanding, tiring work requiring a special talent. The actor must first find a part available in some upcoming production. This may be in a comedy, drama, musical, or opera. Then, having read and studied the part, the actor must audition before the director and other people who have control of the production. This requirement is often waived for established artists. In film and television, actors must also complete screen tests, which are scenes recorded on film, at times performed with other actors, which are later viewed by the director and producer of the film. If selected for the part, the actor must spend hundreds of hours in rehearsal and must memorize many lines and cues.
English Theater/dance
Personal Skills
Artistic Communication/ideas Work Environment
Indoors and outdoors Primarily multiple locations Minimum Education Level
High school diploma Salary Range
$14,000 to $23,500 to $117,000 Certification or Licensing
None available Outlook
About as fast as the average DOT
150 GOE
01.05.01 NOC
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27-2011.00
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This is especially true in live theater; in film and television, actors may spend less time in rehearsal and sometimes improvise their lines before the camera, often performing several attempts, or “takes,” before the director is satisfied. Television actors often take advantage of TelePrompTers, which scroll their lines on a screen in front of them while performing. Radio actors generally read from a script, and therefore rehearsal times are usually shorter. In addition to such mechanical duties, the actor must determine the essence of the character being portrayed and the relation of that character to the overall scheme of the play. Radio actors must be especially skilled in expressing character and emotion through voice alone. In many film and theater roles, actors must also sing and dance and spend additional time rehearsing songs and perfecting the choreography. Some roles require actors to perform various stunts, which can be quite dangerous. Most often, these stunts are performed by specially trained stunt performers. Others work as stand-ins or body doubles. These actors are chosen for specific features and appear on film in place of the lead actor; this is often the case in films requiring nude or seminude scenes. Many television programs, such as game shows, also feature models, who generally assist the host of the program. Actors in the theater may perform the same part many times a week for weeks, months, and sometimes years. This allows them to develop the role, but it can also become tedious. Actors in films may spend several weeks involved in a production, which often takes place on location; that is, in different parts of the world. Television actors involved in a series, such as a soap opera or a situation comedy, also
Screen Versus Stage Acting Screen acting differs from acting in a theater. The camera scrutinizes an actor the way a theater audience cannot, and performances must be subtle and lifelike. Exaggerated gestures and rhetorical speaking, often required on the stage, may appear comical on the screen. Film actors must adjust themselves to waiting for scenes to be filmed, repeating the same scene over and over, playing scenes out of sequence, and doing only small segments of a scene at a time. As a result, the actor is unable to build up a continuity of emotions as the story progresses—an advantage enjoyed by stage actors. Another problem is that the screen actor does not see or hear the audience and therefore cannot judge how they are reacting. The actor must rely on the director to evaluate the proficiency of the performance.
may play the same role for years, generally in 13-week cycles. For these actors, however, their lines change from week to week and even from day to day, and much time is spent rehearsing their new lines. While studying and perfecting their craft, many actors work as extras, the nonspeaking characters who appear in the background on screen or stage. Many actors also continue their training. A great deal of an actor’s time is spent attending auditions.
n Requirements High School There are no minimum educational requirements to become an actor. However, at least a high school diploma is recommended. Classes in English and speech and participating in school theater productions are good ways to prepare for a career in acting.
Postsecondary Training As acting becomes more and more involved with the various facets of our society, a college degree will become more important to those who hope to have an acting career. It is assumed that the actor who has completed a liberal arts program is more capable of understanding the wide variety of roles that are available. Therefore, it is strongly recommended that aspiring actors complete at least a bachelor’s degree program in theater or the dramatic arts. In addition, graduate degrees in the fine arts or in drama are nearly always required should the individual decide to teach dramatic arts. College can also serve to provide acting experience for the hopeful actor. More than 500 colleges and universities throughout the country offer dramatic arts programs and present theatrical performances. Actors and directors recommend that those interested in acting gain as much experience as possible through acting in plays in high school and college or in those offered by community groups. Training beyond college is recommended, especially for actors interested in entering the theater. Joining acting workshops, such as the Actors Studio, can often be highly competitive.
Other Requirements Prospective actors will be required not only to have a great talent for acting but also a great determination to succeed in the theater and motion pictures. They must be able to memorize hundreds of lines and should have a good speaking voice. The ability to sing and dance is important for increasing the opportunities for the young actor. Almost all actors, even the biggest stars, are required to audition for a part before they receive the role. In film and television, they will generally complete screen tests to
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see how they will appear on film. In all fields of acting, a love for acting is a must. It might take many years for an actor to achieve any success, if they achieve it at all. Performers on the Broadway stages must be members of the Actors’ Equity Association before being cast. While union membership may not always be required, many actors find it advantageous to belong to a union that covers their particular field of performing arts. These organizations include the Actors’ Equity Association (stage), Screen Actors Guild or Screen Extras Guild (motion pictures and television films), or American Federation of Television and Radio Artists (TV, recording, and radio). In addition, some actors may benefit from membership in the American Guild of Variety Artists (nightclubs, and so on), American Guild of Musical Artists (opera and ballet), or organizations such as the Hebrew Actors Union or Italian Actors Union for productions in those languages.
n Exploring The best way to explore this career is to participate in school or local theater productions. Even working on the props or lighting crew will provide insight into the field. Also, attend as many dramatic productions as possible and try to talk with people who either are currently in the theater or have been at one time. They can offer advice to individuals interested in a career in the theater. Many books, such as Beginning (New York: St. Martin’s, 1989), by Kenneth Branagh, have been written about acting, not only concerning how to perform but also about the nature of the work, its offerings, advantages, and disadvantages.
n Employers Motion pictures, television, and the stage are the largest fields of employment for actors, with television commercials representing as much as 60 percent of all acting jobs. Most of the opportunities for employment in these fields are either in Los Angeles or in New York. On stage, even the road shows often have their beginning in New York, with the selection of actors conducted there along with rehearsals. However, nearly every city and most communities present local and regional theater productions. As cable television networks continue to produce more and more of their own programs and films, they will become a major provider of employment for actors. Home video will also continue to create new acting jobs, as will the music video business. The lowest numbers of actors are employed for stage work. In addition to Broadway shows and regional theater, there are employment opportunities for stage actors in summer stock, at resorts, and on cruise ships.
Actress Reese Witherspoon poses with her Oscar statue at the 2006 Oscars after winning the best actress award for her role in Walk the Line. (Noel Hines/Landov.)
n Starting Out Probably the best way to enter acting is to start with high school, local, or college productions and to gain as much experience as possible on that level. Very rarely is an inexperienced actor given an opportunity to perform on stage or in film in New York or Hollywood. The field is extremely difficult to enter; the more experience and ability beginners have, however, the greater the possibilities for entrance. Those venturing to New York or Hollywood are encouraged first to have enough money to support themselves during the long waiting and searching period normally required before a job is found. Most will list themselves with a casting agency that will help them find a part as an extra or a bit player, either in theater or film. These agencies keep names on file along with photographs and a description of the individual’s features
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and experience, and if a part comes along that may be suitable, they contact that person. Very often, however, names are added to their lists only when the number of people in a particular physical category is low. For instance, the agency may not have enough athletic young women on their roster, and if the applicant happens to fit this description, her name is added.
n Advancement New actors will normally start in bit parts and will have only a few lines to speak, if any. The normal procession of advancement would then lead to larger supporting roles and then, in the case of theater, possibly to a role as understudy for one of the main actors. The understudy usually has an opportunity to fill in should the main actor be unable to give a performance. Many film and television actors get their start in commercials or by appearing in government and commercially sponsored public service announcements, films, and programs. Other actors join the afternoon soap operas and continue on to evening programs. Many actors have also gotten their start in on-camera roles such as presenting the weather segment of a local news program. Once an actor has gained experience, he or she may go on to play stronger supporting roles or even leading roles in stage, television, or film productions. From there, an actor may go on to stardom. Only a very small number of actors ever reach that pinnacle, however. Some actors eventually go into other, related occupations and become drama coaches, drama teachers, producers, stage directors, motion picture directors, television directors, radio directors, stage managers, casting directors, or artist and repertoire managers. Others may combine one or more of these functions while continuing their career as an actor.
n Earnings The wage scale for actors is largely controlled through bargaining agreements reached by various unions in negotiations with producers. These agreements normally control the minimum salaries, hours of work permitted per week, and other conditions of employment. In addition, each artist enters into a separate contract that may provide for higher salaries. In 2006, the minimum daily salary of any member of the Screen Actors Guild (SAG) in a speaking role in a television or film production was $695 for one day or $2,411 for a five-day workweek. Motion picture actors may also receive additional payments known as residuals as part of their guaranteed salary. Many motion picture actors receive residuals whenever films, TV shows, and TV commercials in which they appear are rerun, sold for
TV exhibition, or put on videocassette. Residuals often exceed the actors’ original salary and account for about one-third of all actors’ income. A wide range of earnings can be seen when reviewing the Actors’ Equity Association’s Annual Report 2005, which includes a breakdown of average weekly salaries by contract type and location. According to the report, for example, those in “Off Broadway” productions earned an average weekly salary of $724 during the 2004–05 season. Other average weekly earnings for the same period include: San Francisco Bay area theater, $307; Chicago area theater, $517; and casino theaters in the western United States, $1,351. The report concludes that the median weekly salary for all contract areas is $541. Most actors do not work 52 weeks per year; in fact, the report notes that working members of Equity worked a median of 11.9 weeks a year. According to the U.S. Department of Labor, the median yearly earnings of all actors was $23,500 in 2004. The department also reported the lowest paid 10 percent earned less than $14,000 annually, while the highest paid 10 percent made more than $117,000. The annual earnings of persons in television and movies are affected by frequent periods of unemployment. Unions offer health, welfare, and pension funds for members working over a set number of weeks a year. Some actors are eligible for paid vacation and sick time, depending on the work contract. In all fields, well-known actors have salary rates above the minimums, and the salaries of the few top stars are many times higher. Actors in television series may earn tens of thousands of dollars per week, while a few may earn as much as $1 million or more per week. Salaries for these actors vary considerably and are negotiated individually. In film, top stars may earn as much as $20 million per film, and, after receiving a percentage of the gross earned by the film, these stars can earn far, far more. Until recent years, female film stars tended to earn lower salaries than their male counterparts; the emergence of stars such as Julia Roberts, Jodie Foster, Halle Berry, and others has started to reverse that trend. The average annual earnings for all motion picture actors, however, are usually low for all but the best-known performers because of the periods of unemployment.
n Work Environment Actors work under varying conditions. Those employed in motion pictures may work in air-conditioned studios one week and be on location in a hot desert the next. Those in stage productions perform under all types of conditions. The number of hours employed per day or week vary, as do the number of weeks employed per year. Stage actors normally perform eight shows
per week with any additional performances paid for as overtime. The basic workweek after the show opens is about 36 hours unless major changes in the play are needed. The number of hours worked per week is considerably more before the opening, because of rehearsals. Evening work is a natural part of a stage actor’s life. Rehearsals often are held at night and over holidays and weekends. If the play goes on the road, much traveling will be involved. A number of actors cannot receive unemployment compensation when they are waiting for their next part, primarily because they have not worked enough to meet the minimum eligibility requirements for compensation. Sick leaves and paid vacations are not usually available to the actor. However, union actors who earn the minimum qualifications now receive full medical and health insurance under all the actors’ unions. Those who earn health plan benefits for 10 years become eligible for a pension upon retirement. The acting field is very uncertain. Aspirants never know whether they will be able to get into the profession, and, once in, there are uncertainties as to whether the show will be well received and, if not, whether the actors’ talent can survive a bad show.
n Outlook Employment in acting is expected to grow about as fast as average through 2014, according to the U.S. Department of Labor. There are a number of reasons for this. The growth of satellite and cable television in the past decade has created a demand for more actors, especially as the cable networks produce more and more of their own programs and films. The rise of home video has also created new acting jobs, as more and more films are made strictly for the home video market. Many resorts built in the 1980s and 1990s present their own theatrical productions, providing more job opportunities for actors. Jobs in theater, however, face pressure as the cost of mounting a production rises and as many nonprofit and smaller theaters lose their funding. Despite the growth in opportunities, there are many more actors than there are roles, and this is likely to remain true for years to come. This is true in all areas of the arts, including radio, television, motion pictures, and theater, and even those who are employed are normally employed during only a small portion of the year. Many actors must supplement their income by working at other jobs, such as secretaries, waiters, or taxi drivers, for example. Almost all performers are members of more than one union in order to take advantage of various opportunities as they become available. It should be recognized that of the 139,000 or so actors in the United States today, only a small percent-
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age are working as actors at any one time. Of these, few are able to support themselves on their earnings from acting, and fewer still will ever achieve stardom. Most actors work for many years before becoming known, and most of these do not rise above supporting roles. The vast majority of actors, meanwhile, are still looking for the right break. There are many more applicants in all areas than there are positions. As with most careers in the arts, people enter this career out of a love and desire for acting.
n For More Information The following is a professional union for actors in theater and “live” industrial productions, stage managers, some directors, and choreographers: Actors’ Equity Association 165 West 46th Street New York, NY 10036-2500 Tel: 212-869-8530 Email:
[email protected] http://www.actorsequity.org
This union represents television and radio performers, including actors, announcers, dancers, disc jockeys, newspersons, singers, specialty acts, sportscasters, and stuntpersons. American Federation of Television and Radio Artists 260 Madison Avenue New York, NY 10016-2401 Tel: 212-532-0800 Email:
[email protected] http://www.aftra.com
A directory of theatrical programs may be purchased from NAST. For answers to a number of frequently asked questions concerning education, visit the NAST Web site. National Association of Schools of Theatre (NAST) 11250 Roger Bacon Drive, Suite 21 Reston, VA 20190-5248 Tel: 703-437-0700 Email:
[email protected] http://nast.arts-accredit.org
The following union provides general information on actors, directors, and producers. Visit the SAG Web site for more information. Screen Actors Guild (SAG) 5757 Wilshire Boulevard Los Angeles, CA 90036-3600 Tel: 323-954-1600 http://www.sag.org
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For information about opportunities in not-for-profit theaters, contact Theatre Communications Group 520 Eighth Avenue, 24th Floor New York, NY 10018-6507 Tel: 212-609-5900 Email:
[email protected] http://www.tcg.org
This site has information for beginners on acting and the acting business. Acting Workshop On-Line http://www.redbirdstudio.com/AWOL/acting2.html
Actuaries n Overview Actuaries use statistical formulas and techniques to calculate the probability of events such as death, disability, sickness, unemployment, retirement, and property loss. Actuaries develop formulas to predict how much money an insurance company will pay in claims, which determines the overall cost of insuring a group, business, or individual. Increase in risk raises potential cost to the company, which, in turn, raises its rates. Actuaries analyze risk to estimate the number and amount of claims an insurance company will have to pay. They assess the cost of running the business and incorporate the results into the design and evaluation of programs. Casualty actuaries specialize in property and liability insurance, life actuaries in health and life insurance. In recent years, there has been an increase in the number of actuaries—called pension actuaries—who deal only with pension plans. The total number of actuaries employed in the United States is approximately 18,000.
n History The term actuary was used for the first time in 1762 in the charter for the Equitable Society of London, which was the first life insurance company to use scientific data in figuring premiums. The basis of actuarial work was laid in the early 17th century when Frenchmen Blaise Pascal and Pierre de Fermat derived an important method of calculating actuarial probabilities, resulting in what is now termed the science of probability. The first mortality table was produced in the late 17th century, when Edmund Halley noticed the regularity of various social phenomena, including the excess of male over female births. Halley, an English astronomer for
whom Halley’s comet is named, is known as the father of life insurance. As more complex forms of insurance were developed in the 19th century, the need for actuaries grew. In 1889, a small group of qualified actuaries formed the Actuarial Society of America. Two classes of members, fellows and associates, were created seven years later, and special examinations were developed to determine membership eligibility. Forms of these examinations are still used today. By 1909 the American Institute of Actuaries was created, and in 1949 these two groups consolidated into the present Society of Actuaries. In 1911, the Casualty Actuary Society was formed in response to the development of workers’ compensation laws. The compensation laws opened up many new fields of insurance, and the Casualty Actuarial Society has since moved into all aspects of property and liability insurance. OASDI (Old Age, Survivors, and Disability Insurance), now known as Social Security, was created in 1935 and expanded the work of pension actuaries. The creation of this program greatly impacted the development, philosophy, and structure of private pension programs. The American Society of Pension Actuaries was formed in 1966; its members provide services to over 30 percent of the qualified retirement plans in the United States. The first actuaries were concerned primarily with statistical, mathematical, and financial calculations needed in the rapidly growing field. Today they deal with problems of investment, selection of risk factors for insurance, agents’ compensation, social insurance, taxation, development of policy forms, and many other aspects of insurance. Once considered mathematicians, actuaries are now referred to as “financial architects” and “social mathematicians” because they use their unique combination of numerical, analytical, and business skills to solve a variety of social and financial problems.
n The Job Should smokers pay more for their health insurance? Should younger drivers pay higher car insurance premiums? Actuaries answer questions like these to ensure that insurance and pension organizations can pay their claims and maintain a profitable business. Using their knowledge of mathematics, probability, statistics, and principles of finance and business, actuaries determine premium rates and the various benefits of insurance plans. To accomplish this task, they first assemble and analyze statistics on birth, death, marriage, parenthood, employment, and other pertinent facts and figures. Based on this information, they are able to develop mathematical models of rates of death, accident, sickness,
disability, or retirement and then construct tables regarding the probability of such things as property loss from fire, theft, accident, or natural disaster. After calculating all probabilities and the resulting costs to the company, the actuaries can determine the premium rates to allow insurance companies to cover predicted losses, turn a profit, and remain competitive with other businesses. For example, based on analyses, actuaries are able to determine how many of each 1,000 people 21 years of age are expected to survive to age 65. They can calculate how many of them are expected to die this year or how many are expected to live until age 85. The probability that an insured person may die during the period before reaching 65 is a risk to the company. The actuaries must figure a price for the premium that will cover all claims and expenses as they occur and still earn a profit for the company assuming the risk. In the same way, actuaries calculate premium rates and determine policy provisions for every type of insurance coverage. Employment opportunities span across the variety of different types of insurance companies, including life, health, accident, automobile, fire, or workers’ compensation organizations. Most actuaries specialize either as casualty actuaries, dealing with property and liability insurance, or as life actuaries, working with life and health insurance. In addition, actuaries may concentrate on pension plan programs sponsored and administered by various levels of government, private business, or fraternal or benevolent associations. Actuaries work in many departments in insurance companies, including underwriting, group insurance, investment, pension, sales, and service. In addition to their own company’s business, they analyze characteristics of the insurance business as a whole. They study general economic and social trends as well as legislative, health, and other developments, all of which may affect insurance practices. With this broad knowledge, some actuaries reach executive positions, where they can influence and help determine company policy and develop new lines of business. Actuary executives may communicate with government officials, company executives, policyholders, or the public to explain complex technical matters. They may testify before public agencies regarding proposed legislation that has a bearing on the insurance business, for example, or they may explain proposed changes in premium rates or contract provisions. Actuaries may also work with a consulting firm, providing advice to clients including insurance companies, corporations, hospitals, labor unions, and government agencies. They develop employee benefits, calculating future benefits and employer contributions, and set up pension and welfare plans. Consulting actuaries also advise health care and finan-
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cial services firms, and they may work with small insurance companies lacking an actuarial department. Since the government regulates the insurance industry and administers laws on pensions, it also requires the services of actuaries to determine whether companies are complying with the law. A small number of actuaries are employed by the federal government and deal with Social Security, Medicare, disability and life insurance, and pension plans for veterans, members of the armed forces, and federal employees. Those in state governments may supervise and regulate insurance companies, oversee the operations of state retirement or pension systems, and manage problems related to unemployment insurance and workers’ compensation.
n Requirements High School If you are interested in this field, you should pursue a traditional college preparatory curriculum including mathematical quick facts and computer science classes and School Subjects also take advantage of advanced Business courses such as calculus. IntroMathematics ductory business, economics, accounting, and finance courses Personal Skills Following instructions are important, as is English to Leadership/management develop your oral and written skills. Work Environment
Postsecondary Training A bachelor’s degree with a major in actuarial science, mathematics, or statistics is highly recommended for entry into the industry. Courses in elementary and advanced algebra, differential and integral calculus, descriptive and analytical statistics, principles of mathematical statistics, probability, and numerical analysis are all important. Computer science is also a vital part of actuarial training. Employers are increasingly hiring graduates with majors in economics, business, and engineering who have a strong math background. College students should broaden their education to include business, economics, and finance as well as English and communications. Because actuarial work revolves
Primarily indoors One location with some travel Minimum Education Level
Bachelor’s degree Salary Range
$44,340 to $78,810 to $110,190+ Certification or Licensing
Required Outlook
Faster than the average DOT
020 GOE
02.06.02 NOC
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around social and political issues, course work in the humanities and social sciences will also prove useful.
Certification or Licensing Full professional status in an actuarial specialty is based on completing a series of 10 examinations. Success is based on both formal and on-the-job training. Actuaries can become Associate members of the Society of Actuaries after successfully completing seven of the 10 examinations for the life and health insurance, finance, and pension fields. Similarly, they can reach Associate status in the Casualty Actuarial Society after successfully completing seven out of 10 exams in the property and liability field. Most actuaries achieve Associateship in three to five years. Actuaries who successfully complete the entire series of exams for either organization are granted full membership and become fellows. The American Society of Pension Actuaries also offers several different designations (both actuarial and nonactuarial) to individuals who pass the required examinations in the pension field and have the appropriate work experience. Consulting pension actuaries who service private pension plans must be enrolled and licensed by the Joint Board for the Enrollment of Actuaries (http://www.irs. gov/taxpros/actuaries), a U.S. government agency. Only these actuaries can work with pension plans set up under the Employee Retirement Income Security Act. To be accepted, applicants must meet certain professional and educational requirements stipulated by the Joint Board. Completion of the entire series of exams may take from five to 10 years. Because the first exams offered by these various boards and societies cover core material (such as calculus, linear algebra, probability and statistics, risk theory, and actuarial math), students generally wait to commit to a specialty until they have taken the initial tests. Students pursuing a career as an actuary should complete the first two or three preliminary examinations while still in college, since these tests cover subjects usually taught in school; the more advanced examinations cover aspects of the profession itself. Employers prefer to hire individuals who have already passed the first two exams. Once employed, companies generally give employees time during the workday to study. They may also pay exam fees, provide study materials, and award raises upon an employee’s successful completion of an exam.
analytical and problem-solving skills. Solid oral and written communication skills are also required in order to be able to explain and interpret complex work to the client, as is skill with programming languages such as Visual Basic. Prospective actuaries should also have an inquisitive mind with an interest in historical, social, and political issues and trends. You should have a general feel for the business world and be able to assimilate a wide range of complex information in order to see the “big picture” when planning policies. Actuaries like to solve problems; they are strategists who enjoy and generally excel at games such as chess. Actuaries need to be motivated and self-disciplined to concentrate on detailed work, especially under stress, and to undertake the rigorous study for licensing examinations.
n Exploring If you think you are interested in the actuarial field, try pursuing extracurricular opportunities that allow you to practice strategic thinking and problem-solving skills; these may include chess, math, or investment clubs at your school. Other activities that foster leadership and management, such as student council positions, will also be beneficial. Any kind of business or research-oriented summer or part-time experience will be valuable, especially with an accounting or law firm. There are more than 45 local actuarial clubs and regional affiliates throughout the United States that offer opportunities for informal discussion and networking. Talk with people in the field to better understand the nature of the work, and use the association’s resources to learn more about the field. The Society of Actuaries offers free educational publications. College undergraduates can take advantage of summer internships and employment in insurance companies and consulting firms. Students will have the chance to rotate among jobs to learn various actuarial operations and different phases of insurance work.
n Employers There are approximately 18,000 actuaries employed in the United States, and about six out of 10 work in the insurance industry. Other actuaries work for financial service-providing firms including commercial banks, investment banks, and retirement funds. Others are employed by actuarial consulting services and in academia. Some actuaries are self-employed.
Other Requirements
n Starting Out
An aptitude in mathematics, statistics, and computer science is a must to become a successful actuary, as are sound
The best way to enter this field is by taking the necessary beginning examinations while still in college.
Once students have graduated and passed these exams, they are in a very good position to apply for entry-level jobs in the field and can command higher starting salaries. Some college students organize interviews and find jobs through their college placement office, while others interview with firms recruiting on campus. Many firms offer summer and year-round actuarial training programs or internships that may result in a full-time job. Beginning actuaries may prepare calculations for actuarial tables or work with policy settlements or funds. With experience, they may prepare correspondence, reports, and research. Beginners who have already passed the preliminary exams often start with more responsibility and higher pay.
n Advancement Advancement within the profession to assistant, associate, or chief actuary greatly depends on the individual’s on-the-job performance, competence on the actuarial examinations, and leadership capabilities. Some actuaries qualify for administrative positions in underwriting, accounting, or investment because of their broad business knowledge and specific insurance experience. Because their judgment is so valuable, actuaries may advance to administrative or executive positions, such as head of a department, vice president or president of a company, manager of an insurance rating bureau, partner in a consulting firm, or, possibly, state insurance commissioner. Actuaries with management skills and a strong business background may move into other areas such as marketing, advertising, and planning.
n Earnings Starting salaries for actuaries with bachelor’s degrees in actuarial science averaged $52,741 in 2005, according to a survey conducted by the National Association of Colleges and Employers. New college graduates who have not passed any actuarial examinations earn slightly less. Insurance companies and consulting firms offer merit increases or bonuses to those who pass examinations. The U.S. Department of Labor reports that actuaries earned a median annual salary of $78,810 in 2004. Ten percent earned less than $44,340, while the top 10 percent earned more than $110,190. Actuaries working for insurance companies receive paid vacations, health and life insurance, pension plans, and other fringe benefits.
n Work Environment Actuaries spend much of their 40-hour workweek behind a desk poring over facts and figures, although
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some travel to various units of the organization or to other businesses. This is especially true of the consulting actuary, who will most likely work longer hours and travel more. Consulting actuaries tend to have more diverse work and more personal interaction in working with a variety of clients. Though the work can be stressful and demands intense concentration and attention to detail, actuaries find their jobs to be rewarding and satisfying and feel that they make a direct and positive impact on people’s lives.
n Outlook The U.S. Department of Labor predicts faster than average growth for the actuary field through 2012. Growth of the insurance industry—traditionally the leading employer of actuaries—is expected to continue at a stable pace, with many new fields such as annuities and terrorism-related property-risk analysis, compensating for the shrinking life insurance industry. The field’s stringent entrance requirements and competition for entry-level jobs will also continue to restrict the number of candidates for jobs. The insurance industry continues to evolve, and actuaries will be in demand to establish rates in several new areas of coverage, including prepaid legal, dental, and kidnapping insurance. In many cases, actuarial data that have been supplied by rating bureaus are now being developed in new actuarial departments created in companies affected by states’ new competitive rating laws. Other new areas of insurance coverage that will involve actuaries include product and pollution liability insurance as well as greater workers’ compensation and medical malpractice coverage. Insurers will call on actuaries to help them respond to new state and federal regulations while cutting costs, especially in the areas of pension reform and no-fault automobile insurance. In the future, actuaries will also be employed by non-insurance businesses or will work in business- and investment-related fields. Some are already working in banking and finance. Actuaries will be needed to assess the financial impact of current issues such as AIDS, terrorism, and the changing health care system. As demographics change, people live and work longer, and as medicine advances, actuaries will need to reexamine the probabilities of death, sickness, and retirement. Casualty actuaries will find more work as companies find themselves held responsible for product liability. In the wake of recent environmental disasters, there will also be a growing need to evaluate environmental risk.
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As business goes global, it presents a whole new set of risks and problems as economies develop and new markets emerge. As private enterprise expands in the former Soviet Union, how does a company determine the risk of opening, say, a department store in Moscow? Actuaries are no longer just mathematical experts. With their unique combination of analytical and business skills, their role is expanding as they become broadbased business professionals solving social as well as financial problems.
n For More Information For general information about actuary careers, contact American Academy of Actuaries 1100 17th Street, NW, Seventh Floor Washington, DC 20036-4601 Tel: 202-223-8196 http://www.actuary.org
For information about continuing education and professional designations, contact American Society of Pension Actuaries 4245 North Fairfax Drive, Suite 750 Arlington, VA 22203-1648 Tel: 703-516-9300 Email:
[email protected] http://www.aspa.org
The Be An Actuary section of the CAS Web site offers comprehensive information on the career of actuary. Casualty Actuarial Society (CAS) 4350 North Fairfax Drive, Suite 250 Arlington, VA 22203-1695 Tel: 703-276-3100 http://www.casact.org
For information about continuing education and professional designations, contact Society of Actuaries 475 North Martingale Road, Suite 600 Schaumburg, IL 60173-2252 Tel: 847-706-3500 http://www.soa.org
Acupuncturists n Overview Acupuncturists are health care professionals who practice the ancient East Asian healing art of acupuncture.
Acupuncture is a complete medical system that helps to improve body functioning and promote natural healing. It has been practiced in China for thousands of years to maintain health, prevent disease, treat illness, and alleviate pain. It has been proven to be effective in the treatment of emotional and psychological problems as well as physical ailments. There are more than 15,000 professional acupuncturists in the United States, 1,400 of whom are licensed medical doctors. Acupuncture is one of the fastest growing health care professions. Most acupuncturists work in private practice, although an increasing number work in clinics and hospitals.
n History Acupuncture has been practiced for thousands of years; in fact, the Chinese believe that acupuncture began during the Stone Age, when early people used sharp stone tools to puncture and drain boils. As time passed, primitive needles made of stone or pottery replaced the earlier tools. They, in turn, were replaced by metal needles, which evolved into the very thin needles acupuncturists use today. Early metal needles had nine different shapes, and they were used for a variety of purposes. However, there were no specific points on the body where they were applied. Through centuries of experience and observation, the Chinese learned that the use of the needles on very specific points on the skin was effective in treating particular ailments. They later grouped specific acupuncture points into a system of channels, or meridians. Acupuncturists think that these channels run over and through the body, much like rivers and streams run over and through the earth. They teach that the body has a type of vital energy, called qi or chi (both are pronounced “chee”), and that this energy flows through the body. The acupuncture points along the channels are thought to influence the flow of the vital energy. Acupuncture developed virtually uninterrupted over thousands of years until the Portuguese landed in China in 1504. Once China was opened to the rest of the world, Western medical concepts gradually began to influence the practice of medicine there. Over centuries, the practice of acupuncture declined, and in 1929, it was outlawed in China. Even so, it remained a part of folk medicine. When the Communist Party came to power in 1949, there were almost no medical services. The communists encouraged the use of traditional Chinese remedies, and acupuncture again began to grow. Just as Western medicine filtered into China, the concept of acupuncture gradually traveled back to the West.
It was probably known and used in Europe as early as the 17th century. The first recorded use was in 1810 at the Paris Medical School, where Dr. Louis Berlioz used it to treat abdominal pain. Acupuncture was also used in England in the early 1800s. Ear acupuncture, one of the newer forms of acupuncture, was largely developed outside of China. In the early 1950s, Dr. Paul Nogier of France developed the detailed map of the ear that most acupuncturists now use. After President Nixon visited China in 1972, public awareness and use of acupuncture began to grow in North America. Today acupuncture is increasingly used in Europe, North America, and Russia. Over one-third of the world’s population relies on acupuncture and Oriental medicine practitioners for prevention and treatment of disease, as well as for the enhancement of health. In the West, acupuncture is most well-known for pain relief, but a growing body of research shows that it is effective in health maintenance as well as the treatment of many diseases. In 1979, the World Health Organization, the medical branch of the United Nations, issued a list of more than 40 diseases and other health conditions that acupuncture helped alleviate. During the last decade of the 20th century, major developments in the perception of health care in this country and throughout the world brought acupuncture and Oriental medicine to the forefront of health care. In 1996, the Food and Drug Administration reclassified acupuncture needles from “investigational” to “safe and effective” medical devices. This opened the door for acupuncture to be recognized by and covered under insurance programs. A 1997 report sponsored by the National Institutes of Health concluded that acupuncture should be integrated into standard medical practice and included in Medicare. These milestones have paved the way toward greater acceptance of acupuncture by the medical community and by the American public.
n The Job Acupuncture is the best-known component of a larger system of medicine encompassing a variety of healing modalities, including acupuncture, Chinese herbology, bodywork, dietary therapy, and exercise. A practitioner may practice them all or specialize in only one or two. Acupuncturists treat symptoms and disorders by inserting very thin needles into precise acupuncture points on the skin. They believe that the body’s qi (vital energy, also spelled chi) flows along specific channels in the body. Each channel is related to a particular physiological system and internal organ.
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Disease, pain, and other physical and emotional conditions result when the body’s qi is unbalanced, or when the flow of qi along the channels is blocked or disrupted. Acupuncturists stimulate the acupuncture points to balance the circulation of this vital energy. The purpose of acupuncture and other forms of traditional Oriental medicine is to restore and maintain whole body balance. Acupuncture has been used for centuries to maintain health and relieve a wide range of common ailments, including asthma, high blood pressure, headache, and back pain. A recent use of acupuncture is for treatment of substance abuse withdrawal. Some areas of medicine that use acupuncture include internal medicine, oncology, obstetrics and gynecology, pediatrics, urology, geriatrics, sports medicine, immunology, infectious diseases, and psychiatric disorders. In the United States, acupuncture is perhaps most frequently used for relief of pain. Like many other health care quick facts professionals, acupuncturists School Subjects take an initial health history Biology when they receive a new patient. Psychology They need to know about the patient’s past and present probPersonal Skills Helping/teaching lems. They listen carefully and Technical/scientific sensitively, and they incorporate the patient history into their plan Work Environment of treatment. Primarily indoors Next, acupuncturists give Primarily one location a physical examination. DurMinimum Education Level ing the examination, they try Associate’s degree to determine if a patient’s qi is unbalanced. If it is, they look Salary Range for the location of the imbal$22,000 to $45,000 to ance. They test the quality of the $100,000+ pulses in both of the patient’s Certification or Licensing wrists. They examine the shape Required by certain states and color of the tongue, skin color, body language, and tone Outlook of voice. They also check the feel Faster than the average of diagnostic areas of the body, DOT such as the back and the abdoN/A men. Acupuncturists may test for weaknesses in the muscles or GOE along the meridians. N/A Once acupuncturists identify NOC the source of the qi imbalance, 3232 they choose the type of needle to be used. Traditionally, there O*NET-SOC are nine types of acupuncture N/A needles, ranging in length from
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just over an inch to as long as seven inches. Each type of needle is used to treat certain conditions. Most acupuncturists in the United States and other Western countries use only three types of needles that range from one to three inches in length. After selecting the type of needle, acupuncturists determine where the needles will be inserted on the patient’s body. There are thousands of possible insertion points on the body. Four to 12 needles are typically used in a treatment. Acupuncture needles are flexible. They are about the diameter of a human hair—much thinner than injection-type needles. They are inserted to a depth of up to an inch. Insertion of the needles is generally painless, although sensitive individuals may feel fleeting discomfort. During treatment, acupuncturists may stimulate the needles to increase the effect. Stimulation is done by twirling the needles or by applying heat or a low electrical current to them. The first visit usually lasts an hour or more because the history and physical require extra time. Followup visits are usually shorter—perhaps 15 to 45 minutes, although treatments sometimes last an hour or
Words to Know Acupressure: A technique similar to acupuncture that uses finger pressure and hand strokes instead of needles. Herbal medicine: A system of natural medicine that uses herbs in various combinations to treat symptoms and to promote health: It is often used as a supplement to acupuncture. Oriental medicine: A larger system of medicine that incorporates acupuncture, herbal medicine, and other natural healing modalities. Sometimes called Chinese medicine or traditional Chinese medicine. In deference to the many contributions made to traditional Chinese practices by other East Asian countries, many professionals now prefer the term Oriental medicine. Qi (or chi—both are pronounced “chee”): In Oriental medicine, qi is the vital energy that flows through the body. Western medical thought describes it as bio-electric energy. Oriental medicine is a science of understanding how qi works in the body. In Western terms, it is the science of understanding energetics in the body. T’ai qi (or t’ai chi): Type of exercise based on a series of more than 100 postures, between which are slow, deliberate movements. T’ai qi is practiced both as a martial art and to achieve integration of mind and body. Yoga: A system of exercise for achieving physical and mental control and well-being that originates from India.
longer. Occasionally only one treatment is required. Other times, the patient may have to return for several sessions. If acupuncturists incorporate other modalities of alternative medicine into their practices, they may supplement the acupuncture with the other treatments. They might include herbal therapy, massage, exercise, or nutritional counseling. In addition to treating patients, acupuncturists have a number of other duties. Most are self-employed, so they have to do their own paperwork. They write reports on their patients’ treatments and progress. They bill insurance companies to make sure they get paid. They also have to market their services in order to build their clientele. It is important for them to maintain contacts with other professionals in the medical community, because other professionals may be good sources of referrals. Acupuncturists must also keep up with developments and changes in their profession through continuing education.
n Requirements High School If you are interested in a career in acupuncture, take courses that will give you an understanding of the human body. Courses in biology, physiology, and psychology will help you gain an understanding of the body and insight into the mind. Good communication skills are important in all professions, so take English, speech, drama, and debate classes to improve your communication skills. You are likely to be self-employed if you become an acupuncturist, so math, business, and computer courses will also be helpful. A good, well-rounded education will help prepare you for any career you might choose.
Postsecondary Training More than 50 schools in the United States are accredited by the Accreditation Commission for Acupuncture and Oriental Medicine (ACAOM). All of these programs offer master’s degrees or master’s level courses. To be admitted into a master’s level program, virtually every school requires a minimum of two years of undergraduate study. Others require a bachelor’s degree in a related field, such as science, nursing, or premed. Most acupuncture programs provide a thorough education in Western sciences, acupuncture techniques, and all aspects of traditional Oriental medical systems. See ACAOM’s Web site (http://www.acaom.org) for names, addresses, and descriptions of the programs. Choosing a school for acupuncture can be complex. One important decision is where you might like to live and practice. Eligibility requirements vary from state to state, so it is important to be sure the school you choose
acupuncturists
will prepare you to practice in the state in which you wish to live. In some states, only physicians can be licensed to practice acupuncture. In other states, there are no requirements for practicing acupuncture. Another consideration in making a school choice is the tradition of acupuncture you want to study. There are a number of different types of acupuncture. You will need to find a school that offers the type that interests you. If you need financial assistance, it is important to choose a college that is accredited by ACAOM. These schools are recognized by the U.S. Department of Education and students may be eligible for federal student loans.
Certification or Licensing For acupuncture, certification indicates that an individual meets the standards established by a nationally recognized commission. Licensing is a requirement established by a state’s governmental body that grants individuals the right to practice within that state. Licensing requirements vary widely around the country and are changing rapidly. Certification and licensing are usually achieved by meeting educational requirements and passing an examination. Thirty-seven states and the District of Columbia use National Certification Commission for Acupuncture and Oriental Medicine (NCCAOM) standards as an integral part of their licensing process. To become nationally board certified in acupuncture, NCCAOM requires applicants to have followed one of the following: a formal education route, apprenticeship route, professional acupuncture practice route, or combination of training and experience. All applicants are required to complete a Clean Needle Technique course and to pass the NCCAOM Acupuncture Examination, which consists of a written examination and the Point Location Examination. Many states certify only licensed physicians to practice acupuncture, while some states extend this right to chiropractors. In certain states, an acupuncturist is granted the right to practice only after a ruling from the state’s board of medical examiners. States that currently have no requirements for practicing acupuncture are considering legislation on the subject.
Other Requirements Like other health care practitioners, acupuncturists frequently work with people who are in pain and who have been ill for a long time. Patients often come to acupuncturists after other medical treatments have failed. They may be especially pessimistic about finding relief or cures. Acupuncturists need to be good listeners, patient,
This acupuncturist inserts thin needles into his patient’s face to alleviate pain. (Corbis.)
and compassionate. Acupuncturists also need to have sensitive hands. Claudette Baker, Lic. Ac. (licensed acupuncturist), has her office in Evanston, Illinois. She believes that people who become acupuncturists need to have a special perspective on health care. Baker says, “Those who consider a career in acupuncture should be interested in medicine and in healing, but they should also be aware that this profession requires a change in their perception of medicine. Oriental medicine is a science of understanding energetics in the body, and it is a healing art. Students should only consider acupuncture if they have an aptitude for understanding and learning this approach to medicine.”
n Exploring If a career in acupuncture interests you, there are many ways to learn more about it. You will find many books at the library. Studying Oriental history, thought, and philosophy will help you learn to understand Oriental medicine’s approach to healing. Health food stores sometimes have books on acupuncture, and they are good places to learn about other alternative or complementary health modalities. Ask the staff if they know acupuncturists in your area. Talk with people who have experienced acupuncture. Find out what it was like and how they felt about it. Make an appointment for a health consultation with an acupuncturist. Find out if this approach to medicine works for you, and if you would like to use it to help others. Read about or take courses in yoga or t’ai qi (t’ai chi). These are ancient methods for achieving control of the mind and body, and the principles on which they are based are similar to those of acupuncture.
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How Does Acupuncture Work? Acupuncturists and other Oriental medicine practitioners believe that acupuncture works by balancing the flow of qi, the vital energy of the body. Although Western medicine is not yet able to explain in its own terms just how acupuncture works, there is growing research substantiating that it does work. Some researchers believe that acupuncture works by increasing the release of endorphins—chemicals that the brain naturally produces in response to pain, stress, and physical exertion. There is also evidence that acupuncture may help regulate other chemicals in the body. Some researchers believe that acupuncture needles directly stimulate the nervous system. Still others think acupuncture may work by boosting the body’s immune system. Whichever point of view one uses to explain how it works, patients of acupuncture are determined in their affirmation that it does, in fact, work.
You can also learn more about acupuncture by visiting the Web sites of the national and state professional associations. Some of them offer student memberships and many of them have excellent information online or for purchase. You could also visit a college of acupuncture to sit in on classes and talk to the students. Ask them about their courseload and what they like and dislike about their programs.
n Employers Most acupuncturists operate private practices. Some form or join partnerships with other acupuncturists or with people skilled in other areas of Oriental medicine. Professionals and clinics in other areas of health care, such as chiropractors, osteopaths, and medical doctors, increasingly include acupuncturists among them. As acupuncture is finding more acceptance, there are growing opportunities for acupuncturists in hospitals and university medical schools. A few acupuncturists are engaged in medical research. They conduct studies on the effectiveness of acupuncture in treating various health conditions. There is a growing emphasis on research in acupuncture, and this area is likely to employ greater numbers in the future. A small number of acupuncturists work for government agencies, such as the National Institutes of Health.
n Starting Out To get started as an acupuncturist, one of the most important elements is being sure that you have the proper certifi-
cation and licensing for your geographical area. This bears repeating, since the requirements for the profession, for each state, and for the nation are changing rapidly. The placement office of your school may be able to help you find job opportunities. When starting out, some acupuncturists find jobs in clinics with doctors or chiropractors or in wellness centers. This gives them a chance to start practicing without having to equip an office. Some begin working with a more experienced acupuncturist and then later go into private practice. Acupuncturists frequently work in private practice. When starting a new practice, they often have full-time jobs and begin their practices part time. Networking with professionals in local and national organizations is a good way to learn about job opportunities.
n Advancement Acupuncturists advance in their careers by establishing their own practices and by building large bases of patients. Some start their own clinics. Because acupuncturists receive referrals from physicians and other health care practitioners, relationships with other members of the medical community can be very helpful in building a patient base. Acupuncturists may eventually wish to teach acupuncture at a school of Oriental medicine. After much experience, an acupuncturist may achieve a supervisory or directorship position in a school. The growing acceptance of acupuncture by the American public and the medical community will lead to an increasing need for research. Acupuncturists can build rewarding careers participating in this effort.
n Earnings Acupuncturists can expect starting earnings that range from $22,000 to $32,000. Experienced acupuncturists earn about $45,000 per year. Physicians who practice acupuncture as part of their medical practices have incomes that can be well over $100,000 per year. As with any other form of self-employment, income is directly related to the number of hours an acupuncturist works and the rates they can charge. Rates increase with experience. Like other self-employed individuals, acupuncturists must provide their own insurance, vacation, and retirement benefits.
n Work Environment Acupuncturists usually work indoors in clean, quiet, comfortable offices. Since most are in solo practice, they can choose their surroundings. Private practitioners set their own hours, but many work some evenings and weekends to accommodate their patients’ schedules.
adult and vocational education teachers
They usually work without supervision and must have a lot of self-discipline. For acupuncturists who work in clinics, hospitals, and universities, the surroundings vary. They may work in large hospitals or small colleges. However, wherever they work, acupuncturists need clean, quiet offices. In these larger settings, acupuncturists need to be able to work well in a team environment. They may also need to be able to work well under supervision. Those who are employed in these organizations usually receive salaries and benefits. They may have to follow hours set by the employer.
n Outlook Acupuncture is growing rapidly as a profession due to increasing public awareness and acceptance. There are more than 15,000 licensed acupuncturists in the United States. Some in the field estimate that figure will at least double by 2015. Each year more than 1,000 new acupuncturists become certified. The number of certified and licensed acupuncturists is expected to grow as additional states establish legal guidelines for acupuncturists to follow. The recent advances in research, changes in government policy, and interest from the mainstream medical community are strong indicators that the field will continue to expand. As insurance, HMOs (health maintenance organizations), and other third-party reimbursements increase, acupuncture is expected to grow even more rapidly. The number of people who receive acupuncture treatments is growing annually. One of the areas of greatest growth is in the treatment of addictions. The United States has provided more than $1 million for research programs to investigate acupuncture’s effect on cocaine addiction and alcoholism. Many hospitals and prisons now use acupuncture in their substance abuse programs. Besides the treatment of addictions, other areas of increase in acupuncture include the treatment of chronic pain, bronchial asthma, and premenstrual syndrome. Despite these factors favoring job growth, much education and research still need to be done to integrate this system of natural healing into the conventional American health care system.
n For More Information For information for potential students, general information about acupuncture and Oriental medicine, and thorough information about national organizations, changes in legislation, and state standards, contact Acupuncture and Oriental Medicine Alliance 6405 43rd Avenue, NW, Suite A Gig Harbor, WA 98335-8338 Tel: 253-851-6896 http://www.aomalliance.org
For general information, comprehensive information on the legal status of acupuncture and Oriental medicine in individual states, a list of schools, and a Web site with good links, contact American Association of Oriental Medicine PO Box 162340 Sacramento, CA 95816-2340 Tel: 866-455-7999 http://www.aaom.org
For information on academic guidelines, contact Council of Colleges of Acupuncture and Oriental Medicine 3909 National Drive, Suite 125 Burtonsville, MD 20866-6110 Tel: 301-476-7790 http://www.ccaom.org
For information on certification, contact National Certification Commission for Acupuncture and Oriental Medicine 11 Canal Center Plaza, Suite 300 Alexandria, VA 22314-1595 Tel: 703-548-9004 Email:
[email protected] http://www.nccaom.org
For answers to frequently asked questions about acupuncture, contact Acupuncture.com http://www.acupuncture.com
Adult and Vocational Education Teachers n Overview Adult and vocational education teachers teach basic academic subjects to adults who did not finish high school or who are learning to speak English, help prepare post-high school students and other adults for specific occupations, and provide personal enrichment. Adult education teachers offer basic education courses, such as reading and writing, or continuing education courses, such as literature and music. Vocational education teachers offer courses designed to prepare adults for specific occupations, such as data processor or automobile mechanic. Approximately 98,000 teachers of adult literacy, remedial, and self-enrichment education are employed in the United States.
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adult and vocational education teachers
n History In American colonial times, organized adult education was started to help people make up for schooling missed as children or to help people prepare for jobs. Apprenticeships were an early form of vocational education in the American colonies as individuals were taught a craft by working with a skilled person in a particular field. For example, a young boy might agree to work for a printer for five to 10 years and at the end of that time be able to open up his own printing business. Training programs continued to develop as carpenters, bricklayers, and other craftspeople learned their skills through vocational training courses. Peak periods in adult education typically occurred during times of large-scale immigration. Evening schools were filled with foreign-born persons eager to learn the language and culture of their new home and to prepare for the tests necessary for citizenship. In 1911, Wisconsin established quick facts the first State Board of VocaSchool Subjects tional and Adult Education in the English country, and in 1917 the federal Psychology government supported the conSpeech tinuing education movement by Personal Skills funding vocational training in Communication/ideas public schools for individuals over Helping/teaching the age of 14. Immediately after World War II, the federal governWork Environment Primarily indoors ment took another large stride Primarily one location in financial support of adult and vocational education by creating Minimum Education Level the G.I. Bill of Rights, which proBachelor’s degree vided money for veterans to purSalary Range sue further job training. $21,985 to $38,980 to Today’s colleges and univer$72,675 sities, vocational high schools, private trade schools, private busiCertification or Licensing nesses, and other organizations Required by certain states offer adults the opportunity to Outlook prepare for a specific occupation About as fast as the average or pursue personal enrichment. More than 20 million people in DOT the United States take advantage N/A of this opportunity each year, creating many jobs for teachers in GOE 12.03.02 this field. NOC
4131 O*NET-SOC
25-3011.00, 25-3021.00
n The Job Adult and vocational education courses take place in a variety of settings, such as high schools, universities, religious institutions,
and businesses. The responsibilities of an adult or vocational education teacher are similar to those of a school teacher and include planning and conducting lectures, supervising the use of equipment, grading homework, evaluating students, writing and preparing reports, and counseling students. Adult education is divided into two main areas: basic education and continuing education. Basic education includes reading, writing, and mathematics courses and is designed for adult students who have not finished high school. Many of these students are taking basic education courses to earn the equivalent of a high school diploma (the general equivalency diploma, or GED). Some high school graduates who received poor grades in high school also enroll in basic education classes before attending a four-year college. Recent immigrants may take basic education classes to learn to read, write, and do arithmetic in the language of their new country. Unlike basic education, continuing education for adults is aimed at students who have finished high school or college and are taking courses for personal enrichment. Class topics might include creative writing, art appreciation, photography, history, and a host of other subjects. Often businesses will enroll employees in continuing education courses as part of job training to help them develop computer skills, learn to write grant proposals, or become convincing public speakers. Sometimes, businesses will hire an adult education teacher to come into the business to train employees on-site. These continuing education teachers are called training representatives. Vocational education teachers prepare students for specific careers that do not require college degrees, such as cosmetologist, chef, or welder. They demonstrate techniques and then advise the students as they attempt these techniques. They also lecture on the class subject and direct discussion groups. Instruction by a vocational education teacher may lead to the student’s certification, so teachers may follow a specific course plan approved by an accrediting association. They may also be involved in directing a student to an internship or local job opportunities. Whether teaching in a basic education or continuing education classroom, adult and vocational education teachers work with small groups of students. In addition to giving lectures, they assign textbooks and homework assignments. They prepare and administer exams, and grade essays and presentations. Adult and vocational education teachers also meet with students individually to discuss class progress and grades. Some courses are conducted as part of a long-distance education program (traditionally known as correspondence courses). For a distance education course, teachers prepare course materi-
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als, assignments, and work schedules to be sent to students, and then grade the work when students submit it.
n Requirements High School As an adult education teacher, you will likely focus on a particular area of study, so take the high school courses that best suit your interests. You’ll also need to follow a college preparatory plan, taking courses in English, math, foreign language, history, and government. Speech and communications courses will help you prepare for speaking in front of groups of people. Writing skills are very important, no matter what subject you teach, because you’ll be preparing reports, lesson plans, and grading essays.
Postsecondary Training Before becoming an adult education teacher, you’ll need to gain some professional experience in your area of teaching. A bachelor’s degree is also usually required. Requirements vary according to the subject and level being taught, the organization or institution offering the course, and the state in which the instruction takes place. Specific skills, however, are often enough to secure a continuing education teaching position. For example, a person well trained in painting, with some professional success in the area, may be able to teach a course on painting even without a college degree or teaching certificate.
Certification or Licensing There is no national certifying board for adult education teachers, but some states require their own teaching certification. Most community and junior colleges, however, require only a bachelor’s degree of their teachers. Teachers in vocational education programs may have to be certified in their profession. If teaching English as a second language (ESL), you’ll probably have to take some required workshops and seminars. For information on certification, contact local adult education programs and the department of education in the state in which you are interested in teaching.
Other Requirements As a teacher, you should be able to deal with students at different skill levels, including some who might not have learned proper study habits or who have a different first language. This requires patience, as well as the ability to track the progress of each individual student. Good communication skills are essential, as you’ll need to explain things clearly and to answer questions completely.
n Exploring
During an adult education science class, a teacher demonstrates to students how to interpret the results of an experiment. (Scott Bauer/U.S. Dept. of Agriculture.)
Adult education classes are often held at high schools; if this is the case at your school, take the opportunity to discuss career questions with teachers before or after a class. You may also get the opportunity to observe one of these classes. Some of your high school teachers may be teaching adult or vocational education courses in the evenings; talk to them about the difference between teaching high school and teaching in an adult education program. Registering for a continuing education or vocational education course is another way of discovering the skills and disciplines needed to succeed in this field; if you have an interest in a particular subject not taught at your school, seek out classes at community colleges. Your school may have a peer tutoring program that would introduce you to the requirements of teaching. You could also volunteer to assist in special educational activities at a nursing home, church, synagogue, mosque, or community center.
n Employers There are approximately 98,000 adult literacy, remedial, and self-enrichment teachers employed in the United States. About one in five of these teachers is self-employed. Adult education teachers can find work in a variety of different schools and education programs. Community and junior colleges regularly have openings for teachers. Specially trained teachers can work for state-funded programs, such as literacy and ESL programs. Teachers are also hired for long-distance education programs and to lead continuing education courses for corporations and professional associations. Teachers are often needed in such institutions as prisons, hospitals, retirement communities, and group homes for disabled adults.
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Learn More about It The Educator’s Reference Desk http://www.eduref.org/index.shtml This valuable Web site, sponsored by the Information Institute of Syracuse, offers a wealth of resources for educators, including lesson plans, lists of popular questions and answers about the field, and thousands of links to educational resources. ERIC http://www.eric.ed.gov The Education Resources Information Center (ERIC), sponsored by the Institute of Education Sciences and the U.S. Department of Education, is a free database of articles (both citations and full text), audio and visual materials, and other resources dealing with the field of education. Access is free and content, which dates back to 1966, is updated frequently.
n Starting Out Most people entering this field have some professional experience in a particular area, a desire to share that knowledge with other adults, and a teaching certificate or academic degree. When pursuing work as an adult education teacher, you should contact colleges, private trade schools, vocational high schools, or other appropriate institutions to receive additional information about employment opportunities. Many colleges, technical schools, and state departments of education offer job lines or bulletin boards of job listings. You can also often find job openings in the classifieds of local newspapers.
n Advancement A skilled adult or vocational education teacher may become a full-time teacher, school administrator, or director of a vocational guidance program. To be an administrator, a master’s degree or a doctorate may be required. Advancement also may take the form of higher pay and additional teaching assignments. For example, a person may get a reputation as a skilled ceramics teacher and be hired by other adult education organizations as an instructor.
n Earnings Earnings vary widely according to the subject, the number of courses taught, the teacher’s experience, and the geographic region where the institution is located. According to the U.S. Department of Labor, adult literacy and remedial education teachers earned a median annual
wage of $18.74 in 2004. Based on a 40-hour workweek, this is about $38,980 a year. The lowest paid 10 percent of these workers made less than $10.57 an hour ($21,985 a year), while the highest paid 10 percent earned more than $34.94 an hour ($72,675 a year). Because many adult and vocational education teachers are employed part time, they are often paid by the hour or by the course, with no health insurance or other benefits.
n Work Environment Working conditions vary according to the type of class being taught and the number of students participating. Courses are usually taught in a classroom setting but may also be in a technical shop, laboratory, art studio, music room, or other location depending on the subject matter. Of course, when teaching in such settings as prisons or hospitals, adult education teachers must travel to the students as opposed to the students traveling to the teacher’s classroom. Average class size is usually between 10 and 30 students, but may vary, ranging from one-onone instruction to large lectures attended by 60 or more students. Some adult and vocational education teachers may only work nine or 10 months a year, with summers off. About half of the adult and vocational education teachers work part time, averaging anywhere from two to 20 hours of work per week. For those employed full time, the average workweek is between 35 and 40 hours. Much of the work is in the evening or on weekends, as many adult students work on weekdays.
n Outlook Employment opportunities in the field of adult education are expected to grow faster than the average through 2014, according to the U.S. Department of Labor. Adults recognize the importance of further education and training for succeeding in today’s workplace. In fact, many courses are subsidized by companies that want their employees trained in the latest skills and technology of their field. Many new teachers will also be needed, as current ones leave the occupation or retire. As demand for adult and vocational education teachers continues to grow, major employers will be vocational high schools, private trade schools, community colleges, and private adult education enterprises. Immigration also fuels a demand for adult-education and ESL teachers, especially in places such as New York, California, and Florida with high foreign-born populations. Many “school-to-work” programs have evolved across the country as a result of the School-to-Work Opportunities Act of 1994. To prepare more graduating seniors
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for the high-wage jobs, “tech prep” programs offer course work in both academic and vocational subject matter. As more of these programs are developed, vocational education teachers will find many more opportunities to work in high schools and training schools. Finally, the recent economic downturn has led many workers to seek to upgrade their work skills in a more competitive environment.
n For More Information For information about conferences and publications, contact American Association for Adult and Continuing Education 4380 Forbes Boulevard Lanham, MD 20706 Tel: 301-918-1913 Email:
[email protected] http://www.aaace.org
For information about publications, current legislation, and school-to-work programs, contact Association for Career and Technical Education 1410 King Street Alexandria, VA 22314 Tel: 800-826-9972 Email:
[email protected] http://www.acteonline.org
For information about government programs, contact U.S. Department of Education 400 Maryland Avenue, SW Washington, DC 20202-0498 Tel: 800-872-5327 http://www.ed.gov
Adult Day Care Coordinators n Overview Adult day care coordinators, also called adult day services coordinators, direct day service programs for adults who have physical or mental impairments or both. Clients of these programs are usually the elderly, although younger people with impairments, such as those recovering from strokes, may also participate in these programs. Coordinators oversee staff members who provide care, meals, and social activities to day care clients, and they serve as liaisons between their centers and their clients’ families.
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n History Adult day care had its beginnings in the 1940s in psychiatric hospitals. It started as an effort to help patients who had been released from mental institutions. Over the next 20 years the focus gradually shifted from psychiatric care to other kinds of health maintenance. The landmark publication, Developing Day Care for Older People, published by the National Council on the Aging (NCOA) in 1972, provided technical assistance for establishing adult day care, and by 1978 there were nearly 300 adult day care centers throughout the United States. In the 1980s, the first Congressional hearing was held on adult day care programs and the Economic Recovery Act was passed, allowing a tax credit to families with elderly members in day care. NCOA established voluntary standards. According to the National Adult Day Services Association, more than 3,500 adult day centers are currently operating quick facts in the United States. ApproxiSchool Subjects mately 78 percent operate on a Family and consumer science nonprofit or public basis, and Psychology many are affiliated with larger Sociology organizations such as home care, skilled nursing facilities, medical Personal Skills Helping/teaching centers, or multipurpose senior Leadership/management organizations.
n The Job Adult day care coordinators direct adult day care centers. Although specific duties vary depending on the size of the center and the services it offers, the general responsibility of coordinators is to ensure that their centers provide the necessary care for clients. Such care may include attention to personal hygiene and providing meals, medications, therapies, and social activities. Although coordinators working in small day care centers may actually perform some services for clients, this is not the norm. Instead, coordinators usually oversee various staff members who provide the caregiving. A large center, for example, might have a nurse, physical therapist, social worker, cook, and several aides. Coordinators are responsible for
Work Environment
Primarily indoors Primarily one location Minimum Education Level
Associate’s degree Salary Range
$18,000 to $31,000 to $45,000 Certification or Licensing
Required for certain positions Outlook
Much faster than the average DOT
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Facts about Adult Day Care A nationwide survey of adult day care centers conducted by the National Adult Day Services Association found the following: ■ The average age of the adult day care consumer is 72. ■ Two-thirds ■ Average
of all consumers are women.
cost of care per day is $56 across the country.
■ One-quarter
of the participants live alone; threequarters live with a spouse, adult children, or other family and friends.
■ One-half
of participants have some cognitive impairment, and one-third require nursing services at least weekly.
■ Fifty-nine
percent of the participants require assistance with two or more activities of daily living; eating, bathing, dressing, toileting, or transferring; 41 percent require assistance in three or more areas.
Source: National Adult Day Services Association
staff hiring, training, and scheduling. They may meet with staff members either one-on-one or in group sessions to review and discuss plans for the clients. Overseeing meal planning and preparation is also the responsibility of the adult day services coordinator. In most centers, clients are given a midday meal and usually juices and snacks in the morning and afternoon. Coordinators work with a cook or dietitian to develop wellrounded menus that take into account the nutritional needs of the clients, including any particular restrictions such as diabetic or low-sodium diets. The coordinator may also oversee purchasing and taking inventory of the center’s food supply. The coordinator schedules daily and weekly activities for the day care clients. Depending on the particular needs and abilities of the clients, a recreational schedule might include crafts, games, exercises, reading time, or movies. In some centers, clients are taken on outings to shopping centers, parks, or restaurants. The coordinator plans such outings, arranging for transportation and any reservations or special accommodations that may be necessary. Finally, the coordinator also organizes parties for special events, such as holidays and birthdays. Finding new activities and visitors for the center is also part of the job. Coordinators might recruit volunteers to teach crafts or music to the clients. Often, church or civic groups come to such facilities to visit with cli-
ents. Some such groups institute buddy programs, in which each group member pairs with a day care client to develop an ongoing relationship. The day care coordinator must authorize and monitor any group visits, activities, or programs. In addition to planning and overseeing the activities of the center and its clients, the adult day care coordinator also works closely with client family members to make sure that each individual is receiving care that best fits his or her needs. This relationship with the client’s family usually begins before the client is placed in the day care center. When a family is considering placing an elderly relative in day care, they often have many questions about the center and its activities. The coordinator meets with family members to show them the center and explain to them how it is run. The coordinator also gathers information about the potential client, including names and phone numbers of doctors and people to contact in case of emergency, lists of medications taken with instructions on when and how they should be administered, and information on allergies, food choices, and daily habits and routines. After the client is placed in the center, the coordinator may meet periodically with the client’s family to update them on how the client is responding to the day care setting. If necessary, the coordinator may advise the family about social services, such as home health care, and refer them to other providers. Adult day care coordinators may have other duties, depending on the center and how it is owned and operated. For example, they may be responsible for developing and adhering to a budget for the center. In centers licensed or certified by the state, coordinators may ensure that their centers remain in compliance with the regulations and have necessary documentation. They may also be responsible for general bookkeeping, bill payment, and office management. In addition to supervising centers, coordinators may also promote and advertise to the community. They may help with fund-raising, prepare press releases, and speak to various service clubs.
n Requirements High School Because this is a relatively new and growing field, there are no national standards to follow for becoming an adult day care coordinator. Some people have learned their skills on the job; others have taken courses in home nursing or health care; still others have completed bachelor’s degrees in areas such as health and human services. As
the need for and popularity of day care services continue to grow, more employers will begin to expect coordinators to have at least some formal education. While you are in high school, therefore, you should take classes that prepare you for postsecondary training. These include mathematics, business, family and consumer science classes as well as science classes, such as biology. To improve your understanding of people, take history, psychology, and sociology classes. Because communication is an important skill, English and speech classes are also good choices.
Postsecondary Training Many employers prefer to hire candidates who meet the standards set by the National Adult Day Services Association (NADSA). In order to meet these standards, a coordinator must have a bachelor’s degree in health or social services or a related field, with one year’s supervisory experience in a social or health services setting. In preparation for such a career, a college student might choose occupational, recreational, or rehabilitation therapy, or social work or human development. An increasingly popular major for potential adult day care coordinators is gerontology, or geriatrics. The Association for Gerontology in Higher Education publishes the Directory of Educational Programs in Gerontology and Geriatrics, which contains information on more than 750 programs available from the associate’s to the post-doctorate level. Although specific courses vary from school to school, most programs consist of classes in social gerontology, biology and physiology of aging, psychology of aging, and sociology of aging. In addition to these four core classes, most programs offer elective courses in such areas as social policy, community services, nutrition and exercise, diversity in aging, health issues, death and dying, and ethics and life extension. A practicum or field placement is also a part of most gerontology programs. This allows students to obtain experience working with both well-functioning elderly people and those with age-related disabilities.
Certification or Licensing According to NADSA, there are currently no national standards regarding the qualifications for adult day services workers. NADSA does offer voluntary certification to program assistants. The National Certification Council for Activity Professionals also offers certification to qualified adult day care coordinators. Those who meet the professional standards earn the designation certified activity professional (CAP). See the end of the article for contact information.
adult day care coordinators
Regulations can vary by state. In some states, for example, the agency that a coordinator works for must be licensed or certified by the state department of health. Any adult day care center that receives payment from Medicare or from other government agencies must be certified by the state department of health. In these cases, licensing requirements may include requirements for coordinators and other staff members. The trend is toward stricter standards.
Other Requirements Regardless of what level of education a prospective coordinator has, there are certain personal characteristics that are necessary for success in this field. Compassion and an affinity for the elderly and disabled are vital, as are patience and the desire to help others. You should also be organized and able to manage other workers effectively. Communication skills are very important since you will be working with staff, clients, regulatory agencies, and clients’ families.
n Exploring There are several ways you can learn more about the career of adult day care coordinator. The first and easiest way is to check your local library for books or articles on aging in order to learn more about the elderly, their issues, and the services available to them. Next, visit a nursing home or adult day care center in order to experience firsthand what it is like to spend time with and interact with elderly people. Arrange a meeting with staff members and the center’s coordinator to find out what their day-to-day jobs are like. Your high school guidance counselor may also be able to arrange for a coordinator to give a career talk at your school. Finally, get a volunteer position or part-time job in such a facility. This would allow you to gauge your aptitude for a career in adult day care work.
n Employers Adult day care coordinators work at adult day care centers. These may be small or large. It is estimated that there are more than 3,500 adult day care centers currently operating in the United States. Most of them are operated on a nonprofit or public basis, and many are affiliated with large organizations such as nursing homes, hospitals, or multipurpose senior organizations. Standards and work environments vary.
n Starting Out In looking for a position as an adult day care coordinator, candidates should first locate and contact all
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such programs in the area. Checking the local Yellow Pages under Nursing Homes, Residential Care Facilities, Aging Services, or Senior Citizens Services should provide a list of leads. The job seeker might either send a resume and cover letter or call these potential employers directly. Prospective coordinators should also watch for job openings listed in area newspapers and on organizations’ Web sites. Another means of finding job leads is to become affiliated with a professional association, such as the American Geriatrics Society, the American Association of Homes and Services for the Aging, the Gerontological Society of America, or the National Council on the Aging. Many of these organizations have monthly or quarterly newsletters that list job opportunities. Some may even have job banks or referral services. Job seekers who have received associate’s or bachelor’s degrees should also check with the career placement offices at their colleges or universities.
n Advancement Because the field of aging-related services continues to grow, the potential for advancement for adult day care coordinators is good. Some coordinators advance by transferring to a larger center that pays better wages. Others eventually start their own centers. Still others advance by moving into management positions in other, similar social service organizations, such as nursing homes, hospices, or government agencies on aging. An adult day care coordinator might choose to return to school and complete a higher degree, often a master’s degree in social work. For those who choose this option, there are many career opportunities in the field of social services. Social workers, for example, work with individuals and families dealing with AIDS, cancer, or other debilitating illnesses. They also work for agencies offering various types of counseling, rehabilitation, or crisis intervention.
n Earnings Starting salaries for this position depend partly on the experience and education of the coordinator and partly upon the size and location of the day care center. Larger centers located in metropolitan areas tend to offer the highest wages. According to the Association for Gerontology in Higher Education, beginning annual salaries range from $18,000 to $31,000 for persons with a bachelor’s degree and little experience. Generally, coordinators who do not have a bachelor’s degree can expect to earn somewhat less. Experienced coordinators with a bachelor’s degree
employed in large, well-funded centers may earn from $20,000 to $45,000 annually. In addition to salary, some coordinators are also offered a benefits package, which typically includes health insurance, paid vacation and sick days, and a retirement plan.
n Work Environment Most adult day care centers have a schedule that corresponds to standard business hours. Most coordinators work a 40-hour week, Monday through Friday, with weekends off. The coordinator’s work environment will vary depending on the size and type of center he or she supervises. Some centers are fairly institutional, resembling children’s day care centers or nursing homes. Others have a more residential feel, being carpeted and furnished like a private home. Regardless of the furnishings, the center is typically clean, well lit, and equipped with ramps, rails, and other devices that ensure the safety of clients. Part of the coordinator’s day may be spent in the center’s common areas with clients and staff. He or she may also spend time working in an on-site office. If the staff members take clients on outings, the coordinator may accompany them. Coordinators are on their feet much of the time, ensuring that meals and activities run smoothly and helping staff members when necessary. Attire for the job varies from center to center, ranging from very casual to standard office wear. Most coordinators, however, wear clothing that is comfortable and allows them freedom of movement. Regardless of the size of the center, coordinators spend the majority of their time working with people, both staff members and day care clients. Working with clients is often very trying. Many of them may have had a stroke or have Alzheimer’s disease, and they may be confused, uncooperative, or even hostile. The job may also be emotionally taxing for the coordinator who becomes attached to his or her clients. Most adults who use a day care center are elderly or permanently disabled; for this reason, day care staff must frequently deal with the decline and eventual death of their clients.
n Outlook The career outlook for adult day care coordinators, as for all social assistance workers, is expected to be excellent through 2014. According to the U.S. Department of Labor, the number of human services workers is projected to grow tremendously, with elder care being one of the fastest growing human services areas. The main reason for this is that the senior citizen population is growing rapidly. According to the U.S. Cen-
advanced practice nurses
sus Bureau, approximately 35 million Americans were age 65 or older in 2001; the bureau projects this number to increase steadily, reaching approximately 82 million by 2050 as the baby boomer generation ages. This rapid growth has led to the development and increased popularity of aging-related services during the last several years. The increase in adult day care centers is one example of this trend. According to NADSA, there were only approximately 300 adult day care centers in existence by the late 1970s; today, there are more than 3,500. This growth should continue as Americans become increasingly aware of the diverse needs of the elderly and the various service options available to them. Adult day care is expected to be used more frequently as a cost-efficient and preferable alternative to nursing homes.
n For More Information For information on aging and services for the elderly, contact American Association of Homes and Services for the Aging 2519 Connecticut Avenue, NW Washington, DC 20008-1520 Tel: 202-783-2242 http://www.aahsa.org
AGHE, a section of the Gerontological Society of America, promotes education in the field of aging and offers a directory of gerontology and geriatrics programs. Visit the Web site http://www.careersinaging.com to read AGHE’s Careers in Aging: Consider the Opportunities. Association for Gerontology in Higher Education (AGHE) 1030 15th Street, NW, Suite 240 Washington, DC 20005-1503 Tel: 202-289-9806 Email:
[email protected] http://www.aghe.org
For career information and student resources, contact Gerontological Society of America 1030 15th Street, NW, Suite 250 Washington, DC 20005 Tel: 202-842-1275 Email:
[email protected] http://www.geron.org
For information on the history of adult day service and day service facts, contact National Adult Day Services Association 2519 Connecticut Avenue, NW Washington, DC 20008
Tel: 800-558-5301 Email:
[email protected] http://www.nadsa.org
This organization can provide information on services, including adult day care, available across the country. National Association of Area Agencies on Aging 927 15th Street, NW, 6th Floor Washington, DC 20005 Tel: 202-296-8130 http://www.n4a.org
For information on certification, contact National Certification Council for Activity Professionals PO Box 62589 Virginia Beach, VA 23466 Tel: 757-552-0653 Email:
[email protected] http://www.nccap.org
To learn about developments and current issues in the aging field, visit the following Web site: National Council on the Aging 300 D Street, SW, Suite 801 Washington, DC 20024 Tel: 202-479-1200 Email:
[email protected] http://www.ncoa.org
Advanced Practice Nurses n Overview Advanced practice nurses (APNs) are a broad category of registered nurses (RNs) who have completed advanced clinical nurses’ educational practice requirements beyond the two to four years of basic nursing education required for all RNs. Under the advanced practice nursing designation fall four categories of nursing specialties: clinical nurse specialists (CNSs), nurse practitioners (NPs), nursemidwives (NMs), and nurse anesthetists (NAs). (See the separate articles on each of these specialties.) According to the Health Resources and Service Administration, as of 2004 there were an estimated 240,461 advanced practice nurses employed in the United States (an increase of more than 7 percent since 2000).
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n The Job
Postsecondary Training
Working in clinics, nursing homes, hospitals, and other health care settings, APNs are qualified to handle a wide range of basic health problems, usually in association with a physician, but in some cases working independently. Specific duties of APNs are determined by their specialty, and to a certain extent their precise duties are prescribed by the state in which they practice. APNs are required to be certified in most states and can prescribe medications in 46 states. Working within prescribed guidelines and instructions of the physician, the APN orders, interprets, and evaluates diagnostic tests to identify the patient’s clinical problems and health care needs. Then based on their findings, he or she records patient data and develops a treatment plan aimed at restoring the patient to health. After discussing this plan with the physician and other health profesquick facts sionals, the APN submits the plan School Subjects and goals for individual patients Biology for periodic review and evaluaChemistry tion. When warranted, APNs may Mathematics prescribe (in most states) drugs Personal Skills or other forms of treatment such Helping/teaching as physical therapy, inhalation Technical/scientific therapy, and related treatments. If warranted they may refer Work Environment patients to the supervising phyPrimarily indoors Primarily multiple locations sician for consultation and their special expertise in various areas Minimum Education Level of medical practice. Master’s degree
Salary Range
$52,330 to $74,760 to $127,213 Certification or Licensing
Required by all states Outlook
Much faster than the average DOT
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29-1111.00
n Requirements High School If you want to become an APN, you will first need to complete the high school and undergraduate education necessary to become a registered nurse. This is done through the completion of a bachelor’s or associate’s degree program in nursing, or by obtaining a diploma from a nursing school. The nursing-school diploma is becoming less popular, as more nurses enter the field through associate’s, bachelor’s, or even master’s degree programs. For more information see the article “Registered Nurses.”
A master’s degree is usually necessary to prepare for a nursing specialty or to teach. For some specialties, such as nursing research, a Ph.D. is essential. After becoming a registered nurse, educational requirements for APNs vary depending on the category of APN under consideration.
Certification or Licensing Each of the four APN classifications has its own certification process. See the separate articles on nurse practitioners, nurse-midwives, nurse anesthetists, and clinical nurse specialists for more information.
n Exploring You can explore your interest in the nursing field in a number of ways. You can take a first-aid class to help you learn the basics of treating sick or injured people. You can read books on careers in nursing, talk with your health teachers or school nurse about the career, or visit nursing association websites to learn more information. You might also consider visiting or volunteering at a hospital or clinic to observe the work of nurses and to talk with hospital personnel. Camp counseling jobs sometimes offer related experiences. Some schools offer participation in Future Nurses programs.
n Employers Advanced practice nurses are employed by hospitals, managed-care facilities, long-term-care facilities, clinics, mental health facilities, nursing homes, home health care agencies, veterans affairs facilities, industrial organizations, nursing schools and other educational institutions, physicians’ offices, and the military.
n Starting Out The only way to become a registered nurse is through completion of one of the three kinds of educational programs plus passing the licensing examination. Registered nurses may apply for employment directly to hospitals, nursing homes, companies, and government agencies that hire nurses. Jobs can also be obtained through school placement offices, by signing up with employment agencies specializing in placement of nursing personnel, or through the state employment office. Other sources of jobs include nurses’ associations, professional journals, newspaper want ads, and the Internet.
n Advancement Administrative and supervisory positions in the nursing field go to nurses who have earned at least the bachelor of science degree in nursing. Since advanced practice
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nurses must have master’s degrees to enter the field, they often have a good chance to advance to supervisory or managerial positions.
Career Perspectives for NurseMidwives
n Earnings
The 1980s and 1990s were boon years for nurse-midwives, boosted by immigration from Latin America (where the profession is common) and by women seeking alternatives to the institutional hospital births of the previous generation, where much of the control was in the hands of doctors, not the mother-to-be. According to the National Center for Health Statistics, certified nurse-midwives delivered only 1 percent of births in the United States in 1976; eleven years later, in 1987, they delivered more than three times as many. By 1994, one out of every 20 births was attended by a nurse-midwife. In the past few years, though, the number of such deliveries has slowed; the 2002 figure, 7.6 percent of all births, was the same as that in 2001. One of the reasons for this has been a change in insurance provisions, and insurance companies’ influence on health-care practice. Many HMOs and malpractice insurers stipulate that births must take place in a hospital, instead of at home or at a birthing center. Such companies also increase the operating costs, raising premiums until many nurse-midwives can no longer afford to pay them.
Registered nurses had median annual earnings of $52,330 in 2004, according to the U.S. Department of Labor, with earnings ranging from less than $37,300 to more than $74,760. Given their advanced training and education, advanced practice nurses tend to earn more than most RNs. For example, nurse practitioners had average annual earnings of $74,268 in 2006, according to Salary.com, and certified nurse anesthetists (who are at the top of the salary range in nursing) made an average of $127,213. Certified registered nurse anesthetists (CRNAs) are at the top of the range, followed by CNSs. Nurses employed in private clinics of government facilities as well as those employed in hospitals and shortterm care facilities enjoy attractive benefits such as paid vacations, holidays, and sick days. They often are able to participate in pension and investment programs as well as receive health care coverage.
n Work Environment Most hospital environments are clean and well lit. Innercity hospitals may be in less than desirable locations, and safety may be an issue. Usually, nurses work eight-hour shifts. Those in hospitals generally work any of three shifts: 7:00 a.m. to 3:00 p.m.; 3:00 p.m. to 11:00 p.m.; or 11:00 p.m. to 7:00 a.m. Nurses spend much of the day on their feet, either walking or standing. Handling patients who are ill or infirm can also be very exhausting. Nurses who come in contact with patients with infectious diseases must be especially careful about cleanliness and sterility. Although many nursing duties are routine, many responsibilities are unpredictable. Sick persons are often very demanding, or they may be depressed or irritable. Despite this, the nurse must retain her or his composure and should be cheerful to help the patient achieve emotional balance. All nursing careers have some health and disease risks; however, adherence to health and safety guidelines greatly minimizes the chance of contracting infectious diseases such as hepatitis and AIDS. Medical knowledge and good safety measures are also needed to limit the nurse’s exposure to toxic chemicals, radiation, and other hazards.
several years. APNs with the proper credentials and certification should have no trouble finding posts in a wide variety of health care facilities.
n For More Information For information on accredited training programs applying to various categories of advanced practice nurses, including curriculums, entrance requirements, financial assistance available, and so forth, contact the following organizations: American Academy of Nurse Practitioners PO Box 12846 Capitol Station, LBJ Building Austin, TX 78711 Tel: 512-442-4262 Email:
[email protected] http://www.aanp.org
American College of Nurse-Midwives 8403 Colesville Road, Suite 1550 Silver Spring, MD 20910 Tel: 240-485-1800 http://www.midwife.org
n Outlook
National Association of Clinical Nurse Specialists
The U.S. Department of Labor predicts shortages of advanced practice nurses will continue over the next
2090 Linglestown Road, Suite 107 Harrisburg, PA 17110
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Tel: 717-234-6799 http://www.nacns.org
American Association of Nurse Anesthetists 222 South Prospect Avenue Park Ridge, IL 60068 Tel: 847-692-7050 http://www.aana.com
For information about state-approved programs and information on nursing, contact National League for Nursing 61 Broadway New York, NY 10006 Tel: 800-669-1656 Email:
[email protected] http://www.nln.org
Discover Nursing, sponsored by Johnson & Johnson Health Care Systems, provides information on nursing careers, nursing schools, and scholarships. Discover Nursing http://www.discovernursing.com
Advertising Account Executives n Overview The advertising account executive coordinates and oversees everything related to a client’s advertising account and acts as the primary liaison between the agency and the client. Account executives are also responsible for building and maintaining professional relationships among clients and coworkers to ensure the successful completion of major ad campaigns and the assurance of continued business with clients. Advertising account executives and related workers hold 646,000 jobs in the United States.
n History When the advertising industry formally developed in the late 1800s, advertisers themselves were usually the ones who handled the promotion of their products and services, placing ads in newspapers and magazines in order to reach their customers. As the number of newspapers increased and print advertising became more widespread, however, these advertisers called on specialists who knew how to create and coordinate effective advertisements. One such
specialist, the advertising account executive, emerged to produce and handle the ad campaigns for businesses. Advertising agencies were commonly used by companies by the 1920s, and account executives worked for such agencies. Together with a staff of creative professionals, the account executive was able to develop an advertising “package,” including slogans, jingles, and images, as well as a general campaign strategy. In addition, account executives did basic market research, oversaw the elements that went into a campaign, and worked hand-inhand with writers and artists to develop effective ads for their client companies. Today, account executives handle all aspects of their clients’ ad campaigns. As a result, they bring to the job a broad base of knowledge, including account management, marketing, sales promotion, merchandising, client accounting, print production, public relations, and the creative arts.
n The Job Account executives track the day-to-day progress of the overall advertising campaigns of their clients. Together with a staff commonly consisting of a creative director, an art director, a copywriter, researchers, and production specialists, the account executive monitors all client accounts from beginning to end. Before an advertising campaign is actually launched, a lot of preparatory work is needed. Account executives must familiarize themselves with their clients’ products and services, target markets, goals, competitors, and preferred media. Together with the agency team, the account executive conducts research and holds initial meetings with clients. Then the team, coordinated by the account executive, uses this information to analyze market potential and presents recommendations to the client. After an advertising strategy has been determined and all terms have been agreed upon, the agency’s creative staff goes to work, developing ideas and producing various ads to present to the client. During this time, the account executive works with media buyers (who purchase radio and television time and publication space for advertising) in order to develop a schedule for the project and make sure that the costs involved are within the client’s budget. When the client has approved the ad campaign, production can begin. In addition to supervising and coordinating the work of copywriters, editors, graphic artists, production specialists, and other employees on the agency team, the account executive must also write reports and draft business correspondence, follow up on all client meetings, interact with outside vendors, and ensure that all pieces of the advertising campaign clearly
communicate the desired message. In sum, the account executive is responsible for making sure that the client is satisfied. This may require making modifications to the campaign, revising cost estimates and events schedules, and redirecting the efforts of the creative staff. In addition to their daily responsibilities of tracking and handling clients’ advertising campaigns, account executives must also develop and bring in new business, keep up-to-date on current advertising trends, evaluate the effectiveness of advertising programs, and track sales figures.
n Requirements High School You can prepare for a career as an advertising account executive by taking a variety of courses at the high school level. Basic courses in English, journalism, communication, economics, psychology, business, social science, and mathematics, are important for aspiring advertising account executives.
Postsecondary Training Most advertising agencies hire college graduates whose degrees can vary widely, from English, journalism, or marketing to business administration, speech communications, or fine arts. Courses in psychology, sociology, business, economics, and any art medium are helpful. Some positions require a graduate degree in advertising, art, or marketing. Others may call for experience in a particular field, such as health care, insurance, or retail. While most employers prefer a broad liberal arts background with courses in marketing, market research, sales, consumer behavior, communication, and technology, many also seek employees who already have some work experience. Those candidates who have completed on-the-job internships at agencies or have developed portfolios will have a competitive edge.
Other Requirements While account executives do not need to have the same degree of artistic skill or knowledge as art directors or graphic designers, they must be imaginative and understand the communication of art and photography in order to direct the overall progress of an ad campaign. They should also be able to work under pressure, motivate employees, solve problems, and demonstrate flexibility, good judgment, decisiveness, and patience. Account executives must be aware of trends and be interested in the business climate and the psychology of making purchases. In addition, they should be able to write clearly, make effective presentations, and communicate persuasively. It is also helpful to stay abreast of the
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various computer programs used in advertising design and management.
n Exploring Read publications like Advertising Age (http://www.adage. com), Adweek (http://www.adweek.com), and Brandweek (http://www.brandweek.com) to become familiar with advertising issues, trends, successes, and failures. Visit the Clio Awards Web site (http://www. clioawards. com). Clios are given each year in the categories of TV, print, outdoor, radio, integrated media, design, Internet, and student work. The site also has information about advertising and art schools, trade associations, and links to some of the trade magazines of the industry. To gain practical business experience, become involved with advertising or promotion activities at your school for social events, sports events, political issues, or fundraising events. If your school newspaper or yearbook has paid quick facts advertising, offer to work in ad School Subjects sales.
n Employers More than 700,000 advertising, marketing, promotions, public relations, and sales managers work in the United States. Advertising agencies all across the country and abroad employ advertising account executives. According to the American Association of Advertising Agencies, there are more than 13,000 agencies in the United States; of these, the large firms located in New York, Chicago, and Los Angeles tend to dominate the industry. One in five firms and one in four people in the industry live in either California or New York. However, most organizations employ fewer than 10 people. These “small shops” offer employment opportunities for account executives with experience, talent, and flexibility.
English Psychology Speech
Personal Skills
Artistic Communication/ideas Work Environment
Primarily indoors Primarily one location Minimum Education Level
Bachelor’s degree Salary Range
$31,340 to $63,610 to $150,000+ Certification or Licensing
None available Outlook
Faster than the average DOT
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Many people aspiring to the job of account executive participate in internships or begin as assistant executives, allowing them to
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work with clients, study the market, and follow up on client service. This work gives students a good sense of the rhythm of the job and the type of work required of account executives. College graduates, with or without experience, can start their job search in the school placement office. Staff there can set up interviews and help polish resumes. The advertising arena is rich with opportunities. When looking for employment, you don’t have to target agencies. Instead, search for jobs with large businesses that may employ advertising staff. If you want to work at an agency, you’ll find the competition intense for jobs there. Once hired, account executives often participate in special training programs that both initiate them and help them to succeed.
n Advancement Since practical experience and a broad base of knowledge are often required of advertising account executives, many employees work their way up through the company, from assistant to account executive to account manager and finally to department head. In smaller agencies, where promotions depend on experience and leadership, advancement may occur slowly. In larger firms, management training programs are often required for advancement. Continuing education is occasionally offered to account executives in these firms, often through local colleges or special seminars provided by professional societies.
n Earnings According to the U.S. Department of Labor, advertising account executives had median annual earnings of approximately $63,610 in 2004. In smaller agencies, the salary may be much lower ($20,000 or less), and in larger firms, it is often much higher (over $150,000). Salary bonuses are common for account executives. Benefits typically include vacation and sick leave, health and life insurance, and a retirement plan. According to a National Association of Colleges and Employers survey, starting salaries for advertising majors averaged $31,340 in 2004.
Advertising agencies are usually highly charged with energy and are both physically and psychologically exciting places to work. The account executive works with others as a team in a creative environment where a lot of ideas are exchanged among colleagues. As deadlines are critical in advertising, it is important that account executives possess the ability to handle pressure and stress effectively. Patience and flexibility are also essential, as are organization and time management skills.
n Outlook The growth of the advertising industry depends on the health of the economy. In a thriving economy, advertising budgets are large, consumers tend to respond to advertising campaigns, and new products and services that require promotion are increasingly developed. Although the economy has been weaker as of late, the U.S. Department of Labor still predicts that employment for advertising account executives will grow faster than the average for all occupations through 2014. Most opportunities for advertising account executives will be in larger cities, such as Chicago, New York, and Los Angeles, that enjoy a high concentration of business, as well as prestige. Competition for these jobs, however, will be intense. The successful candidate will be a college graduate with a lot of creativity, strong communications skills, and extensive experience in the advertising industry. Those able to speak another language will have an edge because of the increasing supply of products and services offered in foreign markets.
n For More Information The AAF combines the mutual interests of corporate advertisers, agencies, media companies, suppliers, and academia. Visit its Web site to learn more about internships, scholarships, and awards. American Advertising Federation (AAF) 1101 Vermont Avenue, NW, Suite 500 Washington, DC 20005-6306 Tel: 202-898-0089 Email:
[email protected] http://www.aaf.org
n Work Environment It is not uncommon for advertising account executives to work long hours, including evenings and weekends. Informal meetings with clients, for example, frequently take place after normal business hours. In addition, some travel may be required when clients are based in other cities or states or when account executives must attend industry conferences.
For industry information, contact American Association of Advertising Agencies 405 Lexington Avenue, 18th Floor New York, NY 10174-1801 Tel: 212-682-2500 http://www.aaaa.org
Advertising and marketing managers
For information on the practice, study, and teaching of marketing, contact American Marketing Association 311 South Wacker Drive, Suite 5800 Chicago, IL 60606 Tel: 800-AMA-1150 http://www.marketingpower.com
Advertising and Marketing Managers n Overview Advertising and marketing managers plan, organize, direct, and coordinate the operations of advertising and marketing firms. They may oversee an entire company, a geographical territory of a company’s operations, or a specific department within a company. There are approximately 252,000 advertising and marketing managers employed in the United States.
n History The advertising industry formally emerged in the 1840s, when newspaper-advertising solicitors began representing groups of newspapers. In 1865, a new system was introduced: buying newspaper space and dividing and selling it to advertisers at higher prices. Other forms of advertising also came onto the scene. By the early 1900s, for example, outdoor posters developed into the billboard form, and the merchants who used them were the principal advertisers. In 1922, radio station WEAF in New York City offered program time to advertisers. The use of television advertising began just before the end of World War II. Today, the Internet is catapulting the world of advertising into a whole new realm, allowing vendors not only to target and reach customers but to interact with them as well. The business discipline of marketing began to take shape as sellers realized that if a group of potential buyers could be found for a product, the product could be better designed to suit the needs of those buyers. Sellers also discovered the importance of identifying a group of buyers before starting an advertising campaign. By doing so, the producer could style the campaign to reach that specific group and would have a better chance of launching a successful product. Marketing, therefore, provided a service for both sides of the business world, the seller and the buyer. As the need for advertising and marketing grew, companies specializing in product promotion and special-
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ization were born. It is no surprise that the increasingly complex responsibilities involved in advertising and marketing products and services require managers to organize and run day-to-day office activities.
n The Job Advertising and marketing managers formulate policies and administer the advertising and marketing firm’s operations. Managers may oversee the operations of an entire company, a geographical territory of a company’s operations, or a specific department. Managers direct a company’s or a department’s daily activities within the context of the organization’s overall plan. They implement organizational policies and goals. This may involve developing sales or promotional materials, analyzing the department’s budgetary requirequick facts ments, and hiring, training, and supervising staff. Advertising and marketing managers are often responsible for long-range planning for their company or department. This involves setting goals for the organization and developing a workable plan for meeting those goals. Advertising and marketing managers work to coordinate their department’s activities with other departments. If the firm is privately owned, the owner may be the manager. In a large corporation, however, there will be a management structure above the advertising and marketing manager. In companies that have several different locations, advertising and marketing managers may be assigned to oversee specific geographic areas. For example, a large ad firm with facilities all across the nation is likely to have a number of managers in charge of various territories. There might be a Midwest manager, a Southwest manager, an Southeast manager, a Northeast manager, and a Northwest manager. These managers are often called regional or area managers. Some advertising and market-
school subjects
Business Computer science Personal Skills
Helping/teaching Leadership/management Work Environment
Primarily indoors One location with some travel Minimum Education Level
Bachelor’s degree Salary Range
$33,670 to $66,560 to $101,250+ (advertising managers) $47,100 to $90,450 to $126,290+ (marketing managers) Certification or Licensing
None available Outlook
Faster than the average DOT
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ing firms break their management territories up into even smaller sections, such as a single state or a part of a state. Managers overseeing these smaller segments are often called district managers and typically report directly to an area or regional manager. Advertising managers are responsible for coordinating the work of researchers, copywriters, artists, telemarketers, space buyers, time buyers, and other specialists. One type of advertising manager is the account manager, who represents the agency to its clients. (See “Advertising Account Executives.”) Managers working at large advertising agencies usually handle a variety of accounts, while those working at smaller agencies usually only handle certain types of clients. For example, smaller firms may handle only financial accounts, hotels, book publishers, or industrial clients. Some managers work for agencies that are known for promoting package goods. Others work in retail and department store promotion. In contrast, marketing managers work with their staff and other advertising professionals to determine how ads should look, where they should be placed, and when the advertising should begin. Managers must keep staff focused on a target audience when working on the promotion of a particular product or service. Managers must also carefully time the release of an ad. For example, launching an advertising campaign too early may create interest well before the product is available. In such cases, by the time the product is released, the public may no longer be interested. The marketing manager must also oversee his or her department in developing a distribution plan for products. If a product is expected to sell well to a certain group, for example, then marketing professionals must decide how to deliver to members of that group based on when and where they shop. Once markets are evaluated and merchandise is designed, the actual production begins. The job of the manager is not yet done, however. Along with the public relations department, marketing managers contact members of the press with the aim of getting product information out to the public. Because research studies show how a product looks on the shelf can often affect sales, managers work with designers to explore new color combinations, more appealing shapes, interesting patterns, and new materials. Marketing managers use a scientific and statistical approach in answering a client’s questions about selling a product to the public. The advertising aspect of a marketing campaign must get attention, arouse interest, secure belief, create desire, and stir action. Beauty, comfort, convenience, and quality are the promises that sell all kinds of products, from consumables to cars.
n Requirements High School The educational background of advertising and marketing managers varies as widely as the nature of their diverse responsibilities. If you are interested in a managerial career, you should start preparing in high school by taking college preparatory classes. Because communication is important, take as many English classes as possible. Speech classes are another way to improve your communication skills. Courses in mathematics, business, economics, and computer science are also excellent choices to help you prepare for this career.
Postsecondary Training Most advertising and marketing managers have a bachelor’s degree in advertising, marketing, or business administration. However, degrees in English, journalism, speech communications, economics, or the fine arts are also applicable. Useful college classes include those in psychology, sociology, business, economics, and any art medium. Graduate and professional degrees are common at the managerial level. Because managers coordinate the efforts of whole departments, most have worked in other lower level advertising and marketing jobs. Candidates for managerial positions who have extensive experience and developed portfolios will have a competitive edge.
Other Requirements There are a number of personal characteristics that advertising and marketing managers need to succeed in their work. You will need good communication and interpersonal skills and the ability to delegate work to other members of your staff. Because advertising and marketing campaigns are often run under strict deadlines, the ability to think on your feet and work well under pressure is critical. Other traits considered important for advertising and marketing managers are intelligence, decisiveness, intuition, creativity, honesty, loyalty, a sense of responsibility, and planning and abilities.
n Exploring To get experience in this line of work, try developing your own ad campaign. Take a product you enjoy, for example, a brand of soda you drink, and try to organize a written ad campaign. Consider the type of customers that you should target and what wording and images would work best to attract this audience. You can also explore this career by developing your managerial skills in general. Whether you’re involved in drama, sports, school publications, or a part-time job,
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there are managerial duties associated with any organized activity. These can involve planning, scheduling, managing other workers or volunteers, fund-raising, or budgeting.
n Employers There are approximately 64,000 advertising and promotions managers and 188,000 marketing managers employed in the United States. One quarter of all advertising managers and one third of marketing managers work in the professional, scientific, and technical services industries. Advertising managers are also heavily employed in the information industries, such as publishing firms and ad agencies. Virtually every business in the United States has some form of advertising and marketing position. Obviously, the larger the company is, the more managerial positions it is likely to have. Another factor is the geographical territory covered by the business. It is safe to say that companies doing business in larger geographical territories are likely to have more managerial positions than those with smaller territories. For instance, computer software and hardware companies, which are part of an industry with global reach and where brand awareness is very important, tend to employ many people in marketing and promotions.
n Starting Out You will first need experience in lower-level advertising and marketing jobs before advancing to a managerial position. To break into an advertising or marketing firm, use your college placement office for assistance. In addition, a number of firms advertise job listings in newspapers and Internet job boards. Your first few jobs in advertising and marketing should give you experience in working with clients, studying the market, and following up on client service. This work will give you a good sense of the rhythm of the job and the type of work required.
n Advancement Most advertising and marketing management and top executive positions are filled by experienced lower-level workers who have displayed valuable skills, such as leadership, self-confidence, creativity, motivation, decisiveness, and flexibility. In smaller firms, advancement to a management position may come slowly, while promotions may occur more quickly in larger firms. Advancement may be accelerated by participating in advanced training programs sponsored by industry and trade associations or by enrolling in continued education programs at local universities. These programs are sometimes paid for by the firm. Managers
Advertising and marketing managers discuss an ad campaign for a client. (Rubberball Productions.)
committed to improving their knowledge of the field and of related disciplines—especially computer information systems—will have the best opportunities for advancement.
n Earnings According to 2004 data from the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, the median annual earnings for advertising managers was $66,560, and the median annual income for marketing managers was $90,450. The lowest 10 percent of advertising managers earned $33,670 or less, while the highest 10 percent earned $101,250 or more; the lowest paid 10 percent of marketing managers earned $47,100, while the highest 10 percent earned more than $126,290. Salary levels vary substantially, depending upon the level of responsibility, length of service, and type, size, and location of the advertising and marketing firm. Toplevel managers in large firms can earn much more than their counterparts in small firms. Also, salaries in large
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metropolitan areas, such as New York City, are higher than those in smaller cities. Benefit and compensation packages for managers are usually excellent, and may even include such things as bonuses, stock awards, and company-paid insurance premiums.
n Work Environment Advertising and marketing managers are provided with comfortable offices near the departments they direct. Higher-level managers may have spacious offices and may enjoy such privileges as executive dining rooms, company cars, country club memberships, and liberal expense accounts. Managers often work long hours under intense pressure to meet advertising and marketing goals. Workweeks consisting of 55–60 hours at the office are not uncommon—in fact, some higher-level managers spend up to 80 hours working each week. These long hours limit time available for family and leisure activities. Advertising and marketing firms are usually highly charged with energy and are both physically and psychologically exciting places to work. Managers work with others as a team in a creative environment where a lot of ideas are exchanged among colleagues. As deadlines are critical in marketing and advertising campaigns, it is important that the manager possesses the ability to handle pressure and stress effectively. Patience and flexibility are also essential, as are organization and time management skills.
n Outlook Overall, employment of advertising and marketing managers and executives is expected to grow faster than the average through 2014, according to the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. Growth will be especially promising in the scientific and technical services industries, as these companies compete globally for customers. Opportunities in manufacturing, however, will see a steady decline. Many job openings will be the result of managers being promoted to better positions, retiring, or leaving their positions to start their own businesses. Even so, the compensation and prestige of these positions make them highly sought-after, and competition to fill openings will be intense. College graduates with experience, a high level of creativity, and strong communication skills should have the best job opportunities. The outlook for the advertising and marketing industries is closely tied to the overall economy. When the economy is good, business expands both in terms of the firm’s output and the number of people it employs, which creates a need for more managers. In economic
downturns, firms often lay off employees and cut back on production, which lessens the need for managers.
n For More Information The AAF combines the mutual interests of corporate advertisers, agencies, media companies, suppliers, and academia. Visit its Web site to learn more about internships, scholarships, student chapters, and awards. American Advertising Federation (AAF) 1101 Vermont Avenue, NW, Suite 500 Washington, DC 20005-6306 Tel: 202-898-0089 Email:
[email protected] http://www.aaf.org
For industry information, contact American Association of Advertising Agencies 405 Lexington Avenue, 18th Floor New York, NY 10174-1801 Tel: 212-682-2500 http://www.aaaa.org
For information on the practice, study, and teaching of marketing, contact American Marketing Association 311 South Wacker Drive, Suite 5800 Chicago, IL 60606 Tel: 800-AMA-1150 http://www.marketingpower.com
For a brochure on a career in management, contact National Management Association 2210 Arbor Boulevard Dayton, OH 45439 Tel: 937-294-0421 Email:
[email protected] http://nma1.org
Advertising Workers n Overview Advertising is defined as mass communication paid for by an advertiser to persuade a particular segment of the public to adopt ideas or take actions of benefit to the advertiser. Advertising workers perform the various creative and business activities needed to take an advertisement from the research stage, to creative concept, through production, and finally to its intended audience. There are 154,000 advertising sales agents and 64,000
advertising and promotions managers employed in the United States.
n History Advertising has been around as long as people have been exchanging goods and services. While a number of innovations spurred the development of advertising, it wasn’t until the invention of the printing press in the 15th century that merchants began posting handbills in order to advertise their goods and services. By the 19th century, newspapers became an important means of advertising, followed by magazines in the late 1800s. One of the problems confronting merchants in the early days of advertising was where to place their ads to generate the most business. In response, a number of people emerged who specialized in the area of advertising, accepting ads and posting them conspicuously. These agents were the first advertising workers. As competition among merchants increased, many of these agents offered to compose ads, as well as post them, for their clients. Today, with intense competition among both new and existing businesses, advertising has become a necessity in the marketing of goods and services alike. At the same time, the advertising worker’s job has grown more demanding and complex than ever. With a wide variety of media from which advertisers can choose—including newspapers, magazines, billboards, radio, television, film and video, the World Wide Web, and a variety of other new technologies—today’s advertising worker must not only develop and create ads and campaigns but keep abreast of current and developing buying and technology trends as well.
n The Job Approximately seven out of every 10 advertising organizations in the United States are full-service operations, offering their clients a broad range of services, including copywriting, graphics and other art-related work, production, media placement, and tracking and follow-up. These advertising agencies may have hundreds of people working in a dozen different departments, while smaller companies often employ just a handful of employees. Most agencies, however, have at least five departments: contact, research, media, creative, and production. Contact department personnel are responsible for attracting new customers and maintaining relationships with existing ones. Heading the contact department, advertising agency managers are concerned with the overall activities of the company. They formulate plans to generate business, by either soliciting new accounts or getting additional business from established clients. In
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addition, they meet with department heads to coordinate their operations and to create policies and procedures. Advertising account executives are the contact department employees responsible for maintaining good relations between their clients and the agency. Acting as liaisons, they represent the agency to its clients and must therefore be able to communicate clearly and effectively. After examining the advertising objectives of their clients, account executives develop campaigns or strategies and then work with others from the various agency departments to target specific audiences, create advertising communications, and execute the campaigns. Presenting concepts, as well as the ad campaign at various stages of completion, to clients for their feedback and approval, account executives must have some knowledge of overall marketing strategies and be able to sell ideas. Working with account executives, employees in the research department gather, analyze, and interpret the informaquick facts tion needed to make a client’s School Subjects advertising campaign successful. English By determining who the potenPsychology tial buyers of a product or service Speech will be, research workers predict which theme will have the most Personal Skills Artistic impact, what kind of packagCommunication/ideas ing and price will have the most appeal, and which media will be Work Environment the most effective. Primarily indoors Guided by a research director, Primarily one location research workers conduct local, Minimum Education Level regional, and national surveys Bachelor’s degree in order to examine consumer preferences and then determine Salary Range potential sales for the targeted $33,670 to $66,560 to product or service based on $500,000+ those preferences. Researchers Certification or Licensing also gather information about None available competitors’ products, prices, sales, and advertising methods. Outlook To learn what the buying public Faster than the average prefers in a client’s product over DOT a competitor’s, research workers 131 often distribute samples and then ask the users of these samples for GOE their opinions of the product. 10.02.02 This information can then be NOC used as testimonials about the 1122, 5121 product or as a means of identifying the most persuasive selling O*NET-SOC message in an ad. 41-3011.00
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Although research workers often recommend which media to use for an advertising campaign, media planners are the specialists who determine which print or broadcast media will be the most effective. Ultimately, they are responsible for choosing the combination of media that will reach the greatest number of potential buyers for the least amount of money, based on their clients’ advertising strategies. Accordingly, planners must be familiar with the markets that each medium reaches, as well as the advantages and disadvantages of advertising in each. Media buyers, often referred to as space buyers (for newspapers and magazines), or time buyers (for radio and television), do the actual purchasing of space and time according to a general plan formulated by the media director. In addition to ensuring that ads appear when and where they should, buyers negotiate costs for ad placement and maintain contact and extensive correspondence with clients and media representatives alike. While the contact, research, and media departments handle the business side of a client’s advertising campaign, the creative staff takes care of the artistic aspects. Creative directors oversee the activities of artists and writers and work with clients and account executives to determine the best advertising approaches, gain approval on concepts, and establish budgets and schedules. Copywriters take the ideas submitted by creative directors and account executives and write descriptive text in the form of headlines, jingles, slogans, and other copy designed to attract the attention of potential buyers. In addition to being able to express themselves clearly and persuasively, copywriters must know what motivates people to buy. They must also be able to describe a product’s features in a captivating and appealing way and be familiar with various advertising media. In large agencies, copywriters may be supervised by a copy chief. Copywriters work closely with art directors to make sure that text and artwork create a unified, eye-catching arrangement. Planning the visual presentation of the client’s message, from concept formulation to final artwork, the art director plays an important role in every stage of the creation of an advertising campaign. Art directors who work on filmed commercials and videos combine film techniques, music, and sound, as well as actors or animation, to communicate an advertiser’s message. In publishing, art directors work with graphic designers, photographers, copywriters, and editors to develop brochures, catalogs, direct mail, and other printed pieces, all according to the advertising strategy. Art directors must have a basic knowledge of graphics and design, computer software, printing, photography,
and filmmaking. With the help of graphic artists, they decide where to place text and images, choose typefaces, and create storyboard ads and videos. Several layouts are usually submitted to the client, who chooses one or asks for revisions until a layout or conceptualization sketch meets with final approval. The art director then selects an illustrator, graphic artist, photographer, or TV or video producer, and the project moves on to the production department of the agency. Production departments in large ad agencies may be divided into print production and broadcast production divisions, each with its own managers and staff. Production managers and their assistants convert and reproduce written copy and artwork into printed, filmed, or taperecorded form so that they can be presented to the public. Production employees work closely with imaging, printing, engraving, and other art reproduction firms and must be familiar with various printing processes, papers, inks, typography, still and motion picture photography, digital imaging, and other processes and materials. In addition to the principal employees in the five major departments, advertising organizations work with a variety of staff or freelance employees who have specialized knowledge, education, and skill, including photographers, photoengravers, typographers, printers, telemarketers, product and package designers, and producers of display materials. Finally, rounding out most advertising establishments are various support employees, such as production coordinators, video editors, word processors, statisticians, accountants, administrators, secretaries, and clerks. The work of advertising employees is fast-paced, dynamic, and ever-changing, depending on each client’s strategies and budgets and the creative ideas generated by agency workers. In addition to innovative techniques, methods, media, and materials used by agency workers, new and emerging technologies are impacting the work of everyone in the advertising arena, from marketing executives to graphic designers. The Internet is undoubtedly the most revolutionary medium to hit the advertising scene. Through this worldwide, computer-based network, researchers are able to precisely target markets and clearly identify consumer needs. In addition, the Internet’s Web pages provide media specialists with a powerful vehicle for advertising their clients’ products and services. New technology has also been playing an important role in the creative area. Most art directors, for example, use a variety of computer software programs, and many create and oversee Web sites for their clients. Other interactive materials and vehicles, such as CD catalogs, touch-screens, multidimensional visuals,
and voice-mail shopping, are changing the way today’s advertising workers are doing their jobs.
n Requirements High School You can prepare for a career as an advertising worker by taking a variety of courses at the high school level. General liberal arts courses, such as English, journalism, communications, economics, psychology, speech, business, social science, and mathematics are important for aspiring advertising employees. In addition, those interested in the creative side of the field should take such classes as art, drawing, graphic design, illustration, and art history. Finally, since computers play a vital role in the advertising field, you should become familiar with word processing and layout programs, as well as the World Wide Web.
advertising workers
Technology for Advertising Considering a career in advertising? Becoming familiar with the appropriate software can give you an edge in the job market. Though the programs themselves can be rather expensive to buy on your own, you can gain experience using them through college courses and adult-education programs. n
Adobe Photoshop: Ever wonder how so much of the eye-catching “trick photography” in today’s ads is done? The answer is more than likely Adobe Photoshop, the industry-standard photo-manipulation program. Using it, you can do everything from swapping one model’s head to another’s body to removing stray hairs from the pictures. More than just changing photos, though, Photoshop can also subtly change lighting, add shadows, brighten color, and quickly and easily do everything that you once needed a sophisticated darkroom to accomplish. Finally, Photoshop allows you to save pictures in formats that can be used on the World Wide Web or by other design programs.
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Adobe Illustrator: Another program from Adobe, Illustrator, allows designers to create logos, make background designs, and turn text into art. Illustrator files can easily be exported and used in other programs. Because of its versatility, Illustrator is an important design tool. However, to be most effective, it requires a great deal of expertise.
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QuarkXPress: A design and layout program, Quark is used to create everything from books and magazines to single-page ads. Text and pictures can be added and swapped around, so that the ad can be designed for the maximum possible impact. Finally, Quark allows work to be exported in formats that can easily be read and set into print.
Postsecondary Training The American Association of Advertising Agencies notes that most agencies employing entry-level personnel prefer college graduates. Copywriters are best prepared with a college degree in English, journalism, or communications; research workers need college training in statistics, market research, and social studies; and most account executives have business or related degrees. Media positions increasingly require a college degree in communications or a technology-related area. Media directors and research directors with a master’s degree have a distinct advantage over those with only an undergraduate degree. Some research department heads even have doctorates. While the requirements from agency to agency may vary somewhat, graduates of liberal arts colleges or those with majors in fields such as communications, journalism, business administration, or marketing research are preferred. Good language skills, as well as a broad liberal arts background, are necessary for advertising workers. College students interested in the field should therefore take such courses as English, writing, art, philosophy, foreign languages, social studies, sociology, psychology, economics, mathematics, statistics, advertising, and marketing. Some 900 degree-granting institutions throughout the United States offer specialized majors in advertising as part of their curriculum.
Other Requirements In addition to the variety of educational and work experiences necessary for those aspiring to advertising careers, many personal characteristics are also important. Although you will perform many tasks of your job independently as an advertising worker, you will also interact with others as part of a team. In addition to working with
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other staff members, you may be responsible for initiating and maintaining client contact. You must therefore be able to get along well with people and communicate clearly. Advertising is not a job that involves routine, and you must be able to meet and adjust to the challenges presented by each new client and product or service. The ability to think clearly and logically is important, because commonsense approaches rather than gimmicks persuade people that something is worth buying. You must also be creative, flexible, and imaginative in order to anticipate consumer demand and trends, to develop
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effective concepts, and to sell the ideas, products, and services of your clients. Finally, with technology evolving at breakneck speed, it’s vital that you keep pace with technological advances and trends. In addition to being able to work with the most current software and hardware, you should be familiar with the Web, as well as with other technology that is impacting—and will continue to impact—the industry.
n Exploring If you aspire to a career in the advertising industry, you can gain valuable insight by taking writing and art courses offered either in school or by private organizations. In addition to the theoretical ideas and techniques that such classes provide, you can actually apply what you learn by working full or part time at local department stores or newspaper offices. Some advertising agencies or research firms also employ students to interview people or to conduct other market research. Work as an agency clerk or messenger may also be available. Participating in internships at an advertising or marketing organization is yet another way to explore the field, as well as to determine your aptitude for advertising work. You may find it helpful to read publications dedicated to this industry, such as Advertising Age (http://www.adage.com).
n Employers Most advertising workers are employed by advertising agencies that plan and prepare advertising material for their clients on a commission or service fee basis. However, some large companies and nearly all department stores prefer to handle their own advertising. Advertising workers in such organizations prepare advertising materials for in-house clients, such as the marketing or catalog department. They also may be involved in the planning, preparation, and production of special promotional materials, such as sales brochures, articles describing the activities of the organization, or Web sites. Some advertising workers are employed by owners of various media, including newspapers, magazines, radio and television networks, and outdoor advertising. Workers employed in these media are mainly sales representatives who sell advertising space or broadcast time to advertising agencies or companies that maintain their own advertising departments. In addition to agencies, large companies, and department stores, advertising services and supply houses employ such advertising specialists as photographers, photoengravers, typographers, printers, product and package designers, display producers, and others who assist in the production of various advertising materials.
According to the American Association of Advertising Agencies, there are more than 13,000 advertising agencies in the United States. Most of the large firms are located in Chicago, Los Angeles, and New York. Employment opportunities are also available, however, at a variety of “small shops,” four out of five of which employ fewer than 10 workers each. In addition, a growing number of self-employment and home-based business opportunities are resulting in a variety of industry jobs located in outlying areas rather than in big cities.
n Starting Out Although competition for advertising jobs is fierce and getting your foot in the door can be difficult, there are a variety of ways to launch a career in the field. Some large advertising agencies recruit college graduates and place them in training programs designed to acquaint beginners with all aspects of advertising work, but these opportunities are limited and highly competitive. Instead, many graduates simply send resumes to businesses that employ entry-level advertising workers. Newspapers, radio and television stations, printers, photographers, and advertising agencies are but a few of the businesses that will hire beginners. Those who have had work experience in sales positions often enter the advertising field as account executives. High school graduates and other people without experience who want to work in advertising, however, may find it necessary to begin as clerks or assistants to research and production staff members or to copywriters.
n Advancement The career path in an advertising agency generally leads from trainee to skilled worker to division head and then to department head. It may also take employees from department to department, allowing them to gain more responsibility with each move. Opportunities abound for those with talent, leadership capability, and ambition. Management positions require experience in all aspects of advertising, including agency work, communication with advertisers, and knowledge of various advertising media. Copywriters, account executives, and other advertising agency workers who demonstrate outstanding ability to deal with clients and supervise coworkers usually have a good chance of advancing to management positions. Other workers, however, prefer to acquire specialized skills. For them, advancement may mean more responsibility, the opportunity to perform more specialized tasks, and increased pay. Advertising workers at various department stores, mail order houses, and other large firms that have their
own advertising departments can also earn promotions. Advancement in any phase of advertising work is usually dependent on the employee’s experience, training, and demonstrated skills. Some qualified copywriters, artists, and account executives establish their own agencies or become marketing consultants. For these entrepreneurs, advancement may take the form of an increasing number of accounts and/ or more prestigious clients.
n Earnings Salaries of advertising workers vary depending on the type of work, the size of the agency, its geographic location, the kind of accounts handled, and the agency’s gross earnings. Salaries are also determined by a worker’s education, aptitude, and experience. The wide range of jobs in advertising makes it difficult to estimate average salaries for all positions. According to a survey by the National Association of Colleges and Employers, marketing majors entering the job market in 2005 had average starting salaries of $33,873, while advertising majors averaged $31,340. According to a 2002 salary survey by Advertising Age, creative directors at mid-sized advertising agencies (grossing $7.6 to $15 million) earned an average of $124,000 annually. Copywriters at these agencies earned $54,000, account executives earned $47,000, and media directors made $82,000 per year. CEOs at large agencies made more than $270,000 annually, while CEOs at smaller agencies reported yearly earnings of $123,000. The U.S. Department of Labor’s Occupational Outlook Handbook reports that the median annual earnings for advertising and promotions managers in 2004 were $66,560. For marketing managers the median was $90,450, sales managers earned $85,980, and public relations managers made $73,960 per year. The lowest paid 10 percent of advertising and promotions managers made less than $33,670, while the highest paid marketing and sales managers earned more than $101,250. In advertising agencies, an executive vice president can earn from $113,000 to $500,000 a year or more. Account executives earned a median of $57,188, while senior account executives earned a median of $73,329. In the research and media departments, media directors earn a median of $102,455, and media planners and buyers between $40,000 and $45,000 per year. In the creative department, art directors earn a median of $60,000 or more annually. Salaries for relatively glamorous jobs at agencies can be low, due to high competition. In advertising departments at other businesses and industries, individual earnings vary widely. Salaries of advertis-
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ing workers are generally higher, however, at consumer product firms than at industrial product organizations because of the competition among consumer product producers. The majority of companies offer insurance benefits, a retirement plan, and other incentives and bonuses.
n Work Environment Conditions at most agencies are similar to those found in other offices throughout the country, except that employees must frequently work under great pressure to meet deadlines. While a traditional 40-hour workweek is the norm at some companies, almost half (44 percent) of advertising, marketing, promotions, public relations, and sales managers report that they work more hours per week, including evenings and weekends. Bonuses and time off during slow periods are sometimes provided as a means of compensation for unusual workloads and hours. Although some advertising employees, such as researchers, work independently on a great many tasks, most must function as part of a team. With frequent meetings with coworkers, clients, and media representatives alike, the work environment is usually energized, with ideas being exchanged, contracts being negotiated, and schedules being modified. Advertising work is fast-paced and exciting. As a result, many employees often feel stressed out as they are constantly challenged to take initiative and be creative. Nevertheless, advertising workers enjoy both professional and personal satisfaction in seeing the culmination of their work communicated to sometimes millions of people.
n Outlook Employment opportunities in the advertising field are expected to increase faster than the average for all industries through 2014. Demand for advertising workers will grow as a result of increased production of goods and services, both in the United States and abroad. Network and cable television, radio, newspapers, the Web, and certain other media (particularly interactive vehicles) will offer advertising workers an increasing number of employment opportunities. Some media, such as magazines, direct mail, and event marketing, are expected to provide fewer job opportunities. Advertising agencies will enjoy faster than average employment growth, as will industries that service ad agencies and other businesses in the advertising field, such as those that offer commercial photography, imaging, art, and graphics services.
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At the two extremes, enormous “mega-agencies” and small shops employing up to only 10 workers each offer employment opportunities for people with experience, talent, flexibility, and drive. In addition, self-employment and home-based businesses are on the rise. Many nonindustrial companies, such as banks, schools, and hospitals, will also be creating advertising positions. In general, openings will become available to replace workers who change positions, retire, or leave the field for other reasons. Competition for these jobs will be keen, however, because of the large number of qualified professionals in this traditionally desirable field. Opportunities will be best for the well-qualified and well-trained applicant. Employers favor college graduates with experience, a high level of creativity, and strong communications skills. People who are not well qualified or prepared for agency work will find the advertising field increasingly difficult to enter. The same is also true for those who seek work in companies that service ad agencies.
n For More Information For information on student chapters, scholarships, and internships, contact American Advertising Federation 1101 Vermont Avenue, NW, Suite 500 Washington, DC 20005-6306 Tel: 202-898-0089 Email:
[email protected] http://www.aaf.org
For industry information, contact American Association of Advertising Agencies 405 Lexington, 18th Floor New York, NY 10174-1801 Tel: 212-682-2500 http://www.aaaa.org
For career and salary information, contact American Marketing Association 311 South Wacker Drive, Suite 5800 Chicago, IL 60606 Tel: 800-AMA-1150 Email:
[email protected] http://www.marketingpower.com
The Art Directors Club is an international, nonprofit organization for creatives in advertising, graphic design, interactive media, broadcast design, typography, packaging, environmental design, photography, illustration, and related disciplines. Art Directors Club
106 West 29th Street New York, NY 10001 Tel: 212-643-1440 Email:
[email protected] http://www.adcglobal.org
For information on student membership and careers, contact Direct Marketing Educational Foundation 1120 Avenue of the Americas New York, NY 10036-6700 Tel: 212-768-7277 http://www.the-dma.org
The Graphic Artists Guild promotes and protects the economic interests of the artist/designer and is committed to improving conditions for all creators of graphic art and raising standards for the entire industry. Graphic Artists Guild 90 John Street, Suite 403 New York, NY 10038-3202 Tel: 212-791-3400 http://www.gag.org
Aerobics Instructors and Fitness Trainers n Overview Aerobics instructors choreograph and teach aerobics classes of varying types. Classes are geared toward people with general good health as well as to specialized populations, including the elderly and those with specific health problems that affect their ability to exercise. Many people enjoy participating in the lively exercise routines set to music. Depending on where they are employed, fitness trainers help devise health conditioning programs for clients, from professional athletes to average individuals looking for guidance. Fitness trainers motivate clients to follow prescribed exercise programs and monitor their progress. When injuries occur, either during training or sporting events, fitness trainers determine the extent of the injury and administer first aid for minor problems such as blisters, bruises, and scrapes. Following more serious injury, trainers may work with a physical therapist to help the athlete perform rehabilitative exercises. There are approximately 205,000 aerobics instructors and fitness trainers employed in the United States.
n History Only recently has physical fitness become an organized industry. For many years, only professional athletes were trained by fitness trainers. However, as more people began to use exercise and weight training equipment, knowledgeable instructors were needed to teach beginners how to safely and effectively use the machines. Today, instructors’ services usually are available to anyone who joins a health club. Aerobics has also become much more widely respected by health professionals than when it first became popular in the late 1970s and early 1980s, mainly because the importance of aerobic activity is now universally recognized. In addition, aerobics itself has diversified to include many options and levels of difficulty. Although the element of dance is still evident in some aerobic moves, it has been de-emphasized in many classes, primarily to encourage those who are less coordinated to participate. Instead of focusing on coordinated dance steps or complicated routines that are difficult to memorize, aerobic workouts now are more focused on a series of movements that aim to elevate the heart rate and work various muscle groups. For example, a particular class may seek to shape and tone specific muscle groups, such as the abdominals or hamstrings. This past decade has seen the introduction of several new branches of aerobics, including water aerobics, step aerobics, interval training, and interval circuit training. Water aerobics is a popular form of low-impact aerobics. Impact refers to the stress placed on joints and bones during exercise. Because the water supports the body and creates resistance, it is an ideal exercise medium. Provided participants wear the proper safety equipment and are in the presence of others, they don’t necessarily need to know how to swim, because in most classes, all the movements are done standing upright or holding onto the side of the pool. Water aerobics is especially well suited to older individuals because the water can be therapeutic for aching joints and muscles. Another popular fitness class is step aerobics. In 1986, an aerobics instructor and body builder named Gin Miller developed a formal step training program after using the technique to recover from a knee injury. Basically, step aerobics involves the use of a specially designed stool or bench that sits from four to 12 inches off the ground. Participants step up and down in different patterns, which provides an excellent cardiovascular workout. Another exercise trend is called interval training. In the late 1980s, Arlette Perry, an exercise physiologist with the University of Miami’s Human Performance Laboratory, determined that alternating intense exercise movements with slower-paced movements was better
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for aerobic fitness than a steady level of exercise, because it achieves higher heart rates. Interval classes today incorporate many different types of exercise to raise and maintain participants’ heart rates, for example, blending high-impact aerobic moves with lower intensity exercises, such as marching in place or stretching. Today, aerobics classes are often used in cross training, where amateur and professional athletes combine several different fitness activities to train for a certain sport. A popular workout is circuit training or interval circuit training, which combines aerobic exercise with weight lifting for a full body workout. In circuit training, the workout equipment is arranged to work one group of muscles at a time, alternating so that one set of muscles can rest while the next group is worked. As the athlete moves through each piece of equipment in the circuit, the heart rate remains elevated, without the participants tiring as quickly as they would if repeating the same exercise. quick facts New trends in fitness include School Subjects aerobics classes for the whole Health family, as well as the increased Physical education use of personal fitness trainers. Theater/dance In fact, the demand for qualified Personal Skills personal trainers has become so Helping/teaching great that many organizations Leadership/management offer personal training certifications. Fitness trainer Brett Work Environment Vicknair agrees: “Personal fitPrimarily indoors Primarily one location ness training has become a fastgrowing industry over the last Minimum Education Level five years and doesn’t seem to High school diploma be slowing down. One reason is that personal fitness trainers are Salary Range $14,530 to $25,470 to not just for the rich and famous $55,560+ anymore.” As people have become more Certification or Licensing health conscious, they see a Required for certain positions need for daily fitness activities. “People hire us for a number Outlook Much faster than the average of reasons, such as motivation, knowledge, accountabilDOT ity, weight management, sports 153 conditioning, special medical needs, and lifestyle manageGOE 01.10.01 ment,” Vicknair adds.
n The Job Three general levels of aerobics classes are recognized today: low impact, moderate, and high intensity. A typical class starts
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with warm-up exercises (slow stretching movements to loosen up muscles), followed by 35 to 40 minutes of nonstop activity to raise the heart rate, then ends with a cool-down period of stretching and slower movements. Instructors teach class members to monitor their heart rates and listen to their bodies for signs of personal progress. Aerobics instructors prepare activities prior to their classes. They choose exercises to work different muscles and accompany these movements to music during each phase of the program. Generally, instructors use upbeat music for the more intense exercise portion and more soothing music for the cool-down period. Instructors demonstrate each step of a sequence until the class can follow along. Additional sequences are added continuously as the class progresses, making up a longer routine that is set to music. Most classes are structured so that new participants can start any given class. The instructor either faces the rest of the room or faces a mirror in order to observe class progress and ensure that participants do exercises correctly. Many aerobics instructors also lead toning and shaping classes. In these classes, the emphasis is not on aerobic activity but on working particular areas of the body. An instructor begins the class with a brief aerobic period followed by stretching and weight-bearing exercises that loosen and work major muscle groups. In a health club, fitness trainers evaluate their clients’ fitness level with physical examinations and fitness tests. Using various pieces of testing equipment, they determine such things as percentage of body fat and optimal heart and pulse rates. Clients fill out questionnaires about their medical background, general fitness level, and fitness goals. Fitness trainers use this information to design a customized workout plan using weights and other exercise
options such as swimming and running to help clients meet these goals. Trainers also advise clients on weight control, diet, and general health. Some fitness trainers also work at the client’s home or office. This convenient way of staying physically fit meets the needs of many busy, active adults today. Brett Vicknair owns an in-home personal training company that specializes in one-on-one personal training with their clients at home or the office. To start a client’s exercise program, the trainer often demonstrates the proper use of weight-lifting equipment to reduce the chance of injury, especially if the client is a beginner. As the client uses the equipment, the trainer observes and corrects any problems before injury occurs. Preventing injury is extremely important, according to American Council Exercise Certified Personal Trainer (CPT) Nicole Gutter. “It is a good idea to carry your own liability insurance. The bottom line is, know what you’re doing because there is a huge risk of injury or even death for high-risk people,” she says. “You should be insured in case anything beyond your control does happen.” Fitness trainers also use exercise tape to wrap weak or injured hands, feet, or other parts of the body. The heavy duty tape helps strengthen and position the joint to prevent further injury or strain. Fitness trainers also help athletes with therapy or rehabilitation, using special braces or other equipment to support or protect the injured part until it heals. Trainers ensure that the athlete does not overuse a weak joint or muscle, risking further damage.
n Requirements High School Aerobics instructors and fitness trainers should hold a high school diploma. If you are interested in a fitness career, take courses in physical education, biology, and anatomy. In addition, be involved in sports, weight lifting, or dance activities to stay fit and learn to appreciate the value of exercise.
Postsecondary Training
An aerobics instructor leads a class of seniors through a set of squats. (John Henley/Corbis.)
Although it isn’t always necessary, a college degree will make you more marketable in the fitness field. Typically, aerobics instructors do not need a college education to qualify for jobs; however, some employers may be more interested in candidates with a balance of ability and education. Fitness trainers are usually required to have a bachelor’s degree from an accredited athletic training program or a related program in physical education or health. These programs often require extensive internships that can range from 500 to 1,800 hours of hands-on experience. Essential college-level courses include anatomy,
biomechanics, chemistry, first aid, health, kinesiology, nutrition, physics, physiology, psychology, and safety. Tony Hinsberger, owner of Summit Fitness Personal Training, highly recommends getting a college degree in physiology, kinesiology, exercise science, or athletic training. “As an owner of a small personal training firm, I hire trainers,” he says. “If I had to make a choice between equally experienced and qualified candidates, I would pick the one with a degree.”
Certification or Licensing Most serious fitness trainers and aerobics instructors become certified. Certification is not required in most states, but most clients and fitness companies expect these professionals to have credentials to prove their worth. As a current employer of fitness professionals, Hinsberger recommends certification. “I only hire certified trainers,” he says. “Most facilities require certification and there are many, many certifying agencies. Certification is also required by most liability insurance plans.” Certifying agencies include the following: Aerobics and Fitness Association of America, American College of Sports Medicine, American Council on Exercise, and National Academy of Sports Medicine. Aerobics instructors should also be certified in cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) before finding a job. The National Athletic Trainers’ Association and the American Athletic Trainers Association certify fitness trainers who have graduated from accredited college programs or have completed the necessary internship following a degree in a related field. Fitness trainers who seek certification generally also need Red Cross certification in CPR or as an emergency medical technician (EMT). Whichever career path they follow, aerobics instructors and fitness trainers are expected to keep up to date with their fields, becoming thoroughly familiar with the latest knowledge and safety practices. They must take continuing education courses and participate in seminars to keep their certification current.
Other Requirements Aerobics instructors and fitness trainers are expected to be physically fit, but are not expected to be specimens of human perfection. For example, members of an aerobics class geared to overweight people might feel more comfortable with a heavier instructor; a class geared towards the elderly may benefit from an older instructor.
n Exploring A visit to a health club, park district, or YMCA aerobics class is a good way to observe the work of fitness trainers
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and aerobics instructors. Part-time or summer jobs are sometimes available for high school students in these facilities. It may also be possible to volunteer in a senior citizen center where aerobics classes are offered. “To explore this [career] path, I recommend working part-time in a gym or fitness facility,” Tony Hinsberger suggests. “Some clubs have an orientation position. People in this job take new members on a tour of the facility and show new members how to use the equipment safely. It typically doesn’t require a degree, only on-site training.” If possible, enroll in an aerobics class or train with a fitness trainer to experience firsthand what their jobs entail and to see what makes a good instructor. Brett Vicknair agrees: “I would encourage someone wanting to pursue a career as a personal trainer to get involved with working out first, maybe at a local fitness center, and take advantage of any help that is usually offered when someone first becomes a member.” Aerobics instructor workshops are taught to help prospective instructors gain experience. These are usually offered in adult education courses at such places as the YMCA. Unpaid apprenticeships are also a good way for future instructors to obtain supervised experience before teaching classes on their own. The facility may allow prospective aerobics instructors to take their training class for free if there is a possibility that they will work there in the future. Opportunities for student fitness trainers are available in schools with fitness trainers on staff. This is an excellent way for students to observe and assist a professional fitness trainer on an ongoing basis.
n Employers Most aerobics instructors work for fitness centers and gymnasiums. Most employers are for-profit businesses, but some are community-based, such as the YMCA or a family center. Other job possibilities can be found in corporate fitness centers, colleges, retirement centers, and resorts. Some fitness trainers work in more than one facility. Others are self-employed and take clients on an appointment basis, working either in personal homes or in a public gym. Some fitness trainers will work with highprofile athletes on a one-on-one basis to meet specific fitness requirements. “Trainers work in gyms or fitness centers, in private personal fitness centers where members are seen on an appointment basis only, and in country clubs, just to name some of the opportunities,” Brett Vicknair says. Most medium to large cities have one or more gyms or fitness centers; however, smaller towns may not have any
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Clinical Exercise Specialists One of the newest careers in the fitness field is that of clinical exercise specialist (CES). CESs do many of the same tasks as regular fitness trainers, but it’s their specific clientele that make them specialized. They work exclusively with people who have had an injury or illness and have been given a physician’s release to return to physical activity. The CES focuses on getting clients back to their normal quality of life through the resumption of physical exercise. With the popularity of exercise in our country today—and high rate of injury—CESs will be in high demand.
such facilities. However, there may be limited openings at retirement homes, schools, and community centers in these small towns.
n Starting Out Students should use their schools’ placement offices for information on available jobs. Often, facilities that provide training or internships will hire or provide job leads to individuals who have completed programs. Students can also find jobs through classified ads and by applying to health and fitness clubs, YMCAs, YWCAs, Jewish community centers, local schools, park districts, church groups, and other fitness organizations. Because exercise is understood to be a preventive measure for many health and medical problems, insurance companies often reward businesses that offer fitness facilities to their employees with lower insurance rates. As a result, students should consider nearby companies for prospective fitness instructor and trainer positions.
n Advancement Experienced aerobics instructors can become instructor trainers, providing tips and insight on how to lead a class and what routines work well. A bachelor’s degree in either sports physiology or exercise physiology is especially beneficial for those who want to advance to the position of health club director or to teach corporate wellness programs. Fitness trainers working at schools can advance from assistant positions to head athletic director, which may involve relocating to another school. Fitness trainers can advance to instruct new fitness trainers in college. They also can work in sports medicine facilities, usually in rehabilitation work. In health clubs, fitness trainers can advance to become health club directors or work in administration. Often, fitness trainers who build up a
reputation and a clientele go into business for themselves as personal trainers.
n Earnings Aerobics instructors are usually paid by the class and generally start out at about $10 per class. Experienced aerobics instructors can earn up to $50 or $60 per class. The U.S. Department of Labor reports that fitness workers such as aerobics instructors had median annual earnings of $25,470 in 2004. The lowest paid 10 percent earned less than $14,530, and the highest paid 10 percent earned more than $55,560 per year. Although a sports season lasts only about six months, athletes train year-round to remain in shape and require trainers to guide them. Many personal trainers are paid on a client-by-client basis. Contracts are drawn up and the payment is agreed upon before the training starts. Some trainers get paid more or less depending on the results. A compensation survey by health and fitness organization IDEA reports that many employers offer health insurance and paid sick and vacation time to full-time employees. They also may provide discounts on products sold in the club (such as shoes, clothes, and equipment) and free memberships to use the facility.
n Work Environment Most weight training and aerobics classes are held indoors. Depending on the popularity of the class and/or instructor, aerobics classes can get crowded and hectic at times. Instructors need to keep a level head and keep a positive, outgoing personality in order to motivate people and keep them together. It is important that aerobics instructors make the class enjoyable yet challenging so that members will return class after class. They also need to be unaffected by complaints of class members, some of whom may find the routines too hard, too easy, or who may not like the music selections. Instructors need to realize that these complaints are not personal attacks. Fitness trainers need to be able to work on a one-onone basis with amateur and professional athletes and nonathletes. They may work with individuals who are in pain after an injury and must be able to coax them to use muscles they would probably rather not. Trainers must possess patience, especially for beginners or those who are not athletically inclined, and offer encouragement to help them along. Most trainers find it rewarding to help others achieve fitness goals. “To truly be a great personal fitness trainer, first you must enjoy helping and being around people. I love being able to motivate and give my clients the knowledge to help them meet their fitness goals,” Brett Vicknair says.
aeronautical and aerospace technicians
n Outlook
American Council on Exercise (ACE)
Because of the country’s ever-expanding interest in health and fitness, the U.S. Department of Labor predicts that the job outlook for aerobics instructors should remain strong through 2014, with much faster than average growth. As the population ages, more opportunities will arise to work with the elderly in retirement homes. Large companies and corporations are also interested in keeping insurance costs down by hiring aerobics instructors to hold classes for their employees. The struggle with obesity in the U.S. will also have an effect on the popularity and demand for aerobics instructors. As communities, schools, and individuals attempt to shed the pounds, the need for fitness instructors and motivators will continue. Fitness trainers are also in strong demand, especially at the high school level. Currently, some states require high schools to have a fitness trainer on staff. According to Brett Vicknair, home fitness trainers will remain in high demand. The convenience of being able to work out with a personal trainer before work, at lunch, early Saturday morning, or late Friday night make the use of a personal trainer a flexible option. With the hectic lifestyle of most people today, that aspect alone should keep personal training positions on the rise.
4851 Paramount Drive San Diego, CA 92123 Tel: 800-825-3636 http://www.acefitness.org
n For More Information For information on various certifications, contact the following organizations: Aerobics and Fitness Association of America 15250 Ventura Boulevard, Suite 200 Sherman Oaks, CA 91403 Tel: 877-968-7263 Email:
[email protected] http://www.afaa.com
National Athletic Trainers’ Association 2952 Stemmons Freeway, Suite 200 Dallas, TX 75247-6916 Tel: 800-879-6282 http://www.nata.org
For free information and materials about sports medicine topics, contact American College of Sports Medicine PO Box 1440 Indianapolis, IN 46206-1440 Tel: 317-637-9200 http://www.acsm.org
For more information about certification and careers in fitness, contact ACE.
For fitness facts and articles, visit IDEA’s Web site. IDEA: The Health and Fitness Association 10455 Pacific Center Court San Diego, CA 92121-4339 Tel: 800-999-4332
http://www.ideafit.com
Aeronautical and Aerospace Technicians n Overview Aeronautical and aerospace technicians design, construct, test, operate, and maintain the basic structures of aircraft and spacecraft, as well as propulsion and control systems. They work with scientists and engineers. Many aeronautical and aerospace technicians assist engineers in preparing equipment drawings, diagrams, blueprints, and scale models. They collect information, make computations, and perform laboratory tests. Their work may include working on various projects involving aerodynamics, structural design, flight-test evaluation, or propulsion problems. Other technicians estimate the cost of materials and labor required to manufacture the product, serve as manufacturers’ field service technicians, and write technical materials.
n History Both aeronautical engineering and the aerospace industry had their births in the early 20th century. The very earliest machine-powered and heavier-than-air aircraft, such as the first one flown by Wilbur and Orville Wright in 1903, were crudely constructed and often the result of costly and dangerous trial-and-error experimentation. As government and industry took an interest in the possible applications of this new invention, however, our knowledge of aircraft and the entire industry became more sophisticated. By 1908, for instance, the Wright brothers had received their first government military contract, and by 1909, the industry had expanded to include additional airplane producers, such as Glenn Curtiss in the United States and several others in France.
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Aeronautical engineering and the aerospace industry have been radically transformed since those early days, mostly because of the demands of two world wars and the tremendous increases in scientific knowledge that have taken place during this century. Aviation and aerospace developments continued after the end of World War II. The factories and workers that built planes to support the war were in place and the industry took off, with the jet engine, rocket propulsion, supersonic flight, and manned voyages outside the earth’s atmosphere among the major developments. As the industry evolved, aeronautical and aerospace engineers found themselves taking on increasingly larger projects and were more in need of trained and knowledgeable assistants to help them. Throughout the years, these assistants have been known as engineering aides, as engineering associates, and, most recently, as aerospace technicians and technologists. Their main task today is to take on assignments that require quick facts technical skills but do not necessarily require the scientist’s or School Subjects Mathematics engineer’s special training and Physics education. Technical/shop
Personal Skills
Mechanical/manipulative Technical/scientific Work Environment
Primarily indoors Primarily one location Minimum Education Level
Associate’s degree Salary Range
$34,810 to $52,050 to $74,740 Certification or Licensing
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n The Job There are no clear-cut definitions of aeronautical technology and aerospace technology; in fact, many employers use the terms interchangeably. This lack of a clear distinction also occurs in education, where many schools and institutes offer similar courses under a variety of titles: aeronautical, aviation, or aerospace technology. In general, however, the aerospace industry includes manufacturers of all kinds of flying vehicles: from pistonand jet-powered aircraft that fly inside the earth’s atmosphere, to rockets, missiles, satellites, probes, and all kinds of manned and unmanned spacecraft that operate outside the earth’s atmosphere. The term “aeronautics” is often used within the aerospace industry to refer specifically to mechanical flight inside the earth’s atmosphere, especially to the design and manufac-
ture of commercial passenger and freight aircraft, private planes, and helicopters. The difference between technicians and technologists generally refers to their level of education. Technicians generally hold associate’s degrees, while technologists hold bachelor’s degrees in aeronautical technology. Whether they work for a private company working on commercial aircraft or for the federal government, aerospace technicians work side by side with engineers and scientists in all major phases of the design, production, and operation of aircraft and spacecraft technology. The aerospace technician position includes collecting and recording data; operating test equipment such as wind tunnels and flight simulators; devising tests to ensure quality control; modifying mathematical procedures to fit specific problems; laying out experimental circuits to test scientific theories; and evaluating experimental data for practical applications. The following paragraphs describe jobs held by aerospace technicians; some may be used in other industries as well. Fuller descriptions of the work of some of these titles are provided in separate entries. Aerospace physiological technicians operate devices used to train pilots and astronauts. These devices include pressure suits, pressure chambers, and ejection seats that simulate flying conditions. These technicians also operate other kinds of flight-training equipment such as tow reels, radio equipment, and meteorological devices. They interview trainees about their medical histories, which helps detect evidence of conditions that would disqualify pilots or astronauts from further training. Aircraft launch and recovery technicians work on aircraft carriers to operate, adjust, and repair launching and recovery equipment such as catapults, barricades, and arresting nets. They disassemble the launch and recovery equipment, replace defective parts, and keep track of all maintenance activities. Avionics technicians repair, test, install, and maintain radar and radio equipment aboard aircraft and spacecraft. Computer technicians assist mathematicians and subject specialists in checking and refining computations and systems, such as those required for predicting and determining orbits of spacecraft. Drafting and design technicians convert the aeronautical engineer’s specifications and rough sketches of aeronautical and aerospace equipment, such as electrical and mechanical devices, into accurate drawings that are used by skilled craft workers to make parts for aircraft and spacecraft. Electronics technicians assist engineers in the design, development, and modification of electronic and elec-
tromechanical systems. They assist in the calibration and operation of radar and photographic equipment and also operate, install, troubleshoot, and repair electronic testing equipment. Engineering technicians assist with review and analysis of postflight data, structural failure, and other factors that cause failure in flight vehicles. Industrial engineering technicians assist engineers in preparing layouts of machinery and equipment, workflow plans, time-and-motion studies, and statistical studies and analyses of production costs to produce the most efficient use of personnel, materials, and machines. Instrumentation technicians test, install, and maintain electronic, hydraulic, pneumatic, and optical instruments. These are used in aircraft systems and components in manufacturing as well as research and development. One important responsibility is to maintain their assigned research instruments. As a part of this maintenance, they test the instruments, take readings and calibration curves, and calculate correction factors for the instruments. Liaison technicians check on the production of aircraft and spacecraft as they are being built for conformance to specifications, keeping engineers informed as the manufacturing progresses, and they investigate any engineering production problems that arise. Mathematical technicians assist mathematicians, engineers, and scientists by performing computations involving the use of advanced mathematics. Mechanical technicians use metalworking machines to assist in the manufacture of one-of-a-kind parts. They also assist in rocket-fin alignment, payload mating, weight and center-of-gravity measurements, and launchtower erection. Target aircraft technicians repair and maintain pilotless target aircraft. They assemble, repair, or replace aircraft parts such as cowlings, wings, and propeller assemblies and test aircraft engine operation.
n Requirements High School A strong science and mathematics background is essential for entry into this field. High school courses that will be useful in preparing a student for college-level study include algebra, trigonometry, physics, and chemistry. In addition to math and science, courses in social studies, economics, history, blueprint reading, drafting, and industrial and machine shop practice will provide a valuable background for a career in aerospace technology. Computer experience is also important. English, speech, and courses in the preparation of test reports and technical writing are extremely helpful to develop communication ability.
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Postsecondary Training There are a variety of training possibilities for potential aerospace technicians: two-, three-, or four-year programs at colleges or universities, junior or community colleges, technical institutes, vocational-technical schools, industry on-the-job training, or work-study programs in the military. Graduates from a two- or three-year program usually earn an associate’s degree in engineering or science. Graduates from a four-year program earn a bachelor’s degree in engineering or science; in addition, several colleges offer four-year degree programs in aeronautical technology. There are also many technical training schools, particularly in areas where the aerospace industry is most active, that offer training in aeronautical technology. Aircraft mechanics, for instance, usually attend one of the country’s roughly 200 training schools. However, many employers require graduates of such programs to complete a period of on-the-job training before they are granted full technician status. When selecting a school to attend, check the listings of such agencies as the Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology and the regional accrediting associations for engineering colleges. Most employers prefer graduates of an accredited school. In general, post–high school programs strengthen the student’s background in science and mathematics, including pretechnical training. Beyond that, an interdisciplinary curriculum is more helpful than one that specializes in a narrow field. Other courses, which are basic to the work of the aeronautical scientist and engineer, should be part of a balanced program. These include basic physics, nuclear theory, chemistry, mechanics, and computers, including data-processing equipment and procedures.
Certification or Licensing Only a few aerospace technician positions require licensing or certification; however, certificates issued by professional organizations do enhance the status of qualified engineering technicians. Certification is usually required of those working with nuclear-powered engines or testing radioactive sources, for those working on aircraft in some test programs, and in some safetyrelated positions. Technicians and technologists working in areas related to national defense, and especially those employed by government agencies, are usually required to carry security clearances.
Other Requirements Aeronautical and aerospace technicians must be able to learn basic engineering skills. They should enjoy and be proficient in mathematics and the physical sciences,
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able to visualize size, form, and function. The Aerospace Industries Association of America advises that today’s aerospace production worker must be strong in the basics of manufacturing, have a knowledge of statistics and have the ability to work with computers.
employ technicians to supervise maintenance operations and the development of procedures for new equipment; there were roughly 142,000 aircraft and avionics equipment mechanics and service technicians in 2004.
n Exploring
The best way for students to obtain an aeronautical or aerospace technician’s job is through their college or university’s job placement office. Many manufacturers maintain recruiting relationships with schools in their area. Jobs may also be obtained through state employment offices, newspaper advertisements, applications for government employment, and industry work-study programs offered by many aircraft companies.
Visiting an aerospace research or manufacturing facility is one of the best ways to learn more about this field. Because there are so many such facilities connected with the aerospace industry throughout the United States, there is sure to be one in nearly every area. The reference department of a local library can help students locate the nearest facility. Finding part-time or summer employment at such a facility is, of course, one of the best ways to gain experience or learn more about the field. Such jobs aren’t available for all students interested in the field, but you can still find part-time work that will give you practical experience, such as in a local machine shop or factory. Students should not overlook the educational benefits of visiting local museums of science and technology or aircraft museums or displays. The National Air and Space Museum at the Smithsonian Institution in Washington, D.C., is one of the most comprehensive museums dedicated to aerospace. Some Air Force bases or naval air stations also offer tours to groups of interested students. The tours may be arranged by teachers or career guidance counselors. The Junior Engineering Technical Society (JETS) provides students a chance to explore career opportunities in engineering and technology, enter academic competitions, and design model structures. JETS administers a competition that allows students to use their technology skills. The Tests of Engineering, Aptitude, Mathematics, and Science is an open-book, open-discussion engineering problem competition. If your school doesn’t have a JETS chapter, check with other schools in your area; sometimes smaller schools can form cooperatives to offer such programs.
n Employers Aeronautical and aerospace technicians and technologists are principally employed by government agencies, commercial airlines, educational institutions, and aerospace manufacturing companies. Most technicians employed by manufacturing companies engage in research, development, and design; the remainder work in production, sales, engineering, installation and maintenance, and other related fields. Those employed by government and educational institutions are normally assigned to do research and specific problem-solving tasks. Airlines
n Starting Out
n Advancement Aeronautical and aerospace technicians continue to learn on the job. As they gain experience in the specialized areas, employers turn to them as experts who can solve problems, create new techniques, devise new designs, or develop practice from theory. Most advancement involves taking on additional responsibilities. For example, with experience, a technician may take on supervisory responsibilities, overseeing several trainees, assistant technicians, or others. Such a technician may also be assigned independent responsibility especially on some tasks usually assigned to an engineer. Technicians with a good working knowledge of the company’s equipment and who have good personalities may become company sales or technical representatives. Technicians seeking further advancement are advised to continue their education. With additional formal education, a technician may become an aeronautical or aerospace engineer.
n Earnings Aerospace technology is a broad field, so earnings vary depending on a technician’s specialty, educational preparation, and work experience. In 2004, the median annual earnings for aerospace technicians were $52,050. Salaries ranged from less than $34,810 to more than $74,740 per year. Benefits depend on employers but usually include paid vacations and holidays, sick pay, health insurance, and a retirement plan. Salary increases will likely be held to a minimum over the next few years as the industry struggles to achieve a new balance after years of cutbacks and difficult markets. Nearly all companies offer some form of tuition reimbursement for further education. Some offer cooperative programs with local schools, combining classroom training with practical paid experience.
n Work Environment The aerospace industry, with its strong emphasis on quality and safety, is a very safe place to work. Special procedures and equipment make otherwise hazardous jobs extremely safe. The range of work covered means that the technicians can work in small teams in specialized research laboratories or in test areas that are large and hospital-clean. Aerospace technicians are at the launch pad, involved in fueling and checkout procedures, and back in the blockhouse sitting at an electronic console. They work in large test facilities or in specialized shops, designing and fabricating equipment. They travel to test sites or tracking stations to construct facilities or troubleshoot systems. Working conditions vary with the assignment, but the work climate is always challenging, and co-workers are well-trained, competent people. Aeronautical technicians may perform inside activities involving confined detail work, they may work outside, or they may combine both situations. Aeronautical and aerospace technicians work in many situations: alone, in small teams, or in large groups. Commonly, technicians participate in team projects, which are coordinated efforts of scientists, engineers, and technicians working on specific assignments. They concentrate on the practical aspects of the project and must get along well with and interact cooperatively with the scientists responsible for the theoretical aspects of the project. Aerospace technicians must be able to perform under deadline pressure, meet strict requirements and rigid specifications, and deal with potentially hazardous situations. They must be willing and flexible enough to acquire new knowledge and techniques to adjust to the rapidly changing technology. In addition, technicians need persistence and tenacity, especially when engaged in experimental and research tasks. They must be responsible, reliable, and willing to accept greater responsibility. Aerospace technology is never far from the public’s attention, and aeronautical technicians have the additional satisfaction of knowing that they are viewed as being engaged in vital and fascinating work.
n Outlook The U.S. Department of Labor predicts that the aerospace industry is likely to decline through 2014 due to foreign completion and the general slowdown in air travel. Furthermore, more efficient production methods and offshoring of industry means that any growth will not necessarily translate to new jobs. However, prospects for aircraft mechanics and avionics service technicians will remain good since, though industry conditions have created a large pool of un- or under-
aeronautical and aerospace technicians
employed technicians, many will retire or seek employment in other industries. Many manufacturers in the aerospace industry have responded to the decline of the 1990s by broadening their production to include other areas of technology. The Aerospace Industries Association of America (AIA) predicts aerospace companies will be looking for qualified technicians in fields such as laser optics, mission operations, hazardous materials procedures, production planning, materials testing, computer-aided design, and robotic operations and programming.
n For More Information For a listing of accredited technology programs, contact Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology Inc. 111 Market Place, Suite 1050 Baltimore, MD 21202-4012 Tel: 410-347-7700 http://www.abet.org
Contact AIA for publications with information on aerospace technologies, careers, and space. Aerospace Industries Association of America (AIA) 1000 Wilson Boulevard, Suite 1700 Arlington, VA 22209-3928 Tel: 703-358-1000 http://www.aia-aerospace.org
For career information and information on student branches of this organization, contact the AIAA. American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics (AIAA) 1801 Alexander Bell Drive, Suite 500 Reston, VA 20191-4344 Tel: 800-639-2422 http://www.aiaa.org
For career and scholarship information, contact General Aviation Manufacturers Association 1400 K Street, NW, Suite 801 Washington, DC 20005 Tel: 202-393-1500 http://www.gama.aero/home.php
JETS has career information and offers high school students the opportunity to “try on” engineering through a number of programs and competitions. For more information, contact Junior Engineering Technical Society 1420 King Street, Suite 405 Alexandria, VA 22314-2794
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Tel: 703-548-5387 Email:
[email protected] http://www.jets.org
SEDS is an international organization of high school and college students dedicated to promoting interest in space. The United States national headquarters are located at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Contact Students for the Exploration and Development of Space (SEDS) MIT Room W20-445 77 Massachusetts Avenue Cambridge, MA 02139-4307 Email: mitseds-officers@mit http://www.mit.edu/~mitseds
For more information on career choices and schools, contact Aerospace Industries Association of Canada 60 Queen Street, Suite 1200 Ottawa, ON K1P 5Y7 Canada Tel: 613-232-4297 Email:
[email protected] http://www.aiac.ca
Aerospace Engineers n Overview Aerospace engineering encompasses the fields of aeronautical (aircraft) and astronautical (spacecraft) engineering. Aerospace engineers work in teams to design, build, and test machines that fly within the earth’s atmosphere and beyond. Although aerospace science is a very specialized discipline, it is also considered one of the most diverse. This field of engineering draws from such subjects as physics, mathematics, earth science, aerodynamics, and biology. Some aerospace engineers specialize in designing one complete machine, perhaps a commercial aircraft, whereas others focus on separate components such as for missile guidance systems. There are approximately 76,000 aerospace engineers working in the United States.
n History The roots of aerospace engineering can be traced as far back as when people first dreamed of being able to fly. Thousands of years ago, the Chinese developed kites and later experimented with gunpowder as a source of pro-
pulsion. In the 15th century, artist Leonardo da Vinci created drawings of two devices that were designed to fly. One, the ornithopter, was supposed to fly the way birds do, by flapping its wings; the other was designed as a rotating screw, closer in form to today’s helicopter. In 1783, Joseph and Jacques Montgolfier of France designed the first hot-air balloon that could be used for manned flight. In 1799, an English baron, Sir George Cayley, designed an aircraft that was one of the first not to be considered “lighter than air,” as balloons were. He developed a fixed-wing structure that led to his creation of the first glider in 1849. Much experimentation was performed in gliders and the science of aerodynamics through the late 1800s. In 1903, the first mechanically powered and controlled flight was completed in a craft designed by Orville and Wilbur Wright. The big boost in airplane development occurred during World War I. In the early years of the war, aeronautical engineering encompassed a variety of engineering skills applied toward the development of flying machines. Civil engineering principles were used in structural design, while early airplane engines were devised by automobile engineers. Aerodynamic design itself was primarily empirical, with many answers coming from liquid flow concepts established in marine engineering. The evolution of the airplane continued during both world wars, with steady technological developments in materials science, propulsion, avionics, and stability and control. Airplanes became larger and faster. Airplanes are commonplace today, but commercial flight became a frequent mode of transportation only as recently as the 1960s and 1970s. Robert Goddard developed and flew the first liquidpropelled rocket in 1926. The technology behind liquid propulsion continued to evolve, and the first U.S. liquid rocket engine was tested in 1938. More sophisticated rockets were eventually created to enable aircraft to be launched into space. The world’s first artificial satellite, Sputnik I, was launched by the Soviets in 1957. In 1961, President John F. Kennedy urged the United States to be the first country to put a man on the moon; on July 20, 1969, astronauts Neil Armstrong and Edwin Aldrin Jr. accomplished that goal. Today, aerospace engineers design spacecraft that explore beyond the earth’s atmosphere. They create missiles and military aircraft of many types, such as fighters, bombers, observers, and transports. Today’s engineers go beyond the dreams of merely learning to fly. For example, in 1998, the United States and 15 other countries began a series of joint missions into space to assemble a planned International Space Station. On the ground, space professionals, including aerospace engineers, will play a vital
role in developing equipment that will be used on the station.
n The Job Although the creation of aircraft and spacecraft involve professionals from many branches of engineering (e.g., materials, electrical, and mechanical), aerospace engineers in particular are responsible for the total design of the craft, including its shape, performance, propulsion, and guidance control system. In the field of aerospace engineering, professional responsibilities vary widely depending on the specific job description. Aeronautical engineers work specifically with aircraft systems, and astronautical engineers specialize in spacecraft systems. Throughout their education and training, aerospace engineers thoroughly learn the complexities involved in how materials and structures perform under tremendous stress. In general, they are called upon to apply their knowledge of the following subjects: propulsion, aerodynamics, thermodynamics, fluid mechanics, flight mechanics, and structural analysis. Less technically scientific issues must also often be dealt with, such as cost analysis, reliability studies, maintainability, operations research, marketing, and management. There are many professional titles given to certain aerospace engineers. Analytical engineers use engineering and mathematical theory to solve questions that arise during the design phase. Stress analysts determine how the weight and loads of structures behave under a variety of conditions. This analysis is performed with computers and complex formulas. Computational fluid dynamic (CFD) engineers use sophisticated high-speed computers to develop models used in the study of fluid dynamics. Using simulated systems, they determine how elements flow around objects; simulation saves time and money and eliminates risks involved with actual testing. As computers become more complex, so do the tasks of the CFD engineer. Design aerospace engineers draw from the expertise of many other specialists. They devise the overall structure of components and entire crafts, meeting the specifications developed by those more specialized in aerodynamics, astrodynamics, and structural engineering. Design engineers use computer-aided design programs for many of their tasks. Manufacturing aerospace engineers develop the plans for producing the complex components that make up aircraft and spacecraft. They work with the designers to ensure that the plans are economically feasible and will produce efficient, effective components. Materials aerospace engineers determine the suitability of the various materials that are used to produce aerospace vehicles. Aircraft and spacecraft require the
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appropriate tensile strength, density, and rigidity for the particular environments they are subjected to. Determining how materials such as steel, glass, and even chemical compounds react to temperature and stress is an important part of the materials engineer’s responsibilities. Quality control is a task that aerospace engineers perform throughout the development, design, and manufacturing processes. The finished product must be evaluated for its reliability, vulnerability, and how it is to be maintained and supported. Marketing and sales aerospace engineers work with customers, usually industrial corporations and the government, informing them of product performance. They act as a liaison between the technical engineers and the clients to help ensure that the products delivered are performing as planned. Sales engineers also need to anticipate the needs of the customer, as far ahead as possible, to inform their companies of potential marketing opportunities. They also keep abreast of their competitors and need quick facts to understand how to structure school subjects contracts effectively.
n Requirements High School While in high school, follow a college preparatory program. Doing well in mathematics and science classes is vital if you want to pursue a career in any type of engineering field. The American Society for Engineering Education advises students to take calculus and trigonometry in high school, as well as laboratory science classes. Such courses provide the skills you’ll need for problem solving, an essential skill in any type of engineering.
Postsecondary Training Aerospace engineers need a bachelor’s degree to enter the field. More advanced degrees are necessary for those interested in teaching or research and development positions. While a major in aerospace engineering is the norm, other majors are acceptable. For example, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration
Mathematics Physics
Personal Skills
Mechanical/manipulative Technical/scientific Work Environment
Primarily indoors Primarily one location Minimum Education Level
Bachelor’s degree Salary Range
$56,190 to $82,370 to $114,950+ Certification or Licensing
Required by certain states Outlook
More slowly than the average DOT
002 GOE
02.07.04 NOC
2146 O*NET-SOC
17-2011.00
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years. After acquiring suitable work experience, EITs can take the second examination, the Principles and Practice of Engineering exam, to gain full PE licensure. In order to ensure that aerospace engineers are kept up-to-date on their quickly changing field, many states have imposed continuing education requirements for relicensure.
Other Requirements
Aerospace engineers check the electronics in the cockpit of an F-14. (Roger Tully, Tony Stone Images.)
recommends a degree in any of a variety of disciplines, including biomedical engineering, ceramics engineering, chemistry, industrial engineering, materials science, metallurgy, optical engineering, and oceanography. You should make sure the college you choose has an accredited engineering program. The Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology (ABET) sets minimum education standards for programs in these fields. Graduation from an ABET-accredited school is a requirement for becoming licensed in many states, so it is important to select an accredited school. Currently, approximately 250 colleges and universities offer ABET-accredited engineering programs. Visit ABET’s Web site (http://www. abet.org) for a listing of accredited schools. Some aerospace engineers complete master’s degrees and even doctoral work before entering this field. Advanced degrees can significantly increase an engineer’s earnings. Students continuing on to graduate school will study research and development, with a thesis required for a master’s degree and a dissertation for a doctorate. About one-third of all aerospace engineers go on to graduate school to get a master’s degree.
Certification or Licensing Most states require engineers to be licensed. There are two levels of licensing for engineers. Professional Engineers (PEs) have graduated from an accredited engineering curriculum, have four years of engineering experience, and have passed a written exam. Engineering graduates need not wait until they have four years experience, however, to start the licensure process. Those who pass the Fundamentals of Engineering examination after graduating are called Engineers in Training (EITs) or Engineer Interns (EIs). The EIT certification usually is valid for 10
Aerospace engineers should enjoy completing detailed work, problem solving, and participating in group efforts. Mathematical, science, and computer skills are a must. Equally important, however, are the abilities to communicate ideas, share in teamwork, and visualize the forms and functions of structures. Curiosity, inventiveness, and the willingness to continue to learn from experiences are excellent qualities to have for this type of work.
n Exploring If you like to work on model airplanes and rockets, you may be a good candidate for an aerospace engineering career. Consider working on special research assignments supervised by your science and math teachers. You may also want to try working on cars and boats, which provides a good opportunity to discover more about aerodynamics. A part-time job with a local manufacturer can give you some exposure to product engineering and development. Exciting opportunities are often available at summer camps and academic programs throughout the country. For instance, the University of North Dakota presents an aerospace camp focusing on study and career exploration that includes instruction in model rocketry and flight. However, admission to the camp is competitive; the camp usually consists of two 10-day programs for 32 students each. (See the end of this article for more information.) It is also a good idea to join a science club while in high school. For example, the Junior Engineering Technical Society provides members with opportunities to enter academic competitions, explore career opportunities, and design model structures. Contact information is available at the end of this article. Aerospace America (http://www.aiaa.org/aerospace), published by the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, is a helpful magazine for exploring careers in aerospace. You should also check out Engineering: Your Future (http://www.asee.org/precollege) at the American Society for Engineering Education’s Web site. It offers general information about careers in engineering, as well as answers to frequently asked questions about engineering.
n Employers The U.S. Department of Labor reports that approximately 76,000 aerospace engineers are employed in the United States. Many aircraft-related engineering jobs are found in Alabama, California, and Florida, where large aerospace companies are located. More than 70 percent of all aerospace engineers work in products and parts. Government agencies such as the Department of Defense and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration employ approximately 12 percent of aerospace engineers. Other employers include engineering services, research and testing services, and electronics manufacturers.
n Starting Out Many students begin their careers while completing their studies through work-study arrangements that sometimes turn into full-time jobs. Most aerospace manufacturers actively recruit engineering students, conducting on-campus interviews and other activities to locate the best candidates. Students preparing to graduate can also send out resumes to companies active in the aerospace industry and arrange interviews. Many colleges and universities also staff job placement centers, which are often good places to find leads for new job openings. Students can also apply directly to agencies of the federal government concerned with aerospace development and implementation. Applications can be made through the Office of Personnel Management or through an agency’s own hiring department. Professional associations, such as the National Society of Professional Engineers and the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, offer job placement services, including career advice, job listings, and training. Their Web addresses are listed at the end of this article.
n Advancement As in most engineering fields, there tends to be a hierarchy of workers in the various divisions of aerospace engineering. This is true in research, design and development, production, and teaching. In an entry-level job, one is considered simply an engineer, perhaps a junior engineer. After a certain amount of experience is gained, depending on the position, one moves on to work as a project engineer, supervising others. Then, as a managing engineer, one has further responsibilities over a number of project engineers and their teams. At the top of the hierarchy is the position of chief engineer, which involves authority over managing engineers and additional decision-making responsibilities. As engineers move up the career ladder, the type of responsibilities they have tend to change. Junior engineers are highly involved in technical matters and scien-
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Eating in Space Aerospace engineers don’t just work on the nuts and bolts of spacecraft. Some are concerned with the more immediate needs of astronauts, such as developing special equipment to allow them to eat in space. Behind each meal is hours of research and special processes such as irradiation, rehydration, and thermostabilization. Astronauts rehydrate foods (adding moisture to make food edible) at a hydration station on the shuttle. The station is an electronic dispensing system that moistens food and provides drinking water for the crew. Astronauts insert specially designed food packages into the station where a needle penetrates the rubber packaging and injects a specified amount of water into the food. After food is rehydrated, the package can be heated, if necessary. Condiments available to astronauts include salt, pepper, taco sauce, hot pepper sauce, ketchup, mayonnaise, and mustard. The salt and pepper are liquids stored in small plastic squeeze bottles. The remaining condiments are packaged in individual pouches. Aerospace engineers help develop the equipment and packaging so scientists and others can ensure that the space diet provides the proper nutrients and calorie requirements (approximately 2,700 calories per day).
tific problem solving. As managers and chiefs, engineers have the responsibilities of supervising, cost analyzing, and relating with clients. All engineers must continue to learn and study technological progress throughout their careers. It is important to keep abreast of engineering advancements and trends by reading industry journals and taking courses. Such courses are offered by professional associations or colleges. In aerospace engineering especially, changes occur rapidly, and those who seek promotions must be prepared. Those who are employed by colleges and universities must continue teaching and conducting research if they want to have tenured (more guaranteed) faculty positions.
n Earnings In 2004, the median salary for all aerospace engineers was about $82,370 per year, according to the U.S. Department of Labor. The lowest paid 10 percent earned less than $56,190 per year, and the highest paid 10 percent earned more than $114,950 per year. Experienced engineers employed by the federal government tended to earn a little more, with a median salary of $89,590. Federal employees, however, enjoy greater job
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Top Paying Industries for Aerospace Engineers And Average Salaries, 2004 Scientific research and development services: $93,730 Satellite telecommunications: $91,960 Computer systems design and related services: $91,910 Federal government: $89,590 Electronic instrument manufacturing: $89,360 Source: U.S. Department of Labor
security and often more generous vacation and retirement benefits. All engineers can expect to receive vacation and sick pay, paid holidays, health insurance, life insurance, and retirement programs.
n Work Environment Aerospace engineers work in various settings depending on their job description. Those involved in research and design usually work in a traditional office setting. They spend considerable time at computers and drawing boards. Engineers involved with the testing of components and structures often work outside at test sites or in laboratories where controlled testing conditions can be created. In the manufacturing area of the aerospace industry, engineers often work on the factory floor itself, assembling components and making sure that they conform to design specifications. This job requires much walking around large production facilities, such as aircraft factories or spacecraft assembly plants. Engineers are sometimes required to travel to other locations to consult with companies that make materials and other needed components. Others travel to remote test sites to observe and participate in flight testing. Aerospace engineers are also employed with the Federal Aviation Administration and commercial airline companies. These engineers perform a variety of duties, including performance analysis and crash investigations. Companies that are involved with satellite communications need the expertise of aerospace engineers to better interpret the many aspects of the space environment and the problems involved with getting a satellite launched into space.
n Outlook
The aerospace industry has gone through difficult times since the late 1980s, and more job losses are predicted for the immediate future. Shrinking space program budgets, increased reliance on automation, and the continuing wave of corporate downsizing have all combined to cut severely into the aerospace industry. Overall, the U.S. Department of Labor predicts a decline in the industry and slower than average job growth for aerospace engineers through 2014. Nevertheless, the aerospace industry remains vital to the health of the national economy. Increasing airline traffic and the need to replace aging airplanes with quieter and more fuel-efficient aircraft will boost demand for aerospace engineers. The federal government has increased defense budgets in order to build up the armed forces. More aerospace engineers will be needed to repair and add to the current air fleet, as well as to improve defense technology. Engineers are also needed to help make commercial aircraft safer, designing and installing reinforced cockpit doors and onboard security screening equipment to protect pilots, crew, and commercial passengers. Even though the outlook for growth in this field is not especially favorable, graduates of aerospace engineering programs are highly sought after, since this field experienced a drop-off in graduates for several years due to perceived lack of job opportunities. With the right skills, talents, and determination, one can still find a promising career in this branch of engineering.
n For More Information For a list of accredited schools and colleges, contact Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology Inc. 111 Market Place, Suite 1050 Baltimore, MD 21202-4102 Tel: 410-347-7700 http://www.abet.org
The following organizations provide information about scholarships, colleges, and career opportunities: Air Force Association 1501 Lee Highway Arlington, VA 22209-1198 Tel: 800-291-8480 http://www.afa.org
American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics 1801 Alexander Bell Drive, Suite 500 Reston, VA 20191-4344 Tel: 800-639-2422
agribusiness technicians
http://www.aiaa.org
American Society for Engineering Education 1818 N Street, NW, Suite 600 Washington, DC 20036-2479 Tel: 202-331-3500 http://www.asee.org
The following organizations offer information geared specifically toward students. Visit their Web sites or contact them for information. Junior Engineering Technical Society 1420 King Street, Suite 405 Alexandria, VA 22314 Tel: 703-548-5387 Email:
[email protected] http://www.jets.org
National Society of Professional Engineers 1420 King Street Alexandria, VA 22314-2794 Tel: 703-684-2800 http://www.nspe.org/students
For information on aerospace programs and summer camps, contact University of North Dakota John D. Odergard School of Aerospace Sciences PO Box 9007 Grand Forks, ND 58202-9007 Tel: 800-258-1525 http://www.aero.und.edu
Agribusiness Technicians n Overview Agribusiness technicians combine their agriculture and business backgrounds to manage or offer management consulting services to farms and agricultural businesses. Agribusiness technicians, also called agricultural business technicians and farm and home management advisers, generally work as liaisons between farms and agricultural businesses, representing either the farm or the business.
n History The marketing of agricultural products first concerned farmers in the early 20th century. Cooperative organiza-
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tions were formed in the 1920s, allowing farmers to control the marketing of their commodities, but farmers still struggled to make profits. It was about this time that the field of agricultural economics evolved; the International Association of Agricultural Economics was established in 1929. The Dust Bowl of the 1930s complicated farm economics further, leading to New Deal legislation. Under the New Deal, which enacted the first effective farm legislation in the United States, the secretary of agriculture could control crop production. In the following years, agriculture expanded as a result of scientific advances and better methods of planting and harvesting. By the 1960s, marketing had become much more complicated for farmers, leading to the development of agribusiness as a major career field. Today, agribusiness is much larger than the farming industry; two-thirds of each dollar spent on food goes toward processing, packaging, marketquick facts ing, and retailing, with only one-third going to the farm.
n The Job Agribusiness is as diverse a field as agriculture, and it involves professionals in economics, sales, marketing, commodities, science, and other areas. Technicians assist these professionals. They may work for a farm or for a business or organization that assists farmers. They may spend their workdays out in the field or behind a desk or a combination of these two. Their work may focus on such areas as grain, livestock, or dairy farm production. Some agribusiness technicians choose to go into business management, working as part of a personnel-management office for a large corporate farm or dairy. In such a position, the technician manages staff, coordinates work plans with farm managers, and oversees the entire salary structure for farm or other production workers. Other agribusiness technicians work as purchasing agents, supervising all the buying for large commercial farms. Another option for the agribusi-
school subjects
Agriculture Business Personal Skills
Leadership/management Technical/scientific Work Environment
Indoors and outdoors Primarily multiple locations Minimum Education Level
Associate’s degree Salary Range
$22,240 to $41,270 to $68,350+ Certification or Licensing
None available Outlook
About as fast as the average DOT
N/A GOE
03.01.01 NOC
N/A O*NET-SOC
25-9021.00
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Learn More about It Baker, Gregory A. et al. Introduction to Food and Agribusiness Management. Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 2001. Beierlein, James G. et al. Principles of Agribusiness Management. 2d ed. Prospect Heights, Ill.: Waveland Press, 1995. Charles, Daniel. Lords of the Harvest: Biotech, Big Money, and the Future of Food. Cambridge, Mass.: Perseus Books, 2001. Cramer, Gail L. et al. Agricultural Economics and Agribusiness. 8th ed. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 2000. Martineau, Belinda. First Fruit: The Creation of the Flavr Savr Tomato and the Birth of Biotech Foods. New York: McGraw-Hill Professional Publishing, 2001. Nelson, Gerald C. ed. Genetically Modified Organisms in Agriculture: Economics and Politics. Burlington, Mass.: Academic Press, 2001. Ricketts, Cliff. Introduction to Agribusiness. Clifton Park, N.Y.: Thomson Learning, Delmar, 2001. Schmitz, Andrew et al. Agricultural Policy, Agribusiness, and Rent-Seeking Behaviour. Toronto, Ont.: University of Toronto Press, 2002. Solbrig, Otto, and Dorothy Solbrig. So Shall You Reap: Farming and Crops in Human Affairs. Washington, D.C.: Island Press, 1996.
ness technician is to work as a farm sales representative, finding the best markets for the produce of farms on a local, state, or national level. In this capacity, the technician travels a great deal and works closely with records technicians and other personnel of the farm or farms he or she represents. Some agribusiness technicians assist farmers with record keeping. The records that farmers and other agricultural business people must keep are becoming more detailed and varied every year. Agribusiness technicians may set up complete record-keeping systems. They analyze records and help farmers make management decisions based on the accumulated facts. Computerized record keeping is common now, so there is a tremendous need for agricultural records technicians who can create tailor-made programs to help farmers get maximum benefit from their output. Furthermore, they analyze the output and make practical applications of the information. In some positions, such as agricultural quality control technician, the technician works directly with farmers but is employed by another company. Dairy production field-
contact technicians, for example, serve as contact people between dairy companies and the farms that produce the milk. They negotiate long- or short-term contracts to purchase milk and milk products according to agreedupon specifications; meet with farmers to test milk for butterfat content, sediment, and bacteria; and discuss ways to solve milk-production problems and improve production. They may suggest methods of feeding, housing, and milking to improve production or comply with sanitary regulations. They may set up truck routes to haul milk to the dairy; solicit membership in cooperative associations; or even sell items such as dairy-farm equipment, chemicals, and feed to the farmers they contact. Poultry field-service technicians represent food-processing companies or cooperative associations. They inspect farms to ensure compliance with agreements involving facilities, equipment, sanitation, and efficiency. They also advise farmers on how to improve the quality of their products. Technicians may examine chickens for evidence of disease and growth rate to determine the effectiveness of medication and feeding programs. They may then recommend changes in equipment or procedures to improve production. They inform farmers of new techniques, government regulations, and company or association production standards so they can upgrade their farms to meet requirements. They may recommend laboratory testing of feeds, diseased chickens, and diet supplements. In these cases, they often gather samples and take them to a laboratory for analysis. They report their findings on farm conditions, laboratory tests, their own recommendations, and farmers’ reactions to the company or association employing them. Agribusiness technicians also work for credit institutions that solicit the business of farmers, make appraisals of real estate and personal property, organize and present loan requests, close loans, and service those loans with periodic reviews of the borrower’s management performance and financial status. They also work as farm representatives for banks, cooperatives, or federal lending institutions. In this capacity they sell their organizations’ services to farmers or agricultural business people, make appraisals, and do the paperwork involved with lending money.
n Requirements High School In high school, you should take social studies, laboratory science (biology, chemistry, or physics), mathematics, and, if possible, agriculture and business classes. English and composition will be particularly helpful, since oral and written communications are central to the work of the agribusiness technician. Also, take computer classes
so that you are familiar with using this technology. Computers are often used in record keeping and production planning.
Postsecondary Training After completing high school, it is necessary to train in a two-year agricultural or technical college. Many colleges offer associate’s degrees in agribusiness or agricultural management. The programs concentrate on basic economic theory; training in management analysis and practical problem solving; and intensive communications training, such as public speaking and report writing. Typical first-year courses in an agricultural or technical college include English, biology, health and physical education, introductory animal husbandry, principles of accounting, agricultural economics, microbiology, botany, introductory data processing, soil science, and principles of business. Typical second-year courses include marketing agricultural commodities, farm management, social science, agricultural finance, agricultural marketing institutions, forage and seed crops, personnel management, and agricultural records and taxation.
Other Requirements You must be able to work well with other people, including being able to delegate responsibility and establish friendly relations with farmers, laborers, and company managers. You must be able to analyze management problems and make sound decisions based on your analysis. And you must have excellent oral and written communications skills: Technicians are expected to present written and oral reports, offer comments and advice clearly, and, when necessary, train other workers for a particular job.
n Exploring Try to get summer or part-time employment in your desired specialty—for example, a clerical job in a farm insurance agency or as a laborer in a feed and grain company. Because many technical colleges offer evening courses, it may be possible to obtain permission during your senior year to audit a course or even to take it for future college credit. Work experience on a farm will give you insight into the business concerns of farmers, as will industry periodicals such as Farm Journal (http://www. farmjournal.com) and Grain Journal (http://www.grainnet. com). Join your high school’s chapter of the National FFA Organization (formerly known as Future Farmers of America) or a local 4-H group, where you may have the opportunity to work on farm-management projects.
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n Employers Many different agriculture-based businesses hire graduates of agribusiness programs. Employers include large commercial farms, grain elevators, credit unions, farm equipment dealerships, farm supply stores, fertilizer and processing plants, agricultural chemical companies, and local, state, and federal government agencies.
n Starting Out Your agribusiness program will likely require a semester or more of employment experience and will assist you in finding an internship or part-time job with agribusiness professionals. Many students are able to turn their internships into full-time work or make connections that lead to other job opportunities. Most agribusiness technician jobs are considered entry-level, or management trainee, positions and don’t require a great deal of previous experience. These jobs are often advertised in the classifieds or posted with career placement centers at community colleges.
n Advancement The ultimate aim of many technicians is to own a business. Technicians can start their own companies in any agricultural business area or act as freelance agents under contract to perform specific services for several firms. For example, an experienced agribusiness technician may purchase a computer and data-processing equipment, set up the necessary record-keeping programs, and act as a consulting firm for a host of farms and agricultural businesses. There are many other positions an agribusiness technician may hold. Farm managers oversee all operations of a farm and work closely with owners and other management, customers, and all farm departments on larger farms. Regional farm credit managers supervise several of a bank’s farm representatives. They may suggest training programs for farm representatives, recommend changes
Unusual Organizations You’ve heard of dairy, beef, and pork associations—but how about these other agricultural groups? n
American Alligator Council
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American Emu Association
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Great Plains Bison Association
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Mushroom Council
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National Christmas Tree Association
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National Hot Dog and Sausage Council
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in lending procedures, and conduct personal audits of randomly selected farm accounts. Sales managers act as liaisons between company sales representatives and individual dealers, distributors, or farmers.
n Earnings Salaries for agribusiness technicians ranged from less than $22,240 to more than $68,350 in 2004. The median annual salary for this career in 2004 was $41,270. Fringe benefits vary widely, depending upon the employer. Some amount to as much as one-third of the base salary. More and more employers are providing such benefits as pension plans, paid vacations, insurance, and tuition reimbursement.
n Work Environment Because the field is so large, working environments may be anywhere from a corporate office to a corn field. Those who work in sales are likely to travel a good deal, with a few nights spent on the road or even a few weeks spent out of the country. Technicians at banks or data-processing services usually work in clean, pleasant surroundings. The technician who goes into farm management or who owns a farm is likely to work outdoors in all kinds of weather. Agribusiness technicians are often confronted with problems requiring careful thought and decision. They must be able to remain calm when things get hectic, to make sound decisions, and then to stand by their decisions in the face of possible disagreement. It is a profession that requires initiative, self-reliance, and the ability to accept responsibilities that may bring blame at times of failure as well as substantial rewards for successful performance. For those technicians who possess the qualities of leadership and a strong interest in the agricultural business, it can be a challenging, exciting, and highly satisfying profession.
n Outlook According to the U.S. Department of Labor, agribusiness provides employment to about 21 percent of the country’s labor force. Despite the fluctuations in the agricultural industry, agribusiness professionals and technicians will continue to be in great demand in the marketing and production of food and other agricultural products. Agribusiness technicians may find more opportunities to work abroad; agribusiness plays a large part in global trade issues and in the government’s efforts to support farms and agricultural reforms in other countries, such as with the U.S. Department of Agriculture’s program with the Russian Ministry of Agriculture and Food.
Agribusiness construction is a subfield that is developing as a result of these reforms; technicians will be needed to assist in the planning and construction of farm-to-market roads in other countries, irrigation channels, bridges, grain silos, and other improvements.
n For More Information To learn about the roles economists play in agriculture, visit the AAEA Web site. American Agricultural Economics Association (AAEA) 415 South Duff Avenue, Suite C Ames, IA 50010-6600 Tel: 515-233-3202 http://www.aaea.org
For more information on opportunities in the agricultural field, schooling, and these organizations, contact 4-H Families, 4-H & Nutrition CSREES/USDA 1400 Independence Avenue, SW Washington, DC 20250-2225 Tel: 202-720-2908 http://www.4h-usa.org
For information on careers and chapter membership, contact National FFA Organization National FFA Center PO Box 68960 Indianapolis, IN 46268-0960 Tel: 317-802-6060 http://www.ffa.org
Agricultural Consultants n Overview Agricultural consultants, sometimes known as agricultural extension service workers, live in rural communities and act as resources for farmers on a range of topics from agricultural technology to the issues facing the modern rural family. They are employed by either the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) or by the Department of Agriculture and the agricultural colleges in that state. Agricultural consultants advise farmers on improved methods of agriculture and agricultural work
such as farm management, crop rotation, soil conservation, livestock breeding and feeding, use of new machinery, and marketing. They assist individuals wishing to start their own farms, provide the most current agricultural advancements to the community, and speak to the community or local government groups on agricultural issues. They also supervise the work of family and community educators and young people’s clubs such as 4-H. This government-sponsored program is called the Cooperative State Research, Education and Extension Service (CSREES).
n History In the late 18th century, President George Washington decided to establish an educational agency of the federal government dedicated to assisting the nation’s farmers. Washington’s proposal eventually developed into what is now known as the Department of Agriculture. In 1862, President Abraham Lincoln promoted the Morrill Act, which established land grant colleges. Under this act, each state was given 30,000 acres of land for each senator and representative in Congress. The state was to sell the land and use the proceeds to build colleges that would specialize in education for agriculture and engineering. Once established, the state agricultural colleges were faced with the task of compiling enough data to develop an agricultural curriculum that would be of use to the American farmer. Under the Hatch Act of 1887, experimental stations were created. These agricultural laboratory settings were devoted to gathering information regarding soils, crops, livestock, fruits, and machinery. They became sources of information for both agricultural colleges and farmers. Land-grant colleges became important resources for agricultural data and education. However, it soon became clear that it would be more effective to send people into the field who were familiar with the farmers’ work and who were educated in the agricultural sciences than to expect farmers to leave their work or come from remote areas to attend college classes. Thus, the role of the agricultural consultant came into being. The Cooperative Extension Service was developed and placed in operation in 1914 on a federal basis by the passage of the Smith-Lever Act. The service was opened to any state that wished to join the educational project on a cooperative basis, and most states accepted the opportunity. Because of this, every state agricultural college in the nation today has an extension service as one of its major departmental classifications.
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In 1994, the U.S. Department of Agriculture Reorganization Act created the CSREES, which expands the research and higher education functions of the former cooperative State Research Service and the education and outreach functions of the former Extension Service.
n The Job Agricultural consultants teach agricultural subjects at places other than college campuses. The aim of these educational programs is to teach agricultural workers to analyze and solve agricultural problems. They cover such topics as soil and crop improvement, livestock, farm machinery, fertilizers, new methods of planting, and any other subject that may be of assistance to the farmer. Classroom settings are avoided. Rather, the consultants work on-site, possibly while the farmer is engaged in planting or harvesting, or in small evening meetings of five or quick facts six farmers. Occasionally, classes school subjects are offered in more formal setAgriculture tings during which the consulBusiness tant speaks before larger groups Economics and makes presentations. Personal Skills County agricultural agents Helping/teaching work closely with federal agriculLeadership/management tural agents in gathering information to be presented to the Work Environment farmers. Information on agronIndoors and outdoors Primarily multiple locations omy (the theory and practice of soil management and crop proMinimum Education Level duction), livestock, marketing, Bachelor’s degree agricultural and home economics, horticulture, and entomology Salary Range $24,667 to $37,390 to (the study of insects) may come $99,053 either from the state agricultural college or from the CSREES. The Certification or Licensing county agricultural worker’s job None available is to review the new information, decide what is most pertinent to Outlook Decline local operations, and then present it as effectively as possible to DOT the farmers in that particular area. 096 The county or federal extension service agent’s work is primarGOE 12.03.02 ily educational in nature and is aimed at increasing the efficiency NOC of agricultural production and 2123 marketing and the development of new and different markets for O*NET-SOC agricultural products. 25-9021.00
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Inside the USDA Professionals and technicians with agricultural education and training can find work in a number of USDA programs, including the following: n
Agricultural Research Service (ARS) (http://www.ars. usda.gov): The principal in-house research agency of USDA.
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National Agricultural Library (http://www.nalusda. gov): Part of the ARS; a major international source for agriculture information; one of four national libraries in the country.
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Economic Research Service (http://www.ers.usda. gov): Provides information about agriculture and natural resources.
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National Agricultural Statistics Service (http://www. usda.gov/nass): Administers USDA's program for collecting and publishing timely national and state agricultural statistics.
County agricultural agents also work closely with family and community educators (FCEs), who assist and instruct families on ways to improve their home life. This work ranges from offering advice and suggestions on preserving fruits and vegetables to improving health care and nutrition, assisting in balancing family budgets, and handling family stress. The FCE is responsible for keeping current in every area relating to the rural home and for sharing this information with families in a particular county or group of counties. 4-H Club agents organize and direct the educational projects and activities of the 4-H Club, the largest outof-school youth program in the United States. Nearly seven million youths participate in 4-H Clubs in rural and urban settings. 4-H educational programs focus on building lifelong learning skills that develop youth potential. An extensive set of programs is designed to engage youth in healthy learning experiences, increasing selfesteem, and problem-solving skills. Programs address stress management, self-protection, parent-teen communication, personal development, careers, and global understanding. Youth are encouraged to explore science, technology, and citizenship. 4-H Club agents analyze the needs of individuals and the community, develop teaching materials, train volunteers, and organize exhibits at state and county fairs. They also introduce children and adolescents to techniques in raising animals and plants, including breeding, husbandry, and nutrition.
Due to technological advancements in electronic communication, there are interesting opportunities for careers in communications with the USDA Extension Service. There is a degree of specialization involved, especially at the federal level. Federal agricultural consultants often become program leaders who are responsible for developing and maintaining relationships with various land-grant colleges, universities, government agencies, and private agencies involved in agriculture. In some cases, they also become educational research and training specialists responsible for developing research programs in all phases of consulting work. The results of these programs are shared with the various state agencies. Subject matter specialists develop programs through which new information can be presented to the farmers effectively. Educational media specialists condense information and distribute it as it becomes available to the states for use in their local extension programs. These consultants may be designated extension service specialists. An extension service worker who is in charge of programs for a group of counties is known as a district extension service agent.
n Requirements High School You should follow your high school’s college preparatory program and take courses in English, government, foreign language, and history. Also, be sure to take courses in mathematics and the sciences, particularly biology and physics. Computer courses will also be beneficial. Take any economics courses available, along with accounting and business classes, as agricultural consultants are actively involved in farm management.
Postsecondary Training To do this work, you’ll need a bachelor’s degree with a major in agriculture or economics. If you hope to join the on-campus staff at your state’s agricultural college, you’ll need at least a master’s degree. College courses usually required for this work include English, history, chemistry, biology, economics, education, sociology, and speech, as well as animal science, crop production, horticulture, soils, and farm management. A number of colleges have developed regular agricultural extension curriculums to be followed by those hoping to enter the field. After finishing college, county agents are kept up to date on the latest programs, policies, and teaching techniques through in-service training programs run by state agricultural colleges and the Department of Agriculture.
Other Requirements
You’ll need a background of practical farming experience and a thorough knowledge of the types of problems confronting farmers, members of rural communities, and their families. Farmers naturally feel more comfortable seeking advice from people whom they feel have a complete understanding of their work. You must be a good teacher and should enjoy working with people. You must also be assertive, yet diplomatic, and have a particular affinity for farmers and their problems. In addition, you will be expected to organize group projects, meetings, and broad educational programs that both adults and young people involved in agriculture will find stimulating and useful. You’ll need the professional interest and enthusiasm that will enable you to keep up with the huge amount of new agricultural information constantly being released. You must be willing to learn and use the latest teaching techniques to disseminate current agricultural practices and knowledge to local residents.
n Exploring To get a sense of the job, you can read the pamphlets and occupational information brochures published by the USDA about this field, and you can request meetings with your local agricultural agent. Any of the state agricultural colleges will send materials or release the name of the local agent for interested students. Another way to prepare to explore this field is to join groups such as 4-H, National FFA Organization (formerly Future Farmers of America), and the Boy or Girl Scouts. You may also volunteer to work at an extension office. It may be possible to visit with farmers or others engaged in agriculture to hear their impressions of the work carried on by the agricultural consultants in your particular county.
n Employers Federal agricultural consultants are employed by the USDA to assist county extension officers and supervisors in planning, developing, and coordinating national, regional, and state extension programs. They are headquartered in Washington, D.C. County agricultural agents may be employed jointly by the Department of Agriculture and the agricultural college in each state. County agents may also specialize, especially in those counties employing more than two or three agents. Many counties with diverse agricultural businesses and farms will often have five or more agents. A single county may employ specialists in fruit and grain production, dairy, poultry production, farm machinery, pest control, soils, nursery management, conservation, and livestock.
agricultural consultants
n Starting Out While your college’s placement service may be of some help in finding a job, you will need to apply to the director of the extension service at the agricultural college in the state in which you hope to work. If a job vacancy is available, the director of the extension service will screen the qualifications of the various applicants and submit the names to a board or council responsible for making the final selection.
n Advancement Competent consultants, as a rule, are promoted fairly rapidly and early in their careers. The promotions may be in the form of positions of higher responsibility within the same county, reassignment to a different county within the state, or an increase in salary. Many agents, after moving through a succession of more demanding extension jobs, join the staff at the state agricultural college. Many directors of extension services began their careers in this way. It is also possible to branch out to other areas. Agricultural consultants often go into related jobs, especially those in industries that specialize in agricultural products. The training they have received and their background in agriculture makes them excellent candidates for many jobs in the agricultural industry.
n Earnings The earnings of agricultural consultants vary from state to state and from county to county. Most USDA professionals start out at the GS-5 level (government pay grade), which in 2005 ranged between $24,667 and $32,084 annually, depending on education and experience. Agricultural consultants then move up through the government pay grades, earning more. GS-9 level, for example, had a starting base pay of $37,390 in 2005. With some years of experience with the USDA, and with additional education, consultants can advance to GS-14, which in 2005 paid between $76,193 and $99,053 a year. Most consultants are eligible for other benefits such as paid vacations and sick days, health insurance, and pension plans.
n Work Environment This work is often both mentally and physically taxing. Agricultural consultants will find themselves faced with numerous problems requiring their assistance in the field for long periods of time. They may be in their office handling routine matters every day for a month and then not work in the office for the next six weeks. (Consultants usually have a private office
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where they can speak in confidence with those who seek assistance.) As a rule, agricultural consultants spend about half of their time in the field working with farmers on specific problems, scheduling or conducting group meetings, or simply distributing new updated information. They usually drive from 500 to 1,500 miles per month while on the job. The work may be hard on the consultant’s family, since evening meetings are required, and the agent is often invited to weekend events as well. For example, agents may conduct small informal meetings on Monday and Tuesday nights to discuss particular problems being faced by a small group of farmers in the county. They may be home on Wednesday, work with a students’ 4-H Club on Thursday, conduct another meeting on Friday, and then judge a livestock show at the county fair on Saturday. Hours for consultants are not regular, and the pay is not particularly high considering the number of hours agents are required to work. But this work can be very rewarding. There is great satisfaction to be found working with people who genuinely appreciate the time, advice, and assistance the agent brings.
n Outlook The work of agricultural consultants is, naturally, heavily dependent on the employment of farmers and farm managers, and the U.S. Department of Labor predicts a decline in employment for these workers through 2014. As farms consolidate and there are fewer farm families, the need for agricultural consultants may also decline. However, consultants may find opportunities working with rural nonfarming families and various suburban residents who are interested in specialty areas such as urban horticulture and gardening. As the farming industry is becoming more complex, those consultants with the most thorough education and training will have the best job prospects. The idea of agricultural consulting programs is spreading to many foreign countries. Job opportunities may come from a need for U.S. county and federal agents to assist their counterparts in other countries in setting up and operating agricultural consulting programs.
n For More Information To learn about CSREES and to access a list of land-grant universities, contact U.S. Department of Agriculture Cooperative State Research, Education, and Extension Service 1400 Independence Avenue, SW, Room 4008, Waterfront Centre
Washington, DC 20250-2216 Tel: 202-720-2047 http://www.reeusda.gov
For more information on opportunities and education in the agricultural field, contact the following organizations: 4-H Families, 4-H, and Nutrition CSREES/USDA 1400 Independence Avenue, SW Washington DC 20250-2225 http://www.4husa.org
National FFA Organization National FFA Center PO Box 68960 Indianapolis, IN 46268-0960 Tel: 317-802-6060 http://www.ffa.org
Agricultural Equipment Technicians n Overview Agricultural equipment technicians work with modern farm machinery. They assemble, adjust, operate, maintain, modify, test, and even help design it. This machinery includes automatic animal feeding systems; milking machine systems; and tilling, planting, harvesting, irrigating, drying, and handling equipment. Agricultural equipment technicians work on farms or for agricultural machinery manufacturers or dealerships. They often supervise skilled mechanics and other workers who keep machines and systems operating at maximum efficiency. Approximately 32,330 agricultural equipment technicians are employed in the United States.
n History The history of farming equipment stretches back to prehistoric times, when the first agricultural workers developed the sickle. In the Middle Ages, the horse-drawn plow greatly increased farm production, and in the early 1700s, Jethro Tull designed and built the first mechanical seed planter, further increasing production. The industrial revolution brought advances in the design and use of specialized machinery for strenuous and repetitive
work. It had a great impact on the agricultural industry, beginning in 1831 with Cyrus McCormick’s invention of the reaper. In the first half of the 20th century, governmental experiment stations developed high-yield, standardized varieties of farm crops. This, combined with the establishment of agricultural equipment-producing companies, caused a boom in the production of farm machinery. In the late 1930s, the abundance of inexpensive petroleum spurred the development of gasoline- and diesel-run farm machinery. During the early 1940s, the resulting explosion in complex and powerful farm machinery multiplied production and replaced most of the horses and mules used on farms in the United States. Modern farming is heavily dependent on very complex and expensive machinery. Highly trained and skilled technicians and farm mechanics are therefore required to install, operate, maintain, and modify this machinery, thereby ensuring the nation’s farm productivity. Recent developments in agricultural mechanization and automation make the career of agricultural equipment technicians both challenging and rewarding. Sophisticated machines are being used to plant, cultivate, harvest, and process food; to contour, drain, and renovate land; and to clear land and harvest forest products in the process. Qualified agricultural equipment technicians are needed not only to service and sell this equipment, but also to manage it on the farm. Farming has increasingly become a highly competitive, big business. A successful farmer may have hundreds of thousands or even millions of dollars invested in land and machinery. For this investment to pay off, it is vital to keep the machinery in excellent operating condition. Prompt and reliable service from the farm equipment manufacturer and dealer is necessary for the success of both farmer and dealer. Interruptions or delays because of poor service are costly for everyone involved. To provide good service, manufacturers and dealers need technicians and specialists who possess agricultural and engineering knowledge in addition to technical skills.
n The Job Agricultural equipment technicians work in a wide variety of jobs both on and off the farm. In general, most agricultural equipment technicians find employment in one of three areas: equipment manufacturing, equipment sales and service, and on-farm equipment management. Equipment manufacturing technicians are involved primarily with the design and testing of agricultural equipment such as farm machinery; irrigation, power, and electrification systems; soil and water conservation equipment; and agricultural harvesting and processing equipment. There are two kinds of technicians working
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Tillers International While much of farm technology is devoted to new methods of crop production, Tillers International casts back to earlier days in its efforts to preserve historic equipment and farming methods. Through Tillers (http://www.tillersinternational. org), you can take classes in blacksmithing and woodworking, order videotapes on ox driving, or get a rope-making kit.
in this field: agricultural engineering technicians and agricultural equipment test technicians. Agricultural engineering technicians work under the supervision of design engineers. They prepare original layouts and complete detailed drawings of agricultural equipment. They also review plans, diagrams, and blueprints to ensure that new products comply with company standards and quick facts design specifications. In order to school subjects do this they must use their knowlMathematics edge of biological, engineering, Technical/shop and design principles. They also must keep current on all of the Personal Skills Mechanical/manipulative new equipment and materials Technical/scientific being developed for the industry to make sure the machines run at Work Environment their highest capacity. Indoors and outdoors Agricultural equipment test Primarily multiple locations technicians test and evaluate Minimum Education Level the performance of agricultural Some postsecondary training machinery and equipment. In particular, they make sure Salary Range the equipment conforms with $18,886 to $27,860 to operating requirements, such $40,352+ as horsepower, resistance to Certification or Licensing vibration, and strength and None available hardness of parts. They test equipment under actual field Outlook conditions on company-operMore slowly than the average ated research farms and under DOT more controlled conditions. 624 They work with test equipment and recording instruments such GOE as bend-fatigue machines, dyna03.03.01, 05.03.01 mometers, strength testers, hardNOC ness meters, analytical balances, 7316 and electronic recorders. Test technicians are also O*NET-SOC trained in methods of recording 45-2091.00, 49-3041.00 the data gathered during these
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tests. They compute values such as horsepower and tensile strength using algebraic formulas and report their findings using graphs, tables, and sketches. After the design and testing phases are complete, other agricultural equipment technicians work with engineers to perform any necessary adjustments in the equipment design. By performing these functions under the general supervision of the design engineer, technicians do the engineers’ “detective work” so the engineers can devote more time to research and development. Large agricultural machinery companies may employ agricultural equipment technicians to supervise production, assembly, and plant operations. Most manufacturers market their products through regional sales organizations to individual dealers. Technicians may serve as sales representatives of regional sales offices, where they are assigned a number of dealers in a given territory and sell agricultural equipment directly to them. They may also conduct sales-training programs for the dealers to help them become more effective salespeople. These technicians are also qualified to work in sales positions within dealerships, either as equipment sales workers or parts clerks. They are required to perform equipment demonstrations for customers. They also appraise the value of used equipment for trade-in allowances. Technicians in these positions may advance to sales or parts manager positions. Some technicians involved in sales become systems specialists, who work for equipment dealerships, assisting farmers in the planning and installation of various kinds of mechanized systems, such as irrigation or materialshandling systems, grain bins, or drying systems. In the service area, technicians may work as field service representatives, forming a liaison between the companies they represent and the dealers. They assist the dealers in product warranty work, diagnose service problems, and give seminars or workshops on new service information and techniques. These types of service technicians may begin their careers as specialists in certain kinds of repairs. Hydraulic specialists, for instance, maintain and repair the component parts of hydraulic systems in tractors and other agricultural machines. Diesel specialists rebuild, calibrate, and test diesel pumps, injectors, and other diesel engine components. Many service technicians work as service managers or parts department managers. Service managers assign duties to the repair workers, diagnose machinery problems, estimate repair costs for customers, and manage the repair shop. Parts department managers in equipment dealerships maintain inventories of all the parts that may be
requested either by customers or by the service departments of the dealership. They deal directly with customers, parts suppliers, and dealership managers and must have good sales and purchasing skills. They also must be effective business managers. Technicians working on the farm have various responsibilities, the most important of which is keeping machinery in top working condition during the growing season. During off-season periods they may overhaul or modify equipment or simply keep the machinery in good working order for the next season. Some technicians find employment as on-farm machinery managers, usually working on large farms servicing or supervising the servicing of all automated equipment. They also monitor the field operation of all machines and keep complete records of costs, utilization, and repair procedures relating to the maintenance of each piece of mechanical equipment.
n Requirements High School You should take as many mathematics, technical/shop, and mechanical drawing classes as you can. Take science classes, including courses in earth science, to gain some insight into agriculture, soil conservation, and the environment. Look into adult education programs available to high school students; in such a program, you may be able to enroll in pre-engineering courses.
Postsecondary Training A high school diploma is necessary, and some college and specialized experience is also important. A fouryear education, along with some continuing education courses, can be very helpful in pursuing work, particularly if you’re seeking jobs with the government. Postsecondary education for the agricultural equipment technician should include courses in general agriculture, agricultural power and equipment, practical engineering, hydraulics, agricultural-equipment business methods, electrical equipment, engineering, social science, economics, and sales techniques. On-the-job experience during the summer is invaluable and frequently is included as part of the regular curriculum in these programs. Students are placed on farms, functioning as technicians-in-training. They also may work in farm equipment dealerships where their time is divided between the sales, parts, and service departments. Occupational experience, one of the most important phases of the postsecondary training program, gives students an opportunity to discover which field best suits them and which phase of the business they prefer. Upon completion of this program, most technical and community colleges award an associate’s degree.
Other Requirements The work of the agricultural equipment technician is similar to that of an engineer. You must have a knowledge of physical science and engineering principles and enough mathematical background to work with these principles. You must have a working knowledge of farm crops, machinery, and all agricultural-related products. You should be detail-oriented. You should also have people skills, as you’ll be working closely with professionals, other technicians, and farmers.
n Exploring If you live in a farming community, you’ve probably already had some experience with farming equipment. Vocational agriculture education programs in high schools can be found in most rural settings, many suburban settings, and even in some urban schools. The teaching staff and counselors in these schools can provide considerable information about this career. Light industrial machinery is now used in almost every industry. It is always helpful to watch machinery being used and to talk with people who own, operate, and repair it. Summer and part-time work on a farm, in an agricultural equipment manufacturing plant, or in an equipment sales and service business offers opportunities to work on or near agricultural and light industrial machinery. Such a job may provide you with a clearer idea about the various activities, challenges, rewards, and possible limitations of this career.
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ing their occupational experience period usually have an excellent chance of going to work for the same employer after graduation. Many colleges have an interview day on which personnel representatives of manufacturers, distributors, farm owners or managers, and dealers are invited to recruit students completing technician programs. In general, any student who does well in a training program can expect employment immediately upon graduation.
n Advancement Opportunities for advancement and self-employment are excellent for those with the initiative to keep abreast of continuing developments in the farm equipment field. Technicians often attend company schools in sales and service or take advanced evening courses in colleges.
n Earnings Agricultural technicians working for the government may be able to enter a position at GS-5 (government wage scale), which was $24,677 in 2005. The U.S. Department of Labor reports that median annual earnings for agricultural equipment mechanics was $27,860 in 2004. Hourly wages ranged from less than $9.08 ($18,886 a year) to more than $19.40 ($40,352 a year). Those working on
n Employers Depending on their area of specialization, agricultural equipment technicians work for engineers, manufacturers, scientists, sales and services companies, and farmers. They can also find work with government agencies, such as the U.S. Department of Agriculture.
n Starting Out It is still possible to enter this career by starting as an inexperienced worker in a machinery manufacturer’s plant or on a farm and learning machine technician skills on the job. However, this approach is becoming increasingly difficult due to the complexity of modern machinery. Because of this, some formal classroom training is usually necessary, and many people find it difficult to complete even part-time study of the field’s theory and science while also working a full-time job. Operators and managers of large, well-equipped farms and farm equipment companies in need of employees keep in touch with colleges offering agricultural equipment programs. Students who do well dur-
These agricultural equipment technicians examine a broken down piece of machinery and determine the best way to fix it. (Scott Bauer/U.S. Dept. of Agriculture.)
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farms often receive room and board as a supplement to their annual salary. The salary that technicians eventually receive depends—as do most salaries—on individual ability, initiative, and the supply of skilled technicians in the field of work or locality. There is opportunity to work overtime during planting and harvesting seasons. In addition to their salaries, most technicians receive fringe benefits such as health and retirement packages, paid vacations, and other benefits similar to those received by engineering technicians. Technicians employed in sales are usually paid a commission in addition to their base salary.
n Work Environment Working conditions vary according to the type of field chosen. Technicians who are employed by large farming operations will work indoors or outdoors depending on the season and the tasks that need to be done. Planning machine overhauls and the directing of such work usually are done in enclosed spaces equipped for it. As implied by its name, field servicing and repairs are done in the field. Some agricultural equipment sales representatives work in their own or nearby communities, while others must travel extensively. Technicians in agricultural equipment research, development, and production usually work under typical factory conditions: Some work in an office or laboratory; others work in a manufacturing plant; or, in some cases, field testing and demonstration are performed where the machinery will be used. For technicians who assemble, adjust, modify, or test equipment and for those who provide customer service, application studies, and maintenance services, the surroundings may be similar to large automobile service centers. In all cases, safety precautions must be a constant concern. Appropriate clothing, an acute awareness of one’s environment, and careful lifting or hoisting of heavy machinery must be standard. While safety practices have improved greatly over the years, certain risks do exist. Heavy lifting may cause injury, and burns and cuts are always possible. The surroundings may be noisy and grimy. Some work is performed in cramped or awkward physical positions. Gasoline fumes and odors from oil products are a constant factor. Most technicians ordinarily work a 40-hour week, but emergency repairs may require overtime.
expected to grow more slowly than the average through 2014. However, agricultural equipment businesses now demand more expertise than ever before. A variety of complex specialized machines and mechanical devices are steadily being produced and modified to help farmers improve the quality and productivity of their labor. These machines require trained technicians to design, produce, test, sell, and service them. Trained workers also are needed to instruct the final owners in their proper repair, operation, and maintenance. In addition, the agricultural industry is adopting advanced computer and electronic technology. Computer skills are becoming more and more useful in this field. Precision farming will also require specialized training as more agricultural equipment becomes hooked up to satellite systems. As agriculture becomes more technical, the agricultural equipment technician will assume an increasingly vital role in helping farmers solve problems that interfere with efficient production. These opportunities exist not only in the United States, but also worldwide. As agricultural economies everywhere become mechanized, inventive technicians with training in modern business principles will find expanding employment opportunities abroad.
n For More Information To read equipment sales statistics, agricultural reports, and other news of interest to agricultural equipment technicians, visit Association of Equipment Manufacturers 111 East Wisconsin Avenue, Suite 1000 Milwaukee, WI 53202-4806 Tel: 414-272-0943 http://www.aem.org
Visit the following Web site to learn about publications and read industry news: Farm Equipment Manufacturers Association 1000 Executive Parkway, Suite 100 St. Louis, MO 63141-6369 Tel: 314-878-2304 Email:
[email protected] http://www.farmequip.org
Agricultural Pilots
n Outlook
n Overview
The Occupational Outlook Handbook reports that employment of agricultural equipment technicians is
Agricultural pilots, also called ag pilots and aerial applicators, perform flying jobs related to the farming
industry. They are skilled professionals who operate aircraft for such purposes as transporting cargo to market, aerial applications (also known as crop dusting), hauling feed, or planting seed. In addition to flying aircraft, agricultural pilots are responsible for performing a variety of safety-related tasks involving both the aircraft and the cargo. They may be selfemployed or work for large pest control companies or government agencies.
n History The history of agricultural aviation is, naturally, tied to that of modern aviation. This period is generally considered to have begun with the flight of Orville and Wilbur Wright’s heavier-than-air machine on December 17, 1903. On that day, the Wright brothers flew their machine four times and became the first airplane pilots. In the early days of aviation, the pilot’s job was quite different from that of the pilot of today. As he flew the plane, for example, Orville Wright was lying on his stomach in the middle of the bottom wing of the plane. There was a strap across his hips, and to turn the plane, he had to tilt his hips from side to side—hardly the way today’s pilot makes a turn! The aviation industry developed rapidly as designers raced to improve upon the Wright brothers’ design. During the early years of flight, many aviators earned a living as “barnstormers,” entertaining people with stunts and by taking passengers on short flights around the countryside. As airplanes became more dependable, they were adapted for a variety of purposes such as use in the military and for the United States government-run airmail service. According to the National Agricultural Aviation Association, the first time a plane was used to spread pesticide was in 1921. In an experiment conducted by the military, lead arsenate dust was spread by plane to stop a moth infestation in Ohio. By 1923 crop dusting was being done on a commercial basis. Today planes used for agricultural aviation are specifically designed for that purpose. They can carry hundreds of gallons of pesticides and are equipped with the latest technology, such as Global Positioning Systems (GPS). Unlike the crop-dusting process of the past, which used dry chemicals, today’s process typically involves liquid pesticides and other controlling products as well as fertilizer sprays. Advances in agricultural aviation have allowed U.S. farms to become increasingly productive.
n The Job Agricultural pilots perform a number of duties that benefit the farming industry as well as the environment, assisting farmers in the prevention of crop damage
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and other duties performed. Some work for pest control companies while others are self-employed. In farm work, agricultural pilots spray chemicals over crops and orchards to fertilize them, control plant diseases or weeds, and control pests. They also drop seeds into fields to grow crops. Before agricultural pilots begin the process of spraying farmland, they must survey the area for buildings, hills, power lines, and other obstacles and hazards. They must also notify residents and businesses in the general area where they will spray so that people and animals can be moved away from target areas. Some agricultural pilots, particularly those who work for pest control companies, may mix their own chemicals, using their knowledge of what mixture may be best for certain types of plants, plant or soil conditions, or pest problems. Crop dusters fly small turboprop planes, which are slower compared to larger, transport craft, but which are good for flying close to the ground and for carrying quick facts heavy loads. They must fly close School Subjects to the ground, often only a few Physics feet above a crop, so that the chemicals will be spread only in Personal Skills designated areas. Leadership/management Technical/scientific Agricultural pilots can also help farmers by dropping food Work Environment for livestock over pastures, phoIndoors and outdoors tograph wildlife or count game Primarily multiple locations animals for conservation proMinimum Education Level grams, and fight forest fires by Some postsecondary training dumping water or fire-retardant materials over burning areas. Salary Range No matter what the job, pilots $25,000 to $80,000 to must determine weather and $101,722+ flight conditions, make sure that Certification or Licensing sufficient fuel is on board to comRequired by all states plete the flight safely, and verify the maintenance status of the Outlook airplane before each flight. They Little change or more slowly perform system checks to test than the average the proper functioning of instruDOT mentation and electronic and 196 mechanical systems on the plane. Once all of these preflight GOE duties are done, the pilot taxis the 07.03.01 aircraft to the designated runway NOC and prepares for takeoff. Takeoff 2271 speeds must be calculated based on the aircraft’s weight, which O*NET-SOC is affected by the weight of the 53-2011.00 cargo being carried.
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During flights, agricultural pilots must constantly be aware of their surroundings, since they fly so close to the ground and frequently near hazards such as power lines. They need good judgment to deal with any emergency situations that might arise. They monitor aircraft systems, keep an eye on the weather conditions, and perform the flight’s assigned job, such as spraying fertilizer. Once the pilot has landed and taxied to the appropriate area, he or she follows a “shutdown” checklist of procedures. Pilots also keep logs of their flight hours. Those who are self-employed or working for smaller companies are typically responsible for refueling the airplane, performing maintenance, and keeping business records.
n Requirements High School There are a number of classes you can take in high school to help prepare you for becoming a pilot. You should take science classes, such as chemistry and physics, as well as mathematics, such as algebra and geometry. Take computer classes to familiarize yourself with this tool. Since you will be responsible for the maintenance and care of a plane, you may also benefit from taking an electronics shop class or other shop class where you get to work on engines. Take English classes to improve your research and writing skills. Throughout your career you will need to study flying or repair manuals, file reports, and communicate with customers. Since you may be responsible for record keeping, take business or accounting classes. If your school offers agriculture classes, take any that will teach you about soils, crops, and growing methods.
Postsecondary Training Many companies that employ pilots prefer to hire candidates with at least two years of college training. Courses in engineering, meteorology, physics, mathematics, and agriculture are helpful in preparing for this career. In addition to these courses, you will need training as a pilot. There are approximately 600 civilian flying schools certified by the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA), including some colleges and universities that offer degree credit for pilot training. A number of schools offer training specifically in agricultural aviation. Some people take up this career after leaving the military, where they trained as pilots.
Certification or Licensing Agricultural pilots must hold a commercial pilot’s license from the FAA. A fairly long and rigorous process is involved in obtaining a commercial license. The first step in this process is to receive flying instruction. Anyone who is 16 or over and can pass a rigid mandatory physical exam can apply for permission to take flying
lessons. When you have finished this training, you can take a written exam. If you pass the exam and fulfill such requirements as being at least 17 years of age and have completed a solo flying requirement of 20 hours or more, you can apply for your private pilot’s license. The next step in getting a commercial license is to continue to log flying time and increase your knowledge and skills. To receive your commercial license you must be at least 18 years of age, have 250 hours of flying time, and successfully complete a number of exams. These tests include a physical exam; a written test given by the FAA covering such topics as safe flight operations, navigation principles, and federal aviation regulations; and a practical test to demonstrate your flying skills. Pilots must also receive a rating for the kind of plane they can fly (such as singleengine or multi-engine). In addition, a commercial pilot needs an instrument rating by the FAA and a restricted radio telephone operator’s permit by the Federal Communications Commission (FCC). In states where they spray restricted pesticides, agricultural pilots must be certified by the U.S. Department of Agriculture.
Other Requirements All pilots must have sound physical and emotional health. They need excellent eyesight and eye-hand coordination as well as excellent hearing and normal heart rate and blood pressure. The successful agricultural pilot is also detail-oriented since much paperwork, planning, and following of regulations is involved in this job. Those who are self-employed or working for smaller companies may find that they have frequent contact with customers, and so they must be able to work well with others. Naturally, an agricultural pilot should have an interest in farming methods and the environment as well as a love of flying. Good judgment is essential for this work.
n Exploring You can explore this occupation through a number of activities. Join groups such as your high school aviation club and the National FFA Organization (formerly Future Farmers of America). These groups may give you the opportunity to meet with professionals in the field, learn about farm products and management, and find others with similar interests. Read publications related to these industries such as the magazines AgAir Update (http://www.agairupdate.com) and Progressive Farmer (http://progressivefarmer.com). If you have the financial resources, you can take flying lessons once you are 16 and have passed a physical exam. Also, consider learning how to operate a ham radio. This skill will help you when you apply for your restricted radio operator’s permit, a requirement for commercial pilots.
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n Employers California and the southern states, where the crop growing season lasts longest, are where agricultural pilots find the most work. They also find some work with northern crops and in forests of the northeastern and western states. Federal and state government departments also employ agricultural pilots to assist with environmental, conservation, and preservation needs.
n Starting Out It is not unusual for people to enter this field after gaining experience in the agricultural industry itself, working on farms and learning about crop production while they also develop their flying skills. Others enter with flying as their first love and are drawn to the challenge of agricultural aviation. Once pilots have completed their training, they may find that contacts made through aviation schools lead to job openings. Those who have the financial means can begin by opening their own business. Equipment, however, is very expensive—a single plane appropriately outfitted can cost anywhere from $100,000 to $900,000. A number of people, therefore, begin by working for large aerial applications companies before they strike out on their own.
n Advancement Agricultural pilots who work for a company can be promoted to manager. Self-employed agricultural pilots move up by charging more money for their services and increasing their client base. Another way to advance is to work in other areas of commercial aviation. These pilots may fly cargo and people to remote locations or become aerial photographers.
n Earnings If they work throughout the entire year, agricultural pilots can make between $30,000 and $80,000 per year or more. Those who fly about half the year make near $25,000. Agricultural pilots who are employed by companies rarely get paid vacation and only a few companies offer health and accident insurance and profit-sharing and pension plans. For non-jet pilots in general made a median annual salary of in $85,193 in 2005, according to the Web site Salary.com. Earnings ranged from a low of $69,967 to more than $101,722 a year.
n Work Environment The vast majority of an agricultural pilot’s job takes place outdoors, during the early morning and early evening hours. Their work is demanding and can be hazardous. When flying, agricultural pilots wear safety gear consisting of a helmet, safety belt, and shoulder harness, because they fly under such difficult conditions. They fly close to
An agricultural pilot applies a low-insecticide bait that is targeted against western corn rootworms. (Agricultural Research Service Photo Unit, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture.)
the ground in populated areas and must be cautious to avoid obstacles. They also face exposure to pesticides and other harsh substances. When mixing or loading chemicals onto the plane, they sometimes wear gloves or masks to prevent the inhaling of harmful vapors.
n Outlook Employment opportunities for experienced agricultural pilots are expected to continue into the future. However, the demand for agricultural pilots depends largely on farmers’ needs. For example, during times when insect and pest control becomes a problem, there is greater demand for agricultural pilots. There is also some concern within the industry that genetically engineered crops (resistant to certain diseases) may decrease the need for aerial applications and cause a loss of business for agricultural pilots. Finally, there has been an push from environmental groups for U.S. farmers to use less fertilizer and pesticide, as well as an increase in the use of organic farming techniques. Keeping these factors in mind, employment prospects will probably be best with larger farms and ranches and in states with long growing seasons.
n For More Information This organization has information on crop protection products and developments in the industry.
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CropLife America 1156 15th Street, NW, Suite 400 Washington, DC 20005 Tel: 202-296-1585 http://www.croplifeamerica.org
This organization promotes high standards and continuing education in the field. National Agricultural Aviation Association 1005 E Street, SE Washington, DC 20003 Tel: 202-546-5722 Email:
[email protected] http://www.agaviation.org
For information on opportunities in the agricultural field and local chapters, contact National FFA Organization National FFA Center 6060 FFA Drive PO Box 68960 Indianapolis, IN 46268 Tel: 317-802-6060 http://www.ffa.org
These magazines, available in print, also have Web sites with feature articles and information related to their fields. AgAir Update PO Box 850 Perry, GA 31069 Tel: 888-382-6951 http://www.agairupdate.com
Progressive Farmer PO Box 830656 Birmingham, AL 35283 Tel: 800-292-2340 http://www.progressivefarmer.com
Agricultural Scientists n Overview Agricultural scientists study all aspects of living organisms and the relationships of plants and animals to their environment. They conduct basic research in laboratories or in the field. They apply the results to such tasks as increasing crop yields and improving the environ-
ment. Some agricultural scientists plan and administer programs for testing foods, drugs, and other products. Others direct activities at public exhibits at such places as zoos and botanical gardens. Agricultural engineers apply engineering principles to the food and agriculture industries. They design or develop agricultural equipment and machines, supervise production, and conduct tests on new designs and machine parts. Some agricultural scientists are professors at colleges and universities or work as consultants to business firms or the government. Others work in technical sales and service jobs for manufacturers of agricultural products. There are approximately 18,000 agricultural and food scientists in the United States; about 40 percent work for the federal, state, or local governments. Several thousand more are employed as university professors.
n History In 1840, Justius von Liebig of Germany published Organic Chemistry in Its Applications to Agriculture and Physiology and launched the systematic development of the agricultural sciences. A formal system of agricultural education soon followed in both Europe and the United States. Prior to the publication of this work, agricultural developments relied on the collective experience of farmers handed down over generations. Agricultural science has techniques in common with many other disciplines including biology, botany, genetics, nutrition, breeding, and engineering. Discoveries and improvements in these fields contributed to advances in agriculture. Some milestones include the discovery of the practice of crop rotation and the application of manure as fertilizer, which greatly increased farm yields in the 1700s. Farm mechanization was greatly advanced by the invention of the mechanical reaper in 1831 and the gasoline tractor in 1892. Chemical fertilizers were first used in the 19th century; pesticides and herbicides soon followed. In 1900, the research of an Austrian monk, Gregor Johann Mendel, was rediscovered. His theories of plant characteristics, based on studies using generations of garden peas, formed the foundation for the science of genetics. In the 20th century, scientists and engineers were at the forefront of farm, crop, and food processing improvements. Conservationist Gifford Pinchot developed some of the first methods to prevent soil erosion in 1910, and Clarence Birdseye perfected a method of freezing food in the 1920s. Birdseye’s discoveries allowed for new crops of produce previously too perishable for the marketplace. Engineers in the 1930s developed more powerful farm machinery and scientists developed hybrid corn. By the 1960s, high-powered machinery and better quality feed and pesticides were in common use. Today, advances in
genetic engineering and biotechnology are leading to more efficient, economical methods of farming and new markets for crops.
n The Job The nature of the work of the agricultural scientist can be broken down into several areas of specialization. Within each specialization there are various careers. The following are careers that fall under the areas of plant and soil science. Agronomists investigate large-scale food-crop problems, conduct experiments, and develop new methods of growing crops to ensure more efficient production, higher yields, and improved quality. They use genetic engineering to develop crops that are resistant to pests, drought, and plant diseases. Agronomists also engage in soil science. They analyze soils to find ways to increase production and reduce soil erosion. They study the responses of various soil types to fertilizers, tillage practices, and crop rotation. Since soil science is related to environmental science, agronomists may also use their expertise to consult with farmers and agricultural companies on environmental quality and effective land use. Botanists are concerned with plants and their environment, structure, heredity, and economic value in such fields as agronomy, horticulture, and medicine. Horticulturists study fruit and nut orchards as well as garden plants such as vegetables and flowers. They conduct experiments to develop new and improved varieties and to increase crop quality and yields. They also work to improve plant culture methods for the landscaping and beautification of communities, parks, and homes. Plant breeders apply genetics and biotechnology to improve plants’ yield, quality, and resistance to harsh weather, disease, and insects. They might work on developing strains of wild or cultivated plants that will have a larger yield and increase profits. Plant pathologists research plant diseases and the decay of plant products to identify symptoms, determine causes, and develop control measures. They attempt to predict outbreaks by studying how different soils, climates, and geography affect the spread and intensity of plant disease. Another area of specialization for agricultural scientists is animal science. Animal scientists conduct research and develop improved methods for housing, breeding, feeding, and controlling diseases of domestic farm animals. They inspect and grade livestock food products, purchase livestock, or work in sales and marketing of livestock products. They often consult agricultural businesses on such
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areas as upgrading animal housing, lowering mortality rates, or increasing production of animal products such as milk and eggs. Dairy scientists study the selection, breeding, feeding, and management of dairy cattle. For example, they research how various types of food and environmental conditions affect milk production and quality. They also develop new breeding programs to improve dairy herds. Poultry scientists study the breeding, feeding, and management of poultry to improve the quantity and quality of eggs and other poultry products. Animal breeders specialize in improving the quality of farm animals. They may work for a state agricultural department, agricultural extension station, or university. Some of their work is done in a laboratory, but much of it is done outdoors working directly on animals. Using their knowledge of genetics, aniquick facts mal breeders develop systems for animals to achieve desired charSchool Subjects acteristics such as strength, fast Biology Chemistry maturation, resistance to disease, and quality of meat. Personal Skills Food science is a specialty Communication/ideas closely related to animal science, Technical/scientific but it focuses on meeting conWork Environment sumer demand for food products Indoors and outdoors in ways that are healthy, safe, and Primarily multiple locations convenient. Food scientists use their backMinimum Education Level grounds in chemistry, microBachelor’s degree biology, and other sciences to Salary Range develop new or better ways of $28,410 to $50,840 to preserving, packaging, process$91,300+ ing, storing, and delivering foods. Food technologists work in prodCertification or Licensing uct development to discover new Voluntary (certification) Required for certain positions food sources and analyze food (licensing) content to determine levels of vitamins, fat, sugar, and protein. Outlook Food technologists also work to About as fast as the average enforce government regulations, inspecting food processing areas DOT 040 and ensuring that sanitation, safety, quality, and waste manGOE agement standards are met. 02.03.01, 02.03.02, 02.07.01 Another field related to agricultural science is agricultural NOC 2121 engineering. Agricultural engineers apply O*NET-SOC engineering principles to work in 17-2021.00, 19-1011.00, the food and agriculture indus19-1013.01 tries. They design or develop
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Beyond the Laboratory Agricultural science isn’t limited to food, plant, soil, and animal science. Many scientists are also concerned with range lands, pastures, and grazing management. According to the USDA, one-half of the Earth’s land surface is grazed. Fifty-five percent of U.S. land surface is made up of range lands, pastures, and hay lands. U.S. hay production amounts to $11 billion a year, and grazing lands support a livestock industry that contributes $78 billion a year in farm sales to the U.S. economy.
agricultural equipment and machines, supervise production, and conduct tests on new designs and machine parts. They develop plans and specifications for agricul-
tural buildings and for drainage and irrigation systems. They work on flood control, soil erosion, and land reclamation projects. They design food processing systems and equipment to convert farm products to consumer foods. Agricultural engineers contribute to making farming easier and more profitable through the introduction of new farm machinery and through advancements in soil and water conservation. Agricultural engineers in industry engage in research or in the design, testing, or sales of equipment. Much of the research conducted by agricultural scientists is done in laboratories and requires a familiarity with research techniques and the use of laboratory equipment and computers. Some research, however, is carried out wherever necessary. A botanist may have occasion to examine the plants that grow in the volcanic valleys of Alaska, or an animal breeder may study the behavior of animals on the plains of Africa.
n Requirements High School Follow your high school’s college preparatory program, which will include courses in English, foreign language, mathematics, and government. Also take biology, chemistry, physics, and any other science courses available. You must also become familiar with basic computer skills, including programming. It may be possible for you to perform laboratory assistant duties for your science teachers. Visiting research laboratories and attending lectures by agricultural scientists can also be helpful.
Postsecondary Training
Two agriculural scientists observe papaya fruit from a tree. (Scott Bauer/U.S. Dept. of Agriculture.)
Educational requirements for agricultural scientists are very high. A doctorate is usually mandatory for careers as college or university professors, independent researchers, or field managers. A bachelor’s degree may be acceptable for some entry-level jobs, such as testing or inspecting technicians, or as technical sales or service representatives. Promotions, however, are very limited for these employees unless they earn advanced degrees. To become an agricultural scientist, you should pursue a degree related to agricultural and biological science. As an undergraduate, you should have a firm foundation in biology, with courses in chemistry, physics, mathematics, and English. Most colleges and universities have agricultural science curriculums, although liberal arts colleges may emphasize the biological sciences. State universities usually offer agricultural science programs, too. While pursuing an advanced degree, you’ll participate in research projects and write a dissertation on your specialized area of study. You’ll also do fieldwork and laboratory research along with your classroom studies.
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Interview: Steve Ford Steve Ford is a research engineer and laboratory manager in the department of agricultural and biological engineering at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. He holds a bachelor of science degree in agriculture, with a major in agricultural mechanization, from the University of Illinois. Before taking on his current position, he worked in the engineering department of Grain Systems Inc., a manufacturer for the domestic and international agricultural market. Steve spoke with the editors of Careers in Focus: Agriculture
about his experiences. Q. What led you to pursue a career in agricultural engineering? A. I began my college career pursuing an agronomy degree, but after taking an introductory course in agricultural mechanization I was hooked. I found it very satisfying to apply the math, physics, and science courses I had taken to solve real-world problems. Agricultural engineering covers such a broad range of engineering disciplines, which provided me with many options for a career path. Q. What do you see as some of the most promising trends in agricultural engineering? What is the current focus of your research? A. Probably the most important trend in agricultural engineering is the integration of more biological sciences in addition to the traditional physicsbased engineering. An example of this would be bio-filters, which are being designed to lessen odor and gas emissions from hog buildings. These filters use microbes to break down odorous compounds as the air is exhausted from the buildings. In the future there will continue to be many environmental issues that agricultural engineers will be called on to solve. The role of Geographic Information Systems (GIS) and Global Positioning Systems (GPS) will continue to expand in agriculture. These technologies will allow more precise application of fertilizer and chemicals and prevent over-application to the areas of a field that do not need the higher levels. My area of research involves livestock building and greenhouse exhaust fans. We test the performance of commercially available fans and publish this data for use by farmers and building designers. The primary parameters measured are airflow rate (cubic feet per minute, or cfm) and ventilating efficiency ratio (cfm/Watt). The ventilating efficiency ratio is analogous to a miles-per-gallon (mpg) rating for an automobile.
Q. What does your typical work week involve? A. A typical week includes several days working in the lab. Often the setup of the instrumentation and test equipment takes more time than the test itself. After the test data is collected I will work on my computer analyzing the data and creating reports. Some projects are small enough to finish myself, but most projects require one or more additional team members. This means a lot of communication by e-mail, phone, and direct meetings. I find that working with others on a project is really enjoyable when everyone does their part to meet the same goal. Q. Do you feel that the outlook for job opportunities in your field is promising? A. There are agricultural engineering opportunities in smaller communities and also in large metropolitan areas, so there are choices in the type of community you wish to work and live in. Q. What would you say are the most important skills and personal qualities for someone interested in pursuing a career in your field? A. It is important to be attentive to details, while at the same time being able to step back to see how your work fits in the bigger scheme of things. Be inquisitive: Always ask yourself how does it work, how can it be improved, how can the process be simplified. You will be working with computers a significant amount of your time, so you should definitely be comfortable with computers and basic software. Be honest and ethical in your work. You will likely work in a team environment, so you need to be a team player. Q. What advice do you have for someone who is interested in pursuing a career in agricultural engineering? A. In addition to the typical math and physics courses that are recommended for engineering disciplines, I would also recommend taking several courses in the biological sciences. I believe career opportunities will continue to expand in the environmental and biological areas of agricultural engineering. During your college years, seek out work experiences such as internships and summer work opportunities with companies that work in areas you are interested in. Becoming proficient in specific computer software such as Excel or AutoCAD (a computer-aided drafting program) can open the door to entry-level or part-time engineering positions. Professors will often hire undergraduates to work part time on research projects. These types of jobs are great opportunities to learn about different careers in agricultural engineering.
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Certification or Licensing
n Employers
A voluntary certification program is offered by the Federation of Certifying Boards in Agriculture, Biology, Earth and Environmental Sciences, which was originally known as American Registry of Certified Professionals in Agronomy, Crops and Soils (ARCPACS). The federation, however, still uses the acronym ARCPACS, and it is associated with the American Society of Argonomy. ARCPACS offers a number of certifications, such as certified professional agronomist (CPA) and certified professional plant pathologist (CPPP), to candidates based on their training and work. In general, requirements include meeting a minimum education level and having a certain amount of work experience (for example, a bachelor’s degree and five years of work experience or a master’s degree and three years of experience), passing an exam, and having appropriate references. Recertification requirements typically include the completion of a certain amount of continuing education credits every two years in addition to payment of dues and adherence to a code of ethics. According to the American Society of Agricultural Engineers, agricultural engineers must hold an engineer’s license.
About 40 percent of all agricultural scientists work for federal, state, and local governments. They work within the U.S. Department of Agriculture and the Environmental Protection Agency and for regional extension agencies and soil conservation departments. Scientists with doctorates may work on the faculty of colleges and universities. Researchers work for chemical and pharmaceutical companies, and with agribusiness and consulting firms. Agricultural scientists also work in the food processing industry.
Other Requirements As a researcher, you should be self-motivated enough to work effectively alone, yet be able to function cooperatively as part of a team. You should have an inexhaustible curiosity about the nature of living things and their environments. You must be systematic in your work habits and in your approach to investigation and experimentation and must have the persistence to continue or start over when experiments are not immediately successful. Work performed by agricultural scientists in offices and laboratories requires intense powers of concentration and the ability to communicate one’s thoughts systematically. In addition to these skills, physical stamina is necessary for those scientists who do field research in remote areas of the world.
n Exploring If you live in an agricultural community, you may be able to find part-time or summer work on a farm or ranch. Joining a chapter of the National FFA Organization (formerly Future Farmers of America) or a 4-H program will introduce you to the concerns of farmers and researchers and may involve you directly in science projects. Contact your county’s extension office to learn about regional projects. You may also find part-time work in veterinarian’s offices, florist shops, landscape nurseries, orchards, farms, zoos, aquariums, botanical gardens, or museums. Volunteer work is often available in zoos and animal shelters.
n Starting Out Agricultural scientists often are recruited prior to graduation. College and university placement offices offer information about jobs, and students may arrange interviews with recruiters who visit the campus. Direct application may be made to the personnel departments of colleges and universities, private industries, and nonprofit research foundations. People interested in positions with the federal government may contact the local offices of state employment services and the U.S. Office of Personnel Management or the Federal Job Information Centers, which are located in various large cities throughout the country. Private employment agencies are another method that might be considered. Large companies sometimes conduct job fairs in major cities and will advertise them in the business sections of the local newspapers.
n Advancement Advancement in this field depends on education, experience, and job performance. Agricultural scientists with advanced degrees generally start in teaching or research and advance to administrative and management positions, such as supervisor of a research program. The number of such jobs is limited, however, and often the route to advancement is through specialization. The narrower specialties are often the most valuable. People who enter this field with only a bachelor’s degree are much more restricted. After starting in testing and inspecting jobs or as technical sales and service representatives, they may progress to advanced technicians, particularly in medical research, or become high school biology teachers. In the latter case, they must have had courses in education and meet the state requirements for teaching credentials.
n Earnings According to the U.S. Department of Labor, the median annual salary of agricultural and food scientists (from all specialty areas) was approximately $50,840 in 2004. The
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lowest paid 10 percent (which generally included those just starting out in the field) earned less than $28,410, while the highest paid 10 percent made approximately $91,300 or more per year. Agricultural engineers had median annual earnings of $56,520 in 2004. Salaries ranged from less than $37,680 for the lowest-paid 10 percent to more than $90,410 for the highest-paid 10 percent. Unless hired for just a short-term project, agricultural scientists most likely receive health and retirement benefits in addition to their annual salary.
n Work Environment Agricultural scientists work regular hours, although researchers often choose to work longer when their experiments have reached critical points. Competition in the research field may be stiff, causing a certain amount of stress. Agricultural scientists generally work in offices, laboratories, or classrooms where the environment is clean, healthy, and safe. Some agricultural scientists, such as botanists, periodically take field trips where living facilities may be primitive and strenuous physical activity may be required.
n Outlook According to the U.S. Department of Labor, employment for agricultural scientists is expected to grow about as fast as the average through 2014. The fields of biotechnology, genetics, and sustainable agriculture may hold the best opportunities for agricultural scientists. New developments, such as methods of processing corn for use in medicines, will alter the marketplace. Scientists will also be actively involved in improving both the environmental impact of farming and crop yields, as they focus on methods of decontaminating soil, protecting groundwater, crop rotation, and other efforts of conservation. Scientists will also have the challenge of promoting these new methods to farmers.
n For More Information To learn about opportunities for scientists in the dairy industry and for information on student divisions at the college level, contact American Dairy Science Association 1111 North Dunlap Avenue Savoy, IL 61874 Tel: 217-356-5146 Email:
[email protected] http://www.adsa.org
To learn about student competitions and scholarships, contact American Society of Agricultural and Biological Engineers 2950 Niles Road
St. Joseph, MI 49085 Tel: 269-429-0300 http://www.asabe.org
For the career resource guide Exploring Careers in Agronomy, Crops, Soils, and Environmental Sciences, and certification information, contact American Society of Agronomy 677 South Segoe Road Madison, WI 53711 Tel: 608-273-8080 http://www.agronomy.org
For more information on agricultural careers and student programs, contact National FFA Organization PO Box 68960 6060 FFA Drive Indianapolis, IN 46268 Tel: 317-802-6060 http://www.ffa.org
Visit the USDA Web site for more information on its agencies and programs as well as news releases. United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) http://www.usda.gov
Aircraft Mechanics n Overview Aircraft mechanics examine, service, repair, and overhaul aircraft and aircraft engines. They also repair, replace, and assemble parts of the airframe (the structural parts of the plane other than the power plant or engine). There are about 142,000 aircraft mechanics working in the United States.
n History On December 17, 1903, Wilbur and Orville Wright made history’s first successful powered flight. The Wright brothers—who originally built and repaired bicycles— designed, built, and repaired their airplane, including the engine, making them the first airplane mechanics as well. In the early years of aviation, most airplane designers filled a similar scope of functions, although many had people to assist them. As the aviation industry grew, the various tasks required to design, build, operate, and repair aircraft became more specialized. However, because of the instability of early planes and the uncer-
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tainty of the weather and other conditions, it was often necessary for pilots to have a strong working knowledge of how to repair and maintain their aircraft. In later years, one important route to becoming a pilot was to start as an aircraft mechanic. As aircraft became capable of flying faster, for longer distances, and at higher altitudes, and especially after aircraft began to carry passengers, the role of the aircraft mechanic became vital to the safety of the aircraft and the growth of the aviation industry. New technologies have continually been introduced into the design of aircraft, and mechanics needed to be familiar with all the systems, from the airframe to the engine to the control systems. The complexity of airplane design increased to the point where the mechanics themselves began to specialize. Some mechanics had the skills to work on the entire aircraft. Others were able to work on the airframe, on the engines, or on the power plant. Some mechanics functioned as repairers, quick facts who completed minor repairs to School Subjects the plane. Mechanics were assisted Computer science by technicians, who were often Technical/shop training to become fully qualified mechanics. With the introduction Personal Skills Mechanical/manipulative of electronics into aircraft, some Technical/scientific mechanics specialized as avionics technicians. Work Environment The Air Commerce Act of Indoors and outdoors 1926 imposed regulations on One location with some travel the commercial airlines and Minimum Education Level their fleets. The Federal AviaSome postsecondary training tion Agency, later called the Federal Aviation Administration Salary Range (FAA), also established train$29,000 to $45,281 to ing and licensing requirements $70,387+ for the mechanics servicing the Certification or Licensing airplanes. Mechanics were also Recommended an important part of the armed forces, especially as the world Outlook entered World War II, in which About as fast as the average air power became a vital part of DOT successful military operations. 621 The growth of the general aviation industry, which includes all GOE flights operated outside of the air05.03.01 lines, provided still more demand NOC for trained mechanics. The intro2244, 7315 duction of ultralight aircraft in the 1970s brought air flight back to its O*NET-SOC origins: These craft were often sold 49-3011.00, 49-3011.01, as kits that the purchasers had to 49-3011.02, 49-3011.03 build and repair themselves.
n The Job The work of aircraft mechanics employed by the commercial airlines may be classified into two categories, that of line maintenance mechanics and overhaul mechanics. Line maintenance mechanics are all-around craft workers who make repairs on all parts of the plane. Working at the airport, they make emergency and other necessary repairs in the time between when aircraft land and when they take off again. They may be told by the pilot, flight engineer, or head mechanic what repairs need to be made, or they may thoroughly inspect the plane themselves for oil leaks, cuts or dents in the surface and tires, or any malfunction in the radio, radar, and light equipment. In addition, their duties include changing oil, cleaning spark plugs, and replenishing the hydraulic and oxygen systems. They work as fast as safety permits so the aircraft can be put back into service quickly. Overhaul mechanics keep the aircraft in top operating condition by performing scheduled maintenance, making repairs, and conducting inspections required by the FAA. Scheduled maintenance programs are based on the number of hours flown, calendar days, or a combination of these factors. Overhaul mechanics work at the airline’s main overhaul base on either or both of the two major parts of the aircraft: the airframe, which includes wings, fuselage, tail assembly, landing gear, control cables, propeller assembly, and fuel and oil tanks; or the power plant, which may be a radial (internal combustion), turbojet, turboprop, or rocket engine. Airframe mechanics work on parts of the aircraft other than the engine, inspecting the various components of the airframe for worn or defective parts. They check the sheet-metal surfaces, measure the tension of control cables, and check for rust, distortion, and cracks in the fuselage and wings. They consult manufacturers’ manuals and the airline’s maintenance manual for specifications and to determine whether repair or replacement is needed to correct defects or malfunctions. They also use specialized computer software to assist them in determining the need, extent, and nature of repairs. Airframe mechanics repair, replace, and assemble parts using a variety of tools, including power shears, sheetmetal breakers, arc and acetylene welding equipment, rivet guns, and air or electric drills. Aircraft powerplant mechanics inspect, service, repair, and overhaul the engine of the aircraft. Looking through specially designed openings while working from ladders or scaffolds, they examine an engine’s external appearance for such problems as cracked cylinders, oil leaks, or cracks or breaks in the turbine blades. They also listen to the engine in operation to detect sounds indicating malfunctioning components, such as sticking or burned valves. The test
equipment used to check the engine’s operation includes ignition analyzers, compression checkers, distributor timers, and ammeters. If necessary, the mechanics remove the engine from the aircraft, using a hoist or a forklift truck, and take the engine apart. They use sensitive instruments to measure parts for wear and use X-ray and magnetic inspection equipment to check for invisible cracks. Worn or damaged parts are replaced or repaired, then the mechanics reassemble and reinstall the engine. Aircraft mechanics adjust and repair electrical wiring systems and aircraft accessories and instruments; inspect, service, and repair pneumatic and hydraulic systems; and handle various servicing tasks, such as flushing crankcases, cleaning screens, greasing moving parts, and checking brakes. Mechanics may work on only one type of aircraft or on many different types, such as jets, propeller-driven planes, and helicopters. For greater efficiency, some specialize in one section, such as the electrical system, of a particular type of aircraft. Among the specialists, there are airplane electricians; pneumatic testers and pressure sealer-and-testers; aircraft body repairers and bonded structures repairers, such as burnishers and bumpers; and air conditioning mechanics, aircraft rigging and controls mechanics, plumbing and hydraulics mechanics, and experimental-aircraft testing mechanics. Avionics technicians are mechanics who specialize in the aircraft’s electronic systems. Mechanics who work for businesses that own their own aircraft usually handle all necessary repair and maintenance work. The planes, however, generally are small and the work is less complex than in repair shops. In small, independent repair shops, mechanics must inspect and repair many different types of aircraft. The airplanes may include small commuter planes run by an aviation company, private company planes and jets, private individually owned aircraft, and planes used for flying instruction.
n Requirements High School The first requirement for prospective aircraft mechanics is a high school diploma. Courses in mathematics, physics, chemistry, and mechanical drawing are particularly helpful because they teach the principles involved in the operation of an aircraft, and this knowledge is often necessary to making the repairs. Machine shop, auto mechanics, or electrical shop are important courses for gaining many skills needed by aircraft mechanics.
Postsecondary Training At one time, mechanics were able to acquire their skills through on-the-job training. This is rare today. Now most
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Aircraft mechanics work on a United airplane engine. (Ralf-Finn Hestoft/Corbis.)
mechanics learn the job either in the armed forces or in trade schools approved by the FAA. The trade schools provide training with the necessary tools and equipment in programs that range in length from two years to 30 months. In considering applicants for certification, the FAA sometimes accepts successful completion of such schooling in place of work experience, but the schools do not guarantee an FAA certificate. There are about 200 such schools in the United States. The experience acquired by aircraft mechanics in the armed forces sometimes satisfies the work requirements for FAA certification, and veterans may be able to pass the exam with a limited amount of additional study. But jobs in the military service are usually too specialized to satisfy the FAA requirement for broad work experience. In that case, veterans applying for FAA approval will have to complete a training program at a trade school. Schools
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Types of Aircraft Engines Most people think that there are two basic types of aircraft engines: propellers and jets. The reality is a bit more complicated. Propeller-driven aircraft were the first to be invented, and are still very common today. Commercial carriers use props on shorter flights, and they are also used by “bush pilots” in hard-to-reach areas. Propellers are driven by an internal-combustion engine, similar to a car’s engine. The first practical jets were built as warplanes during World War II. The first jetliner, the De Havilland Comet, entered commercial service in 1952. A jet engine combines fuel with air in an explosive mixture, but, rather than driving a piston, the force of the exhaust escapes from the rear of the engine, creating forward thrust. Most jet aircraft today are actually turbojets. The turbojet engine was invented specifically for civilian air travel. It uses a turbine to drive a fan to more efficiently suck in air to power the fuel/air reaction. The reaction then both gives the plane its thrust and drives a compressor to run the turbine. Turboprops are similar to turbojets, but, rather than driving a fan, the jet engine powers a conventional propeller. More exotic types of engines also exist, such as rocket engines and scramjets, which can boost an aircraft to more than seven times the speed of sound. However, these types of engines are rarely seen outside of rare, highly experimental aircraft.
FAA certification is granted only to aircraft mechanics with previous work experience: a minimum of 18 months for an airframe or power plant certificate and at least 30 months working with both engines and airframes for a combination certificate. To qualify for an inspector’s certificate, mechanics must have held a combined airframe and power plant certificate for at least three years. In addition, all applicants for certification must pass written and oral tests and demonstrate their ability to do the work authorized by the certificate.
Other Requirements Aircraft mechanics must be able to work with precision and meet rigid standards. Their physical condition is also important. They need more than average strength for lifting heavy parts and tools, as well as agility for reaching and climbing. And they should not be afraid of heights, since they may work on top of the wings and fuselages of large jet planes. In addition to education and certification, union membership may be a requirement for some jobs, particularly for mechanics employed by major airlines. The principal unions organizing aircraft mechanics are the International Association of Machinists and Aerospace Workers and the Transport Workers Union of America. In addition, some mechanics are represented by the International Brotherhood of Teamsters, Chauffeurs, Warehousemen and Helpers of America.
n Exploring occasionally give some credit for material learned in the service. However, on the plus side, airlines are especially eager to hire aircraft mechanics with both military experience and a trade school education.
Certification or Licensing FAA certification is necessary for certain types of aircraft mechanics and is usually required to advance beyond entry-level positions. Most mechanics who work on civilian aircraft have FAA authorization as airframe mechanics, power plant mechanics, or avionics repair specialists. Airframe mechanics are qualified to work on the fuselage, wings, landing gear, and other structural parts of the aircraft; power plant mechanics are qualified for work on the engine. Mechanics may qualify for both airframe and power plant licensing, allowing them to work on any part of the plane. Combination airframe and power plant mechanics with an inspector’s certificate are permitted to certify inspection work done by other mechanics. Mechanics without certification must be supervised by certified mechanics.
Working with electronic kits, tinkering with automobile engines, and assembling model airplanes are good ways of gauging your ability to do the kinds of work performed by aircraft mechanics. A guided tour of an airfield can give you a brief overall view of this industry. Even better would be a part-time or summer job with an airline in an area such as the baggage department. Small airports may also offer job opportunities for part-time, summer, or replacement workers. You may also earn a Student Pilot (SP) license at the age of 16 and may gain more insight into the basic workings of an airplane that way. Kits for building ultralight craft are also available and may provide even more insight into the importance of proper maintenance and repair.
n Employers Of the roughly 142,000 aircraft mechanics currently employed in the United States, more than half work for air transportation companies, according to the U.S. Department of Labor. Each airline usually has one main overhaul base, where most of its mechanics are employed. These bases are found along the main airline routes or
near large cities, including New York, Chicago, Los Angeles, Atlanta, San Francisco, and Miami. About one out of eight aircraft mechanics works for the federal government. Many of these mechanics are civilians employed at military aviation installations, while others work for the FAA, mainly in its headquarters in Oklahoma City. About one out of 10 mechanics works for aircraft assembly firms. Most of the rest are general aviation mechanics employed by independent repair shops at airports around the country, by businesses that use their own planes for transporting employees or cargo, by certified supplemental airlines, or by crop-dusting and air-taxi firms.
n Starting Out High school graduates who wish to become aircraft mechanics may enter this field by enrolling in an FAAapproved trade school. (Note that there are schools offering this training that do not have FAA approval.) These schools generally have placement services available for their graduates. Another method is to make direct application to the employment offices of companies providing air transportation and services or the local offices of the state employment service, although airlines prefer to employ people who have already completed training. Many airports are managed by private fixed-base operators, which also operate the airport’s repair and maintenance facilities. The field may also be entered through enlistment in the armed forces.
aircraft mechanics
craft mechanics was about $45,281 in 2004, according to the U.S. Department of Labor. The top 10 percent earned more than $70,387, while the bottom 10 percent earned $29,000 or less. Mechanics with airframe and powerplant certification earn more than those without it. Overtime, night shift, and holiday pay differentials are usually available and can greatly increase a mechanic’s annual earnings. Most major airlines are covered by union agreements. Their mechanics generally earn more than those working for other employers. Contracts usually include health insurance and often life insurance and retirement plans as well. An attractive fringe benefit for airline mechanics and their immediate families is free or reduced fares on their own and many other airlines. Mechanics working for the federal government also benefit from the greater job security of civil service and government jobs.
n Work Environment
Promotions depend in part on the size of the organization for which an aircraft mechanic works. The first promotion after beginning employment is usually based on merit and comes in the form of a salary increase. To advance further, many companies require the mechanic to have a combined airframe and power plant certificate, or perhaps an aircraft inspector’s certificate. Advancement could take the following route: journeyworker mechanic, head mechanic or crew chief, inspector, head inspector, and shop supervisor. With additional training, a mechanic may advance to engineering, administrative, or executive positions. In larger airlines, mechanics may advance to become flight engineers, then copilots and pilots. With business training, some mechanics open their own repair shops.
Most aircraft mechanics work a five-day, 40-hour week. Their working hours, however, may be irregular and often include nights, weekends, and holidays, as airlines operate 24 hours a day, and extra work is required during holiday seasons. When doing overhauling and major inspection work, aircraft mechanics generally work in hangars with adequate heat, ventilation, and lights. If the hangars are full, however, or if repairs must be made quickly, they may work outdoors, sometimes in unpleasant weather. Outdoor work is frequent for line maintenance mechanics, who work at airports, because they must make minor repairs and preflight checks at the terminal to save time. To maintain flight schedules, or to keep from inconveniencing customers in general aviation, the mechanics often have to work under time pressure. The work is physically strenuous and demanding. Mechanics often have to lift or pull as much as 70 pounds of weight. They may stand, lie, or kneel in awkward positions, sometimes in precarious places such as on a scaffold or ladder. Noise and vibration are common when testing engines. Regardless of the stresses and strains, aircraft mechanics are expected to work quickly and with great precision. Although the power tools and test equipment are provided by the employer, mechanics may be expected to furnish their own hand tools.
n Earnings
n Outlook
Although some aircraft mechanics, especially at the entry level and at small businesses, earn little more than the minimum wage, the median annual income for air-
Despite recent fluctuations in air travel, the outlook for aircraft mechanics should remain steady over the course of the next decade. Employment opportunities will open
n Advancement
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up due to fewer young workers entering the labor force, fewer entrants from the military, and more retirees leaving positions. But the job prospects will vary according to the type of employer. Less competition for jobs is likely to be found at smaller commuter and regional airlines, FAA repair stations, and in general aviation. These employers pay lower wages and fewer applicants compete for their positions, while higher paying airline positions, which also include travel benefits, are more in demand among qualified applicants. Mechanics who keep up with technological advancements in electronics, composite materials, and other areas will be in greatest demand. Employment of aircraft mechanics is likely to increase about as fast as the average through 2012, according to the U.S. Department of Labor. The demand for air travel and the numbers of aircraft created are expected to increase due to population growth and rising incomes. However, employment growth will be affected by the use of automated systems that make the aircraft mechanic’s job more efficient.
n For More Information For career books and information about high school student membership, national forums, and job fairs, contact Aviation Information Resources Inc. 3800 Camp Creek Parkway, Suite 18-100 Atlanta, GA 30331 Tel: 800-JET-JOBS http://www.jet-jobs.com
Professional Aviation Maintenance Association 400 Commonwealth Drive Warrendale, PA 15096 Tel: 866-865-7262 Email:
[email protected] http://www.pama.org
Airplane Dispatchers n Overview Airplane dispatchers plan and direct commercial air flights according to government and airline company regulations. They read radio reports from airplane pilots during flights and study weather reports to determine any necessary change in flight direction or altitude. They send instructions by radio to the pilots in the case of heavy storms,
fog, mechanical difficulties, or other emergencies. Airline dispatchers are sometimes called flight superintendents.
n History Commercial air service took off slowly in the United States. The first airmail flight occurred in 1911. The first passenger air service was organized in 1914, providing air transportation from Tampa to St. Petersburg, Florida, but this service lasted only six months. In 1917, however, the U.S. Post Office began its first airmail service. In 1925, the Kelly Air Mail Act turned over the airmail routes to 12 private contractors. This formed the basis of the commercial airline industry in the United States. The airline industry developed rapidly in the years leading up to World War II. The Air Commerce Act of 1927 introduced licensing requirements for pilots and airlines and created a network of defined airways. Improvements in airplane design had brought larger, more comfortable airplanes, and the numbers of passengers reached into the millions. By 1933, the United States boasted the busiest airports in the world. These developments created a need for people to organize and guide the increasing numbers of flights operated by the airlines. During the early days of aviation, the airplane dispatcher served in a number of capacities, including that of station manager, meteorologist, radio operator, and even mechanic. Often pilots were pressed into service as dispatchers because of their knowledge of weather and of the needs of flight crews. As the airline industry grew, these tasks became specialized. The first federal air traffic control center was opened in 1936. In 1938, federal licensing requirements were established for the airline’s own dispatchers. Soon dispatchers were located all over the country. Since that time, the work of dispatchers has become more involved and complicated, and the airline industry has relied on them extensively to make a major contribution to the safety of commercial air travel. Advancements in technology have eased parts of the airplane dispatcher’s job and have also allowed the airlines to consolidate their remote dispatch offices to a smaller number of centrally located offices.
n The Job Airplane dispatchers are employed by commercial airlines, and they maintain a constant watch on factors affecting the movement of planes during flights. Dispatchers are responsible for the safety of flights and for making certain that they are operated on an efficient, profit-making basis. The work of dispatchers, however, is not the same as that of air traffic controllers, who are employees of the federal government.
Airplane dispatchers are responsible for giving the company’s clearance for each flight that takes off during their shift. Their judgments are based on data received from a number of different sources. In their efforts to make certain that each flight will end successfully, they must take into consideration current weather conditions, weather forecasts, wind speed and direction, and other information. Before flights, they must decide whether the airplane crew should report to the field or whether the airline should begin notifying passengers that their flight has been delayed or canceled. Dispatchers may also have to determine whether an alternate route should be used, either to include another stop for passengers or to avoid certain weather conditions. Upon reporting to the field before a flight, the pilot confers with the dispatcher and determines the best route to use, the amount of fuel to be placed aboard the aircraft, the altitude at which to fly, and the approximate flying time. The pilot and the dispatcher must agree on the conditions of the flight, and both have the option of delaying or canceling flights should conditions become too hazardous to ensure a safe trip. Dispatchers may also be responsible for maintaining records and for determining the weight and balance of the aircraft after loading. They must be certain that all intended cargo is loaded aboard each of the appropriate flights. They must also be certain that all their decisions, such as those about the cargo, are in keeping with the safety regulations of the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA), as well as with the rules established by their own airline. Once the planes are in the air, dispatchers keep in constant contact with the flight crews. A dispatcher may be responsible for communications with as many as 10 or 12 flights at any one time. Contact is maintained through a company-owned radio network that enables each company to keep track of all of its planes. Dispatchers keep the crews informed about the weather that they will encounter, and they record the positions and other information reported by the planes while they are en route. If an emergency occurs, dispatchers coordinate the actions taken in response to the emergency. Following each flight, the pilot checks with the dispatcher for a debriefing. In the debriefing, the pilot brings the dispatcher up to date about the weather encountered in the air and other conditions related to the flight, so that the dispatcher will have this information available in scheduling subsequent flights. Good judgment is an important tool of airplane dispatchers, for they must be able to make fast, workable, realistic decisions. Because of this, dispatchers often experience strains and tensions on the job, espe-
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cially when many flights are in the air or when an emergency occurs. In larger airlines, there is a certain degree of specialization among dispatchers. An assistant dispatcher may work with the chief dispatcher and have the major responsibility for just one phase of the dispatching activities, such as analyzing current weather information, while a senior dispatcher may be designated to take care of another phase, such as monitoring the operating costs of each flight.
n Requirements High School Some college education is required to be an airplane dispatcher, so if you are interested in this career you should follow a college prep curriculum. Business administration and computer skills are vital to the job, so take any courses availquick facts able in those subjects. While in School Subjects high school, you can also pursue Geography a student pilot’s license, which is Mathematics a great advantage, though not a requirement. Personal Skills
Postsecondary Training Airplane dispatchers are required to have at least two years of college education with studies in meteorology or air transportation. Two years of work experience in air transportation may take the place of the college requirement. Airlines prefer college graduates who have studied mathematics, physics, or meteorology. There are about 40 schools around the country licensed by the FAA that offer dispatcher training. For information on these courses, contact the Airline Dispatchers Federation or visit its Web site at http://www. flightdispatch.net.
Certification or Licensing Airplane dispatchers must be licensed by the FAA. You may prepare for the FAA licensing examination in several different ways. You may work at least one
Communication/ideas Technical/scientific Work Environment
Primarily indoors One location with some travel Minimum Education Level
Some postsecondary training Salary Range
$20,000 to $47,250 to $100,000+ Certification or Licensing
Required by all states Outlook
Little change or more slowly than the average DOT
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43-5032.00
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year in a dispatching office under a licensed dispatcher, complete an FAA-approved airline dispatcher’s course at a specialized school or training center, or show that you have spent two of the previous three years in air traffic control work or a related job. Candidates who meet the preliminary requirements must also pass an examination covering such subjects as civil air regulations, radio procedures, airport and airway traffic procedures, weather analysis, and air-navigation facilities. In addition to a written test, you must also pass an oral examination covering the interpretation of weather information, landing and cruising speeds of various aircraft, airline routes, navigation facilities, and operational characteristics of different types of aircraft. You must not only demonstrate your knowledge of these areas to become a licensed dispatcher, but you are also expected to maintain these skills once licensed. Various training programs, some of which may be conducted by their employers, will assist you in staying current with new developments, which are frequent in this job. Assistant dispatchers are not always required to be licensed. Thus, it may be possible to begin work in a dispatcher’s office prior to earning the dispatcher’s license.
Other Requirements Airline dispatchers need to be able to work well either by themselves or with others and assume responsibility for their decisions. The job requires you to think and act quickly and sensibly under the most trying conditions. You may be responsible for hundreds of lives at any one time, and a poor decision could result in tragedy. Airline dispatchers must be at least 23 years old and in good health. Your vision must be correctable to 20/20. A good memory, the ability to remain calm under great pressure and the ability to do many things at once, and to make decisions quickly are essential to a successful airplane dispatcher’s career.
n Exploring Besides pursuing the course of study mentioned previously, there is little opportunity for an individual to explore the field of airplane dispatching directly. Part-time or summer jobs with airlines may provide interested students with a chance to observe some of the activities related to dispatching work. You can cultivate your interest in aircraft and aviation through reading and participating in flying clubs.
n Employers Virtually all airplane dispatchers are employed by commercial airlines, both those that ship cargo and those that transport passengers.
n Starting Out The occupation is not easy to enter because of its relatively small size (there were only slightly over 1,000 air dispatchers in the United States as of 2002) and the special skills required. The nature of the training is such that it is not easily put to use outside of this specific area. Few people leave this career once they are in it, so only a few positions other than those caused by death or retirement become available. People who are able to break into the field are often promoted to assistant dispatchers’ jobs from related fields. They may come from among the airline’s dispatch clerks, meteorologists, radio operators, or retired pilots. Obviously, airlines prefer those people who have had a long experience in ground-flight operations work. Thus, it is probably wise to plan on starting out in one of these related fields and eventually working into a position as airplane dispatcher.
n Advancement The usual path of advancement is from dispatch clerk to assistant dispatcher to dispatcher and then, possibly, to chief flight dispatcher or flight dispatch manager or assistant manager. It is also possible to become a chief flight supervisor or superintendent of flight control. The line of advancement varies depending on the airline, the size of the facility where the dispatcher is located, and the positions available. At smaller facilities, there may be only two or three different promotional levels available.
n Earnings Dispatcher salaries vary greatly among airlines. According to the Airline Dispatchers Federation, entry-level positions at smaller carriers pay about $20,000 a year. Senior dispatchers at major airlines earn more than $100,000 a year. A few dispatchers earn close to $150,000 including overtime pay. Licensed dispatchers earn an annual mean wage of about $47,250 per year. Flight superintendents make up to about $52,800 per year, and shift chiefs, $66,000. Airline positions generally provide health insurance and other benefits. Beginning dispatchers usually work eight-hour shifts five days a week and receive two weeks paid vacation per year. Senior dispatchers usually work four 10-hour shifts a week and may receive as many as six weeks vacation each year. Most dispatchers and their families are also able to fly for free or at heavily discounted prices. Smaller airlines and air companies generally pay less, with some dispatchers earning as little as $8,000 per year.
n Work Environment Airplane dispatchers are normally stationed at airports near a terminal or hangar, but in facilities away from the public. Some airlines use several dispatch installations, while others use a single office. Because dispatchers make decisions involving not only thousands of people but also a great deal of money, their offices are often located close to those of management, so that they can remain in close contact. Frequently, the offices where airplane dispatchers work are full of noise and activity, with telephones ringing, computer printers chattering, and many people talking and moving about to consult charts and other sources of information. The offices usually operate 24 hours a day, with each dispatcher working eight-hour shifts, plus an additional half-hour used in briefing the relief person. Many lives depend on airplane dispatchers every day. This means that there is often considerable stress in their jobs. Dispatchers must constantly make rapid decisions based on their evaluation of a great deal of information. Adding to the tension is the fact that they may work in noisy, hectic surroundings and must interact with many people throughout the day. However, dispatchers can feel deep satisfaction in knowing that their job is vital to the safety and success of airline operations.
n Outlook In total, only about 1,000 dispatchers were employed in the United States as of 2002. Smaller airlines and some private firms also employ airplane dispatchers, but the number of dispatchers remains very small. The Airline Dispatchers Federation (ADF) says the job market for dispatchers is currently good, especially with smaller commuter airlines. An expected increase in air traffic in coming years may mean a slight increase in the number of airplane dispatchers needed. However, the centralization of dispatch offices using more advanced technology means that fewer dispatchers will be able to do more work. With improved communications equipment, a single dispatcher will be able to cover a larger area than is currently possible. Because of the relatively small size of this occupational field, its employment outlook is not particularly good. Most major airlines consider dispatch positions as senior management level positions. Candidates are often selected from within the company after they have accumulated 15 to 20 years of experience in a variety of areas, including supervisory positions. Candidates selected from outside the company must have considerable experience with smaller carriers. According to ADF, new graduates from dispatch schools should not expect to be hired by major airlines such as American or United. A better choice would be to
airport security personnel
seek a position with a smaller carrier and get at least five years’ experience before attempting to apply for a position with a major airline.
n For More Information For career information, contact Airline Dispatchers Federation 2020 Pennsylvania Avenue, NW, Suite 821 Washington, DC 20006 Tel: 800-676-2685
[email protected] http://www.flightdispatch.net
Airport Security Personnel n Overview Airport security personnel is a blanket term describing all workers who protect the safety of passengers and staff in the nation’s airports and aircraft. One of the largest group of personnel in this line of work is security screeners, who are responsible for identifying dangerous objects or hazardous materials in baggage, cargo, or on traveling passengers and preventing these objects and their carriers from boarding planes. Also included in this group of workers are air marshals, who act as on-board security agents, protecting passengers, pilots, and other airline staff in the case of any emergencies while in the air. More than 40,000 people are employed in airport security.
n History The use of screening and onboard security personnel is not a recent invention. The presence of guards on airplanes originated in the 1960s as a result of a number of hijackings of U.S. planes flying to and from Cuba. These guards, referred to as Sky Marshals, grew in number during the 1970s and then declined in later years with the lower occurrences of airplane hijackings. Airplane security staffing reached several thousand workers at the peak of this hijacking scare, then dropped to fewer than 100 workers nationwide during its quietest times. The 2001 terrorist attacks on the World Trade Center and the Pentagon spurred many changes in the realm of airport security. Most notably, a new federal agency was born: The Transportation Security Administration (TSA), responsible for overseeing all security at the nation’s airports. This agency made airport and airline security a federal responsibility, and as a result, all airport security
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personnel became federal employees. This was no small task. Previously, security screening in airports was handled by private security firms. These firms were inconsistent in their hiring and training methods and paid relatively low wages—resulting in high job turnover rates and inadequate screening of potentially dangerous objects and materials. With the shift of responsibility into the government’s hands, standard training and hiring requirements were put in place. In addition to better screening, hiring, and training methods, the technology for screening bags and passengers has improved, increasing the chances that dangerous cargo and on-person threats can be located and prevented from boarding a plane.
n The Job Protecting U.S. skies, airports, and passengers is a huge undertaking that requires many qualified, well-trained individuals in different security roles. The most visible airport quick facts security worker is the security School Subjects screener, also called the baggage Computer science and passenger screener. These Government workers use computers, X-ray Mathematics machines, and handheld scanners Personal Skills to screen bags and their owners Following instructions passing through airport terminals. Leadership/management In addition to using technology to help them identify dangerous Work Environment items, they also have to depend on Indoors and outdoors their own eyesight to catch suspiPrimarily multiple locations cious behavior and read the X-ray Minimum Education Level screens for signs of danger. These Some postsecondary training workers must be focused and alert, while also remaining personable Salary Range and courteous to people being $30,000 to $80,000 to $150,000+ screened. The screening process can take a lot of time during highCertification or Licensing volume travel days, and passenNone gers waiting in line may be late for a flight, impatient, or simply rude. Outlook For this reason, security screenFaster than the average ers must be people-oriented, able DOT to manage crowds, and maintain 372 composure in what can be stressful conditions. GOE The need for security is not 04.02.02 limited to the ground. Air marNOC shals, also called security agents, 6651 have the demanding job of protecting all airline passengers and O*NET-SOC staff from on-board threats, such 33-9032.00 as terrorists, hijackers, bombs, or
other weapons. These workers are often covert in their operations, meaning they may be dressed and seated like an average passenger to be able to watch for suspicious behavior and surprise a potential attacker. Much of the details of air marshal jobs are classified to protect national security, such as their exact number and identities, routes, and training procedures. However the basics of their job is much like that of a Secret Service agent. They must be attentive to all activity that goes on around them, identify potential threats to security, and deal with dangerous individuals or objects once exposed on board. The main difference between air marshals and other security agents is they must be trained and able to handle possible warfare in a confined space at 30,000 feet in the air. Another airport security job of high importance is that of security director. These workers, hired by the federal government, are responsible for all security personnel within an airport. They oversee the hiring, training, and work of baggage and passenger screeners, air marshals, and other security guards. In the nation’s largest airports, such as JFK in New York City or O’Hare in Chicago, directors are in charge of hundreds of workers. Because of the high level of responsibility held by these workers, security directors often have previous experience in crisis management or law enforcement, such as police chiefs or military officers.
n Requirements High School To work in most airport security jobs, you should have at least a high school diploma. However, security screeners can sidestep this educational requirement with previous job experience in security. While in high school, take classes in history and government to familiarize yourself with previous events and political threats that have threatened our national security, such as foreign hijackers and terrorist operations. You should also be comfortable working with computers since most jobs in security involve a great deal of technology. Math classes can be beneficial because as a security worker, you must be analytical and observant to identify and catch dangers before they happen.
Postsecondary Training All security workers, from screeners to directors, are highly trained before starting their jobs. Screeners are trained on how to operate and identify dangerous objects from the X-ray machines and handheld wands. They also must be prepared to manage potentially dangerous individuals. Screeners currently receive 40 hours of training before their first day at work, and receive an additional 60 hours of training while on the job. This training period may be extended due to increased scru-
tiny on screeners’ performance and heightened national security risks. Air marshals are rigorously trained in classified training centers across the country, and come to the job with previous on-the-job experience from serving in a military or civilian police force. Similarly, security directors must have previous federal security experience and are trained for up to 400 hours before taking on the responsibility of directing an entire airport security staff.
Other Requirements All airport security personnel have demanding jobs that require a calm demeanor when under pressure. Screeners often have to stand for hours at a time and assist in lifting passengers’ luggage onto the screening belt. Their eyesight must be strong enough to detect even the smallest of possible threats displayed on a computer screen. To ensure that individuals can handle these demands, potential screeners face many physical and vision tests to ensure they are up to the job. All screeners must be U.S. citizens or nationals and pass tests evaluating mental abilities (English reading, writing, and speaking), visual observation (including color perception), hearing, and manual dexterity. Similarly, air marshals and directors of security must pass vision and hearing tests and be in good physical shape to face and dominate potential attackers.
n Exploring To explore this job, watch people at work your next time at the airport. Notice how many people are involved in screening luggage and passengers. While you should not talk to these screeners and other security staff while they are at work, you may be able to schedule an interview with security personnel while they are on break or perhaps over the phone. Talk to a teacher or your school’s guidance counselor for help in arranging this. You can also learn about security jobs at your local library or online. Explore the Web sites of the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) for facts and job descriptions, changes in policy, and even summer camp opportunities. The links at the end of this article are good places to start your research.
n Employers In late 2001, airport and airline security was placed under the oversight of the federal government. While some screening jobs may still be handled by private companies, all security personnel are screened and trained under federal rules and regulations. This shift in responsibility was done to improve standards in security and ensure the safety of U.S. passengers and airline staff. The newly created Transportation Security Administration (TSA)
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and the FAA are the employers of all airport security staff. There are more than 40,000 people employed in airport security, approximately 28,000 of whom are security screeners working in the nation’s airports.
n Starting Out Depending on the security level you want to be employed in, you can start out working with no more than a high school diploma and on-the-job training. Security screening jobs are a great way to start out in this line of work. These jobs provide front-line experience in airport security and can offer flexible part-time schedules. Positions as air marshals or directors or security are not entry-level positions. If you are interested in one of these jobs, you will need previous experience with the police, U.S. military, or other position in which you have gained skills in protecting the lives of others.
n Advancement Screening jobs have high turnover rates, and as a result, offer many chances for advancement. After a couple of
Shoes and Security After recent attempts to smuggle weapons aboard planes via footwear, having to remove your shoes before going through a metal detector at the airport has become a common event. The TSA states that although passengers are not required to remove their shoes, TSA screeners may encourage you to remove them before entering the metal detector as many types of footwear will require additional screening even if the metal detector does not alarm. Footwear that screeners will encourage you to remove because they are likely to require additional screening: n
boots
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platform shoes (including platform flip-flops)
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footwear with a thick sole or heel (including athletic shoes)
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footwear containing metal (including many dress shoes)
Footwear that screeners are less likely to suggest you remove includes: n
"beach" flip-flops
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thin-soled sandals (without metal)
Tip: Since a thorough screening includes X-ray inspection of footwear, wearing footwear that is easily removable helps to speed you through the screening process. Source: Transportation Security Administration
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standing, bending, and lifting during their shifts, while having to maintain total visual focus on their X-ray machines or while searching individual passengers by hand. The job of air marshals can be extremely stressful. These workers must be prepared to overcome an attacker in a confined space without risking harm to any of the plane’s passengers. In addition, air marshals must spend considerable time away from home.
n Outlook With the new awareness of airline dangers following recent terrorist attacks, the employment of airport security personnel will grow at a faster-than-average rate. Despite better pay, security screeners still have high turnover rates due to the high demands involved with the job. This turnover will continue to create many new jobs in the future. While jobs as air marshals and security directors will not be as plentiful, there will always be a critical need for qualified and skilled individuals to protect airplanes and passengers from security threats.
n For More Information A passenger helps an airport security worker check through his baggage prior to boarding his flight. (Reuters/Corbis.)
years of experience in baggage and passenger screening, you can work into higher positions in management or busier traffic responsibility. Security managers may be responsible for hundreds of workers and oversee the hiring and training of new workers. Positions as air marshals already offer a high level of responsibility, but qualified and talented individuals can advance into manager and director roles, responsible for hundreds and even thousands of workers.
n Earnings Before airline security was adopted by the TSA, screeners were paid minimum wage. But to attract and retain qualified and dedicated workers, earnings have been raised considerably, with most full-time screeners earning salaries of $30,000 to $35,000 a year. Their pay increases as their level of experience and responsibility increases. Air marshals and directors earn much more, with directors topping out at a salary of $150,000 or more—one of the highest salaries in government service.
n Work Environment As previously stated, any job in airport security is demanding and stressful, especially during high periods of travel, such as the holidays. Screeners face physical challenges of
The FAA offers a wealth of information on its Web site, from airline accident statistics to career guidance. Visit the Education pages for information on summer camps for middle and high school students interested in aviation careers. Federal Aviation Administration 800 Independence Avenue, SW Washington, DC 20591 Tel: 866-835-5322 http://www.faa.gov According to its Web site, the TSA “sets the standard for excellence in transportation security through its people, processes, and technologies.” Explore the site for details on the nation’s threat advisory level and tips on flying and packing safely. Transportation Security Administration TSA-21 Human Resources 601 South 12th Street Arlington, VA 22202-4220 http://www.tsa.gov
Airport Service Workers n Overview The term airport service worker is a general designation for a wide variety of workers who are employed in sup-
port occupations at airports. Many of these workers deal directly with the public in sales- and service-based occupations. Others perform behind-the-scenes maintenance and cleaning services that keep public and private areas of airports clean and operating efficiently.
n History In the early days of aviation, there were no airports as we know them today. Planes landed on flat strips of dirt and grass, and there were few, if any, services available for passengers. By the 1930s, the first airports were constructed in New York, Chicago, and other major cities. But it was not until after World War II that commercial air travel began to really take off and services began to be offered to make travel easier and more convenient for airline passengers. Large numbers of airport service workers were hired to staff airport restaurants and shops, keep facilities clean, and assist travelers with baggage and general information. Today, these workers serve over 30 million travelers annually at approximately 540 commercial services airports in the United States.
n The Job Airport service workers perform a variety of duties that are integral to the proper functioning of an airport. The following paragraphs detail some of the major airport service careers. Airport parking attendants sell parking tickets, collect payments, and direct cars into the proper parking spaces. Many airports offer transportation from remote parking lots to the terminals. Airport drivers operate trolley cars, trams, buses, vans, and trains and give general assistance to passengers. Some airport drivers operate airfield vehicles such as food trucks, employee buses, fuel trucks, and other equipment. Skycaps, also known as baggage porters, help customers with luggage at airports. They are either employed by airlines or by ground services companies. Skycaps stand at curbside airline entrances and help travelers load and unload baggage, answer questions about flight schedules, and often check in luggage. Airport concession workers are employed at gift shops, bookstores, car rental agencies, newsstands, and any other place goods or services are sold. Besides making and completing cash and credit card sales, attendants are responsible for stocking and pricing items, helping customers with their purchases, and answering any questions regarding the merchandise or services. Attendants also make sure displays are clean and orderly. Airport food concession attendants sell snacks and beverages to travelers at small airport kiosks. Attendants are trained on the proper way to prepare and serve their
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snacks and make cash and credit card transactions as well. Airport food service workers are employed in eating establishments at airports. Waiters and waitresses take customers’ quick facts orders, serve food and beverages, school subjects calculate bills, and sometimes Business collect money. Between serving Family and consumer science Speech customers, waiters may clear and clean tables and counters, replenPersonal Skills ish supplies, and set up table serFollowing instructions vice for future customers. Cooks Mechanical/manipulative and chefs are employed in the Work Environment preparation and cooking of food Indoors and outdoors in restaurants and other eating Primarily multiple locations establishments. Fast food workers take food and drink orders from Minimum Education Level customers. During quiet periods, High school diploma they may be responsible for such Salary Range chores as making coffee, cooking $16,640 to $48,400 to french fries, or cleaning tables. $100,000 Bartenders mix and dispense alcoholic and nonalcoholic drinks in Certification or Licensing airport restaurants and bars. Required for certain positions Restaurant and food service Outlook managers are responsible for About as fast as the average the overall operation of airport businesses that serve food. DOT Food service work includes the 005, 157, 185, 290, 310, 311, purchasing of a variety of food, 313, 319, 382, 408, 824, 912 selection of the menu, prepaGOE ration of the food, and, most 03.01.03, 05.01.07, 05.05.05, importantly, maintenance of 05.09.03, 05.10.08, health and sanitation levels. It is 05.12.06, 05.12.18, the responsibility of managers to 09.01.03, 09.04.01, 09.04.02, 09.05.02, 11.11.05 oversee staffing for each task in addition to performing the busiNOC ness and accounting functions of 0621, 0631, 2225, 6211, restaurant operations. 6241, 6242, 6421, 6452, Some airport food service 6641, 6661, 6663 workers are employed by the O*NET-SOC airlines or private contractors 11-9051.00, 35-1011.00, to prepare and cook food that is 35-1012.00, 35-2011.00, consumed during flights. They 35-2014.00, 35-2015.00, work in airport flight kitchens. 35-2021.00, 35-3011.00, Other food service employees 35-3021.00, 35-3022.00, 35-3031.00, 35-9011.00, in airports include bar backs, 35-9021.00, 37-1011.02, buspersons, dishwashers, and 37-1012.00, 37-2011.00, kitchen assistants. 37-3011.00, 39-6011.00, Airport janitors or cleaners 41-1011.00, 41-2011.00, clean and maintain all areas of 41-2031.00 the airport, including terminals,
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washrooms, security areas, shops, restaurants, bars, waiting areas, and offices. In addition to daily cleaning duties, they may perform light repair work when needed and make sure heating and cooling systems are in proper working order. Larger airports employ separate tradesworkers, such as carpenters, electricians, plumbers, and building engineers, to repair and maintain airport facilities. Groundsmanagers and groundskeepers oversee the maintenance of land and vegetation at airports and their surrounding facilities. Airport information specialists assist passengers in airport terminals. They answer general questions and help disabled passengers. Some airport information specialists work as translators and help foreign travelers.
n Requirements High School While most airport service positions are available to high school students, the most attractive positions will go to high school graduates. In high school, take courses in mathematics, business, and computer science to prepare for work in these careers. English and speech classes will help you to develop your communication skills, and a foreign language will help you to interact with foreign travelers.
This airport ground service worker inspects an aircraft prior to takeoff. (Siri Stafford/Getty Images.)
Postsecondary Training Most airport service positions are open to high school students. They learn the duties and responsibilities of their specific position via on-the-job training. Other airport service workers prepare for their careers by enrolling in postsecondary training programs. For example, cooks and chefs may pursue additional education at private vocational schools or university programs. They may also participate in apprenticeship programs that are sponsored by professional associations and trade unions. To improve their management abilities and increase their chances of promotion, many food service managers earn an associate’s or bachelor’s degree in restaurant management or institutional food service management. Airport tradesworkers, such as carpenters, electricians, plumbers, and building engineers, usually learn their respective trade by participating in an apprenticeship program or attending a technical or vocational educational program.
Certification and Licensing Certification and licensing requirements vary based on the type of airport service career. The following paragraphs detail certification and licensing requirements for selected airport service careers. Applicants who pass an examination can receive the certified parking facility manager designation from the National Parking Association. In most states, airport and other professional drivers must qualify for a commercial driver’s license. State motor vehicle departments can provide information on how to qualify for this license. For insurance reasons, companies generally prefer to hire drivers who are at least 25 years of age and have an impeccable driving record. Chefs, cooks, and other food service workers are required by law in most states to possess a health certificate and to be examined periodically. These examinations, usually given by the state board of health, make certain that the individual is free from communicable diseases and skin infections. The National Restaurant Association Educational Foundation offers a voluntary foodservice management professional certification to restaurant and food service managers. Although not a requirement for finding a job, some janitors opt to become certified by the National Executive Housekeepers Association. Groundsmanagers and groundskeepers can receive voluntary certification from several organizations, including the Associated Landscape Contractors of America, the Professional Grounds Management Society, and the Professional Lawn Care Association of America.
Other Requirements Airport service workers who deal with the public must have strong communication skills, pleasant personal appearances, tact, patience, and the ability to interact with a wide range of people. All workers must be able to follow instructions and have good physical stamina to stand for long periods of time. Workers who are employed in sales occupations must be able to add and subtract accurately and quickly and operate cash registers and other types of business machines. Skycaps must have physical strength to lift heavy luggage and excellent communication skills to deal with customers effectively. Airport drivers must have a good driving record and be able drive in all types of weather conditions. Bartenders must be at least 21 years of age, although some employers prefer they be older than 25. In some states, bartenders must have health certificates assuring that they are free of contagious diseases. Because of the large sums of money collected in some bars, bartenders must sometimes be bonded. Janitors and tradesworkers should be good with their hands and be able to operate tools and equipment. A certain level of stamina and energy is essential since the job requires physical labor. Groundskeepers must be able to follow directions and be responsible, since they are often assigned duties and then asked to work without direct supervision. Information specialists must have excellent communication skills and an encyclopedic knowledge of airport services and facilities in order to quickly and effectively serve the needs of travelers.
n Exploring One way to learn more about these careers is to visit an airport and watch these workers as they do their jobs. You might also ask your guidance counselor or teacher to set up an information interview with a worker in the field. You can also try to get a part-time or summer job at an airport as a food service worker, shop clerk, janitor, information specialist, or other service worker.
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Aviation Facts n
The Boeing 247 was the first modern passenger airliner. It was introduced in 1933.
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The first pressurized aircraft, the Stratoliner, was introduced in 1940.
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The Tupolev 144 was the first supersonic commercial aircraft. It was built by the Soviet Union in 1968.
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The first widebody jet, the Boeing 747, was built in 1969. It had two aisles, an upper deck, four engines, and seating for up to 450 passengers.
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Commercial air travel in the United States is safer than travel on its highways. More than 40,000 people die a year in highway accidents. In 1974, the worst year of aviation accidents, 460 people lost their lives.
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There are 544 commercial service airports in the United States.
at hotels and motels. Food service workers are employed by hotels, bars, restaurants, and schools. Janitors and cleaners work in hotels, restaurants, offices, schools, malls, stadiums, and in countless other settings. Janitors and cleaners work in office buildings, apartments, schools, hotels, hospitals, and factories. Grounds workers are employed at golf and country clubs, public parks and recreation areas, apartment complexes, cemeteries, condominiums, estates, schools and universities, shopping centers and malls, theme parks, zoos, commercial and industrial parks, hospitals, and military installations. Information specialists can also be employed at rail and bus stations, amusement parks, shopping malls, trade shows, concert halls, and sports stadiums.
n Starting Out Airport service careers represent an excellent way to break into the aviation industry at the ground level. Contact your local airport authority for a list of concession contractors to which you can apply for employment directly.
n Employers
n Advancement
Airport service workers are employed at the approximately 540 commercial services airports in the United States. Some work directly for airlines, while others work for private contractors. Additionally, almost all of these positions can be found outside of airports. For example, skycaps are also employed in bus terminals, train stations, cruise ships, and just about any place of travel. Skycaps known as baggage porters and bellhops assist guests
With hard work, dedication, and additional education or training, airport service workers can advance to a variety of managerial and supervisory positions. For example, food service workers can become chefs or food service managers. Experienced janitors and cleaners may be asked to supervise large groups of workers. Those with experience, contacts, references, and an interest in entrepreneurship could start their own businesses.
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n Earnings Salaries for airport service workers vary based on the size and location of the airport and the worker’s job description and level of experience. Airport drivers earn approximately $7 to $8 an hour. Skycaps earn salaries that range from $13,200 to $25,200 plus tips, according to the FAA. According to CNN.com, experienced skycaps can earn between $75,000 and $100,000 a year. Airport concession workers earn salaries that range from minimum wage to approximately $10 per hour. Food preparers earn $6 to $9 an hour. Food service managers employed in scheduled air transportation earned mean annual salaries of $78,540 in 2005, according to the U.S. Department of Labor. Supervisors of janitors and cleaners employed in scheduled air transportation had mean annual salaries of $48,400 in 2005.
n Work Environment With millions of travelers from countless states and countries passing through annually, airports are hectic but exciting places to work. And like the diverse travelers they serve, airport service workers enjoy a wide variety of work environments. Workers employed in concessions and food service work indoors in a comfortable, climate-controlled environment. Others, such as janitors and cleaners and maintenance staff, work both indoors and outdoors to keep airport facilities maintained. Skycaps spend most of their workday outdoors on their feet in sometimes severe weather conditions. Airport drivers work in all types of weather conditions. They are constantly on the go, transporting passengers, airport employees, and equipment and goods to various locations. Groundsmanagers and groundskeeping crews work outside year-round in all types and conditions of weather. Grounds workers frequently use pesticides, herbicides, and fungicides to keep turf, plants, shrubs, trees, and flowers healthy and beautiful. It is essential that they observe safety precautions when applying these chemicals to prevent exposure. Since most airports are open 24 hours a day, seven days a week, airport service workers may be required to work nights and on weekends.
n Outlook Employment in the air transportation industry is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all industries through 2014, according to the Career Guide to Industries. As a result of reduced passenger travel in recent years, there have been many layoffs and some airlines and other aviation-related companies went bankrupt. The U.S. Department of Labor predicts that the industry will gradually bounce back as the public regains confidence in flying as a result of post-9/11 security measures and business travel increases as the nation’s economy improves and world
trade expands. Of course, another terrorist attack or even the threat of an attack will greatly affect the employment of airport service workers. If the public travels less, there will be less demand for service and support workers at airports. Certain positions will be hit especially hard. For example, during heightened security alerts, curbside check-in is banned, which affects employment for skycaps. Overall, there should be many job openings for workers in this field since these positions pay relatively low salaries and require little educational preparation. Positions will become available as workers leave the field for better-paying positions with more opportunity for advancement.
n For More Information To read The Airline Handbook, visit the ATAA Web site. Air Transport Association of America 1301 Pennsylvania Avenue, NW, Suite 1100 Washington, DC 20004-1707 Tel: 202-626-4000 Email:
[email protected] http://www.airlines.org
For information on careers and training in the janitorial services field, contact Cleaning and Maintenance Management Online National Trade Publications 13 Century Hill Drive Latham, NY 12110 Tel: 518-783-1281 http://www.cmmonline.com
For general information on aviation, contact Federal Aviation Administration 800 Independence Avenue, SW, Room 810 Washington, DC 20591 Tel: 202-366-4000 http://www.faa.gov
For information on educational programs, contact International Council on Hotel, Restaurant and Institutional Education 2613 North Parham Road, 2nd Floor Richmond, VA 23294 Tel: 804-346-4800 Email:
[email protected] http://chrie.org
For information about certification programs in housekeeping, contact International Executive Housekeepers Association Inc. 1001 Eastwind Drive, Suite 301 Westerville, OH 43081-3361
air quality engineers
Tel: 800-200-6342 Email:
[email protected] http://www.ieha.org
For information on certification for parking facility managers, contact National Parking Association 1112 16th Street, NW, Suite 300 Washington, DC 20036 Tel: 800-647-PARK Email:
[email protected] http://www.npapark.org
For information on education, scholarships, and careers, contact National Restaurant Association Educational Foundation 175 West Jackson Boulevard, Suite 1500 Chicago, IL 60604-2702 Tel: 800-765-2122 Email:
[email protected] http://www.nraef.org
For materials on educational programs in the retail industry, contact National Retail Federation 325 7th Street, NW, Suite 1100 Washington, DC 20004 Tel: 800-673-4692 http://www.nrf.com
For information on student membership and certification, contact Professional Grounds Management Society 720 Light Street Baltimore, MD 21230 Tel: 410-752-3318 Email:
[email protected] http://www.pgms.org
Air Quality Engineers n Overview Air quality engineers, or air pollution control engineers, are responsible for developing techniques to analyze and control air pollution by using sophisticated monitoring, chemical analysis, computer modeling, and statistical
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analysis. Some air quality engineers are involved in pollution-control equipment design or modification. Government-employed air quality experts keep track of a region’s polluters, enforce federal regulations, and impose fines or take other action against those who do not comply with regulations. Privately employed engineers may monitor companies’ emissions for certain targeted pollutants to ensure that they are within acceptable levels. Air quality engineers who work in research seek ways to combat or avoid air pollution.
n History The growth of cities and factories during the industrial revolution was a major contributor to the decline of air quality. Some contaminates (pollutants) have always been with us, for instance, particulate matter (tiny solid particles) from very large fires, volcanic eruption, or dust caused by wind. However, human populations were not quick facts really concentrated enough, nor school subjects did the technology exist, to proBiology duce conditions that are today Chemistry Mathematics considered hazardous until about 200 years ago. The industrializaPersonal Skills tion of England in the 1750s, Communication/ideas followed by that of France in the Technical/scientific 1830s and Germany in the 1850s created high-density populations Work Environment Primarily indoors of millions of people who were Primarily one location drawn to cities to work in the smoke-belching factories, leadMinimum Education Level ing to huge increases in airborne Bachelor’s degree pollutants. Work conditions in Salary Range the factories were notoriously $31,610 to $67,360 to bad, and with no pollution$85,940+ control or safety measures, living conditions in cities rapidly Certification or Licensing became equally bad. The severely Voluntary polluted air was a major cause of Outlook respiratory and other diseases. Faster than the average America’s cities were slightly smaller and slower to industriDOT alize, as well as more spread out 019 than Old World capitals like GOE London. Even so, levels of sulfur 02.07.04 dioxide were so high in Pittsburgh in the early 1900s that NOC ladies’ stockings would disinteN/A grate upon prolonged exposure to the air. The rapid growth of O*NET-SOC N/A the American automobile industry in the first half of the 20th
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century contributed greatly to air pollution in two ways: initially, from the steel factories and production plants that made economic giants out of places like Pittsburgh and Detroit, and then from the cars themselves. This became an even greater problem as cars enabled people to move out from the fetid industrial city and commute to work from the suburbs. Mobility independent of public transportation greatly increased auto exhaust and created such modern nightmares as rush hour traffic. The effects of air pollution were and are numerous. Particulate matter reacts chemically with heat to form ground-level ozone, or smog. Sulfur and nitrogen oxides form acid rain, which can cause extensive property damage over long periods. Carbon monoxide, the main automobile pollutant, is deadly at a relatively low level of exposure. Air pollution affects the environment not only in well-publicized phenomena like acid rain and destroying the ozone layer, but in less obvious ways as well. For example, increased asthma rates in cities has often been statistically tied to the amount of pollution in the environment. Because pollution is so difficult to remove from the air, and because its effects are so difficult to alter, the problem tends to be cumulative and an increasingly critical public health issue.
Good Ozone, Bad Ozone Stratospheric ozone is located in the stratosphere, the layer of the earth’s atmosphere that is between eight and 30 miles above the earth’s surface. This layer of the atmosphere is too far away for us to breathe, thus the ozone contained in it is not harmful to us. Rather, it actually protects plants and animals from the sun’s harmful ultraviolet rays. Thus, stratospheric ozone is the “good ozone.” Tropospheric ozone, or “bad ozone,” is located in the troposphere, the layer of the earth’s atmosphere running from the ground to eight miles above it. This is the air that we do breathe. Ozone does not naturally occur in the troposphere. It forms there as a result of a combination of emissions from automobiles, factories, and certain household products that gets trapped in the troposphere. On hot and humid days in certain parts of the country (in big cities, especially), tropospheric ozone levels can become quite high, making breathing difficult for many people. An easy way to remember the difference between good and bad ozone in relation to the earth’s atmosphere is “Good up high, bad nearby.” Source: Environmental Protection Agency
Some private air pollution control was implemented in the 20th century, mainly to prevent factories from ruining their own works with corrosive and unhealthy emissions. The first attempt at governmental regulation was the Clean Air Act in 1955, but because environmental concerns were not considered viable economic or political issues, this act was not very effective. As environmentalists became increasingly visible and vigorous campaigners, the Air Quality Act was established in 1967. The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) created National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) in 1971, which set limits on ozone, carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide, lead, nitrogen dioxide, and particulate levels in the emissions of certain industries and processes. States were supposed to design and implement plans to meet the NAAQS, but so few complied that Congress was forced to extend deadlines three times. Even now, many goals set by the first generation of air-quality regulations remain unmet, and new pollution issues demand attention. Airborne toxins, indoor air pollution, acid rain, carbon dioxide buildup (the greenhouse effect), and depletion of the ozone are now subjects of international controversy and concern.
n The Job The EPA has composed a list of more than 150 regions of the United States that are out of compliance with federal air quality regulations—some dramatically so—and provided deadlines within the next 20 years to bring these areas under control. The EPA regulations cover everything from car emissions to the greenhouse effect and have the weight of law behind them. There are few industries that will not be touched somehow by this legislation and few that will not require the services of an air quality engineer in the years to come. Air quality engineers are the professionals who monitor targeted industries or sources to determine whether they are operating within acceptable emissions levels. These engineers suggest changes in the setup of specific companies, or even whole industries, to lessen their impact on the atmosphere. There will be ample opportunity in this field to combine interests, precisely because it is a new field with yet unestablished job paths. An air quality engineer with some background in meteorology, for example, might track the spread of airborne pollutants through various weather systems, using computer modeling techniques. Another air quality engineer might research indoor air pollution, discovering causes for the “sick building syndrome” and creating new architectural standards and building codes for safe ventilation and construction materials.
Air quality engineers work for the government, in private industry, as consultants, and in research and development. Government employees are responsible for monitoring a region, citing infractions, and otherwise enforcing government regulations. These workers may be called to give testimony in cases against noncompliant companies. They must deal with public concerns and opinions and are themselves regulated by government bureaucracy and regulations. Air quality engineers in private industry work within industry or a large company to ensure that air quality regulations are being met. They might be responsible for developing instrumentation to continuously monitor emissions, for example, and using the data to formulate methods of control. They may interact with federal regulators or work independently. Engineers working in private industry also might be involved in what is known as “impact assessment with the goal of sustainable development.” This means figuring out the most environmentally sound way to produce products—from raw material to disposal stages—while maintaining or, if possible, increasing the company’s profits. Engineers who work alone as consultants or for consulting firms do many of the same things as engineers in private industry, perhaps for smaller companies who do not need a full-time engineer but still need help meeting federal requirements. They, too, might suggest changes to be implemented by a company to reduce air pollution. Some consultants specialize in certain areas of pollution control. Many private consultants are responsible for selling, installing, and running a particular control system. The job requires some salesmanship and the motivation to maintain a variable clientele. Finally, engineers committed to research and development may work in public or private research institutions and in academic environments. They may tackle significant problems that affect any number of industries and may improve air quality standards with the discovery of new contaminates that need regulation.
air quality engineers
engage in some mechanical or civil engineering if they are interested in product development. Modelers and planners should have a good knowledge of computer systems. Supporting course work in biology, toxicology, or meteorology can give the job seeker an edge for certain specialized positions even before gaining experience in the workforce.
Certification or Licensing All engineers who do work that affects public health, safety, or property must register with the state. To obtain registration, engineers must have a degree from an accredited engineering program. Right before they get their degree (or soon after), they must pass an engineerin-training (EIT) exam covering fundamentals of science and engineering. A few years into their careers, engineers also must pass an exam covering engineering practice.
Other Requirements Prospective air quality engineers should be puzzle solvers. The ability to work with intangibles is a trait of successful air quality management. As in most fields, communications skills are vital. Engineers must be able to clearly communicate their ideas and findings, both orally and in writing, to a variety of people with different levels of technical understanding.
n Exploring
High school students should develop their skills in chemistry, math, biology, and ecology.
Investigating air quality engineering can begin with reading environmental science and engineering periodicals, available in many large libraries. Familiarizing yourself with the current issues involving air pollution will give you a better idea of what problems will be facing this field in the near future. The next step might be a call to a local branch of the EPA. In addition to providing information about local source problems, they can also provide a breakdown of air quality standards that must be met and who has to meet them. To get a better idea about college-level course work and possible career directions, contact major universities, environmental associations, or even private environmental firms. Some private consulting firms will explain how specific areas of study combine to create their particular area of expertise.
Postsecondary Training
n Employers
To break into this field, a bachelor’s degree in civil, environmental, or chemical engineering is required. Advancement, specialization, or jobs in research may require a master’s degree or Ph.D. Besides the regular environmental or chemical engineering curricula at the college level, future air quality engineers might
Most air quality engineers are privately employed in industries subject to emissions control, such as manufacturing. They may also work for the federal government, investigating and ensuring compliance with air quality regulations, as consultants to industry and large companies, and in research and development.
n Requirements High School
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ity engineers important players in companies’ economic strategies. As regulations tighten and increasing emphasis is put on minimizing environmental impact, air quality engineers will be in the spotlight as both regulators and innovators. Advancement may come in the form of monetary incentives or bonuses or management positions over other parts of the organization or company.
n Earnings
Air quality engineers check emissions from a factory exhaust outlet. (Michael Rosenfeld, Tony Stone Images.)
n Starting Out Summer positions as an air pollution technician provide valuable insight into the engineer’s job as well as contacts and experience. Check with local and state EPA offices and larger consulting firms in your area for internship positions and their requirements. Environmentally oriented engineers may be able to volunteer for citizen watchdog group monitoring programs, patrolling regions for previously undiscovered or unregulated contaminates. Most air quality engineers can expect to get jobs in their field immediately after graduating with a bachelor’s degree. Your school placement office can assist you in fine tuning your resume and setting up interviews with potential employers. Government positions are a common point of entry; high turnover rates open positions as experienced engineers leave for the more lucrative private sector, which accounts for four out of five jobs in air quality management. An entry-level job might focus on monitoring and analysis.
n Advancement With experience and education, the engineer might develop a specialization within the field of air quality. Research grants are sometimes available to experienced engineers who wish to concentrate on specific problems or areas of study. Management is another avenue of advancement. The demand for technically oriented middle management in the private sector makes engineers with good interpersonal skills very valuable. In many ways, advancement will be dictated by the increasing value of air quality engineers to business and industry in general. Successful development of air pollution control equipment or systems—perhaps that even cut costs as they reduce pollution—will make air qual-
According to the Department of Labor, the lowest 10 percent of environmental scientists earned about $31,610 per year in 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $39,100 and $67,360; the top 10 percent more than $85,940. The median federal government salary (among the highest in the industry) was $73,530. Fringe benefits may include tuition reimbursement programs, use of a company vehicle for fieldwork, full health coverage, and retirement plans.
n Work Environment Working conditions differ depending on the employer, the specialization of the position, and the location of the job. An air quality engineer may be required to perform fieldwork, such as observing emission sources, but more often works in an office, determining the factors responsible for airborne pollutants and devising ways to prevent them. Coworkers may include other environmental engineers, lab technicians, and office personnel. An engineer may discuss specific problems with a company’s economic planners and develop programs to make that company more competitive environmentally and economically. Those who monitor emissions have considerable responsibility and therefore considerable pressure to do their job well—failure to maintain industry standards could cost their employer government fines. Engineers in some consulting firms may be required to help sell the system they develop or work with. Most engineers work a standard 40-hour week, putting in overtime to solve critical problems as quickly as possible. A large part of the job for most air quality engineers consists of keeping up to date with federal regulations, industry and regional standards, and developments in their area of expertise. Some employers require standard business attire, while some require more fieldwork from their engineers and may not enforce rigorous dress codes. Unlike water and soil pollution, air pollution can sometimes be difficult to measure quantitatively if the source is unknown. Major pollutants are generally easily identified (although not so easily eliminated), but traces of small “leaks” may literally change with the wind and make for time-consuming, deliberate, and frustrating work.
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n Outlook Job growth for air quality engineers should be about as fast as the average for all occupations through 2014, according to the U.S. Department of Labor. When the immediate scramble to modify and monitor equipment slackens as government regulations are met in the next 20 years, the focus in air quality engineering will shift from traditional “end of pipe” controls (e.g., modifying catalytic converters or gasoline to make cars burn gas more cleanly) to source control (developing alternative fuels and eliminating oil-based industrial emissions). As mentioned, impact assessment will play a large part on the corporate side of air quality management, as businesses strive to stay profitable in the wake of public health and safety regulations. Air pollution problems like greenhouse gas buildup and ozone pollution will not be disappearing in the near future and will be increasingly vital areas of research. International development will allow American pollution control engineers to offer their services in any part of the world that has growing industries or population. Pollution control in general has a big future: Air pollution control is quickly taking up a major chunk of the expected expenditures and revenues in this category.
n For More Information For information on student chapters, scholarships, and a list of colleges and degrees offering environmental degrees, contact Air and Waste Management Association 420 Fort Duquesne Boulevard One Gateway Center, Third Floor Pittsburgh, PA 15222 Tel: 800-270-3444 Email:
[email protected] http://www.awma.org
The following are government pollution control boards: State and Territorial Air Pollution Program Administrators/Association of Local Air Pollution Control Officials 444 North Capitol Street, NW, Suite 307 Washington, DC 20001 Tel: 202-624-7864 Email:
[email protected] http://www.cleanairworld.org
For general information about air quality and other environmental issues, contact U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Ariel Rios Building 1200 Pennsylvania Avenue, NW
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Washington, DC 20460 Tel: 202-260-2090 http://www.epa.gov
Air Traffic Controllers n Overview Air traffic controllers monitor and direct the activities of aircraft into and out of airports and along specified flight routes. They radio pilots with approach, landing, taxiing, and takeoff instructions and advisories on weather and other conditions. These reports help maintain the safe and orderly flow of air traffic both in the air and on the ground. quick facts There are approximately 26,000 school subjects air traffic controllers employed Computer science in the United States. Geography
n History The goal of the first air traffic control efforts—beacon lights— was to guide airplanes along a specified airway. As airways and aircraft grew in number, radio communication and radio beacons were added to help planes navigate and to provide weather forecasts. In 1936, the federal government opened the first air traffic control center to regulate the increasing numbers of aircraft flying into and out of the country’s growing airports. The Instrument Landing System, a method for signaling aircraft, was instituted in 1941. Airplanes were reaching higher speeds and altitudes, and the controllers’ functions became more important to guard against collisions, to ensure safe landings, and to warn pilots of potential weather and geographic hazards in flights. Radar, developed during World War II, allowed air traffic controllers to track the movements of many aircraft and for longer
Personal Skills
Leadership/management Technical/scientific Work Environment
Primarily indoors Primarily one location Minimum Education Level
High school diploma Salary Range
$31,209 to $102,030 to $150,000 Certification or Licensing
Required by all states Outlook
About as fast as the average DOT
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05.03.03 NOC
2272 O*NET-SOC
53-2021.00
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Interview: Tom Coronite Tom Coronite has been an air traffic controller for 13 years. Q. Please briefly describe your primary and secondary job duties. A. I work in a tower cab, so my primary duties involve the sequencing and separation of aircraft on the ground, that is, on runways and taxiways, and in our ‘Class B’ airspace, which is from 0 to 2,000 feet in an eight-mile radius centered on the airport. I accomplish this by working local control, in which I clear planes for landings and takeoffs, and ground control, in which I taxi planes to their gates or to their takeoff runways, issuing routes so all the planes keep moving efficiently and the airport doesn’t get clogged up. We also have clearance delivery and flight data, which handle flight plans clearances and disseminate various bits of information. My secondary duties would include the various training items I must keep current on, as well as some administrative tasks I am assigned from time to time, like special workgroups and specific projects. Since I am also the union’s facility representative, I am also afforded some time each week to perform representational duties, such as handling employee grievances and various meetings with the facility manager. Q. What was your educational path? A. Mine was different than most; I was not planning a career in aviation. I went to Boston College to study chemistry, but left college after a year. I later entered the seminary to become a Roman Catholic priest. There I received a BS in philosophy, and then a master of divinity (Theology) degree. Many controllers have some college education, many do not. The minimum educational requirement is a high school diploma. Some controllers do go to college and study in aviation fields before an ATC career, but it certainly isn’t necessary.
distances. The air traffic control network was extended to include centers at airports, en route centers, and flight service stations, each of which performed specific tasks and controlled specific portions of the skies. After the war, more sophisticated communication systems were developed, including VOR (very high frequency omnidirectional range) transmission, which was used to signal flight path data directly to the plane. Computers were soon installed in order to provide still greater accuracy to the air traffic controller’s instructions. Development
Q. How did you train for this job? A. First, I had to take a civil service exam and get a high enough score to be hired. Then, when I was hired by the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA), I was sent to the FAA Academy in Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, for a nine-week screening process. This was designed to evaluate whether or not I had the skills to be successful at air traffic control (ATC). Once I successfully completed that screening, I received some basic training for the type of facility I was going to—in my case a tower. When I arrived at my first facility, there was some classroom training, followed by on-the-job training (OJT), in which I talked to the airplanes’ crew with a veteran controller backing me up. In my first facility, it took me about seven months to complete training. When I went to my next facility, the process of classroom and OJT training started all over, and it took me about a year to complete training. Occasionally it does happen that a controller is unsuccessful in his training, and returns to his previous facility. Q. Where did you get your first job in this field? What did you do? A. After I completed the nine-week screening in Oklahoma, I was assigned as a controller at New Haven, Connecticut. There is a very small airport there that mostly handles general aviation traffic and a lot of student pilots. As I mentioned before, I had some classroom training, then I ‘plugged in’ with one of the veterans training me. In training, I performed all the duties of an ATC in the tower cab: flight data, clearance delivery, and ground and local control. Occasionally a controller in charge also has to perform the supervisory functions when no supervisors are available or on duty. That was the case at New Haven and also at my current facility at Logan Airport (Boston, Massachusetts). Q. What kind of resources are available to people who are interested in learning more about becoming an air traffic controller? A. The Web site of the National Air Traffic Controllers Association (http://.www.natca.net), our union, is a
of the Global Positioning System (GPS), however, has made it possible for airplanes to achieve greater control over their flight paths, so fewer air traffic controllers will be needed to protect the skies.
n The Job Air traffic controllers work in one of three areas: airport traffic control towers, en route air traffic control centers, or flight service stations. The Federal Aviation Administration (FAA), which regulates all air traffic, employs
air traffic controllers
great source of information. The FAA’s site (http:/ www.faa.gov) may also be helpful.
Q. What qualities do air traffic controllers need to be successful in the field? A. In my humble opinion, the most important quality for this job is being able to think on your feet. Very often what we do is regimented and orderly, to the point of being routine. However, when something goes wrong, or something out of the ordinary happens, you need to act fast and keep the planes separated. That’s job #1! You often don’t have time to ask for advice or even weigh options. You must pick the best option immediately, take charge, and do it. You must be able to make snap decisions. You must be able to project the consequences of your decisions and plan ahead, but also be able to quickly come up with a ‘plan B’ if what you originally planned isn’t working. You need to be able to listen, talk, write, think, all at the same time, and do them quickly. On the personal side, you need to be a team player. ATC is not an individual sport: It’s a team game. Your actions affect the controller next to you, and vice versa. Next rotation, you may be in his spot and he in yours. You need to know what the guy next to you has going on and anticipate his needs. A good air traffic controller is a good teammate. You also need to have a thick skin! Things sometimes get hectic and boisterous. You need to be on your toes, and be prepared to be criticized when you’re not. But everyone is in that spot at one time or another, so you need to take your lumps and move on. Q. What are some of the pros and cons of your job? A. Air traffic control is an exciting and rewarding career. It’s mentally challenging, and you can go home at the end of the day with a sense of satisfaction that you made a difference. And you can leave your work at work—no projects sitting on a desk waiting to be finished. Depending on where you work, the salary can be quite good (more than $100,000
almost every air traffic controller in the United States. Some private airports employ their own air traffic controllers; others are employed at military airports. Terminal air traffic control specialists are stationed in airport control towers and are responsible for all air traffic entering, leaving, or passing through the airspace around the airport, as well as conducting airplane traffic on the ground. These controllers use radar and visual observation to maintain safe distances among aircraft, and they provide information on weather and other conditions to the pilots
a year), but you sure do earn it! On the con side, you’ll likely do shift work, and that can be draining. It can also negatively impact family life. You’ll likely work weekends, holidays, and graveyard shifts. At times it can be very stressful, and you need to find healthy ways of dealing with the stress. Chances are, you won’t find many in your neighborhood who are familiar with the profession and can commiserate with you.
Q. What is the most important piece of advice that you have to offer young people who are interested in this field? A. Be patient. It can sometimes take a long time to get to the facility you really want. And be flexible. I can’t imagine anything more stressful than doing a job you’re not suited for. If ATC isn’t for you, it isn’t. It’s not for everyone. Be able to admit that if it really is the case. But if you are suited for it, hang in there until you get where you want to be. I’m where I always wanted to be, and I love it. Q. What is the future employment outlook for air traffic controllers? A. This is a tough one to answer. On the horizon is a potential shortage, as many controllers who were hired after the ’81 strike become eligible for retirement. The FAA seems to be ignoring this potential shortage. Will they see it, wake up, and hire more controllers? That’s anybody’s guess. But with air traffic projected to be on the rise, it’s likely that more controllers will be needed. President Bush has made some definite movements toward trying to privatize the ATC system. The National Air Traffic Controllers Association believes this would be an unwise move as it could put safety in a position of being secondary to profit and the bottom line. We fully support keeping controllers as government employees, who will always be able to proudly proclaim SAFETY as job #1! As long as that continues to be the case, there should always be a spot for another controller, ready to do all it takes to keep the skies safe.
under their control. As an airplane prepares for departure, the ground controller issues taxiing instructions to bring it to the runway. A local controller contacts the pilot with weather, wind, speed, and visibility conditions and clears the pilot for takeoff. A departure controller monitors the aircraft on radar, maintains radio contact with the pilot until the aircraft has left the airport’s airspace, and hands over control of the plane to an en route control center. A radar controller monitors the traffic above the airport and into the aircraft’s flight route, communicating with the
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An air traffic controller monitors the landing strip below and awaits the arrival of an inbound flight. (National Air Traffic Controllers Association.)
other controllers. Approaching aircraft are handled in a reverse procedure. When many aircraft are approaching the airport at the same time, the controllers arrange them in a holding pattern above the airport until they each can be cleared to land. There are more than 440 air traffic control towers in airports across the country. At a small airport, an air traffic controller may be expected to perform all of these functions. Controllers at larger airports usually specialize in a single area. Senior controllers supervise the activities of the entire center. Terminal air traffic controllers may be responsible for all aircraft within as much as a 50-mile radius of their airport. Most controllers are responsible for many aircraft at once; they track their positions on the radar screen, receive instrument flight data such as an airplane’s speed and altitude, coordinate the altitudes at which planes within the area will fly, keep track of weather conditions, and maintain constant communication with the pilots and with controllers at their own and other control centers. An air traffic controller must be aware of all of the activities in the air traffic control center and around the airport. When an aircraft experiences an emergency, air traffic controllers must respond quickly, clearing a path for that aircraft through the traffic, alerting fire and rescue teams, and guiding the pilot to a safe landing. En route air traffic control specialists work at one of 21 regional centers in the United States. They coordinate the movements of aircraft between airports but out of range of the airport traffic controllers. Because an en route center may be responsible for many thousands of square miles of airspace, these controllers generally work
in teams of two or three, with each team assigned a particular section of the center’s airspace. Each team consists of a radar controller, the senior member of the team, and radar associates. A center may employ as many as 700 controllers and have 150 or more on duty during peak flying hours. Within the center’s airspace are designated routes that the aircraft fly. En route controllers monitor traffic along those air routes. They use radar and electronic equipment to track the flights within the center’s airspace and to maintain contact with planes within their area, giving instructions, air traffic clearances, and advice about flight conditions. If flight plans for two airplanes conflict, the en route team will contact the team responsible for the preceding section in order to change one plane’s flight path. The controllers will also coordinate changes in altitudes and speeds among pilots. En route controllers receive or transfer control of the aircraft to controllers in adjacent centers or to an airport’s approach controller as the craft enters that facility’s airspace. Flight service station air traffic control specialists make up the third group of controllers. They provide preflight or inflight assistance to pilots from more than 125 flight service stations linked by a communications system. These controllers give pilots information about the station’s particular area, including terrain, weather, and anything else necessary to guarantee a safe flight. They may suggest alternate routes or different altitudes, alert pilots to military operations taking place along certain routes, inform them about landing at airports that have no towers, assist pilots in emergency situations, and participate in searches for missing or overdue aircraft.
n Requirements High School Because it is highly recommended for all air traffic controllers to have a college degree, high school students interested in the field will be best prepared by pursuing a college prep curriculum. Mathematics and science courses are most directly related to air traffic control work.
Postsecondary Training To become an air traffic controller, a person must enroll in one of 14 education programs recognized by the FAA. They must also pass a preemployment test that gauges their aptitude for the career and have completed four years of college or have three years of work experience or a combination of both. Entry to civil aviation is also possible through the military. Those accepted into the training program receive 12 weeks of intensive instruction at the FAA Academy in Oklahoma City. There they receive training in the fundamentals of the airway systems, civil air regulations, radar,
and aircraft performance characteristics. They practice on machines designed to simulate emergency situations to determine their emotional stability under pressure. The standards for those who successfully complete this program are very high; about 50 percent of the trainees are dropped during this period. Those who complete the program are guaranteed jobs with the FAA.
Certification or Licensing Training continues on the job, and new controllers also receive classroom instruction. Depending on the size and complexity of the facility, a new hire may require between 18 months and three years to become a fully certified air traffic controller. Controllers must be certified at each progressive level of air traffic control, usually within a certain period of time. Failure to be certified within the time limit is grounds for dismissal. Air traffic controllers are also required to pass annual physical exams and performance reviews.
Other Requirements Applicants for airport tower or en route traffic control jobs must be 30 years of age or younger, pass physical and psychological examinations, be U.S. citizens, and have vision that is or can be corrected to 20/20. Flight service stations will accept applicants who are over the age of 30. Those hoping to enter the field must be articulate, have a good memory, and show self-control. It is imperative that they be able to express themselves clearly, remember rapidly changing data that affect their decisions, and be able to operate calmly under very difficult situations involving a great deal of strain. They must also be able to make good, sound, and quickly derived decisions. A poor decision may mean the loss of a large number of lives.
n Exploring If you are interested in this career, you can begin exploring by arranging for a visit to an air traffic control center. Many centers welcome and encourage such visits. Talking with air traffic controllers and watching them work will provide you with a strong introduction to their day-today activities. Speaking with aircraft pilots may provide other insights into the role of the air traffic controller. Visits and interviews can be arranged through most airports, air traffic control centers, the Air Traffic Control Association, and many airlines. You should also be aware that every branch of the military services offers opportunities for experience in these and related jobs.
n Employers Air traffic controllers are employed by the federal government. Most work for the FAA, although a small num-
air traffic controllers
ber work in such areas as the Department of Defense. Approximately 26,000 air traffic controllers work in the United States.
n Starting Out The first step in becoming an air traffic controller is taking the written civil service exam, followed by a one-week screening process. Acceptance is on a highly competitive basis. High grades in college or strong work experience are considered essential. Experience in related fields, including those of pilots, air dispatch operators, and other positions with either the civil airlines or the military service will be important for those with—and especially for those without—a college degree. Actual air control experience gained in military service may be a plus. However, civil aviation rules are quite different from military aviation rules. Because the FAA provides complete training, applicants with strong skills and abilities in abstract reasoning, communication, and problem solving, as well as the ability to learn and to work independently, will have the best chance of entering this field.
n Advancement After becoming a controller, those who do particularly well may reach the level of supervisor or manager. Many others advance to positions with even more air control responsibilities, and some might move into the top administrative jobs within the FAA. Competitive civil service status can be earned at the end of one year on the job and career status after the satisfactory completion of three years of work in the area. In the case of both airport control specialists and en route control specialists, the responsibilities become more complex with each successive promotion. Controllers generally begin at the GS-7 level and advance by completing certification requirements for the different air traffic control specialists. New hires at an airport control tower usually begin by communicating flight data and airport conditions to pilots before progressing through the ranks of ground controller, local controller, departure controller, and, lastly, arrival controller. At an en route center, trainees begin by processing flight plans, then advance to become radar associate controllers, and, finally, radar controllers. After becoming fully qualified, controllers who exhibit strong management, organizational, and job skills may advance to become area supervisors and managers and control tower or flight service station managers. Employees in the higher grades may be responsible for a number of different areas, including the coordination of the traffic control activities within
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the control area, the supervision and training of en route traffic controllers or airport traffic controllers in lower positions, and management in various aeronautical agencies. These positions generally become available after three to five years of fully qualified service.
n Earnings Air traffic control trainees start at the GS-7 level, which paid $31,209 annually in 2006. According to the U.S. Department of Labor, in 2004 the average salary for air traffic controllers in nonsupervisory, supervisory, and managerial jobs was $102,030. The lowest paid 10 percent of controllers made less than $57,720. The highest paid controllers made $139,210 or more per year. The controller’s experience, job responsibilities, and the complexity of the facility are also factors that influence the rate of pay. Controllers with a great deal of seniority and those at the nation’s busiest airports can earn more than $150,000 per year in wages, overtime, and benefits. Controllers may also earn bonuses based on performance. Because of the complexity of their job duties and the tension involved in their work, air traffic controllers are offered better benefits than other federal employees. Depending on their length of service, air traffic controllers receive 13 to 26 days of paid vacation and 13 days of paid sick leave per year, plus life insurance and health benefits. In addition, they are permitted to retire earlier and with fewer years of service than other federal employees. An air traffic controller with 20 years’ experience may retire at the age of 50; those with 25 years’ experience may retire at any age. Controllers who manage air traffic are required to retire at age 56. Air traffic controllers who have top skills and experience can receive a retirement exemption up to age 61.
n Work Environment Air traffic controllers are required to remain constantly alert and focused while performing a large number of simultaneous duties. They must keep track of several aircraft approaching, departing, and passing through the airspace under their control, while receiving flight data from and giving instructions to several pilots at once. They must remain alert to changes in weather and airport conditions, guide planes through intricate approach patterns, and maintain a safe separation of aircraft in the sky and on the ground. They must be able to interpret the symbols on the radar screen, form a clear image of what is happening in the sky above them, and react quickly and decisively to the activity of the aircraft. Controllers must also have strong communicative abilities and be able to give instructions to pilots in a firm and clear tone. The stress of the controller’s job requires a great deal of emotional control, especially in times of potential danger and emergency. Traffic con-
ditions change continuously throughout the controller’s shift, and the controller must remain alert during times of light traffic as well as times of heavy traffic. Terminal air traffic controllers work in towers as high as 200 feet off the ground; windows on all sides of the tower allow the pilot to see what is happening on the runways and in the sky around the airport. Radar control screens provide locations of all aircraft in the airport’s airspace. Large air traffic control towers generally house the radar control center in a room below the observation tower. En route centers are usually housed in large, windowless buildings. These controllers monitor the sky entirely through radar and radio communication. Flight service stations are often located at airports in separate buildings from the control tower. The numbers of air traffic controllers on duty varies from airport to airport and according to the number of scheduled flights expected in a center’s airspace. At a small airport, a controller may work alone for an entire shift; larger airports may have up to 30 controllers on duty, while en route centers may have more than 150 controllers on duty during a shift. Air traffic controllers work a five-day, 40-hour week, usually on a rotating shift basis, which means they often work at night, during the weekends, and during holidays. Overtime is often available; during a shift, controllers are given breaks every two hours.
n Outlook There are two schools of thought regarding the employment outlook for air traffic controllers. The U.S. Department of Labor predicts average growth through 2014 as a result of strong and continued competition for air traffic control positions and the implementation of a new air traffic control system that will reduce employment for workers in the field. On the other hand, the National Air Traffic Controllers Association predicts that employment opportunities will be good over the next seven to eight years as half of the nation’s controllers near retirement age. Many industry experts dispute this prediction, arguing that many controllers will stay on after they become eligible for retirement because of good pay and benefits. Whatever their employment outlook, it is clear that the role of the air traffic controller has begun to change. More and more planes are being equipped with GPS technology. GPS enables pilots to form a far more accurate picture of their position and the position of others in the sky. This allows planes to break away from the traditional air routes and essentially chart their own course, allowing for faster and more economical flights. Under pressure from the airlines, the FAA announced its intentions to adopt a “Free Flight” program, allowing the airlines to take advantage of their GPS equipment.
alcohol and drug abuse counselors
This will mean a far more limited role for the air traffic controller, and especially en route controllers, who may see their functions reduced to monitoring aircraft and stepping in to assist in emergencies. Air traffic controllers will still be needed at the airports, although in fewer numbers. Openings in the field will come primarily from retiring controllers and others who leave the job.
n For More Information For information on air traffic control and scholarships, contact Air Traffic Control Association 1101 King Street, Suite 300 Alexandria, VA 22314 Tel: 703-299-2430 Email:
[email protected] http://www.atca.org
For career information, contact Federal Aviation Administration 800 Independence Avenue, SW, Room 810 Washington, DC 20591 Tel: 202-366-4000 http://www.faa.gov/careers
Nav Canada PO Box 3411, Station D Ottawa, ON K1P 5L6 Canada Tel: 800-876-4693 http://www.navcanada.ca
Alcohol and Drug Abuse Counselors n Overview Alcohol and drug abuse counselors (sometimes called substance abuse counselors) work with people who abuse or are addicted to drugs or alcohol. Through individual and group counseling sessions, they help their clients understand and quick facts change their destructive subschool subjects stance abuse behaviors. There are Health about 76,000 substance-abuse Psychology counselors in the United States. Sociology
n History For training information, contact Federal Aviation Administration Academy http://www.atctraining.faa.gov
For career and education information, contact National Air Traffic Controllers Association 1325 Massachusetts Avenue, NW Washington, DC 20005 Tel: 202-628-545 http://www.natca.org For information on air traffic control and industry publications, contact National Association of Air Traffic Specialists 11303 Amherst Avenue, Suite 4 Wheaton, MD 20902 Tel: 301-933-6228 http://www.naats.org
For information on air traffic control careers in Canada, contact the following associations: Canadian Air Traffic Control Association 162 Cleopatra Drive Nepean, ON K2G 5X2 Canada Tel: 613-225-3553 Email:
[email protected] http://www.catca.ca
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Throughout history people have used drugs for a variety of purposes—for healing, for religious ceremonies, to alter consciousness for self-understanding, to loosen inhibitions and have fun, or to dull the senses against emotional or physical pain. Alcohol and other substances were used in ancient Egypt, Greece, and India as offerings to spiritual beings, as well as to reach a higher consciousness. Many religions today, from Tibetan Buddhism and traditional Native American religions to Roman Catholicism, use alcohol and other consciousness-altering substances in traditional ceremonies. Throughout the ages people have abused drugs and alcohol, too. No matter what the purpose for the initial drug use, it becomes for some people an obsession, and then an addiction. The history of treatment for substance abuse is much shorter. In the 1800s, alcoholics and morphine addicts
Personal Skills
Communication/ideas Helping/teaching Work Environment
Primarily indoors Primarily one location Minimum Education Level
Associate’s degree Salary Range
$21,060 to $32,130 to $49,600+ Certification or Licensing
Required by certain states Outlook
Faster than the average DOT
045 GOE
12.02.02 NOC
N/A O*NET-SOC
21-1011.00
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were placed in asylums. Treatments sometimes included miracle medicines that were supposed to be quick “cures” for addicts. In the early 1900s doctors used electroshock therapies and psychosurgery to treat alcoholics. In 1935, the Alcoholics Anonymous (AA) program was started by two men known as Bill and Dr. Bob. They helped each other achieve sobriety and continued to help others. This system of alcoholics helping other alcoholics grew into the AA movement, which is still strong today. AA’s 12-step program has been adapted and used effectively to treat addictions of all kinds. Today alcohol and a huge variety of dangerous drugs are readily available—marijuana, cocaine, LSD, heroin, inhalants, amphetamines, barbiturates, and more. Fortunately, treatment programs are also readily available for those who want them. Outpatient methadone programs give heroin addicts the medication methadone to reduce cravings for heroin and block its effects. Patients are also counseled, given vocational guidance and training, and taught how to find support services. Long-term residential programs last for several months to a year. Patients live in a drug-free environment with fellow recovering addicts and counselors. Outpatient drug-free programs use such therapies as problem-solving groups, insight-oriented psychotherapy, cognitive-behavioral therapy, and 12-step programs. Short-term inpatient programs focus on stabilizing the patient, abstinence, and lifestyle changes.
n The Job The main goal of alcohol and drug abuse counselors is to help patients stop their destructive behaviors. Counselors may also work with the families of clients to give them support and guidance in dealing with the problem. Counselors begin by trying to learn about a patient’s general background and history of drug or alcohol use. They may review patient records, including police reports, employment records, medical records, or reports from other counselors. Counselors also interview the patient to determine the nature and extent of substance abuse. During an interview, the counselor asks questions about what types of substances the patient uses, how often, and for how long. The counselor may also ask patients about previous attempts to stop using the substance and about how the problem has affected their lives in various respects. Using the information they obtain from the patient and their knowledge of substance abuse patterns, counselors formulate a program for treatment and rehabilitation. A substantial part of the rehabilitation process involves individual, group, or family counseling sessions. During individual sessions, counselors do a great deal of listening, perhaps asking appropriate questions to guide patients
to insights about themselves. In group therapy sessions, counselors supervise groups of several patients, helping move their discussion in positive ways. In counseling sessions, counselors also teach patients methods of overcoming their dependencies. For example, they might help a patient develop a series of goals for behavioral change. Counselors monitor and assess the progress of their patients. In most cases, counselors deal with several different patients in various stages of recovery—some may need help breaking the pattern of substance abuse; some may already have stopped using, but still need support; others may be recovered users who have suffered a relapse. Counselors maintain ongoing relationships with patients to help them adapt to the different recovery stages. Working with families is another aspect of many alcohol and drug abuse counselors’ jobs. They may ask a patient’s family for insight into the patient’s behavior. They may also teach the patient’s family members how to deal with and support the patient through the recovery process. Counselors may work with other health professionals and social agencies, including physicians, psychiatrists, psychologists, employment services, and court systems. In some cases, the counselor, with the patient’s permission, may serve as a spokesperson for the patient, working with corrections officers, social workers, or employers. In other cases, a patient’s needs might exceed the counselor’s abilities; when this is the case, the counselor refers the patient to an appropriate medical expert, agency, or social program. There is a substantial amount of paperwork involved in counseling alcohol and drug abusers. Detailed records must be kept on patients in order to follow their progress. For example, a report must be written after each counseling session. Counselors who work in residential treatment settings are required to participate in regular staff meetings to develop treatment plans and review patient progress. They may also meet periodically with family members or social service agency representatives to discuss patient progress and needs. In some cases, alcohol and drug abuse counselors specialize in working with certain groups of people. Some work only with children or teenagers; others work with businesses to counsel employees who may have problems related to drugs and alcohol. In still other cases, counselors specialize in treating people who are addicted to specific drugs, such as cocaine, heroin, or alcohol. Counselors may need special training in order to work with specific groups.
n Requirements High School High school students who are considering a career in alcohol and drug abuse counseling should choose a
curriculum that meets the requirements of the college or university they hope to attend. Typically, four years of English, history, mathematics, a foreign language, and social sciences are necessary. In addition, psychology, sociology, physiology, biology, and anatomy provide a good academic background for potential counselors. The educational requirements for alcohol and drug abuse counselors vary greatly by state and employer. A high school education may be the minimum requirement for employers who provide on-the-job training, which ranges from six weeks to two years. These jobs, however, are becoming increasingly rare as more states are leaning toward stricter requirements for counselors.
Postsecondary Training Some employers require an associate’s degree in alcohol and drug technology. Most substance abuse counselors, however, have a bachelor’s degree in counseling, psychology, health sociology, or social work. Many two- and four-year colleges now offer specific courses for students training to be substance abuse counselors. Many counselors have a master’s degree in counseling with a specialization in substance abuse counseling. Accredited graduate programs in substance abuse counseling are composed of a supervised internship as well as regular class work.
Certification or Licensing Certification in this field, which is mandatory in some states, is available through state accreditation boards. Currently, 47 states and the District of Columbia have credentialing laws for alcohol and drug abuse counselors. These laws typically require that counselors have a minimum of a master’s degree and two to three years of postacademic supervised counseling experience. Candidates must also have passed a written test. NAADAC, the National Association for Addiction Professionals, also offers a national certified addiction counselor (NCAC) certification.
Other Requirements In order to be successful in this job, prospective counselors should enjoy working with people. They must have compassion, good communication and listening skills, and a desire to help others. They should also be emotionally stable and able to deal with the frustrations and failures that are often a part of the job.
n Exploring Students interested in this career can find a great deal of information on substance abuse and substance abuse
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“Just Say No” Versus Harm Reduction Harm reduction is a drug and alcohol abuse–education philosophy. The most common response to the drug problem in the United States has been criminalization, with drug use seen as a moral deficiency best treated through the criminal justice system. A less common philosophy is for users to be treated as medically ill. Harm reduction, on the other hand, sees drug use as a common, if risky, human behavior that is often made even more dangerous by an uncontrolled market. Harm-reduction organizations such as DanceSafe in the United States and Crew 2000 in Edinburgh, Scotland, try to realistically educate drug users about the perils of drug abuse and how to counter them. By winning users’ trust and connecting to them as peers, not as authority figures, they can help stop the spread of dangerous drugs such as heroin and sometimes help connect users with such services as pill testing (to make sure they are free of dangerous contaminants) and needle exchanges, though they do not perform these services themselves. Harm-reduction organizations often provide safer-sex education. They are usually staffed by volunteers.
counseling at any local library. In addition, by contacting a local hospital, mental health clinic, or treatment center, it might be possible to talk with a counselor about the details of his or her job. Volunteer work or a part-time job at a residential facility such as a hospital or treatment center is another good way of gaining experience and exploring an aptitude for counseling work. Finally, the professional and government organizations listed at the end of this article can provide information on alcohol and drug abuse counseling.
n Employers Counselors are hired by hospitals, private and public treatment centers, government agencies, prisons, public school systems, colleges and universities, health maintenance organizations (HMOs), crisis centers, and mental health centers. More and more frequently, large companies are hiring alcohol and drug abuse counselors as well, to deal with employee substance abuse problems.
n Starting Out Counselors who have completed a two- or four-year college degree might start a job search by checking with the career placement office of their college or university. Those who plan to look for a position without first attending college might want to start by getting an entry-
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level or volunteer position in a treatment center or related agency. In this way, they can obtain practical experience and also make connections that might lead to full-time employment as a counselor. Job seekers should also watch the classified advertisements in local newspapers. Job openings for counselors are often listed under “Alcohol and Drug Counselor,” “Substance Abuse Counselor,” or “Mental Health Counselor.” Finally, one might consider applying directly to the personnel department of various facilities and agencies that treat alcohol and drug abusers.
n Advancement Counselors in this field often advance initially by taking on more responsibilities and earning a higher wage. They may also better themselves by taking a similar position in a more prestigious facility, such as an upscale private treatment center. As they obtain more experience and perhaps more education, counselors sometimes move into supervisory or administrative positions. They might become directors of substance abuse programs in mental health facilities or executive directors of agencies or clinics. Career options are more diverse for those counselors who continue their education. They may move into research, consulting, or teaching at the college level.
n Earnings Salaries of alcohol and drug abuse counselors depend on education level, amount of experience, and place of employment. Generally, the more education and experience a counselor has, the higher his or her earnings will be. Counselors who work in private treatment centers also tend to earn more than their public sector counterparts. Alcohol and drug abuse counselors earned a median annual salary of $32,130 in 2004, according to the U.S. Department of Labor. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $21,060. The highest 10 percent earned $49,600 or more. Directors of treatment programs or centers could earn considerably more that the national median salary. Almost all treatment centers provide employee benefits to their full-time counselors. Benefits usually include paid vacations and sick days, insurance, and pension plans.
n Work Environment The hours that an alcohol and drug abuse counselor works depends upon where he or she is employed. Many residential treatment facilities and mental health centers—and all crisis centers—have counselors on duty during evening and weekend hours. Other employers, such as government agencies and universities, are likely to have more conventional working hours.
Work settings for counselors also vary by employer. Counselors may work in private offices, in the rooms or homes of patients, in classrooms, or in meeting rooms. In some cases, they conduct support group sessions in churches, community centers, or schools. For the most part, however, counselors work at the same work site or sites on a daily basis. The bulk of a counselor’s day is spent dealing with various people—patients, families, social workers, and health care professionals. There may be very little time during a workday for quiet reflection or organization. Working with alcohol and drug abusers can be an emotionally draining experience. Overcoming addiction is a very hard battle, and patients respond to it in various ways. They may be resentful, angry, discouraged, or profoundly depressed. They may talk candidly with their counselors about tragic and upsetting events in their lives. Counselors spend much of their time listening to and dealing with very strong, usually negative, emotions. This work can also be discouraging, due to a high failure rate. Many alcoholics and drug addicts do not respond to treatment and return immediately to their addictions. Even after months and sometimes years of recovery, many substance abusers suffer relapses. The counselor must learn to cope with the frustration of having his or her patients fail, perhaps repeatedly. There is a very positive side to drug and alcohol abuse counseling, however. When it is successful, counselors have the satisfaction of knowing that they had a positive effect on someone’s life. They have the reward of seeing some patients return to happy family lives and productive careers.
n Outlook Employment of alcohol and drug abuse counselors is projected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through 2014, according to the U.S. Department of Labor. There are more than 20 million alcoholics in the United States and an equal, if not greater, number of drug abusers. Because no successful method to significantly reduce drug and alcohol abuse has emerged, these numbers are not likely to decrease. Overall population growth will also lead to a need for more substance abuse counselors. Finally, many states are shifting away from criminalizing drug use, seeing it as a mental-health problem that should be treated through the medical system, not the criminal-justice system. Another reason for the expected growth in counselors’ jobs is that an increasing number of employers are offering employee assistance programs that provide counseling services for mental health and alcohol and drug abuse. Finally, many job openings will arise as a result of job turnover. Because of the stress levels and the emotional
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demands involved in this career, there is a high burnout rate. As alcohol and drug abuse counselors leave the field, new counselors are needed to replace them.
allergies, AIDS, rheumatoid arthritis, and other diseases. There are approximately 4,500 certified allergists/immunologists employed in the United States.
n For More Information
n History
For more information on substance abuse and counseling careers, contact the following organizations: American Counseling Association
The first great physician was Hippocrates, a Greek who lived almost 2,500 years ago. He developed theories about the practice of medicine and the anatomy of the human body, but Hippocrates is remembered today for a set of medical ethics that continues to influence medical practice. The oath that he administered to his disciples is still administered to physicians about to start practice. His 87 treatises on medicine, known as the Hippocratic Collection, are believed to be the first authoritative record of early medical theory and practice. Hippocratic physicians believed in the theory that health was maintained by a proper balance of four “humors” in the body: blood, phlegm, black bile, and yellow bile. Since the time of Ancient Greece, as you might imagine, quick facts there have been many advances School Subjects in the medical field: the develBiology opment of organized clinical Health instruction, vaccinations, sterilization procedures, and instruPersonal Skills Helping/teaching ments such as the stethoscope, Technical/scientific to name a few. In addition to these advances, the medical Work Environment profession also saw the develPrimarily indoors opment of specialists, doctors Primarily multiple locations who concentrate their work in Minimum Education Level specific areas such as surgery, Medical degree psychiatry, internal medicine, or allergies and immunology.
5999 Stevenson Avenue Alexandria, VA 22304-3300 Tel: 800-347-6647 http://www.counseling.org
National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism National Institutes of Health 5635 Fishers Lane, MSC 9304 Bethesda, MD 20892-9304 http://www.niaaa.nih.gov
National Institute on Drug Abuse National Institutes of Health 6001 Executive Boulevard, Room 5213 Bethesda, MD 20892-9561 Tel: 301-443-1124 http://www.nida.nih.gov
For information on certification, contact NAADAC, The National Association for Addiction Professionals 901 North Washington Street, Suite 600 Alexandria, VA 22314-1535 Tel: 800-548-0497 Email:
[email protected] http://www.naadac.org
For additional information, check out the following website run by the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration: Prevline: Prevention Online http://www.health.org
Allergists/ Immunologists n Overview Allergists/immunologists are physicians that specialize in the treatment of allergic, asthmatic, and immunologic diseases. They treat patients with asthma, hay fever, food
Salary Range
n The Job Over 20 percent of Americans suffer from some kind of allergy. Allergies to certain foods, plants, pollen, animal fur, air pollution, insects, colognes, chemicals, and cleansers may send sufferers to allergy and immunology specialists, doctors who specialize in the treatment of allergic, asthmatic, and immunologic diseases. Allergists and immunologists also treat patients with hay fever, also called allergic rhinitis, which causes symptoms such as congestion, sneezing, and a scratchy throat caused
$39,809 to $155,530 to $200,000+ Certification or Licensing
Required by all states Outlook
About as fast as the average DOT
070 GOE
14.02.01 NOC
3112 O*NET-SOC
29-1069.99
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What Is Today’s Pollen Count? Tree, grass, and weed pollen and mold spores are some of the most common causes of seasonal allergies (hay fever). Allergy symptoms are at their worst when the counts of these substances in the air at their highest—typically in spring and fall. The National Allergy Bureau, a division of the American Academy of Allergy, Asthma and Immunology, sponsors a Web site that tracks daily levels of tree, weed, and grass pollen and mold spores in approximately 75 areas of the United States. Monitoring these trends helps physicians and allergy sufferers alike stay informed about the severity of the current allergy season. Visit http://www.aaaai.org/ nab and click on the link for “View Today’s Counts” to see what the allergy forecast is for your neighborhood.
by pollens or molds in the air. They treat asthma, a respiratory disease often triggered by an allergic reaction that causes restricted breathing, constricting the airflow to the lungs. Another serious allergic reaction is anaphylaxis. Triggered by a particular food or insect sting, anaphylaxis can quickly restrict breathing, swell the throat, and cause unconsciousness. Other allergies treated by an allergist include skin allergies, such as hives and eczema, and food and drug allergies. Immunologic diseases are those that affect the immune system. Allergy and immunology specialists treat patients with conditions such as AIDS, rheumatoid arthritis, and lupus. An immunologist also treats patients who are receiving an organ or bone marrow transplant to help prevent the patient’s body from rejecting the transplanted organ. Allergists/immunologists first examine patients. They review medical histories and backgrounds and may also conduct skin tests and blood tests. Skin tests are often preferred because they are inexpensive and the results are available immediately. Skin tests are also better for identifying more subtle allergies. Once the diagnosis is made, the doctor determines a treatment plan. In some cases, the solution may be as simple as avoiding the things that cause the allergic reaction. The allergist suggests ways to limit patients’ exposure to the allergen. In other cases, a doctor prescribes medication such as antihistamines to relieve allergy symptoms such as nasal congestion, eye burning, and skin rashes. Antihistamines can have side effects such as dizziness, headaches, and nausea. Should these side effects occur, the allergist may lower a dosage or prescribe a
different medication. Sometimes a patient can build up a resistance to an antihistamine, and the doctor needs to prescribe a stronger variety. Immunotherapy (a series of allergy shots) is another kind of treatment for asthma and for allergies to pollen, dust, bee venom, and a variety of other substances. Immunotherapy involves injecting the patient with a small amount of the substance that causes the allergic reaction. The immune system then becomes less sensitive to the substances and reduces the symptoms of allergy. An allergist will give weekly shots over an extended time, gradually increasing the dosage; eventually the shots are only necessary once a month.
n Requirements High School If you are interested in becoming an allergist/immunologist, start preparing for this career in high school by taking college preparatory classes. Science classes, including biology, chemistry, and physics are especially important. Math and English classes will help you develop skills working with numbers and research. Social science classes can give you a better understanding of people and society.
Postsecondary Training After earning an M.D. degree and becoming licensed to practice medicine (see “Physicians”), allergists/immunologists must complete a three-year residency in internal medicine or pediatrics, then a minimum of two years of training in an allergy and immunology fellowship. The American Academy of Allergy, Asthma, and Immunology publishes a training program directory, which lists accredited training programs and faculty and program information.
Certification or Licensing Certification from the American Board of Allergy and Immunology requires a valid medical license, proof of residency completion, and written evaluation from the residency director. The evaluation reviews the candidate’s clinical judgment, attitude, professional behavior, and other work skills and habits. The certification exam tests the candidate’s knowledge of the immune system, human pathology, and the molecular basis of allergic and other immune reactions. The candidate must also show an understanding of diagnostic tests and therapy for immunologic diseases. There are about 4,500 certified allergists/immunologists in the United States.
Other Requirements Allergists/immunologists should be compassionate and concerned for the well-being of their patients. They should also
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be careful listeners—a doctor must have a good understanding of a patient’s background, environment, and emotional state to plan the best treatment. An allergist/immunologist must be prepared to deal with the stress of caring for sick patients; some of these patients may have life-threatening diseases such as AIDS, cancer, or severe asthma.
n Earnings Physicians are rewarded well for their years of intensive study, for their long hours, and for their level of responsibility. Physicians who are still in their residencies earn an average of between $39,809 to $57,978, according to the Association of Medical Colleges. The median income after expenses for all physicians in 2004, according to the U.S. Department of Labor, was about $140,000 per year. A report by the Medical Group Management Association indicates that internal medicine practitioners, a group that includes allergists and immunologists, made average salaries of $155,530 a year in 2003. A healthy salary, a number of factors, such as geographical location, experience, and reputation of good work, can determine an allergist/immunologist’s salary. Those with an established practice and many years of experience may make well over $200,000 a year.
Email:
[email protected] http://www.aai.org
For information on certification, contact American Board of Allergy and Immunology 510 Walnut Street, Suite 1701 Philadelphia, PA 19106-3699 Tel: 866-264-5568 Email:
[email protected] http://www.abai.org
For career information and a listing of medical schools, contact Association of American Medical Colleges 2450 N Street, NW Washington, DC 20037-1126 Tel: 202-828-0400 http://www.aamc.org
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n Outlook
n Overview
Employment of physicians will grow as fast as the average through 2012, according to the U.S. Department of Labor. More than 50 million Americans suffer from some kind of allergy, fueling the demand for allergists/immunologists. Though some doctors remain skeptical about the relationship between allergy and illness, allergy/ immunology has become a respected field of medicine. As this field continues to grow, more doctors will refer their patients to these specialists.
Ambassadors manage the operations of the U.S. embassies in other countries. An embassy is the headquarters of a U.S. diplomatic mission established in the capital city of a foreign country. According to the U.S. Department of State, the United States maintains diplomatic relations with nearly 180 of the other 190 U.N. members (plus the Vatican in Rome) and has an embassy in most foreign capitals. Each embassy is headed by only one ambassador. Charged with the responsibility of maintaining diplomatic relations, an ambassador represents the President in matters of foreign policy. Ambassadors help to promote peace, trade, and the exchange of information between the United States and foreign lands.
n For More Information For career information and a list of accredited training programs, contact American Academy of Allergy, Asthma, and Immunology 555 East Wells Street, Suite 1100 Milwaukee, WI 53202-3823 Tel: 414-272-6071 Email:
[email protected] http://www.aaaai.org
For information on immunology, such as research, graduate programs, and fellowships, contact American Association of Immunologists 9650 Rockville Pike Bethesda, MD 20814 Tel: 301-634-7178
n History Even in the earliest years of the United States, diplomacy was recognized as an important element of a strong government. Men such as Benjamin Franklin, John Adams, John Jay, and Francis Dana were chosen for their intelligence, strength of character, and powers of persuasion to enlist the support of foreign countries for American independence. Benjamin Franklin was so successful in his commission to France, he inspired a pre-Disney marketing blitz—the French put his picture on watches, jewelry, and even snuffboxes. And the women of France had their hair done to resemble the fur caps Franklin wore. However, not all diplomats enjoyed such stardom;
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Francis Dana spent a cold, unproductive two years in Russia, unable to speak the language, and incapable of convincing Catherine II to support American independence. Established in 1789, the State Department was placed under the direction of Thomas Jefferson, the first U.S. secretary of state and the senior member of President Washington’s cabinet. It was his responsibility to initiate foreign policy on behalf of the U.S. government, advise the President on matters related to foreign policy, and administer the foreign affairs of the United States with the help of employees both at home and abroad. Before the invention of radio, telegraph, telephone, and email, the ambassador was entrusted to make final, binding decisions on behalf of the United States. More immediate means of communication narrowed the distances between embassies and their home countries; though today’s ambassadors represent the President and actively quick facts contribute to international relaSchool Subjects tions, they are more restricted in Foreign language their powers. Government
Personal Skills
Communication/ideas Leadership/management Work Environment
Primarily indoors Primarily multiple locations Minimum Education Level
Bachelor’s degree Salary Range
$100,000 to $118,000 to $125,000 Certification or Licensing
None available Outlook
Little change or more slowly than the average DOT
188 GOE
11.09.03 NOC
4168 O*NET-SOC
N/A
n The Job Iceland. New Zealand. Venezuela. Sweden. Jordan. Egypt. Ambassadors to these or one of the nearly 180 countries that host U.S. embassies in their capital cities coordinate the operations of hundreds of government officers. An embassy serves as the headquarters for Foreign Service Officers (FSOs), and other personnel, all working together to maintain a positive, productive relationship between the host country and the United States. Though the work is important, the post of ambassador is sometimes largely ceremonial. The President offers an ambassadorship to someone who has a long, dignified history of political service or to a wealthy supporter of the President’s political party. An ambassador will stay at a post for two to six years. Career ambassadors are those who are Foreign Service officers; noncareer ambassadors are those outside of the Foreign Service.
Ambassadors address many different concerns, such as security, trade, tourism, environmental protection, and health care. They are involved in establishing and maintaining international agreements, such as nuclear test bans and ozone layer protection. They help to promote peace and stability and open new markets. When negotiating treaties and introducing policies, they help the people of the host country understand the U.S. position, while also helping the United States understand the host country’s position. Ambassadors spend much of their time meeting with government officials and private citizens of the host country. Together they identify subjects of mutual interest, such as medical research and the development of new technologies. They meet with those involved in private industry in the country, including Americans doing business there. When a country is struggling due to natural disasters, epidemics of disease, and other problems, they may pursue aid from the United States. Ambassadors’ work isn’t limited to the city in which the embassy is located. They travel across the country to learn about the other cities and regions and to meet the cities’ representatives. Among the people of the country, ambassadors promote a good attitude toward the United States, as well as travel, business, and educational opportunities. When important U.S. visitors, such as the President, First Lady, and Secretary of State, arrive in the country, the ambassador serves as host, introducing them to the country and its officials. Of course, ambassadors for different countries must address very different issues, such as environmental concerns, the state of education and health care, political structure, the agriculture, and industry. For example, the United States has entered agreements with Budapest, Hungary; Bangkok, Thailand; and Gabarone, Botswana; to establish International Law Enforcement Academies. The academies, jointly financed, managed, and staffed by the cooperating nations, initially provide training to police and government officials.
n Requirements High School In order to pursue any work that involves foreign government, you need a good, well-rounded education. Talk to your guidance counselor about the classes that will be most helpful in preparing for college. Courses in American history, western civilization, government, and world history are important, as well as classes in math and economics. English composition will help you develop writing and communication skills. Any
foreign language course will give you a good foundation in language study—many ambassadors know more than two languages. Journalism courses develop writing and editing skills and keep you informed about current events.
Postsecondary Training Many ambassadors and FSOs hold master’s degrees and doctorates in international relations, political science, or economics. Many also hold law degrees. As an undergraduate, you should take general-requirement courses in English literature, foreign language, composition, geography, and statistics, along with courses for your particular major. There are many undergraduate majors relevant to foreign service, including foreign language, economics, political science, journalism, education, business, and English. You may also want to consider programs designed specifically for foreign service and international relations. The Georgetown University Edmund A. Walsh School of Foreign Service (http://www.georgetown.edu/sfs) has undergraduate and graduate programs designed to prepare students for careers in international affairs. Many luminaries have graduated from the school, including Bill Clinton in 1968; former Secretary of State Madeleine Albright has served as a member of the school’s faculty. Postgraduate programs, especially those in political science, are also very useful. “Career Ambassador” is the highest rank for senior officers of the Foreign Service, but you don’t have to be an FSO to be an ambassador. If you do choose to pursue work as an officer, the Foreign Service offers internship opportunities to college students in their junior and senior years and to graduate students. About half of these unpaid internships are based in Washington, D.C., while the other half are at U.S. embassies and consulates overseas. Interns may write reports, assist with trade negotiations, work with budget projects, or process visas or passports. The Foreign Service also offers a Foreign Affairs Fellowship Program, which provides funding to undergraduate and graduate students preparing academically to enter the Foreign Service.
Other Requirements Ambassadors are usually already successful in their careers before being nominated for an ambassadorship. They also have some connection to top officials in the U.S. government. To achieve such success and good connections, you must be very intelligent and knowledgeable about government and politics. It is important to earn good grades, so as to earn admission to top schools,
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where such connections can be made. You should be comfortable in a leadership role and extremely ambitious and motivated—those who serve as ambassadors have often achieved success in a number of different areas and have held a variety of powerful positions. You should be flexible and adaptable to new cultures and traditions. You must be interested in the histories of foreign cultures and respectful of the practices of other nations. Good people skills are important for dealing diplomatically with officials from other countries.
n Exploring As a member of a foreign language club at your school, you may have the opportunity to visit other countries. If such programs don’t exist, check with your guidance counselor or school librarian about discounted foreign travel packages available to student groups. Also ask them about student exchange programs, if you’re interested in spending several weeks in another country. There’s also a People to People Student Ambassador Program, which offers summer travel opportunities to students in grades six through 12. To learn about the expenses, destinations, and application process, visit http://www. studentambassadors.org. Visit the Department of State Web site (http://www.state.gov) to read the biographies of ambassadors around the world and for links to individual embassy Web sites. The American Foreign Service Association (AFSA), a professional association serving FSOs, publishes the Foreign Service Journal (http://www.afsa.org/fsj), which features articles by FSOs and academics that can give you
Art in Embassies The curator of the Art in Embassies Program works closely with ambassadors to select artwork that is representative of the cultural and artistic heritage of the United States. Museums, galleries, collectors, and artists loan their work for three-year exhibitions in the residences of U.S. ambassadors worldwide. Oil paintings, tapestries, sculptures, quilts, photographs, and other works are carefully crated and shipped by professional art handlers and are then analyzed by experts on arrival at the embassies. Works have included Native American pottery and baskets; paintings of American landscapes such as the Napa and Missouri Valleys; a series of photographs depicting sites along Route 66; and the works of famous artists Robert Rauschenberg, Maya Lin, Andy Warhol, Red Grooms, and Louise Nevelson.
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insight into the Foreign Service. AFSA offers a discount on student subscriptions.
n Employers Ambassadors work for the U.S. State Department. They represent the interests of the President through the Secretary of State. Many ambassadors are FSOs who have worked up through the ranks of the Foreign Service.
n Starting Out Those who are appointed as ambassadors have already succeeded in their individual careers. While many ambassadors have worked in the Foreign Service in some capacity, many others have established themselves in other ways. They have worked as directors in other government agencies and as members of the U.S. Congress. They’ve served on the faculty of colleges and universities. They have directed philanthropic organizations and run large companies. Before getting an ambassadorship, ambassadors may have already had a great deal of experience with a particular country, possibly having served as Deputy Chief of Mission (the second in command of an embassy). Or they may have been involved in negotiating international agreements or in establishing new markets for the country.
n Advancement After being nominated for an ambassadorship by the President, nominees are then confirmed by the Senate. Positions with the Foreign Service are rotational, so the length of an ambassador’s term varies. Most ambassadors only serve a few years with an embassy. After leaving a post, they may go on to serve as ambassador at a U.S. embassy in another country. Some career ambassadors spend several years moving from embassy to embassy. Many ambassadors have published books on foreign policy, international affairs, and world trade.
n Earnings Ambassadors earn salaries that range from $100,000 to $125,000, according to the State Department. FSOs receive health benefits, life insurance, and retirement benefits that include a pension plan.
n Work Environment Ambassadors are highly respected. They may have the opportunity to live in comfortable quarters in glamorous cities; or they may be living in a struggling nation, wracked by poverty and political unrest. Regardless of the area of the world, ambassadors have the chance to learn
about a culture from the inside. Working alongside a nation’s government officials, they are exposed to the art, food, industry, politics, and language of another country, while meeting some of the country’s most interesting and notable figures. They also have the opportunity to play host to visiting dignitaries from the United States. Most embassy offices overseas are clean, pleasant, and well equipped, but ambassadors may occasionally travel into areas that present health hazards. Customs may differ considerably, medical care may be substandard or nonexistent, the climate may be extreme, or other hardships may exist. In some countries there is the danger of earthquakes, typhoons, or floods; in others, there is the danger of political upheaval. Although embassy hours are normally the usual office hours of the host country, other tasks of the job may involve outside activities, such as attending or hosting dinners, lectures, public functions, and other necessary social engagements.
n Outlook Since the end of the Cold War, the number of responsibilities of ambassadors and Foreign Service officers has increased; war, drug trade, nuclear smuggling, and terrorism are some of the issues confronting embassies today. Those people interested in protecting diplomacy and the strength of the Foreign Service need to closely follow relevant legislation, as well as promote the importance of international affairs. Those with the strongest educational backgrounds and experience in the Foreign Service will have the best prospects of landing a coveted position as an ambassador or other professional in the Foreign Service.
n For More Information This professional organization serving current and retired Foreign Service Officers has an informative Web site and publishes additional career information. To read selected publications online (including Inside a U.S. Embassy), or for additional information, contact American Foreign Service Association 2101 E Street, NW Washington, DC 20037-2916 Tel: 800-704-2372 Email:
[email protected] http://www.afsa.org
The U.S. Department of State has a wealth of career information on its Web site, along with information about internships, the history of the Foreign Service, and current ambassadors and embassies. To request brochures, contact
amusement park workers
U.S. Foreign Service U.S. Department of State 2401 E Street, NW, Suite 518 H Washington, DC 20522-0001 Email:
[email protected] http://careers.state.gov
Amusement Park Workers n Overview Amusement park workers function in a variety of jobs. Some are employed to construct, maintain, and operate thrill rides; others, assigned to the front gate, issue tickets or passes; some work concession stands or manage park restaurants and gift shops; many are employed as entertainers. There are also numerous behind-the-scenes departments such as security, marketing, or personnel. Each particular department, regardless of the amount of customer contact, is necessary for the smooth and profitable operation of the park, as well as the enjoyment of the park patron.
n History Amusement parks, most often located at the end of a trolley line, were built as attractions to stimulate weekend ridership on trolley cars. The early amusement parks consisted of picnic grounds, dance halls, restaurants, and a few games and simple rides. The World’s Columbian Exposition held in Chicago, Illinois, in 1893, had a huge impact on the industry. The Expo featured the Ferris Wheel, a huge mechanical ride, that was the hit of the fair. The Ferris Wheel is still a staple in many parks today. One of the biggest innovations of the Expo was the introduction of the midway concept. By arranging gaming booths, concession stands, and rides on either side of a walkway, people had to pass every attraction to get from one end of the park to the other. After enjoying success with his Water Chutes park in Chicago, Paul Boynton was inspired to establish another facility at the existing Coney Island resort in New York City in 1895. Many people came to visit the two-mile boardwalk and beach for the attractions, carnival games, and shows. For the next 30 years, Coney Island was a popular amusement park and served as a model for the many other parks opening throughout the United States. By 1919, there were over 1,500 amusement parks in oper-
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ation. Coney Island remains a popular New York tourist attraction today. In the 1930s and early 1940s, the Great Depression, and the onset of World War II, almost destroyed the industry. The poor economy and forced rationing of supplies closed many parks. Indeed, by 1939, only 400 amusement parks were still open. The industry received a boost with the post-war baby boom. Many parks, using a new concept, the Kiddieland, pulled in a new generation of park goers with family-oriented attractions and rides. By far, the most successful pioneer of the amusement park industry was Walt Disney (1901–66). He opened Disneyland in 1955, using themes as the basis of the park layout and concept, instead of traditional rides and concessions. Disneyland offered the public, or “guests,” five different theme lands and times, such as Tom Sawyer’s Island, quick facts Futureland, and Cinderella’s school subjects Castle, for a fixed price. DisBusiness neyland was, and still is, hugely Mathematics successful, and it has become the Technical/shop springboard for future Disney parks—Disney World, Epcot Personal Skills Following instructions Center, and Tokyo Disneyland. Mechanical/manipulative Many companies have tried to duplicate Disney’s achievements. Work Environment One of the most successful has Indoors and outdoors been the Six Flags company. Six Primarily one location Flags now has 29 theme parks Minimum Education Level throughout the United States, High school diploma specializing in thrill rides, variety shows, and music concerts. Salary Range Another popular park is Cedar $13,260 to $19,320 to Point, in Sandusky, Ohio. $34,280 A day at an amusement park Certification or Licensing remains a popular family activNone available ity. However, in order to keep fresh and attract repeat customOutlook ers, parks are constantly adding About as fast the average new rides and more elaborate DOT shows and parades, in essence 349 reinventing themselves to suit the public’s ever-changing tastes GOE and attitudes. 11.02.01
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The Ferris Wheel What amusement park is complete without the Ferris Wheel? This famous ride was invented in 1893 by George Washington Gale Ferris for the World’s Columbian Exposition held in Chicago, Illinois. It stood 264 feet high and had 36 pendulum cars that could hold 60 passengers each, for a total of 2,160 passengers. About one dozen steel companies were contracted to work on the wheel due to its immense size—1,200 tons. Though the wheel’s price tag was steep, about $350,000 (in 1893), it was such a popular ride with the public that the manufacturing cost was recovered in a few weeks’ time.
depends on the size of the park, its attractions, and whether or not the park is open year-round. Equipment maintenance and operation is one of the industry’s largest departments. Ride operators work the control panel by monitoring the speed of the ride, accelerating or slowing down to load and unload passengers. Some operators are responsible for light maintenance of the rides—paint touch-ups, replacing light bulbs or other decorations, and refueling engines. Ride attendants collect fares or tickets. They help passengers get on the rides and make sure they are safely fastened or locked in before the ride begins. Attendants are also responsible for lining up waiting groups of people in a quiet and orderly manner. Some amusement parks have water-themed attractions such as the water logs or boat rides. Special attendants stationed at such rides make sure passengers load the water vehicles correctly and instruct them on certain rules for a safe and enjoyable trip. Attendants may also be stationed at fun houses, haunted houses, or the hall of mirrors. Such attendants operate the special effects machinery and make sure patrons walk through the attraction in an orderly and timely manner. Pony rides, petting zoos, and pig races are common attractions at amusement parks and carnivals. Animal handlers are needed to feed and care for the animals. They also help passengers mount the ponies, give children food to feed the animals, and match children who wish to ride with appropriately sized animals. There are many kinds of concession stands at amusement parks, each one staffed by one or more attendants. Game booths are big draws at an amusement park. Games of chance using balls, milk jugs, water, rings, and bottles are just some examples of different booths. Game attendants, also called concessionaires, urge passersby to
play, sell tickets, and maintain equipment needed to play. They also reward winners with prizes such as stuffed animals, candy, or small trinkets. Some amusement parks sell ticket packages ranging from one to several days. The cost of the ticket covers all rides, shows, and attractions. Ticket attendants sell tickets at a booth or counter located at the entrance of the park. Their duties include calculating the amount of tickets sold, making change, and processing credit card transactions. What’s a day at the park without food and drink? Amusement parks offer a range of food—healthy and otherwise. Food concession attendants sell hot dogs, pizza, chips, popcorn, ice cream, cotton candy, lemonade, and beer, among other choices. The majority of these booths are located outside, though some attendants are stationed at indoor eateries. Food attendants are trained on the proper way to prepare and serve their snacks and make cash and credit card transactions as well. Gift shop attendants work inside gift shops and also at outdoor souvenir booths. Besides making and completing cash and credit card sales, attendants are responsible for stocking and pricing items, helping customers with their purchases, and answering any questions regarding the merchandise. Attendants also make sure displays are clean and orderly. The performance arts are favorite attractions at amusement parks. Many singers, dancers, musicians, and other performers are hired at the larger parks every year. Parades, comedy shows, and musical revues are just some examples of the entertainment provided at parks. Performers and artists are also needed to staff drawing and photo booths, fortune-telling tents, and other attractions. The grounds crew is a important department no amusement park can do without. They are present throughout the day, though the bulk of their work takes place after hours. Maintenance and cleaning crews tidy the concession areas, ride platforms, and common walkways. They sanitize and re-supply bathrooms and picnic areas. Security workers roam the park during operating hours and are responsible for maintaining order. Parking attendants sell parking tickets and usher cars into the proper parking spaces. They are sometimes called to help families with many children, or patrons with special needs. Some of the larger parks offer transportation from the parking lot to the main park entrance. At such facilities, employees are hired to drive trolley cars, trams, or trains and give general assistance to passengers. No park can survive without a strong business department. General managers oversee operations of all park departments and employees. Department managers are
responsible for the activity of their division and the work of their employees. They make weekly work schedules, train new employees, and address any complaints of the department. Public relations specialists are responsible for sending press releases to newspapers and other media sources to advertise an upcoming concert, new attraction, or the reopening of the park after a seasonal closure. Human resource consultants manage park personnel, including such tasks as deciding on new hires and arranging an orientation program for these employees. The human resource department is also responsible for organizing and managing the internship program.
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can be adapted to accommodate an employee that uses a wheelchair. It is best to contact each amusement park and check out their policies on such matters. Also, get in touch with your school counseling center, state office of vocational rehabilitation, or state department of labor for guidelines.
n Exploring
Training for entry-level jobs such as a ride operator, game booth attendant, or fast-food worker consists of on-thejob training lasting about a week or two. Most parks train their employees on the particulars of the job, park rules and regulations, and grooming and behavior guidelines. Most companies prefer college-educated individuals for their management positions. Consider majors in recreation, business management, or marketing (or performance art, if you want to be involved with the entertainment side of the business).
Before you commit yourself to a lifelong career as an amusement park worker, why not spend some time exploring the field? Here are some suggestions: Read up on the industry. An afternoon at the library or bookstore can educate you on the history, dynamics, and future of the amusement park industry. Contact different amusement parks or their parent companies for research materials. Most public relations departments would be more than happy to send you press kits featuring park history, themes, and current attractions. Spend some time at a local amusement park to get an idea of the different jobs available. (You’ll have to convince your parents this is really for educational purposes!) Does your school have a job shadowing program? Why not arrange to spend a day tagging along with different amusement park workers? You’ll not only see the ins and outs of the industry, but you’ll experience how hard these employees work. If you don’t have access to such a program, consult with your school counselors about starting one. Good news! Amusement parks hire high school students, age 16 or older, for many of their entry-level jobs. What better way to get a feel for the industry than spending a summer ushering kids onto the carousel ride, cajoling people to play the ring toss, or twirling together the biggest cotton candy cone in the world? Volunteer to be a bingo caller. This will help you hone skills needed to be a good game attendant or even a carnival barker. Some places to try would be a neighborhood senior center, park district, or your local church.
Other Requirements
n Employers
People go to amusement parks for fun and excitement. Employees, because they have such contact with the patrons, should always be courteous, enthusiastic, and friendly. When dealing with the public, patience is key. The ability to communicate well is important when explaining game rules or park regulations—over and over and over. There are many employment opportunities available for workers with physical challenges. Some examples include traditional positions in the business office— accounting, personnel, and marketing. A ticket booth
Since amusement parks are located nationwide, jobs can be found in almost every state. Note that most jobs are seasonal—usually from April to October. The larger parks do maintain some employees year-round, mostly those working in the business departments. In fact, the winter months are usually the busiest time for amusement parks. Advertising, funding, recruiting, and company organization, new construction, and other prep work takes place during the off-season. Only a few parks are open year-round, and these are located in warmer climates. Disneyland and Knotts Berry
n Requirements High School Most larger amusement parks require their employees to be at least 16 years old. Many high school students work at amusement parks every summer as a way to supplement their income while in school. If you want to stand out from the other applicants, consider taking classes such as mathematics, if you want to work ticket booths, gift shops, or anyplace where calculating and giving correct change is important; mechanics or industrial arts, if you want to work and maintain thrill rides; or speech and theater, if you want to be a performer. Unless you bear an uncanny resemblance to Bugs Bunny or Goofy, then it will be helpful to know how to dance and sing!
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Farm, located in southern California, as well as Disney World and Busch Gardens, in Orlando, Florida, employ thousands of workers to run their parks. Rarer still are indoor amusement parks. Some enclosed employment opportunities can be found at the Camp Snoopy amusement park located inside Minnesota’s Mall of America.
n Starting Out Many amusement parks recruit at college campuses and job fairs; others visit local high schools. When attending such recruiting events, make sure your resume is up to date, and, if you’re lucky, be ready for on-the-spot interviews. According to Scott Kirn, public relations specialist for Six Flags Great America in Gurnee, Illinois, the park hires about 3,000 full-time workers for the season, many of whom are high school and college students, as well as a growing number of senior citizens. Interns account for about 100 to 200 positions a year. “We look for people who are enthusiastic and entertaining, as well as hard working,” Kirn says. Technology plays a big part in today’s job search process. The Walt Disney Company, for example, is increasing its reliance on online resume submissions. Its Web site (http://www.disney.com/DisneyCareers) offers a wealth of employment information such as job postings and their requirements, audition schedules, resume tips, and internship info. Any other questions? Click onto Disney’s Q&A for answers to your job-related inquiries. Whichever method you choose to apply for employment, it helps to be organized. First, contact your school placement center or the local library for a list of amusement parks in the area—or nationwide, if relocation is not a problem. Mail or electronically submit your resume/application to those that pique your interest. Follow up on your leads. Trade magazines such as Amusement Business (http://www.amusementbusiness. com), or organizations such as The International Association of Amusement Parks and Attractions (see For More Information), can be helpful in narrowing your job search. Some may even post employment or internship opportunities.
n Advancement Advancement in this industry depends on the job. With work experience, a food and beverage cart attendant can be promoted to work at a park restaurant or snack shop and eventually become a restaurant manager. Employees with an interest in mechanics can start as an assistant in the mechanical department repairing and maintaining the rides and work their way to a supervisory position. A member of the chorus or dance troupe, after proper
training and performing experience, can strive to be a principal dancer or one of Disney’s character singers. Interns stand an excellent opportunity for advancement. The time spent working on an internship brings valuable on-site work experience. Many companies may prefer to hire their former interns because they already know the company and the work involved. Knowledge and skills learned at amusement park jobs can easily be transferred to other fields such as hospitality or other areas of the entertainment industry. Workers who aspire to work in a management position must understand that such jobs come with hard work and time served in the industry. College degree holders—in marketing, business management, hospitality, or related majors—will have the best chances at landing a management position.
n Earnings Though many entry-level amusement park employees earn minimum wage or slightly higher, weekly salaries will vary depending on the type and size of facility and its location. (Most amusement parks choose not to divulge salary information due to confidentiality reasons, though they do offer wages competitive with similar industries.) A recent survey conducted by the International Association of Amusement Parks and Attractions reports that front-line managers earn from $10,000 to $50,000, middle managers average about $44,000, and general managers averaged about $64,000. The U.S. Department of Labor reports that recreation workers of all types made a median annual salary of $19,320 in 2004. The lowest paid 10 percent made less than $13,260, while the highest paid 10 percent made more than $34,280. All employees, regardless of work status, are given free admission to their park, as well as discounts for food and merchandise. If a certain theme is needed for a ride or concession, parks usually will provide the proper uniform free of charge. Some facilities also reward employees with family tickets and employees-only nights at the park. Full-time employees receive a standard benefits package consisting of paid vacation, sick time, and health insurance. Some parks may offer relocation assistance.
n Work Environment Attendants who work for traveling carnivals must move from town to town, usually every week or two. Some employees are housed in trailers or in motels. Relocation is necessary, of course, when applying for employment, or an internship, at parks in other cities. One Chicago area amusement park houses seasonal help at a nearby college.
anesthesiologists
Attendants assigned to work a ride, game booth, or concession cart must work in all kinds of weather; most parks do not close for anything but the most severe of storms. Workers assigned to gift shops or restaurants usually have clean and comfortable indoor work spaces. Performers and entertainers work both indoors and out, depending on the stage they are assigned to. They must sometimes perform in heavy theatrical makeup and bulky costumes, which can be uncomfortable in hot summer weather. Most employees work alone; ride attendants may work in pairs or assigned in teams. Most amusement park employees work about 40 hours a week. Amusement parks are open every day during the season, so be prepared to work weekends and holidays—traditionally the busiest and most crowded times of the year. Parks may be open as late as 10:00 p.m.
n Outlook According to the U.S. Department of Labor, employment of recreation workers should grow about as fast as the average through 2012. Most jobs will be for seasonal full-time work. Six Flags Great America, for example, hires more than 3,000 employees during the spring and summer months, though only 100 employees work yearround. Because the summer months are usually the busiest season at most U.S. amusement parks, employers compete to hire high school and college students who are on break from school. Most job opportunities will result from seasonal openings or current workers leaving the workforce. New construction of amusement parks is limited due to lack of funding, available land, and markets large enough to support such a project. Though many people use their employment at amusement parks as a way to earn extra money during school, a number do take advantage of such jobs as a stepping stone to a full-time career. If this appeals to you, consider a college degree in recreation, business management, or hospitality to help advance your goal. Do you have a knack for mechanics? Then look into work building, maintaining, and even designing roller coasters and other thrill rides. Many performers use their amusement park experience to build a career in the entertainment industry.
n For More Information For information on the industry and job opportunities, contact International Association of Amusement Parks and Attractions 1448 Duke Street Alexandria, VA 22314 Tel: 703-836-4800
Email:
[email protected] http://www.iaapa.org
For information on the history of amusement parks and attractions, industry publications, conventions, and membership information, contact National Amusement Park Historical Association PO Box 83 Mt. Prospect, IL 60056 http://www.napha.org
For a list of amusement and theme parks in the United States, or for historical facts on the industry, contact FunGuide http://www.funguide.com
For information on career and internship opportunities, contact Six Flags Theme Parks http://www.sixflags.com/Jobs
For career information, employment opportunities, or audition schedules, or to submit a resume electronically, contact The Walt Disney Company http://www.disney.com/DisneyCareers
Anesthesiologists n Overview Anesthesiologists are physicians who specialize in the planning, performance, and maintenance of a patient’s anesthesia during surgical, obstetric, or other medical procedures. Using special equipment, monitors, and drugs, the anesthesiologist makes sure the patient feels no pain and remains uninjured during the procedure. There are approximately 24,780 anesthesiologists employed in the United States.
n History Before the mid-19th century, when modern anesthetics started to be developed, you would most likely live with your affliction or undergo surgery with little or no help for pain. Often patients would need to be restrained. An 18th-century French encyclopedia described how to perform bladder surgery by first restraining the patient in a special “surgical chair.” Efforts to manage pain have been a constant in human history. A variety of substances and techniques have been
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used, including opium, cannabis, alcohol, mandragora root, and hypnotism. None of these proved entirely reliable or completely effective. Nitrous oxide, developed in the late 18th century, was the first gas recognized to have anesthetic properties. Its effects, which included giddiness, earned it the nickname of “laughing gas.” Ether was developed shortly after nitrous oxide. Neither gas, however, was used to anesthetize humans at that time. In fact, nitrous oxide was often used for entertainment purposes at “laughing gas parties” or by sideshow entertainers. The first successful use of ether as an anesthetic occurred in 1842 when Dr. Crawford W. Long used it when he removed a tumor from a friend’s neck. Dr. Long, however, failed to publicize the event, and in 1846 a Boston dentist, Dr. William T. G. Morton, became credited with the discovery of general anesthesia when he successfully administered ether to anesthetize a patient while removing a tumor. As one would imagine, ether’s reputation spread quickly. So did the reputation of chloroform, used quick facts successfully for the first time in 1847. School Subjects Anesthesiology continued to Biology Chemistry advance, and in 1875 intravenous Psychology administration of anesthetics was developed. Greater study of Personal Skills anesthesiology in the 20th cenLeadership/management tury has led to many advances, Technical/scientific and anesthesiology has become Minimum Education Level increasingly more sophisticated, Medical degree revolutionizing the practice of surgery. Certification or Licensing Required by all states Salary Range
$50,000 to $259,948 to $321,686+ Outlook
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n The Job Anesthesiologists make sure that the patient’s body is not overstimulated or injured by a medical procedure and that the patient feels no pain while undergoing the procedure. Traditionally, anesthesiologists deal mainly in the area of surgery. They do, however, also oversee the administration of anesthetics during other medical procedures, and if needed, during childbirth. After reviewing a patient’s medical history, the anesthesiologist will determine the best
form of anesthesia for the patient. Different medical problems and various kinds of surgery require different kinds of anesthesia. These determinations are based on the anesthesiologist’s broad background in medicine, which includes an understanding of surgical procedures, physiology, pharmacology, and critical care. In the operating room, an anesthesiologist gives the patient an anesthetic, making the patient unconscious and numb to pain. This involves administering drugs to put the patient under and maintaining the anesthesia. In some cases, only a regional anesthesia is required— numbing only the part of the body on which the surgery is being performed. In more complex cases, anesthesiologists may need to prepare special equipment such as blood warming devices. Anesthesiologists use monitoring equipment and insert intravenous lines and breathing tubes. They make sure the mask is secure and allows for a proper airway. In an emergency situation, an anesthesiologist is also part of the cardiopulmonary resuscitation team. An anesthesiologist pays close attention to the patient’s well-being by monitoring blood pressure, breathing, heart rate, and body temperature throughout surgery. It is also the anesthesiologist’s responsibility to position the patient properly, so that the doctor can perform the surgery and the patient remains uninjured. The anesthesiologist also controls the patient’s temperature, cooling or heating different parts of the body during surgery. Anesthesiologists are not limited to the operating room; they also spend time with patients before and after surgery. When meeting the patient beforehand, an anesthesiologist explains the kind of anesthesia to be used and answers any questions. This interaction helps put the patient at ease and allows the anesthesiologist to get to know the patient before surgery. Unlike other doctors, anesthesiologists do not have the opportunity to work closely for long periods of time with patients. Anesthesiologists may specialize in different areas, such as pediatric anesthesia, respiratory therapy, critical care, and cardiovascular anesthesia. They often work in teams, consisting of anesthesiology residents, nurse anesthetists, and anesthesiology assistants. The anesthesiologist will delegate responsibilities to other members of the care team. While emergency cases require anesthesiologists to make quick decisions and act without hesitation, in other cases they have time to carefully plan, to study a patient’s medical history, to meet with the surgeons and the patients, and to work by a regular schedule.
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Questions to Ask Your Anesthesiologist Surgery and anesthesiology are daunting prospects for most people. However, learning as much as you can about the surgical procedure and anesthetics you will be receiving may help to demystify the experience for you and lessen any fears you may have. The American Society of Anesthesiologists recommends asking your anesthesiologist the following questions before surgery: n
What are the anesthesiologist’s qualifications? How many procedures has he or she performed?
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Who else will be involved in my anesthesia care?
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Will I meet with an anesthesiologist before surgery?
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What do you monitor besides my heart and breathing?
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Do you have a 24-hour recovery room? If not, where will I recover?
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Who will manage my pain-control needs after surgery?
Most anesthesiologists work in hospitals, though they may actually be part of an individual or group practice. Others direct residents in teaching hospitals or teach at medical schools.
n Requirements High School If you are interested in becoming an anesthesiologist, focus your high school education on college preparatory courses. Mathematics classes and science classes, especially biology and chemistry, should be helpful. In addition, English classes will help you improve your communication and research skills. Also, consider taking a foreign language, since you may be required to show proficiency in another language later on in your schooling.
Postsecondary Training
the board requires applicants to have completed training in an accredited program and to pass an exam. Applicants must also have a certificate of clinical competence (CCC). This certificate, filed by the residency training program, attests to the applicant’s clinical competence.
Other Requirements Every surgery requires anesthesiologists to pay careful attention and to remain alert. An anesthesiologist sometimes encounters emergency situations, requiring quick, clear-headed responses. The work, however, can also be slower paced and require patience to comfort people preparing for surgery. Not only must anesthesiologists be able to explain the surgery clearly to patients, but they must be able to direct other members of the anesthesia team.
You must first earn an M.D. degree and pass an examination to become licensed to practice medicine. (See the article “Physicians.”) Then you must complete a four-year residency. The first year is spent training in an area of clinical medicine other than anesthesia, such as internal or emergency medicine, pediatrics, surgery, obstetrics, or neurology. The final three years of study are then spent in an anesthesiology residency program accredited by the Accreditation Council for Graduate Medical Education. You can find these accredited residency programs listed in the Directory of Graduate Medical Education Programs.
Certification or Licensing Anesthesiologists receive certification from the American Board of Anesthesiology. In addition to the license,
An anesthesiologist monitors a patient during surgery. (Alan Levenson, Tony Stone Images.)
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n Earnings Salaries for anesthesiologists vary according to the kind of practice (whether the anesthesiologist works individually or as part of a group practice), the amount of overhead required to maintain the business, and geographic location. Though working fewer hours, an anesthesiologist can make as much—or more than—other doctors. According to a report by the Medical Group Management Association, in 2005 anesthesiologists with fewer than two years of experience made $259,948 a year on average; the average salary for all anesthesiologists with more than a year of experience was $321,686—one of the highest average salaries in the medical field. Fringe benefits for physicians typically include health and dental insurance, paid vacations, and retirement plans.
n Outlook According to the Occupational Outlook Handbook, job opportunities for physicians and surgeons will grow faster than the average through 2014. Attracted by the technological advancements, the regularity of the work, and the fewer hours, more people are entering the field. Most anesthesiologists find work immediately after finishing their residencies. As medical advances allow for different kinds of treatment facilities, anesthesiologists will find more work outside of a traditional hospital setting. The development of more outpatient clinics, freestanding surgical centers, and respiratory therapy clinics has opened up employment opportunities for anesthesiologists. Managed care organizations have changed the way medicine is practiced and may continue to do so. Because anesthesiology is a hospital-based specialty, anesthesiologists must find ways to work within the guidelines of managed care, sometimes to the detriment of medical treatment. Anesthesiologists and other health care professionals will continue to challenge these organizations in order to practice medicine to the best of their abilities.
n For More Information The following organizations can provide information about a career as an anesthesiologist: American Board of Anesthesiology 4101 Lake Boone Trail, Suite 510 Raleigh, NC 27607-7506 Tel: 919-881-2570 http://www.theaba.org
American Society of Anesthesiologists 520 North Northwest Highway Park Ridge, IL 60068-2573
Tel: 847-825-5586 Email:
[email protected] http://www.asahq.org
Animal Breeders and Technicians n Overview Animal breeders and technicians help breed, raise, and market a variety of animals: cattle, sheep, pigs, horses, mules, and poultry for livestock; pets such as canaries, parrots, dogs, and cats; and other more exotic animals such as ostriches, alligators, minks, and many zoo animals. Technicians who are primarily involved with the breeding and feeding of animals are sometimes referred to as animal husbandry technicians. In general, animal breeders and technicians are concerned with the propagation, feeding, housing, health, production, and marketing of animals. These technicians work in many different settings and capacities. They may supervise unskilled farm workers; serve as field representatives assisting in the sales of animals to customers; work in kennels, stables, ranches, or zoos reproducing species and breeds for other clients or their own organization; or work on their own on a particular breed of interest. The diversity of employment available for well-trained and well-qualified animal breeders and technicians makes this career extremely flexible. As science progresses, opportunities for these technicians should broaden.
n History Breeding animals has been part of raising livestock since animals were first domesticated. With the discovery of genetics, the science behind the breeding selection became more exact. Great shifts can be made in a species with genetically selected breeding programs. All domesticated dogs extend from a precursor to the modern wolf. So even though miniature poodles and St. Bernards have extremely different appearances and are seemingly incompatible, they are actually so closely related genetically that they can reproduce with each other. Farm animals have been bred to increase meat on the animal, increase production of eggs and milk, and increase resistance to disease. Both pets and farm animals have been bred for appearance, with show animals produced in almost every domesticated species. As regions specialized in certain breeds, organizations developed to recognize and register them, eventually
developing standards for accepted breeds. Organizations such as the American Kennel Club establish criteria by which species are judged, and the criteria can be quite specific. For example, dog breeds have specific ranges of height, shoulder width, fur color, arch of leg, and such, and any dog outside the variance cannot be shown in competition. This is partly to ensure that the species is bred by trained and informed individuals, and to keep the breed from inadvertently shifting over time. Breeds, however, can be intentionally shifted, and this is how new breeds begin. Horse breeds may each have their own organization, such as the American Quarter Horse Association (AQHA), established to maintain the breed. Some of these organizations, such as the Cria Caballar, which judges Andalusian horses, are not based in the United States; however, they may still certify American horses. Some breeds may also have multiple organizations, such as the rival Dutch and German registries for Friesian horses. Horse registries may also have wildly differing standards for what constitutes an acceptable example of the breed. Until the end of the 20th century, breeding was controlled by reproduction through mating pairs, whether through natural or artificial insemination. Recently, however, there has been a radical breakthrough in cloning, where the gene pool of the offspring remains identical to the parent cloned. Although this work is extremely costly and experimental, it is expected to change the range of work that breeders can do in reproduction.
n The Job Most animal breeders and technicians work as livestock production technicians with cattle, sheep, swine, or horses; or as poultry production technicians, with chickens, turkeys, geese, or ducks. Other animal breeders work with domesticated animals kept as pets, such as song birds, parrots, and all dog and cat breeds. Even wildlife populations that are kept in reserves, ranches, zoos, or aquariums are bred with the guidance of a breeder or technician. Each category of animal (such as birds), family (parrot), species (African gray parrot), and even some individual breeds within a category have technicians working on their reproduction if they are bred for livestock or domestic use. Within each of these categories the jobs may be specialized for one aspect of the animal’s reproductive cycle. For example, technicians and breeders who work in food-source bird production can be divided into specific areas of concentration. In breeding-flock production, technicians may work as farm managers, directing the operation of one or more farms. They may be flock
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supervisors with five or six assistants working directly with farmers under contract to produce hatching eggs. On pedigree breeding farms, technicians may oversee all the people who transport, feed, and care for the poultry. Technicians in breeding-flock production seek ways to improve efficiency in the use of time, materials, and labor; they also strive to make maximum effective use of data-processing equipment. Technicians in hatchery management operate and maintain the incubators and hatchers, where eggs develop as embryos. These technicians must be trained in incubation, sexing, grading, scheduling, and effectively using available technology. The egg processing phase begins when the eggs leave the farm. Egg processing technicians handle egg pickup, trucking, delivery, and quality control. With experience, technicians in this area can work as supervisors and plant managers. These technicians need training in egg processing machinery and refrigeration equipment. Technicians in poultry meat quick facts production oversee the producschool subjects tion, management, and inspection Biology of birds bred specifically for conBusiness sumption as meat. Technicians may work directly with flocks or Personal Skills Following instructions in supervisory positions. Technical/scientific Poultry husbandry technicians conduct research in breeding, Work Environment feeding, and management of Indoors and outdoors poultry. They examine selection Primarily one location and breeding practices in order Minimum Education Level to increase efficiency of producHigh school diploma tion and to improve the quality of poultry products. Salary Range Egg candlers inspect eggs to $16,580 to $28,180 to determine quality and fitness $55,250+ for incubation according to preCertification or Licensing scribed standards. They check to Voluntary see if eggs have been fertilized and if they are developing correctly. Outlook Some poultry technicians also About as fast as the average work as field-contact technicians, DOT inspecting poultry farms for 410 food-processing companies. They ensure that growers maintain GOE contract standards for feeding 03.02.01 and housing birds and controlling NOC disease. They tour barns, incubaN/A tion units, and related facilities to observe sanitation and weather O*NET-SOC protection provisions. Field45-2021.00 contact technicians ensure that
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A dairy artificial insemination technician prepares to store samples from a cow. (Andy Sacks, Tony Stone Images.)
specific grains are administered according to schedules, inspect birds for evidence of disease, and weigh them to determine growth rates. For other livestock, the categories are similar, as are the range of jobs. For nonfarm animals, the average breeder works with several animals within a breed or species to produce offspring for sale. Although there are ranches that produce a large number of exotic animals and some stables and kennels that run fullstaff breeding operations, most breeders for pets work out of their homes. There are also production shops, usually referred to as puppy mills, that produce pets for sale but do so without much regard to the quality or well-being of the animals they are producing. Dismissed as unprofessional by established breeders and usually challenged by local authorities for quality of care provided to the animals, these are commonly not reputable enterprises, although they may be profitable in the short term. One area of animal production technology that merits special mention because of the increasing focus on its use in animal husbandry is that of artificial breeding. Three kinds of technicians working in this specialized area of animal production are artificial-breeding technicians, artificial-breeding laboratory technicians, and artificial insemination technicians. Artificial breeding can be differentiated by the goal of the breeder: food (poultry and cattle), sport (horses and dogs), conservation (endangered species kept in captivity), and science (mice, rabbits, monkeys, and any other animals used for research). Breeders work to create better, stronger breeds of animals or to maintain good existing breeds. Because of the increasing cost of shipping adult animals from location to location to keep the gene pool
diverse in a species or breed, animal breeders have developed successful methods of shipping frozen semen to allow breeding across distances. For zoo animals such as the elephant, rhinoceros, and hippopotamus, this has allowed zoos to build their populations with good genetic diversity without the overwhelming difficulty of transporting a several-thousand-pound male over expressways to attempt breeding with a new female to which he may or may not be attracted. Because semen can be examined microscopically, the technician is able to eliminate problem samples before insemination occurs. Artificial-breeding technicians collect and package semen for use in insemination. They examine the semen under a microscope to determine density and motility of sperm cells, and they dilute the semen according to standard formulas. They transfer the semen to shipping and storage containers with identifying data such as the source, date taken, and quality. They also keep records related to all of their activities. In some cases they may also be responsible for inseminating the females. Artificial-breeding laboratory technicians handle the artificial insemination of all kinds of animals, but most often these technicians specialize in the laboratory aspects of the activity. They measure purity, potency, and density of animal semen and add extenders and antibiotics to it. They keep records, clean and sterilize laboratory equipment, and perform experimental tests to develop improved methods of processing and preserving semen. Artificial insemination technicians do exactly what their name implies: They collect semen from the male species of an animal and artificially inseminate the female. Poultry inseminators collect semen from roosters and fertilize hens’ eggs. They examine the roosters’ semen for quality and density, measure specified amounts of semen for loading into inseminating guns, inject semen into hens, and keep accurate records of all aspects of the operation. This area of animal production is expected to grow as poultry production expands. Whether the breeding is done artificially or naturally, the goals are the same. Cattle breeders mate males and females to produce animals with preferred traits such as leaner meat and less fat. It is desirable to produce cows who give birth easily and are less susceptible to illness than the average cow. In artificial insemination, cows are inseminated with a gun, much like hens, which allows for many animals to be bred from the sperm of one male. By repeating the process of artificial breeding for many generations, a more perfect animal can be produced. Horse and dog breeders strive to create more physically and physiologically desirable animals. They want horses and dogs who perform well, move fast, and look beautiful. Longer legs and high jumping are examples of
desirable show traits for these animals. Temperament is another quality considered in reproduction and is one of the traits that a good breeder can work for, although it is not directly linked to a specific gene. Some breeders produce many small animals such as mice, rabbits, dogs, and cats. These animals can be used in scientific research. For example, some laboratories raise thousands of mice to be used in experiments. These mice are shipped all over the world so that scientists can study them. Animals raised for fur or skin also require extensive technological assistance. Mink farms, ostrich farms, and alligator farms are animal production industries that need husbandry, feeding, and health technicians. As the popularity of one species rises or falls, others replace it, and new animal specialists are needed. For all breeders, it is essential that they keep track of the lineage of the animals they breed. The genetic history for at least three previous generations is usually considered the minimum background required to ensure no inbreeding. For animals sold as pedigreed, these records are certified by some overseeing organizations. For animals being bred from wildlife stock, purity of the genetic line within a breed or species is required before an animal is allowed to reproduce. Stud books list the lineage of all animals bred within a facility. Pedigree papers travel with an individual animal as a record of that animal’s lineage. Both tools are essential to breeders to keep track of the breeding programs in operation. There are several ways to decide which animals should be bred, and some or all of them weigh into the decisions that the animal breeders make. The physical appearance and the health of the animal usually come first; this is called mass selection—where the animal is selected of its own merits. If the animal has successfully reproduced before, this is called progeny selection. The animal can be bred again, knowing that the animal has produced desirable offspring previously. However, if that particular animal becomes genetically overrepresented in a generation, then the breeder runs the risk of inbreeding with the generations to follow. So the value of that animal’s offspring has to be weighed against the need for diversity in parents. Family selection also determines the value of reproducing an animal. Some genetic diversity can come from breeding siblings of a good breeder, but it may not be enough diversity if the breeder is working with a limited stock of animals. Pedigree is the final determiner in evaluating a breeding animal.
n Requirements High School High school students seeking to enter this field will find that the more agriculture and science courses they select
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in high school, the better prepared they will be. In addition, courses in mathematics, business, communications, chemistry, and mechanics are valuable.
Postsecondary Training Nine months to two years at a technical school or a college diploma are the usual minimum credentials for animal breeders and technicians. Many colleges now offer two- and four-year programs in animal science or animal husbandry where additional knowledge, skills, and specialized training may be acquired. Besides learning the scientific side of animal breeding, including instruction in genetics, animal physiology, and some veterinary
Breeds of Horses Some breeds of horses are uniquely American, while others are European imports esteemed for their beautiful looks and movement. Thoroughbred: Best-known for their speed, Thoroughbreds were first developed as racehorses by English aristocrats in the 18th century. Because of the racing industry, breeding thoroughbreds is a large and a lucrative business in the United States. However, it is also brutal: In a few years, the horses’ racing careers are over. Because Thoroughbreds can be “hot” and difficult to handle; only a lucky few are adopted into loving homes or kept for breeding, most are slaughtered. Quarter Horse: The quintessential American workhorse, the Quarter Horse is a familiar sight at rodeos. Eventempered and willing, a Quarter Horse can also be anything from an extremely athletic jumper to an ambling Western pleasure horse. The breed was named for their excellent performances in quarter-mile races; however, they also excel in barrel racing, roping, and most any equestrian sport. Andalusian: The pura raza Española, Andalusians have been the favored mounts of kings and warriors since ancient times. Today, they excel at the beautiful movements of dressage, the “equestrian ballet” that developed from the military riding arts in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. The famous Lipizzaners of the Spanish Riding School in Vienna are closely related to the Andalusian. Friesian: Large, jet-black horses with long manes feathered feet, Friesians are known both for their strength and their gentleness. Originating in Friesland in the northern Netherlands, Frisians are well suited to all sorts of disciplines, from dressage to jumping. They are also carriage horses, and a team of Frisians pulling an elegant coach is a striking sight.
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science, students also take business classes that help them see the field from an economic point of view. With the increasing use of technology for breeding livestock and domesticated nonfarm animals, a bachelor’s degree becomes more important for succeeding in the field. Master’s and doctoral degrees are useful for the most specialized fields and the careers that require the most sophisticated genetic planning. Higher degrees are required for potential teachers in the field, and the current work being done in cloning is done exclusively by people with doctorates. Whether trained by experience, at an academic institution, or both, all new hires at major breeding companies are usually put through some type of training program.
Certification or Licensing Certification is not required, but nearly all major companies have certification programs that can enhance earnings and opportunities.
Other Requirements Animal breeders and technicians should have great love, empathy, and respect for animals. You must be patient and compassionate in addition to being very knowledgeable about the needs and habits of all the animals in your care. You must also have interest in reproductive science, genetics and animal physiology. It is important to be able to communicate easily with agricultural scientists, farmers, and other animal owners and caretakers.
n Exploring Organizations such as 4-H Clubs (http://www.4Husa. org) and the National FFA Organization (formerly known as Future Farmers of America, http://www.ffa. org) offer good opportunities for hearing about, visiting, and participating in farm activities. Programs sponsored by 4-H allow students to learn firsthand about breeding small animals for show. Other organizations, such as the American Kennel Club, sponsor clubs dedicated to particular breeds, and these clubs usually provide educational programs on raising and breeding these animals. Other opportunities might include volunteering at a breeding farm or ranch, kennel, or stable where animals are bred and sold. This will give you a chance to see the work required and begin to get experience in practical skills for the job. For at-home experience, raising pets is a good introduction to the skills needed in basic animal maintenance. Learning how to care for, feed, and house a pet provides some basic knowledge of working with animals. In addition, you can learn more about this field
by reading books on animals and their care. But unless you have background and experience in breeding, and a good mentor to work with, it is not recommended that you start breeding your pet. There are literally millions of unwanted dogs and cats that come from mixed breeds or unpedigreed purebreds, and many of these animals are destroyed because there are no homes for them. Other opportunities that provide animal maintenance experience include volunteering to work at animal shelters, veterinary offices, and pet breeders’ businesses.
n Employers Animal breeders and technicians used to work for themselves, but today most are employed by corporate breeders. A few may still own their own livestock ranches, and some do it only as a sideline or hobby.
n Starting Out Many junior colleges participate in “learn-and-earn” programs, in which the college and prospective employer jointly provide the student’s training, both in the classroom and through on-the-job work with livestock and other animals. Most technical programs offer placement services for graduates, and the demand for qualified people often exceeds the supply.
n Advancement Even when a good training or technical program is completed, the graduate often must begin work at a low level before advancing to positions with more responsibility. But the technical program graduate will advance much more rapidly to positions of major responsibility and greater financial reward than the untrained worker. Those graduates willing to work hard and keep abreast of changes in their field may advance to livestock breeder, feedlot manager, supervisor, or artificial breeding distributor. If they have the necessary capital, they can own their own livestock ranches.
n Earnings Salaries vary widely depending on employer, the technicians’ educational and agricultural background, the kind of animal the technicians work with, and the geographical areas in which they work. In general, the salaries of breeders tend to be higher in areas with a heavy concentration and in the breeding of certain specialty animals. Kentucky, for instance, leads the nation in the breeding of horses, and, unsurprisingly, that is where salaries are highest. The U.S. Department of Labor reports that animal breeders had mean annual wages of $28,180 in 2004. The top 10 percent made $55,250 or more, while the bottom 10 percent made only $16,580 or less. Fringe benefits
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vary according to employer but can include paid vacation time, health insurance, and pension benefits.
Tel: 212-696-8200 Email:
[email protected] http://www.akc.org
n Work Environment Working conditions vary from operation to operation, but certain factors always exist. Much of the work is done inside in all types of facilities. Barns, pens, and stables are the most common facilities for farm animals; nonfarm animals may be bred in private homes or housing facilities. Both types of work often require long, irregular hours and work on Sundays and holidays. The work is also sometimes dangerous, especially when large animals such as stallions and bulls are involved. Salaries are usually commensurate with the hours worked, and there are usually slack seasons when time off is given to compensate any extra hours worked. But for people with a strong desire to work with animals, long working hours or other less desirable conditions are offset by the benefits of this career. Animal breeders and technicians are often their own bosses and make their own decisions. While this can be an asset to those who value independence, prospective animal breeders and technicians must realize that selfdiscipline is the most valuable trait for success.
For information on careers and graduate programs, contact American Society of Animal Science
n Outlook
n Overview
Continuing changes are expected in the next few years, in both the production and the marketing phases of the animal production industry. Because of the costs involved, it is almost impossible for a one-person operation to stay in business for farm animals. As a result, cooperatives of consultants and corporations will become more prevalent with greater emphasis placed on specialization. This, in turn, will increase the demand for technical program graduates. Other factors, such as small profit margins, the demand for more uniform products, and an increasing foreign market, will result in a need for more specially trained personnel. This is a new era of specialization in the animal production industry; graduates of animal production technology programs have an interesting and rewarding future ahead of them. For domesticated nonfarm animals, breeders usually work with individual species and do so because they love the animals, not for a profit-bearing business. According to the American Kennel Club, the average dog breeder loses money on each successful litter.
Animal caretakers, as the name implies, take care of animals. The job ranges from the day-to-day normal activities for a healthy animal to caring for sick, injured, or aging animals. Daily animal routine usually involves feeding and providing drinking water for each animal, making sure that their enclosure is clean, safe, appropriately warm, and, if needed, stocked with materials to keep the animal active and engaged. Caretakers may be responsible for creating different enrichment materials so that the animal is challenged by new objects and activities. They may exercise or train the animals. They may assist veterinarians or other trained medical staff in working with animals that require treatment. Animal caretakers may also maintain the written records for each animal. These records can include weight, eating habits, behavior, medicines given, or treatment given. Animal caretakers and veterinary assistants hold about 151,000 jobs in the United States.
n For More Information For more information on becoming an animal breeder, contact American Kennel Club 260 Madison Avenue New York, NY 10016
1111 North Dunlap Avenue Savoy, IL 61874 Tel: 217-356-9050 Email:
[email protected] http://www.asas.org
For industry information, contact National Cattlemen’s Beef Association 9110 East Nichols Avenue, #300 Centennial, CO 80112 Tel: 303-694-0305 http://www.beef.org
Animal Caretakers
n History The concept of raising, caring for, and medically assisting nonfarm or nonworking animals is relatively new. The only animals, with few exceptions, that were kept by people were worked, such as plow-pulling oxen, or eaten, such as cattle, poultry, and pigs. The few examples of animals kept for pets are scattered accounts through history. The Egyptians kept cats as long ago as 3000 b.c.;
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cats were probably household pets, but perhaps they were also for religious purposes. Until immunizations and pest control became common, though, keeping animals in the house was unwise for health reasons. Over the thousands of years that people have kept animals for use, they have learned how to care for animals in captivity. Successful early farmers understood that animals needed them to provide food, shelter, and a healthy environment in which to live. From these early efforts, people have learned more specific methods of providing for animals’ needs. But the idea to use these skills on animals which provide no labor or food was not accepted until nearly the 20th century. The first institution that specifically focused on the humane treatment of animals was the Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals, founded in England in 1824. In the United States, the American Humane Association was founded in 1916 to work with the animals used in the war effort. But these organizations focused on quick facts helping labor and food source school subjects animals. The first law protecting Biology animals in the United States was Health passed in 1873. But changes in Personal Skills animal treatment and rights were Following instructions gradual throughout the first part Helping/teaching of the 20th century. During the boom of the ecology movement Work Environment in the late 1960s and early 1970s, Indoors and outdoors One location with some travel public attention became focused on the rights and the needs of Minimum Education Level wildlife and domestic animals. High school diploma Rachel Carson’s Silent Spring brought attention to the plight of Salary Range hunting birds, and their rapidly $12,840 to $17,460 to $28,420+ deteriorating numbers. Pesticides such as DDT were dramatiCertification or Licensing cally reducing the population in None available the wild. To save birds such as the bald eagle, massive ecologiOutlook Faster than the average cal intervention was required to clean up the environment, but DOT breeding programs, shelters, and 410 rescue centers would need to save individual birds to keep the GOE population high enough to allow 03.02.01 recovery. NOC Animals used in medical 6483 and chemical experimentation were also gaining advocates who O*NET-SOC helped create laws to protect them 39-2021.00 and begin to develop standards
by which animals could be used in labs. As the public saw films and still pictures of the substandard or even abusive treatment of animals, particularly primates, in labs, they began to review treatment of animals elsewhere. Zoos, circuses, parks, and other institutions were used to replacing their animals with ones pulled from the wild. These institutions were soon under criticism about their pillaging of wild populations for healthy animals that wouldn’t survive long in their care. The institutions responded by improving facilities, nutrition, breeding programs, vaccination programs, and other forms of assistance that kept their animals healthier longer. Part of that improvement was increased staff. Also, as public interest in wildlife increased, there was an increase in the pool of volunteers that these institutions could draw on for labor. With the push to conserve and protect species and maintain the populations in captivity and in the wild, programs such as re-release programs for injured animals, rescue programs for threatened populations, zoo breeding programs, pet breeding and care programs, and sanctuary land for wild populations became much more prevalent. Many of these programs began and continue to be staffed by advocates, volunteers, and professionals who can all be called animal caretakers. Finally, the horse industry provides a consistent source of work. In some areas, such as Kentucky, Oklahoma, and California, horses are a huge industry. Horses, though legally considered farm animals, occupy a strange middle ground between pets and livestock. Some, such as carriage horses or cow horses, are working animals. Others, such as dressage horses, polo ponies, and hunter/jumpers, are valued for their athletic potential, and can, at least in theory, be trained and then sold for a higher price, or bred and their offspring sold for a tidy profit. Yet others are strictly pleasure and companion animals.
n The Job Animal caretakers, also referred to by several other names depending on their specialty, perform the daily duties of animal care, which include feeding, grooming, cleaning, exercising, examining, and nurturing the individuals in their care. These caretakers have titles such as animal shelter workers, grooms, veterinary assistants, wildlife assistants, animal shelter attendants, laboratory animal technicians, laboratory animal technologists, and kennel technicians. Animal caretakers are employed in kennels, stables, pet stores, boarding facilities, walking services, shelters, sanctuaries, rescue centers, zoos, aquariums, veterinary facilities, and animal experimentation labs. They may also be employed by the federal government, state or
local parks that have educational centers with live animals, the Department of Agriculture in programs such as quarantine centers for animals coming into the United States, and the Centers for Disease Control laboratories. Almost every one of these employers expects the animal caretaker to provide the daily maintenance routine for animals. The caretaker may be responsible for one animal or one species, or may be required to handle many animals and many species. A veterinary assistant is likely to encounter dogs and cats, with the occasional bird or reptile. A wildlife shelter worker works with the local wild population, so for much of the United States that means working with raccoons, skunks, porcupines, hunting birds, song birds, the occasional predator such as coyote or fox, and perhaps large animals such as bear, elk, moose, or deer. Caretakers are responsible for some or all of the following tasks: selecting, mixing, and measuring out the appropriate food; providing water; cleaning the animal and the enclosure; changing bedding and groundcover if used; moving the animals from night facilities to day facilities or exercise spaces or different quarters; sterilizing facilities and equipment not in use; recording and filing statistics, medical reports, or lab reports on each animal; and providing general attention and affection to animals that need human contact. The animal caretaker learns to recognize signs of illness such as lack of appetite, fatigue, skin sores, and changed behavior. They check the animals they can physically approach or handle for lumps, sores, fat, texture of the skin, fur, or feathers, and condition of the mouth. Since most animals do not exhibit signs of illness until they are very ill, it is important that the caretaker that sees the animal most regularly note any small change in the animal’s physical or mental state. The caretaker also maintains the animal’s living quarters. For most animals in their care, this will be an enclosure of some type. The enclosure has to be safe and secure. The animal should not be able to injure itself within the enclosure, be able to escape, or have outside animals able to get into the enclosure. Small holes in an enclosure wall would not threaten a coyote, but small holes that a snake can pass through could threaten a rabbit. Horses can injure themselves in their stables, and in addition are vulnerable to a multitude of pasture injuries. The quarters need to be the right size for the animal. If they are too large, the animal will feel threatened by the amount of open space, feeling it cannot protect the area adequately. Inappropriately small enclosures can be just as damaging. If the animal cannot get sufficient exercise within the enclosure, it will also suffer both psychologically and physically.
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Caretakers set up and oversee enrichment activities that provide the animal with something to keep it engaged and occupied while in its home. For even the smallest rodent, enrichment activities are required. Most of us are familiar with enrichment toys for our pets. These are balls and squeaky toys for dogs and cats, bells and different foot surfaces for birds, and tunnels and rolling wheels for hamsters and gerbils. Wild animals require the same stimulation. Animal caretakers hide food in containers that require ingenuity and tools to open (ideal for a raccoon), or ropes and inner tubes for animals such as primates to swing on and play with. Animals that can be exercised are taken to specially designed areas and worked. For hunting birds this may mean flying on a creance (tether); for dogs it may mean a game of fetch in the yard. Horses may be lunged (run around), or hacked (ridden); they may also simply be turned out in a field to exercise themselves, but some form of training is useful to keep them in optimal riding condition. Domestic animal shelters, vet offices, kennels, boarding facilities, and dog-walking services work predominantly with domesticated dogs and cats, and perhaps horses at boarding centers. Exercise often consists of walks or free runs within an enclosed space. The animal caretaker for these employers often works with a rotating population of animals, some of whom may be in their care only for a few hours or days, although some animals may be cared for over longer periods. Caretakers
Rabies: The Facts n
Rabies is a deadly disease caused by a virus that attacks the nervous system. Most often the virus is transmitted by a bite from a rabid animal.
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Proper treatment, administered promptly after being bitten, can stop the infection.
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In the United States, the majority of cases of rabies have occurred in humans following close exposure to a bat—without any signs or recollection of a bite.
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Not all rabid animals foam at the mouth and appear mad; infected animals can appear tame and calm.
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Only mammals get rabies; birds, fish, reptiles, and amphibians do not.
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Cats are the most common domestic animal to become infected with rabies; this is attributed to the fact that many cats are not vaccinated but are exposed to rabid animals while outdoors.
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Most cases of rabies occur in wild animals, primarily bats, skunks, raccoons, and foxes.
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These animal caretakers are inspecting this cattle for ticks. (Scott Bauer/U.S. Dept. of Agriculture.)
at sanctuaries, quarantines, laboratories, and such may care for the same animals for months or years. It is also an unpleasant side of the job that in almost every facility, the caretaker will have to deal with the death of an animal in his or her care. For veterinary offices, shelters, and wildlife facilities of any type, animal deaths are a part of everyone’s experience. Shelters may choose to euthanize (kill) animals that are beyond medical treatment, deemed unadoptable, or unmaintainable because of their condition or the facilities’ inability to house them. But even for places without a euthanasia policy, any center working with older, injured, sick, or rescued animals is going to lose the battle to save some of them. For the animal caretaker, this may mean losing an animal that just came in that morning, or losing an animal that he or she fed nearly every day for years. It can be as painful as losing one’s own pet. As an animal caretaker gains experience working with the animals, the responsibilities may increase. Caretakers may begin to perform tasks that either senior caretakers were performing or medical specialists were doing. This can include administering drugs; clipping nails, beaks, and wing feathers; banding wild animals with identification tags; and training the animal.
There are numerous clerical tasks that may also be part of the animal caretakers’ routine. Beyond the medical reports made on the animals, animal caretakers may be required to screen people looking to take an animal home and write status reports or care plans. The animal caretaker may be responsible for communicating to an animal’s owner the status of the animal in his or her care. Other clerical and administrative tasks may be required, depending on the facilities, the specific job, and the employer. But for most animal caretakers, the day is usually spent looking after the well-being of the animals.
n Requirements High School Students preparing for animal caretaker careers need a high school diploma. While in high school, classes in anatomy and physiology, science, and health are recommended. Students can obtain valuable information by taking animal science classes, where available. Any knowledge about animal breeds, behavior, and health is helpful. The basics of human nutrition, disease, reproduction, and aging help to give a background for learning about these topics for different species. A basic grasp of business and computer skills will help with the clerical tasks.
Postsecondary Training There are two-year college programs in animal health that lead to an associate’s degree. This type of program offers courses in anatomy and physiology, chemistry, mathematics, clinical pharmacology, pathology, radiology, animal care and handling, infectious diseases, biology, and current veterinary treatment. Students graduating from these programs go on to work in veterinary practices, shelters, zoos and aquariums, pharmaceutical companies, and laboratory research facilities. Students should look for programs accredited by the American Veterinary Medical Association. Apprenticing for the handling of wild hunting birds is required by most facilities. This can include having apprentices pursue a falconry license, which means apprenticing to a licensed falconer. Licenses for assistant laboratory animal technician, laboratory animal technician, and laboratory animal technologist are available through the American Association for Laboratory Animal Science and may be required by some employers. A bachelor’s degree is required for many jobs, particularly in zoos and aquariums. Degrees in wildlife management, biology, zoology, animal physiology, or other related fields are most useful.
Other Requirements Animal caretakers should have great love, empathy, and respect for animals. They should have a strong interest in the environment. Patience, compassion, dependability, and the ability to work on repetitive, physically challenging, or unstimulating tasks without annoyance are essential characteristics for someone to be happy as an animal caretaker.
n Exploring Volunteering is the most effective method of experiencing the tasks of an animal caretaker. Most shelters, rescue centers, and sanctuaries, and some zoos, aquariums, and labs rely on volunteers to fill their staff. Opportunities as a volunteer may include the ability to work directly with animals in some or all of the capacities of a paid animal caretaker. There is always a concern, sometimes justified, that an organization will never pay someone whose services they have gotten for free. You may not be able to get paid employment from the same organization for which you volunteered. But many organizations recognize the benefit of hiring prior volunteers: They get someone who already knows the institution, the system, and the preferred caretaking methods. Volunteering also provides a line on your resume that demonstrates that you bring experience to your first pay-
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ing job. It gives you references who can vouch for your skills with animals, your reliability, and your dedication to the field. Thus, you should treat any volunteer position with the same professionalism that you would a paid job. Other avenues for exploration are interviewing people already in the position, or finding a paid position in a facility where animal caretakers work so you can see them in action. You may also begin by providing a pet walking or sitting service in your neighborhood, but be sure to only take on the number and kinds of animals you know you can handle successfully.
n Employers There are many different types of facilities and businesses that employ animal caretakers, including veterinary offices, kennels, stables, breeding farms, boarding facilities, rescue centers, shelters, sanctuaries, zoos, aquariums, and pet stores. Other job opportunities for animal caretakers are provided by the government and state and local parks. This field is growing, and increasing job opportunities will be available all over the country for animal caretakers. Since pet ownership and interest in animals continues to increase, more and more jobs will become available with all kinds of employers, resulting in work in environments ranging from nonprofit organizations to retail stores to laboratories.
n Starting Out High school students who volunteer will be able to test the job before committing to it. They will also, as explained earlier, be able to get a job on their resume that demonstrates their experience in the field. Two-year and four-year college programs offer some placement assistance, but familiarity with the regional market for organizations that use animal caretakers will assist you in selecting places to target with your resume. Many animal caretakers work in veterinary offices and boarding facilities or kennels, but animal research laboratories also hire many caretakers. Other employers include the federal government, state governments, pharmaceutical companies, teaching hospitals, and food production companies.
n Advancement Advancement depends on the job setting. There may be promotion opportunities to senior technician, supervisor, assistant facilities manager, or facilities manager. Some animal caretakers may open their own facilities or services. Services such as dog walking require little in the way of offices or equipment, so these are easy ways for animal caretakers to start on their own, with an established clientele that they bring from a previous position.
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Laboratory workers can move from assistant technician to technician to technologist with increased education and experience. But for most promotions, more education is usually required.
n Earnings Salaried employees earned an average salary of $17,460 in 2004, according to the Occupational Outlook Handbook. The top 10 percent earned more than $28,420, but the bottom 10 percent earned less than $12,840 a year. Self-employed animal caretakers who provide dog walking, kennel, sitting, or other cottage industry services do not have salaries that are readily available for review, but in large cities, boarding a dog overnight can cost $25 to $40, with a minimum of three dogs usually at one facility. Dog walkers charge between $5 and $12 a dog. There is little overhead for either service, beyond perhaps providing food.
n Work Environment Animals may either be kept indoors or outdoors, in any type of weather. Eagles don’t come in from the rain, so animal caretakers caring for eagles still have to traipse outside to feed them when it’s raining. Horses are turned out in the middle of the winter, so horse grooms still have to carry bales of hay to the pasture in the middle of January snowdrifts. Though currying, saddling, exercising, medicating, and cleaning up after a horse—or horses—may seem like a dream job to some, it is considerably less romantic to clean a stable day in and day out, regardless of weather. Depending on the facilities, heavy lifting may be part of the job. You may have to lift crates, animals, food, equipment, or other items big enough to accommodate a large animal. The work can sometimes be hard, repetitive, and dirty. Cleaning enclosures and disinfecting spaces can involve hot or cold water and chemicals. The work can also be dangerous, depending on the animals you work with. Although animals that are handled correctly and are treated with the proper respect and distance can be quite safe, situations can arise where the animal is unpredictable, or is frightened or cornered. Although this is more likely with animal caretakers working with wildlife populations, large dogs, horses, and cattle are quite capable of injuring and killing people. There is a certain physical risk involved in working with animals, which may be as minor as scratches from nails or bites, but can be as great as broken or crushed bones, or accidental death. Many facilities require long workdays, long workweeks, odd hours, weekend work, holiday work, and intermittent schedules. Depending on the hours of the facility, the services provided, and the staffing, there may be several shifts, including a graveyard shift. Animal caretakers should be
prepared to work a changing schedule. The needs of animals don’t cease for weekends and holidays. Also, for many facilities, animals that require roundthe-clock care have to be taken home with an animal caretaker who is willing to provide whatever service the animal needs, including waking every two hours to bottlefeed a newborn chimp.
n Outlook The animal care field is expected to grow faster than the average through 2014, according to the U.S. Department of Labor. More people have pets and are more concerned with their pets’ care. Since most households have all the adults in full-time employment, animals are left home alone longer than in earlier times. Dog-walking services, pet sitting and in-house care, boarding facilities, kennels, and such that provide assistance with the daily care of an animal for the working or traveling owner are far more prevalent and successful than before. Veterinary services are also on the rise, with the increased number of pets and the increased awareness on the part of owners that vet services are essential to an animal’s well-being. There is a high turnover in the profession. This is due in part to the seasonal nature of some of the jobs, the low pay, and the lack of advancement opportunities in the field. Wildlife sanctuaries, release and rescue programs, shelters, and zoos and aquariums are heavily dependent on charitable contributions and fund-raising efforts. Staff employment can be tied to the rise and fall of donations. Many of these institutions rely heavily on volunteer labor. As such, the competitiveness for the paid jobs is quite high. Positions as animal caretakers in zoos, aquariums, and rehabilitation and rescue centers are the most sought after, partly because of the ability to work with exotic and wild species. Aspiring animal caretakers will find few openings in these facilities. Graduates of veterinary technician programs have the best employment prospects. Laboratory animal technicians and technologists also have good opportunities. Increasing concern for animal rights and welfare means that these facilities are staffing more professionals to operate their labs.
n For More Information For information about animal laboratory work and certification programs, contact American Association for Laboratory Animal Science 9190 Crestwyn Hills Drive Memphis, TN 38125 Tel: 901-754-8620 Email:
[email protected] http://www.aalas.org
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For information on available training programs, such as the facility accreditation program, certification program for kennel operators, complete staff training program, and ethics program, contact American Boarding Kennels Association 1702 East Pikes Peak Avenue Colorado Springs, CO 80909 Tel: 719-667-1600 Email:
[email protected] http://www.abka.com
For more information on careers, schools, and resources, contact AVMA. American Veterinary Medical Association (AVMA) 1931 North Meacham Road, Suite 100 Schaumburg, IL 60173 Tel: 847-925-8070 Email:
[email protected] http://www.avma.org
For information on the Student Career Experience Program, contact the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service in your state or visit the following Web site: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service http://www.fws.gov
Animal Handlers n Overview Anybody who works directly with animals, from the caretaker of your local park’s petting zoo, to the activist who reintroduces wild animals to national parks, is an animal handler. Animal handlers care for, train, and study animals in such places as zoos, parks, research laboratories, animal breeding facilities, rodeos, and museums. An animal handler’s job involves feeding the animals, cleaning their living and sleeping areas, preparing medications, and other aspects of basic care. A handler may also be actively involved in an animal’s training, and in presenting animals to the public in shows and parks.
n History From the old stable hand of the nineteenth-century Wild West to today’s horse trainer for a movie western, animal handlers have long been in great demand. As long as animals have walked the earth alongside humans, society has invented ways to use animals for work, recreation, and research. Ancient Egyptian records of veterinary medicine date as far back as 2000 b.c. Animal medicine was
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considered as important as human medicine, because of the great importance animals played in transportation and production. But animals weren’t just admired for their practicality; people have always held affection and fascination for animals. The domestication of animals began during the Stone Age, and zoo keeping can be traced back to the twelfth century b.c. Egypt, Greece, and China all have early records of exotic animals kept in collections for admiration and competition. Though many of the earliest zoos were kept only for kings and queens, public zoos have been in existence for over two centuries. The French Revolution resulted in the Jardin de Plantes in Paris going public and becoming a model for all the zoos to follow as monarchies fell around the world. With the development of engines and motors over the last century, the role of animals in society has changed. Though seeing-eye dogs, laboratory primates, police horses, and canine patrol dogs are still put to work to aid humans, animals today entertain and fascinate more often than perform quick facts duties. Protecting animals has School Subjects become an important aspect of Agriculture every animal handler’s job. For Biology over one hundred years, government agencies have been in place Personal Skills Helping/teaching to ensure the humane treatment Leadership/management of animals. The first such agency in the United States was chartered in Work Environment 1866; it was the still-active AmeriIndoors and outdoors can Society for the Prevention of Primarily one location Cruelty to Animals (ASPCA). Minimum Education Level
n The Job Wrangling an iguana for a movie production; preparing the diet for a zoo’s new albino alligator; comforting bison to keep them from committing “suicide”; training cats for an animal-assisted therapy program at a nursing home. All these responsibilities, strange as they may seem, actually exist for some animal trainers. Many western states have long telephone book listings of animal handlers who rent out trained iguanas, horses, cougars, cattle, and other animals for movie productions. Zoos and marine animal parks hire highly trained keepers to feed, shelter, and protect some of the most exotic animals in the
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world. Bison, if not properly prepared for transport, can easily be provoked to stampede, sometimes killing themselves. And even cats are therapists these days, as people introduce their pets to elderly and ill patients who respond well to interaction with animals. Whether taking on jobs like those listed above or working for a small park or large zoo, all animal handlers are called upon for the daily care and safety of animals. They may have special training in a particular animal or breed or work with a variety of animals. Jennifer Gales works in the petting zoo of Knotts Berry Farm in California, caring for the goats, ponies, rabbits, tortoises, and other animals visited every day. It is her responsibility to check the health of the animals, and to feed and water them. “You have to learn as much as you can about the animal’s habits and personality,” she says. “Every animal is different.” With a wide knowledge of an animal’s nutritional and exercise requirements, animal handlers make sure the animals in their care are well-fed, well-groomed, and healthy. They prepare food and formulas, which may include administering medications. Maintaining proper shelters for animals requires cleaning the area, ensuring good ventilation, and providing proper bedding. Animal handlers arrange for vaccinations, as well as look for diseases in their animals. They also prepare animals for transport, knowing how to use muzzles and kennels, and how to calm an animal. But an animal handler needs a rapport with the two-legged creatures as well; working with people is an important aspect of most animal care jobs, as many of these animals are kept for presentation and performance. “Every day is different,” Gales says, “because animals have good and bad days, just like people. There are days they just don’t want to be touched at all, and they let you know it by their actions.” The relationship between an animal and its handler can be very strong, particularly in training situations. Dogs trained for a police unit require specially certified trainers, and the dogs often both live and work alongside the officers to whom they are assigned. The same is true of handlers who train seeing-eye dogs or hearing-ear dogs; it is the handler’s responsibility to train the animal to think of itself and its owner as one unit, thereby assuring it will watch out for both its own safety and that of its owner. Handlers who breed animals are often very devoted to the animals they place in other homes—they often interview prospective buyers, making sure the animal will have proper shelter, exercise, and feeding. Handlers who prepare animals for research in a lab must pay close attention to animal health, as well as their own; many states require health tests and immunizations of people who run the risk of catching diseases or illnesses from the animals they study.
n Requirements High School Take biology, chemistry, and other science courses offered by your high school. The study of science will be important to any student of animals, as will the study of psychology and sociology. Knowing about animal nutrition, health, behavior, and biology will help you to understand the animals you care for, and how to best provide for them. And if you do choose to go on to college, most animal-related courses of study are science based. Some may think of animal handlers as people who spend all their time separate from the rest of the community, communicating only with animals and limiting interaction with humans. However, nothing could be further from the truth—most animal handlers work actively with the public; they present the animals in zoos and public programs, and may even perform with the animals. Join your speech and debate team, or your drama club, to prepare for speaking in front of groups of people. Because so many animal programs, from petting zoos to animal-therapy programs, rely on community support, there are many volunteer opportunities for high school students looking to work with animals. Zoos, parks, and museums need volunteers, as do kennels, shelters, and local chapters of the Humane Society. These organizations may even offer students paid part-time positions. If few opportunities exist in your area, check with the nearest zoo about summer internship programs for high school students.
Postsecondary Training Though Jennifer Gales doesn’t have a college degree, some of her coworkers at the Knotts Berry Farm petting zoo are pursuing degrees in the veterinary sciences. The value of a college degree depends on the work you do. Many animal handlers do not have degrees, but zoos often prefer to hire people with a postsecondary education. A degree can often determine promotions and pay raises among the workers of a zoo. Many universities offer degrees in animal sciences, zoology, and zoological sciences. There are also graduate degrees in zoology, which may require courses in physiology, animal behavior, and oceanography. Courses for animal science programs generally focus on animal research, but some programs allow students to create their own course plans to involve hands-on experience as an animal handler. The Santa Fe Community College in Gainesville, Florida, offers a unique and popular zoo animal technology program; students work toward an associate’s degree while gaining a great deal of first-hand zoo experience. The students run an 80-
species zoo entirely on their own and, upon graduation, enter bachelor’s programs or other animal care jobs. Some consider a job as an animal handler an internship in and of itself; after gaining experience in a petting zoo or teaching zoo, or working with a breeder or stable hand, some animal handlers pursue careers as zookeepers, veterinarians, and animal researchers. Most college animal science and zoology programs offer some handson experience with animals; in the case of the Santa Fe Community College mentioned above, an internship with the school’s zoo is required along with the academic classes. Many unpaid internships are available for those willing to volunteer their time to researchers and other animal professionals. Check with your local university and zoo to find out about opportunities to study animals in the wild, or to reintroduce animals to their native habitats.
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How Much Does an Elephant Eat? In the wild, of course, elephants graze on vegetation— about 500 pounds of it in a day. Elephants in zoos and circuses, however, have to be fed by their handlers. An elephant eats: n
About 6 and a half pounds of bran, mixed with water and minerals, for breakfast
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55 pounds of hay
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22 pounds of straw
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30 pounds of turnips, carrots, or other vegetables
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9 pounds of bread
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About 20 pounds of fruits and vegetables several times a week
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As many tree branches as he wants!
Certification or Licensing Some animal handlers in very specialized situations, such as patrol dog trainers and lab animal technicians, are required to pursue certification. The American Association for Laboratory Animal Sciences offers certification for those working with lab animals. But for the majority of animal handlers, no certification program exists. Accreditation is generally only required of the institutions and programs that hire animal handlers. The American Zoo and Aquarium Association offers accreditation, as well as memberships to individuals. Though members are required to have a certain amount of experience, membership is not mandatory for those working with animals.
Other Requirements “I have always had a love for animals,” Gales says. “The only ones I don’t like are snakes—I need legs on animals.” It is important for animal handlers to love the animals they care for. What might not be as apparent, however, is the need for animal handlers to enjoy working with people as well. Animal handlers are often required to present the animals to park and zoo visitors, and to serve as tour guides; they also work as instructors in zoo and museum education programs. Some animal handlers even perform alongside their trained animals in theme parks and shows. Some shows, such as marine animal shows, can be particularly strenuous, calling for very athletic trainers. Working with animals on a daily basis requires patience and calmness since animals faced with unfamiliar situations are easily frightened. Animal handlers must be very knowledgeable about the needs and habits
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of all the animals in their care. Handlers are often called upon to transport animals, and they must know ways to best comfort them. Impatience may result in serious injury to both the animal and the handler.
n Exploring If you grew up with a family pet or have spent time on a farm, you’re probably already very familiar with how to care for animals. But if you want to gain experience handling a large group of animals, contact your local zoo about volunteer or part-time positions. Many zoos have programs in place to introduce young people to the duties and responsibilities of an animal handler. If your local zoo doesn’t have such a program, try to create your own: Contact zookeepers, express your interest in their work, and ask to “shadow” them for a few days. Many part-time jobs are available to high school students interested in working with animals. Pet shops, petting zoos, stables, and kennels are likely to have a few after-school positions. In larger cities, you may be able to start your own animal care business as a dog walker or pet sitter. Or look under “animal handler” in the local telephone book. Some animal handlers work exclusively with movie production crews and other entertainment venues; you may be able to work as a temporary assistant on a production.
n Employers Animal handlers are employed by zoos, aquariums, parks, animal shelters, movie studios, research laboratories, animal breeding facilities, rodeos, and museums. There are
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about 151,000 nonfarm animal care and service workers in the United States.
n Starting Out Jennifer Gales found it very easy to get her job with Knotts Berry Farm. “If you love animals,” she said, “it just shows in what you say, and the way you talk about them. My interview was about an hour of me sitting there talking about animals.” Depending on the area of animal care in which you want to work, you may be able to find many great opportunities. A high school job or internship is a good start; experience with animals is what is most important to employers hiring handlers. Any volunteering you’ve done will also look good to an employer because it shows that you have a personal dedication to the care of animals. Kennels, petting zoos, museums, and animal shelters often run classified ads in the newspaper; due to the lower pay and some of the hazards involved in handling animals, those positions are frequently available. Jobs with zoos in major cities, or with animal shows, can be highly competitive. If you’re hoping to work in a larger, more famous zoo, you should first pursue experience with a smaller zoo. Jobs working with marine mammals are also difficult to get; because there are few marine animal shows in the country (such as those performed at Sea World parks), you may first have to pursue experience with internships and college programs.
n Advancement Most people who work with animals are not looking to climb any ladder of advancement. As a matter of fact, many people change from high-paying careers to lower paying animal care jobs just to do something they love. Much of the student body of the animal tech program at Santa Fe Community College is composed of people over thirty years old who have tried other careers. Some who have gained experience handling and training animals may start their own businesses, perhaps building their own stables of trained “actors” to hire out for area movie shoots, stage shows, parades, and other performances. Some animal handlers may pursue higher education while working full or part time, taking courses toward veterinary sciences degrees, or degrees in biology. With a degree, an animal handler may have a better chance at the higher paying, supervisory zookeeper positions. After years with a particular zoo, an animal handler can take on more responsibility and make decisions that influence the direction of the zoo.
n Earnings The opportunity to work directly with a variety of different animals is often reward enough for animal handlers.
Someone who owns a stable of well-trained animals used in performances may be able to negotiate for large contracts, or a successful dog breeder may make a comfortable living with an established business, but most animal handlers make do with small salaries and hourly wages. The Santa Fe Community College advises the graduates of their animal technology program to expect between $15,000 and $18,500 annually. This wage varies according to region—in the colder Midwestern and Northern states, and in California, animal handlers can make more than those living in the Southeast. An experienced animal handler may draw an hourly wage of $16 to $20. Many fulltime, salaried zoo positions include health benefits. The U.S. Department of Labor estimates that nonfarm animal handlers earned a median salary of $17,460 in 2004, with 10 percent earning less than $12,840 and 10 percent more than $28,420.
n Work Environment Depending on the lives of the animals for which they care, handlers usually work both indoors and outdoors. But the indoors is often nothing more than an animal shelter, and not much different from the pens outdoors. Be prepared for smelly, messy, and dusty environments; if you have allergies, they’ll be under constant assault. It will be both to your benefit, and the animal’s, to make sure you work in well-ventilated areas. Some institutions, particularly animal research labs, require handlers to have immunizations and physicals before working with the animals. In addition to allergies, there is some danger of diseases transferred from animals to humans. These risks can be lessened with protective clothing like lab coats, gloves, and ventilated hoods. The temperament of your animals will also affect your work environment. Handlers must be prepared for occasional scratches, bites, and kicks from animals with even the best dispositions. Though some animals can be very noisy when disturbed, handlers attempt to keep their animals’ surroundings quiet and calm.
n Outlook With the popularity of cable channels such as the Discovery Channel and Animal Planet, as well as television specials and videos featuring animals, the public’s interest in animals is only likely to increase. Zoos, parks, and museums will benefit a great deal from any increased exposure the public has to the animal kingdom. Zoos must also compete with television as family entertainment, and therefore are constantly striving to improve their facilities with more exotic animals, better shelters, and more programs to involve the public directly with animals.
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Concerns about the treatment of animals will perhaps lead to more stringent laws and certification requirements. Some activists hope to end the capture of animals for display in zoos; some even object to filming animals in the wild. But zoos are likely to continue to operate and expand, with zoo professionals arguing that zoo animals are often safer and receive better care than they would in their natural habitats.
n For More Information For general information about zoos, aquariums, oceanariums, and wildlife parks, contact American Zoo and Aquarium Association 8403 Colesville Road, Suite 710 Silver Spring, MD 20910-3314 Tel: 301-562-0777 http://www.aza.org
For information on their zoo animal technology program, and other career information, contact Santa Fe Community College 3000 83rd Street NW Gainesville, FL 32606 Tel: 352-395-5604 http://inst.santafe.cc.fl.us/~zoo
Animal Trainers n Overview Animal trainers teach animals to obey commands so the animals can be counted on to perform these tasks in given situations. The animals can be trained for up to several hundred commands, to compete in shows or races, to perform tricks to entertain audiences, to protect property, or to act as guides for the disabled. Animal trainers may work with several types of animals or specialize with one type. Approximately 30,200 animal trainers are employed in the United States.
n History Animals have been used for their skills for hundreds of years. The St. Bernard has assisted in search and rescue missions in the Swiss Alps for more than 300 years. The German shepherd was used in Germany after the First World War to guide blind veterans. Dorothy Eustis, after visiting the program in Germany, founded the first American program for training guide dogs, called the Seeing Eye, in 1929. Basing the training program on the one that she visited in Potsdam,
Eustis’s program launched others that were modeled or developed from hers. The Seeing Eye still has only one facility in the United States, in Morristown, New Jersey, but dozens of programs now exist for the training of guide dogs for the blind. Other programs began to utilize the guide dog training system to provide animal-based assistance to other disabled individuals. Most of these programs are less than 20 years old, and the majority of the programs were developed in the late 1980s and the 1990s. Programs now exist for a variety of animals over a range of disabilities for which an animal can be of assistance. Programs to train search-and-rescue dogs in the United States are new, particularly compared to the programs in Europe. The Swiss program inspired search-and-rescue dog training programs in the United States in the 1970s. Various small programs were developed that relied on individuals with specific breeds of dogs to volunteer to train their pets for disaster or search operaquick facts tions. Programs such as School Subjects the Black Paws for the Biology Newfoundland breed Psychology offer certification that is accepted by law enforcePersonal Skills Following instructions ment and search teams Helping/teaching in selecting animals for search operations. After Work Environment receiving state-recogIndoors and outdoors nized certification, dog One location with some travel and handler teams can Minimum Education Level choose to continue Some postsecondary training training for more intensive programs. Salary Range The Federal Emer$14,700 to $22,050 to gency Management $42,890+ Agency (FEMA) estabCertification or Licensing lished criteria and cerRequired by certain states tification testing for disaster search dog Outlook and handler teams in Faster than the average 1991. They started with DOT a few teams, funding N/A established dog and dog-handler teams GOE to undergo an inten03.02.01 sive training program. NOC FEMA-certified teams N/A were used extensively in search-and-recovery O*NET-SOC operations in the after39-2011.00 math of the September
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11, 2001, terrorist attacks at the Pentagon and World Trade Center.
n The Job Many animals are capable of being trained. The techniques used to train them are basically the same, regardless of the type of animal. Animal trainers conduct programs consisting primarily of repetition and reward to teach animals to behave in a particular manner and to do it consistently. First, trainers evaluate an animal’s temperament, ability, and aptitude to determine its trainability. Animals vary in personality, just as people do. Some animals are more stubborn, willful, or easily distracted and would not do well with rigid training programs. All animals can be trained at some level, but certain animals are more receptive to training; these animals are chosen for programs that demand great skill. One of the most familiar examples is the seeing-eye dog, now usually called a companion animal for the blind. These dogs are trained with several hundred verbal commands to assist their human and to recognize potentially dangerous situations. The dog must be able to, without any command, walk his companion around obstacles on the sidewalk. The companion dog must be able to read street lights and know to cross at the green, and only after traffic has cleared. The dog must also not be tempted to run to greet other dogs, grab food, or behave as most pet dogs do. Very few dogs make it through the rigorous training program. The successful dogs have proved to be such aids to the visually impaired that similar programs have been developed to train dogs for people who are confined to a wheelchair, or are hearing impaired, or incapable of executing some aspect of a day-to-day routine where a dog can assist.
This animal trainer allows his horse to gallop freely in a field during a training exercise. (Scott Bauer/U.S. Dept. of Agriculture.)
By painstakingly repeating routines many times and rewarding the animal when it does what is expected, animal trainers train an animal to obey or perform on command or, in certain situations, without command. In addition, animal trainers are responsible for the feeding, exercising, grooming, and general care of the animals, either handling the duties themselves or supervising other workers. In some training programs, trainers come in and work with the animals; in other programs, such as the companion animal program, the animal lives with the trainer for the duration of the program. Trainers usually specialize in one type of animal and are identified by this type of animal. Dog trainers, for example, may work with police dogs, training them to search for drugs or missing people. The programs to train drug-detecting dogs use different detection responses, but each dog is trained in only one response system. Some dogs are trained to behave passively when the scent is detected, with a quiet signal given to the accompanying police officer that drugs have been detected. The signal can be sitting next to the scent, pointing, or following. Other dogs are trained to dig, tear, and destroy containers that have the drug in them. As one animal trainer from the U.S. Customs office pointed out, these dogs may be nightmare pets because they can destroy a couch in seconds, but they make great drug-detecting dogs. The common breeds for companion dogs and police dogs are German shepherds, rottweilers, and Labrador retrievers. Some train guard dogs to protect private property; others train dogs for performance, where the dog may learn numerous stunts or movements with hand commands so that the dog can perform on a stage or in film without the audience hearing the commands spoken from offstage. Shepherding dogs are also trained with whistle or hand commands because commands may have to be given from some distance away from where the dog is working. Dogs, partly because of the variety of breeds available and partly because of their nature to work for approval, have countless roles for which they are trained. Even pet dogs may be trained by animal trainers who work with owners to teach the dog routine commands that make walking the dog safer and easier, or break the dog of destructive or dangerous habits. Horse trainers specialize in training horses for riding or for harness. They talk to and handle a horse gently to accustom it to human contact, then gradually get it to accept a harness, bridle, saddle, and other riding gear. Trainers teach horses to respond to commands that are either spoken or given by use of the reins and legs. Draft horses are conditioned to draw equipment either alone or as part of a team. Show horses are given special train-
ing to qualify them to perform in competitions. Horse trainers sometimes have to retrain animals that have developed bad habits, such as bucking or biting. Besides feeding, exercising, and grooming, these trainers may make arrangements for breeding the horses and help mares deliver their foals. A highly specialized occupation in the horse-training field is that of racehorse trainers, who must create individualized training plans for every horse in their care. By studying the animal’s performance record and becoming familiar with its behavior during workouts, trainers can adapt their training methods to take advantage of each animal’s peculiarities. Like other animal trainers, racehorse trainers oversee the exercising, grooming, and feeding of their charges. They also clock the running time during workouts to determine when a horse is ready for competitive racing. Racehorse trainers coach jockeys on how best to handle a particular horse during a race and may give owners advice on purchasing horses. Police horse trainers work with police horses to keep them from startling in crowds or responding to other animals in their presence. As with the police dogs, these animals require a very stable, calm personality that remains no matter what the situation the animal works in. Police officers who work with animals on a routine basis develop strong attachments to the animals. Other animal trainers work with more exotic animals for performance or for health reasons. The dolphins and whales at the Shedd Aquarium in Chicago are trained to roll over, lift fins and tails, and open their mouths on command, so that much veterinary work can be done without anesthesia, which is always dangerous for animals. These skills are demonstrated for the public every day, so they function as a show for people, but the overriding reason for training the dolphins is to keep them healthy. Other training elements include teaching dolphins to retrieve items from the bottom of their pool, so that if any visitor throws or loses something in the pool, divers are not required to invade the dolphins’ space. Animal trainers work with hunting birds, training them to fly after an injury, or to hunt if the bird was found as a hatchling before a parent had trained it. Birds that are successfully trained to fly and hunt can be released into the wild; the others may remain in educational programs where they will perform for audiences. It is, however, illegal to keep any releasable hunting bird for more than one year in the United States. Each species of animal is trained by using the instincts and reward systems that are appropriate to that species. Hunting birds are rewarded with food; they don’t enjoy petting and do not respond warmly to human touch, unless they were hand-raised from hatching by humans.
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Training Helper Dogs It takes about six months to train guide dogs for the blind. After mastering basic obedience and becoming accustomed to the shoulder harness that is the contact with their owners, the dogs learn to follow basic directions (forward, right, and left), to stop at curbs, to cross streets, and to lead their owners around hazards. The dog trainer also works with the new owners, usually for about a month. Together, they work with the dog and learn to master elevators, revolving doors, subway stations, and trains and buses. Trainers may also train dogs to work with people who are hearing-impaired or physically disabled. Individualized training programs must be designed for the dogs in order to meet the specific needs of their new owners.
Dogs, on the other hand, respond immediately to petting and gentle handling, unless they were handled inappropriately or viciously by someone. Sea mammals respond to both food and physical contact. Some animal species are generally difficult to train. Sea otters are extremely destructive naturally and do not train easily. African elephants are much more difficult to train than Asian elephants, and females are much more predictable and trainable than the larger males. Most circus elephants are Asian because they are much easier to handle. Captive elephants, though, kill more handlers and keepers than every other species combined.
n Requirements High School For high school students interested in becoming an animal trainer, courses in anatomy, physiology, biology, and psychology will be helpful. Understanding how the body and mind works helps a trainer understand the best methods for training. Knowledge of psychology will help the trainer recognize behaviors in the animals they train as well as in the people for whom the animals are helping.
Postsecondary Training Although there are no formal education requirements to enter this field, some positions do have educational requirements that include a college degree. Animal trainers in circuses and the entertainment field may be required to have some education in animal psychology in addition to their caretaking experience. Zoo and aquarium animal trainers usually must have a bachelor’s degree in a field related to animal management or animal physiology. Trainers of companion dogs prepare for their
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work in a three-year course of study at schools that train dogs and instruct the disabled owner-companion. Most trainers begin their careers as keepers and gain on-the-job experience in evaluating the disposition, intelligence, and “trainability” of the animals they look after. At the same time, they learn to make friends with their charges, develop a rapport with them, and gain their confidence. The caretaking experience is an important building block in the education and success of an animal trainer. Although previous training experience may give job applicants an advantage in being hired, they still will be expected to spend time caring for the animals before advancing to a trainer position. Establishments that hire trainers often require previous animal-keeping or equestrian experience, as proper care and feeding of animals is an essential part of a trainer’s responsibilities. These positions serve as informal apprenticeships. The assistant may get to help an animal trainer on certain tasks but will be able to watch and learn from other tasks being performed around him or her. For example, racehorse trainers often begin as jockeys or grooms in training stables.
Certification or Licensing Racehorse trainers must be licensed by the state in which they work. Otherwise, there are no special requirements for this occupation.
Other Requirements Prospective animal trainers should like and respect animals and have a genuine interest in working with them. With most of the career options for an animal trainer, there is an underlying desire to help people as well. Most trained animals work with people to accomplish a goal, so the relationship between the animal, the trainer, and the owner or companion is an important one. It requires the trainer to be thoughtful, sensitive, and well-spoken. Also, the trainer should be prepared to work intensely with an animal and then have that animal go on to work somewhere else. The relationship with the trained animal may not be permanent, so separation is part of the trainer’s job.
n Exploring Students wishing to enter this field would do well to learn as much as they can about animals, especially animal psychology, either through coursework or library study. Interviews with animal trainers and tours of their workplaces might be arranged to provide firsthand information about the practical aspects of this occupation. Volunteering offers an opportunity to begin training with animals and learning firsthand about the tasks
and routines involved in managing animals, as well as training them. Part-time or volunteer work in animal shelters, pet-training programs, rescue centers, pet shops, or veterinary offices gives potential trainers a chance to discover whether they have the aptitude for working with animals. Experience can be acquired, too, in summer jobs as animal caretakers at zoos, aquariums, museums that feature live animal shows, amusement parks, and for those with a special interest in horse racing, at stables.
n Employers Animal trainers work for a wide variety of employers, including stables, dog-training and companion pet programs, zoos, aquariums and oceanariums, amusement parks, rescue centers, pet shops, and circuses. Many are self-employed, and a few very successful animal trainers work in the entertainment field, training animal “actors” or working with wild and/or dangerous animals. A number of these positions require a great deal of traveling and even relocating. Although some new zoos and aquariums may open and others may expand their facilities, the number of job opportunities for animal trainers at these facilities will remain relatively small. Companion programs that train animals to assist people who need help in daily living activities will employ an increasing number of trainers. Tightened security measures around the globe have created demand for bomb-sniffing dogs and their trainers. An increasing number of animal trainers and handlers will be employed by government agencies such as the Federal Aviation Administration and U.S. Customs Service, Fortune 500 companies, amusement parks, and sports arenas.
n Starting Out People who wish to become animal trainers generally start out as animal keepers, stable workers, or caretakers and rise to the position of trainer only after acquiring experience within the ranks of an organization. You can enter the field by applying directly for a job as animal keeper, letting your employer or supervisor know of your ambition so you will eventually be considered for promotion. The same applies for volunteer positions. Learning as a volunteer is an excellent way to get handson experience, but you should be vocal in your interest in a paid position once you have gotten to know the staff and they have gotten to know you. You should pay close attention to the training methods of any place at which you are considering working. No reputable organization, regardless of what it trains animals for, should use physical injury to train or discipline an animal. The techniques you learn at your first
job determine the position you will qualify for after that. You want to be sure that you are witnessing and learning from an organization that has a sound philosophy and training method for working with animals. The most coveted positions depend on the animals you want to work with. Sea mammals are a specialty of oceanariums and aquariums, and these positions are fiercely competitive. Dog-training programs are probably the most plentiful and offer the widest range of training philosophies and techniques. There are numerous books on dog training methods that you should consult to know what the differences are. FEMA works only with established dog and handler teams, who usually work within the emergency systems for the regional or local authorities in some capacity. These teams choose to also be trained within the FEMA guidelines.
n Advancement Most establishments have very small staffs of animal trainers, which means that the opportunities for advancement are limited. The progression is from animal keeper to animal trainer. A trainer who directs or supervises others may be designated head animal trainer or senior animal trainer. Some animal trainers go into business for themselves and, if successful, hire other trainers to work for them. Others become agents for animal acts. But promotion may mean moving from one organization to another and may require relocating to another city, depending on what animal you specialize in.
n Earnings Salaries of animal trainers can vary widely according to specialty and place of employment. Salaries ranged from $14,700 to $42,890 a year or more in 2004, according to the U.S. Department of Labor. The median salary for animal trainers was $22,050. Those who earn higher salaries are in upper management and spend more time running the business than working with animals. In the field of racehorse training, however, trainers are paid an average fee of $35 to $50 a day for each horse, plus 10 percent of any money their horses win in races. Depending on the horse and the races it runs, this can exceed the average high-end earnings for a trainer. Show horse trainers may earn as much as $30,000 to $35,000 a year. Trainers in business for themselves set their own fees for teaching both horses and owners.
n Work Environment The working hours for animal trainers vary considerably, depending on the type of animal, performance schedule,
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and whether travel is involved. For some trainers, such as those who work with show horses, educational programs with hunting birds, or new animals being brought into zoos and aquariums, the hours can be long and quite irregular. Travel is common and will probably include responsibility for seeing to the animals’ needs while on the road. This can include feeding, creative housing, and driving with the animal. For one program director of a rescue center that works with injured hawks, it means traveling frequently for educational shows with a suitcase full of frozen rats and chicks for food. Much of the work is conducted outdoors. In winter, trainers may work indoors, but depending on the animal, they may continue outdoor training year-round. If the animal is expected to work or perform outdoors in winter, it has to be trained in winter as well. Companion animals have to cope with every type of weather, so the trainer is responsible for training and testing the animal accordingly. Working with certain animals requires physical strength; for example, it takes arm strength to hold a falcon on your wrist for an hour, or to control an 80pound dog who doesn’t want to heel. Other aspects of the work may require lifting, bending, or extended periods of standing or swimming. Trainers of aquatic mammals, such as dolphins and seals, work in water and must feel comfortable in aquatic environments. Patience is essential to the job as well. Just as people do, animals have bad days where they won’t work well and respond to commands. So even the best trainer encounters days of frustration where nothing seems to go well. Trainers must spend long hours repeating routines and rewarding their pupils for performing well, while never getting angry with them or punishing them when they fail to do what is expected. Trainers must be able to exhibit the authority to keep animals under control without raising their voices or using physical force. Calmness under stress is particularly important when dealing with wild animals.
n Outlook This field is expected to grow faster than the average through 2014, according to the U.S. Department of Labor. Although criticism of animals used for purely entertainment purposes has reduced the number used for shows and performances, programs have expanded for companion animals and animals used in work settings. Also, a growing number of animal owners are seeking training services for their pets. An increased number of trainers will be needed to train the increasing number of search-and-rescue and bomb-sniffing dog teams. The latter will be in demand
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to ensure the safety of airports, government buildings, corporations, amusement parks, sports facilities, and public utilities. In all fields, applicants must be well qualified to overcome the heavy competition for available jobs. Some openings may be created as zoos and aquariums expand or provide more animal shows in an effort to increase revenue.
n For More Information For information on careers, contact American Zoo and Aquarium Association 8403 Colesville Road, Suite 710 Silver Spring, MD 20910-3314 Tel: 301-562-0777 http://www.aza.org
Canine Companions for Independence is a non-profit organization that assists people with disabilities by providing trained assistance dogs and ongoing support. Canine Companions for Independence PO Box 446 Santa Rosa, CA 95402-0446 Tel: 800-572-2275 http://www.caninecompanions.org
a foundation for centuries of studies to follow, as historians and other scholars researched the development of cultures and civilizations. The rise of imperialism paved the way for modern anthropology as Europeans took over foreign lands and were exposed to new cultures. In the early 19th century, amateur anthropologists formed their own societies. By the end of the 19th century, anthropologists began lecturing at colleges and universities. Franz Boaz, through his teachings and research, helped to promote anthropology as a serious science in the 1920s. His students included Margaret Mead and Ruth Benedict, who later established their own anthropology departments. Mead conducted fieldwork, most notably among the Samoan people, that proved ground-breaking as well as controversial; for her research, she relied more on her interaction with individual groups of people than on statistics. Approaches and explanations expanded throughout the 20th century. Some, such as the Leakeys, expanded anthropology into scientifically researching human ancestors; this sort of anthropology overlaps greatly with archaeology. Today, anthropologists specialize in diverse areas, focusing on geographic areas and on such subjects as education, feminism, politics, and film and photography.
n The Job The Delta Society currently provides certification programs in animal evaluation and in training animal handlers for animal-assisted therapy and companion animal training. Delta Society 845 124th Avenue NE, Suite 101 Bellevue, WA 98055-2297 Tel: 425-226-7357 Email:
[email protected] http://www.deltasociety.org
Anthropologists n Overview Anthropologists study the origin and evolution of humans from a scientific point of view, focusing on the ways of life, physical characteristics, languages, values, customs, and social patterns of people in various parts of the world. Social scientists, including anthropologists, held about 4,790 jobs in the United States in 2005.
n History Herodotus, a Greek historian, who wrote in early 400 b.c. about the people of the Persian Empire, is generally considered the first anthropologist. His writings formed
Anthropology is concerned with the study and comparison of people in all parts of the world, their physical characteristics, customs, languages, traditions, material possessions, and social and religious beliefs and practices. Anthropologists constitute the smallest group of social scientists, yet they cover the widest range of subject matter. Anthropological data may be applied to solving problems in human relations in fields such as industrial relations, race and ethnic relations, social work, political administration, education, public health, and programs involving transcultural or foreign relations. Anthropology can be broken down into subsets: cultural anthropology, linguistic anthropology, and physical or biological anthropology. Cultural anthropology, the area in which the greatest number of anthropologists specialize, deals with human behavior and studies aspects of both extinct and current societies, including religion, language, politics, social structure and traditions, mythology, art, and intellectual life. Cultural anthropologists, also called ethnologists or social anthropologists, classify and compare cultures according to general laws of historical, cultural, and social development. To do this effectively, they often work with smaller, perhaps less diverse societies. For example, a cultural anthropologist might decide to study Gypsies of eastern Europe, interviewing and observing Gypsies in Warsaw, Prague, and Bucharest. Or, a cultural anthro-
pologist could choose to study Appalachian families of Tennessee and, in addition to library research, would talk to people in Appalachia to learn about family structure, traditions, morals, and values. Carol Patterson Rudolph is a cultural anthropologist investigating Native American petroglyphs, focusing on the Southwest. “I study the culture associated with the petroglyphs,” Rudolph says. “I study the myths of the cultures— the myths are the key factors in interpreting petroglyphs. The way hands, tails, body, and feet are positioned—all have meaning when matched up to myths.” Her research has resulted in the books On the Trail of Spider Woman: Petroglyphs, Pictographs, and Myths of the Southwest (Santa Fe, N. Mex.: Ancient City, 1997) and Petroglyphs and Pueblo Myths of the Rio Grande (Albuquerque, N. Mex.: University of New Mexico Press, 1991). She also produced Rock Markings, a video on petroglyphs that aired on PBS. “The two questions everyone wants to know,” she says, “are ‘How old is it?’ and ‘What does it mean?’” To find the answers, Rudolph works with Indian people who still know the sign language of petroglyphs, as well as other professionals. She’s currently been working with an archeometrist who dates archeological material. Rudolph considers her work to be a bridge between the past and present. “Learning how people really thought comes from their original language—and that’s translated on their rock.” Physical anthropologists, also called biological anthropologists, are concerned primarily with the biology of human groups. They study the differences between the members of past and present human societies and are particularly interested in the geographical distribution of human physical characteristics. They apply their intensive training in human anatomy to the study of human evolution and establish differences between races and groups of people. Physical anthropologists can apply their training to forensics or genetics, among other fields. Their work on the effect of heredity and environment on cultural attitudes toward health and nutrition enables medical anthropologists to help develop urban health programs. One of the most significant contributions of physical anthropologists comes from their research on nonhuman primates. Knowledge about the social organization, dietary habits, and reproductive behaviors of chimpanzees, gorillas, baboons, and others helps explain a great deal about human behavior, motivation, and origins. People working in primate studies are increasingly interested in conservation issues because the places where primates live are threatened by development and the overharvesting of forest products. The work done by Jane Goodall is a good example of this type of anthropology. Urban anthropologists study the behavior and customs of people who live in cities. They might con-
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Did You Know? Picture writing is the earliest form of writing. Clay tablets found in Iraq and Iran date from around 3500 b.c., and seem to show the work of early accountants and business people—the tablets record land sales and tax payments.
centrate on the growth and use of urban spaces and institutions, or on the behavior of a certain group or subculture. Many of these anthropologists are active in gender and lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender studies, as well.
n Requirements High School Follow your high school’s college be prepared for undergraduate and graduate programs in anthropology. You should study English composition and literature to develop your writing and interpretation skills. Foreign language skills will also help you in later research and language study. Take classes in computers and classes in sketching, simple surveying, and photography to prepare for some of the demands of field work. Mathematics and science courses can help you develop the skills you’ll need in analyzing information and statistics.
Postsecondary Training You should be prepared for a long training period beyond high school. More anthropologists are finding jobs with only master’s degrees, but most of the better positions in anthropology will require a doctorate, which entails about four to six years of work beyond the bachelor’s degree. You’ll need a doctorate in order to join the faculty of college and university anthropology programs. Before beginning graduate work, you will study such basic
prep program to quick facts School Subjects
Geography History Personal Skills
Communication/ideas Helping/teaching Work Environment
Indoors and outdoors One location with some travel Minimum Education Level
Doctorate degree Salary Range
$27,530 to $45,910 to $80,040+ Certification or Licensing
None available Outlook
About as fast as the average DOT
054 GOE
02.04.01 NOC
4169 O*NET-SOC
19-3091.00, 19-3091.01
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with other cultures,” she says. “I’m against prejudice of any kind.” This respect for other cultures is extremely important, as you’ll be interacting closely with people with diverse backgrounds.
n Exploring
Anthropologists excavate the remains of guerilla fighters in Bolivia. (David Mercado, AP Photo.)
courses as psychology, sociology, history, geography, mathematics, logic, English composition, and literature, as well as modern and ancient languages. The final two years of the undergraduate program will provide an opportunity for specialization not only in anthropology but in some specific phase of the discipline. Students planning to become physical anthropologists should concentrate on the biological sciences. A wide range of interdisciplinary study in languages, history, and the social sciences, as well as the humanities, is particularly important in cultural anthropology, including the areas of linguistics and ethnology. Independent field study also is done in these areas. In starting graduate training, you should select an institution that has a good program in the area in which you hope to specialize. This is important, not only because the training should be of a high quality, but because most graduates in anthropology will receive their first jobs through their graduate universities. Assistantships and temporary positions may be available to holders of bachelor’s or master’s degrees, but are usually available only to those working toward a doctorate.
Other Requirements You should be able to work as part of a team, as well as conduct research entirely on your own. Because much of your career will involve study and research, you should have great curiosity and a desire for knowledge. Carol Patterson Rudolph credits a passion and dedication to her work as key to her success. “I’m fascinated
Anthropology may be explored in a number of ways. For example, Boy Scout and Girl Scout troops participate in camping expeditions for exploration purposes. Local amateur anthropological societies may have weekly or monthly meetings and guest speakers, study developments in the field, and engage in exploration on the local level. You may begin to learn about other cultures on your own by attending local cultural festivals, music and dance performances, and cultural celebrations and religious ceremonies that are open to the public. Trips to museums also will introduce you to the world of anthropology. Both high school and college students may work in museums on a part-time basis during the school year or during summer vacations. The Earthwatch Institute offers student expedition opportunities to a range of locations such as India, Greece, Guatemala, and England. For descriptions of programs and recent projects, see http://www.earthwatch.org.
n Employers Accounts of how many working anthropologists there are vary widely: The U.S. Department of Labor reports there are about 4,790 working in the United States, while the American Anthropological Association (AAA) reports that there are approximately 15,000 anthropologists active in the profession. Traditionally, most anthropologists have worked as professors for colleges, universities, and community colleges, or as curators for museums. But these numbers are changing. The AAA estimates that while about 70 percent of their professional members still work in academia, about 30 percent work in such diverse areas as social service programs, health organizations, city planning departments, and marketing departments of corporations. Others work for architectural and construction firms, to make sure that building sites are cleared of any material of archaeological interest, and others work for research institutions. Some also work as consultants or are “independent scholars” supporting themselves by working in other industries. For instance, Carol Patterson Rudolph works actively as an anthropologist but supports herself with her own graphic arts and advertising business.
n Starting Out The most promising way to gain entry into these occupations is through graduate school. Graduates in anthro-
pology might be approached prior to graduation by prospective employers. Often, professors will provide you with introductions as well as recommendations. You may have an opportunity to work as a research assistant or a teaching fellow while in graduate school, and frequently this experience is of tremendous help in qualifying for a job in another institution. You should also be involved in internships to gain experience. These internship opportunities may be available through your graduate program, or you may have to seek them out yourself. Many organizations can benefit from the help of an anthropology student; health centers, government agencies, and environmental groups all conduct research.
n Advancement Because of the relatively small size of this field, advancement is not likely to be fast, and the opportunities for advancement may be somewhat limited. Most people beginning their teaching careers in colleges or universities will start as instructors and eventually advance to assistant professor, associate professor, and possibly full professor. Researchers on the college level have an opportunity to head research areas and to gain recognition among colleagues as an expert in many areas of study. Anthropologists employed in museums also have an opportunity to advance within the institution in terms of raises in salary or increases in responsibility and job prominence. Those anthropologists working outside academia and museums will be promoted according to the standards of the individual companies and organizations for which they work.
n Earnings The U.S. Department of Labor reports that the median annual salary for anthropologists and archeologists was $45,910 in 2005. Entry-level salaries were about $27,530, while the most experienced workers could make over $80,040. Salaries in urban areas are somewhat higher. Benefits vary, depending on employment and the company or organization for which one works.
n Work Environment The majority of anthropologists are employed by colleges and universities and, as such, have good working conditions, although field work may require extensive travel and difficult living conditions. Educational facilities are normally clean, well lighted, and ventilated. Anthropologists work about 40 hours a week, and the hours may be irregular. Physical strength and stamina is necessary for fieldwork of all types. Those working on excavations, for instance, may work during most of the
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Learn More about It Barley, Nigel. The Innocent Anthropologist: Notes from a Mud Hut. Prospect Heights, Ill.: Waveland Press, 2000. Behar, Ruth. The Vulnerable Observer: Anthropology That Breaks Your Heart. Boston, Mass.: Beacon, 1997. Forsythe, Diana E. Studying Those Who Study Us: An Anthropologist in the World of Artificial Intelligence. Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 2001. Gellner, David N., and Erich Hirsch, eds. Inside Organizations: Anthropologists at Work. New York: Berg Pub. Ltd., 2001. Herzfeld, Michael, ed. Anthropology: Theoretical Practice in Culture and Society. Oxford, U.K.: Blackwell Publishing, 2001. Howell, Carol L., and Omer Call Stewart. Cannibalism Is an Acquired Taste, and Other Notes. Boulder, Colo.: University Press of Colorado, 1998. Moore, Henrietta, L., ed. Anthropological Theory Today. Oxford, U.K.: Blackwell Publishing, 2000.
daylight hours and spend the evening planning the next day’s activities. Those engaged in teaching may spend many hours in laboratory research or in preparing lessons to be taught. The work is interesting, however, and those employed in the field are usually highly motivated and unconcerned about long, irregular hours or primitive living conditions. Carol Patterson Rudolph appreciates the instant gratification of the work. “You’re always working on the cutting edge,” she says. “Nobody’s done it before.” But the constant struggle for funding can be frustrating.
n Outlook Most new jobs arising in the near future will be nonteaching positions in consulting firms, research institutes, corporations, and federal, state, and local government agencies. Among the factors contributing to this growth is increased environmental, historic, and cultural preservation legislation. There is a particular demand for people with the ability to write environmental impact statements. Anthropologists will have to be creative in finding work outside of academia and convincing employers that their training in anthropology makes them uniquely qualified for the work. For these jobs, they will be competing with people from a variety of disciplines. Although college and university teaching has been the largest area of employment for anthropologists, the demand is expected to decline in this area as a result of the steady
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decrease in student enrollment and the overall poor academic job market. Overall, the number of job applicants will be greater than the number of openings available. Competition will be great even for those with doctorates who are seeking faculty positions, and many will find only temporary or nontenured jobs. Junior college and high school teaching jobs will be very limited, and those holding a bachelor’s or master’s degree will have few opportunities. Positions will be available in nonacademic areas, as well as a limited number in education. The U.S. Department of Labor predicts that employment for this career will growth about as fast as the average through 2012.
n For More Information The following organization offers valuable information about anthropological careers and student associations: American Anthropological Association 2200 Wilson Boulevard, Suite 600 Arlington, VA 22201 Tel: 703-528-1902 http://www.aaanet.org
To learn more about the Student Challenge Awards and the other programs available, contact Earthwatch Institute 3 Clock Tower Place, Suite 100 Box 75 Maynard, MA 01754 Tel: 800-776-0188 Email:
[email protected] http://www.earthwatch.org
The SFAA Web site has career listings and publications for those wanting to read more about current topics in the social sciences. Society for Applied Anthropology (SFAA) PO Box 2436 Oklahoma City, OK 73101-2436 Tel: 405-843-5113 Email:
[email protected] http://www.sfaa.net
Antiques and Art Dealers n Overview Antiques and art dealers make a living acquiring, displaying, and selling antiques and art. By strict defini-
tion, antiques are often defined as items more than 100 years old. However, over the last two decades, the term “antique” has been applied to furniture, jewelry, clothing, art, household goods, and many other collectibles, dating back to as recently as the 1970s. People collect a wide array of items, from traditional paintings and sculptures to unique period toys and cigar boxes. Many antiques and art dealers are self-employed and go into business after discovering an interest in collecting pieces themselves. The Antiques and Collectibles Dealer Association estimates there are approximately 200,000 to 250,000 antique dealers in the United States, based in antique shops, antique malls, and on the Internet.
n History Interest in collecting antiques and art can be traced back to the Renaissance, when people began to admire and prize Greek and Roman antiquities such as coins, manuscripts, sculptures, paintings, and pieces of architecture. In order to fulfill public interest and curiosity, as well as to supply the growing number of private and public collections, many pieces from Egypt, Italy, and Greece were looted and carried off to other countries. The collectibles market, as it is known today, consists of everyday household objects, as well as furniture, clothing, art, and even automobiles, usually originating from another time period. After World War I, interest in collectibles grew. Many people began to purchase, preserve, and display pieces in their homes. As interest grew, so did the need for antiques and art businesses and dealers. There are different categories of collectibles and different ways and reasons to acquire them. Some people choose to collect pieces from different time periods such as American Colonial or Victorian; others collect by the pattern or brand, such as Chippendale furniture or CocaCola memorabilia. Some people collect objects related to their career or business. For example, a physician may collect early surgical instruments, while a pharmacist may be interested in antique apothecary cabinets. A growing category in the collectibles industry is ephemera. Ephemera include theater programs, postcards, cigarette cards, and food labels, among others. These items were produced without lasting value or survival in mind. Though many pieces of ephemera can be purchased inexpensively, others, especially items among the first of their kind or in excellent condition, are rare and considered very valuable. Some larger antiques and art dealers specialize and deal only with items from a particular time period or design. However, most dealers collect, buy, and sell all kinds of previously owned household items and decor. Such shops will carry items ranging from dining room furniture to jewelry to cooking molds.
The idea of what is worth collecting constantly changes with time and the public’s tastes and interests. Art tastes range from traditional to contemporary, from Picasso to Warhol. Items representing the rock music industry of the 1960s and 1970s, as well as household items and furniture of the 1970s, are highly sought after today. Dealers not only stock their stores with items currently in demand but keep an eye on the collectibles of the future.
n The Job For Sandra Naujokas, proprietor of Favorite Things Antique Shop, in Orland Park, Illinois, the antiques business is never boring. More than 25 years ago, she started a collection of English-style china, and she’s been hooked on antiques and collecting ever since. Naujokas spends her workday greeting customers and answering any questions they may have. When business slows down, she cleans the store and prices inventory. Sometimes people will bring in items for resale. It’s up to Naujokas to carefully inspect each piece and settle on a price. She relies on pricing manuals such as Kovels’ Antiques & Collectibles Price List and Schroeder’s Antiques Price Guide, which give guidelines and a suggested price on a wide range of items. Naujokas also goes on a number of shopping expeditions a year to restock her store. Besides rummage sales and auctions, she relies on buying trips to different parts of the country and abroad to find regional items. At times, she is invited to a person’s home to view items for sale. “It’s important to be open to all possibilities,” Naujokas says. She also participates in several shows a year, in order to reach customers that normally would not travel to the store’s location. “You need to do a variety of things to advertise your wares,” Naujokas advises. She also promotes her business by advertising in her town’s travel brochure, the local newspapers, and by direct mail campaigns. Her schedule is grueling, as the store is open seven days a week, but Naujokas enjoys the work and the challenge of being an antique dealer. Besides the social aspect—interacting with all sorts of people and situations—Naujokas loves having the first choice of items for her personal collections. Her advice for people interested in having their own antique store? “You have to really like the items you intend to sell.”
n Requirements High School You can become an antique or art dealer with a high school diploma, though many successful dealers have become specialists in their field partly through further
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education. While in high school, concentrate on history and art classes to familiarize yourself with the particular significance and details of different periods in time and the corresponding art of the period. Consider studying home economics if you plan to specialize in household items. This knowledge can come in handy when distinguishing a wooden rolling pin from a wooden butter paddle, for example. English and speech classes to improve communication skills are also helpful. Antiques and art dealing is a people-oriented business. For this reason, it’s crucial to be able to deal efficiently with different types of people and situations. Operating your own small business will also require skills such as accounting, simple bookkeeping, and marketing, so business classes are recommended.
Postsecondary Training While a college education is not required, a degree in fine arts, art history, or history will give you a working knowledge of the antiques you sell and the historical periods from which they originated. Another option is obtaining a degree in business or entrepreneurship. Such knowledge will help you to run a successful business.
Certification or Licensing Presently, there are no certification programs available for antique dealers. However, if you plan to open your own antique store, you will need a local business license or permit. In addition, if you wish to conduct appraisals, it will be necessary to take appraisal courses that are appropriate for your interest or antique specialty. Certification is not required of those interested in working as an appraiser, but it is highly recommended, according to the International Society of Appraisers—which administers an accreditation and certification program to its members. Obtaining accreditation or certification will demonstrate
quick facts school subjects
Art Art History Business Family and consumer science Personal Skills
Artistic Leadership/management Work Environment
Primarily indoors Primarily multiple locations Minimum Education Level
High school diploma Salary Range
$15,000 to $30,000 to $1 million Certification or Licensing
None available Outlook
About as fast as the average DOT
N/A GOE
N/A NOC
0621 O*NET-SOC
N/A
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You can also tune to an episode of public television’s traveling antique show, Antiques Roadshow, where people are encouraged to bring family treasures or rummage sale bargains for appraisal by antique industry experts.
n Employers
An antiques dealer shows a customer the craftsman’s identification on an antique vase. (Dan Bosler, Tony Stone Images.)
Many antiques and art dealers and are self-employed, operating their own shops or renting space at a local mall. Others operate solely through traveling art shows or through mail-order catalogues. Some dealers prefer to work as employees of larger antique or art galleries. In general, the more well known the dealer, the more permanent and steady the business. Prestigious auction houses such as Christie’s or Sotheby’s are attractive places to work, but competition for such jobs is fierce.
n Starting Out your knowledge and expertise in appraisal and attract customers. To obtain accreditation, candidates must have three years of experience in appraising, complete the ISA Core Course in Appraisal Studies, and pass an examination. In order to become certified, individuals must complete additional training in their specialty area, submit two appraisals for peer review, complete professional development study, and pass a comprehensive examination.
Other Requirements To be an antique or art dealer, you’ll need patience—and lots of it. Keeping your store well stocked with antiques, art, or other collectibles takes numerous buying trips to auctions, estate sales, flea markets, rummage sales, and even to foreign countries. Many times you’ll have to sort through boxes of ordinary “stuff ” before coming across a treasure. Unless you’re lucky enough to have a large staff, you will have to make these outings by yourself. However, most dealers go into the profession because they enjoy the challenge of hunting for valuable pieces. Tact is another must-have quality for success in this industry. Remember the old adage—one person’s trash is another person’s treasure. Finally, with the growth of online auction sites such as eBay, computer skills have come to be an essential part of the antique or collectible dealer’s toolkit.
n Exploring If you want to explore this field further, you may want to start by visiting an antique store or art gallery. If you see valuable treasures as opposed to dull paintings, old furniture, outdated books, or dusty collectibles, then chances are this is the job for you.
All dealers have a great interest in antiques or art and are collectors themselves. Often, their businesses result from an overabundance of their personal collections. There are many ways to build your collection and create inventory worthy of an antique business. Attending yard sales is an inexpensive way to build your inventory; you’ll never know what kind of valuables you will come across. Flea markets, local art galleries, and antique malls will provide great purchasing opportunities and give you the chance to check out the competition. Sandra Naujokas finds that spring is an especially busy time for collecting. As people do their “spring cleaning,” many decide to part with household items and décor they no longer want or need.
n Advancement For those working out of their homes or renting showcase space at malls or larger shops, advancement in this field can mean opening your own antique shop or art gallery. Besides a business license, dealers that open their own stores need to apply for a seller’s permit and a state tax identification number. At this point, advancement is based on the success of the business. To ensure that their business thrives and expands, dealers need to develop advertising and marketing ideas to keep their business in the public’s eye. Besides using the local library or Internet for ideas on opening their own businesses, newer dealers often turn to people who are already in the antiques and art business for valuable advice.
n Earnings It is difficult to gauge what antiques and art dealers earn because of the vastness of the industry. Some internationally known, high-end antique stores and art galleries
dealing with many pieces of priceless furniture or works of art may make millions of dollars in yearly profits. This, however, is the exception. It is impossible to compare the high-end dealer with the lower end market. The majority of antiques and art dealers are comparatively small in size and type of inventory. Some dealers work only part time or rent showcase space from established shops. According to a survey conducted by the Antiques and Collectibles Dealer Association, the average showcase dealer earns about $1,000 a month in gross profits. From there, each dealer earns a net profit as determined by the piece or pieces sold, after overhead and other business costs. Note that annual earnings vary greatly for antiques and art dealers due to factors such as size and specialization of the store, location, the market, and current trends and tastes of the public.
n Work Environment Much of antiques and art dealers’ time is spent indoors. Many smaller antique shops and art galleries do not operate with a large staff, so dealers must be prepared to work alone at times. Also, there may be large gaps of time between customers. Most stores are open at least five days a week and operate during regular business hours, though some have extended shopping hours in the evening. However, dealers are not always stuck in their store. Buying trips and shopping expeditions give them opportunities to restock their inventory, not to mention explore different regions of the country or world. Naujokas finds that spring is the busiest time for building her store’s merchandise, while the holiday season is a busy selling time.
n Outlook According to the Antiques and Collectibles Dealer Association (ACDA), the collectibles industry should enjoy moderate growth in future years. The Internet has quickly become a popular way to buy and sell antiques and art. Though this medium has introduced collecting to many people worldwide, it has also had an adverse affect on the industry, namely for dealers and businesses that sell antiques and art in more traditional settings such as a shop or mall, or at a trade show. However, Jim Tucker, co-founder and director of the ACDA, predicts that the popularity of Web sites devoted to selling collectibles will level off. There is a great social aspect to collecting art and antiques. Tucker feels that people want to see, feel, and touch the items they are interested in purchasing, which is obviously not possible to do while surfing the Web. Though the number of authentic antique art and collectibles—items more than 100 years old—is limited, new items will be in vogue as collectibles. Also, people
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Words to Know Auction house: A company that acts as a go-between for those who wish to sell (usually very expensive) antiques and those who wish to buy them. Perhaps the most famous is Sotheby’s. Baroque: An ornate style of European style of furniture, architecture, and art, dating from the 17th and 18th centuries. Authentic pieces from this period can sell for quite a lot of money. Edwardian: The period between 1901 and 1919 (the death of Queen Victoria and the end of World War I, and the death of King Edward VII). The Edwardian style is less “overdone” than the Victorian but is still rather rich and ornate. Ephemera: Objects that were not designed to last, such as programs, posters, and matchbooks. Often, these com memorate some important event, such as the World’s Fair. Regency: The period between 1811 and 1825. Regencyera style is somewhat simpler than the “busy” Baroque. Restorer: Antiques are not always in the best condition; sometimes, they must be repaired before sale. Being able to fix a piece in the original style is a difficult skill. Interestingly, it is not always best to restore a piece to “new” condition—some items should show their age. Victorian: The Victorian style marks the pinnacle of Western confidence and imperialism that coincided with the reign of Queen Victoria of England (1837–1901). Accordingly, “Victorian” furniture and art is very rich and ornate. It is also sometimes somewhat sentimental, and also often displays a romantic attachment to the past.
will be ready to sell old furniture and other belongings to make room for new, modern purchases. It is unlikely that there will ever be a shortage of inventory worthy of an antique shop or art gallery.
n For More Information For industry information, antique show schedules, and appraisal information, contact Antique and Collectible Associations PO Box 4389 Davidson, NC 28036 Tel: 800-287-7127 Email:
[email protected] http://www.antiqueandcollectible.com
For art resources and listings of galleries, contact Art Dealers Association of America 575 Madison Avenue New York, NY 10022 Tel: 212-940-8590
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Email:
[email protected] http://www.artdealers.org
For information about appraising and certification, contact International Society of Appraisers 1131 Southwest Seventh Street, Suite 105 Renton, WA 98055 Tel: 206-241-0359 Email:
[email protected] http://www.isa-appraisers.org
For programming schedules and tour information on the public television show that highlights unique and sometimes priceless antique finds, visit Antiques Roadshow http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/roadshow
For information on collecting, art and antique shows, and collecting clubs, visit the following Web site: Collectors.org http://www.collectors.org
Apparel Industry Workers n Overview Apparel industry workers produce, maintain, or repair clothing and other consumer products made from cloth, leather, or fur. The three basic processes of garment production are cutting, sewing, and pressing. According to the U.S. Department of Labor, there are approximately 1.1 million textile, apparel, and furnishings workers. Apparel industry employees work primarily in manufacturing firms, though some are employed in retail establishments or laundries and dry-cleaners. They may be involved in creating apparel, from working with the pattern to cutting or sewing together parts of a garment through the final stages of finishing or inspecting the item.
n History The first sewing machine was patented in Paris in 1830 by Barthelemy Thimonnier. But weavers and tailors, fearful of being driven out of business by the mass production machines, destroyed the factories where the work was taking place, causing instances of violence across Europe. The history of apparel workers in the United States is intertwined with the history of the early American
labor movement. In 1846 Elias Howe patented a sewing machine in the United States that used two threads in a lock stitch pattern, as sewing machines use today. However, the Howe sewing machine was no more accepted in the United States than Thimonnier’s invention had been in Paris, and Howe sold part of the patent rights in England. In 1851 Isaac Singer built a sewing machine that survived the objections of the tailors. The machine only made simple stitches, and tailors would still be needed for much of the work on clothing. The machine would speed production of the basic elements of garments. Workers were required to purchase their own sewing machines. As the industrial revolution progressed, the sewing machine was joined in 1860 by a band-knife cutting machine, invented by John Barran of Leeds, England, that cut several layers of fabric. In the 1890s, the first spreading machine was put to use in garment making, as was the first buttonhole machine, invented in the United States at the Reece Machinery Company. Factories replaced craft shops. In the early 20th century, New York City became the largest producer of clothing in the world. The small factories that sprang up during these early decades were poorly lit and ventilated, unsafe, and unsanitary. The rooms were packed with workers who labored 12 or 14 hours a day for meager wages. The term “sweatshop” came into being as a description of the apparel factories. On March 25, 1911, in New York City, a disastrous fire swept through the Triangle Shirtwaist Factory, killing 145 people, most of them young girls employed in the factory. As a direct result of the tragedy, the city was forced to revise its building codes and labor laws, and membership in unions working in the apparel industry increased dramatically. The International Ladies’ Garment Workers’ Union, founded in 1900, developed enough support after the fire to lobby for labor laws to be enacted and enforced. The Amalgamated Clothing Workers of America was established in 1914 and soon became one of the largest unions in the apparel industry. In 1995 the International Ladies’ Garment Workers’ Union and the Amalgamated Clothing and Textiles Union combined to form UNITE (Union of Needle Trades Industrial and Textile Employees), located in New York City. In early clothing factories each worker assembled and finished an entire garment. Since the 1940s, workers in the ready-to-wear apparel industry have operated in an assembly-line fashion with strict divisions of labor among employees. However, apparel-manufacturing
firms are increasingly using modular manufacturing systems in which operators work together in a module or group. The biggest change in the apparel industry in the last 50 years has been the migration of manufacturing jobs to Asia and other foreign markets. A substantial number of garments are made abroad because of the reduced cost of labor and taxes and technologically advanced, well-engineered factories. The quantity of clothing imported has increased by more than 300 percent in the late 20th and early 21st century. Employment in the apparel industry has risen slightly in the last few years but is expected to decline in the United States through 2012.
n The Job Apparel industry workers produce, maintain, or repair clothing and other consumer products made from cloth, leather, or fur. The three basic processes of garment production are cutting, sewing, and pressing. Production of a garment begins after the designer’s sample product has been shown to retail buyers and accepted by the merchandising department of the company. Markers make a paper pattern, usually with the aid of a computer. The pattern indicates cutting lines, buttonhole and pocket placement, pleats, darts, and other details. Computers also grade each pattern piece for several sizes. Then the pattern is ready for mass production. Small shops may combine two or more of the following operations into a single job. Spreaders lay out bolts of cloth into exact lengths on the cutting table. Many layers of fabric are spread on the cutting table, depending on the quality and weight of the material and the number of products needed. Cutters have a variety of responsibilities that may include spreading fabric, machine cutting, and hand cutting master patterns. A machine cutter follows the pattern outline on the cloth and cuts various garment pieces from layers of cloth. Using an electrical cutting machine, the cutter slices through all the layers at once. The cutting may be done by hand for expensive or delicate materials. A cutting mistake can ruin yards of material; therefore, cutters must be extremely careful when cutting out the pattern. Newer technology has been developed, so that computer-controlled marker-makers and cutters are often used. Computers allow for more precise information to be programmed into set patterns and more uniform shapes to be cut. The cut pieces of cloth are prepared for the sewing room by assemblers who bring together various pieces needed, including lining, interfacing, and trimmings, to make a complete garment. They match color, size, and fabric design and use chalk or thread to mark locations
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of pockets, buttonholes, quick facts buttons, and other school subjects trimmings. They idenComputer science tify each bundle with a Technical/shop ticket. (This ticket was Personal Skills also used to figure the Following instructions earnings of workers Mechanical/manipulative who were paid according to the number of Work Environment pieces they produced. Primarily indoors Present technology uses Primarily one location bar codes and computMinimum Education Level ers to calculate the High school diploma worker’s pay and track the bundles through the Salary Range production line.) The $15,000 to $23,010 to $36,000 bundles are then sent to the sewing room. Certification or Licensing Sewers, who constiNone available tute 70 percent of all apparel workers, are Outlook responsible for attachDecline ing the cut pieces DOT of fabric using sew689, 786 ing machines. These and other production GOE workers must be care08.03.01, 08.03.02 ful to follow patterns NOC supplied by the design9216 ers. Sewing machine operators usually perO*NET-SOC form specialized sew51-6021.03, 51-6031.00, ing operations, such as 51-6031.01, 51-6031.02, 51-6051.00, 51-6092.00 collars, hems, or bindings. Since a variety of sewing operations and machines are required for each product, workers are classified by the type of machine and specific product on which they work. Workers are categorized into those who produce clothing and those who produce such nongarment items as curtains, sheets, and towels. Hand sewers are highly skilled workers who perform sewing operations on delicate or valuable materials. They may specialize in a particular operation, such as adding trim, lace, or sewing buttonholes. Some hand sewers also assist the designer in producing a sample product. After the sewing operations have been completed, workers remove loose threads, basting, stitching, and lint. The sewn product may be inspected at this time. Pressers operate the automatic pressing machines. Some pressing is done as a garment is assembled; sometimes it
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more efficient equipment, the nature of the work of many apparel workers has been relatively unaffected by increased use of technology. However, only 10 percent of all workers in the apparel and textile industries were self-employed. The relatively few companies employing more than 100 workers account for more than 60 percent of the work force. Some larger firms have modernized facilities with computerized operations and automated material handling systems.
n Requirements High School
An apparel industry worker cuts fabric at a factory. (Rubberball Productions.)
is done at the completion of all sewing. Delicate garments must be pressed by hand. Pressers may specialize in a particular garment or final press finished garments before they are shipped to stores. Apparel inspectors and production control technicians monitor all stages of the production process and keep materials flowing smoothly through the various departments. They may detect defects in uncut fabric so that the layout workers and markers can position the material to avoid the defects, or they may identify defects in semi-finished garments, which inspectors may mend themselves or send back to production for repair. Inspected finished clothing is then sent to the shipping room. From there, the product is sent to the markets the manufacturer has created for the product. Tailors make garments from start to finish and must be knowledgeable in all phases of clothing production. Custom tailors take measurements and assist the customer in selecting fabrics. Many tailors work in retail outlets where they make alterations and adjustments to ready-to-wear clothing. Apparel manufacturers increasingly organize workers in groups or modules. Workers specialize in one operation but are cross-trained in the various operations performed within the module. This system allows operators to better communicate with other workers and take on responsibility for running the module, including scheduling, monitoring standards, and correcting problems. Production time is reduced, while product quality is increased. Most manufacturers have small factories employing fewer than a hundred workers. Because many of these small firms lack the capital resources to invest in new,
Few employers of apparel workers require a high school diploma or previous experience. However, high school courses in family and consumer science, sewing, and vocational training on machinery are helpful. Since computers increasingly are being used in many types of production, knowledge of them is advantageous. A high school diploma is required for more technical positions involving computers. Mechanical drafting, design, and mathematics are excellent training, and communications classes may help you advance into supervisory or management positions.
Postsecondary Education If you have secondary or postsecondary vocational training or work experience in apparel production, you usually have a better chance of getting a job and advancing to a supervisory position. There are two-year associate’s degrees offered at technical colleges and community colleges. Many of these degree programs offer internships or cooperative education sessions spent working as a paid employee of an apparel company. Some students attend school under the sponsorship of a clothing company and usually go to work for their sponsor after graduation. Some are cooperative students who attend school with the understanding that they will return to their sponsor company. Some employers, however, do not place any restriction on their co-op students and allow them to seek the best job they can find. Apparel machinery operators usually are trained on the job by experienced employees or by machinery manufacturer’s representatives. As apparel machinery becomes more complex, workers increasingly will require training in computers and electronics. The modular system’s trend toward cross-training will increase operators’ needs to learn different machines and increase their skills.
Other Requirements A knowledge of fabrics and their characteristics as well as good eye-hand coordination and the ability to perform
repetitious tasks is necessary for apparel workers. An interest in learning a variety of skills in the apparel trade provides a worker with more job options and security. You need to be able to work well with others and accept direction.
n Exploring High schools, vocational schools, or colleges may provide you with information about job opportunities in the apparel industry. Occupational information centers and catalogs of schools that offer programs for apparel technicians also are good sources of information. A visit to a clothing factory makes it possible to observe the machinery and activities and gives you an opportunity to talk to apparel workers and gain insight about the jobs. To test your aptitude for this work, you may also consider working on fabric projects yourself or joining an organization, such as 4-H, that offers such projects.
n Employers Approximately 1.1 million textile, apparel, and furnishings workers are employed in the United States. Apparel industry workers are employed in many settings, from multinational corporations such as Levi Strauss to small companies with few employees. Production jobs are concentrated in California, New York, North Carolina, Pennsylvania, Tennessee, and Georgia, though small clothing manufacturers are located in many parts of the country. More than one-half of all pressers are employed in laundry and dry-cleaning businesses, which exist throughout the United States. This work does not require much prior training or experience. Only 10 percent of workers in this industry are self-employed; more than one-third of tailors, dressmakers, and sewers and more than one-quarter of upholsterers work for themselves. Custom tailors often work in retail clothing stores. Retailers prefer to hire custom tailors and sewers with previous experience in the apparel field. Hand sewers may find work adding trimming to a wide variety of apparel, from clothing to accessories.
n Starting Out If you are interested in working in the apparel industry, you may apply directly to apparel manufacturing firms. Jobs often are listed with state employment agencies, in newspaper classified ads, or in trade publications. Companies may also post openings on a sign outside the building. Local unions also may be good sources of job leads. A small number of skilled workers such as tailors and patternmakers are trained in formal apprenticeship pro-
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Learn More about It Abernathy, Frederick H. et al. A Stitch in Time: Lean Retailing and the Transformation of Manufacturing-Lessons from the Apparel and Textile Industries. New York: Oxford University Press, 1999. Dickerson, Kitty G., and Judith Hillman. Textiles and Apparel in the Global Economy. 3d ed. Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 1998. Gary, Sue P., and Connie Ulasewicz. Made in America: The Business of Apparel and Sewn Products Manufacturing. 2d ed. Sebastopol, Calif.: Garmento Speak, 1998. Hiba, Juan Carlos, ed. Improving Working Conditions and Productivity in the Garment Industry: An Action Manual. Geneva: International Labour Office, 1998. Paleczny, Barbara. Clothed in Integrity: Weaving Just Cultural Relations and the Garment Industry. Waterloo, Ont.: Wilfrid Laurier University Press, 2000. Shaeffer, Claire. Sewing for the Apparel Industry. Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 2000. Tyler, Gus. Look for the Union Label: A History of the International Ladies’ Garment Workers’ Union. Armonk, N.Y.: M.E. Sharpe, 1995. Wolensky, Kenneth C. et al. Fighting for the Union Label: The Women’s Garment Industry and the ILGWU in Pennsylvania. University Park, Pa.: Pennsylvania State University Press, 2002.
grams. Special courses in sewing, tailoring, and patternmaking are offered in apparel industry centers in New York City and parts of the South. Many employers have a strong preference for graduates of the two-year program and give such graduates a short, intensive in-plant orientation and training program so they can be placed where their skills can be used immediately. Many graduate apparel technicians who have participated in a cooperative program are given responsible positions immediately upon graduation. Some in-plant training programs are designed to train new technicians to work as supervisors. Custom tailors and sewers with experience in apparel manufacture are more likely to be hired by retailers. Knowledge of fabric design and construction is essential. Laundry and dry cleaning establishments often hire inexperienced workers. However, applicants with work experience are preferred.
n Advancement Advancement for apparel workers is somewhat limited. Most apparel workers begin by performing simple tasks
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and are assigned more difficult operations as they gain experience. While most remain on the production line, some apparel production workers become first-line supervisors. It doesn’t take much time to acquire the skill of an experienced operator in most branches of the apparel industry. Though it takes many different operations to complete a garment, each individual step is relatively simple, and only a short training period is required for each one. In the men’s clothing field and in the women’s coat and suit field, however, more tailoring is necessary, and the learning period to become an experienced sewer or operator is longer. To enter the cutting department, a person usually starts as a fabric spreader and then advances to machine cutting. After further experience is acquired, the worker may grade the master pattern for the sizes, lay out the patterns on the fabric or paper, and mark for the cutting of the fabric. These are skilled operations, and it takes some years to advance and become an experienced all-around cutter. However, the advantages of having acquired these skills are great, for a cutter can, without too much difficulty, transfer his or her cutting skill from one branch of the apparel industry to another. Cutters usually are the highest paid factory workers. Patternmakers with design school training may become fashion designers. Custom tailoring is a very competitive field. To be successful in their own shops, tailors need training and experience in small-business operations. Opportunities for advancement are excellent for graduates of two-year apparel technician programs. They may become section supervisors, production superintendents, or plant managers. There are also opportunities to move into industrial engineering, quality control, production control, or specialized technical areas. Some technicians may become plant training specialists or plant safety experts and directors. Graduates from regular engineering colleges or community colleges with applied engineering programs also have advantages in securing employment in the apparel industry. Such people may start their training as junior engineers or production assistants, but their advancement is usually rapid. Within a few years, they can achieve secure status in the industry and earn salaries at an executive level.
n Earnings The apparel industry is highly competitive, and low profits and wages are characteristic. According to the U.S. Department of Labor, sewing machine operators earned an average hourly wage of $8.67, or $18,030 a year, in
2004. Patternmakers and layout workers averaged $14.70 per hour (or $30,580 annually); pressers, $8.36 an hour (or $17,390 annually); and custom tailors, $11.06 an hour (or $23,010 annually). General salaries for workers in this field range from less than $15,000 to more than $36,000 annually. Many workers in the industry are paid according to the number of acceptable pieces they turn out; therefore, their total earnings also depend on their skill, accuracy, and speed. Due to the seasonal nature of the apparel industry, production workers may have periods of unemployment. However, during slack periods firms usually reduce the number of working hours for all workers rather than lay off some workers. Large apparel employers usually include health and life insurance coverage, paid holidays and vacations, and childcare. Small firms may offer only limited benefits. Unions also provide benefits to their members. Employees of some of the larger manufacturers who operate company stores may enjoy discounts of 10 to 30 percent on their purchases.
n Work Environment Working conditions in apparel production vary by establishment and type of job. Older factories may be poorly lit and ventilated and may be congested. Modern facilities usually are more comfortable, better lit and ventilated, have more work space, and may even be carpeted. Patternmaking and spreading areas and retail stores are quiet, while sewing and pressing facilities often are noisy. Laundries and dry cleaning establishments frequently are hot and noisy. Apparel workers generally work a 35-to-40 hour, fiveday week. Except for sewing, the apparel manufacturing industry traditionally has involved several shifts and therefore requires some employees to work evenings or weekends. Some companies have two sewing shifts to offset the cost of expensive machinery. Laundry and dry cleaning and retail workers may work evening and weekend hours. Apparel production work can be monotonous, repetitive, and physically demanding. Workers may sit or stand many hours, leaning over tables or operating machinery. However, the physical demand on apparel workers has decreased as new machinery and production techniques, such as footpedal or computer-controlled pressing machines, have been implemented. While apparel workers face no serious health hazards or dangers, they need to be attentive while operating such equipment as automated cutters, sewing machines, or pressers. Some workers must wear gloves or other protective attire or devices.
Emphasis on teamwork and cooperation is increasing in those areas of apparel production that employ a modular system. As the module or team often must manage itself, groups and individual sewing machine operators may be under pressure to improve their performance while maintaining quality.
n Outlook Employment of apparel workers is expected to decline through 2012, according to the U.S. Department of Labor. Increased imports, use of offshore assembly, and greater productivity through the introduction of labor-saving machinery will reduce the demand for these workers. However, hand sewing is expected to decrease far less than other areas of apparel work due to the complexity of these tasks and difficulties in performing them by machine. Workers who have cross-trained and are capable of performing several different functions have a better chance at remaining in the field during periods of decline. Also, many pre-sewing functions are expected to be performed domestically, so workers in this area will not be as adversely affected. Also, the market for luxury hand-produced clothes is expected to remain steady. The sewing process is expected to remain relatively nonautomated. Machine operators will continue to perform most sewing functions, and automated sewing will be limited to simple tasks. Better sewing machines will increase the productivity of operators and significantly decrease the amount of time needed to train them. Other functions, such as training, also will see productivity increases and further reduce the demand for production workers. Because of the large size of this occupation, many thousands of job openings will arise each year to replace workers who retire, leave, or transfer to other fields. Employment in the domestic apparel industry has declined in recent years as foreign companies have become able to produce goods less expensively than the United States. Imports now account for roughly half the domestic apparel consumption. Imports are expected to increase as the U.S. market opens further due to the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), the Agreement on Textiles and Clothing (ATC) of the World Trade Organization, and the Caribbean Basin Initiative (CBI). NAFTA and the CBI allow apparel produced in Mexico and Canada to be imported duty free to the United States. Some apparel companies are expected to move their production facilities to Mexico to reduce costs. In addition, the implementation of the ATC has resulted in the elimination of quotas and a reduction in tariffs for many apparel products. As a result, domestic production has continued to move abroad and imports into the
appliance service technicians
U.S. market have increased, causing further employment decline for apparel workers in the United States. In those areas of apparel such as women’s clothing, where market changes occur rapidly, domestic manufacturers can respond more quickly, giving them some advantage, especially in high-fashion items. Using computers and electronic data, manufacturers can keep retailers stocked with popular items and reduce production of those not selling well. However, the industry is changing in favor of large manufacturers who have more technology available than the smaller, less efficient companies. New technologies, such as computer-controlled processing and instrumentation, will require more technicians with computer skills. As consumers increasingly prefer to buy new massproduced apparel, the need for custom-made clothes, and thus for custom tailors and sewers, also will decline.
n For More Information For information on pop culture, latest fashion trends, and news in the industry, contact American Apparel and Footwear Association 1601 North Kent Street, Suite 1200 Arlington, VA 22209 Tel: 800-520-2262 http://www.apparelandfootwear.org
For career information, visit the following website Career Threads http://careerthreads.com
Appliance Service Technicians n Overview Appliance service technicians install and service many kinds of electrical and gas appliances, such as washing machines, dryers, refrigerators, ranges, and vacuum cleaners. Some repairers specialize in one type of appliance, such as air conditioners, while others work with a variety of appliances, both large and small, that are used in homes and business establishments. There are approximately 42,000 appliance technicians employed in the United States.
n History Although some small home appliances, including irons and coffee makers, were patented before the 20th century
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began, only a few types were in general use before the end of World War I. Around that time, however, more efficient and inexpensive electric motors were developed, which made appliances more affordable to the general public. In addition electric and gas utility companies began extending their services into all parts of the nation. As a result many new laborsaving appliances began to appear on the market. Eventually consumers began to rely increasingly on a wide variety of machines to make everyday tasks easier and more pleasant, both at home and at work. Soon many kinds of equipment, such as washing machines and kitchen ranges, were considered an essential part of middle-class life. Since the end of World War II, there has been a tremendous growth in the use and production of home appliances. The increasing use of appliances has created the need quick facts for qualified people to install, School Subjects repair, and service them. Today’s Mathematics service technicians need a differPhysics ent mix of knowledge and skills Technical/shop than was needed by the appliance repairers of years ago, however, Personal Skills because today’s appliances often Mechanical/manipulative Technical/scientific involve complex electronic parts. The use of electronic components Work Environment is advantageous to consumers Primarily indoors because the electronic appliPrimarily multiple locations ances are more reliable. However, Minimum Education Level the fact that modern appliances High school diploma need fewer repairs means that the demand for appliance technicians Salary Range is no longer growing as fast as the $17,890 to $41,090 to use of new appliances. $49,760+ Certification or Licensing
Required by certain states Outlook
More slowly than the average DOT
827 GOE
05.10.04 NOC
7332 O*NET-SOC
49-2092.00, 49-2092.01, 49-9031.00, 49-9031.01, 49-9031.02
n The Job Appliance technicians use a variety of methods and test equipment to figure out what repairs are needed. They inspect machines for frayed electrical cords, cracked hoses, and broken connections; listen for loud vibrations or grinding noises; sniff for fumes or overheated materials; look for fluid leaks; and watch and feel other moving parts to determine if they are jammed or too tight. They may find the cause of trouble by using special test equipment made for particular appliances or stan-
dard testing devices such as voltmeters and ammeters. They must be able to combine all their observations into a diagnosis of the problem before they can repair the appliance. Technicians often need to disassemble the appliance and examine its inner components. To do this, they often use ordinary hand tools like screwdrivers, wrenches, and pliers. They may need to follow instructions in service manuals and troubleshooting guides. To understand electrical circuitry, they may consult wiring diagrams or schematics. After the problem has been determined, the technician must correct it. This may involve replacing or repairing defective parts, such as belts, switches, motors, circuit boards, or gears. The technician also cleans, lubricates, and adjusts the parts so that they function as well and as smoothly as possible. Those who service gas appliances may replace pipes, valves, thermostats, and indicator devices. In installing gas appliances, they may need to measure, cut, and connect the pipes to gas feeder lines and to do simple carpentry work such as cutting holes in floors to allow pipes to pass through. Technicians who make service calls to homes and businesses must often answer customers’ questions and deal with their complaints. They may explain to customers how to use the appliance and advise them about proper care. These technicians are often responsible for ordering parts from catalogs and recording the time spent, the parts used, and whether a warranty applies to the repair job. They may need to estimate the cost of repairs, collect payment for their work, and sell new or used appliances. Many technicians who make service calls drive light trucks or automobiles equipped with two-way radios or cellular phones so that as soon as they finish one job, they can be dispatched to another. Many appliance service technicians repair all different kinds of appliances; there are also those who specialize in one particular kind or one brand of appliances. Window air-conditioning unit installers and technicians, for example, work only with portable window units, while domestic air-conditioning technicians work with both window and central systems in homes. Household appliance installers specialize in installing major household appliances, such as refrigerators, freezers, washing machines, clothes dryers, kitchen ranges, and ovens; household appliance technicians maintain and repair these units. Small electrical appliance technicians repair portable household electrical appliances such as toasters, coffee makers, lamps, hair dryers, fans, food processors,
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dehumidifiers, and irons. Customers usually bring these types of appliances to service centers to have them repaired. Gas appliance technicians install, repair, and clean gas appliances such as ranges or stoves, heaters, and gas furnaces. They also advise customers on the safe, efficient, and economical use of gas.
n Requirements High School Appliance technicians usually must be high school graduates with some knowledge of electricity (especially wiring diagrams) and, if possible, electronics. If you are interested in this field you should take as many shop classes as possible to gain a familiarity with machines and tools. Electrical shop is particularly helpful because of the increasing use of electronic components in appliances. Mathematics and physics are good choices to build a knowledge of mechanical principles.
Postsecondary Training Prospective technicians are sometimes hired as helpers and acquire most of their skills through on-the-job experience. Some employers assign such helpers to accompany experienced technicians when they are sent to do repairs in customers’ homes and businesses. The trainees observe and assist in diagnosing and correcting problems with appliances. Other employers assign helpers to work in the company’s service center where they learn how to rebuild used appliances and make simple repairs. At the end of six to 12 months, they usually know enough to make most repairs on their own, and they may be sent on unsupervised service calls. An additional one to two years of experience is often required for trainees to become fully qualified. Trainees may attend service schools sponsored by appliance manufacturers and also study service manuals to familiarize themselves with appliances, particularly new models. Reading manuals and attending courses is a continuing part of any technician’s job. Many technicians train at public or private technical and vocational schools that provide formal classroom training and laboratory experience in the service and repair of appliances. The length of these programs varies, although most last between one and two years. Correspondence courses that teach basic appliance repair are also available. Although formal training in the skills needed for appliance repair can be a great advantage for job applicants, newly graduated technicians should expect additional on-the-job training to acquaint them with the particular work done in their new employer’s service center.
This appliance service technician writes out a bill for his work fixing a dishwasher. (Chuck Savage/Corbis.)
Certification or Licensing In some states, appliance technicians may need to be licensed or registered. Licenses are granted to applicants who meet certain standards of education, training, and experience and who pass an examination. Since 1994, the Environmental Protection Agency has required certification for all technicians who work with appliances containing refrigerants known as chlorofluorocarbons. Since these refrigerants can be harmful to the environment, technicians must be educated and tested on their handling in order to achieve certification to work with them.
The Loneliness of the Long-Distance Washing Machine Repairman The lonely Maytag man, staring forlornly at his phone (which never rings, since Maytag washers are so dependable), is one of the most recognizable commercial images in the history of television. The first to play the role was Tom Pedi, who played the morose mechanic in print ads until 1967 and later went on to make The Taking of Pelham One Two Three. From 1967 to 1988, the forlorn fixer was portrayed on television by Jesse White, who had had a long movie and television career. In 1988, Gordon Jump (formerly one of the stars of WKRP in Cincinnati) took over as the regretful, rotund repairman. Maytag added an eager young repairman named “The Apprentice” to the commercials in 2001. Jump retired in 2003, and today the troubled technician, known as “Ol’ Lonely,” is played by actor Hardy Rawls.
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The National Appliance Service Technician Certification Program (NASTeC) offers certification on four levels: refrigeration and air conditioning; cooking; laundry, dishwashing, and food disposers; and universal technician (all three specialties). To earn NASTeC certification, candidates must pass a Basic Skills Exam and at least one of the three specialty exams. Technicians who pass all four exams are certified as NASTeC Universal Technicians. There are more than 400 test administrators who give the tests at locations such as local technician schools. Technicians should arrange for their test times. The Professional Service Association (PSA) also offers certification to appliance repairers. PSA offers the following certifications to technicians who pass an examination: certified appliance professional (CAP), master certified appliance professional (MCAP), certified service manager (CSM), and certified consumer specialist (CCS). Certification is valid for four years, at which time technicians must apply for recertification and pass another examination. Certified technicians who complete at least 15 credit hours of continuing education annually during the four years do not need to retake the examination to gain recertification.
Other Requirements Technicians must possess not only the skills and mechanical aptitude necessary to repair appliances but also skills in consumer relations. They must be able to deal courteously with all types of people and be able to convince their customers that the products they repair will continue to give satisfactory service for some time to come. Technicians must work effectively with little supervision, since they often spend their days alone, going from job to job. It is necessary that they be accurate and careful in their repair work since their customers rely on them to correct problems properly.
n Exploring You can explore the field by talking to employees of local appliance service centers and dealerships. These employees may know about part-time or summer jobs that will enable you to observe and assist with repair work. You can also judge interest and aptitude for this work by taking shop courses, especially electrical shop, and assembling electronic equipment from kits.
n Employers Currently, there are about 50,000 appliance technicians employed throughout the United States in service centers, appliance manufacturers, retail dealerships, and utility companies. They may also be self-employed in independent repair shops or work at companies that ser-
vice specific types of appliances, such as coin-operated laundry equipment and dry-cleaning machines.
n Starting Out One way of entering this occupation is to become a helper in a service center where the employer provides on-thejob training to qualified workers. To find a helper’s job, prospective technicians should apply directly to local service centers or appliance dealerships. They also can watch area newspaper classified ads for entry-level jobs in appliance service and repair. For those who have graduated from a technical or vocational program, their schools’ placement offices may also prove helpful.
n Advancement Advancement possibilities for appliance service technicians depend primarily on their place of employment. In a small service center of three to five people, advancement to a supervisory position will likely be slow, because the owner usually performs most of the supervisory and administrative tasks. However, pay incentives do exist in smaller service centers that encourage technicians to assume a greater share of the management load. Technicians working for large retailers, factory service centers, or gas or electric utility companies may be able to progress to supervisor, assistant service manager, or service manager. Another advancement route leads to teaching at a factory service training school. A technician who knows the factory’s product, works with proficiency, and speaks effectively to groups can conduct classes to train other technicians. Technical and vocational schools that offer courses in appliance repair work may also hire experienced repairers to teach classes. Some service technicians aspire to opening an independent repair business or service center. This step usually requires a knowledge of business management and marketing and a significant investment in tools, parts, vehicles, and other equipment. Some technicians who work for appliance manufacturers move into positions where they write service manuals, sell appliances, or act as manufacturers’ service representatives to independent service centers.
n Earnings The earnings of appliance technicians vary widely according to geographic location, type of equipment serviced, workers’ skills and experience, and other factors. In 2004, the U.S. Department of Labor reported that the median annual salary for home appliance technicians was about $32,180. At the low end of the salary scale,
technicians earned less than $17,890. Technicians at the high end of the pay scale earned $49,760 or more per year. Trainees are usually paid less than technicians who have completed their training period. Employees of gas utility companies and other large companies generally command higher hourly wages than those who work for service centers. Some service centers, however, offer incentives for technicians to increase their productivity. Some of these incentive plans are very lucrative and can allow a proficient worker to add considerably to his or her salary. Opportunities for overtime pay are most favorable for repairers of major appliances, such as refrigerators, stoves, and washing machines. In addition to regular pay, many workers receive paid vacations and sick leave, health insurance, and other benefits such as employer contributions to retirement pension plans.
n Work Environment Appliance technicians generally work a standard 40hour week, although some work evenings and weekends. Repairers who work on cooling equipment, such as refrigerators and air conditioners, may need to put in extra hours during hot weather. In general, there is little seasonal fluctuation of employment in this occupation, since repairs on appliances are needed at all times of the year and the work is done indoors. Technicians encounter a variety of working conditions depending on the kinds of appliances they install or repair. Those who fix small appliances work indoors at a bench and seldom have to handle heavy objects. Their workplaces are generally well lighted, properly ventilated, and equipped with the necessary tools. Repairers who work on major appliances must deal with a variety of situations. They normally do their work on site, so they may spend several hours each day driving from one job to the next. To do repairs, they may have to work in small or dirty spaces or in other uncomfortable conditions. They may have to crawl, bend, stoop, crouch, or lie down to carry out some repairs, and they may have to move heavy items. Because they work in a variety of environments, they may encounter unpleasant situations, such as dirt, odors, or pest infestation. In any appliance repair work, technicians must follow good safety procedures, especially when handling potentially dangerous tools, gas, and electric currents.
n Outlook The U.S. Department of Labor reports that through 2012 the total number of repairers is expected to increase more slowly than the average. Although Americans will certainly continue buying and using more appliances,
Aquaculturists
today’s machines are often made with electronic components that require fewer repairs than their nonelectronic counterparts. Thus, the dependability of the technology built into these new appliances will restrain growth in the repair field. Most openings that arise will be due to workers leaving their jobs who must be replaced. However, employment outlook will remain good, with job openings outnumbering job seekers, since relatively few people wish to enter this industry.
n For More Information For information on certification, contact International Society of Certified Electronics Technicians 3608 Pershing Ave For Worth, TX 76107-4527 Tel: 800-946-0201 Email:
[email protected] http://www.iscet.org
For information on the Refrigerant Recovery Certification Test Program, contact North American Retail Dealers Association 4700 W. Lake Avenue Glenview, IL 60025 Tel: 800-621-0298 Email:
[email protected] http://www.narda.com
For information on a career as an appliance service technician and certification, contact Professional Service Association 71 Columbia Street Cohoes, NY 12047 Tel: 888-777-8851 Email:
[email protected] http://www.psaworld.com
Aquaculturists n Overview Aquaculturists, also known as fish farmers, fish culturists, or mariculturists, raise fish, shellfish, or other aquatic life (such as aquatic plants) under controlled conditions for profit and/or human consumption.
n History The roots of fish farming go far back in history. Fish culturing began in at least 1000 b.c., possibly even earlier
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Sea Grant Association The Sea Grant Association (http://www.sga.seagrant. org) offers funding to colleges and universities to support the understanding, use, and conservation of marine and coastal resources. Some recently funded projects include studies on: n
how to prevent oyster disease in Chesapeake Bay
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the spawning of flounder in fish farms in North Carolina
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how to minimize water use and waste water discharge on fish farms
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how to breed striped bass year-round in captivity
wide range of fish produced by aquaculture, including salmon, shrimp, catfish, crabs, clams, mussels, lobster, carp, sturgeon, cod, and mahi-mahi (dolphin). As capture yields have leveled off, aquaculture yields have grown at rates of 7 percent per year or more. Today, aquaculture is nearly a $1 billion industry in the United States. Some hope aquaculture can help meet food needs in developing countries. Fish is a healthier source of protein than meat and requires less energy to produce (about two pounds of feed for one pound of catfish, versus eight pounds of feed for one pound of beef). Aquaculture can still be done simply and cheaply, such as in a pond, using farm waste as fertilizer. (Such setups, however, produce less desirable fish, like carp.)
n The Job in Egypt and China. Ancient China introduced ornamental-goldfish breeding to Japan, which in turn developed ornamental-carp breeding. Ancient Romans were the first mariculturists, creating ponds for fish breeding that let in quick facts ocean water. Brackish-water fish School Subjects farms existed in Java by about Biology 1400 a.d. However, historically, Business the vast majority of food-fish has Personal Skills come from capture, not farming. Mechanical/manipulative Capture fishery worldwide grew Technical/scientific at rates of about 4 percent per year through most of the 20th Work Environment century but increased by only 0.6 Indoors and outdoors percent between 1986 and 1987 Primarily one location (to about 93 million metric tons). Minimum Education Level Since then, growth rates of less Bachelor’s degree than 1 percent per year have been the norm. In a nutshell, the natuSalary Range ral supply of fish is shrinking— $30,500 to $51,160 to $86,730+ natural waters are being “fished Certification or Licensing out”—while fish consumption is Required by certain states rising. Enter aquaculture. U.S. aquaculture began in the Outlook 1920s and 1930s with some farmFaster than the average ing of minnows for bait and with DOT growth of catfish, bass, and other 446 food-fish farming in the 1950s, largely in the South. In 1975, U.S. GOE aquaculture produced 130 mil03.01.01 lion pounds of fish; by 1987, it NOC produced more than 400 million N/A pounds. Today, U.S. aquaculture produces catfish, crawfish, O*NET-SOC salmon, trout, oysters, and other 11-9011.03 products. U.S. restaurants offer a
The term aquaculturist typically is used to describe someone who raises fish for profit. This is not a conservation job; while aquaculturists may have a degree in fish biology or other fish science, just like some of the people working for the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, National Biological Service, other federal agencies, or for federal or state fish hatcheries, they do not share those agencies’ goal of protecting rare and endangered species. Technically speaking, aquaculture can be done in fresh water, brackish (salty or somewhat salty) water, seawater, flooded fields, rice paddies, and other waters. Practically speaking, limited areas in the United States are appropriate for aquaculture. Right now, U.S. aquaculture is focused in the South (catfish), the West (salmon), and a few other areas (like bait farms in Arkansas). There must be markets for the products, capital to develop the site, appropriate water supplies, and proper structures for handling effluent. Conditions must be right; for example, catfish production in the South is successful because of the warmer waters, longer growing season, and other factors. Fish farms range in size from a few acres to 50 acres or more and typically focus on one type of fish (such as trout or catfish) or shellfish (such as clams, shrimp, or oysters). Rearing may be done in earth ponds, concrete ponds, or pens in seas, lakes, or ocean waters. Fish farming differs significantly from regular farming. Raising fish is more complicated because of their environment—water. Also, intensely confined animals tend to be more susceptible to disease; many of these fish are in a confined space. Raising fish is more like a feedlot raising penned animals than a rancher raising cattle in open range lands. The raising of fish also requires closer monitoring than raising farm animals. A primary goal of aquaculture is to increase fish production beyond what’s possible in nature. In recent years, there’s been a lot of research to determine which fish are
most suited to fish farming, what to feed them and in what quantities, what conditions will optimize production and quality, and other areas. Biologists and other research scientists have experimented with things like crossbreeding for better genetics (such as for increased egg production). Commercial feeds and supplements have been developed to boost fish size. Aquaculturists also have been working on least-cost feeding formulas, or ratios of lowest-costing food to highest quantity and quality fish, for better profits. Experiments with the effects of light on growth, with limiting feeding, and other research studies also have been conducted. Since confined fish may be more susceptible to diseases, researchers also have developed drugs such as fluoroquinolone for FDA approval. In fish farming, eggs are stripped from the female fish, fertilized by milt from the male fish, and placed in moist pans or hatchery trays. These are put in incubators to spawn the eggs. Resulting fingerlings are put in the rearing ponds or other waters for further growth. They may be fed high-protein food or cereal with vitamins or minerals so they will achieve good size and quality. Aquaculturists also might monitor water quality, add drugs to fight disease, and otherwise optimize growing conditions. Once the right size is reached, which can take up to three years or more, the fish are removed from the water, counted, weighed, and loaded into a truck or dressed and packed in ice for shipment to the buyer. In shellfish farming, clams, oysters, and other shellfish are cultivated in specially prepared beds near the shoreline and then harvested. Tide flats are laid out and dikes created to control water drainage at low tide. The spawn of oysters or other shellfish, known as spat, are sown in the beds and may be covered with sand or broken shells. When the tide is up and the beds are covered with water, the beds may be dragged with nets to remove crabs, starfish, or other predators. Workers also might pour oil around the beds to discourage predators from getting the crop. At low tide, workers walk into the bed and collect full-grown shellfish for packing and sale. Positions within the fish farm operation may include a manager or superintendent, supervisors, and workers. A manager or superintendent heads the operation, helping to establish policies and procedures and conferring with biologists or other scientists on optimal feeding and other conditions. They also may handle hiring, firing, payroll, and other personnel matters; monitor budgets and costs; and do other administrative work. Supervisors oversee the spawning, rearing, harvesting, and other day-to-day farming activities. They might train workers, prepare reports, and help monitor quality control. Workers may be called assistants, attendants, bed workers, or similar titles, and they do the labor-intensive parts of the fish farming operation.
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Genetic Engineering and Aquaculture: Frankenfish or Food of the Future? One of the most exciting advances in aquaculture has been the use of genetic engineering to produce fish that grow bigger, mature quicker, and are less susceptible to disease. Inserting a gene from a sockeye salmon into a coho salmon, for instance, produces fish that grow four times faster than usual. Such fish are easier and quicker to raise, producing higher profits, and more useable protein, for aquaculturists. However, many environmental activists worry that if such “frankenfish” escape into nature—as has been known to happen—they will quickly outbreed “natural” fish and upset the delicate balance of the ecosystem. (Thus far, genetic engineers have been careful to supply experimental farms only with sterile fish.) Critics also point out that we do not yet know the health risks involved with eating modified fish.
Scientists working within the fish farming operation, or in research facilities supporting aquaculture, include fisheries biologists and harvest management biologists. They focus on fish living habits, relationships, growth, rearing, stocking, and the like. Some aquaculturists work in universities trying to find ways to improve aquaculture production. For example, experiments done at Auburn University’s aquaculture center have shown that limiting feed actually can increase fish weight and protein amount. Since aquaculture is still not that well developed in the United States, researchers and economists also have developed feasibility studies, focusing on the potential viability of different types of aquaculture for various regions. For example, a 1994 University of Florida study said tropical fish, aquatic plants, and bait-fish might be the future of aquaculture in that state, rather than catfish farming. Research goes on worldwide; for example, in 1995 the Institute of Aquaculture in Scotland studied the use of immune system stimulants to encourage macrophage growth in fish.
n Requirements High School Most jobs in aquaculture require a bachelor’s degree, so follow a college preparatory plan of English, history, government, foreign language, and other courses recommended by your guidance counselor. Take science courses, particularly biology courses, to prepare for a marine science, aquaculture, or biology college program. Some management experience is also important, so take courses in business and accounting.
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Certification or Licensing The American Fisheries Society certifies associate fishery scientists, fishery scientists, fish pathologists (specialists in fish disease), and fish health specialists. A certain number of hours of experience plus a written test are necessary. Both private and government fish people obtain these certifications. In some areas, they are required for obtaining some positions and for receiving raises and promotions.
Other Requirements You should be people-oriented because you’ll often work with private market suppliers, the public, and politicians. Good writing skills will come in handy in some positions, as will business and administrative skills like budgeting. A knowledge of computer modeling and statistics can help in newer areas like harvest management and population dynamics.
n Exploring
Aquaculturists examine oysters collected from the Choptank River in Maryland. (Scott Bauer/U.S. Dept. of Agriculture.)
Postsecondary Training A bachelor’s degree is the minimum requirement for jobs in aquaculture beyond the laborer or assistant level. Researchers usually have an advanced degree in their specialty. Jobs in aquaculture tend to be more plentiful than jobs with fish and wildlife management agencies (which are very tough to get), but the educational requirements are basically the same. Without a bachelor’s degree, it is very difficult to find work at the professional level. In part, fish farming is more complicated today, given new understanding of ecology (such as how one organism impacts another), fish genetics (such as how fish adapt themselves genetically to a natural environment), and other areas. A bachelor’s degree in fish and wildlife biology is the primary path into this field. A minor in business or accounting may also be valuable to a prospective aquaculturist.
Contact the American Fisheries Society for information about careers in aquaculture. Also, read Aquaculture Magazine and visit its Web site (http://www.aquaculturemag.com) to learn more about the issues of the industry. Any hands-on experience you can get, even in high school, will be helpful in landing a job. Through a “shadowing” project, you may be able to spend some time in a local hatchery at the side of an aquaculturist. Volunteering at one of the approximately 75 federal fish hatcheries nationwide, or a state hatchery, is an option. Contact local hatcheries, go meet the people there, and find out about applying for a job. Experience at a pet shop that sells different varieties of salt-water fish, or at a state aquarium, can also give you insight into the industry.
n Employers Aquaculturists can find work with commercial and private fish farms owned by corporations, states, or individuals. They may work with a small family-run operation or with a large operation employing hundreds of people. According to a recent survey by the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA), the top five producing states by value are Mississippi, Arkansas, Florida, Maine, and Alabama. The USDA also reports that 68 percent of the fish farms are located in the southern United States. Facilities, however, range across the country and include rainbow trout farms in Idaho, oyster farms in Washington state, and salmon farms in Maine. Some universities also hire aquaculturists, as do the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, and other national organizations.
n Starting Out Aquaculture work usually is easier to find than fishery or wildlife agency work, but it can’t hurt to follow some of the same strategies used to land those jobs: namely, get experience. Become a student chapter member of the American Fisheries Society and explore this group’s national job listings. Work with your university’s placement department. A person looking for a job needs to be pretty flexible. Since U.S. aquaculture is more developed in some areas, such as the South and West, your first job may take you to a new region. International opportunities are possible, too. Those who have considered the Peace Corps should know that some volunteers work in aquaculture. (Peace Corps volunteers are U.S. citizens, over 18 years old, with a college education or at least three years’ experience in their specialty.) Groups like UNICEF and USAID in Africa also use fish and wildlife specialists. Beyond these types of organizations, other international job opportunities may be possible wherever aquaculture is practiced. Scandinavians raise a lot of coldwater fish; the Japanese raise shellfish, algae, and kelp. Of course, pollution has made some fresh waters in Europe, like the Thames in England, unsuitable for fish farming activities.
n Advancement In fish farming, the professional typically enters as a fish biologist or other fish scientist and advances to some kind of manager or supervisor position. As noted earlier, state certification may help speed this process in some areas. Fish farming is a business; each operation is different, but further raises or promotions are likely to hinge on profits, customer satisfaction, development and sustaining of new markets, and similar business successes. On the research side, advancement will depend on the individual employer. With a young U.S. aquaculture industry clamoring for information, new research and development, and improved aquaculture technologies, it’s possible for fish scientists in research to have a big impact with their studies and reap the financial benefits of doing so.
n Earnings Earnings in aquaculture can vary greatly. Aquaculture farms employ graduate students in assistantships, as well as experienced professionals with Ph.D.’s in genetics. Entry-level technicians may begin at $8 an hour; those with a great deal of experience and a degree may begin at a salary of $30,000 a year. The U.S. Department of Labor reports that agricultural managers of all types had median annual earnings of $51,160 in 2005.
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Annual salaries ranged from less than $30,500 to more than $86,730.
n Work Environment A fish farm is not much different from a mink farm or other operation aimed at raising high volumes of animals. Those who don’t like that idea should think twice about this career. On the other hand, fish farms and fish hatcheries give aquaculturists the opportunity to work outdoors, to apply scientific education in a concrete way, and to make a difference in a young and growing industry. Some fish farm operations are small, and some are large; trout farming, for example, is made up of both small and large operations. This variety allows workers in the field to find the size and style of operation that’s right for them. Fishery and wildlife careers sound romantic, and in some ways, they are; that’s why they’re so popular. Much of the work of an aquaculturist, however, is very pragmatic, including fighting fish diseases. People drawn to fishery and wildlife management tend to like the outdoors. Keep in mind, however, that this work also involves frequent interaction with others, and the successful aquaculturist should have good people skills. Those who work in administrative positions are mainly business people and don’t work directly with the fish.
n Outlook The outlook for U.S. aquaculture is promising. A subcommittee of the U.S. Department of Commerce predicts there will be a 70 percent increase in world seafood demand by 2025. Commercial fisheries are over harvested, so much of this demand will be met by aquaculture. Aquaculture’s ability to meet this demand, however, will depend on the growth and development of the industry. Many universities are currently benefiting from grants that allow them to explore better methods of growing
Words to Know Aquaculture: The cultivation of the natural produce of water (fish, etc.). Fingerling: A small fish, usually under one year old. Hatchery: A place for hatching eggs (as of fish). Macrophage: A tissue cell that functions in the body against infection and noxious substances. Spat: A young bivalve (oyster, etc.). Tide flats: A specially prepared stretch of land at the shore of a body of water.
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and harvesting product and preventing disease. Advances in these areas will help to lower risk and increase profits, attracting more interest in the industry. The business is regulated, but on the whole the government seems interested in helping to support and develop the industry. Federal assistance with development of needed aquaculture drugs and chemicals is one sign of this.
n For More Information For information about certification, educational programs, and the professional society serving fisheries scientists, contact American Fisheries Society 5410 Grosvenor Lane Bethesda, MD 20814 Tel: 301-897-8616 Email:
[email protected] http://www.fisheries.org
For information about industry journals, publications, membership, and job postings, contact World Aquaculture Society (U.S. Branch) 143 J.M. Parker Coliseum Louisiana State University Baton Rouge, LA 70806 Tel: 225-578-3137 Email:
[email protected] http://www.was.org
This Web site provides information and links to state, national, and international associations, publications, and job services involved with aquaculture. Aquaculture Network Information Center http://aquanic.org
Aquarists n Overview Aquarists work for aquariums, oceanariums, and marine research institutes. They are responsible for the maintenance of aquatic exhibits. Among other duties, they feed the fish, check water quality, clean the tanks, and collect and transport new specimens.
n History In 1853, the world’s first public aquarium opened in Regents Park in London. Similar public aquariums opened throughout England, France, and Germany over
the next 15 years. Many of the early aquariums closed because the fish could not survive in the conditions provided. By the early 1870s, knowledge of aeration, filtering, and water temperature had increased, and new aquariums opened. In 1856, the U.S. government established what is today the Division of Fishes of the Smithsonian Institution’s National Museum of Natural History. Over the next 50 years interest in fish and their environments grew rapidly. The Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute was established in 1885, and the Scripps Institution of Oceanography was established in 1903. Today’s notable aquariums include the John G. Shedd Aquarium, Chicago; the National Aquarium, Baltimore; the New York Aquarium, New York City; the Steinhart Aquarium, San Francisco; and the Aquarium of the Americas, New Orleans. Many aquariums recreate diverse aquatic environments, such as coral reefs, river bottoms, or various coastlines, in large tanks. Some aquariums also have oceanariums—huge tanks that allow visitors to view marine animals from above as well as from the sides. Popular oceanariums include those at the Miami Seaquarium in Miami, Florida, and the Monterey Bay Aquarium in Monterey, California.
n The Job Aquarists (pronounced, like “aquarium,” with the accent on the second syllable) work for aquariums, oceanariums, and marine research institutes. Aquarists are not animal trainers and do not work on marine shows. They do, however, support the staff who do. Their work is generally technical and requires a strong science background. With increased experience and education, aquarists may, in time, become involved in research efforts at their institution or become promoted to higher professional positions such as curator. Aquarists’ job duties are similar to those of zookeepers. Aquarists feed fish, maintain exhibits, and conduct research. They work on breeding, conservation, and educational programs. Aquarists clean and take care of tanks every day. They make sure pumps are working, check water temperatures, clean glass, and sift sand. Some exhibits have to be scrubbed by hand. Aquarists also change the water and vacuum tanks routinely. They water plants in marsh or pond exhibits. Food preparation and feeding are important tasks for aquarists. Some animals eat live food and others eat cut-up food mixtures. Some animals need special diets prepared and may have to be individually fed.
Aquarists carefully observe all the animals in their care. They must understand their normal habits (including mating, feeding, sleeping, and moving) in order to be able to judge when something is wrong. Aquarists write daily reports and keep detailed records of animal behavior. Many aquarists are in charge of collecting and stocking plants and animals for exhibits. They may have to make several trips a year to gather live specimens.
n Requirements High School If you want to become an aquarist, get your start in high school. Take as many science classes as you can; biology and zoology are especially important. Learn to pay attention to detail; marine science involves a good deal of careful record keeping.
Postsecondary Training Most aquariums, along with other institutions that hire aquarists, require that an applicant have a bachelor’s degree in biological sciences, preferably with course work in such areas as parasitology, ichthyology, or other aquatic sciences. As the care of captive animals becomes a more complex discipline, it’s no longer enough to apply without a four-year degree.
Certification or Licensing Aquarists must be able to scuba dive, in both contained water, to feed fish and maintain tanks, and in open water, on trips to collect new specimens. You’ll need to have scuba certification, with a rescue diver classification, for this job. Potential employers will expect you to be able to pass a diving physical examination before taking you on as an aquarist.
Other Requirements As an aquarist, you may be required to travel at different times throughout the year, to participate in research expeditions and collecting trips. On a more basic level, aquarists need to be in good physical shape, with good hearing and visual acuity. Some employers also require a certain strength level—say, the ability to regularly exert 100 pounds of force—since equipment, feed, and the animals themselves can be heavy and often unwieldy.
n Exploring In addition to formal education, many aquariums, like other types of museums, look for a strong interest in the field before hiring an applicant. Most often, they look for a history of volunteering. That means you need to
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look for every avenue you can find to work around fish or other animals. Do as much as your schedule allows. Even working part-time or volunteering at a local pet store counts. Also, be sure to ask your career guidance counselor for information on marine science careers and opportunities for summer internships or college scholarships offered by larger institutes.
n Employers Aquarists most often work in zoos, public aquariums, or in research jobs with marine science institutes.
n Starting Out Full-time jobs for aquarists can be scarce, especially for those just starting in the field. Part-time or volunteer positions with zoos, aquariums, science institutes, nature centers, or even pet stores could provide valuable preliminary experience that may eventually lead to a full-time position.
n Advancement The usual career path for an aquarist progresses from intern/ volunteer through part-time work to full-fledged aquarist, senior aquarist, supervisor, and finally, curator. Each step along the path requires additional experience and often additional education. Curators generally are expected to have a Ph.D. in a relevant marine science discipline, for example. The career path of an aquarist depends on how much hands-on work they like to do with animals. Other options are available for aquarists who are looking for a less “down and dirty” experience.
n Earnings Aquariums often are nonprofit institutions, limiting the earnings ability in this job somewhat. In general, aquarists make between $23,000 and $32,000 a year, or between about $11 and $15 per hour. Aquariums do offer fairly extensive benefits, however, including health insurance, 401(k) plans, continuing education opportunities, tuition
quick facts School Subjects
Biology Earth science Personal Skills
Technical/scientific Work Environment
Indoors and outdoors One location with some travel Minimum Education Level
Bachelor’s degree Salary Range
$23,000 to $27,000 to $32,000 Certification or Licensing
Required Outlook
Little change or more slowly than the average DOT
N/A GOE
N/A NOC
6483 O*NET-SOC
N/A
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aquarist or supervisor and may work as part of a team. Aquarists also can expect to travel as part of the job.
n Outlook There is, in general, little change in the availability of positions for aquarists. While terrestrial zoos have begun to add aquarium complexes to their campuses in growing numbers, an actual boom in the construction of new aquariums is unlikely at this time. Many aquarists do advance to other positions, however, so openings do become available.
n For More Information For information on careers in aquatic and marine science, including job listings, contact American Zoo and Aquarium Association An aquarist feeds a moray eel in the Shedd Aquarium’s (Chicago) Coral Reef Exhibit, a huge circular tank where different kinds of fish are displayed together as in a natural marine community. (Shedd Aquarium, Chicago.)
reimbursement, and reciprocal benefits with many other cultural institutions.
n Work Environment Aquarists may work indoors or outdoors, depending on the facility for which they work and the exhibit to which they’re assigned. Aquarists spend a lot of time in the water. Their day will be filled with a variety of tasks, some repetitive, like feeding, others unusual, such as working with rescued marine mammals, perhaps. In the beginning, aquarists work under the supervision of a senior
Learn More about It Axelrod, Herbert R. Dr. Axelrod’s Atlas of Freshwater Aquarium Fishes. 10th ed. Neptune, N.J.: TFH Publications, 2004. Bornerman, Eric H. Aquarium Corals: Selection, Husbandry, and Natural History. Neptune, N.J.: TFH Publications, 2001. Fenner, Robert M. The Conscientious Marine Aquarist: A Commonsense Handbook for Successful Saltwater Hobbyists. Neptune, N.J.: TFH Publications, 2001. Palette, Michael S. The New Marine Aquarium: Step-byStep Setup and Stocking Guide. Neptune, N.J.: TFH Publications, 1999. Tullock, John H. Natural Reef Aquariums: Simplified Approaches to Creating Living Saltwater Microcosms. Neptune, N.J.: TFH Publications, 1997.
8403 Colesville Road, Suite 710 Silver Spring, MD 20910-3314 Tel: 301-562-0777 Email:
[email protected] http://www.aza.org
For information on guided tours and other opportunities, contact Columbus Zoo and Aquarium 9990 Riverside Drive Powell, OH 43065 Tel: 614-645-3550 http://www.colszoo.org
For information on educational programs, summer internships, and courses, contact the following organizations: Marine Science Center Northeastern University 430 Nahant Road Nahant, MA 01908 Tel: 781-581-7370 http://www.marinescience.neu.edu
Marine Science Institute 500 Discovery Parkway Redwood City, CA 94063-4715 Tel: 650-364-2760 Email:
[email protected] http://www.sfbaymsi.org
Marine Science Institute University of Texas at Austin 750 Channel View Drive Port Aransas, TX 78373-5015 Tel: 361-749-6711 http://www.utmsi.utexas.edu
Arborists n overview Arborists are professionals who practice arboriculture, which is the care of trees and shrubs, especially those found in urban areas. Arborists prune and fertilize trees and other woody plants as well as monitor them for insects and diseases. Arborists are often consulted for various tree-related issues.
n history Arboriculture developed as a branch of the plant science of horticulture. While related to the study of forestry, arborists view their specimens on an individual level; foresters manage trees as a group. Trees are important to our environment. Besides releasing oxygen back to our atmosphere, trees enrich our soil with their fallen, decaying leaves, and their roots aid in the prevention of soil erosion. Trees provide shelter and a source of food for many different types of animals. People use trees as ornamentation. Trees are often planted to protect against the wind and glare of the sun, block offensive views, mark property lines, and provide privacy. Trees and shrubs often add considerably to a home’s property value. All trees need proper care and seasonal maintenance. The occupation of tree surgeon, as arborists were first known, came from the need for qualified individuals to care for trees and shrubs, as well as woody vines and ground-cover plants. Trees planted in busy city areas and in the suburbs face pollution, traffic, crowding, extreme temperatures, and other daily hazards. City trees often have a large percentage of their roots covered with concrete. Roots of larger trees sometimes interfere with plumbing pipes, sidewalks, and building foundations. Branches can interfere with buildings or power lines. Trees located along the sides of roads and highways must be maintained; branches are pruned, and fallen leaves and fruit are gathered. Proper intervention, if not prevention, of diseases is an important task of arborists.
n the job Trees and shrubs need more than just sunlight and water. That’s where arborists take over. Arborists perform many different tasks for trees and shrubs, some for the sake of maintenance and others for the tree’s health and wellbeing. Pruning. All trees need some amount of pruning to control their shape; sometimes limbs are trimmed if they interfere with power lines, if they cross property lines,
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or if they grow too close to houses and other buildings. Arborists may use tools such as pruning shears or hand and power saws to do the actual cutting. If the branches are especially large or cumbersome, arborists may rope them together before the sawing begins. After cutting, the branches can be safely lowered to the ground. Ladders, aerial lifts, and cranes may be used to reach extremely tall trees. Sometimes, arborists need to cable or brace tree limbs weakened by disease or old age or damaged by a storm. Planting or transplanting. When cities or towns plan a new development, or wish to gentrify an existing one, they often consult with arborists to determine what types of trees to plant. Arborists can suggest trees that will thrive in a certain environment. Young plantings, or immature trees, are more cost effective and are often used, though sometimes, larger, more mature trees are transplanted to the desired location. Diagnosis and treatment. A large part of keeping a tree healthy quick facts is the prevention of disease. There School Subjects are a number of diseases that affect Biology trees, among them anthracnose Earth science and Dutch elm disease. Insects Personal Skills pose a potential threat to trees, Technical/scientific and have done considerable damage to certain species in the past, by Work Environment boring into the trunk or spreading Primarily outdoors disease-causing organisms. BacPrimarily multiple locations teria, fungi, viruses, and diseaseMinimum Education Level causing organisms can also be Bachelor’s degree fatal enemies of trees. Arborists are specially trained to identify the Salary Range insect or the disease weakening $18,790 to $27,920 to the tree and apply the necessary $43,940+ remedy or medication. Common Certification or Licensing methods prescribed by arborists Recommended include chemical insecticides, or the use of natural insect predators Outlook to combat the problem. Arborists Faster than the average closely monitor insect migrations DOT or any other situations that may be 408 harmful to a species of tree. When a tree is too old or badly GOE diseased, arborists may choose to 03.03.04 cut it down. Arborists will careNOC fully cut the tree into pieces to 2225 prevent injury to people or damage to surrounding property. O*NET-SOC Prevention. Trees, especially 37-3013.00 young plantings, often need extra
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nourishment. Arborists are trained to apply fertilizers, both natural and chemical, in a safe and environmentally friendly manner. Arborists are also hired by golf courses and parks to install lightning protection systems for lone trees or mature, valuable trees.
n requirements High School High school biology classes can provide you with a solid background to be a successful arborist. An interest in gardening, conservation, or the outdoors is also helpful.
Postsecondary Training Take classes in botany, chemistry, horticulture, and plant pathology. Several colleges and universities offer programs in arboriculture and other related fields such as landscape design, nursery stock production, or grounds and turf maintenance. Entry-level positions such as assistants or climbers do not need a college degree for employment. Advanced education, however, is highly desired if you plan to make this field your career.
Certification or Licensing The Tree Care Industry Association (TCIA) and the International Society of Arboriculture (ISA) both offer various home study courses and books on arboriculture. Most arborists are certified or licensed. Licensure ensures an arborist meets the state’s regulations for working with pesticides and herbicides. Check with your local government—not all states require arborists to be licensed. Certification, given by the ISA after completion of required training and education, is considered by many as a measure of an arborist’s skill and experience in the industry. Today’s savvy consumers specifically look for certified arborists when it comes to caring for their trees and other precious landscaping plants. Arborists need to apply for recertification every three years and must complete 30 units of continuing education classes and seminars.
n exploring Interested in this field? Surfing the Internet can provide a wealth of information for you to browse. Log onto the Web sites of the NAA or ISA for industry and career information. If you really want to test the waters, why not find summer work with an arborist? You’ll earn extra spending money while at the same learning about the industry firsthand. Check with the NAA for a complete listing of certified arborists in your area.
n employers Landscaping companies and businesses that offer a host of expert tree services are common employers of arbor-
ists. Employment opportunities are also available with municipal governments, botanical gardens, and arboretums. For example, an arborist in the Chicago area may want to seek a position with the Chicago Botanic Gardens or the Morton Arboretum; both places are known for their lush gardens and wooded trails. According to the Department of Labor, there were about 59,000 arborists in the United States in 2002.
n starting out So you’ve decided to become an arborist—what’s the next step? Start by compiling a list of tree care firms in your area, then send your resume or fill out an application to the companies that interest you. You should also consider employment with the highway or park department of your city or county—they often hire crews to maintain their trees. Many colleges and universities offer job placement services, or they at least post employment opportunities in their office. Industry associations and trade magazines are often good sources of job openings. Don’t plan to climb to the top of an American elm your first day on the job. Expect to stay at ground level, at least for a few days. Trainees in this industry start as helpers or ground workers, who load and unload equipment from trucks, gather branches and other debris for disposal, handle ropes, and give assistance to climbers. They also operate the chipper—a machine that cuts large branches into small chips. After some time observing more experienced workers, trainees are allowed to climb smaller trees or the lower limbs of large trees. They are also taught the proper way to operate large machinery and climbing gear. Most companies provide on-the-job training that lasts from one to three months.
n advancement Experienced arborists can advance to supervisory positions such as crew manager or department supervisor. Another option is to become a consultant in the field and work for tree care firms, city or town boards, large nurseries, or gardening groups. Arborists with a strong entrepreneurial nature can choose to open their own business, but aspiring entrepreneurs must make sure that their business skills are up to par. Even the most talented and hard-working arborists won’t stand a chance if they can’t balance their accounts or market their services properly. Advancement to other industries related to arboriculture is another possibility. Some arborists choose to work in landscape design, forestry, or other fields of horticulture.
n earnings The U.S. Department of Labor’s lists the median yearly salary of arborists as $27,920 in 2005. The bottom 10 percent earned $18,790 a year or less, and the top 10 percent earned $43,940 a year or more. According to Derick Vanice, ISA’s director of education programs, entry-level positions, such as grounds workers or trainees, can earn between $7 to $10 an hour; supervisors, with three or more years of experience, earn from $20 to $30 an hour; private consultants with eight to 10 years of experience, or arborists in sales positions, can earn $50,000 to $60,000 or more annually. Salaries vary greatly depending on many factors, among them the size of the company, the region, and the experience of the arborist. Arborists servicing busy urban areas tend to earn more. Full-time employees receive a benefits package including health insurance, life insurance, paid vacation and sick time, and paid holidays. Most tree companies supply necessary uniforms, tools, equipment, and training.
n work environment Much of an arborist’s work is physically demanding, and most of it is done outdoors. Arborists work throughout the year, though their busiest time is in the spring and summer. Tasks done at this time include fertilizing, pruning, and prevention spraying. During the winter months, arborists can expect to care for trees injured or damaged by excess snow, ice storms, or floods. Equipment such as sharp saws, grinders, chippers, bulldozers, tractors, and other large machinery can be potentially dangerous for arborists. There is also the risk of falling from the top of a tall tree, many of which reach heights of 50 feet or more. Arborists rely on cleated shoes, security belts, and safety hoists to make their job easier as well as safer.
n outlook The future of arboriculture has never looked so promising. The U.S Department of Labor predicts faster than average growth for this field through 2014. The public’s increasing interest in the planning and the preservation of the environment has increased demand for qualified arborists. Many homeowners are willing to pay top dollar for professionally designed and maintained landscaping. Increased resistance to pesticides and new species of insects pose constant threats to all trees. While travel abroad is easier and, in a sense, has made our world smaller, it has also placed our environment at risk. For example, Asian long-horn beetles were unknowingly transported to the United States via packing material. By the time the insects were discovered, the beetles had irre-
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versibly damaged hundreds of mature trees throughout New York, Chicago, and surrounding areas. Arborists, especially those trained to diagnose and treat such cases, will be in demand to work in urban areas.
n for more information For industry and career information, or to receive a copy of Arborist News or Careers in Arboriculture, contact International Society of Arboriculture PO 3129 Champaign, IL 61826-3129 Tel: 217-355-9411 Email:
[email protected] http://www.isa-arbor.com
For industry information, membership requirements, contact Society of Municipal Arborists PO Box 641 Watkinsville, GA 30677 Tel: 706-769-7412 Email:
[email protected] http://www.urban-forestry.com
For industry and career information, a listing of practicing arborists, or educational programs at the university level, or home study, contact Tree Care Industry Association Inc. 3 Perimeter Road, Unit 1 Manchester, NH 03103 Tel: 800-733-2622 Email:
[email protected] http://128.241.193.252/index.aspx
Archaeologists n overview Archaeologists study the origin and evolution of humans. They study the physical evidence of human culture, examining such items as tools, burial sites, buildings, religious icons, pottery, and clothing.
n history It wasn’t until the 19th century that archaeology became an established discipline. The subjects of study in the field range from fossils of humans of 4.5 million years ago to the concerns of contemporary city-dwellers. The excavation of archaeological sites has provided information about the Ice Age, the development of agriculture, the civilizations of the ancient Egyptians and the
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Anasazi, and other historical cultures and events. In the 1870s, Heinrich Schliemann did some early work, excavating sites in Greece and Turkey that he believed to be the city of Troy described in Homer’s Iliad. (It was later determined that the artifacts of the area were actually 1,000 years too old to have been part of Troy.) Arguably the most famous archeological excavation involved the tomb of the Egyptian pharaoh Tutankhamun, which was discovered by British archeologist Howard Carter in 1922. These excavations, and others before the 1960s, were large in scale. Archaeologists preferred to clear as much land as possible, hoping to uncover more artifacts. But today’s archaeologists understand that much can be lost in an excavation, and they limit their studies to smaller areas. With radar, sensors, and other technologies, archaeologists can discover a great deal about a site without any actual digging. quick facts School Subjects
Business Computer science Personal Skills
Helping/teaching Leadership/management Work Environment
Primarily indoors Primarily one location Minimum Education Level
Master’s degree Salary Range
$27,530 to $45,910 to $97,910 Certification or Licensing
Required by certain states Outlook
More slowly than the average DOT
100 GOE
12.03.04 NOC
5111 O*NET-SOC
25-4021.00
n the job Archaeology is concerned with the study and comparison of people in all parts of the world, their physical characteristics, customs, languages, traditions, material possessions, and social and religious beliefs and practices. At most universities, archaeology is considered a branch of anthropology. Archaeologists play an important role in the areas of anthropology, especially cultural anthropology. They apply specialized techniques to construct a record of past cultures by studying, classifying, and interpreting artifacts such as pottery, clothing, tools, weapons, and ornaments, to determine cultural identity. They obtain these artifacts through excavation of sites including buildings and cities, and they establish the chronological sequence of the development of each culture from simpler to more advanced levels. Prehistoric archaeologists study cultures that existed prior to the period of recorded history, while historical archaeologists study more recent societies. The historic period spans several thousand years in some parts of the world
and sometimes only a few hundred years in others. Classical archaeologists concentrate on ancient Mediterranean and Middle Eastern cultures. Through the study of the history of specific groups of peoples whose societies may be extinct, archaeologists are able to reconstruct their cultures, including the pattern of daily life. As faculty members of colleges and universities, archaeologists lecture on the subject, work with research assistants, and publish books and articles. Those who work outside of academia, such as for corporations and government agencies, have a variety of duties and responsibilities. Though Thomas F. King, an archaeologist in Maryland, does travel across the country to teach and consult, most of his work is focused on cultural resource management. “The cultural resource laws of this and other nations,” King says, “are designed to try to make sure that ‘cultural resources’ such as archeological sites, historic buildings, culturally valued landscapes, and culturally valued ways of life aren’t thoughtlessly destroyed in the course of modern development.” This involves prescribing various kinds of planning and review processes whenever a federal agency plans to do something that might harm a resource. As a senior archaeologist in the field, King has published the book Cultural Resource Laws and Practice: An Introductory Guide (Lanham, Md.: AltaMira Press, 1998). “Most of my time is spent reading and writing documents, reviewing reports, meeting with people, etc.,” he says. He also works outside of cultural resource management as the chief archaeologist on The Amelia Earhart Project of The International Group for Historic Aircraft Recovery. King explains, “It’s an interdisciplinary study of the fate of the lost aviatrix, whom we think ended up on a remote South Pacific island. In this effort, we do all kinds of historical, oral-historical, archaeological, and other kinds of research.” The research involves such unique tools as robotic submersibles, ultralight aircraft, and electromagnetic resistivity meters. “But fieldwork on that project, as opposed to other kinds of research, occurs only about every two years, as we raise the money. Fundraising goes on constantly,” he says. Archaeologists often must travel extensively to perform field work on the site where a culture once flourished. Site work is often slow and laborious. It may take years to uncover artifacts from an archaeological dig that produce valuable information. Another important aspect of archaeology is the cleaning, restoration, and preservation of artifacts. This work sometimes takes place on the site of discovery to minimize deterioration of textiles and mummified remains. Careful recording
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of the exact location and condition of artifacts is essential for further study.
n requirements High School Follow your high school’s college prep program to prepare for undergraduate and graduate programs in archaeology. You should study English composition and literature to develop your writing and interpretation skills. Foreign language skills will also help you in later research in other countries. Take classes in history and art to learn more about ancient and classical civilizations. Although it may seem that you’ll be working mostly with fossils and ancient artifacts, you’ll need computer skills to work with the many advanced technologies used in archaeological excavations. Mathematics and science courses can help you develop the skills you’ll need in analyzing information and statistics.
Postsecondary Training Most of the better positions in archaeology require a doctorate, which takes about four to six years of work beyond the bachelor’s degree. Before beginning graduate work, however, you will study such basic courses as psychology, sociology, history, geography, mathematics, logic, English composition, and literature, as well as modern and ancient languages. Archaeology departments are typically part of anthropology departments; few separate archaeology departments exist in U.S. colleges and universities. As a student of archaeology, you’ll follow a program that involves many disciplines, including art, architecture, classics, and history. Because most archaeology graduates receive their first jobs through their graduate work, you should select a graduate school that has a good program in the area in which you hope to specialize.
Other Requirements To succeed in archaeology, you need to be able to work well as part of a team and on your own. In order to be passionate about your study and research, you should be naturally curious and have a desire for knowledge. Communication skills are paramount, both for writing your reports and presenting your findings clearly and completely to professionals in the field.
n exploring To explore your interest in archaeology, see if your local Boy Scout and Girl Scout group participate in camping or hiking expeditions. A trip to a museum also will introduce you to the world of archaeology. Better yet, see if your local museum offers part-time work or volun-
Archaeologists often spend their summers on-site at digs. This one is the Koster Dig in southern Illinois. (Cindy Rymer, Tony Stone Images.)
teer opportunities. You should also visit the Web site of the Earthwatch Institute (http://www.earthwatch.org) to learn more about its many exploration trips to locations as close as North America to as far as Africa or Asia.
n employers Archaeologists work for universities and community colleges. They also work for museums that may be independent or affiliated with universities. Government agencies,
The Amelia Earhart Project The International Group for Historic Aircraft Recovery (TIGHAR; pronounced “tiger”) is behind The Earhart Project (mentioned in “The Job” section by Chief Anthropologist Thomas F. King). Over the years, members of TIGHAR have undertaken several expeditions to the island of Nikumaroro and the surrounding area, where it is believed Amelia Earhart crash-landed in her effort to circle the globe in 1937. The sudden disappearance of the world’s most famous aviatrix, and the surrounding mysteries and myths, have haunted generations of archaeologists and historians. TIGHAR researchers have recovered various items from the area, including the remains of a shoe that appeared to be the same size and style worn by Earhart. Later analysis, however, led experts to conclude that “the shoe doesn’t fit.” In 2001, TIGHAR members led another expedition to the island and recovered glass and lightweight metal technology artifacts (small metal plates, a screw, and such). No human remains were found, but analysis of the newly recovered artifacts continues. To learn more about The Earhart Project and the other projects sponsored by TIGHAR, visit the Web site at http://www.tighar.org
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Visual Archaeology Even artifacts of our own recent past can get easily lost in our rapidly paced society. With that in mind, Frank Jump has scaled walls and crawled over fences to photograph the old painted advertisements fading from the walls of the buildings of New York City. These images, which he considers “visual archaeology,” feature ads for Fletcher’s Castoria, Baby Ruth candy bars, bobby pins, and Seely shoulder shapes. Some ads have faded partially to reveal other ads, creating multiple images. The photos have been exhibited at the New York Historical Society, they are the subject of a photography book Jump is creating, and they are part of his efforts to preserve the ads.
such as the National Park Service and state historic preservation offices, employ archaeologists. More and more archaeologists are finding jobs in the private sector, for consulting firms, environmental companies, and other businesses.
n starting out You may have an opportunity to work as a research assistant or a teaching fellow while in graduate school, and frequently this experience is of tremendous help in qualifying for your first job. Your graduate school professors should be able to help you establish contacts in the field. While in school, you should also be involved in internships to gain experience. Internship opportunities may be available through your graduate program, or you may have to seek them out yourself. You can check with your state’s archaeological society or the National Forest Service to find out about volunteer opportunities.
n advancement Because of the relatively small size of this field, advancement opportunities can be scarce. Most archaeology teachers start as assistant professors, and move into associate professor, and possibly full professor positions. Archaeology researchers at the college level have the opportunity to head research areas and to gain recognition among colleagues as an expert in many areas of study. Those working in museums also have an opportunity to advance within the institution in terms of higher pay or increased responsibility. Archaeologists working outside academia and museums will be promoted according to the standards of the individual companies and organizations for which they work.
n earnings A large percentage of archaeologists work in academia. A 2002–03 survey by the American Association of University Professors reported that the average salary for full professors with Ph.D.’s was $97,910 a year. For those working in the field, salaries ranged widely. The Bureau of Labor Statistics reports that the median annual salaries for archaeologists and anthropologists were $45,910 in 2005. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $27,530; the highest 10 percent earned more than $80,040.
n work environment Archaeologists working in educational facilities have normally clean, well lighted, and ventilated environments. Those working in the field may work in a tougher environment, working in all types of weather and, depending on the area to which they are assigned, they may deal with potentially difficult living conditions. Archaeologists work about 40 hours a week, and the hours may be irregular. Physical strength and stamina is necessary for field work of all types. Those working on excavations, for instance, may work during most of the daylight hours and spend the evening planning the next day’s activities. Excavation work may be tough, but most find the work interesting and well worth the irregular hours or primitive living conditions. “You can convince yourself that you’re doing something good for the world, trying to get important stuff preserved,” King says, citing the pros and cons of the work, “but it’s possible to get pretty cynical about the whole business, since preserving stuff is, on balance, often a losing game.”
n outlook “Recognize that the number of Indiana Jones jobs available are strictly limited,” King advises. “On the other hand, there are lots more jobs than there used to be in ‘applied’ archaeology, in the context of cultural resource management. Think about being more than an archaeologist. If you can also do cultural anthropology, history, geomorphology, law, or politics, your career opportunities will expand exponentially.” The U.S. Department of Labor predicts that employment for archaeologists will grow about as fast as the average for all other occupations through 2014. Since the academic job market is poor, most new jobs in the near future will probably be nonteaching positions in consulting firms, research institutes, corporations, and federal, state, and local government agencies. Among the factors contributing to this growth is increased environmental, his-
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toric, and cultural preservation legislation. There is a particular demand for people with the ability to write environmental impact statements. Overall, the number of job applicants for university faculty positions will be greater than the number of openings available. Competition will be great even for those with doctorates who are seeking faculty positions, and many will find only temporary or nontenured jobs.
n for more information The following organization offers valuable information about anthropological careers and student associations: American Anthropological Association 2200 Wilson Boulevard, Suite 600 Arlington, VA 22201 Tel: 703-528-1902 http://www.aaanet.org
To learn more about the Student Challenge Awards, and the other programs available, contact Earthwatch Institute 3 Clock Tower Place, Suite 100 Box 75 Maynard, MA 01754 Tel: 800-776-0188 Email:
[email protected] http://www.earthwatch.org
To learn about field excavations and specific programs, contact Archaeological Research Institute PO Box 853 Bountiful, UT 84011-0853 Tel: 801-292-7061 http://www.ari-aerc.org
For information on archaeological careers and job listings, contact Society for American Archaeology 900 Second Street, NE, Suite 12 Washington, DC 20002-3557 Tel: 202-789-8200 Email:
[email protected] http://www.saa.org
For an overview of the career of archaeologist written by an associate professor of anthropology, visit Frequently Asked Questions About a Career in Archaeology in the United States http://www.museum.state.il.us/ismdepts/anthro/ dlcfaq.html
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Architects n overview Architects plan, design, and observe construction of facilities used for human occupancy and of other structures. They consult with clients, plan layouts of buildings, prepare drawings of proposed buildings, write specifications, and prepare scale and full-sized drawings. Architects also may help clients to obtain bids, select a contractor, and negotiate the construction contract, and they also visit construction sites to ensure that the work is being completed according to specification. There are approximately 129,000 architects working in the United States.
n history Architecture began not with shelters for people to live in but with the building of religious structures—from Stonehenge in England and the pyramids in Egypt to pagodas in Japan and the Parthenon in Greece. It quick facts was the Romans who developed a new building method—concrete School Subjects Art vaulting—that made possible large Mathematics cities with permanent masonry buildings. As they extended the Personal Skills Roman Empire, they built for pubArtistic lic and military purposes. They Communication/ideas developed and built apartment Work Environment buildings, law courts, public baths, Primarily indoors theaters, and circuses. The indusPrimarily one location trial revolution with its demand for factories and mills developed Minimum Education Level Bachelor’s degree iron and steel construction, which evolved into the steel and glass skySalary Range scraper of today. $39,130 to $62,850 to Because the history of archi$105,500 + tecture follows that of human civilization, the architecture of Certification or Licensing Required any period reflects the culture of its people. Architecture of early Outlook periods has influenced that of About as fast as the average later centuries, including the work of contemporary architects. DOT 001 The field continues to develop as new techniques and materials GOE are discovered and as architects 02.07.03 blend creativity with function.
n the job The architect normally has two responsibilities: to design a building that will satisfy the client and
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Ludwig Mies van der Rohe A giant of 20th-century modern architecture was Ludwig Mies van der Rohe, who designed steel and glass structures in simple geometric forms. His sleek, modern office towers with steel bones and glass skins captured the spirit of the times and set the standard for American corporate architecture. “Architecture,” Mies said, “is the will of an epoch translated into space—living, changing, new.” The 21st century now challenges its new architects to define the new era.
to protect the public’s health, safety, and welfare. This second responsibility requires architects to be licensed by the state in which they work. Meeting the first responsibility involves many steps. The job begins with learning what the client wants. The architect takes many factors into consideration, including local and state building and design regulations, climate, soil on which the building is to be constructed, zoning laws, fire regulations, and the client’s financial limitations. The architect then prepares a set of plans that, upon the client’s approval, will be developed into final design and construction documents. The final design shows the exact dimensions of every portion of the building, including the location and size of columns and beams, electrical outlets and fixtures, plumbing, heating and airconditioning facilities, windows, and doors. The architect works closely with consulting engineers on the specifics of the plumbing, heating, air conditioning, and electrical work to be done. The architect then assists the client in getting bids from general contractors, one of whom will be selected to construct the building to the specifications. The architect helps the client through the completion of the construction and occupancy phases, making certain the correct materials are used and that the drawings and specifications are faithfully followed. Throughout the process the architect works closely with a design or project team. This team is usually made up of the following: designers, who specialize in design development; a structural designer, who designs the frame of the building in accordance with the work of the architect; the project manager or job superintendent, who sees that the full detail drawings are completed to the satisfaction of the architect; and the specification writer and estimator, who prepare a project manual that describes in more detail the materials to be used in the building, their quality and method of installation, and all details related to the construction of the building.
The architect’s job is very complex. He or she is expected to know construction methods, engineering principles and practices, and materials. Architects also must be up to date on new design and construction techniques and procedures. Although architects once spent most of their time designing buildings for the wealthy, they are now more often involved in the design of housing developments, individual dwellings, supermarkets, industrial plants, office buildings, shopping centers, air terminals, schools, banks, museums, churches, and dozens of other types of buildings. Architects may specialize in any one of a number of fields, including building appraisal, city planning, teaching, architectural journalism, furniture design, lighting design, or government service. Regardless of the area of specialization, the architect’s major task is that of understanding the client’s needs and then reconciling them into a meaningful whole.
n requirements High School To prepare for this career while in high school, take a college preparatory program that includes courses in English, mathematics, physics, art (especially freehand drawing), social studies, history, and foreign languages. Courses in business and computer science also will be useful.
Postsecondary Training Because most state architecture registration boards require a professional degree, high school students are advised, early in their senior year, to apply for admission to a professional program that is accredited by the National Architectural Accrediting Board. Competition to enter these programs is high. Grades, class rank, and aptitude and achievement scores count heavily in determining who will be accepted. Most schools of architecture offer degrees through either a five-year bachelor’s program or a three- or four-year master’s program. The majority of architecture students seek out the bachelor’s degree in architecture, going from high school directly into a five-year program. Though this is the fastest route, you should be certain that you want to study architecture. Because the programs are so specialized, it is difficult to transfer to another field of study if you change your mind. The master’s degree option allows for more flexibility but takes longer to complete. In this case, students first earn a liberal arts degree then continue their training by completing a master’s program in architecture. A typical college architecture program includes courses in architectural history and theory, the techni-
cal and legal aspects of building design, science, and liberal arts.
Certification or Licensing All states and the District of Columbia require that individuals be licensed before contracting to provide architectural services in that particular state. Though many work in the field without licensure, only licensed architects are required to take legal responsibility for all work. Using a licensed architect for a project is, therefore, less risky than using an unlicensed one. Architects who are licensed usually take on projects with larger responsibilities and have greater chances to advance to managerial or executive positions. The requirements for registration include graduation from an accredited school of architecture and three years of practical experience (called an internship) with a licensed architect. After these requirements are met, individuals can take the rigorous four-day Architect Registration Examination. Some states require architects to maintain their licensing through continued education. These individuals may complete a certain number of credits every year or two through seminars, workshops, university classes, self-study courses, or other sources. In addition to becoming licensed, a growing number of architects choose to obtain certification by the National Council of Architecture Registration Boards. If an architect plans to work in more than one state, obtaining this certification can make it easier to become licensed in different states.
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summer programs for high school students. Books and magazines on architecture also can give you a broad understanding of the nature of the work and the values of the profession.
n employers Of the 129,000 architects working in the United States in 2004, most were employed by architectural firms or other firms related to the construction industry. About one in four architects, however, are self-employed—the ultimate dream of many people in the profession. A few develop graphic design, interior design, or product specialties. Still others put their training to work in the theater, film, or television fields, or in museums, display firms, and architectural product and materials manufacturing companies. A small number are employed in government agencies such as the Departments of Defense, Interior, and Housing and Urban Development and the General Services Administration.
Other Requirements If you are interested in architecture, you should be intelligent, observant, responsible, and self-disciplined. You should have a concern for detail and accuracy, be able to communicate effectively both orally and in writing, and be able to accept criticism constructively. Although great artistic ability is not necessary, you should be able to visualize spatial relationships and have the capacity to solve technical problems. Mathematical ability is also important. In addition, you should possess organizational skills and leadership qualities and be able to work well with others.
n exploring Most architects will welcome the opportunity to talk with young people interested in entering architecture. You may be able to visit their offices to gain a firsthand knowledge of the type of work done by architects. You can also visit a design studio of a school of architecture or work for an architect or building contractor during summer vacations. Also, many architecture schools offer
An architect reviews blueprints at a construction site. (Bruce Forster, Tony Stone Images.)
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n starting out Students entering architecture following graduation start as interns in an architectural office. As interns, they assist in preparing architectural construction documents. They also handle related details, such as administering contracts, coordinating the work of other professionals on the project, researching building codes and construction materials, and writing specifications. As an alternative to working for an architectural firm, some architecture graduates go into allied fields such as construction, engineering, interior design, landscape architecture, or real estate development.
n advancement
likely to be affected by the growing use of computer technologies. Rather than replacing architects, computers are being used to enhance the architect’s work. Competition for employment will continue to be strong, particularly in prestigious architectural firms. Openings will not be newly created positions but will become available as the workload increases and established architects transfer to other occupations or leave the field.
n for more information For information on education, scholarships, and student membership opportunities, contact the following organizations: American Institute of Architects
Interns and architects alike are given progressively more complex jobs. Architects may advance to supervisory or managerial positions. Some architects become partners in established firms, while others take steps to establish their own practice.
1735 New York Avenue, NW Washington, DC 20006 Tel: 800-AIA-3837 Email:
[email protected] http://www.aia.org
n earnings
American Institute of Architecture Students
Architects earned a median annual salary of $62,850 in 2005, according to the U.S. Department of Labor. The lowest paid 10 percent earned less than $39,130 annually, while the highest paid 10 percent earned $105,500 or more. Well-established architects who are partners in an architectural firm or who have their own businesses generally earn much more than salaried employees. Most employers offer such fringe benefits as health insurance, sick and vacation pay, and retirement plans.
1735 New York Avenue, NW Washington, DC 20006 Tel: 202-626-7472 Email:
[email protected] http://www.aiasnatl.org
n work environment Architects normally work a 40-hour week. There may be a number of times when they will have to work overtime, especially when under pressure to complete an assignment. Self-employed architects work less regular hours and often meet with clients in their homes or offices during the evening. Architects usually work in comfortable offices, but they may spend a considerable amount of time outside the office visiting clients or viewing the progress of a particular job in the field. Their routines usually vary considerably.
n outlook Employment in the field is expected to grow about as fast as the average through 2014, according to the U.S. Department of Labor. The number of architects needed will depend on the volume of construction. The construction industry is extremely sensitive to fluctuations in the overall economy, and a continued bad economic climate could result in layoffs. On the positive side, employment of architects is not
Association of Collegiate Schools of Architecture 1735 New York Avenue, NW Washington, DC 20006 Tel: 202-785-2324 Email:
[email protected] http://www.acsa-arch.org
Archivists n overview Archivists contribute to the study of the arts and sciences by analyzing, acquiring, and preserving historical documents, artwork, organizational and personal records, and information systems that are significant enough to be preserved for future generations. Archivists keep track of artifacts such as letters, contracts, photographs, filmstrips, blueprints, electronic information, and other items of potential historical significance.
n history For centuries, archives have served as repositories for the official records of governments, educational institu-
tions, businesses, religious organizations, families, and countless other groups. From the first time information was recorded, a need for preserving those accounts has been necessary. The evolution of archiving information in a manner similar to what we know today can be traced back to the Middle Ages. As the feudal system in Europe gave way to nations and a more systematic order of law, precise record keeping became increasingly important to keep track of land ownership and official policy. These records helped governments serve the needs of their citizens and protected the rights of the common people in civil matters. In America, early settlers maintained records using skills they brought from their European homelands. Families kept records of the journey to their new country and saved correspondence with family members still in Europe. Religious institutions kept records of the births, deaths, and marriages of their members. Settlers kept track of their business transactions, such as a land purchases, crop trades, and building constructions. In the early 18th century, similar to what occurred in Europe in the Middle Ages, civic records in America became more prevalent as towns became incorporated. Leaders needed to maintain accurate records of property ownership and laws made by—and for—citizens. Although archives have been incorporated in one form or another for centuries, archivists have established themselves as professionals only in the last hundred years or so. In the past, museums and societies accumulated records and objects rapidly and sometimes indiscriminately, accepting items regardless of their actual merit. Each archive had its own system of documenting, organizing, and storing materials. In 1884, the American Historical Association was formed to develop archival standards and help boost interaction among archivists. Each year, as new scientific discoveries are made and new works are published, the need for sifting through and classifying items increases. More advanced computer systems will help archivists catalog archival materials as well as make archives more readily available to users. Advances in conservation techniques will help extend the life of fragile items, allowing them to be available to future generations.
n the job Archivists analyze documents and materials such as government records, minutes of corporate board meetings, letters from famous people, charters of nonprofit foundations, historical photographs, maps, coins, works of art, and nearly anything else that may have historical significance. To determine which documents should be saved, they consider such factors as when the resource
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was written, who wrote it, and for whom it was written. In deciding on other items to archive, the archivist needs to consider the provenance, or history of creation and ownership, of the materials. They also take into account the physical capacity of their employer’s archives. For instance, a repository with very little space for new materials may need to decline the gift of a large or bulky item, despite its potential value. Archives are kept by various organizations, including government agencies, corporations, universities, and museums, and the value of documents is generally dictated by whichever group owns them. For example, the U.S. Army may not be interested in General Motors’ corporate charter, and General Motors may not be interested in a Civil War battle plan. Archivists understand and serve the needs of their employers and collect items that are most relevant to their organizations. Archivists may also be in charge of collecting items of historical quick facts significance to the institution for School Subjects which they work. An archivist English at a university, for instance, may Foreign language collect new copies of the student History newspaper to keep historical docPersonal Skills umentation of student activities Communication/ideas and issues up-to-date. An archiLeadership/management vist at a public library may prepare, present, and store annual Work Environment reports of the branch libraries in Primarily indoors Primarily one location order to keep an accurate record of library statistics. Minimum Education Level After selecting appropriate Master’s degree materials, archivists help make them accessible to others by preSalary Range paring reference aids such as $21,780 to $36,470 to $61,260+ indexes, guides, bibliographies, descriptions, and microfilmed copCertification or Licensing ies of documents. These research Voluntary aids may be printed and kept in the organization’s stack area, put Outlook About as fast as the average online so off-site researchers have access to the information, or put DOT on CD-ROM for distribution to 101 other individuals or organizations. Archivists also file and cross-index GOE archived items for easy retrieval 12.03.04 when a user wishes to consult a NOC collection. 5113 Archivists may preserve and repair historical documents or O*NET-SOC send damaged items to a pro25-4011.00 fessional conservator. They may
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also appraise the items based on their knowledge of political, economic, military, and social history, as well as by the materials’ physical condition, research potential, and rarity. Archivists play an integral role in the exhibition programs of their organizations. A university library, for instance, may present an exhibit that honors former Nobel Prize-winning faculty members. Most accomplished faculty members leave their papers—notes, research, experiments, and articles—to their institution. An exhibition might display first drafts of articles, early versions of experiments, or letters between two distinguished scientists debating some aspect of a project’s design. Exhibits allow members of the university and the community to learn about the history of an organization and how research has advanced the field. The archivist helps to sort through archival materials and decide what items would make for an interesting exhibition at the institution. Many archivists conduct research using the archival materials at their disposal, and they may publish articles detailing their findings. They may advise government agencies, scholars, journalists, and others conducting research by supplying available materials and information. Archivists also act as reference contacts and teachers. An employee doing research at the company archives may have little knowledge of how and where to begin. The archivist may suggest that the worker consult specific reference guides or browse through an online catalog. After the employee decides which materials will be of most use, the archivist may retrieve the archives from storage, circulate the collection to the user, and perhaps even instruct the user as to the proper handling of fragile or oversize materials. Archivists may have assistants who help them with the sorting and indexing of archival collections. At a university library, undergraduate or graduate students usually act as archival assistants. Small community historical societies may rely on trained volunteers to assist the archivist. Depending on the size of their employing organization, archivists may perform many or few administrative duties. Such duties may include preparing budgets, representing their institutions at scientific or association conferences, soliciting support for institutions, and interviewing and hiring personnel. Some help formulate and interpret institutional policy. In addition, archivists may plan or participate in special research projects and write articles for scientific journals.
n requirements High School If you are interested in doing archival work, high school is not too early to begin your training. Since it is usu-
ally necessary to earn a master’s degree to become an archivist, you should select a college preparatory curriculum in high school and plan on going to college. While in high school, you should pay special attention to learning library and research skills. Classes in English, history, science, and mathematics will provide you with basic skills and knowledge for university study. Journalism courses will hone your research skills, and political science courses will help you identify events of societal importance. You should also plan on learning at least one foreign language. If you are interested in doing archival work at a religious organization, Latin or Hebrew may be good language options. If you would like to work in a specialized archive, such as an art gallery or medical school archive, you should also focus on classes that will prepare you for that specialty.
Postsecondary Training To prepare for archival work in college, you should get a degree in the liberal arts. You will probably want to study history, library science, or a related field, since there are currently no undergraduate or graduate programs that deal solely with the archival sciences. You should take any specific courses in archival methods that are available to you as an undergraduate. Since many employers prefer to hire archivists with a graduate degree, consider any course load that may help you gain entrance into a program to earn a master’s degree in library and information science or history. Graduate school will give you the opportunity to learn more specific details about archival work. More than 65 colleges and universities offer classes in the archival sciences as part of other degree programs. These courses will teach you how to do many aspects of archival work, from selecting items and organizing collections to preparing documentation and conserving materials. While in graduate school, you may be able to secure a parttime job or assistantship at your school’s archives. Many university archives rely on their own students to provide valuable help maintaining collections, and students who work there gain firsthand knowledge and experience in the archival field. Many positions require a second master’s degree in a specific field or a doctorate degree. An archivist at a historical society may need a master’s degree in history and another master’s in library and information science. Candidates with bachelor’s degrees may serve as assistants while they complete their formal training.
Certification or Licensing Although not currently required by most employers, voluntary certification for archivists is available from the
Academy of Certified Archivists. Certification is earned by gaining practical experience in archival work, taking requisite courses, and passing an examination on the history, theory, and practice of archival science. Archivists need to renew their certification status every five years, usually by examination. Certification can be especially useful to archivists wishing to work in the corporate world.
Other Requirements Archivists need to have excellent research and organizational skills. They should be comfortable working with rare and fragile materials. They need to maintain archives with absolute discretion, especially in the case of closed archives or archives available only for specific users. Archivists also need to be able to communicate effectively with all types of people that may use the archives, since they will be explaining the research methods and the policies and procedures of their organization. Finally, archivists may be required to move heavy boxes and other awkward materials. An archivist should be comfortable lifting or carrying large objects, although requirements may be different for various organizations and arrangements can often be made for professionals with different abilities.
n exploring If you are interested in archival work, a good way to learn about the field is by using archives for your own research. If you have a report due on Abraham Lincoln, for instance, you could visit an archive near your home that houses some of Lincoln’s personal papers and letters. A visit to the archives of a candy manufacturer could help you with an assignment on the history of a specific type of production method. Since institutions may limit access to their collections, be sure to contact the organization about your project before you make the trip. Getting to know an archivist can give you a good perspective of the field and the specific duties of the professional archivist. You could also see if a professional archival or historical association offers special student memberships or mentoring opportunities. You can also learn more about archival work by creating your own family archive consisting of letters, birth and marriage certificates, old photographs, special awards, and any other documents that would help someone understand your family’s history. Another way to gain practical experience is to obtain part-time or volunteer positions in archives, historical societies, or libraries. Many museums and cultural centers train volunteer guides (who are called docents) to give tours of their institutions. If you already volunteer
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for an organization in another capacity, ask to have a personal tour of the archives.
n employers Archivists can find employment in various fields. Nearly one-third of the nation’s archivists are employed in government positions, working for the Department of Defense, the National Archives and Records Administration, and other local, state, and federal repositories. Approximately 18 percent of archivists work in academia, working in college and university libraries. Other archivists work in positions for museums, historical societies, and zoos, of for private, not-for-profit archives that serve special interests, such as the Lesbian Herstory Archives in New York. Archivists are also on staff at corporations, religious institutions, and professional associations. Many of these organizations need archivists to manage massive amounts of records that will be kept for posterity, or to comply with state or federal regulations. Some private collectors may also employ an archivist to process, organize, and catalog their personal holdings.
n starting out There is no best way to become an archivist. Since there is no formal archivist degree, many people working in the field today have had to pave their own way. For example, some archivists may begin by earning a master’s degree in history and then a Ph.D in history or a related field. They may go on to process collections in their university’s archives. By enhancing their educational credentials with practical experience in the field, new archivists can gradually move on to positions with greater degrees of responsibility. Another archivist may approach his or her career from a different direction. For example, an archivist could start out with a master’s degree in French and then earn a master’s of library science (M.L.S.) degree, with a concentration in archival management. With a language background and the M.L.S., he or she could begin working in archival positions in colleges and universities. Candidates for positions as archivists should apply to institutions for entry-level positions only after completing their undergraduate degrees—usually in history. An archivist going into a particular area of archival work, however, may wish to earn a degree in that field. If you are interested in working in a museum’s archives, for instance, you may wish to pursue a degree in art or art history. Many potential archivists choose to work part-time as research assistants, interns, or volunteers in order to gain archival experience. School career services offices are
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Employment/Earnings for Archivists by Industry, 2004 Employer Museums, historical sites, zoos, and parks
Number Employed
Mean Annual Earnings
1,580
$39,790
Colleges and universities
820
$38,740
State government
640
$39,150
Motion picture and video industries
390
$40,090
Local government
380
$36,900
Federal government
80
$80,790
General medical and surgical hospitals
30
$40,140
Source: U.S. Department of Labor
good starting points to look for research assistantships and internships. Professional librarian and archivist associations often have job listings for those new to the field.
n advancement Archivists usually work in small sections, units, or departments, so internal promotion opportunities are often limited. Promising archivists advance by gaining more responsibility for the administration of the collections. They may begin to spend more time supervising the work of others. Archivists can also advance by transferring to larger repositories and taking more administration-based positions. Because the best jobs as archivists are contingent upon education, the surest method of advancement is through pursuing advanced or specialized degrees. Ambitious archivists should also attend conferences and workshops to stay current with developments in their fields. Archivists can enhance their status by conducting independent research and publishing their findings. In a public or private library, an archivist may move on to a position such as curator, chief librarian, or library director. Archivists may also move outside of the standard archival field entirely. With their background and skills, archivists may become teachers, university professors, or instructors at a library school. They may also set up shop for themselves as archival consultants to corporations or private collectors.
n earnings Salaries for archivists vary considerably by institution and may depend on education and experience. People employed by the federal government or by prestigious museums generally earn more than those working for small organizations. The U.S. Department of Labor reported that the
median annual salary for all archivists was $36,470 in 2004. The lowest paid 10 percent earned $21,780 or less, while the highest paid 10 percent earned $61,260 or more. Archivists who work for large corporations, institutions, or government agencies generally receive a full range of benefits, including health care coverage, vacation days, paid holidays, paid sick time, and retirement savings plans. Self-employed archival consultants usually have to provide their own benefits. All archivists have the added benefit of working with rare and unique materials. They have the opportunity to work with history and create documentation of the past.
n work environment Because dirt, sunlight, and moisture can damage materials and documents, archivists generally work in clean, climate-controlled surroundings with artificial lighting rather than windows. Many archives are small offices, often employing the archivist alone, or with one or two part-time volunteers. Other archives are part of a larger department within an organization. The archives for DePaul University in Chicago, for instance, are part of the special collections department and are managed by the curator. With this type of arrangement, the archivist generally has a number of graduate assistants to help with the processing of materials and departmental support staff to assist with clerical tasks. Archivists often have little opportunity for physical activity, save for the bending, lifting, and reaching they may need to do in order to arrange collections and make room for new materials. Also, some archival collections include not only paper records but some oversized items as well. The archives of an elite fraternal organization, for example, may house a collection of hats or uniforms that
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members wore throughout the years, each of which must be processed, cataloged, preserved, and stored. Most archivists work 40 hours a week, usually during regular, weekday working hours. Depending on the needs of their department and the community they serve, an archive may be open some weekend hours, thus requiring the archivist to be on hand for users. Also, archivists spend some of their time traveling to the homes of donors to view materials that may complement an archival collection.
n outlook Job opportunities for archivists are expected to increase about as fast as the average through 2014, according to the U.S. Department of Labor. But since qualified job applicants outnumber the positions available, competition for jobs as archivists is keen. Candidates with specialized training, such as master’s degrees in history and library science, will have better opportunities. A doctorate in history or a related field can also be a boon to job-seeking archivists. Graduates who have studied archival work or records management will be in higher demand than those without that background. Also, by gaining related work or volunteer experience, many potential archivists will be in a better position to find full-time employment. As archival work begins to reflect an increasingly digital society, an archivist with extensive knowledge of computers is likely to advance more quickly than an archivist with little desire to learn. Jobs are expected to increase as more corporations and private organizations establish an archival history. Archivists will also be needed to fill positions left vacant by retirees and archivists who leave the occupation. On the other hand, budget cuts in educational institutions, museums, and cultural institutions often reduce demand for archivists. Overall, there will always be positions available for archivists, but the aspiring archivist may need to be creative, flexible, and determined in forging a career path.
n for more information To find out about archival certification procedures, contact Academy of Certified Archivists 90 State Street, Suite 1009 Albany, NY 12207 Tel: 518-463-8644 Email:
[email protected] http://www.certifiedarchivists.org
For information about archival programs, activities, and publications in North America, contact American Institute for Conservation of Historic and Artistic Works 1717 K Street, NW, Suite 200 Washington, DC 20036-5346
Tel: 202-452-9545 Email:
[email protected] http://aic.stanford.edu
If you are interested in working with the archives of film and television, contact Association of Moving Image Archivists 1313 North Vine Street Hollywood, CA 90028 Tel: 323-463-1500 Email:
[email protected] http://amianet.org
For a list of educational programs and to read So You Want to Be an Archivist: An Overview of the Archival Profession, visit the SAA’s Web site. Society of American Archivists (SAA) 527 South Wells Street, Fifth Floor Chicago, IL 60607 Tel: 312-922-0140 Email:
[email protected] http://www.archivists.org
For archival programs and activities in Canada, contact Association of Canadian Archivists PO Box 2596, Station D Ottawa, ON K1P 5W6 Canada Tel: 613-234-6977 Email:
[email protected] http://archivists.ca
For information on archival work and publications in the United Kingdom, contact Society of Archivists Prioryfield House 20 Canon Street Taunton, Somerset, TA1 1SW England Email:
[email protected] http://www.archives.org.uk
Aromatherapists n overview Aromatherapists are health care specialists who use essential plant oils to promote health in their clients. Essential oils are highly concentrated substances that give plants their fragrance. These substances are extracted from various parts of aromatic plants, such as roots, woods, seeds, fruits, leaves, and flowers. Only
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about 5 percent of all types of plants are used for their essential oils. Since the early 20th century, the professions of cosmetology, medicine, and psychology have rediscovered the healing powers of essential oils that were known to earlier civilizations. Scientific studies show that inhaling the fragrance of certain essential oils has physiological and psychological effects on the brain. Aromatherapists study the oils and their effects on individuals. They use this knowledge to help improve their clients’ quality of life. Most aromatherapists are licensed in other areas of health care or body care, using aromatherapy as a supplementary tool in their licensed profession. Among these licensed professionals are beauticians, chiropractors, cosmeticians, massage therapists, medical doctors, naturopathic doctors, nurse practitioners, and nurses. A few individuals who specialize in aromatherapy work as chemists, quick facts educators, or authors. A very few School Subjects grow plants for the distillation Biology of essential oils, become consulChemistry tants, or start their own lines of English aromatherapy products. Personal Skills
Helping/teaching Technical/scientific Work Environment
Primarily indoors Primarily one location Minimum Education Level
Some postsecondary training Salary Range
$17,540 to $45,000 to $70,000+ Certification or Licensing
None available Outlook
Faster than the average DOT
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n history Humanity’s use of fragrance probably began long before recorded history. Anthropologists think that primitive people burned gums and resin as incense. Throughout history, civilizations have used essential oils for many purposes— including healing. As an art and science, aromatherapy finds its roots in ancient cultures, dating back 4,000 to 5,000 years. Early Egyptians are often credited with being the first to make an art of the use of essential oils. They used myrrh and frankincense (fragrant resins from trees) in their daily rituals. However, other early cultures also used essential oils. In ancient Africa, people discovered that certain plants provided protection from the sun when they were rubbed on the skin. Chinese, Indian, Persian, and other African cultures used plant oils for incense
burning, cooking, cosmetics, mummifying, bathing, perfumery, meditating, and healing. In the spas of ancient Rome, oils were used in public baths and were applied during massages. The knowledge of oils went along with the spread of Roman culture. Europeans used oils during medieval times to fight disease. During the Middle Ages, the appearance of chemistry and the improvement of distillation helped simplify the process of extracting essential oils from plants. This opened the door to oil trading, which spread the new practices to more people and places. Until the 19th century, when science began to introduce other medicines, Europeans used essential oils both as perfumes and for medicinal purposes. With the growth of newer medical practices, doctors began to choose modern medicine over the tradition of oils. It was not until the 20th century that several individuals “rediscovered” the healing power of essential oils. Once again the use of oils was integrated into Western culture. In 1928, the French perfumer and chemist, RenéMaurice Gattefossé, experienced the healing power of essential oils. When he severely burned his hand, he stuck it into the nearest liquid, which happened to be lavender oil. He was surprised how quickly the hand healed. His experience caused him to become interested in the therapeutic use of essential oils. It was Gattefossé who coined the term aromatherapy. Dr. Jean Valnet, a French physician, was the first to reintegrate essential oils into Western medical practice. Dr. Valnet served as an army surgeon during World War II. Inspired by the work of Gattefossé, he used essential oils to treat the soldiers’ burns and wounds. He also successfully treated psychiatric problems with fragrances. Marguerite Maury, an Austrian biochemist, was also influenced by the work of Gattefossé. She integrated the use of essential oils into cosmetics. In 1977, Robert Tisserand, an expert in aromatherapy, wrote The Art of Aromatherapy. Tisserand was strongly influenced by the work of both Gattefossé and Valnet. His book caught the interest of the American public and made a major contribution to the growth of aromatherapy in this country. The Western world has rediscovered the uses of essential oils and fragrances through the work of people like Valnet, Maury, and Tisserand. In France, aromatherapy is practiced by medical doctors. Conventional and alternative medicine practitioners in England, Australia, Sweden, Japan, the United States, and other parts of the world are recognizing and utilizing the healing power of essential oils. The world is reawakening to the healing and life-enhancing capabilities of aromatherapy.
n the job Whether aromatherapists work primarily as beauticians, chiropractors, massage therapists, or doctors, they must possess a strong working knowledge of aromatherapy as a science and an art. They need to understand the components and healing benefits of many essential oils. The quality of essential oils varies greatly depending on the plant, where it is grown, the conditions under which it is grown, and other factors. As a result, aromatherapists must be very careful about choosing the sources from which their oils come. Pure, high-quality, therapeutic grade oils are essential to good aromatherapy. Aromatherapists must even know the differences between the oils of different species of the same plant. Essential oils are very powerful because of their high concentration. It may take well over 100 pounds of plant material to produce just one pound of essential oil. Because of the powerful concentration of essential oils, aromatherapists use great care in diluting them and in adding them to what are called carrier oils. These are most often high-quality vegetable oils, such as almond, olive, or sesame. Unlike essential oils, carrier oils are fixed, rather than volatile. A small amount of an essential oil is blended into the carrier oil, which “carries” it across the body. Aromatherapists are especially careful when the oils are to be applied to a client’s skin or put into a bath. In addition, aromatherapists must know how different essential oils work together because they are often combined to achieve certain results. Aromatherapists need to know much more than what oils to use. They use the essential oils in three types of aromatherapy: cosmetic, massage, and olfactory. Aromatherapists have to know the differences among the types of therapy. They must decide which type or combination of types to use in a particular situation, and they must be skilled in each type. Aromatherapists must know how the body, mind, and emotions work together. For example, a client who complains of muscle tension may need physical relief. A massage with relaxing oils that the skin soaks in will relax the client. However, aromatherapists are able to take this treatment a step further. They consider the underlying causes of the condition. Why is the client feeling tense? Is it stress? Anxiety? Strong emotion? Massage therapists who are trained in aromatherapy may inquire about the client’s life in order to pinpoint the source of the tension. Once the source is identified, aromatherapists utilize specific oils to produce a certain emotional effect in the client. When the scents of these oils are inhaled, they create a response within the entire body. The oils may be added to a bath or a compress that is applied to the body. A compress is a towel soaked in water that has a bit of
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an essential oil added to it. An aroma may take the client back to happier times, as a reminder of warmth, comfort, and contentment. An aromatherapist’s client may have skin problems due to stress. The aromatherapist may use certain essential oils to help both the skin condition on the surface and the underlying emotional source of the problem. This might be accomplished through olfactory aromatherapy—the inhalation of the oil vapors. In a hospital, nursing home, or hospice setting, an aromatherapist might choose essential oils that help relieve stress. In England, hospital nursing staffs utilize essential oil massage. This type of therapy has been shown to relieve pain and induce sleep. Essential oil massage has proven effective in relieving the stress that patients experience with general illness, surgery, terminal cancer, and AIDS. Aromatherapists emphasize that these treatments are supplementary and enhancing to medical care—they do not replace medical treatment. No two clients’ problems are the same, and neither are the remedies for those problems. Each client must be treated as an individual. During the first visit, aromatherapists usually take a careful client history. Aromatherapists must listen carefully both for things their clients say and for things they don’t say. Aromatherapists need to know if a client is taking any medicine or using
The Three Types of Aromatherapy Cosmetic aromatherapy: In cosmetic aromatherapy, essential oils are blended into skin and hair care products. The aromatherapist chooses oils that are appropriate for the client’s skin and hair type. The products in which the oils are used have many purposes—cleansing or toning, drying or moisturizing. Massage aromatherapy: An aromatherapist chooses an essential oil especially to meet the needs of the individual. A small amount of the appropriate oil is blended with a pure vegetable carrier oil. When the blended oils are applied during a massage, the aroma of the essential oil enhances the massage both physiologically and psychologically. Olfactory aromatherapy: In olfactory aromatherapy, the aromatherapist carefully selects the essential oil that will produce the desired effect for the individual client. The oils are chosen for a specific purpose: perhaps to release stress, relax the mind, or enhance emotional wellness. The aroma of the oil may be inhaled directly or dispersed through a diffuser. When dispersed through a diffuser, essential oils may be used to improve respiratory conditions or to combat the transmission of airborne infections.
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any natural healing substances, such as herbs. They must understand the properties of the essential oils and how they might interact with any other treatment the client is using. Next, they use the information gathered from the client interview to determine the proper essential oils and the appropriate amounts to blend to serve the client’s particular needs. Aromatherapists are employed in a number of different work environments. Those connected to the beauty industry may work in salons, spas, or hotel resorts, incorporating aromatherapy into facial care, body care, and hair care. In the health care field, many professionals are turning to alternative approaches to care, and some conventional medical practitioners are beginning to implement more holistic approaches. As a result, a growing number of aromatherapists work in the offices of other health care specialists, where their aromatherapy treatments complement the other therapies used. Aromatherapists often give seminars, teach, or serve as consultants. Some who become experts on essential oils buy farms to grow plants for the oils, create their own lines of aromatherapy products, or sell essential oils to other aromatherapists.
n requirements High School If you are interested in working with aromatherapy, begin in high school by building up your knowledge of the human body’s systems. Biology, anatomy, and physiology will help lay the foundation for a career in aromatherapy. Chemistry courses will familiarize you with laboratory procedures. Aromatherapists need to have an understanding of mixtures and the care involved in using powerful essential oils. Chemistry can help you gain the experience you need to handle delicate or volatile substances. It will also familiarize you with the properties of natural compounds. Keep in mind that the majority of aromatherapists are self-employed. Math, business, and computer courses will help you develop the skills you need to be successful at running a business. Aromatherapists also need good communication and interpersonal skills to be sensitive to their clients. English, speech, and psychology classes can help you sharpen your ability to interact constructively with other people. Eva-Marie Lind is an aromatherapist, author, and former Dean of the Aromatherapy Department of the Australasian College of Herbal Studies in Lake Oswego, Oregon. She has worked in the field of aromatherapy for over 15 years. According to Lind, “Education is the key to good aromatherapy. There is so much to learn, and it takes real dedication to study.”
Postsecondary Training In 1999, the National Association for Holistic Aromatherapy (NAHA) established criteria for aromatherapy education that have been voluntarily adopted by a number of schools and education programs. NAHA guidelines recommend that aromatherapy education include courses on topics such as the history of aromatherapy, physiology, production of essential oils, botany, chemistry, safety and methods of application, and business planning. While NAHA provides a listing of schools complying with its guidelines, there are also other schools, seminars, and distance learning courses that offer training in aromatherapy. Be aware, however, that the quality of programs can vary. Take the time to call the schools or organizations that interest you. Ask how their programs are set up. For correspondence courses (or distance courses), ask if you will be able to talk to a teacher. How will you be evaluated? Are there tests? How are the tests taken and graded? Try to talk with current students. Ask how they are treated and what they learn. Ask what you receive when you graduate from the program. Will you receive help with job placement? Access to insurance programs? Other benefits? Depending on the program you pick, the length of study ranges from short workshops to four-year college courses. Vocational schools, major universities, and naturopathic colleges are increasingly offering training in aromatherapy. Most aromatherapists are also professionals in other fields. Consider whether you would want to combine aromatherapy with a “base” profession, such as chiropractic, massage therapy, nursing, or some other field into which you might incorporate it. These base fields require additional education and certification as well as licensing. If you decide to add aromatherapy to another profession, learn the requirements for certification or licensing that apply to that profession. Adding aromatherapy to another profession requires a comprehensive understanding of both fields from a scientific standpoint.
Certification or Licensing There are presently no certification or licensing requirements for aromatherapy in the United States. Aromatherapy is growing rapidly, and it is likely that these requirements will be established soon. Since aromatherapy is practiced by such a variety of professionals, developing standards is particularly complex. Nevertheless, professionals throughout the industry are working toward this goal. If you choose to study aromatherapy, you will need to keep up on these changes. If you choose to combine aromatherapy with another profession, you must meet the national and
local requirements for that field in addition to aromatherapy requirements.
Other Requirements According to Eva-Marie Lind, “Aromatherapy demands love and passion at its roots. You need to honor, respect, and celebrate the beauty of this field.” You must also enjoy disseminating knowledge because clients often have many questions. More practically, it takes a good nose and a certain sensitivity to successfully treat clients through aromatherapy. It takes good listening skills and immense creativity to understand each client’s personal issues and decide on the best means of administering a treatment. Which essential oils or combination of oils should you choose? Should you use a bath, a compress, a massage, or inhalation? What parts of the body are the best avenues for delivering the remedy? Aromatherapists must be good self-teachers who are interested in continuing education. This is a relatively new field that is developing and changing rapidly. To stay competitive and successful, you need to keep up with the changing trends, products, and technologies that affect the field. Like most healing professions, aromatherapy is a lifelong education process for the practitioner.
n exploring There are many ways to explore the field of aromatherapy to see if it is for you. For one, there are many books and specialized periodicals available on the subject. Get a glimpse of the types of knowledge you need for the field. Find out whether it is too scientific or not scientific enough. Look in your local library for books and magazines that show you what a typical student of aromatherapy might be learning. Visit health food stores. The staff members of health food stores are often very helpful. Most have books, magazines, and newspapers about many kinds of alternative health care, including aromatherapy. Ask about essential oils, and ask for the names of aromatherapists in the area. Find out if there are garden clubs that you can join—particularly ones that specialize in herbs. Consider taking up cooking. This could give you practice in selecting herbs and seasonings and blending them to create different aromas and flavors. Contact local and national professional organizations. Some offer student memberships or free seminars. Check out their Web sites. They have a lot of valuable information and good links to other alternative health care sites. Join online forums and discussion groups where you can communicate with professionals from all over the country and the world. Some distance learning courses are open to students of all ages. Check into them.
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Learn More about It Lawless, Julia. Illustrated Encyclopedia of Essential Oils. Rockport, Mass.: Element Books, 1995. Maria, Donna. Making Aromatherapy Creams and Lotions. Pownal, Vt.: Storey Books, 2000. Price, Shirley, and Len Price. Aromatherapy for Health Professionals. 2d ed. Edinburgh, N.Y.: Churchill Livingstone, 1999. Schnaubelt, Kurt. Medical Aromatherapy. Berkeley, Calif.: Frog Ltd., 1999. Tisserland, Robert B., and Tony Balacs. Essential Oil Safety. Edinburgh, N.Y.: Churchill Livingstone, 1995.
If you find you have a real interest in aromatherapy, another way to explore the field is to seek a mentor, a professional in the field who is willing to help you learn. Tell everyone you know that you are interested in aromatherapy. Someone is bound to have a connection with someone you could call for an informational interview. Perhaps you could spend a day “shadowing” an aromatherapist to see what the work is like. If you are unable to find an aromatherapy specialist, you could call spas and salons in search of professionals who use aromatherapy in their work. Perhaps some would be willing to speak to you about their day-to-day work. Make an appointment and experience an aromatherapy treatment. Taking it a step further, you could explore the possibility of getting a part-time job at an establishment that employs aromatherapists.
n employers Most aromatherapists are self-employed. They run their own small businesses and build their own clientele. Some set up their own offices, but many build their businesses by working in the offices of other professionals and giving aromatherapy treatments as supplements to the treatments provided by the resident professionals. Many different kinds of employers are looking for skilled aromatherapists. In the cosmetic industry, beauticians, cosmeticians, and massage therapists employ aromatherapists to give treatments that complement their own. Spas, athletic clubs, resorts, and cruise ships may hire aromatherapists on a full-time basis. These types of employment may be temporary or seasonal. In the health care industry, chiropractors, acupuncturists, and other alternative therapy practitioners and clinics may offer aromatherapy in addition to their basic services. Hospitals, nursing homes, hospice centers, and other medical establishments are beginning to recognize
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How Does Aromatherapy Work? Recent research shows that aromatic molecules given off by the essential oils transmit signals that the body modifies and passes on to the limbic system. The limbic system has been referred to as the “emotional switchboard” of the brain. Once in the limbic system, these modified signals are associated with memories and emotions. The limbic system is connected to the areas of the brain that control many essential bodily functions, such as breathing, blood pressure, and memory. Due to this close connection, essential oils can have profound psychological and physiological effects on the individual.
books and articles. A few start their own aromatherapy product lines of esthetic or therapeutic products. Some may become involved in growing the plants that are the sources of essential oils. Still others work in distilling, analyzing, or blending the oils. This is such a new field growing so rapidly that the potential for advancement is enormous. The field has so many facets that the directions for growth are as great as your imagination and determination. Geraldine Zelinsky, the public relations representative of the National Association for Holistic Aromatherapists, says, “If you are self-motivated, creative, and have a talent for any aspect of aromatherapy, the sky is the limit. It is what you make it.”
n earnings the physiological and psychological benefits of aromatherapy for their patients.
n starting out Because the practice of aromatherapy may be incorporated into numerous other professions, there are many ways to enter the field. How you enter depends on how you want to use aromatherapy. Is your interest in massage therapy, skin care, or hair care? Do you want to be a nurse, doctor, acupuncturist, or chiropractor? Are you interested in becoming an instructor or writer? Once you are certified in another area, you need to search for clinics, salons, spas, and other establishments that are looking for professionals who use aromatherapy in their treatments. School career services are also ways to find work. Classified ads in newspapers and trade magazines list positions in the related fields. Networking can be an important source of job opportunities. Networking is simply getting to know others and exchanging ideas with them. Go to association meetings and conventions. Talk to people in the field. Job openings are often posted at such gatherings.
n advancement Aromatherapists can advance to many different levels, depending on their goals, ambitions, aspirations, and willingness to work. Those who are self-employed can increase their clientele and open their own offices or even a salon. Those who are employed at a spa or salon could become a department director or the director of the entire spa or salon. They might start a private practice or open a spa or salon. As their skills and knowledge grow, aromatherapists may be sought after to teach and train other aromatherapists in seminars or at schools that offer aromatherapy programs or courses. Others become consultants or write
Since aromatherapists work in such a variety of settings, and aromatherapy is often a supplementary therapy added to other professional training, it is particularly difficult to make statements about average earnings in the field. Government agencies do not yet have wage statistics for the field. The national professional associations have not yet developed surveys of their members that give reliable information. For those who are self-employed in any profession, earnings depend on the amount of time they work and the amount they charge per hour. Experienced professional aromatherapists estimate that hourly rates can range from $25 to $65 for beginning aromatherapists and instructors. Rates increase with experience to between $75 and $100 per hour. Based on those rates, a beginning aromatherapist who charged $25 an hour and averaged 10 appointments per week would earn around $13,000. According to the U.S. Department of Labor, in 2002 the median annual salary for people engaged in personal care and service occupations (the category aromatherapy would fall into) earned a median salary of $17,540, with the bottom 10 percent earning $13,000 per year and the top 10 percent $35,140 or more. Established aromatherapists who have a solid client base report earning $25,000 to $45,000. The hourly rate an aromatherapist charges depends on his or her level of expertise, the type of clientele served, and even the area of the country. In many of the larger cities and much of the West Coast, people are already more aware and accepting of alternative health therapies. In those areas, higher hourly rates will be more accepted. Where such therapies are practically unknown, lower rates will apply. Another consideration for the self-employed is that they must provide their own insurance and retirement plans and pay for their supplies and other business expenses. An aromatherapist with determination, creativity, and initiative can find jobs that pay well. Some who run
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exclusive spas or develop their own lines of aromatherapy products are reported to earn $70,000 to $80,000 or more. Aromatherapists who are primarily employed in other professions, such as massage therapists, chiropractors, cosmetologists, and nurses, can expect to make the salaries that are average for their profession. Those professionals who use aromatherapy as a supportive therapy to their primary profession tend to have higher incomes than those who specialize in aromatherapy. The addition of aromatherapy to their profession will probably enhance their clients’ and their own satisfaction, but it may not increase their income.
n work environment Aromatherapists work in a service-oriented environment, in which the main duty involves understanding and helping their clients. The surroundings are usually clean, peaceful, and pleasant. They work with very potent substances (strong essential oils), but most aromatherapists love the scents and the experience of the oils. They often spend a great deal of time on their feet. They sometimes work long or inconsistent hours, such as weekends and evenings, to accommodate their clients’ needs. Aromatherapists are people-oriented. Those who are self-employed must be highly motivated and able to work alone. Aromatherapists who work in clinics, spas, hospitals, resorts, and other locations need to be able to work well with others.
n outlook Aromatherapy has been growing very rapidly and is gathering steam in the United States. Opportunities are increasing rapidly as public awareness of alternative therapies is increasing. The status of aromatherapy in European and other countries may provide a glimpse of the future of the field in the United States. In Great Britain and France, for example, more doctors have embraced aromatherapy, and these services are covered by major health plans. If the United States follows this lead, new doors will open in this field. In general, the outlook is very good for aromatherapy because of an overwhelming increase in public awareness and interest.
n for more information For information regarding state regulations for massage therapists and general information on therapeutic massage, contact American Massage Therapy Association 500 Davis Street, Suite 900 Evanston, IL 60201-4695
Tel: 877-905-2700 http://www.amtamassage.org
The National Association for Holistic Aromatherapy has developed guidelines for aromatherapy training. See the Web site for a listing of schools in compliance with these guidelines. National Association for Holistic Aromatherapy 3327 W. Indian Trail Road PMB 144 Spokane, WA 99208 Tel: (509) 325-3419 Email:
[email protected] http://www.naha.org
For general information about aromatherapy and education options, visit the following Web site: AromaWeb http://www.aromaweb.com
Art Directors n overview Art directors play a key role in every stage of the creation of an advertisement or ad campaign, from formulating concepts to supervising production. Ultimately, they are responsible for planning and overseeing the presentation of their clients’ messages in print or on screen—that is, in books, magazines, newspapers, television commercials, posters, and packaging, as well as in film and video and on the Internet. In publishing, art directors work with artists, photographers, and text editors to develop visual images and generate copy, according to the marketing strategy. They are responsible for evaluating existing illustrations, determining presentation styles and techniques, hiring both staff and freelance talent, working with layouts, and preparing budgets. In films, videos, and television commercials, art directors set the general look of the visual elements and approve the props, costumes, and models. In addition, they are involved in casting, editing, and selecting the music. In film (motion pictures) and video, the art director is usually an experienced animator or computer/ graphic arts designer who supervises animators or other artistic staff. In sum, art directors are charged with selling to, informing, and educating consumers. They supervise both in-house and off-site staff, handle executive issues, and oversee the entire artistic production process. There were
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about 29,350 art directors working in the United States in 2005.
n history Artists have always been an important part of the creative process throughout history. Medieval monks illuminated their manuscripts, painting with egg-white tempera on vellum. Each copy of each book had to be printed and illustrated individually. Printed illustrations first appeared in books in 1461. Through the years, prints were made through woodblock, copperplate, lithography, and other means of duplicating images. Although making many copies of the same illustration was now possible, publishers still depended on individual artists to create the original works. Text editors usually decided what was to be illustrated and how, while artists commonly supervised the production of the artwork. The first art directors were probably staff illustrators for quick facts book publishers. As the publishSchool Subjects ing industry grew more complex Art and incorporated new technoloBusiness gies such as photography and film, Computer science art direction evolved into a more Personal Skills supervisory position and became a Artistic full-time job. Publishers and adverCommunication/ideas tisers began to need specialists who could acquire and use illustrations Work Environment and photos. Women’s magazines, Primarily indoors Primarily one location such as Vogue (http://www.style. com/vogue) and Harper’s Bazaar Minimum Education Level http://www.harpersbazaar.com), Bachelor’s degree and photo magazines, such as National Geographic (http:// www. Salary Range nationalgeographic.com), relied $36,610 to $63,950 to $125,890+ so much on illustration and photography that the photo editor and Certification or Licensing art director began to carry as much None available power as the text editor. With the creation of animaOutlook About as fast as the average tion, art directors became more indispensable than ever. AniDOT mated short films, such as the 164 early Mickey Mouse cartoons, were usually supervised by art GOE directors. Walt Disney, himself, 01.01.01 was the art director on many of his NOC early pictures. And as full-length 5131 films have moved into animation, the sheer number of illustrations O*NET-SOC requires more than one art direc27-1011.00 tor to oversee the project.
Today’s art directors supervise almost every type of visual project produced. Through a variety of methods and media, from television and film to magazines, comic books, and the Internet, art directors communicate ideas by selecting and supervising every element that goes into the finished product.
n the job Art directors are responsible for all visual aspects of printed or on-screen projects. The art director oversees the process of developing visual solutions to a variety of communication problems. He or she helps to establish corporate identities; advertises products and services; enhances books, magazines, newsletters, and other publications; and creates television commercials, film and video productions, and Web sites. Some art directors with experience or knowledge in specific fields specialize in such areas as packaging, exhibitions and displays, or the Internet. But all directors, even those with specialized backgrounds, must be skilled in and knowledgeable about design, illustration, photography, computers, research, and writing in order to supervise the work of graphic artists, photographers, copywriters, text editors, and other employees. In print advertising and publishing, art directors may begin with the client’s concept or develop one in collaboration with the copywriter and account executive. Once the concept is established, the next step is to decide on the most effective way to communicate it. If there is text, for example, should the art director choose illustrations based on specific text references, or should the illustrations fill in the gaps in the copy? If a piece is being revised, existing illustrations must be reevaluated. After deciding what needs to be illustrated, art directors must find sources that can create or provide the art. Photo agencies, for example, have photographs and illustrations on thousands of different subjects. If, however, the desired illustration does not exist, it may have to be commissioned or designed by one of the staff designers. Commissioning artwork means that the art director contacts a photographer or illustrator and explains what is needed. A price is negotiated, and the artist creates the image specifically for the art director. Once the illustrations and other art elements have been secured, they must be presented in an appealing manner. The art director supervises (and may help in the production of) the layout of the piece and presents the final version to the client or creative director. Layout is the process of figuring out where every image, headline, and block of text will be placed on the page. The size, style, and method of reproduction must all be specifically indicated so that the image is recreated as the director intended it.
In broadcast advertising and film and video, the art director has a wide variety of responsibilities and often interacts with an enormous number of creative professionals. Working with directors and producers, art directors interpret scripts and create or select settings in order to visually convey the story or the message. The art director oversees and channels the talents of set decorators and designers, model makers, location managers, propmasters, construction coordinators, and special effects people. In addition, art directors work with writers, unit production managers, cinematographers, costume designers, and post-production staff, including editors and employees responsible for scoring and titles. The art director is ultimately responsible for all visual aspects of the finished product. The process of producing a television commercial begins in much the same way that a printed advertising piece is created. The art director may start with the client’s concept or create one in-house in collaboration with staff members. Once a concept has been created and the copywriter has generated the corresponding text, the art director sketches a rough storyboard based on the writer’s ideas, and the plan is presented for review to the creative director. The next step is to develop a finished storyboard, with larger and more detailed frames (the individual scenes) in color. This storyboard is presented to the client for review and used as a guide for the film director as well. Technology has been playing an increasingly important role in the art director’s job. Most art directors, for example, use a variety of computer software programs, including Adobe PageMaker, FrameMaker, Illustrator, and Photoshop; Macromedia Dreamweaver; QuarkXPress; and CorelDRAW. Many others create and oversee Web sites for clients and work with other interactive media and materials, including CD-ROM, touchscreens, multidimensional visuals, and new animation programs. Art directors usually work on more than one project at a time and must be able to keep numerous, unrelated details straight. They often work under pressure of a deadline and yet must remain calm and pleasant when dealing with clients and staff. Because they are supervisors, art directors are often called upon to resolve problems, not only with projects but with employees as well. Art directors are not entry-level workers. They usually have years of experience working at lower-level jobs in the field before gaining the knowledge needed to supervise projects. Depending on whether they work primarily in publishing or film, art directors have to know how printing presses operate or how film is processed. They should also be familiar with a variety of production tech-
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niques in order to understand the wide range of ways that images can be manipulated to meet the needs of a project.
n requirements High School A college degree is usually a requirement for art directors; however, in some instances, it is not absolutely necessary. A variety of high school courses will give you both a taste of college-level offerings and an idea of the skills necessary for art directors on the job. These courses include art, drawing, art history, graphic design, illustration, photography, advertising, and desktop publishing. Math courses are also important. Most of the elements of sizing an image involve calculating percentage reduction or enlargement of the original picture. This must be done with a great degree of accuracy if the overall design is going to work. For example, type size may have to be figured within a thirty-second of an inch for
Join the Club If you think that art direction may be the direction you’re headed, a number of clubs—located all across the nation and abroad—can offer you a taste of the profession. Art directors clubs in Cincinnati, Denver, Portland (Maine), Indiana, Houston, New York, and other areas provide scholarships, volunteering opportunities, design contests, resources, events, job services, speakers, intern programs, and more, all intended for high school and collegelevel students. The Art Directors Club of Metropolitan Washington (http://www.adcmw.org), for example, “seeks to ensure the quality of future professionals” by offering visual communications students the following: n
A series of walking tours of local art studios
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Career Day, which brings students and professionals together for one day for one-on-one critiques of students’ portfolios and features presentations about the design profession by area designers and art directors
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The Real Show, an annual student competition in which students solve real-world design problems
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Brian Brown Scholarships—$2,000 in scholarships awarded on the merits of submitted student portfolio samples
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Student memberships to the club at the reduced rate of $25 per year
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Courses in advertising, marketing, photography, filmmaking, set direction, layout, desktop publishing, and fashion are also important for those interested in becoming art directors. Specialized courses, sometimes offered only at professional art schools, may be particularly helpful for students who want to go into art direction. These include typography, animation, storyboard, website design, and portfolio development. Because of the rapidly increasing use of computers in design work, it is essential to have a thorough understanding of how computer art and layout programs work. In smaller companies, the art director may be responsible for operating this equipment; in larger companies, a staff person, under the direction of the art director, may use these programs. In either case, the director must know what can be done with the available equipment. In addition to course work at the college level, many universities and professional art schools offer graduates or students in their final year a variety of workshop projects, desktop publishing training opportunities, and internships. These programs provide students with opportunities to develop their personal design styles as well as their portfolios.
Other Requirements
An art director at an advertising agency examines slides. (Len Rubenstein, Index Stock Imagery.)
a print project. Errors can be extremely costly and may make the project look sloppy. Other useful courses that you should take in high school include business, computing, English, technical drawing, cultural studies, psychology, and social science.
Postsecondary Training According to the American Institute of Graphic Arts, nine out of 10 artists have a college degree. Among them, six out of 10 have majored in graphic design, and two out of 10 have majored in fine arts. In addition, almost two out of 10 have a master’s degree. Along with general two- and fouryear colleges and universities, a number of professional art schools offer two-, three-, or four-year programs with such classes as figure drawing, painting, graphic design, and other art courses, as well as classes in art history, writing, business administration, communications, and foreign languages.
The work of an art director requires creativity, imagination, curiosity, and a sense of adventure. Art directors must be able to work with all sorts of specialized equipment and computer software, such as graphic design programs, as well as make presentations on the ideas behind their work. The ability to work well with different people and organizations is a must for art directors. They must always be up to date on new techniques, trends, and attitudes. And because deadlines are a constant part of the work, an ability to handle stress and pressure well is key. Accuracy and attention to detail are important parts of the job. When art is done neatly and correctly, the public usually pays no notice. But when a project is done poorly or sloppily, people will notice, even if they have had no design training. Other requirements for art directors include time management skills and an interest in media and people’s motivations and lifestyles.
n exploring High school students can get an idea of what an art director does by working on the staff of the school newspaper, magazine, or yearbook, and developing their own Web sites or zines. It may also be possible to secure a parttime job assisting the advertising director of the local newspaper or to work at an advertising agency. Developing your own artistic talent is important, and this can be
accomplished through self-training (reading books and practicing) or through courses in painting, drawing, or other creative arts. At the very least, you should develop your “creative eye,” that is, your ability to develop ideas visually. One way to do this is by familiarizing yourself with great works, such as paintings or highly creative magazine ads, motion pictures, videos, or commercials. Students can also become members of a variety of art or advertising clubs around the nation. If you have access to the Internet, check out Paleta: The Art Project (http:// www.paletaworld.org) to join a free art club. In addition to keeping members up to date on industry trends, such clubs offer job information, resources, and a variety of other benefits.
n employers A variety of organizations in virtually all industries employ art directors. They might work at advertising agencies, publishing houses, museums, packaging firms, photography studios, marketing and public relations firms, desktop publishing outfits, digital pre-press houses, or printing companies. Art directors who oversee and produce on-screen products often work for film production houses, Web designers, multimedia developers, computer games developers, or television stations. While companies of all sizes employ art directors, smaller organizations often combine the positions of graphic designer, illustrator, and art director. And although opportunities for art direction can be found all across the nation and abroad, many larger firms in such cities as Chicago, New York, and Los Angeles usually have more openings, as well as higher pay scales, than smaller companies.
n starting out Since an art director’s job requires a great deal of experience, it is usually not considered an entry-level position. Typically, a person on a career track toward art director is hired as an assistant to an established director. Recent graduates wishing to enter advertising should have a portfolio of their work containing seven to 10 sample ads to demonstrate their understanding of both the business and the media in which they want to work. Serving as an intern is a good way to get experience and develop skills. Graduates should also consider taking an entry-level job in a publisher’s art department to gain initial experience. Either way, aspiring art directors must be willing to acquire their credentials by working on various projects. This may mean working in a variety of areas, such as advertising, marketing, editing, and design. College publications offer students a chance to gain experience and develop portfolios. In addition, many
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students are able to do freelance work while still in school, allowing them to make important industry contacts and gain on-the-job experience at the same time.
n advancement While some may be content upon reaching the position of art director to remain there, many art directors take on even more responsibility within their organizations, become television directors, start their own advertising agencies, create their own Web sites, develop original multimedia programs, or launch their own magazines. Many people who get to the position of art director do not advance beyond the title but move on to work at more prestigious firms. Competition for positions at companies that have national reputations continues to be keen because of the sheer number of talented people interested. At smaller publications or local companies, the competition may be less intense, since candidates are competing primarily against others in the local market.
n earnings The job title of art director can mean many different things, depending on the company at which the director is employed. According to the U.S. Department of Labor, a beginning art director or an art director working at a small firm can expect to make $36,610 or less per year
The Impact of Technology New technologies are playing key roles in the art director’s job. To prepare future professionals who will be using these emerging technologies, art and design schools across the country are offering a wide variety of related courses. Below are just some of the classes that students can take at the School of Visual Arts in New York: n
Basic 3D Graphic Design
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Computers in the Studio
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The Digital Image
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Advanced Digital Video
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Web Design
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Web Programming
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Internet Culture and Community
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Internet Studio
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3D Animation Mechanics
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Telecommunications for Artists
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Music Composition and Sound Design
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Virtual Reality Seminar
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in 2005, with experienced art directors working at larger companies earning more than $125,890. Median annual earnings for art directors employed in the advertising industry (the largest employer of salaried art directors) were $78,640 in 2005. The median annual earnings for art directors working in all industries were $63,950. (Again, it is important to note that these positions are not entry level; beginning art directors have probably already accumulated several years of experience in the field for which they were paid far less.) According to the American Institute of Graphic Arts’ Aquent Salary Survey 2005, the median salary for art directors was $60,000. Art directors in the 25th percentile earned $48,000 annually, while those in the 75th percentile made $75,000 per year. Salaries varied by geographic region. For example, art directors in the Mid-Atlantic states made average salaries of $73,000 a year, while those in the South made an average of $50,000. Most companies employing art directors offer insurance benefits, a retirement plan, and other incentives and bonuses.
n work environment Art directors usually work in studios or office buildings. While their work areas are ordinarily comfortable, well lit, and ventilated, they often handle glue, paint, ink, and other materials that pose safety hazards, and they should, therefore, exercise caution. Art directors at art and design studios and publishing firms usually work a standard 40-hour week. Many, however, work overtime during busy periods in order to meet deadlines. Similarly, directors at film and video operations and at television studios work as many hours as required—usually many more than 40 per week— in order to finish projects according to predetermined schedules. While art directors work independently while reviewing artwork and reading copy, much of their time is spent collaborating with and supervising a team of employees, often consisting of copywriters, editors, photographers, graphic artists, and account executives.
n outlook The extent to which art director positions are in demand, like many other positions, depends on the economy in general; when times are tough, people and businesses spend less, and cutbacks are made. When the economy is healthy, employment prospects for art directors will be favorable. The U.S. Department of Labor predicts that employment for art directors will grow about as fast as the average for all other occupations. One area that shows particularly good promise for growth is the retail indus-
try, since more and more large retail establishments, especially catalog houses, will be employing in-house advertising art directors. In addition, producers of all kinds of products continually need advertisers to reach their potential customers, and publishers always want some type of illustration to enhance their books and magazines. Creators of films and videos also need images in order to produce their programs, and people working with new media are increasingly looking for artists and directors to promote new and existing products and services, enhance their websites, develop new multimedia programs, and create multidimensional visuals. People who can quickly and creatively generate new concepts and ideas will be in high demand. However, it is important to note that the supply of aspiring artists is expected to exceed the number of job openings. As a result, those wishing to enter the field will encounter keen competition for salaried, staff positions as well as for freelance work. And although the Internet is expected to provide many opportunities for artists and art directors, some firms are hiring employees without formal art or design training to operate computer-aided design systems and oversee work.
n for more information The AAF is the professional advertising association that binds the mutual interests of corporate advertisers, agencies, media companies, suppliers, and academia. For more information, contact American Advertising Federation (AAF) 1101 Vermont Avenue, NW, Suite 500 Washington, DC 20005-6306 Tel: 202-898-0089 Email:
[email protected] http://www.aaf.org
This management-oriented national trade organization represents the advertising agency business. For information, contact American Association of Advertising Agencies 405 Lexington Avenue, 18th Floor New York, NY 10174-1801 Tel: 212-682-2500 http://www.aaaa.org
For more information on design professionals, contact American Institute of Graphic Arts 164 Fifth Avenue New York, NY 10010 Tel: 212-807-1990 http://www.aiga.org
artist and repertoire workers
The Art Directors Club is an international, nonprofit organization of directors in advertising, graphic design, interactive media, broadcast design, typography, packaging, environmental design, photography, illustration, and related disciplines. For information, contact Art Directors Club 106 West 29th Street New York, NY 10001 Tel: 212-643-1440 Email:
[email protected] http://www.adcglobal.org
For information on the graphic arts, contact Graphic Artists Guild 90 John Street, Suite 403 New York, NY 10038-3202 Tel: 212-791-3400 http://www.gag.org
Artist and Repertoire Workers n overview In the artist and repertoire (A&R) department of a record company, A&R coordinators, executives, and other workers locate new talent and convince the company to sign them to contracts. A&R workers are also involved in producing their artists’ CDs, promoting them, arranging concert tours, and other details of management.
n history Talent scouts first became important to the recording industry in the 1950s, when pop and rock artists dominated the radio. For the first time in the country’s history, teenagers were taken seriously as a consumer group, and their musical preferences made the small, independent companies that produced rock and roll records hugely successful. In the 1960s, record companies employed people who would match the professional musicians (artists) with songs (repertoire) written by professional composers. After a period of poor sales in the 1970s, record companies bounced back in the 1980s with the advent of the music video. During this new era of big business, A&R executives became even more powerful in the entertainment industry. Record companies relied on A&R professionals to sign and promote artists who had potential for huge sales quickly. Though record companies increasingly rely on major, break-out performers to generate large profits,
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A&R workers are still needed to develop a diverse group of artists that can bring their companies stable long-term returns on their investment.
n the job If you’ve ever been in a band, and you’ve tried to get some local, paying gigs, then you’re familiar with how difficult it can be to get your music heard. You’ll likely meet with even more frustration if you try to market your band nationally in an effort to get a record contract. A&R workers have firsthand knowledge of the number of artists hoping to sign with a record label—thousands of submissions cross their desks every year. A&R workers review these submissions, looking and listening for talented musicians. They listen to demo tape after demo tape, and read through press clippings and artist biographies. They also keep track of the music scene by attending clubs and reading fanzines. A&R workers visit Web sites and download samples. Although they listen to quick facts a lot of music that doesn’t interSchool Subjects est them, occasionally they come Business across something that stands out. Music When they do, A&R workers set out to get to know the artist betPersonal Skills Artistic ter. Just because A&R workers like Leadership/management an artist’s demo tape, it doesn’t mean they will automatically sign Work Environment the artist to a contract. They first Primarily indoors have to get a complete sense of the One location with some travel artist’s talents. They may request Minimum Education Level additional recorded songs and go Bachelor’s degree to live performances. Once they feel confident about the artist’s Salary Range talent, A&R workers attempt $20,000 to $85,000 to to get him or her a record deal. $200,000+ This involves convincing execuCertification or Licensing tives at the record company that None available the artist is worth the risk. But an A&R worker may also work with Outlook an artist that is being pursued by About as fast as the average A&R representatives from other DOT companies. In such cases, the 159 A&R worker has to convince the artist that he or she will receive GOE the attention and care he or she 01.04.01 needs. NOC The work of A&R represenN/A tatives doesn’t end when they’ve signed the talent to a contract. O*NET-SOC A&R workers become closely N/A involved in the careers of their
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artists. They help match them with producers and assist in the mixing of the tracks. They also help promote the artists—from helping them select the right clothes to wear for the CD cover photograph, to arranging interviews, to deciding which singles should be played on the radio. In many cases, A&R representatives work with artists closely throughout their careers, helping them to stay successful as artists and business people.
n requirements High School Most A&R workers have a college degree, so in high school you should pursue a college preparatory track. Classes in business, mathematics, speech, and English will be helpful. The most important thing you can do is to become involved in music, be it playing in a school band or with a group of friends, going to shows, or simply listening to a wide variety of music in your spare time.
Postsecondary Training Executives in the music industry come from a variety of backgrounds. You’ll likely need a college degree, but experience with a record company will be the most valuable training. An internship is highly recommended, and is useful for making the right connections. Some A&R workers have degrees in communications, business, marketing, and music.
Other Requirements Mainly, you’ll need a love for music and an interest in the business end of the music industry. You should have a good sense of the history of popular music as well as the acts that are currently on the scene. You’ll also need
Learn More about It Many Web sites are devoted to music and the recording industry. Here are a few places to start: n
CMJ Online (http://www.cmj.com) features a great deal of information about new music and artists, including audio clips and artist interviews.
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R&R Online (http://www.rronline.com) is “The Radio & Record Industries Information Leader.” There you’ll find music news, lists of job opportunities across the country, music charts, and links to record labels and other industry sites.
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Billboard Online (http://www.billboard-online.com) lists top albums and features reviews, previews, classifieds, and a reader Q&A.
to be very organized; A&R workers for big companies generally must handle many different acts in different stages of production.
n exploring Listen to a wide variety of music and follow the careers of your favorite recording artists by reading magazines and surfing the Internet. Listen especially to new talent as it emerges. There are certain radio stations that frequently feature new musicians. Visit clubs that regularly book live music. Study music, including music performance and music history. If possible, join a group to learn about the challenges of performing with others, composing original music, booking gigs, and managing the business side of music.
n employers There are hundreds of record companies across the country, but many are small, independent labels staffed by very few people. Five corporations—Universal, Warner, Sony, BMG, and EMI—now control 80 percent of the recording industry in the United States and employ the majority of A&R workers. Major record labels include A&M, Geffen, MCA, Warner Bros., Atlantic, Columbia, Arista, Virgin, and Capitol. Most positions are located in Los Angeles, New York City, and Nashville.
n starting out Getting a job in A&R can be very difficult—such positions are highly sought after. Some major record companies offer internship opportunities; check with your college’s internship office for information. After college, you can pursue an entry-level position with a record company. You should work in any department in which there’s a job opening. Check the help wanted ads in such trade magazines as Billboard (http://www.billboard.com) and Variety (http://www.variety.com), or seek out temporary employment agencies that specialize in placing people in jobs in the entertainment industry.
n advancement Once A&R workers gain some experience in the music industry, whether within a company, or as a freelance producer or manager, they will be able to make connections with other, more experienced A&R professionals. An A&R worker may begin as an assistant, then work up into a position as a coordinator, and later as a vice-president or president of the department.
n earnings
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A&R workers in entry-level positions make around $20,000 a year. More senior positions can pay upwards of $85,000. Experienced executives with major record companies can make more than $200,000 a year. Full-time employment with a record company usually includes health and retirement benefits, as well as bonuses.
n work environment Work with a record company can be very exciting—A&R workers have the opportunity to make decisions about what music people will be listening to and which artists will get a shot at success. But the work can be very stressful and intense. A&R professionals work long hours, making phone calls, devising schedules, reviewing contracts, and handling many other details of management. They have to sort through a lot of bad music and insistent would-be stars to find the few artists that interest them. They also devote many evenings to scouting out new talent at clubs.
n outlook The A&R worker will always be important to record companies, and positions within an A&R department will always be difficult to get. The work itself will be affected greatly by the Internet in the years to come. Already, A&R workers are surfing the Web for artists marketing themselves with their own Web sites. Technological advances have allowed for quick and easy downloading of music and other forms of media from the Internet, and some artists are now using the Web to bypass record companies entirely. So, in addition to competing with other record companies for talent, A&R workers may be competing with the artists themselves for the opportunity to distribute their music.
n for more information Visit the NARAS Web site to read about efforts to support the recording industry and to check out links to many music and recording-related sites: National Academy of Recording Arts and Sciences (NARAS) 3402 Pico Boulevard Santa Monica, CA 90405 Tel: 310-392-3777 http://grammy.com
For facts and statistics about the recording industry, contact Recording Industry Association of America 1330 Connecticut Avenue, NW, Suite 300 Washington, DC 20036 Tel: 202-775-0101 http://www.riaa.com
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For industry information, contact The Society of Professional Audio Recording Services 9 Music Square South, Suite 222 Nashville, TN 37203 Tel: 800-771-7727 Email:
[email protected] http://www.spars.com
Artists n overview Visual artists convey thoughts, opinions, and ideas through their work, whether it is a realistic painting, a piece of pottery, or an abstract sculpture. They use one or more quick facts media, such as clay, paint, metal, School Subjects or computer technology, to creArt History ate two- or three-dimensional works. The field of visual arts Personal Skills is usually separated into three Artistic categories: commercial art, fine Communication/ideas art, and craft. There are approximately 149,000 visual artists Work Environment Indoors and outdoors employed in the United States, One location with some travel and more than half of them are self-employed. Minimum Education Level
n history The history of art is a huge topic that covers thousands of years of human history all over the world. Many people devote their entire careers to its study, and since art history is such a large topic, historians usually specialize, focusing on either a time period, such as the Renaissance or the early 20th century, or a particular area, such as Mexico or Southeast Asia. Anthropologists and historians speculate that the earliest works of art were created for their function rather than for decorative or aesthetic value. The Venus of Willendorf, a figure carved from limestone around 21,000 to 25,000 b.c., might have been a part of fertility rites and rituals.
High school diploma Salary Range
$19,580 to $41,280 to $79,950+ Certification or Licensing
None available Outlook
About as fast as the average DOT
144, 779 GOE
01.04.01, 01.06.01 NOC
5136, 5244 O*NET-SOC
27-1013.00, 27-1013.01, 27-1013.04, 51-9195.05
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A ceramic artist shapes a decorative vase. (Billy E. Barnes, Tony Stone Images.)
The cave paintings of France and Spain, which date back to 15,000 b.c., were probably ceremonial, meant to bring good luck to the hunt. Much of early visual art was religious, reflecting the beliefs and legends with which people tried to understand their place in the world and in life. Art was also political, used to glorify society or the leaders of society. For example, the immense sculptures of Ramses II of ancient Egypt and the sculptures of Roman art depicted their rulers and their stature in society. The art of Greece and Rome exerted a profound influence on much of the history of Western art. The sculptural ideals developed by the ancient Greeks, particularly with their perfection of anatomical forms, continued to dominate Western sculpture until well into the 19th century. In painting, artists sought methods to depict or suggest a greater realism, experimenting with techniques of lighting, shading, and perspective. The rise of the Christian era brought a return to symbolism over realism. Illuminated manuscripts, which were written texts, usually religious in content, and decorated with designs and motifs meant to provide further understanding of the text, became the primary form of artistic expression for nearly a millennium. The artwork for these manuscripts often featured highly elaborate and detailed abstract designs. The human figure was absent in much of this work, reflecting religious prohibition of the creation of idols. Artists returned to more naturalistic techniques during the 14th century with the rise of Gothic art forms. The human figure returned to art and artists began creating works not only for rulers and religious institutions, but also for a growing wealthy class. Portrait painting became an increasingly important source of work and income for artists. New materials, particularly oil glazes
and paints, allowed artists to achieve more exact detailing and more subtle light, color, and shading effects. During the Renaissance, artists rediscovered the art of ancient Greece and Rome. This brought new developments not only in artists’ techniques but also in their stature in society. The development of perspective techniques in the 14th and 15th centuries revolutionized painting. Perspective allowed the artists to create the illusion of three dimensions, so that a spectator felt that he or she looked not merely at a painting but into it. Advances in the study of anatomy enabled artists to create more dramatic and realistic figures, whether in painting or sculpture, providing the illusion of action and fluidity and heightening the naturalism of their work. Artists achieved higher status and were sought out by the wealthy, the church, and rulers for their talent and skill. Renaissance artists became bolder and experimented with line, color, contour, shading, setting, and composition, presenting work of greater realism and at the same time of deeper emotional content. The style of an artist became more highly individualized, more a personal reflection of the artist’s thoughts, beliefs, ideas, and feelings. Artists continued to influence one another, but national and cultural differences began to appear in art as the Catholic Church lost its dominance and new religious movements took hold during the 16th and 17th centuries. Art academies, such as the Royal Academy of Painting and Sculpture in Paris, were established and sought to codify artistic ideals. During the next two centuries there were profound changes in the nature of art, leading to the revolutionary work of the impressionists of the late 19th century and the dawn of the modern era in art. Sculpture, which had remained largely confined to the Greek and Roman ideals, found new directions. The individual sensibility of the artist took on a greater importance and led to a greater freedom of painting techniques. Many of the ideals of the French academy were challenged, leading to the avant-garde work of the early French impressionists. Artists began to take on a new role by presenting society with new concepts, ideas, and visions and radical departures in style. Artists no longer simply reflected prevailing culture but adopted leadership positions in creating culture, often rejecting entirely the artistic principles of the past. The image of the artist as cultural outsider, societal misfit, or even tormented soul took hold. Artists working in the avant garde achieved notoriety, if not financial reward, and the “misunderstood” or “starving” artist became a popular 20th-century image. The 20th century witnessed an explosion of artistic styles and techniques. Art, both in painting and sculp-
ture, became increasingly abstracted from reality, and purely formal concerns developed. Impressionism and postimpressionism gave way to futurism, expressionism, fauvism, cubism, nonobjective art, surrealism, and other styles. American art, which had largely followed the examples set by European artists, came into its own during the 1940s and 1950s, with the rise of abstract expressionism. During the 1950s, a new art form, pop art, reintroduced recognizable images and often mundane objects to satirize and otherwise comment on cultural and societal life. More recent trends in art have given the world the graffiti-inspired works of Keith Haring and the “non-art” sculpture of Jeff Koons, as well as the massive installations of Christo. Artists today work in a great variety of styles, forms, and media. Many artists combine elements of painting, sculpture, and other art forms, such as photography, music, and dance, into their work. The rise of video recording techniques and especially of threedimensional computer animations has recently begun to challenge many traditional ideas of art. This brief art history time line has covered only Western fine art, but different art trends and developments occurred around the world simultaneously. Europeans had acquired art objects from other parts of the world for centuries as curios, status symbols, and collectors’ items, but the appreciation of these objects and paintings as works of art is relatively recent. Westerners now recognize paintings, sculpture, and functional objects from even the remotest parts of the world as having great artistic value and making significant contributions to the development of Western art. The debate continues about whether some functional items, such as pottery, furniture, rugs, and jewelry, for example, can be considered works of art. The lines have become blurred between artistry and craftsmanship, since many objects created for a specific function are beautiful to look at, make social and cultural commentary, or push the limits of convention as much as any painting or sculpture. Many media forms traditionally considered craft media, such as woodworking, ceramics, silversmithing, and papier mâché, are used in sculpture and mixed-media works, further confusing the distinctions between art and craft. Early commercial art may have its beginnings with signage, when symbols and pictures were used along with lettering to advertise places of business. Commercial art began to flourish with the advent of printing technology and the subsequent development of the publishing industry. Artists illustrated stories and advertisements and arranged type and artwork for books, magazines,
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Profile: Josiah Wedgwood (1730–95) English potter Josiah Wedgwood is noted for the beauty and perfection of his ware and for his leadership in making pottery one of England’s important industries. He introduced and frequently used the shade of blue named for him. Wedgwood ware is found in many private collections and in museums. Wedgwood was born in Burslem, Staffordshire, of a family of potters. He opened his own factory in 1759, and in 1769, he founded Etruria, a colony in Staffordshire. The colony included a large factory and homes for its workers. Wedgwood applied scientific techniques to developing and perfecting his ware and mass production methods to its manufacture. He employed outstanding artists to design the many kinds of ornamental pieces and tableware for which his factories are famous. The Wedgwood potteries are still in operation. Among Wedgwood’s creations are queen’s ware, a fine, cream-colored earthenware; basalt, a black stoneware (vitreous pottery); rosso antico, a red stoneware decorated with black figures in relief; and jasper, an unglazed porcelain in white or soft colors, decorated with cameolike designs in white. Jasper was Wedgwood’s last and perhaps greatest creation and the most widely used and imitated of his wares.
and newspapers. The growth of the advertising industry throughout the 19th and 20th centuries fueled the growth of commercial art. Artists used black and white line art in the beginning, which gave way to color drawings, and then photography, and then computer-generated visuals. Today commercial artists work in all phases of publishing, including decorative and explanatory illustration, photography, layout, typography, and print production. Advertising art includes art direction, print advertising (magazines, newspapers, catalogs, and direct mail), package design, film production, and Web design.
n the job Visual artists use their creative abilities to produce original works of art to express ideas; to provide social and cultural commentary; to communicate messages; to record events; to explore color, texture, line, and other visual elements; and for many other purposes. Fine artists usually create works for display in public areas or in private galleries. Commercial artists produce art that illustrates, explains, or draws attention to text, as in advertising and publishing. Craft workers, or artisans, create works that usually have a function.
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Fine artists work for themselves. Their art comes from their own ideas and methods of working. They spend years developing their own style, focusing on a chosen subject, and refining their skills in a particular medium. Many artists work in only one technique or focus on one subject area throughout their lives, such as painting only large-scale oil portraits. Most artists change styles subtly as they gain experience in their art and in their lives, and some experiment with different media. For example, a sculptor who works in clay may switch to bronze casting later in his or her career. Many artists develop a particular style and apply that style across a broad range of techniques, from painting to etching to sculpture. Painters use different media to paint a variety of subjects, such as landscapes, people, or objects. They work with oil paint, acrylic paint, tempera, watercolors, gouache, pen and ink, or pastels, but they may also incorporate such nontraditional media as clay, paper, cloth,
A wood sculptor at work in his studio. (Karl Weatherly, Tony Stone Images.)
and a variety of other material. They use brushes, palette knives, airbrushes, and other tools to apply color to canvas, paper, or other surfaces. Painters use line, texture, color, and other visual elements to produce the desired effect. Sculptors create three-dimensional works of art. They may carve objects from stone, plaster, concrete, or wood. They may use their fingers to model clay or wax into objects. Some sculptors create forms from metal or stone, using various masonry tools and equipment. Some sculptors form objects with clay or wax from which to make a mold, which is then cast in bronze or other metals, plastics, or other materials. Others create works from found objects, whether parts of a car, branches of a tree, or other objects. Like painters, sculptors may be identified with a particular technique or style. Their work can take monumental forms, or they may work on a very small scale. Visual artists also include printmakers, who engrave, etch, or mask their designs on wood, stone, metal, or silk screen. These designs are then transferred, or printed, on paper. Printmakers can also create their art using computers. These artists use computer scanners to scan the prepared plates and then reproduce prints using highquality color printers. Mixed-media artists incorporate several techniques, such as painting, sculpture, collage, printing, and drawing, into one work of art. Ceramic artists, also known as potters, ceramists, sculptors, and clay artists, work with clay to make both functional objects and sculpture. Their work often blurs the distinction between fine art and craft. They blend basic elements (such as clay and water) and more specialized components (such as texture fillers, colorants, and talc) and form the mixture into shapes using either manual techniques or wheel-throwing techniques to create dinnerware, vases, beads, tiles, architectural installations, and sculptures. Some ceramic artists make molds from materials like plaster and use a casting method. The formed pieces, called greenware, are fired in kilns at very high temperatures. The artists apply glazes and other finishes and fire them again to set the pieces. Other visual artists that blur the distinction between fine art and craft are glass workers, including stained glass artists, glassblowers, and etchers. Stained glass artists cut colored pieces of glass, arrange them in a design, and connect them with leading. The leading is then soldered to hold the glass pieces together. Glassblowers use a variety of instruments to blow molten glass into bottles, vases, and sculptures. Etchers use fine hand and power tools, and sometimes chemicals, to create a design in the surface of glass.
Fiber artists create wall hangings and sculpture from textiles, threads, and paper. Visual artists are innovators and are not bound by tradition or convention. They respond to cultural and societal stimuli and incorporate them into works of art. In recent years, they have used copiers, laser beams, computers, and other technology not originally intended for art as alternative media. Most fine artists work on their own. Once they create a body of work, they usually seek out a gallery to display and sell their work. The gallery owner and artist set the prices for pieces of art, and the gallery owner receives a commission on any work that sells. The relationship between the gallery owner and artist is often one of close cooperation. For example, a gallery owner may encourage artists to explore new techniques, styles, and ideas while helping to establish their reputation. As an artist becomes well known, selling his or her work often becomes easier, and many well-known artists receive commissions for their art. A sculptor, for example, might be commissioned to create a piece specifically for the lobby or outdoor plaza of a public building. A stained glass artist might be commissioned to make a window for a church. Commercial artists include graphic designers, illustrators, art directors, and photographers. Their art differs from fine art in that it is usually created according to the wishes of a client or employer. Computers are now widely used to create illustrations, typography, and page layouts, but traditional methods are still being used for illustration. Original drawings, paintings, collage, and other two-dimensional pieces can be scanned and digitized and then the image can be manipulated using software programs. Commercial artists work primarily in the advertising and publishing industries and for businesses that need advertising and publishing services, such as retail stores. In most cases, commercial art is closely related to textual matter. For example, a medical illustrator might draw a series of pictures to demonstrate a surgical technique. Advertisements often show a product, or someone using a product, along with text that persuades viewers to buy that product. Photographs accompany feature articles in magazines and newspapers to show the people and places depicted in the story. Art is also included to draw the reader’s attention to certain textual matter. Art directors and graphic designers commission, select, and arrange visuals and text on the page so it will be easy to read as well as attractive and pleasing to the reader. Craft workers are artists who make decorative, usually three-dimensional items that are often functional. They make jewelry, furniture, dinnerware, musical
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instruments, pottery, and quilts, to name a few. They use many of the same techniques as fine artists, including painting, carving, casting, and modeling, and they use a variety of tools from needle and thread to chain saws. Another specialized area of visual art is evaluation and restoration. Painting experts preserve and restore aged, faded, or damaged art. They also evaluate the age and authenticity of the work. Restoring art can be tedious and detailed work, requiring the precise and skillful application of solvents and cleaning agents to the work. Art conservators also repair damaged sculpture, pottery, jewelry, fabrics, and other items, depending on their area of expertise. Visual art is an intensely personal endeavor. Most artists are people with a desire and need to explore visual representations of real and imagined worlds. Their work usually continues and develops throughout their lives. Creating art is rarely a career choice but rather a way of life.
n requirements High School In the public school system, there is very little art instruction at the elementary level, so high school is your chance to take as many art courses as you can. Many schools offer general art instruction that exposes you to several techniques and principles. Some schools offer specialized art classes in painting, sculpture, design principles, graphic design, photography, and computer graphics. You may have to find other art instruction outside of your school if you are interested in ceramics, woodworking, stained glass, or another specialty. Check community centers, junior colleges, independent schools of art, or local galleries that might offer classes.
Postsecondary Training There are no formal educational requirements for becoming a visual artist. However, most artists benefit from training, and many, about 90 percent, attend art schools or programs in colleges and universities. Twenty percent of all artists major in fine arts, according to the American Institute of Graphic Arts, and of those, 20 percent have at least a master’s degree. Master’s programs may offer majors in ceramic art, fiber art, art history, film and photography, sculpture, and a number of others. Two-year or associate’s degree programs are available in many art specialties, including computer graphics, advertising design, fashion design, illustration, and photography, among others. Besides earning a degree, there are many workshops, private studios, and individuals that offer instruction,
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practice, and exposure to art and the works and ideas of other artists. It is wise to learn a variety of techniques, be exposed to as many media and styles as possible, and gain an understanding of the history and theory of art. By learning as much as possible, you will have more choices for your own artistic expression. Some types of artists need training in an additional field. For example, medical illustrators are required to have training in biology and anatomy. Medical or scientific illustrators not only have a four-year degree in art with an emphasis in premedical courses, but most have a master’s degree in medical illustration. Only a few schools in the United States offer this specialized coursework.
Words to Know PAINTING Broken color: Colors laid next to each other and blended by the eye of the viewer; thus instead of mixing red and blue on a palette to produce purple, red and blue are placed next to each other on the canvas. Drybrush: A technique in which paint of a thick consistency is stroked lightly over a dry surface; it produces a broken or mottled effect. Glaze: A film of transparent paint applied over a solid color, producing a luminous, rich effect. Grisaille: A monochromatic painting, usually in shades of gray; it may be a finished painting or an underpainting. Impasto: A thick application of paint to a canvas or panel; the marks of the brush or palette knife can be seen plainly. Imprimatura: A toned ground created by a thin wash or glaze of transparent color. Scumble: An application of opaque paint over a different color of paint; the original color is not covered entirely, giving an uneven effect. Stippling: The technique of applying small dots of paint to a surface to build up tonal areas or textures. Underpainting: A preliminary painting on the painting surface; using tones of one color, the artist makes an underpainting to establish the basic shapes, values, and overall composition of a painting. Wash: A thin layer of paint spread evenly over a broad area. Wet-in-wet: A technique in which fresh paint is applied on top of or into wet paint already on the
Apprenticeships are sometimes available in certain art fields, such as glassmaking, ceramics, printmaking, woodworking, and papermaking. Apprenticeships allow young artists the opportunity for intensive training under master artists while actually producing art objects.
Other Requirements While attending classes, earning a degree, or working under a master artist, it is important for fine artists and craft workers to build a body of work that shows a definite and unique style and a thematic progression. Gallery owners and sales representatives want to represent artists they can count on to keep producing work. They also like to see a certain amount of consistency
support; used with watercolors and oils and can produce both distinctive contrasts of color and softly blended effects. SCULPTURE Bronzing: The process of coloring a plaster cast in imitation of bronze. Cast: A work of sculpture that has been produced from a mold. Cast stone: A mixture of cement or concrete and stone that is cast from a mold. Dry lacquering: A technique in which a modeled clay form is covered with many layers of lacquersoaked cloth; when the cloth is dry, the clay is removed, and the hollow form is finished with gesso (a fine plaster) and painted. Mold: The shell-like impression into which a casting material is poured or pressed. A piece mold is made in several sections, or pieces; it can easily be pulled off the cast and used again. A waste mold has to be broken, or “wasted,” to remove the cast. Plastic: A sculpture that was produced by the modeling technique; it is the opposite of glyptic, a sculpture that was produced by carving. Any material that can be shaped by modeling is also referred to as plastic. Repoussé: A term used in sculpture to describe a sculpture that has been hammered, or beaten, from a sheet of metal into the desired shape. Stucco: A blend of gypsum or cement and pulverized marble used as a medium for relief sculpture.
of style to satisfy customer demand for a particular artist’s work. Commercial artists need to build a portfolio of published work to show to potential clients and employers. A portfolio can be very specific—showing only portrait photography, for example—or it can be general, showing your ability to use a number of techniques for varied clients. You need creativity and imagination to be a visual artist, but you also need patience, persistence, determination, independence, sensitivity, and confidence in your abilities. Because earning a living as a fine artist or craft worker is very difficult, especially when you are starting out, you may have to work at another job. With the proper training and educational background, many fine artists are able to work in art-related positions, such as art teachers, art directors, or graphic designers, while pursuing their art activities independently.
n exploring You need very little to begin to explore your interest in art. Crayons, pencil and paper, glue and found objects can get you started. Inexpensive paints, clays, markers, and other supplies are available at art supply stores and department stores. Your school may have art-related clubs, such as poster clubs, drama clubs that allow you to design and construct sets and costumes, and publicity committees. School newspapers and magazines will give you exposure to commercial art, including illustration, photography, and page design. Specialized art instruction may be available at community centers, art galleries, and private studios in your town. Visit art galleries and museums often and begin to form opinions about what you like and don’t like, both in terms of design and technique. Visit your library and look at art books and magazines that feature the art of particular periods or artists. There are also numerous resources that give step-by step instructions for art techniques. The New York Foundation for the Arts hosts a valuable Web site (http://www.nyfa.org) that offers information on job leads, art events, and other concerns of visual artists.
n employers Fine artists are usually self-employed, and very few are able to support themselves completely by the sale of their art. They hold other jobs that allow them to pursue their artistic endeavors on a part-time basis, or they may work in art-related jobs, such as in teaching, commercial art, art therapy, or working in a gallery or art museum.
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Most craft workers are also self-employed, although there are full-time positions in some fields. For example, a stained-glass artist might find a job with a small shop, or a ceramic artist might work for a pottery production factory. Many commercial artists are self-employed, but they can more readily find full-time employment, primarily in the publishing and advertising industries. They also work in all kinds of businesses, including retail, public relations, fashion, and entertainment.
n starting out Visual artists interested in exhibiting or selling their products should first and foremost develop a portfolio, or a collection of work. The portfolio, which should be organized and showcase a wide variety of the artist’s talent and capabilities, is an essential tool when looking for work. To develop business opportunities, artists should investigate their potential markets. Reference books, such as The Artist’s & Graphic Designer’s Market (Cincinnati, Ohio: Writers Digest Books, 2003) may be helpful, as well as library books that offer information on business and tax law and related issues. Local fairs and art shows often provide opportunities for new artists to display their work. Art councils are a good source of information on upcoming fairs. However, most successful artists are represented by a gallery or agent that displays their work and approaches potential buyers when new works are available. The gallery or agent gets a commission for each piece of artwork sold. Relationships between artists and gallery operators can be tricky, so legal advice is recommended, but such relationships can also be beneficial to both creator and seller. A good gallery operator encourages, supports, and believes in the artists he or she represents. Many art schools and universities have placement services to help graduates find jobs. Although fine artists are generally self-employed, many need to work at another job, at least initially, to support themselves while they establish a reputation.
n advancement The channels of advancement for self-employed fine artists are not as well-defined as they would be for an artist employed at a company. An artist may become increasingly well known, both nationally and internationally, and may be able to command higher prices for his or her work. The success of a fine artist depends on a variety of factors, including talent, drive, and determination. However, luck often seems to play a role in many artists’ successes, and some artists do not achieve recognition until late in life, if at all. Artists with business skills may open galleries to
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display their own and others’ work. Those with the appropriate educational backgrounds may become art teachers, agents, or critics. Commercial artists can start out in publishing or advertising as graphic designers and with experience become art directors or account executives.
paid vacations, insurance coverage, or any of the other benefits usually offered by a company or firm. However, artists are able to work at their own pace, set their own prices, and make their own decisions. The energy and creativity that go into an artist’s work bring feelings of pride and satisfaction. Most artists genuinely love what they do.
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The amount of money earned by visual artists varies greatly. Because most work as freelancers, they can set their own prices. According to the U.S. Department of Labor, the median annual earnings of salaried fine artists, including painters and sculptors, were $41,280 in 2005. Salaries ranged from less than $19,580 to more than $79,950. Artists often work long hours and earn little, especially when they are first starting out. The price they charge is up to them, but much depends on the value the public places on their work. A particular item may sell for a few dollars or tens of thousands of dollars, or at any price in between. Often the value of a piece may increase considerably after it has been sold. Artwork that may have earned an artist only a few hundred dollars when it was first completed may earn many thousands of dollars the next time it is sold if the artist’s work becomes well known and in demand. Some artists obtain grants that allow them to pursue their art; others win prizes and awards in competitions. Most artists, however, have to work on their projects part time while holding a regular, full-time job. Many artists teach in art schools, high schools, or out of their studios. Artists who sell their products must pay social security and other taxes on any money they receive and provide their own benefits.
Employment for visual artists is expected to grow as fast as the average through 2014, according to the U.S. Department of Labor. However, because they are usually self-employed, much of their success depends on the amount and type of work created, the drive and determination in selling the artwork, and the interest or readiness of the public to appreciate and purchase the work. Continued population growth, higher incomes, and increased appreciation for fine art will create a demand for visual artists. Success for an artist, however, is difficult to quantify. Individual artists may consider themselves successful as their talent matures and they are better able to present their vision in their work. This type of success goes beyond financial considerations. Few artists enter this field for the money. Financial success depends on many factors, many of which have nothing to do with the artist or his or her work. Artists with good marketing skills or the ability to hire someone with marketing expertise will likely be the most successful in selling their work. Although artists should not let their style be dictated by market trends, those interested in financial success can attempt to determine what types of artwork the public wants. It often takes several years for an artist’s work and reputation to be established. Many artists have to support themselves through other employment. There are numerous employment opportunities for commercial artists in such fields as publishing, advertising, fashion and design, entertainment, and teaching, although there is strong competition from others who are attracted to these fields. Freelancers may have difficulty selling their work until they establish their artistic reputation. Artists skilled in computer techniques will have an edge. This occupation may be affected by the amount of funding granted by the government. The National Endowment of the Arts, for example, awards grants and funding to help talented artists hone their craft.
n work environment Most painters and sculptors work out of their homes or in studios. Some work in small areas in their apartments; others work in large, well-ventilated lofts, garages, or warehouse space. An artist may choose complete solitude to work; others thrive on interaction with other artists and people. Occasionally, painters and sculptors work outside. Artists engaged in monumental work, particularly sculptors, often have helpers who assist in the creation of a piece of art, working under the artist’s direction. They may contract with a foundry to cast a finished sculpture in bronze, iron, or another metal. In addition, artists often work at fairs, shops, museums, and other places where their work is being exhibited. Artists often work long hours, and those who are selfemployed do not have the security of a steady paycheck,
n for more information For general information on arts study, contact National Art Education Association 1916 Association Drive Reston, VA 20191-1590
asbestos abatement technicians
Tel: 703-860-8000 Email:
[email protected] http://www.naea-reston.org
The following organization helps artists market and sell their art. It offers marketing tools, a newsletter, a directory of artists, and reference resources. ArtNetwork PO Box 1360 Nevada City, CA 95959 Tel: 800-383-0677 Email:
[email protected] http://www.artmarketing.com
For education information, contact National Council on Education for the Ceramic Arts 77 Erie Village Square, Suite 280 Erie, CO 80516 Tel: 866-266-2322 Email:
[email protected] http://www.nceca.net
National Endowment for the Arts 1100 Pennsylvania Avenue, NW Washington, DC 20506 Tel: 202-682-5400 Email:
[email protected] http://arts.endow.gov
The following organization provides an information exchange and sharing of professional opportunities. Sculptors Guild 110 Greene Street, Suite 601 New York, NY 10012 Tel: 212-431-5669 http://www.sculptorsguild.org
Asbestos Abatement Technicians n overview Asbestos abatement technicians, also known as asbestos removal technicians, assist with the removal of asbestos-containing materials from buildings. Asbestos, now recognized as a hazardous material when released into the air, was once widely used in wall insulation, paint,
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pipes, ceiling tiles, and other building materials because of its fire-retardant properties. Many asbestos abatement technicians belong to the International Association of Heat and Frost Insulators and Asbestos Workers. Hazardous materials workers combined held about 38,000 jobs in 2004.
n history Asbestos is a tiny, fire-resistant fiber—a bundle of 600 equals the thickness of a human hair. It was used widely over the years on products and building materials to make them safer and stronger. Asbestos fibers were usually bundled together with other materials to keep them from being released into the air. Asbestos was used in insulation, carpet underlay, wall and ceiling panels, furnaces, and electrical wires, as well as hair dryers, toasters, and pot holders. Asbestos fibers are considered safe when they stay bundled, but quick facts if a product is disturbed and the School Subjects fibers are released, the asbestos Chemistry can be seriously hazardous to Technical/shop your health. Breathing asbestos fibers can cause a scarring of the Personal Skills Following instructions lungs, heart failure, and cancer. Mechanical/manipulative The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has been involved Work Environment in banning asbestos since the Primarily indoors 1970s, yet many buildings still Primarily multiple locations contain asbestos, including Minimum Educational Level schools and other public instituSome postsecondary training tions. As a result, asbestos abatement services have evolved to Salary Range remove or repair asbestos mate$21,470 to $33,690 to rials in buildings. $59,120
n the job When materials such as ceiling tile or wall panels are determined to be undamaged, trained technicians coat them to seal them. Asbestos is removed only in cases of serious damage because it can cost a building owner a great deal of money and the process can be dangerous when not performed properly. If the materials are damaged, technicians install a covering to keep the fibers from being released into the air of the room.
Certification or Licensing
Required by all states Outlook
Much faster than the average DOT
869 GOE
06.02.03 NOC
N/A O*NET-SOC
47-4041.00
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asbestos abatement technicians
Asbestos building inspectors collect samples and analyze them under a microscope in a laboratory. If a sample tests positive, the asbestos must be contained or removed in accordance with strict federal and state regulations. Asbestos abatement technicians who have been trained in a state-approved program remove the asbestos with a variety of tools, procedures, and safety measures. They first prepare an area for work, which involves putting in a series of enclosures and possibly constructing scaffolds. In order to protect themselves and the areas outside of the enclosure, technicians wear disposable protective gear from head to toe and breathe through special masks. Using the “wet method,” technicians apply a mixture of water or other wetting agent to the asbestos to prevent the release of particles into the air. They use a variety of hand tools, such as scrapers and guns that spray chemicals, depending on the kind of material being removed. Mechanical tools are never used for fear of spreading fibers into the air. An air monitor continuously takes samples to ensure hazardous particles are few and are kept within the containment area. Technicians then place the materials in plastic bags and prepare them for transport to a disposal site. Once the work has been completed, inspectors again survey and analyze the site to determine if it has been properly cleaned. If samples still show signs of asbestos, technicians must return to the site to remove any remaining asbestos-containing materials. If the work site is clear, the technicians then take down the enclosures and scaffolds, and the site is again open for use.
n requirements High School You should take drafting courses, or any course that teaches you to read and create blueprints and detailed design plans. Basic arithmetic can help you with the design and construction of containment areas and will also help you with any monitoring. As a monitor or supervisor, you may also need to write reports. English and composition courses can train you to communicate clearly with work teams, clients, and public officials.
Postsecondary Training The employer usually pays for any necessary training for asbestos abatement workers. Many colleges and universities across the country offer EPA-accredited courses that instruct workers in safety regulations, protective equipment, confined-space-entry procedures, decontamination, technology, and other topics. The programs are typically 40 hours of instruction and take place over one week. Some programs include hands-on training in constructing a contamination unit, the use of protective
clothing, and other relevant practices. The EPA requires asbestos abatement workers to also take refresher courses. Most states require an additional one-day course every year, along with a test.
Certification or Licensing After completing the course work from an EPA-accredited program, workers receive the certification required of technicians. This certification must be updated, usually annually. Each individual state has its own regulations about the frequency of refresher courses and tests.
Other Requirements This is physical work. Technicians must climb and balance on scaffolds in order to reach the materials. Also, because of the hazardous nature of the materials they handle, asbestos abatement workers must be aware of the health risks. Serious illness can result if skin, eyes, mouth, nose, or lungs are exposed to the loose fibers in the air. Technicians must work within all safety requirements and seek employment with reputable businesses that take all necessary precautions to keep workers healthy. Safety precautions cannot be taken lightly—excessive exposure to asbestos can increase your chance of lung cancer by 50 to 90 percent. You must be able to keep focused on the work at hand; with so many safety concerns, you must follow the regulations and procedures closely. You work as part of a team, but you should also have the skills to work independently and follow the guidance of your supervisors. If you’re a supervisor, you must be able to direct others and oversee their work as you fulfill your own responsibilities. You may also have to read plans and blueprints. When in charge, you may have to deal with emergency situations, in which case you need to remain calm and think clearly.
n exploring Contact your local union representing this trade. It could offer a wealth of information regarding the job, including training programs and job openings. You may be able to speak with a journeyman and learn what it’s really like to work in the field. You probably will not be allowed on a worksite, but you may be allowed to try on a respirator unit. Visit your local library and read about asbestos, its history, use, benefits, and potential hazards. Visit the EPA Web site (http://www.epa.gov) to learn more about potential hazards in your environment and what you can do about them. Is your school safe? Ask school officials or your school board if your facility has been tested and request the results from the test. If it hasn’t been tested and the school
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was built before 1980, gather support from students, parents, and teachers to demand testing.
n employers Asbestos abatement contractors are located in most major cities in the country and frequently need technicians. To find area contractors, look in the yellow pages under “Asbestos abatement and removal service,” “Asbestos consulting and testing,” and “Hazardous material control and removal.” According to the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, about 6 percent of hazardous materials removal workers are employed by special trade contractors. The next largest source of employment is sanitary services (treatment, storage, and disposal facilities).
n starting out Unionized asbestos abatement technicians start as apprentices. Apprentices work under the guidance of journeymen—skilled asbestos technicians—for a specific number of hours. Training is a combination of on-thejob work and classroom instruction. Once you fulfill the required training and certification, you are given journeyman status and benefits. Non-union workers must complete a 32- to 40hour training program before receiving a license. The employer provides additional technical training, most often on the job.
n advancement Because of the health risks involved with asbestos removal, technicians often move into related careers, such as construction. Some advancement opportunities exist, however, within the field. After a few years, experienced workers can move into supervisory positions in which they oversee day-to-day operations. With about four years of experience, technicians can become asbestos abatement contractors who oversee projects from beginning to end. Contractors are usually required to have detailed understanding of EPA regulations. They submit bids for projects, prepare reports, and speak to many different people, from workers to public authorities. Depending on the state’s regulations, contractors may need a special license. With a contractor’s license, you can also work as a project designer, which involves creating detailed plans for an asbestos removal project. Experience as an asbestos abatement technician is necessary to move into a position as an asbestos building inspector. Inspectors inspect buildings to ensure that they meet federal and state regulations, and they usually need additional training.
An asbestos abatement technician prepares to remove asbestos from a ceiling. (Phil Savoie, Index Stock Imagery.)
n earnings According to the U.S. Department of Labor, the median annual earning for hazardous materials removal workers was $33,690 in 2005. Those in the lowest 10 percent earned about $21,470 annually, and those in the highest 10 percent earned $59,120. With larger companies, full-time asbestos abatement technicians can expect some benefits, such as health and life insurance. Most employers also pay for initial training and annual refresher courses. Many asbestos workers are represented by the International Association of Heat and Frost Insulators and Asbestos Workers. The union has locals all across the country and assists members with job improvement. Union members often earn higher wages than other workers and receive union benefits, such as insurance, pension plans, and representation. Experienced workers with union membership may earn $25 or more per hour,
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Did You Know? Believe it or not, asbestos is a naturally occurring substance mined from the earth. Just as carbon can form a chunk of coal or a diamond, certain metamorphic minerals can likewise form fibrous structures. Asbestos has been valued for its flame-retardant qualities for centuries; Charlemagne supposedly had a tablecloth made of asbestos that he threw in the fire to clean, and in the 19th century, it was used for lamp wicks. In the 20th century, asbestos was used everywhere from buildings to hairdryers. Asbestos comes in many forms, but two have been most common for industrial uses. One, amphibole, has straight, needlelike fibers, and is both very dusty and stays in the human body for a long time. It is easily breathed in, and can cause lung cancer and other health problems. However, chrysotile asbestos has a different composition. It is silkier and has curlier fibers. It stays airborne for less time, and stays in the body for a shorter period, as well. Today, all asbestos used in industry is chrysotile asbestos. For more information on asbestos, see the Asbestos Institute Web site at http://www.asbestos-institute.ca/main. html. Also see the Wikipedia article on asbestos at http:// en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asbestos.
and the environment. There are procedures not only for the actual asbestos removal, but also for dressing in protective clothing, entering and exiting work spaces, and removal and disposal of clothing at the end of a shift.
n outlook The U.S. Department of Labor expects overall employment of hazardous waste removal workers to grow much faster than the average for all occupations through 2014. Concerns about clean air and the environment continue to lead to more safety regulations and more strict requirements for building owners. Because asbestos-containing materials still fill many buildings built before 1982, contractors will need asbestos technicians to complete the many expected removal projects. Every year, the nation disposes of approximately 5.7 million cubic feet of regulated asbestos-containing material. For federal and state studies, asbestos experts continue to study the best ways to treat or remove asbestos from buildings and to provide further protection for those who work closely with asbestos. Removal is often a last resort, and any errors in the process can create problems where they didn’t exist before. For this reason, scientists hope to develop ways to eliminate hazards without actual asbestos removal.
n for more information or $52,000 a year. Apprentices earn about 50 percent of journeyman wages, including fringe benefits.
n work environment Asbestos abatement technicians work indoors at various locations, most often office buildings and schools. They usually work a 40-hour week, although shift work is not uncommon, particularly if there is a deadline. For example, removal of asbestos from a school most likely will take place during the summer and have to be completed before school starts in the fall. An asbestos removal project may take several days or weeks. This type of work is not for the claustrophobic. Technicians work in small, cramped enclosures, requiring them to stand, stoop, kneel, and climb on scaffolding. They wear protective suits that fully cover the body, including head, hands, and face. The protective clothing, which can be hot and uncomfortable, must be worn for several hours at a time. Working with hand tools and instruments while wearing gloves and face masks can be awkward, but technicians must do it with great care and attention to detail. Asbestos abatement technicians work in a highly structured environment. There are strict regulations about asbestos removal, and workers follow specific steps in a carefully planned order to minimize risk to themselves
To learn about union membership, contact International Association of Heat and Frost Insulators and Asbestos Workers 9602 Martin Luther King Jr. Highway Lanham, MD 20706 Tel: 301-731-9101 http://www.insulators.org
For information about asbestos regulations and hazards, contact U.S. Environmental Protection Agency 1200 Pennsylvania Avenue, NW Washington, DC 20460 http://www.epa.gov
Assessors and Appraisers n overview Assessors and appraisers collect and interpret data to make judgments about the value, quality, and use of property.
Assessors are government officials who evaluate property for the express purpose of determining how much the real estate owner should pay the city or county government in property taxes. Appraisers evaluate the market value of property to help people make decisions about purchases, sales, investments, mortgages, or loans. Rural districts or small towns may have only a few assessors, while large cities or urban counties may have several hundred. Appraisers are especially in demand in large cities but also work in smaller communities. There are approximately 88,000 real estate assessors and appraisers employed in the United States.
n history Until the 1930s, most assessors and appraisers were lay people using unscientific, informal methods to estimate the value of property. People who were not trained specifically in the field performed appraisals as a part-time adjunct to a general real estate business. As a result, the “boom” period of the 1920s saw many abuses of appraisals, such as approving loans in excess of the property’s real value based on inaccurate estimates. The events of the Great Depression in the 1930s further highlighted the need for professionalism in appraising. Real estate owners defaulted on their mortgages, real estate bond issues stopped paying interest, and real estate corporations went into receivership. In 1922 the National Association of Real Estate Boards (NAREB) defined specializations of its real estate functions to encourage professionalism in the industry. They did not organize an independent appraisal division, however, because there were few appraisers and the industry at large did not appreciate the importance of sound appraisals. The NAREB recognized appraising as a significant branch of specialization in 1928 but did not formulate clearly defined appraisal standards and appraisal treatises until the 1930s. Since then, appraising has emerged as a complex profession offering many responsibilities and opportunities. With the advent of computers, assessing and appraising have become more scientific. Today, assessments are based on a combination of economic and statistical analysis and common sense. People need reliable appraisals when selling, mortgaging, taxing, insuring, or developing real estate. Buyers and sellers of property want to know the property’s market value as a guide in their negotiations and may need economic feasibility studies or advice about other investment considerations for a proposed or existing development. Mortgage lenders require appraisals before issuing loans, and insurance companies often need an estimate of value before underwriting a property.
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n the job Property is divided into two distinct types: real property and personal property. Real property is land and the structures built upon the land, while personal property includes all other types of possessions. Appraisers determine the value, quality, and use of real property and personal property based on selective research into market areas, the application of analytical techniques, and professional judgment derived from experience. In evaluating real property, they analyze the supply and demand for different types of property, such as residential dwellings, office buildings, shopping centers, industrial sites, and farms, to estimate their values. Appraisers analyze construction, condition, and functional design. They review public records of sales, leases, previous assessments, and other transactions pertaining to land and buildings quick facts to determine the market values, rents, and construction costs of similar properties. Appraisers collect information about neighborhoods, such as availability of gas, electricity, power lines, and transportation. They also may interview people familiar with the property, and they consider the cost of making improvements on the property. Appraisers also must consider such factors as location and changes that might influence the future value of the property. A residence worth $300,000 in the suburbs may be worth only a fraction of that in the inner city or in a remote rural area. But that same suburban residence may depreciate in value if an airport will be built nearby. After conducting a thorough investigation, appraisers usually prepare a written report that documents their findings and conclusions. Assessors perform the same duties as appraisers and then compute the amount of tax to be levied on property, using applicable tax tables. The primary responsibility of the assessor is to prepare an annual assessment roll, which lists all properties in a district and their assessed values.
School Subjects
Computer science English Mathematics Personal Skills
Communication/ideas Mechanical/manipulative Work Environment
Indoors and outdoors Primarily multiple locations Minimum Education Level
Some postsecondary training Salary Range
$12,500 to $43,790 to $225,000 Certification or Licensing
Recommended (certification) Required for certain positions (licensing) Outlook
About as fast as the average DOT
188, 191 GOE
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Earnings by Specialty, 2004 Industry
Employment
Mean Annual Earnings
Local government
24,260
$41,190
Activities related to real estate
23,410
$55,950
State government
2,930
$46,720
Offices of real estate agents and brokers
2,320
$68,370
Nondepository credit intermediation companies
1,630
$53,690
Federal government
650
$73,660
Management and technical consulting service companies
250
$90,590
Source: U.S. Department of Labor
To prepare the assessment roll, assessors and their staffs first must locate and identify all taxable property in the district. To do so, they prepare and maintain complete and accurate maps that show the size, shape, location, and legal description of each parcel of land. Next, they collect information about other features, such as zoning, soil characteristics, and availability of water, electricity, sewers, gas, and telephones. They describe each building and how land and buildings are used. This information is put in a parcel record. Assessors also analyze relationships between property characteristics and sales prices, rents, and construction costs to produce valuation models or formulas. They use these formulas to estimate the value of every property as of the legally required assessment date. For example, assessors try to estimate the value of adding a bedroom to a residence or adding an acre to a farm, or how much competition from a new shopping center detracts from the value of a downtown department store. Finally, assessors prepare and certify an assessment roll listing all properties, owners, and assessed values and notify owners of the assessed value of their properties. Because taxpayers have the right to contest their assessments, assessors must be prepared to defend their estimates and methods. Most appraisers deal with land and buildings, but some evaluate other items of value. Specialized appraisers evaluate antiques, gems and jewelry, machinery, equipment, aircraft, boats, oil and gas reserves, and businesses. These appraisers obtain special training in their areas of expertise but generally perform the same functions as real property appraisers. Personal property assessors help the government levy taxes by preparing lists of personal property owned by businesses and, in a few areas, householders. In addition to listing the number of items, these assessors also estimate the value of taxable items.
n requirements High School If you are interested in the fields of assessing or appraising, there are a number of courses you can take in high school to help prepare you for this work. Take plenty of math classes, since you will need to be comfortable working with numbers and making calculations. Accounting classes will also be helpful for the same reasons. English courses will help you develop your researching and writing skills as well as verbal skills. Take computer classes in order to become accustomed to using this tool. Courses in civics or government may also be beneficial.
Postsecondary Training Appraisers and assessors need a broad range of knowledge in such areas as equity and mortgage finance, architectural function, demographic statistics, and business trends. In addition, they must be competent writers and able to communicate effectively with people. In the past, some people have been able to enter these fields with only a high school education and learn specialized skills on the job. Today, however, most appraisers and assessors have at least some college education. A number work in appropriate businesses, such as auction houses, while they earn their degrees. Some with several years of college experience are able to find employment and receive onthe-job training. Those wanting to receive professional designations and to have the best job opportunities, however, should complete a college degree. A few colleges and universities, such as Lindenwood University (http://www.lindenwood.edu) in St. Charles, Missouri, now offer degrees in valuation sciences that will prepare you for this career. If you are unable to attend such a specialized program, though, there are numerous classes you can take at any college to prepare for this career. A liberal arts degree provides a solid background,
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as do courses in finance, statistics, mathematics, public administration and business administration, real estate and urban land economics, engineering, architecture, and computer science. Appraisers choosing to specialize in a particular area should have a solid background in that field. Courses in assessment and appraisal are offered by professional associations such as the American Society of Appraisers (ASA), the Appraisal Institute (AI), and the International Association of Assessing Officers.
Certification or Licensing A number of professional organizations, such as the ASA and the AI, offer certification or designations in the field. It is highly recommended that you attain professional designation in order to enhance your standing in the field and demonstrate to consumers your level of expertise. To receive a designation, you will typically need to pass a written exam, demonstrate ethical behavior, and have completed a certain amount of education. To maintain your designation, you will also need to fulfill continuing education requirements. Because all appraisals used for federally regulated real estate transactions must be conducted by licensed appraisers, most appraisers now obtain a state license. In addition, some states—known as “mandatory states”— require real estate appraisers to be licensed even if the appraisers do not deal with federally regulated transac-
Interview: Michael Evans Michael Evans is the president of Evans Appraisal Service Inc. in Chico, California. He has been an appraiser for 23 years. Q. Why did you decide to become an appraiser? A. I didn’t know it, but I was trained as a child. My father was an appraiser, and I used to go with him a lot. I learned far more than I ever thought I did. After college, I worked several jobs before coming back home and starting the most interesting and satisfying job I have ever had—one that I plan to do until the day I die! Q. What are your typical tasks/responsibilities as an appraiser? A. Valuing real property. We have a diversified office. We handle agricultural, commercial, industrial, residential, and special purpose properties. Real property appraisal tasks include researching, inspecting, and analyzing the properties being valued, as well as the comparable sales and rental comparables.
tions. You will need to check with your state’s regulatory agency to learn more about the exact requirements for your state. In addition to a license, some states may require assessors who are government employees to pass civil service tests or other examinations before they can start work.
Other Requirements Good appraisers are skilled investigators and must be proficient at gathering data. They must be familiar with sources of information on such diverse topics as public records, construction materials, building trends, economic trends, and governmental regulations affecting use of property. They should know how to read survey drawings and blueprints and be able to identify features of building construction.
n exploring One simple way you can practice the methods used by appraisers is to write a detailed analysis of something you are considering investing in, such as a car, a computer, or even which college to attend. Your analysis should include both the benefits and the shortcomings of the investment as well as your final recommendation. Is the car overpriced? Does one particular school offer a better value for you? By doing this, you will begin to get a feel for the researching and writing done by an appraiser. Another way to explore this career is to look for part-time or summer
Q. What advice would you give to high school students who are interested in this career? A. A strong background in math and economics is a great help. Most of the education for this field starts at the college level. A business, finance, or accounting degree would be a big plus. Q. What are the three most important professional qualities for appraisers? A. Honesty, knowing when to ask for help, and a quality appraisal education like the American Society of Appraisers provides its members. Q. What is the future employment outlook for appraisers? A. Many in my field (real property appraisal) believe that the appraisal profession will be shrinking due to the advent of the computer and automated valuation models. My experience has been just the opposite as my business has tripled in the last 10 years. I see more and more need for quality appraisers (like members of the American Society of Appraisers) to perform more in-depth inspections and analysis of properties into the future.
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work with an appraisal firm. Some firms also have jobs as appraiser assistants or trainees. Working at county assessors’ or treasurers’ offices, financial institutions, or real estate companies also might provide experience. If you are interested in working with real estate, you may want to learn the particulars of building construction by finding summer work with a construction company.
n employers Assessors are public servants who are either elected or appointed to office. The United States is divided into assessment districts, with population size affecting the number of assessors in a given area. Appraisers are employed by private businesses, such as accounting firms, real estate companies, and financial institutions, and by larger assessors’ offices. Appraisers also work at auction houses, art galleries, and antique shops; some also work in government offices or for U.S. Customs and Border Protection. Assessors’ offices might employ administrators, property appraisers, mappers, systems analysts, computer technicians, public relations specialists, word processors, and clerical workers. In small offices, one or two people might handle most tasks; in large offices, some with hundreds of employees, specialists are more common. Approximately 88,000 real estate assessors and appraisers are employed in the United States.
n starting out After you have acquired the necessary technical and mathematical knowledge in the classroom, you should apply to area appraisal firms, local county assessors, real estate brokers, or large accounting firms. Because assessing jobs are often civil service positions, they may be listed with government employment agencies. If you have graduated from a degree program in valuation sciences, your school’s career services office should also be able to provide you with assistance in finding that first job.
n advancement Appraising is a dynamic field, affected yearly by new legislation and technology. To distinguish themselves in the business, top appraisers continue their education and pursue certification through the various national appraising organizations, such as the Appraisal Institute, the American Society of Appraisers, and the International Association of Assessing Officers. Certified appraisers are entrusted with the most prestigious projects and can command the highest fees. In addition to working on more and more prestigious projects, some appraisers advance by opening their own appraisal firms. Others may advance by moving to larger firms or agency offices, where they are more able to specialize.
n earnings Income for assessors is influenced by their location and employer; their salaries generally increase as the population of their jurisdiction increases. For example, those working in large counties, such as Los Angeles County, may make up to $100,000 annually. Appraisers employed in the private sector tend to earn higher incomes than those in the public sector. According to a recent survey by Appraisal Today, the average annual income of all appraisers is $58,132. Salaries range from $12,500 to $225,000. The average fee for appraisal of a standard residential property is about $300, but fees can range from $75 for a re-inspection of new construction or repairs to $600 for inspection of a small residential income property. According to the U.S. Department of Labor, real estate appraisers and assessors earned a median salary of $43,790 in 2004. The lowest paid 10 percent earned $22,820 or less per year on average, while the highest paid earned $83,840 or more. Earnings at any level are enhanced by higher education and professional designations. Fringe benefits for both public and private employees usually include paid vacations and health insurance.
n work environment Appraisers and assessors have a variety of working conditions, from the comfortable offices where they write and edit appraisal reports to outdoor construction sites, which they visit in both the heat of summer and the bitter cold of winter. Many appraisers spend mornings at their desks and afternoons in the field. Experienced appraisers may need to travel out of state. Appraisers and assessors who work for a government agency or financial institution usually work 40hour weeks, with overtime when necessary. Independent appraisers often can set their own schedules. Appraisal is a very people-oriented occupation. Appraisers must be unfailingly cordial, and they have to deal calmly and tactfully with people who challenge their decisions (and are usually angry). Appraising can be a high-stress occupation because a considerable amount of money and important personal decisions ride on appraisers’ calculations.
n outlook The U.S. Department of Labor estimates that employment of assessors and appraisers will grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through 2012. In general, assessors work in a fairly secure field. As
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long as governments levy property taxes, assessors will be needed to provide them with information. The real estate industry, however, is influenced dramatically by the overall health of the economy, so appraisers in real estate can expect to benefit during periods of growth and experience slowdowns during recessions and depressions.
n for more information For information on education and professional designations, contact American Society of Appraisers 555 Herndon Parkway, Suite 125 Herndon, VA 20170 Tel: 703-478-2228 Email:
[email protected] http://www.appraisers.org
Visit this organization’s Web site for a listing of state real estate appraiser regulatory boards. Appraisal Foundation 1029 Vermont Avenue, NW, Suite 900 Washington, DC 20005-3517 Tel: 202-347-7722 Email:
[email protected] http://www.appraisalfoundation.org
For information on professional designations, education, careers, and scholarships, contact Appraisal Institute 550 West Van Buren Street, Suite 1000 Chicago, IL 60607 Tel: 312-335-4100 http://www.appraisalinstitute.org
For information on professional designations, education, and publications, contact International Association of Assessing Officers 314 West 10th Street Kansas City, MO 64105-1616 Tel: 816-701-8100 http://www.iaao.org
For information on education and appraisal careers, contact National Association of Independent Fee Appraisers 401 North Michigan Avenue, Suite 2200 Chicago, IL 60611 Tel: 312-321-6830 Email:
[email protected] http://www.naifa.com
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Astronauts n overview Astronauts conduct experiments and gather information while in space flight. They also conduct experiments with the spacecraft itself to develop new concepts in design, engineering, and the navigation of a vehicle outside the earth’s atmosphere.
n history When the U.S. space program began in 1959, there were only seven astronauts in the entire country. There are 95 astronauts and 11 candidates currently in the U.S. space program. In total, 321 astronauts have been selected in the 19 groups from 1959 through 2004. The first person to travel in space was a Russian, Yuri A. Gagarin, on April 12, 1961. The United States quickly followed suit, launching Alan Shepard, the first U.S. astronaut, quick facts into space on May 5, 1961. These School Subjects men may have been the first to Mathematics experience space, but the work Physics of other pioneers made space travel possible. Robert H. GodPersonal Skills dard of the United States and Communication/ideas Technical/scientific Hermann Oberth of Germany are recognized as the fathers of Work Environment space flight. It was Goddard who Indoors and outdoors designed and built a number Primarily multiple locations of rocket motors and ground Minimum Education Level tested the liquid fuel rocket. Bachelor’s degree Oberth published The Rocket into Interplanetary Space in Salary Range 1923, which discussed technical $46,189 to $65,832 to problems of space and described $85,578 what a spaceship would be like. Certification or Licensing Although there were few signifiNone available cant advances beyond this until after World War II, the SoviOutlook ets and Germans did carry on More slowly than the average experiments in the 1930s, and DOT it was quite evident in the 1940s 002 that space flights were to become a reality. GOE The U.S. space program 05.01.07 began operations on October 1, 1958, when the National AeroNOC N/A nautics and Space Administration (NASA) was created. NASA O*NET-SOC was created largely in response N/A to Soviet success at launching the
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A mission specialist works to install thermal blankets on mechanisms that rotate the International Space Station’s main solar arrays. (NASA.)
world’s first artificial satellite in 1957. The United States and Soviet Union continued space flights through the 1960s. Astronauts practiced maneuvering spacecraft and working in space on these missions. There were several firsts in this decade also: The Soviet Union placed the first spacecraft with more than one person into space in 1964; in 1965, Russian cosmonaut Alexei Leonov became the first person to step outside a spacecraft. NASA’s first goal, to put a man on the moon by the end of the 1960s, was accomplished in 1969 when Neil Armstrong and Edwin Aldrin, Jr., were the first people to set foot on the moon. Both countries continued developing their programs throughout the 1970s, when astronauts carried out the first repair work in space. It was during the 1970s when it became evident that a space station—a permanent orbiting laboratory in space in which astronauts could come and go and work
from—could be a reality. The concept of a staffed outpost in Earth's orbit has been something people have imagined for years. In May 1973, the United States launched the Skylab space station. Skylab hosted crews for stays of 28, 56, and 84 days and proved that humans could live and work in space for extended periods. Crews conducted medical tests and made astronomical, solar, and Earth observations. However, Skylab was not designed for resupply or refueling and was brought back to Earth in 1979. In the 1980s, the United States began working with 15 other countries on planning on what became the International Space Station. The United States launched the first reusable manned spacecraft, the space shuttle Columbia. The Soviets also began using space shuttles during the 1980s and launched their version of a space station, Mir. Despite the progress of recent decades, however, both countries were still learning. On January 28, 1986, the U.S. space shuttle Challenger exploded shortly after takeoff, killing all seven crew members. (Tragedy struck the space shuttle program again on February 1, 2003, when the Columbia broke-up during reentry into the Earth’s atmosphere, killing all seven crew members.) In late 1998, the Russian aerospace program delivered the first component of the International Space Station (ISS). An initial crew of three began living aboard the space station in late 2000. Construction on the ISS is expected to continue for at least the next several years. In 2005, NASA announced that it planned to retire the space shuttle and create a new spacecraft via its Constellation Program. The new spacecraft, the Crew Exploration Vehicle, is expected to be ready by 2011. It will be used to ferry astronauts and cargo to the ISS and explore the Moon, Mars, and beyond. (Visit http://www.nasa. gov/mission_pages/exploration/spacecraft/index.html for more information on the Constellation Program.)
n the job The major role of astronauts is carrying out research; they conduct engineering, medical, and scientific experiments in space. Astronauts also operate and maintain the spacecraft that carries them and launch and recapture satellites. In the early days of space flight, spacecraft could contain only one or two astronauts. Today, a team of astronauts, each with their own specific duties for the flight, work aboard space shuttles and space stations. Astronauts are part of a complex system. Throughout the flight, they remain in nearly constant contact with Mission Control and various tracking stations around the globe. Space technology experts on the ground monitor each flight closely, even checking the crew members’ health via electrodes fitted to their bodies. Flight directors
provide important information to the astronauts and help them solve any problems that arise. The basic crew of a space shuttle is made up of at least five people: the commander, the pilot, and three mission specialists, all of whom are NASA astronauts. Some flights also call for a payload specialist, who becomes the sixth member of the crew. From time to time, other experts will be on board. Depending on the purpose of the mission, they may be engineers, technicians, physicians, or scientists such as astronomers, meteorologists, or biologists. Now that the International Space Station (ISS) has become operable, crews may vary more, as astronauts who specialize in different areas come and go from the space station on space shuttles. Up to seven astronauts at a time are able to live and work on the space station. The commander and the pilot of a space shuttle are both pilot astronauts who know how to fly aircraft and spacecraft. Commanders are in charge of the overall mission. They maneuver the orbiter, supervise the crew and the operation of the vehicle, and are responsible for the success and safety of the flight. Pilots help the commanders control and operate the orbiter and may help manipulate satellites by using a remote control system. Like other crew members, they sometimes do work outside the craft or look after the payload. Mission specialists are also trained astronauts. They work along with the commander and the pilot. Mission specialists work on specific experiments, perform tasks outside the orbiter, use remote manipulator systems to deploy payloads, and handle the many details necessary to carry out the mission. One or more payload specialists may be included on flights. A payload specialist may not be a NASA astronaut but is an expert on the cargo being carried into space. Although much of their work is conducted in space, astronauts are involved in extensive groundwork before and during launchings. Just prior to lift-off, they go through checklists to be sure nothing has been forgotten. Computers on board the space shuttle perform the countdown automatically and send the vehicle into space. When the rocket boosters are used up and the external fuel tank becomes empty, they separate from the orbiter. Once in orbit, the astronauts take control of the craft and are able to change its position or course or to maneuver into position with other vehicles. The research role of astronauts has expanded with the operation of the ISS. The station provides the only laboratory free of gravity where scientific research can be conducted. Such an environment unmasks the basic properties of materials, and astronauts conduct experiments that may lead to new manufacturing processes on Earth. Scientists have high expectations for medical
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research that astronauts have conducted aboard the space station. It is hoped research will help fight diseases such as influenza, diabetes, and AIDS. In conducting such tests, astronauts operate a number of special cameras, sensors, meters, and other highly technical equipment. Another important part of an astronaut’s work is the deployment of satellites. Communications satellites transmit telephone calls, television programs, educational and medical information, and emergency instructions. Other satellites are used to observe and predict weather, to chart ocean currents and tides, to measure the earth’s various surfaces and check its natural resources, and for defense-related purposes. Satellites released from a shuttle can be propelled into much higher orbits than the spacecraft itself is capable of reaching, thus permitting a much wider range of observation. While on their missions, astronauts may deploy and retrieve satellites or service them. Between flights, as part of their general duties, astronauts may travel to companies that manufacture and test spacecraft components, where they talk about the spacecraft and its mission. Astronaut training includes instruction in all aspects of space flight and consists of classroom instruction in astronomy, astrophysics, meteorology, star navigation, communications, computer theory, rocket engines and fuels, orbital mechanics, heat transfer, and space medicine. Laboratory work will include work in space flight simulators during which many of the actual characteristics of space flight are simulated along with some of
International Space Station The International Space Station (ISS) is the largest international scientific endeavor ever undertaken, both in scope and physical size. When it is completed, the international space station will be 356 feet across and 290 feet long. It will weigh about 1 million pounds. There are 16 countries participating in the international space station project, with the United States and Russia leading the project. Other participants are Canada, Belgium, Denmark, France, Germany, Italy, Netherlands, Norway, Spain, Sweden, the United Kingdom, Japan, Brazil, and Switzerland. When completed, the space station will have capabilities for planned research in life, earth, space, and microgravity sciences, engineering research, and space product development. Seven astronauts (with different astronauts coming and going at different times) will continue to live and do research aboard the space station. For more information on the ISS, visit http://www.nasa. gov/mission_pages/station/main/index.html.
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the emergencies that may occur in flight. To ensure their safety while in flight, astronauts also learn to adjust to changes in air pressure and extreme heat and observe their physical and psychological reactions to these changes. They need to be prepared to respond to a variety of possible circumstances.
n requirements High School High school students interested in a career as an astronaut should follow a regular college preparatory curriculum in high school but should endeavor to take as much work as possible in mathematics and science. Preparing to get into a good college is important, because NASA takes into consideration the caliber of a college program when accepting astronaut candidates. Earning the best possible score on standardized tests (ACT or SAT) will also help you get into a good college program.
Postsecondary Training Any adult man or woman in excellent physical condition who meets the basic qualifications can be selected to enter astronaut training, according to NASA. The basic requirements are U.S. citizenship and a minimum of a bachelor’s degree in engineering, biological or physical science, or mathematics. There is no age limit, but all candidates must pass the NASA space flight physical. Beyond these basic requirements, there may be additional requirements, depending on the astronaut’s role. NASA specifies further requirements for two other types of astronaut: the mission specialist and the pilot astronaut. Mission specialists are required to have at least a bachelor’s degree in one of the four areas of specialty (engineering, biological science, physical science, or mathematics), although graduate degrees are preferred. In addition, candidates must have at least three years of related work experience. Advanced degrees can take the place of part or all of the work experience requirements. Mission specialists must pass a NASA space physical, which includes the following standards: 20/200 or better distance visual acuity, correctable to 20/20 in each eye, blood pressure no higher than 140/90, and height between 58.5 and 76 inches. There are three major requirements for selection as a pilot astronaut candidate. A bachelor’s degree in one of the four areas of specialty is required; an advanced degree is desirable. Candidates must also be jet pilots with at least 1,000 hours of pilot-in-command time in jet aircraft. Pilot astronauts must also pass a physical, with 20/100 or better distance visual acuity, correctable to 20/20 in each eye, blood pressure no higher than 140/90,
and height between 64 and 76 inches. Because of the flight time requirement, it is rare for a pilot astronaut to come from outside the military. Astronaut candidates undergo a year-long testing period. During this time, they are examined for how well they perform under zero-gravity conditions, in laboratory conditions, and as a member of a team with other candidates. If candidates are able to pass this first year, they are given astronaut status, and their training as astronauts begins.
Other Requirements Astronauts must be highly trained, skilled professionals with a tremendous desire to learn about outer space and to participate in the highly dangerous exploration of it. They must have a deep curiosity with extremely fine and quick reactions. They may have to react in emergency conditions that may never before have been experienced, and to do so they must be able to remain calm and to think quickly and logically. As individuals they must be able to respond intelligently to strange and different conditions and circumstances.
n exploring Students who wish to become astronauts may find it helpful to contact various organizations concerned with space flights. There are lots of books available on space exploration, both in your school and city library. The Internet also has several excellent sites on space exploration. NASA’s Web site (http://nasajobs.nasa.gov/ astronauts) is user-friendly, with biographies of actual astronauts, advice on becoming an astronaut, and news about current NASA projects. Other interesting sites include “Ask the Space Scientist,” in which astronomer Dr. Sten Odenwald answers questions at http://image. gsfc.nasa.gov/poetry/ask/askmag.html, and space image libraries such as those found at NASA’s National Space Science Data Center (http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/photo_ gallery). The National Air and Space Museum (http://www. nasm.si.edu) at the Smithsonian Institution in Washington, D.C., is an excellent way to learn about space exploration history. There are also several NASA-run space, research, and flight centers all over the country. Most have visitor centers and offer tours. There are also space camps for high school students and older people all over the nation. These camps are not owned or operated by NASA, so the quality of their programs can vary greatly. Your high school counselor can help you find more information on space camps in your area.
n employers All active astronauts are employed by NASA, although some payload specialists may also be employed elsewhere, such as at a university or private company. All are NASAtrained and paid. Within the NASA program, astronauts may be classified as civil service employees or military personnel, depending on their background. Astronauts who gain astronaut status through their military branch remain members of that military branch and maintain their rank. Astronauts who go to college and test into the program are civil service employees. Inactive or retired astronauts may find employment opportunities outside NASA. Jobs might include teaching at a university, conducting research for other government agencies or private companies, working with manufacturers to develop space equipment, and educating the public on the space program.
n starting out You can begin laying the groundwork toward making your astronaut application stand out from others when you are in college. Those who have been successful in becoming astronauts have distinguished themselves from the hundreds of other applicants by gaining practical experience. Internships and work/study positions in your chosen area of interest are a good way to gain vital experience. Your college placement office can help direct you to such opportunities. Working on campus as a teacher assistant or research assistant in a lab is another good way to make yourself more marketable later on. Once other qualifications are met, a student applies to become an astronaut by requesting and filling out U.S. Government Application Form 171 from NASA, Johnson Space Center, Attn: Astronaut Selection Office, Mail Code AHX, 2101 NASA Parkway, Houston, TX 77058-3696. The form is reviewed at the Johnson Space Center, where all astronauts train. The application will be ranked according to height considerations, experience, and expertise. Active duty military applicants do not apply to NASA. Instead they submit applications to their respective military branch. Entrance into the profession is competitive. Aspiring astronauts compete with an average of 4,000 applicants for an average of 20 slots that open up every two years, according to NASA. From the pool of 4,000 applicants, an average of 118 are asked to come to the Johnson Space Center for a week of interviews and medical examinations and orientation. From there, the Astronaut Selection Board interviews applicants and assigns them a rating. Those ratings are passed on to a NASA administrator, who makes the final decision.
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Learn More about It With America’s fascination with human space travel, there has never been a shortage of books on space exploration. One title is Apollo: An Eyewitness Account by Astronaut/ Explorer/Artist/Moonwalker. This 176-page book, published in October 1998, was written by Alan Bean, Apollo 12 and Skylab II astronaut. This book is unique because, in addition to Bean’s personal accounts chronicling Apollo’s missions to the moon and work aboard Skylab, it includes a collection of paintings by him of his experiences. Paintings include Houston, We Have a Problem from Apollo 13, Neil Armstrong’s first step on the moon, and lunar landscapes of a place only 12 astronauts have ever visited. Do Your Ears Pop in Space? And 500 Other Surprising Questions about Space Travel is a collection of interesting facts about space written in 1997 by Mike Mullane, a space shuttle astronaut. Mullane answers some of the most common questions about space in the 240-page paperback with 30 photos and 20 illustrations. Space Shuttle: The First 20 Years—The Astronauts’ Experiences in Their Own Words was written for the lay person by the curators Smithsonian Institution. Published in 2002, it chronicles the history of the shuttle program through 77 personal accounts by shuttle astronatus, complete with 300 photos and illustrations, in 320 hardcover pages. Of course, the classic book on astronauts is The Right Stuff, by Tom Wolfe. Its 1979 publication established Wolfe as the chronicler of the courage of the men who blazed America’s way into space—sometimes paying for it with their lives—and their wives, sick with worry, who had to remain stoic in front of the television cameras. Its 368 softcover pages are alternately exciting, spine-chilling, and heartwrenching—but never dull.
Entrance into the profession involves extensive piloting or scientific experience. Those hoping to qualify as pilot astronauts are encouraged to gain experience in all kinds of flying; they should consider military service and attempt to gain experience as a test pilot. People interested in becoming mission specialist astronauts should earn at least one advanced degree and gain experience in one or more of the accepted fields (engineering, biological or physical science, and mathematics).
n advancement Advancement is not a formal procedure. Astronauts who are members of the military generally rise in rank when
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for astronauts who are members of the armed forces consist of base pay, an allowance for housing and subsistence, and flight pay.
n work environment
An astronaut maneuvers outside the space shuttle. (NASA.)
they become astronauts and as they gain experience. Those employed by the civil service may rise from the GS-11 to GS-13 rating. Those who gain experience as astronauts will likely work into positions of management as they retire from actual flight status. Some astronauts may direct future space programs or head space laboratories or factories. Some astronauts return to military service and may continue to rise in rank. As recognized public figures, astronauts can enter elected office and enjoy government and public speaking careers.
n earnings For most, the attraction to being an astronaut is not the salary—and with good reason. The field is one of the most rewarding, but astronauts don’t draw large salaries. Astronauts begin their salaries in accordance with the U.S. Government pay scale. Astronauts enter the field at a minimum classification of GS-11, which in 2006 paid a minimum of $46,189, according to the Office of Personnel Management General Schedule. As they gain experience, astronauts may advance up the classification chart to peak at GS-13, which pays between $65,832 and $85,578. Of course, there are opportunities outside NASA (although these don’t involve space flight) that may pay higher salaries. Astronauts who go to work in the private sector can often find positions with universities or private space laboratories that pay six-figure salaries. In addition, astronauts get the usual benefits, including vacations, sick leave, health insurance, retirement pensions, and bonuses for superior performance. Salaries
Astronauts do work that is difficult, challenging, and potentially dangerous. They work closely as a team because their safety depends on their being able to rely on one another. They work a normal 40-hour week when preparing and testing for a space flight, but, as countdown approaches and activity is stepped up, they may work long hours, seven days a week. While on a mission, of course, they work as many hours as necessary to accomplish their objectives. The training period is rigorous, and conditions in the simulators and trainers can be restrictive and uncomfortable. Exercises to produce the effect of weightlessness may cause air sickness in new trainees. Astronauts on a space flight have to become accustomed to floating around in cramped quarters. Because of the absence of gravity, they must eat and drink either through a straw or very carefully with a fork and spoon. Bathing is accomplished with a washcloth, as there are no showers in the spacecraft. Astronauts buckle and zip themselves into sleep bunks to keep from drifting around the cabin. Sleeping is generally done in shifts, which means that lights, noises, and activity are a constant factor. During the launch and when working outside the spacecraft, astronauts wear specially designed spacesuits to protect them against various facets of the new environment.
n outlook Only a very small number of people will ever be astronauts. NASA chooses its astronauts from an increasingly diverse pool of applicants. From thousands of applications all over the country, approximately 100 men and women are chosen for an intensive astronaut training program every two years. The small number of astronauts is not likely to change for the near future. Space exploration is an expensive venture for the governments that fund it, and often the program does well to maintain current funding levels. Great increases in funding, which would allow for more astronauts, is highly unlikely. While the ISS project has generated increased public interest and will likely continue to do so as discoveries are reported, the project still requires only a small number of astronauts at a time aboard the station. Much of the demand will depend on the continued success of the space station and other programs and how quickly they develop. The satellite communications business is expected to grow as private industry becomes more involved in producing satellites for commercial use. But
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these projects are not likely to change significantly the employment picture for astronauts in the immediate future.
n for more information For information on space launches, the International Space Station, and other educational resources, contact: Kennedy Space Center Public Inquiries Kennedy Space Center, FL 32899 Tel: 321-449-4444 http://www.ksc.nasa.gov
For information on aeronautical careers, internships, and student projects, contact the information center or visit NASA’s Web site. National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) Public Communications and Inquiries Management Office, Suite 1M32 Washington, DC 20546-0001 Tel: 202-358-0001 Email:
[email protected] http://www.nasa.gov
Astronomers n overview Astronomers study the universe and its celestial bodies by collecting and analyzing data. They also compute positions of stars and planets and calculate orbits of comets, asteroids, and artificial satellites. Astronomers make statistical studies of stars and galaxies and prepare mathematical tables giving positions of the Sun, Moon, planets, and stars at a given time. They study the size and shape of the earth and the properties of its upper atmosphere through observation and through data collected by spacecraft and earth satellites. There are approximately 800 astronomers employed in the United States.
n history The term astronomy is derived from two Greek words: astron, meaning star, and nemein, meaning to arrange or distribute. It is one of the oldest sciences. The field has historically attracted people who have a natural fascination with our universe. Astronomers have traditionally been driven by a desire to learn; the pursuit of practical applications of astronomy has, for many, been secondary.
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One of the earliest practical applications, the establishment of a calendar based on celestial movement, was pursued by many ancient civilizations, including the Babylonians, Chinese, Mayans, Europeans, and Egyptians. A chief aim of early astronomers was to study the motion of the bodies in the sky in order to create a calendar that could be used to predict certain celestial events and provide a more orderly structure to social life. The ancient Babylonians were among the first to construct a calendar based on the movement of the sun and the phases of the moon; their calendar has been found to have been accurate within minutes. In Europe, stone mounds constructed by ancient inhabitants also attest to astronomical work. Stonehenge is one of the largest and most famous of these mounds. Ancient Greek astronomers introduced a new concept of astronomy by attempting to identify the physical structure of the universe, a branch of astronomy that has become known as cosmology. Astronomers such as Aristotle, quick facts Apollonius, Hipparchus, and School Subjects Ptolemy succeeded in describing Mathematics the universe in terms of circular Physics movements. Their discoveries and theories were adopted by Personal Skills Communication/ideas astronomers throughout much Technical/scientific of the world. Modern astronomy was born with the theory of the Work Environment sun-centered universe, first proPrimarily indoors posed by Nicolaus Copernicus in Primarily one location the 16th century. Copernicus’s Minimum Education Level discovery revolutionized the field Bachelor’s degree of astronomy and later would have a dramatic impact on many Salary Range aspects of science. $49,920 to $104,670 to After thousands of years, $142,220+ astronomers had succeeded in Certification or Licensing developing accurate predictions None available of celestial events. Next, they turned to newly evolving areas Outlook of astronomy, those of identifyMore slowly than the average ing the structure of the universe DOT and of understanding the physi021 cal nature of the bodies they observed. Astronomers were GOE aided by the invention of tele02.01.01 scopes, and, as these increased NOC in power, astronomers began 2111 to make new discoveries in the skies. For much of history, for O*NET-SOC example, it was believed that 19-2011.00 there were only five planets in the
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solar system. By the end of the 17th century, that number had increased to six, and, over the next two centuries, three more planets, Neptune, Uranus, and Pluto, were discovered. Astronomers have always relied heavily on tools to bring faraway worlds close enough for study. As technology has evolved, so then has the field of astronomy. Spectroscopy, invented in the 19th century, allowed astronomers to identify the elements that make up the composition of the planets and other celestial bodies and gave rise to a new branch of astronomy, called astrophysics, which describes the components of the universe by measuring such information as temperature, chemical composition, pressure, and density. Later, photography, too, became an important research aid. In the early years of the 20th century, new discoveries further revolutionized the field of astronomy, particularly with the discovery of other galaxies beyond our own. The understanding grew that the universe was constructed of many millions of galaxies, each an island in an infiniteness of space. By the middle of the 20th century, scientists had learned how to send rockets, and later manned spacecraft, into space to gain a closer view of the universe
Will Asteroids Strike Earth? Earth and all the other planets and moons have been continuously pelted by asteroids and comets. Craters on the moon are evidence of such impacts. Hollywood and popular culture have picked up on this reality with speculation about the possibility of an asteroid or comet striking Earth with catastrophic effects. But how likely is this? Astronomers and other scientists say such an event is not very likely. The most dangerous asteroids, those capable of causing major regional or global disasters, are extremely rare, according to the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). These bodies impact Earth once every 100,000 years on average. The greatest risk is associated with objects larger than a half-mile to a mile, large enough to disturb Earth’s climate by injecting large quantities of dust into the strat osphere. Such an event could depress temperatures and the amount of sunlight, possibly creating a loss of food crops. An ocean impact could trigger large ocean waves, or tsunamis. It is feasible, NASA says, that we could divert a large asteroid or comet that may collide with Earth. If astron omers can predict such an event early enough, then striking the body with conventional rockets and explosives to break it up would probably be adequate. Such a response would be coordinated in the United States by the departments of defense and energy.
surrounding us. Using satellites and unmanned space probes, astronomers have been able to travel far into the solar system, toward the most distant planets. A major event in astronomy occurred with the launching in 1990 of the powerful Hubble Space Telescope, which orbits the Earth and continues to send back information and photographs of events and phenomena across the universe.
n the job Astronomers study the universe and all of its celestial bodies. They collect and analyze information about the moon, planets, sun, and stars, which they use to predict their shapes, sizes, brightness, and motions. They are interested in the orbits of comets, asteroids, and even artificial satellites. Information on the size and shape, the luminosity and position, the composition, characteristics, and structure as well as temperature, distance, motion, and orbit of all celestial bodies is of great relevance to their work. Practical application of activity in space is used for a variety of purposes. The launching of space vehicles and satellites has increased the importance of the information astronomers gather. For example, the public couldn’t enjoy the benefits of accurate weather prediction if satellites weren’t keeping an eye on our atmosphere. Without astronomical data, satellite placement wouldn’t be possible. Knowledge of the orbits of planets and their moons, as well as asteroid activity, is also vital to astronauts exploring space. Astronomers are usually expected to specialize in some particular branch of astronomy. The astrophysicist is concerned with applying the concepts of physics to stellar atmospheres and interiors. (For more information, see the article Astrophysicists.) Radio astronomers study the source and nature of celestial radio waves with extremely sensitive radio telescopes. The majority of astronomers either teach or do research or a combination of both. Astronomers in many universities are expected to teach such subjects as physics and mathematics in addition to astronomy. Other astronomers are engaged in such activities as the development of astronomical instruments, administration, technical writing, and consulting. Astronomers who make observations may spend long periods of time in observatories. Astronomers who teach or work in laboratories may work eight-hour days. However, those who make observations, especially during celestial events or other peak viewing times, may spend long evening hours in observatories. Paperwork is a necessary part of the job. For teachers, it can include lesson planning and paper grading. Astronomers conducting research independently or for a university can expect to spend a considerable amount of time writing
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grant proposals to secure funding for their work. For any scientist, sharing the knowledge acquired is a vital part of the work. Astronomers are expected to painstakingly document their observations and eventually combine them into a coherent report, often for peer review or publication. Although the telescope is the major instrument used in observation, many other devices are also used by astronomers in carrying out these studies, including spectrometers for the measurement of wavelengths of radiant energy, photometers for the measurement of light intensity, balloons for carrying various measuring devices, and computers for processing and analyzing all the information gathered. Astronomers use ground-based telescopes for night observation of the skies. The Hubble Space Telescope (http://hubblesite.org), which magnifies the stars at a much greater percentage than land-based capability allows, has become an important tool for the work of many astronomers.
n requirements High School While in high school, prospective astronomers should take mathematics (including analytical geometry and trigonometry), science courses (including chemistry and physics), English, foreign languages, and courses in the humanities and social sciences. Students should also be well grounded in the use of computers and in computer programming.
Postsecondary Training All astronomers are required to have some postsecondary training, with a doctoral degree being the usual educational requirement because most jobs are in research and development. A master’s degree is sufficient for some jobs in applied research and development, and a bachelor’s degree is adequate for some nonresearch jobs. Students should select a college program with wide offerings in physics, mathematics, and astronomy and take as many of these courses as possible. Graduate training will normally take at least three years beyond the bachelor’s degree. Bachelor’s degrees in astronomy are offered by about 80 institutions in the United States, and 40 institutions offer master’s degrees or doctorates in the field, often combined with physics departments. Some of the astronomy courses typically offered in graduate school are celestial mechanics, galactic structure, radio astronomy, stellar atmospheres and interiors, theoretical astrophysics, and binary and variable stars. Some graduate schools require that an applicant for a doctorate spend several months in residence at an observatory. In most institutions the
Using telescopes, astronomers can track the movements of stars, solar flares and storms, and comets, and search for new stars and galaxies hundreds of millions of miles away. (Mathew Hohmann.)
student’s graduate courses will reflect his or her chosen astronomical specialty or particular field of interest.
Other Requirements The field of astronomy calls for people with a strong but controlled imagination. They must be able to see relationships between what may appear to be, on the surface, unrelated facts, and they must be able to form various hypotheses regarding these relationships. Astronomers must be able to concentrate over long periods of time. They should also express themselves well in both writing and verbally.
n exploring A number of summer or part-time jobs are usually available in observatories. The latter may be either on a summer or year-round basis. These jobs not only offer experience in astronomy but often act as stepping stones to good jobs upon graduation. Students employed in observatories might work as guides or as assistants to astronomers. Students can test their interest in this field by working part-time, either as an employee or as a volunteer, in planetariums or science museums. Many people enjoy astronomy as a hobby, and there are a number of amateur astronomy clubs and groups active throughout the
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Seeing into Space Astronomers make most of their observations using visible light in the form of radiation. There are several types of optical telescopes that allow astronomers to perform specialized, highly accurate observations from Earth. Photographic equipment supplements many optical telescopes. Time exposures taken on film make it possible for astronomers to detect very dim celestial objects. Some major optical telescopes obtain images with electronic devices instead of photography. One such device is called a CCD (chargecoupled device), which consists of an array of tiny, lightsensitive cells on a silicon chip. Photometers are devices that measure the intensity of light, and astronomers use this tool to compare the brightness of various stars. When a photometer is used with a series of filters, the intensity of light of each color that a star emits can be determined. Huge optical telescopes are housed at observatories, often found at major universities. The equipment is often housed in large domed facilities that allow free movement of the equipment to take in all areas of the sky. In many cases, the larger the equipment, the more powerful it is.
country. Amateur astronomers have often made important contributions to the field of astronomy. In 1996, for example, a new comet was discovered by an amateur astronomer in Japan. Students may gain experience in studying the skies by purchasing, or even building, their own telescopes. Reading or using the Internet to learn more on your own is also a good idea. What about astronomy interests you? You can find specific information in books or on the Internet. Check out NASA’s Web site at http://www. nasa.gov. It contains useful information about careers in astronomy and aeronautics and information about current space exploration. Another interesting Web site is http://www.absoluteastronomy.com, which contains information on planets, constellations, nebulas, galaxies, and other topics. When you hear in the news that a comet or meteor shower will be visible from Earth, be sure to set your alarm to get up and watch and learn. Science teachers will often discuss such events in class.
n employers Approximately one-third of all physicists and astronomers work for scientific research and development companies. Another 25 percent work for the federal government. Astronomers represent only a small portion of these workers. The federal government employs astronomers in agencies such as NASA, the U.S Naval
Observatory, the U.S. Department of Defense, and the Naval Research Laboratory. Astronomers more frequently find jobs as faculty members at colleges and universities or are affiliated with those institutions through observatories and laboratories. Other astronomers work in planetariums, in science museums, or in other public service positions involved in presenting astronomy to the general public; others teach physics or earth sciences in secondary schools or are science journalists and writers. In the private sector, astronomers are hired by consulting firms that supply astronomical talent to the government for specific tasks. In addition, a number of companies in the aerospace industry hire astronomers to work in related areas in order to use their background and talents in instrumentation, remote sensing, spectral observations, and computer applications.
n starting out A chief method of entry for astronomers with a doctorate is to register with the college’s placement bureau, which provides contacts with one of the agencies looking for astronomers. Astronomers can also apply directly to universities, colleges, planetariums, government agencies, aerospace industry manufacturers, and others who hire astronomers. Many positions are advertised in professional and scientific journals devoted to astronomy and astrophysics. Graduates with bachelor’s or master’s degrees can normally obtain semiprofessional positions in observatories, planetariums, or some of the larger colleges and universities offering training in astronomy. Their work assignments might be as research assistants, optical workers, observers, or technical assistants. Those employed by colleges or universities might well begin as instructors. Federal government positions in astronomy are usually earned on the basis of competitive examinations. Jobs with some municipal organizations employing astronomers are often based on competitive examinations. The examinations are usually open to those with bachelor’s degrees. NASA offers internships for students with some postsecondary training. To find out more about NASA internships and other opportunities, explore its Web site, http://www.nasajobs.nasa.gov.
n advancement Because of the relatively small size of the field, advancement may be somewhat limited. A professional position in a large university or governmental agency is often considered the most desirable post available to an astronomer because of the opportunities it offers for additional
study and research. Those employed in a colleges may well advance from instructor to assistant professor to associate professor and then to professor. There is also the possibility of eventually becoming a department head. Opportunities also exist for advancement in observatories or industries employing people in astronomy. In these situations, as in those in colleges and universities, advancement depends to a great extent on the astronomer’s ability, education, and experience. Peer recognition, in particular for discoveries that broaden the understanding of the field, is often a determinant of advancement. Publishing articles in professional journals, such as Scientific American or the Journal of Astrophysics and Astronomy, is a way for astronomers to become known and respected in the field. Advancement isn’t usually speedy; an astronomer may spend years devoted to a specific research problem before being able to publish conclusions or discoveries in a scientific journal.
n earnings According to the U.S. Department of Labor, astronomers had median annual earnings of $104,670 in 2005. Salaries ranged from less than $49,920 to $142,220 or more annually. The average for astronomers employed by the federal government in 2005 was $115,290, according to the U.S. Department of Labor. In educational institutions, salaries are normally regulated by the salary schedule prevailing in that particular institution. As the astronomer advances to higher-level teaching positions, his or her salary increases significantly. Opportunities also exist in private industry for welltrained and experienced astronomers, who often find their services in demand as consultants. Fees for this type of work may run as high as $200 per day in some of the more specialized fields of astronomy.
n work environment Astronomers’ activities may center on the optical telescope. Most telescopes are located high on a hill or mountain and normally in a fairly remote area, where the air is clean and the view is not affected by lights from unrelated sources. There are approximately 300 of these observatories in the United States. Astronomers working in these observatories usually are assigned to observation from three to six nights per month and spend the remainder of their time in an office or laboratory, where they study and analyze their data. They also must prepare reports. They may work with others on one segment of their research or writing and then work entirely alone on the next. Their work is normally carried on in clean, quiet, well-ventilated, and well-lighted facilities.
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Those astronomers in administrative positions, such as director of an observatory or planetarium, will maintain fairly steady office hours but may also work during the evening and night. They usually are more involved in administrative details, however, spending less time in observation and research. Those employed as teachers will usually have good facilities available to them, and their hours will vary according to class hours assigned. Work for those employed by colleges and universities may often be more than 40 hours per week.
n outlook The U.S. Department of Labor predicts that employment for astronomers will grow more slowly than the average for all occupations through 2014. Astronomy is one of the smallest science fields. Job openings result from the normal turnover when workers retire or leave the field for other reasons. Competition for these jobs, particularly among new people entering the profession, will continue to be strong. In recent years, the number of new openings in this field have not kept pace with the number of astronomers graduating from the universities, and this trend is likely to continue for the near future. Furthermore, there will likely be few new positions made, since funding in this area is hard to come by. The federal government will continue to provide employment opportunities for astronomers. Defense expenditures are expected to increase over the next decade, and this should provide stronger employment opportunities for astronomers who work on defense-related research projects. However, government agencies, particularly NASA, may find their budgets reduced in the coming years, and the number of new positions created for astronomers will likely drop as well. Few new observatories will be constructed, and those currently in existence are not expected to greatly increase the size of their staffs. The greatest growth in employment of astronomers is expected to occur in business and industry. Companies in the aerospace field will need more astronomers to do research to help them develop new equipment and technology.
n for more information Visit the FAQ section of this association’s Web site to read the online article Career Profile: Astronomy. American Association of Amateur Astronomers PO Box 7981 Dallas, TX 75209-0981 Email:
[email protected] http://www.corvus.com
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To read A New Universe to Explore: A Guide to Careers in Astronomy, visit the AAS’s Web site. American Astronomical Society (ASA) 2000 Florida Avenue, NW, Suite 400 Washington, DC 20009-1231 Tel: 202-328-2010 Email:
[email protected] http://www.aas.org
For a list of print and online resources about astronomy, contact Astronomical Society of the Pacific 390 Ashton Avenue San Francisco, CA 94112-1722 Tel: 415-337-1100 http://www.astrosociety.org
This organization is a resource for professionals who work in many physics disciplines, including astronomy. For more information, contact American Institute of Physics 1 Physics Ellipse College Park, MD 20740-3843 Tel: 301-209-3100 Email:
[email protected] http://www.aip.org
Astrophysicists n overview Astrophysics is a specialty that combines two fields of science: astronomy and physics. Astrophysicists use the principles of physics to study the solar system, stars, galaxies, and the universe. How did the universe begin? How is the universe changing? These are the types of questions astrophysicists try to answer through research and experimentation. Physicists may also be concerned with such issues, but they use physics to study broader areas such as gravity, electromagnetism, and nuclear interactions.
n history Astrophysics began in the 1800s, when astronomers developed the spectroscope, which is used to determine the various properties of stars and planets. In spectroscopy, light is spread into a spectrum, and the resulting image can be used to determine a star’s chemical composition, temperature, surface condition, and other properties. Astrophysicists knew that understanding the nature of stars would help them understand the larger question
that all astrophysicists work toward answering: How did the universe begin? A major advance in the field of astrophysics was the development of atomic theory. In 1803, a British chemist, John Dalton, proposed that each natural element consists of a particular kind of atom. In the early 1900s, scientists discovered that each atom has a nucleus, which contains protons, neutrons, and electrons that interact with each other. Today the atom is the basis of the study of physics. Physicists of all disciplines, from astrophysicists to nuclear physicists, use what we know about the atom and its parts to understand their respective fields. In the case of astrophysicists, close examination of the parts of the atom will help to understand how matter and our universe formed. A widely held explanation today is the “Big Bang” theory, which hypothesizes that the universe was formed 15- to 20-billion years ago when a dense singular point of matter exploded and eventually formed stars and galaxies. Today most astrophysicists believe the universe is still expanding from that initial explosion.
n the job To do their work, astrophysicists need access to large, expensive equipment, such as radio telescopes, spectrometers, and specialized computers. This equipment is generally available only at universities with large astronomy departments and government observatories, therefore most astrophysicists are employed by colleges or the government. A primary duty of most astrophysicists is making and recording observations. What they observe and the questions they are trying to answer may vary, but the process is much the same across the profession. They work in observatories, using telescopes and other equipment to view celestial bodies. They record their observations on charts or, more often today, into computer programs that help them analyze the data. Astrophysicists work to understand the beginning and the end of the lives of stars. They use spectrometers, telescopes, and other instruments to measure infrared radiation, ultraviolet radiation, and radio waves. They study not only the formation of stars but also whether planets formed along with them. Understanding the lives of stars will help astrophysicists understand the origins and future of the universe. Their work is often tedious, requiring multiple measurements over time. The answer to one question, such as the age of a specific star, often leads to more questions about nearby planets and other formations. To address these larger questions, astrophysicists from all over the world must work together to come to agreements.
Most astrophysicists who work for universities also teach. Depending on their branch of research, teaching may be their primary duty. Astrophysicists share their findings with the scientific community. They often travel to conferences to speak about their findings and to listen to other scientists discuss techniques or research. Discoveries are also shared in professional journals, such as The Astrophysical Journal. Many scientists spend time compiling their data and writing articles for such journals.
n requirements High School If you are interested in becoming an astrophysicist, concentrate on classes in mathematics and science. If they are available, take classes at an advanced level to better prepare for challenging college courses. English skills are also important because astrophysicists must write up their results, communicate with other scientists, and lecture on their findings. Finally, make sure you are comfortable working with computers either by taking a computer science class or by exploring on your own.
Postsecondary Training An advanced degree is highly desirable for a career in astrophysics. A few who have bachelor’s degrees in physics, astronomy, or mathematics may work as research assistants in the field. To do your own research or teach, you should have at least a master’s degree, with a Ph.D. preferred for full astrophysicists.
Other Requirements Because astrophysicists deal with abstract concepts and faraway celestial bodies, an active imagination and the ability to draw logical conclusions from observational data are helpful traits. Some research can be tedious and take long periods of time; astrophysicists must be patient in their work and have the ability to remain focused and meet deadlines. Astrophysicists who have a natural curiosity about why things occur no doubt enjoy their work most when research or experiments culminate in a discovery that will help them and others in the field gain a larger understanding of the universe.
n employers Because astrophysicists require such expensive equipment to do their job, their employers are generally limited to large colleges or government agencies. Some government agencies that employ astrophysicists include the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), the U.S. Naval Observatory, and Fermi National Accel-
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erator Laboratory, known as Fermilab, a physics laboratory. Fermilab is the home of the world’s most powerful particle accelerator, which scientists from various institutions use to conduct research to better understand energy and the atom. According to the U.S. Department of Labor, there are approximately 16,000 physicists and astronomers working in the United States. Most work for scientific research and development services firms. Approximately 25 percent work for the federal government, mostly with the Department of Defense and NASA. Others work for colleges or universities, either as faculty members or in nonfaculty research positions. These scientists work all over the country, but most are employed in areas where large universities or research laboratories are located.
n starting out Many astrophysicists get their first paying job as graduate students who assist professors in astronomy, physics, or astrophysics. These assistant jobs are known in the field as postdoctoral positions. Students may help the professors grade undergraduate and graduate papers or assist them in recording and compiling astronomical data in the observatory. Beginning jobs in government may include internships or temporary positions with specific research projects. The job market for astrophysicists is very competitive; students and recent graduates often must volunteer their time at university or government observatories and work other jobs until they can find full-time, paid work.
n advancement Astrophysicists work with other highly educated people, including mathematicians, astronomers, and other scientists. Astrophysicists who work for large universities or the government should have a sense of the “department politics” that may go on at their university and be
quick facts School Subjects
Mathematics Physics Personal Skills
Communication/ideas Technical/scientific Work Environment
Primarily indoors Primarily one location Minimum Education Level
Bachelor’s degree Salary Range
$43,410 to $89,810 to $136,870 Certification or Licensing
None available Outlook
More slowly than the average DOT
023 GOE
02.01.01 NOC
2111 O*NET-SOC
19-2011.00, 19-2012.00
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Hubble Space Telescope The Hubble Space Telescope, which was named after American astronomer Edwin P. Hubble, is the world’s first space-based optical telescope. The Space Shuttle Discovery launched it into space in 1990. Hubble has allowed us to gather a wealth of new information about planets, our solar system, our galaxy, and countless other space objects and phenomena. Here are some interesting facts about the Hubble Space Telescope: n
Length: 43.5 feet, or as long as a large school bus
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Weight: 24,500 pounds, or as heavy as two adult elephants
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Cost at launch: $1.5 billion
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Distance above the Earth: 370 miles
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Speed: 17,500 mph. It takes 97 minutes to orbit the Earth.
Nothing lasts forever, and this adage is also true with Hubble. Sometime after 2010, Hubble will cease to function. Space scientists are currently working on a replacement for Hubble: the James Webb Space Telescope. This new telescope will have 10 times the power of the Hubble Space Telescope. Visit http://www.jwst.nasa.gov for more information on this new telescope. Source: HubbleSite
able to deal diplomatically with department heads and colleagues competing for resources such as grants and equipment. At the beginning of their careers, astrophysicists may be assigned to work nights at the observatory. Hours can be long and pay can be limited. After they have gained experience, astrophysicists can expect to be involved in the planning and development stages of research and may not be required to do as much observation and data recording. With further experience, astrophysicists can advance to become tenured professors, research institution leaders, or observatory managers.
n earnings Salaries for astrophysicists tend to parallel those listed for astronomers and physicists because of their job similarities. According to the U.S. Department of Labor, the median annual salary of physicists was $89,810 in 2005. The lowest-paid 10 percent earned less than $49,070, and the highest-paid 10 percent earned over $136,870. The American Institute of Physics reported the following median earnings for physicists by degree level
in 2004: Ph.D.s (excluding those in postdoctoral positions), $104,000; master’s degrees, $94,000; and bachelor’s degrees, $72,000.
n work environment Astrophysicists generally work regular hours in laboratories, observatories, or classrooms. However, some research may require them to work extended or irregular hours. A research deadline or a celestial event such as a meteor shower or asteroid may require extra hours or overnight observation. Some travel may be required, such as to an observatory with a needed piece of equipment or to a conference or training. The astrophysicist’s employer generally pays for the travel. Astrophysicists work with other highly educated professionals, such as mathematicians, astronomers, and other scientists. The work environment can be competitive and sometimes political because these professionals often compete for the same limited resources.
n outlook The outlook for astrophysics, because it is so closely related to astronomy and physics, mirrors the outlook for those fields. According to the U.S. Department of Labor, employment in these fields will grow slower than the average for all occupations through 2014. The need for scientists, especially those employed by the government, is affected by factors outside the field, such as budgetary cuts and political issues that draw attention (and funding) away from expensive research programs. Aspiring astrophysicists should be prepared for a tight job market, especially in research positions. Within private industry, many companies are reducing their amount of basic research (which includes physics-related research) in favor of applied research and software development. Job openings for engineers and computer scientists will far outnumber those for physicists and astrophysicists.
n for more information This is an organization for professionals who work in different areas of physics, including astrophysicists. For more information, contact American Institute of Physics 1 Physics Ellipse College Park, MD 20740-3843 Tel: 301-209-3100 Email:
[email protected] http://www.aip.org
For additional information on the field of astronomy, contact American Astronomical Society 2000 Florida Avenue, NW, Suite 400 Washington, DC 20009-1231
athletic directors
Tel: 202-328-2010 Email:
[email protected] http://www.aas.org
To read articles on astrophysics, check out the following Web site: The Astrophysical Journal http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/ApJ
Athletic Directors n overview Athletic directors coordinate and oversee athletic programs at public and private colleges and universities. They manage staff; calculate budgets; negotiate broadcasting and other business contracts; raise funds to meet budget shortfalls; ensure that their programs meet academic-, financial-, and gender-related compliance issues; and serve as the public faces of their institutions’ athletic programs by talking with media and fans. Athletic directors may also be called directors of athletics, athletic directors of intercollegiate athletics, and athletic administrators.
n history The National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) was formed in 1905 to address violence in intercollegiate football. Around this time, the position of athletic director was formally created by college administrators who saw the need for experienced professionals to run their institutions’ athletic programs. After World War II, the NCAA began to regulate and monitor recruiting and financial aid issues. With rule changes and NCAA regulation, college athletics blossomed in the second half of the 20th century. Athletic directors played an important role in the growth of collegiate athletics during this time, but it was not until the First and Second National Conferences on Athletic Administration in Colleges and Universities in 1959 and 1962, respectively, that these professionals began to take the first steps toward creating a professional organization. At the third such conference in 1965, the National Association of Collegiate Directors of Athletics (NACDA) was founded to serve the needs of athletic directors at junior and four-year colleges. The association boasts a membership of over 6,000 athletic directors and associate and assistant athletic directors at NCAA, National Association of Intercollegiate Athletics (NAIA), and National Junior College Athletic Association (NJCAA) colleges throughout the United States.
In 1979, the Council of Collegiate Women Athletic Administrators was created to enhance opportunities for women in intercollegiate athletics. To better represent its members, the Council was renamed the National Association of Collegiate Women Athletic Administrators (NACWAA) in 1992. The NACWAA has nearly 1,200 members.
n the job
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quick facts School Subjects
Business Physical education Speech Personal Skills
Communication/ideas Leadership/management Work Environment
Primarily indoors One location with some travel
Minimum Education Level Athletic directors plan and Bachelor’s degree implement athletic programs at colleges and universities. AthSalary Range letic directors at large Division $49,540 to $75,400 to $109,800+ I schools oversee large budgets, supervise staffs that range from Certification or Licensing dozens to hundreds of employNone available ees, and make many important decisions daily. They are helped Outlook About as fast as the average by assistant and associate athletic directors who specialize in finanDOT cial, media relations, compliance, 090 and other issues. Athletic directors at large schools spend much GOE of their time raising money and 12.01.01 marketing their programs to the NOC public. At small colleges, athletic 0513 directors work alone or with very small staffs. In addition to their O*NET-SOC main duties, they might drive 11-9033.00 athletes to games, coach sports teams, write press releases or marketing copy, and teach classes. The work of athletic directors can be divided into the following general areas: staff management/administration, financial issues, compliance, and public relations. Staff management/Administration. Athletic directors hire and supervise coaches and other department staff. They evaluate the performance of coaches and give them feedback. Athletic directors may have to fire coaches who fail to perform up to expectations. Athletic directors have many administrative duties. They oversee coaches, athletic teams, and employees who assist with ticket sales, fund-raising, public relations, and other tasks. They make sure that stadiums, playing fields, and training, locker, and weight rooms are in good condition. Athletic directors meet with athletic directors from other schools and conference and association officials to coordinate athletic schedules
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and discuss rules and regulations. They meet with faculty representatives regarding academic issues relating to student-athletes. Financial issues. Athletic directors create and manage the athletic budgets at their institutions. When creating budgets, they make sure that each sport is allotted enough money to operate effectively. Athletic directors must be aware of their institutions’ spending rules, as well as the regulations established by the NCAA, the NAIA, and the NJCAA. They plan and oversee ticket sales and certify income reports from these sales. Athletic directors negotiate radio and television broadcasting contracts and other commercial contracts and agreements that earn revenue for their institutions. This revenue is used for scholarships, team equipment, travel expenses, coaching and administrative staff salaries, the design and printing of schedules and marketing materials, and other expenses. Revenue also comes from fans (known as boosters), who make donations to the program. Athletic directors must be expert fundraisers to make up for any budget shortfalls. Compliance. Navigating compliance issues relating to academic achievement, scholarships, gender issues, and other regulations established by their institutions; athletic conferences; the NCAA, NAIA, and NJCAA; and the federal government is one of the most critical tasks for athletic directors. They monitor the academic and graduation rates of student-athletes, and meet with student-athletes, parents, and faculty to resolve problems. If an athletic director’s institution participates in federal student financial aid programs, they must prepare an annual Equity in Athletics Disclosure Act Report to account for scholarships. The director must also ensure that the institution is compliant with Title IX regulations, which guarantee the equal participation of women in collegiate sports. Public relations. Athletic directors must be highly skilled at public relations. They need to develop strong relationships with donors and booster organizations that help raise much-needed revenue for their departments. They also speak at high schools, fan fests, and sports awards dinners. They oversee staff that produces and disseminates public relations material about the athletic program. Athletic directors meet with newspaper, radio, and television reporters almost daily. They answer a variety of questions from these media professionals. They might be asked about the job security of the women’s basketball coach, a generous gift to the athletic department by a donor, or the construction of the school’s new multipurpose sports arena. Athletic directors speak at news conferences, on sports talk shows, and at other media events. Athletic directors employed at small schools may only work part time. They spend the rest of their time
teaching classes, chairing the physical education department, or coaching sports. All athletic directors, whether employed by a tiny sports program or a major, wellknown program, must have a vision for the future of their programs. They must be able to explain this vision to administration officials, the media, and fans.
n requirements High School A well-rounded education is important for anyone interested in becoming an athletic director. In high school, take accounting, mathematics, business, social studies, and other college preparatory classes. Since communication skills are of utmost importance to athletic directors, be sure to take English and speech courses as well.
Postsecondary Training A bachelor’s degree in sports administration, physical education, or a related field is the minimum educational requirement to become an athletic director. You will need a graduate degree to be hired by the best programs. Ohio University in Athens, Ohio, has the oldest program in the country in sports administration. Administered by the School of Recreation and Sports Sciences within Ohio University’s College of Health and Human Services, the program requires 55 credit hours (five of which are completed during an internship) and leads to a master of sports administration degree. The curriculum focuses on business administration, journalism, communications, management, marketing, sports administration, and facility management. The required internship lasts from three months to a year, and internship opportunities are provided by more than 400 different organizations worldwide.
Other Requirements To be successful in this career, you need to have a love and knowledge of sports. Since athletic directors must juggle many different tasks at once, you need to be organized and able to delegate tasks. Developing strong people skills will help you work effectively with people from all types of backgrounds. You must be dedicated to academic excellence and have a high degree of integrity, as well as have strong management and leadership skills. Athletic directors are under constant pressure to create winning, financially sound programs. For this reason, you must be emotionally steady, a good judge of coaching ability, and expert at business and financial management.
n exploring Reading industry publications is a good way to learn more about this career. The NACDA publishes Athlet-
ics Administration, a bimonthly journal that focuses on issues in collegiate athletics administration. The journal also has a Q&A Forum, where leading athletic directors are interviewed about current issues in the field. To learn more, visit the NACDA’s Web site, http://www.nacda. com. The NACWAA publishes the NACWAA Newsletter. Recent issues featured articles on writing topflight resumes and developing leadership skills. Visit http:// www.nacwaa.org to read a sample issue of the newsletter. If your high school has a large sports program, it might employ an athletic director. If so, talk with this person about his or her career. Good questions to ask include: What are your primary and secondary job duties? What type of training did you receive to qualify for this job? How did you get hired for this position? and How does working as a high school athletic director compare to working at the college level? If your school doesn’t employ an athletic director, ask your guidance counselor or physical education teacher to set up an informational interview with one at a nearby college.
n employers Nearly every college and university in the United States employs athletic directors. Opportunities exist at private and public institutions, community colleges, and universities both large and small. At a smaller college, a coach, not a traditional administrator, may serve as the athletic director. High schools with large sports programs may also employ athletic directors.
athletic directors
Title IX Title IX is part of the Educational Amendments of 1972, changes to federal law made by congress in response to activism from the women’s movement. More generally, Title IX forbids discrimination in education, stating “No person in the U.S. shall, on the basis of sex be excluded from participation in, or denied the benefits of, or be subjected to discrimination under any educational program or activity receiving federal aid.” Since most schools receive some sort of federal aid, this law has a great deal of influence over the nation’s colleges and universities. As it applies to athletics, Title IX has several applications. Most notably, financial and tuition assistance must be given equally to male and female athletes. Equal funds must also be allocated to men’s and women’s athletic programs for equipment, travel, and other expenses. Also, interests must be equally represented—there cannot be seven men’s teams and only three women’s teams. Title IX has gone a long way towards remedying the problem of women being treated as second-class citizens in higher education, and has helped many women to succeed both in athletics and in life. However, what it has not changed is that high-profile, big-name men’s teams, especially in basketball and football, continue to be both cash cows and the darlings of both athletic departments and wealthy alumni, and so are funded with disproportionate amounts of resources—drawing them away from other deserving athletes.
n starting out Professional publications such as The Chronicle of Higher Education (http://www.chronicle.com) and NCAA News (http://www.ncaa.org/employment.html) have job listings for athletic directors. The human resources departments in most colleges and universities maintain listings of job openings at the institution and often advertise the positions nationally. The College and University Professional Association for Human Resources also has job listings at its Web site, http://www.cupahr.org. Landing a job as an athletic director can be difficult; dozens of applicants may apply for a single position. For this reason, it is very important that you gain experience in the field and develop good networking skills. Work as a coach, assistant athletic director, or physical education instructor, or in another related position to get experience. Take advantage of any networking opportunities (league meetings, trade shows, association membership) to get to know others working in the field. Some of the best job leads in the industry come by word of mouth. The NACDA also offers internships for aspiring athletic administrators.
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n advancement Athletic directors advance by taking positions at larger schools or at institutions that have better-known athletic programs. For example, an athletic director at a small Division II school might take a job at a larger, Division I institution. Or a director who is already at the top college level may take a position at a school that has a betterknown athletic program. Some athletic directors become administrators in professional sports, commissioners of athletic conferences, or recreation administrators for cities or towns. Others choose to leave the profession entirely, working as deans or academic advisors at their universities.
n earnings Salaries for college administrators vary widely among two-year and four-year colleges and among public and private institutions, but they are generally comparable to those of college faculty. According to the U.S. Department of Labor, in 2005 the median salary for education
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administrators (which include athletic directors) was $75,400. The lowest paid 10 percent of administrators earned $49,540 or less per year, while the highest paid made $109,800 or more annually. Most athletics directors receive benefits packages that include health insurance, paid vacation, and sick leave.
n work environment
Wilmington, NC 28403 Tel: 910-793-8244 http://www.nacwaa.org
For information on the master of sports administration degree, contact Sports Administration/Facility Management Program
Athletic directors work in a typical business office setting. Athletic directors at large schools have their own offices and large administrative staffs, while directors at small schools may have to share an office and do much of the work associated with this position themselves. Athletic directors often work more than 40 hours a week, including evenings and weekends. They travel to professional conferences, to league meetings, and to other colleges for important games. They might be on the road an entire weekend for an important football game or a few weekdays for league or association meetings.
Auctioneers
n outlook
n overview
The U.S. Department of Labor predicts that overall employment for education administrators (which include athletic directors) will grow about as fast as the average through 2014. The total number of athletic directors employed by colleges and universities remains fairly steady. Athletic directors also have little job security. They often lose their jobs if their athletic program fails to meet expectations. The total number of athletic directors employed by colleges and universities remains fairly steady. While many colleges and universities may cut athletic budgets, some new opportunities may become available as others add new programs. Competition for these positions, however, will be stiff.
Auctioneers appraise, assemble, and advertise goods, which they subsequently sell to the highest bidder during an auction. They act as salespeople for the family, company, or agency selling the items to be auctioned. Depending on their area of expertise, they may auction off anything from a rare book to an entire office building.
n for more information For information on internships, educational opportunities, job listings, and the journal Athletics Administration, contact National Association of Collegiate Directors of Athletics PO Box 16428 Cleveland, OH 44116 Tel: 440-892-4000 http://www.nacda.com
For information on student membership and the NACWAA Newsletter, contact National Association of Collegiate Women Athletic Administrators (NACWAA) 4701 Wrightsville Avenue Oak Park Building 1, Suite D-1
Ohio University E148 Grover Center Athens, OH 45701-2979 Tel: 740-593-4666 Email:
[email protected] http://www.cats.ohiou.edu/sportadmin
n history In the United States many of the oldest auction firms are located in cities on the East Coast. For instance, Christie’s in New York City is famous for auctioning luxury items such as fine art and celebrity memorabilia. Auctions have also long been popular in rural areas. Prior to the development of department stores, rural families had their own methods of dispensing with and acquiring the items and machinery they needed. For small or individual items, a barter or trade sometimes was made to exchange a needed tool or other possession. When many different items were being sold, however, a family would hold an auction, and an auctioneer would be hired to assist the family in disposing of the property. Families sometimes held auctions to raise cash or because they were moving and could not take along all their possessions. Auctions are a popular way to buy farm equipment, real estate, artwork, livestock, or personal property from estates. An auction disposes of many varied items fairly quickly by selling one item to the highest bidder and then immediately moving through the rest of the collection. Auctions also are a popular way to raise money for charities and other groups. They are fun as well as functional
and have become increasingly common in both rural areas and cities.
n the job An auctioneer’s work has two main facets: the preliminary preparation and evaluation and the selling itself. The former takes more time and skill and is less familiar to most people. Prior to the auction itself, the auctioneer meets with the sellers to review the property to be sold. The auctioneer makes note of the lowest bid, called the “reserved bid,” that the sellers will accept for each item. The auctioneer also advises clients when an item should be sold “absolute,” or without a minimum bid. If there are legal issues to be discussed, an auctioneer confers with the sellers. The most time-consuming activity often is the appraisal of the goods. The auctioneer determines the value of each item and compares it to the reserve bid established by the sellers. The auctioneer makes notes on the type of item being sold, its history, and any unique qualities the item may have. This background information can encourage higher bids and increase buyer interest. Once the appraisal has taken place, an auctioneer must organize the items in the area where the auction is to be held. Sometimes the auctioneer issues a catalog or booklet describing the items for sale for that particular day. The catalog also may list the sequence in which the items will be sold so buyers know when the items they want will be up for sale. In addition to the catalog, auctioneers organize any advertising needed to promote the sale. Newspaper and magazine ads, flyers, signs, and broadcast announcements can reach people from many different areas and bring in a large crowd. Some rural areas hold auctions as special attractions for tourists around summer holidays or to commemorate town events and local celebrations. Usually the auctioneer organizes and sets up the auction far enough in advance for people to come early, peruse the area, and see what is of interest to them. Antique furniture and clothing, farm equipment, and artwork are some of the things sold at auctions. Other auctions concentrate on large industrial machinery or cars, as well as livestock, stamps, coins, and books. The auctioneer works to help both the buyer and the seller. An auctioneer is familiar enough with the potential value of the items and begins bids at a certain price. The encouragement and stimulation an auctioneer provides, however, often is matched by the excitement and competition among the buyers. Auctioneers must be quick-thinking and comfortable addressing crowds, not only offering them information about the items for sale but at times acting as entertainers to keep the crowd interested.
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Auctioneers coordinate the pace of the auction and judge which items should be sold first. Sometimes to boost people’s interest, an auctioneer saves the most popular items for last. At other times the best articles are sold first so that those who weren’t able to purchase their first choice will feel free to bid on other items. Auctioneers commonly enlist the help of assistants, who carry items to the auctioneer, ensuring a steady flow of goods. In addition, another assistant may be in charge of collecting money, issuing receipts, and keeping track of the purchaser of each item. Most auctions follow a typical pattern. The items for sale are made available for inspection in a catalog or a display. In the case of real estate auctions, however, photographs may be circulated. In some instances, land that is miles away can be sold, though the auctioneer will describe some history and features of the area. Often these types of auctions take less time, but the preparation is more quick facts detailed. Auctioneers must know school subjects the dimensions of the buildings Art they are selling, boundary lines Mathematics for lots and farms, and whether Speech any money is owed or any environmental hazard exists on the Personal Skills property, as well as information Helping/teaching Leadership/management about the terms of payment and zoning laws. Work Environment
n requirements High School
Indoors and outdoors Primarily multiple locations
A high school diploma generally is a basic requirement for auctioneers. Classes in sales, mathematics, speech, art, art history, and economics are useful.
Minimum Education Level
Postsecondary Training
Certification or Licensing
Training for auctioneers is available at many schools across the country. For a list of schools and programs, visit http://www.auctioneers.org/ b e comeAuc t ione er/scho ol. php. The National Auctioneers Association (NAA) offers online courses for auctioneers in topics such as ethics, introduction to advertising, and care of the voice. The NAA Education Institute offers the Certified Auctioneers Institute
High school diploma Salary Range
$10,000 to $50,000 to $100,000
Required by all states Outlook
About as fast as the average DOT
294 GOE
N/A NOC
6411 O*NET-SOC
N/A
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The NAA Education Institute offers the following professional designation programs to practicing auctioneers who meet its experiential, educational, and ethical standards: Certified Auctioneers Institute (CAI), accredited auctioneer real estate (AARE), and graduate personal property appraiser (GPPA).
Other Requirements Auctioneers who work in specialized areas, such as real estate and livestock, must conform to additional regulations. Those who sell land must be licensed real estate sales agents or brokers. Auctioneers should be familiar with laws and regulations in the states in which they practice.
n exploring David Bennett, left, Director General of Sotheby’s in Geneva adjudges a diamond ring of the collection of the late Begum Sultan Mohamed Shah Aga Khan, right, for U.S. $ 2,743,590 during an auction. (AP Photo/Donald Stampfli.)
profession program, taught at Indiana University in Bloomington. One can also receive training in the Accredited Auctioneer Real Estate program, also sponsored by the NAA Education Institute. Auctioneer training can involve appraising and item presentation, as well as speech classes so that auctioneers do not strain their voices while working long hours. Auctioneers who plan to concentrate on specific areas may take classes to supplement their training. Livestock and real estate auctions require specialized knowledge. In addition, some auctioneers have backgrounds in art or antiques. Auctioneers must be effective speakers. Their job is to command attention and interest in the items through the power of their voice and their personal manner and good humor. Auctioneers should have a great deal of stamina, since auctions often take place outdoors in warm weather and can last for many hours at a stretch. Auctioneers must also be alert so they can keep track of the crowd activity, the progress of the assistants, and the selling of the goods. Because of all the deliberation that goes into preparing an auction, an auctioneer should like working with people. A keen sense of evaluation and an honest nature also are useful attributes.
Certification or Licensing Because they handle large sums of money, most auctioneers are bonded; however, licensing for auctioneers varies from state to state. Approximately 27 states require auctioneers to be licensed. Licensing requirements vary, so be sure to contact the licensing board for the state in which you would like to work for more information.
You can explore this field by attending an auction to see firsthand the responsibilities that are involved. Classes in speech, drama, and communications may be helpful because auctioneers rely heavily on their voices, not only for speaking and presentation but also to get the buyer’s attention through style and performance. More direct involvement is possible as well. Charities and other social organizations occasionally use nonprofessionals for fund-raising auctions, and established auctioneers often hire part-time assistants. It may also be useful to read periodicals, such as Auctioneer (published by the National Auctioneers Association), that publish articles about the field.
n employers Auctioneers often work as consultants on a freelance basis. They may be hired by private individuals or large companies anywhere that goods are offered for sale to the highest bidder. Others may work for private auction houses, which usually are located in large metropolitan areas such as New York, Los Angeles, and Chicago, as well as smaller cities. Those who wish to focus on specific areas such as real estate, art, or farm equipment should, of course, seek consulting assignments or permanent positions in locations and/or with companies where these items are sold; for example, farm equipment generally is auctioned in rural areas.
n starting out Beginning auctioneers may work as assistants, handling money and receipts or presenting the sale items to the experienced auctioneer. They also may begin by working at local and county fairs or smaller auctions. Professional trade schools may offer placement services or internships that link beginners with established practitioners. Beginners may have to work parttime until they gain experience and become better known. Auctioneers who work for large auction houses may receive
more assignments as they become more experienced and complete training offered by the firm.
n advancement Professional auctioneers must have a reputation for skilled and honest performance. Since most auctioneers get paid by commission, they may decide to specialize in selling real estate, farm equipment, or artwork—areas that are likely to bring in more revenue for less preparation and shorter presentations. Auctioneers who work with auction houses may move up the ranks and obtain more prestigious assignments. Auctioneers also advance as they develop their knowledge in specialized areas. Some people move into different lines of work but keep auctioning as a side job.
n earnings Part-time auctioneers earn close to $10,000, while fulltime auctioneers typically earn more than $20,000. The best-paid auctioneers earn $50,000 to $100,000 or more. On a daily basis, pay ranges between $100 and $2,000. Auctioneers usually are paid on commission. Part-time auctioneers sometimes supplement their income by assisting more experienced workers, acting as cashiers, assisting with publicity, or helping to organize the items.
n work environment Because auctioneers often travel to an assignment, they may encounter a wide range of working conditions. Auctions are held year-round. They take place in cities and small towns and occur in all types of weather. Auctioneers may work inside in a large hall or outside during a state fair. The type of goods being sold may also dictate their working conditions; for instance, farm equipment is commonly sold outdoors on the site of the owner’s farm. Auctioneers often are provided with a podium and a microphone, which are especially important at large auctions, which can draw more than 2,000 people. This allows the auctioneer to keep the crowd’s attention when the noise and activity level become distracting or stressful.
n outlook The outlook for auctioneers is good, especially for those who have developed a specialty, such as real estate. Auctioneers with polished skills and a strong delivery usually have little trouble finding work. For an ambitious auctioneer who is willing to travel to various locations and invest time to gain experience, regular employment is possible, either as an independent auctioneer or as a staff member of an auction firm. However, this is tempered by the rise of Internet auction sites, such as eBay, which automate the process and make it easier for people to run their own sales.
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Words to Know Absentee bid: A procedure that allows a bidder to participate in the bidding process without being physically present. The particular rules and procedures of absentee bids are unique to each auction company. Absolute auction: An auction where the property is sold to the highest qualified bidder with no limiting conditions or amount; also known as an auction without reserve. Appraisal: The process of estimating value. Auction block: The podium where the auctioneer stands while conducting the auction. Bid: A prospective buyer’s indication or offer of a price he or she will pay to purchase property at auction. Bids are usually in standardized increments established by the auctioneer. Caveat emptor: A Latin term meaning “Let the buyer beware”; a legal maxim stating that the buyer takes the risk regarding quality or condition of the property purchased, unless protected by warranty. Collusion: The unlawful practice of two or more people agreeing not to bid against one another in order to deflate value; when the auctioneer accepts a fictitious bid on behalf of the seller so as to manipulate or inflate the price of the property. Commission: The fee charged to the seller by the auctioneer for providing services, usually a percentage of the gross receipts. Minimum opening bid: The lowest acceptable amount at which the bidding must commence. Reserve auction: An auction in which the sellers or their agents reserve the right to accept or decline any and all bids, or to withdraw the property at any time prior to the announcement of the completion of the sale by the auctioneer. Tie bid: Two or more bidders bid exactly the same amount at the same time and must be resolved by the auctioneer. Source: National Auctioneers Association
Many auctioneers get assignments based on their reputation and notoriety within an area. Thus, auctioneers may find it difficult to reestablish themselves if they move to another area. Also, some types of auctions are found only in certain areas. Art auctions, for example, generally take place in cities, while livestock, farm equipment, and farm land most often are sold in rural areas.
n for more information Contact the following organization for career and educational information: National Auctioneers Association 8880 Ballentine
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Overland Park, KS 66214 Tel: 913-541-8084 Email:
[email protected] http://www.auctioneers.org
Audio Recording Engineers n overview Audio recording engineers oversee the technical end of recording. They operate the controls of the recording equipment—often under the direction of a music producer—during the production of music recordings; film, television, and radio productions; and other mediums that require quick facts sound recording. Recording engischool subjects neers monitor and operate elecComputer science tronic and computer consoles to Music make necessary adjustments, and solve technical problems as they Personal Skills occur during a recording session. Mechanical/manipulative They assure that the equipment Technical/scientific is in optimal working order and Work Environment obtain any additional equipment Primarily indoors necessary for the recording. Primarily one location
Minimum Education Level
Some postsecondary training Salary Range
$19,700 to $38,390 to $88,370+ Certification or Licensing
Recommended Outlook
About as fast as the average DOT
194 GOE
01.08.01 NOC
5225 O*NET-SOC
27-4011.00, 27-4012.00, 27-4014.00
n history The job of the contemporary audio recording engineer began in the late 1940s with the development of magnetic tape as a recording medium. Tape provided a new and flexible method for recording engineers to influence the outcome of the recording session. Before tape, records were cut on warm wax blanks that allowed only minimal manipulation of sound quality. Generally, whatever the musicians produced in the recording studio is what came out on the record, and the degree of quality rested almost entirely in the hands of the studio engineer. The innovation of tape and the introduction of long-playing (LP) records brought significant
improvements to the recording industry. Since tape allowed recording on multiple tracks, recording engineers were now needed to edit and enhance tape quality and “mix” each track individually to produce a balanced sound on all tracks. Tape allowed recording engineers to perform patchwork corrections to a recording by replacing sections where musician errors or poor sound quality occurred. By the 1950s recording engineers played a vital role in the record industry. The emergence of rock and roll brought an explosion of recordings in the industry, and each recording required a technically proficient, creative, and skilled audio recording engineer. Although engineers often had to produce sounds at the direction of the music producer, many worked at their own discretion and produced truly unique “sounds.” Engineers also found employment for film productions in Hollywood and for radio station productions throughout the United States. The development of music-related software for the computer has altered many aspects of music recording, particularly in the editing process. Many time-consuming tasks previously performed manually can now be done in half the time or less with new specially programmed software. More than ever before, today’s audio recording engineer must be highly educated and up-to-date with the rapidly changing technology that ultimately affects the way he or she performs the job.
n the job Audio recording engineers operate and maintain the equipment used in a sound recording studio. They record the following: music, live and in studios; speech, such as dramatic readings of novels or radio advertisements; and sound effects and dialogue used in television and film. They work in control rooms at master console boards often containing hundreds of dials, switches, meters, and lights, which the engineer reads and adjusts to achieve desired results during a recording. Today, the recording studio is often considered an extra instrument, and thus, the audio recording engineer becomes an extra musician in his or her ability to dramatically alter the final sound of the recording. As the owner of Watchmen Studios in Lockport, New York, Doug White offers audio recording services, digital audio mastering, audio duplication, and Web site construction. “I record a lot of hardcore and metal,” he says. “It makes up about 60 percent of what we do here.” His clients include Bughouse, Big Hair, Tugboat Annie, and Slugfest. Watchmen Studios features separate drum, vocal, and guitar booths, and offers 24-track, 16-track, and 8-track recording. The studio even offers spare guitars. “I try to keep it to a nine-hour day,” White says.
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An audio recording engineer records a comedian in a studio. (Markus Moellenberg/zefa/Corbis.)
“Some studio engineers work up to 12 hours a day, but I feel my work suffers after too long.” As recording engineers prepare to record a session, they ask the musicians and producer what style of music they will be playing and what type of sound and emotion they want reflected in the final recording. Audio recording engineers must find out what types of instruments and orchestration will be recorded to determine how to manage the recording session and what additional equipment will be needed. For example, each instrument or vocalist may require a special microphone. The recording of dialogue will take considerably less preparation. Before the recording session, audio recording engineers test all microphones, chords, recording equipment, and amplifiers to ensure everything is operating correctly. They load tape players and set recording levels. Microphones must be positioned in precise locations near the instrument or amplifier. They experiment with several different positions of the microphone and listen in the control room for the best sound. Depending on the size of the studio and the number of musicians or vocalists, audio recording engineers position musicians in various
arrangements to obtain the best sound for the production. For smaller projects, such as three- to eight-piece bands, each instrument may be sectioned off in soundproof rooms to ensure the sounds of one instrument do not “bleed” into the recording of another instrument. For more complex recording of larger orchestration, specialized microphones must be placed in exact locations to record one or several instruments. Once audio recording engineers have the musicians in place and the microphones set, they instruct musicians to play a sample of their music. At the main console, they read the gauges and set recording levels for each instrument. Recording engineers must listen for sound imperfections, such as hissing, popping, “mike bleeding,” and any other extraneous noises, and pinpoint their source. They turn console dials to adjust recording level, volume, tone, and effects. Depending on the problem, they may have to reposition either the microphone or the musician. With the right sound and recording level of each microphone set, audio recording engineers prepare the recording equipment (either tape or digital). During
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the recording of a song or voice-over, they monitor the recording level of each microphone to ensure none of the tracks are too high, which results in distortion, or too low, which results in weak sound quality. Recording engineers usually record more than one “take” of a song. Before the mixing process, they listen to each take carefully and determine which one has the best sound. They often splice the best part of one take with the best part of another take. In some recording sessions, two engineers work in the control room. One usually works with the recording equipment, and the other takes instruction from the producer. The engineers coordinate the ideas of the producer to create the desired sound. During each session, the volume, speed, intensity, and tone quality must be carefully monitored. Producers may delegate more responsibility to the recording engineer. Engineers often tell the musicians when to start and stop playing or when to redo a certain section. They may ask musicians or other studio technicians to move microphones or other equipment in the studio to improve sound quality. After the recording is made, the individual tracks must be “mixed” to a master tape. When mixing, they balance each instrument in relation to the others. Together with the producer and the musicians, recording engineers listen to the song or piece several times with the instruments at different levels and decide on the best sound and consistency. At this stage, they also set equalization and manipulate sound, tone, intensity, effects, and speed of the recording. Mixing a record is often a tedious, timeconsuming task that can take several weeks to complete, especially with some recordings that are 24 or more tracks. At a larger studio, this may be done exclusively by a sound mixer. Sound mixers exclusively study various mixing methodologies. Audio recording engineers frequently perform maintenance and repair on their equipment. They must identify and solve common technical problems in the studio. They may have to rewire or move equipment when updating the studio with new equipment. They may write proposals for equipment purchases and studio design changes. Engineers are often assisted in many of the basic sound recording tasks by apprentices, also known as studio technicians. Recording engineers at smaller studios may set studio times for musicians. They must keep a thorough account of the band or performer scheduled to play, the musical style of the band or performer, the specific equipment that will be needed, and any other special arrangements needed to make the session run smoothly. They make sure the studio is stocked with the right working acces-
sory equipment, including cords, cables, microphones, amplifiers, tapes, tuners, and effect pedals.
n requirements High School You should take music courses to learn an instrument, study voice, or learn composition. High school orchestras and bands are an excellent source for both practicing and studying music performance. You should also take classes in computer science, mathematics, business, and, if offered, electronics. A drama or broadcast journalism class may allow you access to a sound booth, and the opportunity to assist with audio engineering for live theatrical productions and radio programs.
Postsecondary Training More than ever before, postsecondary training is an essential step for becoming a successful recording engineer. This is when you will make your first contacts and be introduced to many of the highly technical (and continually changing) aspects of the field. To learn about educational opportunities in the United States and abroad, visit the Web sites of the Audio Engineering Society (http://www.aes.org) or Mix Magazine Online (http://mixonline.com). Seminars and workshops offer the most basic level of education. This may be the best way to obtain an early, hands-on understanding of audio recording and prepare for entry-level apprentice positions. These programs are intended to introduce students to the equipment and technical aspects of the field, such as microphones, sound reinforcement, audio processing devices, tape and DAT machines, digital processing, and sound editing. Students will also become familiar with the newest technologies in the audio field, such as MIDI (musical instrument digital interface), synthesis, sampling, and current music software. A seminar can last from a couple of hours to several weeks. Many workshops are geared toward indepth study of a certain aspect of recording such as mixing, editing, or music production. Students looking for a more comprehensive course of study in specific areas of the recording industry can enroll in technical school or community college programs. Depending on the curriculum, these programs can take from several weeks to up to a year to complete. The most complete level of postsecondary education is a two- or four-year degree from a university. At many universities, students have access to state-of-the-art equipment and a teaching staff of knowledgeable professionals in the industry. Universities incorporate music, music technology, and music business in a comprehensive curriculum that prepare graduates to be highly competitive
in the industry. Students can enroll in other non-audio courses, such as business, communications, marketing, and computers.
Certification or Licensing In the broadcast industry, engineers can be certified by the Society of Broadcast Engineers (http://www.sbe.org). Certification is recommended because this step shows your dedication to the field and your level of competence. After completing technical training and meeting strict qualifications, you can also join the Society as a member or associate member. Membership gives you access to educational seminars, conferences, and a weekly job line.
Other Requirements Being a recording engineer requires both technical skills and communication skills. You must be patient, capable of working well with a variety of people, and possess the confidence to function in a leadership position. Excellent troubleshooting skills are essential for an audio recording engineer. “A very powerful, outgoing personality is the number one qualification,” Doug White says. “You’re dealing every day with picky musicians who never will be happy with their work, so they look to you for verification.” White emphasizes that engineers need an even temperament and endless patience. “You have to be able to handle all types of personalities with kid gloves,” he says.
n exploring One way to learn more about this field is to read publications that focus on audio recording. Mix Magazine Online (http://mixonline.com) offers articles about education, technology, and production. Other publications that provide useful information on the industry and audio recording techniques include Remix (http:// www.remixmag.com), Pro Sound News (http://www. prosoundnews.com), and Broadcast Engineering (http:// www.broadcastengineering.com). Any experience you can get working in or around music will provide excellent background for this field. You could take up an instrument in the school band or orchestra, or perform with your own band. You might also have the opportunity to work behind the scenes with a music group, serving as a business manager, helping set up sound systems, or working as a technician in a school sound recording studio or radio station. Write or call record companies or recording studios to get more information; local studios can usually be found in the classified telephone directory, and others can be
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Learn More about It Gibson, David. The Art of Mixing: A Visual Guide to Recording, Engineering, and Production. 2d ed. Emeryville, Calif.: Mix Books, 2005. Massey, Howard. Behind the Glass: Top Record Producers Tell How They Craft the Hits. San Francisco: Backbeat Books, 2000. Owsinski, Bobby. The Mastering Engineer’s Handbook. Milwaukee: Hal Leonard Publishing, 2001. ———. The Mixing Engineer’s Handbook. 2d ed. Milwaukee: Hal Leonard Publishing, 2006. Sokol, Mike. The Acoustic Musician’s Guide to Sound Reinforcement and Live Recording. Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 1997. Stark, Scott Hunter. Live Sound Reinforcement: A Comprehensive Guide to P.A. and Music Reinforcement Systems and Technology. 2d ed. Emeryville, Calif.: Mix Books, 1996. Talbot-Smith, Michael, ed. Audio Engineer’s Reference Book. 2d ed. Boston: Focal Press, 2001. White, Ira. Audio Made Easy (Or How to Be a Sound Engineer without Really Trying). 2d ed. Milwaukee: Hal Leonard Publishing, 1997. Yakabuski, Jim. Professional Sound Reinforcement Techniques: Tips and Tricks of a Concert Sound Engineer. Milwaukee: Hal Leonard Publishing, 2001.
located in the music trade magazines. The National Academy of Recording Arts and Sciences (the organization responsible for the Grammy Awards) is one source for information on the industry. Numerous books and music trade magazines that cover music production are available at bookstores or libraries. Doug White recommends that prospective recording engineers make appointments to interview working sound professionals. “Even if you have to buy an hour of studio time to sit with them and talk,” he says, “it’s worth the cost. Ask as much about the personal/social side of working with artists. Don’t be dazzled by the equipment. Believe me, it’s a very small part of the job.”
n employers Though most major recording studios are located in metropolitan areas such as New York and Los Angeles, many cities across the country have vibrant music scenes. Talented, skilled engineers will always be in demand, no matter the size of the recording studio. They may be employed by a studio, or they may be self-employed, either contracting with studios or operating their own
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recording business. Engineers also work for broadcast companies, engineering sound for radio and TV programs. Some recording engineers work for video production companies and corporate media libraries, helping to create in-house company presentations and films.
n starting out After high school, seek experience as an intern or apprentice or begin postsecondary training in audio at a university or college or trade school. Because most professional recording studios and broadcasters prefer to offer apprenticeship positions to students who have some previous experience in audio, those who have completed some trade school courses may have better chances at landing jobs. Most university and college programs offer semester internship programs at professional recording studios as a way of earning credit. Professional trade associations also support internships for their members by either matching students with employers or funding internship expenses. Universities and trade schools also have job placement services for their graduates. Before going into the business, Doug White got an associate’s degree from the Art Institute of Atlanta. “But in this business,” he says, “your education doesn’t get you very far. Reputation and experience are usually what open doors.” Internships and apprenticeships play an important role in helping students establish personal connections. Students are often hired by the studios or stations with which they’ve interned or their employer can make recommendations for other job openings at a different studio. Employers will often post entry-level openings at universities or trade schools, but very seldom will they advertise in a newspaper. Most audio engineers begin their career in small studios as assistants, called studio technicians, and have varied responsibilities, which may entail anything from running out to pick up dinner for the musicians during a recording session, to helping the recording engineer in the mixing process. Positions in radio will also provide a good stepping-stone to a career in audio recording. Entry-level positions may be easier to come by at studios that specialize in educational recording and radio advertisements than at music recording studios.
n advancement Career advancement will depend upon an engineer’s interests as well as on hard work and perseverance. They may advance to the higher paying, glamorous (yet high-pressure) position of music producer, either as an independent producer or working for a record label.
Recording engineers may also advance to positions in the radio or television industries, which usually offer better pay than studio work. If engineers wish to stay in the field of audio recording, they can advance to managerial positions or choose to open their own recording studio. The recording industry is continually changing in response to frequent technological breakthroughs. Recording engineers who adapt easily to such advances as digital recording and new computer software will have a better chance for success. Some recording engineers may team up with producers who work independently of the studio. They may form their own company, allowing for greater flexibility and higher salaries.
n earnings According to the U.S. Department of Labor, the median income for sound engineering technicians was approximately $38,390 in 2005. At the low end of the scale, about 10 percent of these workers made less than $19,700. The highest paid 10 percent made $88,370 or more. Audio engineers in the broadcast industry often earn higher salaries than those in the music industry. Generally, those working at television stations earned more than those working at radio stations. Benefits packages will vary from business to business. Audio recording engineers employed by a recording company or by a broadcast station receive health insurance and paid vacation. Other benefits may include dental and eye care, life and disability insurance, and a pension plan.
n work environment Recording studios can be comfortable places to work. They are usually air conditioned because of the sensitivity of the equipment. They may be loud or cramped, however, especially during recording sessions where many people are working in a small space. The work is not particularly demanding physically (except when recording engineers must move equipment), but there may be related stress depending on the personalities of the producer and the performers. Audio recording engineers must be able to follow directions from producers and must often give directions. Their work must be quick and precise, and the engineer must be able to work as part of a team. Depending on the type of recording business, some engineers may be required to record off-site, at live concerts, for example, or other places where the recording is to take place. Engineers can usually come to work dressed however they wish. Engineers must have patience when working with performers. For the engineer, there are often long periods of waiting while the musicians or performers work out
problems and try to perfect parts of their songs. Engineers will frequently have to record the same song or spoken-word piece several times after mistakes have been made in the presentation. In addition, the mixing process itself can become tedious for many engineers—especially if they are not fond of the music. During the mix, engineers must listen to the same song over and over again to assure a proper balance of the musical tracks, and they often try various mixes. Working hours depend on the job. Some studios are open at night or on the weekends to accommodate the schedules of musicians and performers. Other studios and recording companies only operate during normal business hours. Engineers work between 40 and 60 hours a week and may frequently put in 12-hour work days. Album or compact disc recordings typically take 300 to 500 hours each to record. In contrast, educational or language cassette recordings take only about 100 hours.
n outlook Employment in this field is expected to grow about as fast as the average through 2014, according to the U.S. Department of Labor. New computer technology (hardware and software) is rapidly changing the way many recording engineers perform their jobs, making the entire audio recording process easier. These technological advancements will negatively affect job prospects for entry-level studio technicians whose more mundane recording tasks will increasingly be performed by computers. However, technology will also have some beneficial impact. As American media expands through technology and markets such as digital cable open up, opportunities for audio recording engineers will likewise increase. With computer technology making the recording process faster, easier, and ideally better, this will free up time in the studio—time that the studio managers can book with more recording sessions, which in turn may require a larger staff. As this technology becomes affordable, though, some performers, particularly rock or jazz groups, may choose to record themselves. With computers doing most of the grunt work and allowing complete control and manipulation of sound, some of these “home” recordings (also called “low-fi” recordings) can sound just as good as a studio recording for certain music genres. However, to take full advantage of digital and multimedia technology, musicians will continue to seek out the expertise of studio professionals. Competition for jobs will be steepest in high-paying urban areas. Audio recording engineers will find jobs more easily in small cities and towns.
automatic teller machine servicers
n for more information For information on graduate-level scholarships and audio recording schools and courses in the United States and abroad, contact Audio Engineering Society 60 East 42nd Street, Room 2520 New York, NY 10165-2520 Tel: 212-661-8528 Email:
[email protected] http://www.aes.org
For facts and statistics about the recording industry, contact Recording Industry Association of America 1330 Connecticut Avenue, NW, Suite 300 Washington, DC 20036 Tel: 202-775-0101 http://www.riaa.com
For information on membership, contact Society of Professional Audio Recording Services 9 Music Square South, Suite 222 Memphis, TN 37203 Tel: 800-771-7727 Email:
[email protected] http://www.spars.com
Automatic Teller Machine Servicers n overview Automatic (or automated) teller machine (ATM) servicers maintain and repair the ATMs at banks, grocery stores, convenience stores, gas stations, and other locations. ATM servicers are also called ATM network specialists, ATM field service technicians, and ATM technicians.
n history Luther George Simjian invented the automatic teller machine (ATM) around 1960. ATMs are essentially computers that are connected to a central computer through a data network. ATMs primarily enable people to make bank deposits and withdrawals, to transfer funds, and to check account balances electronically, sometimes in a location far away from their own banks. ATMs are also used to provide an increasing number of other services, such as employee information processing and distribution of government payments. By mid-2004, there were some 1.4 million ATMs worldwide, according to the ATM Industry
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Association (ATMIA). As of 2002, computer, automated teller, and office machine repairers held about 156,000 jobs in the United States.
n the job ATM servicers make sure that ATMs are in working order and available to the public often 24 hours a day, seven days a week. The service needed by any individual ATM may be as simple as clearing paper jams or situating cash properly, or it may be more complicated, requiring an understanding of electronics and computer programming. The work of ATM servicers varies according to the position. First line technicians replenish the money, making sure it is positioned properly and that no sensors are blocked; replace receipt paper; remove any obstructions in the machine and perform other routine maintenance; balance the machine; and remove deposits and deliver them to a central office. When an ATM seems to be working quick facts improperly, technicians troubleschool subjects shoot and try to define the probComputer science lem. They may also check security Mathematics equipment, such as cameras and Technical/shop VCRs, to ensure that it is working Personal Skills properly. Depending on the size Following instructions of the city in which they work, Technical/scientific ATM servicers may service 30 to 40 machines a day. These techniWork Environment cians are usually armed and drive Indoors and outdoors Primarily multiple locations armored trucks to and from the ATM locations. First line techMinimum Education Level nicians are also stationed in the Some postsecondary training office to dispatch other technicians, count the money, and fill Salary Range $22,370 to $36,060 to out forms for the banks. Process$55,810 ing deposits involves opening envelopes and documenting the Certification or Licensing contents. Supervisors train and Required by certain states oversee the work of technicians and assign them their routes. Outlook More slowly than the average When understaffed, supervisors go out on runs. They also DOT send out second line technicians N/A when the first line technicians are unable to fix particular problems GOE 05.02.02 with the machines. Second line technicians are typiNOC cally on call and are paged when a N/A repair is necessary. With an understanding of particular machines, O*NET-SOC networks, and electronic systems, 49-2011.00 they perform maintenance on the
machines, replacing parts when necessary. They also perform preventive maintenance by testing machines. Technicians need to know how each network is balanced and what could go wrong. If the dispenser (the part of the machine that contains the money) needs to be serviced, first line technicians stand guard while the second line technicians make any necessary adjustments. A technician may be called in if a machine is unable to properly read bank cards because of worn magnetic heads or if it has a “fail” that prevents it from dispensing the requested amount of cash. If a problem is too extensive to be corrected on-site, the technician may take the whole machine, or parts of it, to a bench technician, who works in a repair shop rather than in the field. Some technicians are trained to install ATMs, which can involve securing the ATM at a particular site (indoors or outdoors) and programming the machine. Technicians put up signs and awnings over the machines, and they also remove or relocate machines. Richard Wesley is a second line technician for an ATM overhaul and service company that contracts with an area bank. “I have to do whatever it takes to get the ATM back in service,” he says. “ATMs can’t stay down very long. “When I get a call, I go to the branch or off-site, like a grocery store, that has the bank’s ATMs.” With his understanding of electronics, Wesley performs repairs on-site after speaking to the first line technician about the ATM’s problems. “After each repair, I have to call the host, which electronically talks to the site and also to the bank via the ATM. I do that to close out the service call and to make sure that the ATM is working properly.”
n requirements High School To become an ATM servicer, you should take all available high school computer classes. Knowledge of and familiarity with computer languages will give you an edge as ATMs become more complex. Also take any electronics or mechanics courses your school offers, because ATM repair requires skills in both areas. By taking English courses, you’ll develop communication skills that will prepare you to deal with ATM service clients as well as supervise other technicians.
Postsecondary Training First line technicians typically get their training on the job, but second line technicians often must have electronics experience before being hired. Some positions require an associate’s degree, or equivalent experience, in electronics or electronic equipment repair. Manufacturers of machines also provide training, and employers
may require that technicians have an understanding of specific ATMs and data networks. Electronics technology programs are available at community colleges and vocational schools and offer courses in such subjects as electrical circuits, technical mathematics, mechanics, electrical drafting, and industrial electronics.
Certification or Licensing Various manufacturers, such as NCR, Triton Systems, and Diebold, offer certification in the use of their machines. This certification may be required by some employers. Some states also require that technicians driving armored trucks or carrying guns be licensed as security guards.
Other Requirements Since ATM servicers handle other people’s money, trustworthiness and responsibility are key qualities. Employers will check your credit, background, and driving records and conduct polygraph and drug tests. You will often be on call to service machines at odd or irregular hours, so employers will expect you to be dependable. You must also be able to work without close supervision. Wesley says, “You have to have the desire to make sure the work is done right since no one is looking over your shoulder.” The most successful technicians are those who can closely follow all the required steps. Problem-solving skills are important, and if you supervise other technicians, you’ll need people skills and the ability to coordinate the work of others. If you do second line service, you’ll need some mechanical and computer skills. Finger dexterity and good vision are important too given that you will be working with various tools and often looking at small components.
n exploring Read about what’s happening in the industry by visiting ATMmarketplace.com online. To explore your interest and ability, you could observe and even help a family member or neighbor when they’re doing some kind of computer repair work or you could pick up an electronics kit from a local hobby store or online. Join your school’s computer club to learn more about computers. A part-time job at a local computer or electronics store could teach you about electronic equipment and repair. To hear firsthand what the job’s like, request an information interview (in person, on the phone, or via e-mail) with someone who works as an ATM servicer. You should be able to find someone to talk to through an armored truck service or ATM supplier. Check your local phone book, conduct a Web search, or contact ATMIA (http://www.atmia.com/). Or someone at your bank might be able to provide you with a name.
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n employers While banks and credit unions do hire technicians, the majority of work is available from businesses that contract with banks for the maintenance of ATMs. Armored truck services such as Brink’s hire first and second line technicians, as do suppliers of ATMs and parts. Most technicians will find jobs with ATM installation and service companies that maintain the many ATMs in grocery and convenience stores, malls, department stores, and other citywide locations.
n starting out Jobs are frequently advertised in the newspaper, or you can check for area services in the yellow pages under “Automated Teller Machines.” You can find installation companies that hire technicians nationwide by typing “ATM services” in an Internet search engine. ATMmarketplace.com offers free membership and allows you to search current job postings; it also links you to the sites of ATM manufacturers. Wesley developed his electronics and supervisory skills before going to work as a second line technician. He found the job listing in the local newspaper. “I was hired because of my electronics training for work on the ATMs,” he says, “and my supervisory skills to satisfy the banking personnel whenever the ATMs were down and customers got mad.”
n advancement Within an installation and repair service, a technician may move on to become a bench technician who handles the more complex repairs that can’t be made on-site. Technicians may also go to work for manufacturers to assist engineers in designing equipment. Some technicians also start their own businesses, contracting with banks and credit unions to install and maintain their ATMs. Advancement opportunities might also be found in areas indirectly related to ATM servicing. Software
Words to Know Armored car: A truck with plates of armor and strong locks for transporting large sums of money. Debit card: A plastic card with identification encoded into its electromagnetic strip; used in ATMs for bank service. Dispenser: The compartment of the ATM that holds and distributes the cash. Proprietary network: A network that is only accessible by one particular bank’s customers. Shared network: A network that links together a number of different banks and accounts.
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engineers create computer software programs tailored to the needs of specific businesses. Database administrators design, install, and update computer databases of business information. Sales managers oversee sales staff in direct interaction with customers. Computer and office machine service technicians install, calibrate, maintain, troubleshoot, and repair equipment such as computers and their peripherals, office equipment, and specialized electronic equipment used in factories, hospitals, airplanes, and numerous other businesses.
n earnings According to the Occupational Outlook Handbook, computer, automated teller, and office machine repairers had median annual earnings of $36,060 in 2005. Those in the lowest 10 percent made less than $22,370 a year, and those in the highest 10 percent made more than $55,810 a year. Technicians sometimes draw overtime and may also have benefits such as medical and dental insurance, paid vacation, and a 401(k). They may be allowed a company car or van for personal and work use.
n work environment ATM servicers often work where the ATM is located, which could be either indoors or outdoors. Bench technicians work in repair shops. Sometimes work must be done in small, confined spaces where there is little room to move around. Since much work is conducted on-site where a machine is located, ATM servicers do some traveling. How much traveling they do depends on the area they service. In a week, Richard Wesley often drives between 400 and 1,200 miles, making about 40 stops per day. Even though Wesley does not enjoy all this driving, he does enjoy the benefits of working out of his home rather than at an office. “You’re your own boss,” he says. “As long as you do your job and keep the ATMs operational, the company doesn’t interfere.” Because ATMs need servicing not only during the regular work day but also late at night, on weekends, and on holidays, both first line and second line technicians often work odd hours. Technicians may work day or night shifts, or they may be on call over long periods of time. Wesley works a regular workweek, 8:00 a.m. to 5:00 p.m. Monday through Friday, and is also on call every other weekend and after 5:00 p.m. every other week. He is stationed at home and receives calls via cell phone and pager. Some days he doesn’t have to answer a single call, while other days he may work for 12 hours straight.
n outlook The U.S. Department of Labor expects that employment of computer, automated teller, and office machine repair-
ers will grow more slowly than the average through 2014. Workers who complete the most advanced training will be in high demand. According to a recent article at ATMmarketplace.com, some industry leaders don’t believe there is much of a shortage of technicians because of the self-sufficiency of the machines themselves. ATMs are becoming more reliable and in less need of second line maintenance. The U.S. Department of Labor anticipates that employment opportunities will be available mostly to replace ATM servicers who retire rather than from growth in the industry. Others in the industry, however, believe the hardware is becoming more complex and computer-based, requiring more second line technicians with programming knowledge and more extensive training. Furthermore, the number of ATMs is increasing rapidly. ATM manufacturers are constantly exploring new technology and developing ATMs that require less service while having more features. ATMs will soon be offering more than just money; additional dispensers will be added to offer stamps, phone cards, and even tickets for travel by bus, train, or plane. Some ATMs being developed have Web capabilities, allowing for more direct marketing. Although manufacturers promote these ATMs as requiring less maintenance, these machines may actually require the services of more extensively trained technicians to maintain all the various systems and hardware.
n for more information To learn more about the ATM industry, contact ATM Industry Association (ATMIA) 100 South Dakota Avenue, Suite 201 Sioux Falls, SD 57104 Tel: 888-208-1589 http://www.atmia.com
Read industry news, participate in discussion forums, and browse job listings at ATMmarketplace.com http://www.ATMmarketplace.com
Automobile Collision Repairers n overview Automobile collision repairers repair, replace, and repaint damaged body parts of automobiles, buses, and light trucks. They use hand tools and power tools to straighten bent frames and body sections, replace badly damaged
parts, smooth out minor dents and creases, remove rust, fill small holes or dents, and repaint surfaces damaged by accident or wear. Some repairers also give repair estimates. There are approximately 158,160 automobile collision repairers working in the United States, plus 17,760 automotive glass specialists and 654,800 general auto mechanics.
n history The proliferation of the automobile in American society in the 1920s meant new opportunities for many who had not traveled far beyond their hometown. It also created something else by the thousands—jobs. One profession necessitated by America’s new love for automobiles was that of the collision repairer. With ill-prepared roads suddenly overrun by inexperienced drivers, accidents and breakdowns became a common problem. Automobiles were significantly simpler in the early years. Body repairs often could be performed by the owner or someone with general mechanical aptitude. Minor body dents, if they did not affect driving, were usually left alone. As cars became more complex and as society grew ever more fond of their automobiles, the need for qualified collision repairers grew. Automobiles suddenly became major status symbols, and people were no longer indifferent to minor dents and fender-benders. To many, dents were intolerable. New body styles and materials made body repairs a difficult job. To meet this new demand, some automobile mechanics shifted their focus from repairs under the hood to repairs to the body of automobiles. By the 1950s, automobile body repair garages were common in cities throughout the United States. More drivers carried vehicle insurance to protect against loss due to an accident. The insurance industry began to work more closely with automobile collision repairers. Since traffic control methods and driving rules and regulations were not very well established, frequent car accidents kept these repair garages busy year-round. Most collision repairers learned the trade through hands-on experience as an apprentice or on their own through trial and error. When automakers began packing their cars with new technology, involving complex electrical circuitry, computer controlled mechanisms, and new materials, as well as basic design changes, collision repairers found themselves in need of comprehensive training.
n the job Automobile collision repairers repair the damage vehicles sustain in traffic accidents and through normal wear. Repairers straighten bent bodies, remove dents, and replace parts that are beyond repair. Just as a variety
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of skills are needed to build an automobile, so a range of skills is needed to repair body damage to vehicles. Some body repairers specialize in certain areas, such as painting, welding, glass replacement, or air bag replacement. All collision repairers should know how to perform common repairs, such as realigning vehicle frames, smoothing dents, and removing and replacing panels. Vehicle bodies are made from a wide array of materials, including steel, aluminum, metal alloys, fiberglass, and plastic, with each material requiring a different repair technique. Most repairers can work with all of these materials, but as car manufacturers produce vehicles with an increasing proportion of lightweight fiberglass, aluminum, and plastic parts, more repairers specialize in repairing these specific materials. Collision repairers frequently must remove car seats, accessories, electrical components, hydraulic windows, dashboards, and trim to get to the parts that need repair. If the quick facts frame or a body section of the school subjects vehicle has been bent or twisted, Computer science frame repairers and straightTechnical/shop eners can sometimes restore it to its original alignment and Personal Skills Following instructions shape. This is done by chaining Mechanical/manipulative or clamping it to an alignment machine, which uses hydraulic Work Environment pressure to pull the damaged Primarily indoors metal into position. Repairers use Primarily one location specialty measuring equipment Minimum Education Level to set all components, such as Some postsecondary training engine parts, wheels, headlights, and body parts, at manufacturSalary Range er’s specifications. $20,490 to $34,810 to After the frame is straight$59,010+ ened, the repairer can begin to Certification or Licensing work on the car body. Newer Recommended composite car bodies often have “panels” that can be individually Outlook replaced. Dents in a metal car About as fast as the average body can be corrected in several DOT different ways, depending on 807 how deep they are. If any part is too badly damaged to repair, the GOE collision repairers remove it with 05.03.01 hand tools, a pneumatic metalNOC cutting gun, or acetylene torch, 7322 and then weld on a replacement. Some dents can be pushed out O*NET-SOC with hydraulic jacks, pneumatic 49-3021.00, 49-3022.00, hammers, prying bars, and other 49-3023.02 hand tools. To smooth small
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An automobile collision repairer works on a car. (Corbis)
dents and creases, collision repairers may position small anvils, called dolly blocks, against one side of the dented metal. They then hit the opposite side of the metal with various specially designed hammers. Tiny pits and dimples are removed with pick hammers and punches. Dents that cannot be corrected with this treatment may be filled with solder or a puttylike material that becomes hard like metal after it cures. When the filler has hardened, the collision repairers file, grind, and sand the surface smooth in the correct contour and prepare it for painting. In many shops the final sanding and painting are done by other specialists, who may be called automotive painters. Since more than the body is usually damaged in a major automobile accident, repairers have other components to repair. Advanced vehicle systems on new cars such as anti-lock brakes, air bags, and other “passive restraint systems” require special training to repair. Steering and suspension, electrical components, and glass are often damaged and require repair, removal, or replacement. Automotive painting is a highly skilled, labor-intensive job that requires a fine eye and attention to detail for the result to match the pre-accident condition. Some paint jobs require that less than the whole vehicle be painted. In this case, the painter must mix pigments to match the original color. This can be difficult if the original paint is faded, but computer technology is making paint matching easier. A major part of the automobile collision repairer’s job is assessing the damage and providing an estimate on the cost to repair it. Sometimes, the damage to a vehicle may cost more to repair than the vehicle is worth. When this happens, the vehicle is said to be
“totaled,” a term used by collision repairers as well as insurance companies. Many body repair shops offer towing services and will coordinate the transfer of a vehicle from the accident scene as well as the transfer of a totaled vehicle to a scrap dealer who will salvage the useable parts. The shop supervisor or repair service estimator prepares the estimate. They inspect the extent of the damage to determine if the vehicle can be repaired or must be replaced. They note the year, model, and make of the car to determine type and availability of parts. Based on past experience with similar types of repair and general industry guidelines, estimates are calculated for parts and labor and then submitted to the customer’s insurance company. One “walk around” a car will tell the collision repairer what needs to be investigated. Since a collision often involves “hidden” damage, supervisors write up repair orders with specific instructions so no work is missed or, in some cases, done unnecessarily. Repair orders often indicate only specific parts are to be repaired or replaced. Collision repairers generally work on a project by themselves with minimal supervision. In large, busy shops, repairers may be assisted by helpers or apprentices.
n requirements High School Technology demands more from the collision repairer than it did 10 years ago. In addition to automotive and shop classes, high school students should take mathematics, English, and computer classes. Adjustments and repairs to many car components require numerous computations, for which good mathematics skills are essential. Reading comprehension skills will help a collision repairer understand complex repair manuals and trade journals that detail new technology. Oral communication skills are also important to help customers understand their options. In addition, computers are common in most collision repair shops. They keep track of customer histories and parts and often detail repair procedures. Use of computers in repair shops will only increase in the future, so students will benefit from a basic knowledge of them.
Postsecondary Training A wide variety of training programs are offered at community colleges, vocational schools, independent organizations, and manufacturers. As automotive technology changes, the materials and methods involved in repair work change. With new high-strength steels, aluminum, and plastics becoming ever more common in newer vehicles and posing new challenges in vehicle
repair, repairers will need special training to detect the many hidden problems that occur beyond the impact spot. Postsecondary training programs provide students with the necessary, up-to-date skills needed for repairing today’s vehicles.
Certification or Licensing Entry-level technicians in the industry can demonstrate their qualifications through certification by the National Automotive Technicians Education Foundation (NATEF), an affiliate of the National Institute for Automotive Service Excellence (ASE). Certification is voluntary, but it assures students that the program they enroll in meets the standards employers expect from their entry-level employees. Many trade and vocational schools throughout the country have affiliation with NATEF. To remain certified, repairers must take the examination again within five years. Another industryrecognized standard of training is provided by the InterIndustry Conference on Auto Collision Repair (I-CAR). I-CAR provides training for students and experienced technicians alike in the areas of advanced vehicle systems, aluminum repair and welding, complete collision repair, electronics for collision repair, finish matching, and other specialty fields.
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tors. Trade magazines such as Automotive Body Repair News (http://www.abrn.com) are an excellent source for learning what’s new in the industry. Such publications may be available at larger public libraries or vocational schools. Many journals also post current and archived articles on the Internet. Working on cars as a hobby provides invaluable firsthand experience in repair work. A part-time job in a repair shop or dealership allows a feel for the general atmosphere and the kind of problems repairers face on the job as well as provide a chance to learn from those already in the business. Some high school students may gain exposure to automotive repairs through participation in organizations, such as SkillsUSA-Vocational Industrial Clubs of America. VICA coordinates competitions in several vocational areas, including collision repair. The collision repair competition tests students’ aptitudes in metal work, MIG welding, painting, alignment of body and frame, painting, estimation of damage to automobiles, and plastic identification and repair. VICA is represented in all 50 states. If your school does not have a VICA chapter, ask your guidance counselor about starting one or participating in a co-op arrangement with another school. (See sidebar on this page.)
Other Requirements Automobile collision repairers are responsible for providing their own hand tools at an investment of approximately $6,000 to $20,000 or more, depending on the technician’s specialty. It is the employer’s responsibility to provide the larger power tools and other test equipment. Skill in handling both hand and power tools is essential for any repairer. Since each collision repair job is unique and presents a different challenge, repairers often must be resourceful in their method of repair. While union membership is not a requirement for collision repairers, many belong to the International Association of Machinists and Aerospace Workers; the International Union, United Automobile, Aerospace and Agricultural Implement Workers of America; the Sheet Metal Workers International Association; or the International Brotherhood of Teamsters, Chauffeurs, Warehousemen and Helpers of America. Most collision repairers who are union members work for large automobile dealers, trucking companies, and bus lines.
n exploring Many community colleges and park districts offer general auto maintenance, mechanics, and body repair workshops where students can get additional practice working on real cars and learn from experienced instruc-
SkillsUSA-Vocational Industrial Clubs of America Participation in skill training promoted by the SkillsUSAVocational Industrial Clubs of America (VICA) is one way students can prepare for a career as an automobile collision repairer. VICA is a professional society designed and run by students in the trade, industrial, technical, and health occupations. Rather than being an extracurricular activity, VICA’s curriculum is integrated into classroom learning. Students work with an adviser or teacher who helps coordinate activities such as the Professional Development Program, which helps students meet national skill standards and develop job-seeking skills. VICA’s Skills USA Championships are competitions in which students use skills pertaining to their career field in competition with other students. Collision repair is one competition category, and includes hands-on tests in areas such as welding as well as written tests. If your school does not have a VICA chapter, ask a guidance counselor or vocational coordinator or teacher about starting one. For more information, contact SkillsUSA-VICA at PO Box 3000, Leesburg, VA 20177-0300, Telephone (703) 777-8810 or check their Web site at http://www.skillsusa.org.
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n employers Automobile collision repairers held about 175,370 jobs in the United States in 2002, not including 19,710 glass specialists and 687,380 general service technicians and mechanics. Most work for body shops specializing in body repairs and painting, including private shops and shops operated by automobile dealers. Others work for organizations that maintain their own vehicle fleets, such as trucking companies and automobile rental companies. About one of every six automobile collision repairers is self-employed, operating small shops in cities large and small.
n starting out The best way to start out in the field of automobile collision repair is, first, to attend one of the many postsecondary training programs available throughout the country and, second, to obtain certification. Trade and technical schools usually provide job placement assistance for their graduates. Schools often have contacts with local employers who seek highly skilled entry-level employees. Often, employers post job openings at nearby trade schools with accredited programs. Although postsecondary training programs are considered the best way to enter the field, some repairers learn the trade on the job as apprentices. Their training consists of working for several years under the guidance of experienced repairers. Fewer employers today are willing to hire apprentices because of the time and cost it takes to train them, but since there currently is a shortage of high quality entry-level collision repair technicians, many employers will continue to hire apprentices who can demonstrate good mechanical aptitude and a willingness to learn. Those who do learn their skills on the job will inevitably require some formal training if they wish to advance and stay in step with the changing industry. Internship programs sponsored by car manufacturers or independent organizations provide students with excellent opportunities to actually work with prospective employers. Internships can also provide students with valuable contacts who will be able to refer the student to future employers and provide a recommendation to potential employers once they have completed their training. Many students may even be hired by the company at which they interned.
n advancement Like NATEF training programs, currently employed collision repairers may be certified by ASE. Although certification is voluntary, it is a widely recognized standard of achievement for automobile collision repairers and the way many advance. Collision repairers who are certified are more valuable to their employers than those who are not and therefore stand a greater chance of advancement.
Certification is available in four specialty areas: structural analysis and damage repair, nonstructural analysis and damage repair, mechanical and electrical components, and painting and refinishing. Those who have passed all the exams are certified as master body/paint technicians. To maintain their certification, technicians must retake the examination for their specialties every five years. Many employers will hire only accredited technicians, basing salary on their level of accreditation. With today’s complex automobile components and new materials requiring hundreds of hours of study and practice to master, employers encourage their employees to advance in responsibility by learning new systems and repair procedures. A repair shop’s reputation will only go as far as its employees are skilled. Those with good communications and planning skills may advance to shop supervisor or service manager at larger repair shops or dealerships. Those who have mastered collision repair may go on to teaching at postsecondary schools or work for certification agencies.
n earnings Salary ranges of collision repairers vary depending on level of experience, type of shop, and geographic location. The median annual salary for automotive body and related repairers was $34,810 in 2005, according to the U.S. Department of Labor. At the lower end of the pay scale, repairers with less experience and repairers who were employed by smaller shops tended to earn less; experienced repairers with management positions earned more. The lowest paid 10 percent earned $20,490 or less, and the top 10 percent $59,010 or more. In many repair shops and dealerships, collision repairers can make more by working on commission, typically earning 40 to 50 percent of the labor costs charged to customers. Employers often guarantee a minimum level of pay in addition to commissions. Benefits packages vary from business to business. Most repair technicians can expect health insurance and a paid vacation from employers. Other benefits may include dental and eye care, life and disability insurance, and a pension plan. Employers usually cover a technician’s work clothes and may pay a percentage of the cost of hand tools they purchase. An increasing number of employers pay all or most of an employee’s certification training, dependent on the employee passing the test. A technician’s salary can increase through yearly bonuses or profit sharing if the business does well.
n work environment Collision repair work is generally noisy, dusty, and dirty. In some cases, the noise and dirt levels have decreased as new technology such as computers and electrostatic paint guns are introduced. Automobile repair shops are usually well ventilated to reduce dust and dangerous fumes. Because repairers
weld and handle hot or jagged pieces of metal and broken glass, they wear safety glasses, masks, and protective gloves. Minor hand and back injuries are the most common problems of technicians. When reaching in hard-to-get-at places or loosening tight bolts, collision repairers often bruise, cut, or burn their hands. With caution and experience, most learn to avoid hand injuries. Working for long periods in cramped or bent positions often results in a stiff back or neck. Collision repairers also lift many heavy objects that can cause injury if not handled carefully; however, this is less of a problem with new cars as automakers design smaller and lighter parts for better fuel economy. Automotive painters wear respirators and other protective gear, and they work in specially ventilated rooms to keep from being exposed to paint fumes and other hazardous chemicals. Painters may need to stand for hours at a time as they work. By following safety procedures and learning how to avoid typical problems, repairers can minimize the risks involved in this job. Likewise, shops must comply with strict safety procedures to help employees avoid accident or injury. Collision repairers are often under pressure to complete the job quickly. Most repairers work a standard 40-hour week but may be required to work longer hours when the shop is busy or in emergencies.
n outlook Like many service industries, the collision repair industry is facing a labor shortage of skilled, entry-level workers in many areas of the country. Demand for collision repair services is expected to remain consistent, at the least, as the number of cars in the nation grows, and employment opportunities are expected to increase about as fast as the average through 2014. This demand, paired with technology that will require new skills, translates into a healthy job market for those willing to undergo the training needed. According to Automotive Body Repair News, as the need for skilled labor is rising, the number of people pursuing collision repair careers is declining. In many cases, vocational schools and employers are teaming up to recruit new workers. Changing technology also plays a role in the industry’s outlook. New automobile designs have body parts made of steel alloys, aluminum, and plastics—materials that are more time consuming to work with. In many cases, such materials are more prone to damage, increasing the need for body repairs. The automobile collision repair business is not greatly affected by changes in economic conditions. Major body damage must be repaired to keep a vehicle in safe operating condition. During an economic downturn, however, people tend to postpone minor repairs until their budgets can accommodate the expense. Nevertheless, body repairers are seldom laid off. Instead, when business is bad, employers hire
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fewer new workers. During a recession, inexperienced workers face strong competition for entry-level jobs. People with formal training in repair work and automobile mechanics are likely to have the best job prospects in such times.
n for more information For more information on careers, training, and accreditation, contact the following organizations: Automotive Aftermarket Industry Association 7101 Wisconsin Avenue, NW, Suite 1300 Bethesda, MD 20814-3415 Tel: 301-654-6664 Email:
[email protected] http://www.aftermarket.org
Inter-Industry Conference on Auto Collision Repair 5125 Trillium Boulevard Hoffman Estates, IL 60192-3600 Tel: 800-422-7872 http://www.i-car.com
National Automotive Technicians Education Foundation 101 Blue Seal Drive, Suite 101 Leesburg, VA 20175-5646 Tel: 703-669-6650 http://www.natef.org
National Institute for Automotive Service Excellence 101 Blue Seal Drive, SE, Suite 101 Leesburg, VA 20175-5646 Tel: 877-273-8324 http://www.asecert.org
Automobile Sales Workers n overview Automobile sales workers inform customers about new or used automobiles, and they prepare payment, financing, and insurance papers for customers who have purchased a vehicle. It is their job to persuade the customer that the product they are selling is the best choice. They prospect new customers by mail, by telephone, or through personal contacts. To stay informed about their products, sales workers regularly attend training sessions about the vehicles they sell. There are more than 269,000 automobile sales workers employed in the United States.
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n history By the 1920s, nearly 20,000 automobile dealerships dotted the American landscape as the “Big Three” automobile makers—Ford, General Motors, and Chrysler—increased production every year to meet the public’s growing demand for automobiles. Automobile sales workers began to earn higher and higher wages. As automobiles became more popular, the need for an organization to represent the growing industry became evident. In 1917, the National Automobile Dealers Association (NADA) was founded to change the way Congress viewed automobiles. In the early years, NADA worked to convince Congress that cars weren’t a luxury item, as they had been classified, but vital to the economy. The group prevented the government from converting all automotive factories to wartime work during World War I and reduced a proposed luxury tax on automobiles from 5 percent to 3 percent. During the lean years of the Depression in the early 1930s, automobile sales fell sharply until President Franklin Delano Roosevelt’s New Deal helped jumpstart the indusquick facts try. Roosevelt signed the Code of school subjects Fair Competition for the Motor Business Vehicle Retailing Trade, which Speech established standards in the automotive manufacturing and sales Personal Skills Communication/ideas industries. By 1942, the number Helping/teaching of dealerships in the United States more than doubled to 44,000. Work Environment Automobile sales workers Primarily indoors have suffered an image problem Primarily one location for much of the career’s history. Minimum Education Level Customers sometimes felt that High school diploma they were pressured to purchase new cars at unfair prices and that Salary Range the dealer’s profit was too large. $20,000 to $44,676 to The 1958 Price Labeling Law, $75,000+ which mandated cars display Certification or Licensing window stickers listing manufacVoluntary turer suggested retail prices and other information, helped ease Outlook relations between sales workers About as fast as the average and their customers. However, in DOT the fiercely competitive automo273 bile market, sales workers’ selling methods and the thrifty customer GOE remained at odds. 10.03.01 When it came to used vehicles, NOC there was no way for customers to 6421 know whether they were getting a fair deal. Even in the automobile’s O*NET-SOC early history, used vehicles have 11-2022.00 been popular. From 1919 through
the 1950s, used car sales consistently exceeded new car sales. Despite the popularity of used vehicles, the automobile sales industry didn’t quite know how to handle them. Some dealers lost money on trade-ins when they stayed on the lot too long. After debating for years how to handle trade-ins, dealers finally began today’s common practice of applying their value toward down payments on new cars. The industry suffered personnel shortages when the armed forces recruited mechanics during World War II. This affected the service departments of dealerships, which traditionally have generated the biggest profits, and many dealers had to be creative to stay in business. During these lean times, sales gimmicks, such as giveaways and contests, came into increased use. According to a history of NADA, one Indiana dealer bought radios, refrigerators, freezers, and furnaces to sell in his showroom and sold toys at Christmas to stay in business. The energy crisis of the 1970s brought hard times to the entire automotive industry. Many dealerships were forced to close, and those that survived made little profit. In 1979 alone, 600 dealerships closed. As of 2004, according to NADA, there were 21,640 dealerships nationwide (down from 47,500 in 1951) accounting for about 20 percent of all retail sales and employing more than 1.1 million people. Most dealerships today sell more makes of cars than dealerships of the past. Still, they face competition from newer forms of automobile retailers, such as automotive superstores, the automotive equivalent to discount stores like Wal-Mart. Also, automotive information is becoming more widely available on the Internet, eroding the consumer’s need for automobile sales workers as a source of information about automobiles.
n the job The automobile sales worker’s main task is to sell. Today, many dealerships try to soften the image of salesmen and women by emphasizing no pressure, even one-price shopping. But automobile dealers expect their employees to sell, and selling in most cases involves some degree of persuasion. The automobile sales worker informs customers of everything there is to know about a particular vehicle. A good sales worker finds out what the customer wants or needs and suggests automobiles that may fit that need—empowering the customer with choice and a feeling that he or she is getting a fair deal. Since the sticker price on new cars is only a starting point to be bargained down, and since many customers come to dealerships already knowing which car they would like to buy, sales workers spend much of their time negotiating the final selling price. Most dealerships have special sales forces for new cars, used cars, trucks, recreational vehicles, and leasing operations. In each specialty, sales workers learn all aspects of
the product they must sell. They may attend information and training seminars sponsored by manufacturers. New car sales workers, especially, are constantly learning new car features. Sales workers inform customers about a car’s performance, fuel economy, safety features, and luxuries or accessories. They are able to talk about innovations over previous models, engine and mechanical specifications, ease of handling, and ergonomic designs. Good sales workers also keep track of competing models’ features. In many ways, used car sales workers have a more daunting mass of information to keep track of. Whereas new car sales workers concentrate on the most current features of an automobile, used car sales workers must keep track of all features from several model years. Good used car dealers can look at a car and note immediately the make, model, and year of a car. Because of popular two- and three-year leasing options, the used car market has increased by nearly 50 percent in the last 10 years. Successful sales workers are generally good readers of a person’s character. They can determine exactly what it is a customer is looking for in a new car. They must be friendly and understanding of customers’ needs in order to put them at ease (due to the amount of money involved, car buying is an unpleasant task for most people). They are careful not to oversell the car by providing the customers with information they may not care about or understand, thus confusing them. For example, if a customer only cares about style, sales workers will not impress upon him all of the wonderful intricacies of a new high-tech engine design. Sales workers greet customers and ask if they have any questions about a particular model. It’s very important for sales workers to have immediate and confident answers to all questions about the vehicles they’re selling. When a sale is difficult, they occasionally use psychological methods, or subtle “prodding,” to influence customers. Some sales workers use aggressive selling methods and pressure the customer to purchase the car. Although recent trends are turning away from the pressure-sell, competition will keep these types of selling methods prevalent in the industry, albeit at a slightly toned-down level. Customers usually make more than one visit to a dealership before purchasing a new or used car. Because one sales worker “works” the customer on the first visit—forming an acquaintanceship and learning the customer’s personality—he or she will usually stay with that customer until the sale is made or lost. The sales worker usually schedules times for the customer to come in and talk more about the car in order to stay with the customer through the process and not lose the sale to another sales worker. Sales workers may make follow-up phone calls to make special offers or remind customers of certain features that make a particular model better
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This automobile sales worker discusses the pricing and payment options for this convertible. (Corbis.)
than the competition, or they may send mailings for the same purpose. In addition to providing the customer with information about the car, sales workers discuss financing packages, leasing options, and warranty. When the sale is made, they go over the contract with the customer and obtain a signature. Frequently the exact model with all of the features the customer requested is not in the dealership, and the sales worker must place an order with the manufacturer or distributor. When purchasing a new or used vehicle, many customers trade in their old vehicle. Sales workers appraise the trade-in and offer a price. At some dealerships sales workers also do public relations and marketing work. They establish promotions to get customers into their showrooms, print fliers to distribute in the local community, and make television advertisements. In order to keep their name in the back (or front) of the customer’s mind, they may send past customers birthday and holiday cards or similar “courtesies.” Most of the larger dealerships also have an auto maintenance and repair service
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department. Sales workers may help customers establish a periodic maintenance schedule or suggest repair work. Computers are used at a growing number of dealerships. Customers use computers to answer questions they may have, consult price indexes, check on ready availability of parts, and even compare the car they’re interested in with the competition’s equivalent. Although computers can’t replace human interaction and sell the car to customers who need reassurances, they do help the customer feel more informed and more in control when buying a car.
n requirements High School Because thorough knowledge of automobiles—from how they work to how they drive and how they are manufactured—is essential for a successful sales worker, automotive maintenance classes in high school are an excellent place to begin. Classes in English, speech, drama, and psychology will help you to achieve the excellent speaking skills you will need to make a good sale and gain customer confidence and respect. Classes in business and mathematics will teach you to manage and prioritize your work load, prepare goals, and work confidently with customer financing packages. As computers become increasingly prevalent in every aspect of the industry, you should take as many computer classes as you can. Speaking a second language will give you an advantage, especially in major cities with large minority populations.
Postsecondary Training Those who seek management-level positions will have a distinct advantage if they possess a college degree, preferably in business or marketing, but other degrees, whether they be in English, economics, or psychology, are no less important, so long as applicants have good management skills and can sell cars. Many schools offer degrees in automotive marketing and automotive aftermarket management that prepare students to take high-level management positions. Even with a two- or four-year degree in hand, many dealerships may not begin new hires directly as managers, but first start them out as sales workers.
Certification or Licensing By completing the certified automotive merchandiser (CAM) program offered by the NADA, students seeking entry-level positions gain a significant advantage. Certification assures employers that workers have the basic skills they require.
Other Requirements In today’s competitive job market you will need a high school diploma to land a job that offers growth possibilities, a good salary, and challenges; this includes jobs in the automobile sales industry. Employers prefer to hire entry-level employ-
ees who have had some previous experience in automotive services or in retail sales. They look for candidates who have good verbal, business, mathematics, electronics, and computer skills. A number of automotive sales and services courses and degrees are offered today at community colleges, vocational schools, independent organizations, and manufacturers. Sales workers should possess a valid driver’s license and have a good driving record. Sales workers must be enthusiastic, well-organized selfstarters who thrive in a competitive environment. They must show excitement and authority about each type of car they sell and convince customers, without being too pushy (though some pressure on the customer usually helps make the sale), that the car they’re interested in is the “right” car, at the fairest price. Sales workers must be able to read a customer’s personality and know when to be outgoing and when to pull back and be more reserved. A neat, professional appearance is also very important for sales workers.
n exploring Automobile trade magazines and books, in addition to selling technique and business books, are excellent sources of information for someone considering a career in this field. Local and state automobile and truck dealer associations can also provide you with information on career possibilities in automobile and truck sales. Your local Yellow Pages has a listing under “associations” for dealer organizations in your area. Students interested in automobile sales work might first stop by their local dealer and ask about training programs and job requirements there. On a busy day at any dealership there will be several sales workers on the floor selling cars. Students can witness the basic selling process by going to dealerships and unobtrusively watching and listening as sales workers talk with customers. Many dealerships hire students part time to wash and clean cars. This is a good way to see the types of challenges and pressures automobile sales workers experience every day. Although it may take a special kind of sales skill or a different approach to selling a $25,000 vehicle over $50 shoes, any type of retail sales job that requires frequent interaction with customers will prepare students for work as an automobile sales worker.
n employers Franchised automobile dealerships employ the majority of automobile sales workers in the United States. A franchised automobile dealer is a dealer that is formally recognized and authorized by the manufacturer to sell its vehicles. A small number of sales workers are employed by used car dealerships that are strictly independent and not recognized by any manufacturer. Automotive superstores need automobile sales workers as well, although
some may argue that these workers aren’t truly automobile sales specialists because they tend to have less training and experience in the automotive area.
n starting out Generally, those just out of high school are not going to land a job as an automobile sales worker; older customers do not feel comfortable making such a large investment through a teenager. Employers prefer to see some previous automotive service experience with certification, such as National Institute of Automotive Service Excellence certification, or postsecondary training in automotive selling, such as NADA’s CAM program. Dealerships will hire those with proven sales skill in a different field for sales worker positions and give them on-the-job training. Employers frequently post job openings at schools that provide postsecondary education in business administration or automotive marketing. Certified automotive technicians or body repairers who think they might eventually like to break into a sales job should look for employment at dealership service centers. They will have frequent contact with sales workers and make connections with dealership managers and owners, as well as become so familiar with one or more models of a manufacturer’s cars that they will make well-informed, knowledgeable sales workers. Some dealerships will hire young workers with little experience in automobile services but who can demonstrate proven skills in sales and a willingness to learn. These workers will learn on the job. They may first be given administrative tasks. Eventually they will accompany experienced sales workers on the showroom floor and learn “hands-on.” After about a year, the workers will sell on their own, and managers will evaluate their selling skills in sales meetings and suggest ways they can improve their sales records.
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Internet Car Shopping The role the automobile sales worker plays in a consumer’s car-buying decision is changing rapidly. Automotive superstores (warehouse-type discounters that sell late model used vehicles with no-haggle fixed prices and warranties) are a new option for consumers. The Internet is also changing the way Americans buy cars. According to a survey by J.D. Power and Associates, 21 percent of Americans shopping for a new car use some kind of shopping service to help them rather than going straight to the dealer. Consumers can use the Internet to research attributes of a specific model by searching the Web sites of manufacturers or consumer and automobile journals that review cars. Many also use auction Web sites or Web sites that serve as a go-between in the car-buying process. Consumers can describe the car they want, including make, model, year, mileage, and price, and the service links them with a dealer who can deliver what they’re looking for. Here are some Internet sites for car shoppers: The Auto Channel: http://www.theautochannel.com Auto Connection: http://www.autoconnection.com DealerNet: http://www.dealernet.com eBay: http://www.ebay.com IntelliChoice Car Center: http://www.intellichoice.com Kelley Blue Book: http://www.kbb.com Yahoo! Autos: http://autos.yahoo.com If you are considering a career in automotive sales, these services will be used by your customers. Becoming familiar with what they offer and how they work is one way you can be a valuable resource for your customers.
n advancement The longer sales workers stay with a dealership, the larger their client base grows and the more cars are sold. Advancement for many sales workers comes in the form of increased earnings and customer loyalty. Other sales workers may be promoted through a combination of experience and further training or certification. As positions open, sales workers with proven management skills go on to be assistant and general managers. Managers with excellent sales skills and a good client base may open a new franchise dealership or their own independent dealership. The Society of Automotive Sales Professionals (SASP), a division of NADA, provides sales workers with advancement possibilities. Once sales workers have completed a certification process and have a minimum of six months’ sales experience, they are eligible to participate in SASP
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seminars that stress improving the new car buying process by polishing a sales worker’s professional image.
n earnings Earnings for automobile sales workers vary depending on location, size, and method of salary. Previously, most dealerships paid their sales workers either straight commission or salary plus commission. This forced sales workers to become extremely aggressive in their selling strategy—and often too aggressive for many customers. With a new trend toward pressure-free selling, more sales workers are earning a straight salary. Many dealerships still offer incentives such as bonuses and profit sharing to encourage sales. The average hourly wage for automotive sales workers $18.61 in 2004, according to the U.S. Department of Labor. This makes for an annual salary of approximately $38,709 a year.
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Those who work on a straight commission basis can earn more than $75,000 a year; however, their earnings are minimal during slow periods. Sales workers who are just getting started in the field may earn lower annual salaries for a few years as they work to establish a client base. They may start in the low $20,000s. According to NADA, the average salary for new-car dealership employees was $44,676 in 2004. Benefits vary by dealership but often include health insurance and a paid vacation. An increasing number of employers will pay all or most of an employee’s certification training.
where customers have a large inventory to select from at a base price and get information and ask questions about a car not from a sales worker, but from a computer. Sales workers are still needed to finalize the sale, but their traditional role at the dealership is lessened. Nontheless, the number of cars and trucks on U.S. roads is expected to increase, and opportunities in this lucrative, but stressful, career should continue to increase about as fast as the average.
n work environment
For information on accreditation and testing, contact National Automobile Dealers Association
Sales workers for new car dealerships work in pleasant indoor showrooms. Most used car dealerships keep the majority of their cars in outdoor lots where sales workers may spend much of their day. Upon final arrangements for a sale, they work in comfortable office spaces at a desk. Suits are the standard attire. During slow periods, when competition among dealers is fierce, sales workers often work under pressure. They must not allow “lost” sales to discourage their work. The typical workweek is between 40 and 50 hours, although if business is good, a sales worker will work more. Since most customers shop for cars on the weekends and in the evenings, work hours are irregular.
n outlook Automobile dealerships are one of the businesses most severely affected by economic recession. Conversely, when the economy is strong, the automobile sales industry tends to benefit. For the sales worker, growth, in any percentage, is good news, as they are the so-called front-line professionals in the industry who are responsible for representing the dealerships and manufacturers and for getting their cars out on the streets. In the late 1990s and early 2000s, automobile sales were especially strong in the United States; however, the economic recession has caused some setbacks. For instance, after a record-breaking year in 2001, sales dropped considerably in 2002. Also, incentives such as rebates and cut-rate financing were in part responsible for the industry’s strong showing. These incentives, spurred by a competitive market, cost the industry money and ate into profits at every level. The automobile sales worker faces many future challenges. A shift in customer buying preferences and experience is forcing sales workers to re-evaluate their selling methods. Information readily available on the Internet helps customers shop for the most competitive financing or leasing package and read reviews on car and truck models that interest them. Transactions are still brokered at the dealer, but once consumers become more familiar with the Internet, many will shop and buy exclusively from home. Another trend threatening dealers is the automotive superstores, such as CarMax, AutoNation, and CarChoice,
n for more information
8400 Westpark Drive McLean, VA 22102 Tel: 800-252-6232 Email:
[email protected] http://www.nada.org
For information on certification, contact National Institute for Automotive Service Excellence 101 Blue Seal Drive, SE, Suite 101 Leesburg, VA 20175-5646 Tel: 877-273-8324 http://www.asecert.org
Automobile Service Technicians n overview Automobile service technicians maintain and repair cars, vans, small trucks, and other vehicles. Using both hand tools and specialized diagnostic test equipment, they pinpoint problems and make the necessary repairs or adjustments. In addition to performing complex and difficult repairs, technicians perform a number of routine maintenance procedures, such as oil changes, tire rotation, and battery replacement. Technicians interact frequently with customers to explain repair procedures and discuss maintenance needs. Approximately 654,800 automotive service technicians work in the United States.
n history By the mid-1920s, the automobile industry began to change America. As automobiles changed through the years, mechanics—or automobile service technicians, as they are now called—have kept them running. The “Big Three” automobile makers—Ford, General Motors, and Chrysler—pro-
duced millions of cars for a public eager for the freedom and mobility the automobile promised. With the ill-prepared roads suddenly overrun by inexperienced drivers, accidents and breakdowns became common. People not only were unskilled in driving but also were ignorant of the basic maintenance and service the automobile required. It suddenly became apparent that a new profession was in the making. Already in 1899 the American Motor Company opened a garage in New York and advertised “competent mechanics always on hand to make repairs when necessary.” Gradually, other repair “garages” opened in larger cities, but they were few and far between. Automobiles were much simpler in the early years. Basic maintenance and minor repairs often could be performed by the owner or someone with general mechanical aptitude. As cars became more complex, the need for qualified technicians grew. Dealerships began to hire mechanics to handle increasing customer concerns and complaints. Gas stations also began to offer repair and maintenance services. The profession of automobile mechanic was suddenly in big demand. By the 1950s, automobile service and repair garages were common throughout the United States, in urban and rural areas alike. Most mechanics learned the trade through hands-on experience as an apprentice or on their own through trial and error. When automakers began packing their cars with new technology, involving complex electrical circuitry, and computer-controlled mechanisms as well as basic design changes, it became apparent that mechanics would need comprehensive training to learn new service and repair procedures. Until the 1970s, there was no standard by which automobile service technicians were trained. In 1972, the National Institute for Automotive Service Excellence (ASE) was established. It set national training standards for new technicians and provided continuing education and certification for existing technicians when new technology became widespread in the field. Today, the demand for trained, highly skilled professionals in the service industry is more important than ever. To keep up with the technology that is continually incorporated in new vehicles, service technicians require more intensive training than in the past. Today, mechanics who have completed a high level of formal training are generally called automobile service technicians. They have studied the complexities of the latest automotive technology, from computerized mechanisms in the engine to specialized diagnostic testing equipment.
n the job Many automobile service technicians feel that the most exciting part of their work is troubleshooting—locating the source of a problem and successfully fixing it. Diagnos-
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ing mechanical, electrical, and computer-related troubles requires a broad knowledge of how cars work, the ability to make accurate observations, and the patience to logically determine what went wrong. Technicians agree that it frequently is more difficult to find the problem than it is to fix it. With experience, knowing where to look for problems becomes second nature. Generally, there are two types of automobile service technicians: generalists and specialists. Generalists work under a broad umbrella of repair and service duties. They have proficiency in several kinds of light repairs and maintenance of many different types of automobiles. Their work, for the most part, is routine and basic. Specialists concentrate in one or two areas and learn to master them for many different car makes and models. Today, in light of the sophisticated technology common in new cars, there is an increasing demand for specialists. Automotive systems are not as easy or as standard as they used to be, and they now require many hours of experience to master. To gain a broad knowledge in auto maintequick facts nance and repair, specialists usuSchool Subjects ally begin as generalists. Business When a car does not operate Technical/shop properly, the owner brings it to a service technician and describes Personal Skills Mechanical/manipulative the problem. At a dealership or Technical/scientific larger shop, the customer may talk with a repair service estimator, Work Environment who writes down the customer’s Primarily indoors description of the problem and Primarily one location relays it to the service technician. Minimum Education Level The technician may test-drive High school diploma the car or use diagnostic equipment, such as motor analyzers, Salary Range spark plug testers, or compression $18,500 to $33,050 to gauges, to determine the prob$55,020 lem. If a customer explains that Certification or Licensing the car’s automatic transmission Recommended does not shift gears at the right times, the technician must know Outlook how the functioning of the transAbout as fast as the average mission depends on the engine DOT vacuum, the throttle pressure, 620 and—more common in newer cars—the onboard computer. GOE Each factor must be thoroughly 05.03.01 checked. With each test, clues help NOC the technician pinpoint the cause 7321 of the malfunction. After successfully diagnosing the problem, the O*NET-SOC technician makes the necessary 49-3023.00 adjustments or repairs. If a part
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Emerging Technologies In the automotive industry, environmental friendliness is at the forefront of many of the developing technologies. Improvements in motor oil to work with more efficient, longer lasting engines is one such advancement. Today, motor oils are more refined (purified) and produce less pollution. Base oil, the primary ingredient in engine oil, is refined from crude oil through a series of separation and purification processes. Hydrocracking is a new method being applied in this process, used to make Pennzoil’s “Pure Base” brand oil. Hydrocracking involves heating the crude oil to more than 700 degrees in the presence of hydrogen gas. The process removes sulfur and nitrogen and saturates the oil. The result is a base oil that is 97 percent pure. The oil is then combined with additives to make the finished product. Other advances in automotive maintenance involve ways to detect leaks in air conditioning systems, which are often difficult to locate. One successful method of detection involves the use of ultraviolet light. This method uses a black light lamp that detects an oilbased dye. This leak detection system is more expensive than others but provides the advantage of finding hard-tofind leaks. However, injecting the dye can be sloppy, and because the technology is so sensitive, it can create false leak impressions.
is too badly damaged or worn to be repaired, he or she replaces it after first consulting the car owner, explaining the problem, and estimating the cost. Normal use of an automobile inevitably causes wear and deterioration of parts. Generalist automobile technicians handle many of the routine maintenance tasks to help keep a car in optimal operating condition. They change oil, lubricate parts, and adjust or replace components of any of the car’s systems that might cause a malfunction, including belts, hoses, spark plugs, brakes, filters, and transmission and coolant fluids. Technicians who specialize in the service of specific parts usually work in large shops with multiple departments, car diagnostic centers, franchised auto service shops, or small independent shops that concentrate on a particular type of repair work. Tune-up technicians evaluate and correct engine performance and fuel economy. They use diagnostic equipment and other computerized devices to locate malfunctions in fuel, ignition, and emissions-control systems. They adjust ignition timing and valves and may replace spark plugs, points, triggering assemblies in electronic ignitions, and other components to ensure maximum engine efficiency.
Electrical-systems technicians have been in healthy demand in recent years. They service and repair the complex electrical and computer circuitry common in today’s automobile. They use both sophisticated diagnostic equipment and simpler devices such as ammeters, ohmmeters, and voltmeters to locate system malfunctions. As well as possessing excellent electrical skills, electrical-systems technicians require basic mechanical aptitude to get at electrical and computer circuitry located throughout the automobile. Front-end technicians are concerned with suspension and steering systems. They inspect, repair, and replace front-end parts such as springs, shock absorbers, and linkage parts such as tie rods and ball joints. They also align and balance wheels. Brake repairers work on drum and disk braking systems, parking brakes, and their hydraulic systems. They inspect, adjust, remove, repair, and reinstall such items as brake shoes, disk pads, drums, rotors, wheel and master cylinders, and hydraulic fluid lines. Some specialize in both brake and front-end work. Transmission technicians adjust, repair, and maintain gear trains, couplings, hydraulic pumps, valve bodies, clutch assemblies, and other parts of automatic transmission systems. Transmissions have become complex and highly sophisticated mechanisms in newer model automobiles. Technicians require special training to learn how they function. Automobile-radiator mechanics clean radiators using caustic solutions. They locate and solder leaks and install new radiator cores. In addition, some radiator mechanics repair car heaters and air conditioners and solder leaks in gas tanks. Alternative fuel technicians are relatively new additions to the field. This specialty has evolved with the nation’s efforts to reduce its dependence on foreign oil by exploring alternative fuels, such as ethanol and electricity. As more automobiles rely on a variety of electronic components, technicians have become more proficient in the basics of electronics, even if they are not electronics specialists. Electronic controls and instruments are located in nearly all the systems of today’s cars. Many previously mechanical functions in automobiles are being replaced by electronics, significantly altering the way repairs are performed. Diagnosing and correcting problems with electronic components often involves the use of specialty tools and computers. Automobile service technicians use an array of tools in their everyday work, ranging from simple hand tools to computerized diagnostic equipment. Technicians supply their own hand tools at an investment of $6,000
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to $25,000 or more, depending on their specialty. It is usually the employer’s responsibility to furnish the larger power tools, engine analyzers, and other test equipment. To maintain and increase their skills and to keep up with new technology, automobile technicians must regularly read service and repair manuals, shop bulletins, and other publications. They must also be willing to take part in training programs given by manufacturers or at vocational schools. Those who have voluntary certification must periodically retake exams to keep their credentials.
n requirements High School In today’s competitive job market, aspiring automobile service technicians need a high school diploma to land a job that offers growth possibilities, a good salary, and challenges. There is a big demand in the automotive service industry to fill entry-level positions with welltrained, highly skilled persons. Technology demands more from the technician than it did 10 years ago. In high school, you should take automotive and shop classes, mathematics, English, and computer classes. Adjustments and repairs to many car components require the technician to make numerous computations, for which good mathematical skills are essential. Good reading skills are also valuable, as a technician must do a lot of reading to stay competitive in today’s job market. English classes will prepare you to handle the many volumes of repair manuals and trade journals you will need to remain informed. Computer skills are also vital, as computers are now common in most repair shops. They keep track of customers’ histories and parts and often detail repair procedures. Use of computers in repair shops will only increase in the future.
Postsecondary Training Employers today prefer to hire only those who have completed some kind of formal training program in automobile mechanics—usually a minimum of two years. A wide variety of such programs are offered at community colleges, vocational schools, independent organizations, and manufacturers. Many community colleges and vocational schools around the country offer accredited postsecondary education. Postsecondary training programs prepare students through a blend of classroom instruction and hands-on practical experience. They range in length from six months to two years or more, depending on the type of program. Shorter programs usually involve intensive study. Lon-
An automobile service technician performs tests on a car engine. (Michael Rosenfeld/Getty Images.)
ger programs typically alternate classroom courses with periods of work experience. Some two-year programs include courses on applied mathematics, reading and writing skills, and business practices and lead to an associate’s degree. Some programs are conducted in association with automobile manufacturers. Students combine work experience with hands-on classroom study of up-to-date equipment and new cars provided by manufacturers. In other programs, students alternate time in the classroom with internships in dealerships or service departments. These students may take up to four years to finish their training, but they become familiar with the latest technology and also earn a modest salary.
Certification or Licensing One recognized indicator of quality for entry-level technicians is certification by the National Automotive Technicians Education Foundation (NATEF), an affiliate of ASE. NATEF’s goals are to develop, encourage, and improve automotive technical education for students seeking entry-level positions as automobile service technicians. NATEF certifies many postsecondary programs for training throughout the country. Certification is available in the areas of automatic transmission, brakes, electrical/electronic systems, engine performance, engine repair, heating and air conditioning, manual drive train and axles, and suspension and steering. Certification assures students that the program they enroll in meets the standards employers expect from their entry-level employees. ASE certification is not required, but job applicants who are certified have a competitive advantage over those who are not.
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Other Requirements To be a successful automobile service technician, you must be patient and thorough in your work; a shoddy repair job may put the driver’s life at risk. You must have excellent troubleshooting skills and be able to logically deduce the cause of system malfunctions.
n exploring Many community centers offer general auto maintenance and mechanics workshops where you can practice working on real cars and learn from instructors. Trade magazines are excellent sources for learning what’s new in the industry and can be found at most public libraries or large bookstores. Many public television stations broadcast automobile maintenance and repair programs that can be of help to beginners to see how various types of cars differ. Working on cars as a hobby provides valuable firsthand experience in the work of a technician. An afterschool or weekend part-time job in a repair shop or dealership can give you a feel for the general atmosphere and kinds of problems technicians face on the job. Oil and tire changes, battery and belt replacement, and even pumping gas may be some of the things you will be asked to do on the job; this work will give you valuable experience before you move on to more complex repairs.
ASE Credentials Next time you are at a garage or service shop, you may notice that the automobile service technicians have more than their names embroidered on their shirts. Many also have a shoulder insignia with the letters ASE on it. The National Institute of Automotive Service Excellence can’t guarantee the work of any automobile service technician, but it does certify that the technician has passed a competency exam. There are eight areas of ASE automobile/light truck certification: Engine Repair; Automatic Transmission/ Transaxle; Manual Drive Train and Axles; Suspension and Steering; Brakes; Electrical Systems; Heating and Air Conditioning; and Engine Performance. Those who pass all eight exams are certified ASE Master Automobile Tech nicians. ASE conducts its tests twice a year, each May and November, at approximately 700 testing sites across the country. To earn certification in any area, the technician must have at least two years of hands-on work experience and pass the test. Tests for each area consist of 40 to 70 multiple-choice questions. Technicians must recertify every five years to keep current with changing technology. While certification is not required to be an automobile technician, you can see why consumers are likely to choose a certified technician over one who is not.
Experience with vehicle repair work in the armed forces is another way to pursue your interest in this field.
n employers Because the automotive industry is so vast, automobile service technicians have many choices concerning type of shop and geographic location. Automobile repairs are needed all over the country, in large cities as well as rural areas. The majority of automobile service technicians work for automotive dealers and independent automotive repair shops and gasoline service stations. The field offers a variety of other employment options as well. The U.S. Department of Labor estimates that 18 percent of automobile service technicians are self-employed. Other employers include franchises such as PepBoys and Midas that offer routine repairs and maintenance, and automotive service departments of automotive and home supply stores. Some automobile service technicians maintain fleets for taxicab and automobile leasing companies or for government agencies with large automobile fleets. Technicians with experience and/or ASE certification certainly have more career choices. Some master mechanics may go on to teach at technical and vocational schools or at community colleges. Others put in many years working for someone else and go into business for themselves after they have gained the experience to handle many types of repairs and oversee other technicians.
n starting out The best way to start out in this field is to attend one of the many postsecondary training programs available throughout the country and obtain accreditation. Trade and technical schools usually provide job placement assistance for their graduates. Schools often have contacts with local employers who need to hire well-trained people. Frequently, employers post job openings at nearby trade schools with accredited programs. Job openings are frequently listed on the Internet through regional and national automotive associations or career networks. A decreasing number of technicians learn the trade on the job as apprentices. Their training consists of working for several years under the guidance of experienced mechanics. Fewer employers today are willing to hire apprentices due to the time and money it takes to train them. Those who do learn their skills on the job will inevitably require some formal training if they wish to advance and stay in step with the changing industry. Intern programs sponsored by car manufacturers or independent organizations provide students with excellent opportunities to actually work with prospec-
tive employers. Internships can provide students with valuable contacts who will be able to recommend future employers once they have completed their training. Many students may even be hired by the shop at which they interned.
n advancement Currently employed technicians may be certified by ASE in eight different areas. Those who become certified in all eight areas are known as master mechanics. Although certification is voluntary, it is a widely recognized standard of achievement for automobile technicians and is highly valued by many employers. Certification also provides the means and opportunity to advance. To maintain their certification, technicians must retake the examination for their specialties every five years. Many employers only hire ASE-accredited technicians and base salaries on the level of the technicians’ accreditation. With today’s complex automobile components requiring hundreds of hours of study and practice to master, more repair shops prefer to hire specialists. Generalist automobile technicians advance as they gain experience and become specialists. Other technicians advance to diesel repair, where the pay may be higher. Those with good communications and planning skills may advance to shop foreman or service manager at large repair shops or to sales workers at dealerships. Master mechanics with good business skills often go into business for themselves and open their own shops.
n earnings Salary ranges of automobile service technicians vary depending on the level of experience, type of shop the technician works in, and geographic location. Generally, technicians who work in small-town, family-owned gas stations earn less than those who work at dealerships and franchises in metropolitan areas. According to the U.S. Department of Labor, automobile service technicians had median annual salaries of $33,050 ($15.89 an hour) in 2005. The lowest paid 10 percent made less than $18,500 ($8.90), and the highest paid 10 percent made more than $55,020 ($26.45 and hour). Since most technicians are paid on an hourly basis and frequently work overtime, their salaries can vary significantly. In many repair shops and dealerships, technicians can earn higher incomes by working on commission. Master technicians who work on commission can earn more than $100,000 annually. Employers often guarantee a minimum level of pay in addition to commissions. Benefit packages vary from business to business. Most technicians receive health insurance and paid vacation days. Additional benefits may include dental, life, and
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disability insurance and a pension plan. Employers usually pay for a technician’s work clothes and may pay a percentage on hand tools purchased. An increasing number of employers pay for all or most of an employee’s certification training, if he or she passes the test. A technician’s salary can increase through yearly bonuses or profit sharing if the business does well.
n work environment Depending on the size of the shop and whether it’s an independent or franchised repair shop, dealership, or private business, automobile technicians work with anywhere from two to 20 other technicians. Most shops are well lighted and well ventilated. They can frequently be noisy with running cars and power tools. Minor hand and back injuries are the most common problems of technicians. When reaching in hard-to-get-at places or loosening tight bolts, technicians often bruise, cut, or burn their hands. With caution and experience most technicians learn to avoid hand injuries. Working for long periods of time in cramped or bent positions often results in a stiff back or neck. Technicians also lift many heavy objects that can cause injury if not handled carefully; however, this is becoming less of a problem with new cars, as automakers design smaller and lighter parts to improve fuel economy. Some technicians may experience allergic reactions to solvents and oils used in cleaning, maintenance, and repair. Shops must comply with strict safety procedures set by the Occupational Safety Hazard Administration and Environmental Protection Agency to help employees avoid accidents and injuries. The U.S. Department of Labor reports that most technicians work a standard 40-hour week, but 30 percent of all technicians work more than 40 hours a week. Some technicians make emergency repairs to stranded automobiles on the roadside during odd hours.
n outlook With an estimated 221 million vehicles in operation today, automobile service technicians should feel confident that a good percentage will require servicing and repair. Skilled and highly trained technicians will be in particular demand. Less-skilled workers will face tough competition. The U.S. Department of Labor predicts that this field will grow about as fast as the average through 2014, but in some areas, growth could be higher because of a tight labor market. According to ASE, even if school enrollments were at maximum capacity, the demand for automobile service technicians still would exceed the supply in the immediate future. As a result, many shops are beginning to recruit employees while they are still in vocational or even high school.
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Another concern for the industry is the automobile industry’s trend toward developing the “maintenancefree” car. Manufacturers are producing high-end cars that require no servicing for their first 100,000 miles. In addition, many new cars are equipped with on-board diagnostics that detect both wear and failure for many of the car’s components, eliminating the need for technicians to perform extensive diagnostic tests. Also, parts that are replaced before they completely wear out prevent further damage from occurring to connected parts that are affected by a malfunction or breakdown. Although this will reduce troubleshooting time and the number of overall repairs, the components that need repair will be more costly and require a more experienced (and hence, more expensive) technician. Most new jobs for technicians will be at independent service dealers, specialty shops, and franchised new car dealers. Because of the increase of specialty shops, fewer gasoline service stations will hire technicians, and many will eliminate repair services completely. Other opportunities will be available at companies or institutions with private fleets (e.g., cab, delivery, and rental companies, and government agencies and police departments).
n for more information For more information on the automotive service industry, contact Automotive Aftermarket Industry Association 7101 Wisconsin Avenue, Suite 1300 Bethesda, MD 20814-3415 Tel: 301-654-6664 Email:
[email protected] http://www.aftermarket.org
For industry information and job listings, contact Automotive Service Association PO Box 929 Bedford, TX 76095-0929 Tel: 800-272-7467 Email:
[email protected] http://www.asashop.org
For information and statistics on automotive dealers, contact National Automobile Dealers Association 8400 Westpark Drive McLean, VA 22102 Tel: 800-252-6232 Email:
[email protected] http://www.nada.org
For information on certified educational programs, careers, and certification, contact
National Automotive Technicians Education Foundation 101 Blue Seal Drive, Suite 101 Leesburg, VA 20175 Tel: 703-669-6650 http://www.natef.org
For information on certification, contact National Institute for Automotive Service Excellence 101 Blue Seal Drive, SE, Suite 101 Leesburg, VA 20175-5646 Tel: 877-273-8324 http://www.asecert.org
Automotive Industry Workers n overview Automotive industry workers are the people who work in the parts production and assembly plants of automobile manufacturers. Their labor involves work from the smallest part to the completed automobiles. Automotive industry workers read specifications, design parts, build, maintain, and operate machinery and tools used to produce parts, and assemble the automobiles.
n history In our mobile society, it is difficult to imagine a time without automobiles. Yet just over 100 years ago, there were none. In the late 1800s, inventors were just beginning to tinker with the idea of a self-propelled vehicle. Early experiments used steam to power a vehicle’s engine. Two German engineers developed the first internal combustion engine fueled by gasoline. Karl Benz finished the first model in 1885, and Gottlieb Daimler finished building a similar model in 1886. Others around the world had similar successes in the late 1800s and early 1900s. In these early days, no one imagined people would become so reliant on the automobile as a way of life. In 1898, there were 50 automobile manufacturing companies in the United States, a number that rose to 241 by 1908. Early automobiles were expensive to make and keep in working order and could be used to travel only short distances; they were “toys” for those who had the time and money to tinker with them. One such person was Henry Ford. He differed from others who had succeeded in building automobiles in that he believed the auto-
mobile could appeal to the general public if the cost of producing them were reduced. The Model A was first produced by the Ford Motor Company in small quantities in 1903. Ford made improvements to the Model A, and in October 1908, he found success with the more practical Model T. The Model T was the vehicle that changed Ford’s fortune and would eventually change the world. It was a powerful car with a possible speed of 45 miles per hour that could run 13 to 21 miles on a gallon of gasoline. Such improvements were made possible by the use of vanadium steel, a lighter and more durable steel than that previously used. Automobiles were beginning to draw interest from the general public as newspapers reported early successes, but they were still out of reach for most Americans. The automobile remained a curiosity to be read about in the newspapers until 1913. That’s when Ford changed the way his workers produced automobiles in the factory. Before 1913, skilled craftsmen made automobiles in Ford’s factory, but Ford’s moving assembly line reduced the skill level needed and sped up production. The moving assembly line improved the speed of chassis assembly from 12 hours and 8 minutes to 1 hour and 33 minutes. Craftsmen were no longer needed to make the parts and assemble the automobiles. Anyone could be trained for most of the jobs required to build an automobile in one of Ford’s factories, making it possible to hire unskilled workers at lower wages. For many early automotive workers, Ford’s mass production concept proved to be both a blessing and a curse. Demand was growing for the affordable automobile, even during the Depression years, bringing new jobs for people who desperately needed them. However, working on an assembly line could be tedious and stressful at the same time. Ford paid his workers well (he introduced the $5 day in 1914, a high wage for the time), but he demanded a lot of them. He sped up the assembly line on several occasions, and many workers performed the same task for hours at a frenzied pace, often without a break. Such conditions led workers to organize unions and, through the years, workers have gained more control over the speed at which they work and pay rates. Many of today’s automotive industry workers belong to unions such as the United Auto Workers (founded in 1936). The industry continued to evolve with automotive technology in the 1940s and 1950s. American automobiles were generally large and consumed a lot of gasoline, but a strong U.S. economy afforded many Americans the ability to buy and maintain such vehicles. In Europe and Japan, smaller, fuel-efficient cars were more popular. This allowed foreign automakers to cut deeply into the American automobile market during fuel shortages in the 1970s. Automotive workers suffered job cuts in the 1980s because of declining exports and
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domestic sales. Today, the industry has recovered from the losses of the 1980s largely by producing vehicles that can compete with fuel-efficient, foreign-made ones. Also, trade agreements have encouraged foreign automakers to build manufacturing plants in the United States, creating new jobs for U.S. workers. The United States currently has about one-quarter of the world’s automobiles, some 128 million vehicles.
n the job The term “automotive industry worker” covers the wide range of people who build the 5 million cars—about 14 percent of the world’s total—produced in the United States each year. Automotive industry workers are employed in two types of plants: parts production plants and assembly plants. Similar jobs are also found with companies that manufacture farm and earth-moving equipment; their workers often belong to the same unions and undergo the same training. Major automobile manufacturquick facts ers are generally organized so School Subjects that automobiles are assembled Mathematics at a few large plants that employ Technical/shop several thousand workers. Parts for the automobiles are made at Personal Skills Following instructions smaller plants that may employ Mechanical/manipulative fewer than 100 workers. Some plants that produce parts are not Work Environment owned by the automobile manPrimarily indoors ufacturer but may be indepenPrimarily one location dent companies that specialize Minimum Education Level in making one important part. High school diploma These independent manufacturers may supply parts to several Salary Range different automobile makers. $28,683 to $40,000 to Whether they work in a parts $100,000 plant or an assembly plant, autoCertification or Licensing motive workers are generally peoVoluntary ple who work with their hands, spend a lot of time standing, Outlook bending, lifting, and do a lot of More slowly than the average repetitive work. They often work DOT in noisy areas and are required 007, 620, 729, 806 to wear protective equipment throughout their workday, such GOE as safety glasses, earplugs, gloves, 08.02.01, 08.02.03 and masks. Because automotive NOC industry workers often work in N/A large plants that operate 24 hours a day, they usually work in shifts. O*NET-SOC Shift assignments are generally N/A made on the basis of seniority.
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An assembly line worker at a General Motors auto plant. (General Motors.)
Precision metalworker is one of the more highly skilled positions found in automotive production plants. Precision metalworkers create the metal tools, dies, and special guiding and holding devices that produce automotive parts—thus, they are sometimes called tool and die makers. They must be familiar with the entire manufacturing process and have knowledge of mathematics, blueprint reading, and the properties of metals, such as hardness and heat tolerance. Precision metalworkers may perform all or some of the steps needed to make machining tools, including reading blueprints, planning the sequence of operations, marking the materials, and cutting and assembling the materials into a tool. Precision metalworkers often work in quieter parts of the production plants. Machinists make the precision metal parts needed for automobiles using tools such as lathes, drill presses, and milling machines. In automotive production plants, their work is repetitive as they generally produce large quantities of one part. Machinists may spend their entire shift machining the part. Some machinists also read blueprints or written specifications for a part. They calculate where to cut into the metal, how fast to feed the metal into the machine, or how much of the metal to remove. Machinists select tools and materials needed for the job and mark the metal stock for the cuts to be made. Increasingly, the machine tools used to make automotive parts are computerized. Computer numerically controlled machining is widespread in many manufacturing processes today. Tool programmers write the computer programs that direct the machine’s operations, and machinists monitor the computer-controlled process. Maintenance workers is a general category that refers to a number of jobs. Maintenance workers may repair or
make new parts for existing machines. They also may set up new machines. They may work with sales representatives from the company that sold the automobile manufacturer the piece of equipment. Maintenance workers are responsible for the upkeep of machines and should be able to perform all of the machine’s operations. Welders use equipment that joins metal parts by melting and fusing them to form a permanent bond. There are different types of welds as well as equipment to make the welds. In manual welding, the work is controlled entirely by the welder. Other work is semi-automatic, in which machinery such as a wire feeder is used to help perform the weld. Much of the welding work in automotive plants is repetitive; in some of these cases, welding machine operators monitor machines as they perform the welding tasks. Because they work with fire, welders must wear safety gear, such as protective clothing, safety shoes, goggles, and hoods with protective lenses. Inspectors check the manufacturing process at all stages to make sure products meet quality standards. Everything from raw materials to parts to the finished automobile is checked for dimensions, color, weight, texture, strength, and other physical characteristics, as well as proper operation. Inspectors identify and record any quality problems and may work with any of several departments to remedy the flaw. Jobs for inspectors are declining because inspection has become automated at many stages of production. Also, there is a move to have workers self-check their work on the production line. Floor or line supervisors are responsible for a group of workers who produce one part or perform one step in a process. They may report to department heads or foremen who oversee several such departments. Many supervisors are production workers who have worked their way up the ranks; still others have a management background and, in many cases, a college degree in business or management.
n requirements High School Many automotive industry jobs require mechanical skills, so you should take advantage of any shop programs your high school offers, such as auto mechanics, electronics, welding, drafting, and computer programming and design. In the core subject areas, mathematics, including algebra and geometry, is useful for reading blueprints and computer programs that direct machine functions. Chemistry is useful for workers who need to be familiar with the properties of metals. English classes are also important to help you communicate verbally with both
supervisors and co-workers and to read and understand complex instructions.
Postsecondary Training Many of the jobs in an automotive plant are classified as semiskilled or unskilled positions, and people with some mechanical aptitude, physical ability, and a high school diploma are qualified to do them. However, there is often stiff competition for jobs with large automakers like General Motors, Ford, and DaimlerChrysler because they offer good benefits and pay compared to jobs that require similar skill levels. Therefore, if you have some postsecondary training, certification, or experience, you stand a better chance of getting a job in the automotive industry than someone with only a high school diploma. Formal training for machining, welding, and toolmaking is offered in vocational schools, vocational-technical institutes, community colleges, and private schools. Increasingly, such postsecondary training or certification is the route many workers take to getting an automotive industry job. In the past, apprenticeships and on-the-job training were the routes many workers took to get factory jobs, but these options are not as widely available today. Electricians, who generally must complete an apprenticeship, may find work in automotive plants as maintenance workers.
Certification or Licensing Certification is available but not required for many of the positions in an automotive production plant. The American Welding Society offers the designations certified welding engineer (CWE) and certified welding inspector (CWI) to members who meet education and professional experience criteria as well as pass an examination. For precision metalworkers and machinists, the National Tooling and Machining Association operates training centers and apprentice programs and sets skill standards.
Other Requirements Working in an automotive production plant can be physically challenging. For many jobs, you need the physical capability to stand for long periods, lift heavy objects, and maneuver hand tools and machinery. Of course, some jobs in an automotive production plant can be performed by a person with a physical disability. For example, a person who uses a wheelchair may work well on an assembly line job that requires only the use of his or her hands. Automotive workers should have hand and finger dexterity and the ability to do repetitive work accurately and safely.
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n exploring Do you enjoy working with your hands? Following complex instructions? Do you think you could do repetitive work on a daily basis? Are you a natural leader who would enjoy a supervisory position? Once you have an idea what area of the automotive industry you want to pursue, the best way to learn more is to find someone who does the job and ask him or her questions about the work. Assembly plants are generally located in or near large cities, but if you live in a rural area you can still probably find someone with a similar job at a parts plant or other manufacturer. Even small towns generally have machine shops or other types of manufacturing plants that employ machinists, tool and die makers, inspectors, and other production workers. Local machine shops or factories are a good place to get experience, perhaps through a summer or after-school job to see if you enjoy working in a production environment. Many high schools have cooperative programs that employ students who want to gain work experience.
n employers Automotive industry workers can find jobs with both domestic automakers, such as the Big Three, and with foreign automakers like Mitsubishi and Honda, which both have large assembly plants in the United States. Large assembly plants may employ several thousand workers. Parts production plants may employ fewer
Learn More about It Aspatore Books Staff. Inside the Minds: The Automotive Industry—Industry Leaders Share Their Knowledge on the Future of the Automotive World. Boston: Aspatore Books, 2002. Genat, Robert. The American Car Dealership. Osceola, Wisc.: MBI Publishing, 1999. Ingrassia, Paul, and Joseph B. White. Comeback: The Fall and Rise of the American Automobile Industry. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1994. Landmann, Ralf, et al., eds. The Future of the Automotive Industry: Challenges and Concepts for the 21st Century. Warrendale, Pa.: Society of Automotive Engineers, 2001. Nelson, Dave et al. Powered by Honda: Developing Excellence in the Global Enterprise. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1998. Walton, Mary. Car: A Drama of the American Workplace. New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 1999.
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Electric Cars Workers in the automotive industry are accustomed to changing technologies. Every year, many workers learn new processes to accommodate improvements in the way automobiles are manufactured. But the increasing popularity of alternative-fuel vehicles may someday radically change the way some workers produce automobiles. One such alternative fuel is electricity. Three manufacturers already sell electric-powered vehicles to consumers, and major automakers as well as small startup companies are working on electric automobiles. Currently, Ford, Honda, and General Motors offer electric vehicles to consumers. In many cases, people who buy such vehicles earn tax incentives and receive breaks on electricity rates for charging their electric vehicles. Ford offers an electricityfueled truck, the Ranger EV. The truck seats two to three passengers and can travel 60 to 80 miles on a charge. Honda’s EV+ seats four and can travel 100 to 120 miles. GM’s EV1 seats two and can travel 60 to 80 miles on a charge. Today, electric vehicles are limited in their use by the distance they can travel on a charge. However, as they become more popular, the concept of charging stations instead of gas stations isn’t out of the question. If these vehicles become more practical, as many predict they will, the automotive production industry and its workers could soon be mass producing electric vehicles.
workers, but there are more of these plants. Assembly plants are generally located in or near large cities, especially in the Northeast and Midwest where heavy manufacturing is concentrated. Parts production plants vary in size, from a few dozen workers to several hundred. Employees of these plants may all work on one small part or on several parts that make up one component of an automobile. Parts production plants are located in smaller towns as well as urban areas. The production processes in agricultural and earth-moving equipment factories are similar to those in the automotive industry, and workers trained in welding, toolmaking, machining, and maintenance may find jobs with companies like Caterpillar and John Deere. The United Auto Workers Union, the largest union in the industry, currently reports 710,000 active members.
n starting out Hiring practices at large plants are usually very structured. Such large employers generally don’t place “help wanted” ads. Rather, they accept applications year-round and keep them on file. Applicants generally complete an
initial application and may be placed on a hiring list. Others get started by working as temporary or part-time workers at the plant and using their experience and contacts to obtain full-time, permanent positions. Some plants work with career placement offices of vocational schools and technical associations to find qualified workers. Others may recruit workers at job fairs. Also, as with many large factories, people who have a relative or know someone who works at the plant usually have a better chance of getting hired. Their contact may put in a good word with a supervisor or advise them when an opening occurs. New hires are usually expected to join the UAW (United Auto Workers) or another union. Unions help negotiate with manufacturers and deal with the company on a worker’s behalf; however, they are also very structured.
n advancement Automotive production plants are very structured in their paths of advancement. Large human resources departments oversee the personnel structures of all departments; each job has a specific description with specific qualifications. Union rules and contracts further structure advancement. Longevity is usually the key to advancement in an automotive plant. For many, advancement means staying in the same position and moving up on the salary scale. Others acquire experience and, often, further training to advance to a position with a higher skill level, more responsibility, and higher pay. For example, machinists may learn a lot about many different machines throughout their careers and may undergo training or be promoted to become precision metalworkers. Others with years of experience become supervisors of their departments.
n earnings Salaries vary widely for automotive industry workers depending on their job and how long they’ve been with the company. Supervisors may earn $60,000 to $75,000 a year or more, depending on the number of people they supervise. Pay for semiskilled or unskilled workers, such as assemblers, is considerably lower, usually in the $27,000 range. Still, such production jobs are sought after because this pay is higher than such workers may find elsewhere based on their skill level. The Career Guide to Industries reports the following 2004 median annual earnings for workers specializing in the production of motor vehicles and equipment: team assemblers, $28,683; welders, $32,344; and first-line managers, $50,128. The median average salary for all machinists in the automotive industry was $36,525 in 2004. Earnings are usually much higher for workers who are members of
a union and employed by a Big Three automaker. Few of these workers earn less than $40,000 a year, and some earn as much as $100,000 a year because of mandatory overtime and six- or seven-day workweeks. Workers employed by large, unionized companies such as Ford and DaimlerChrysler enjoy good benefits, including paid health insurance, paid holidays, sick days, and personal days. Large employers generally offer retirement plans and many match workers’ contributions to retirement funds. Automotive industry workers who work for independent parts manufacturers may not enjoy the comprehensive benefit programs that employees of large companies do, but generally are offered health insurance and paid personal days.
n work environment Working as a production worker in an automotive plant can be stressful, depending on the worker’s personality, job duties, and management expectations. Assembly line workers have little control over the speed at which they must complete their work. They can generally take breaks only when scheduled. Norm Ritchie, a machine operator at a DaimlerChrysler parts plant in Perrysburg, Ohio, says the job can be stressful: “The pressure [of the assembly line] affects people in different ways. Sometimes people get pretty stressed out; other people can handle it.” Ritchie, who works on steering shafts, also said that noise is a concern in his area of the plant. He estimated that the noise level is about 90 decibels all the time. Automotive production workers must follow several safety precautions every day, including wearing protective gear (such as earplugs) and undergoing safety training throughout their careers.
n outlook Job growth is not expected for the U.S. automotive industry for the next few years. The industry has recovered from the 1980s, which saw steep layoffs and job losses. Automotive industry employment is expected to remain steady at best. The industry reached its peak employment level in 1979 with 1.1 million workers. But fuel shortages in the late 1970s and early 1980s made the larger Americanmade cars less appealing than foreign cars, which for years had been made smaller and more fuel efficient. By 1982, the industry employed only 600,000 workers. In the 1990s, employment hovered around 700,000. As of 2004, approximately 1.1 million workers were employed in the industry, according to the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, still making it one of the largest manufacturing industries. Most industry analysts expect car sales to decline in the next several years. The slowing economy could cause production slowdowns and subsequent layoffs for auto
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industry workers, particularly those who work for American manufacturers. Many manufacturers have also found it more cost-effective to move operations overseas, where unions are weak and labor is cheaper. However, the decline in employment among American-owned automakers has been balanced by new foreign-owned manufacturing plants that have been built in the United States. Today, many U.S. automotive workers are employed by foreignowned automakers such as Honda and Mitsubishi.
n for more information These professional societies promote the skills of their trades and can provide career information. American Welding Society 550 Lejeune Road, NW Miami, FL 33126-5699 Tel: 800-443-9353 http://www.aws.org
National Tooling and Machining Association 9300 Livingston Road Fort Washington, MD 20744 Tel: 800-248-6862 http://www.ntma.org
These are two of many unions that represent automotive production workers. They can provide information about training and education programs in your area. International Association of Machinists and Aerospace Workers 9000 Machinists Place Upper Marlboro, MD 20772-2687 Tel: 301-967-4500 http://www.iamaw.org
United Auto Workers 8000 East Jefferson Avenue Detroit, MI 48214 Tel: 313-926-5000 http://www.uaw.org
Aviation Safety Inspectors n overview The regulations of the Federal Aviation Administration are enforced by aviation safety inspectors who usually specialize in general aviation or commercial aircraft. They
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inspect maintenance, manufacturing, repair, and operations procedures and also certify pilots, flight instructors, flight examiners, repair facilities, and aviation schools. They are responsible for the quality and safety of aircraft equipment and personnel. Aviation safety inspectors are classified under the heading of transportation inspectors. There are approximately 25,500 transportation inspectors in the United States.
n history Although the U.S. Constitution gives Congress the power to regulate and control interstate travel via the highway, railway, and water, it does not mention anything about the air. Indeed, the framers of that document did not foresee the age of air travel that would begin in a little more than 100 years. The Wright brothers may have flown the first airplane in 1903, but air travel was not regulated until 1926 when the Secretary of Commerce was given the authority to create a regulatory system. This system was the prequick facts cursor to the agencies that would School Subjects later employ many aviation safety Mathematics inspectors. The system evolved as Physics much as it could to keep pace with the burgeoning field of air transPersonal Skills Mechanical/manipulative portation until the 1950s, when it Technical/scientific could no longer handle the rapidly occurring changes in the field Work Environment and became outdated. To address Indoors and outdoors these changes, the Federal AviaPrimarily multiple locations tion Agency was created in 1958. Minimum Education Level The Federal Aviation Agency was High school diploma given the authority to promote the development and safety of Salary Range air transportation through regu$22,610 to $49,490 to lations. One of its responsibili$91,710 ties is to set and enforce safety Certification or Licensing standards. It later became a part Required for certain positions of the Department of Transportation (DOT) and was renamed Outlook the Federal Aviation AdministraAbout as fast as the average tion (FAA). Another government DOT agency concerned with aviation 168, 196, 621 safety, the National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB), was GOE established in 1967 as a part of the 05.03.06, 05.04.01, 05.07.02 DOT and was made an indepenNOC dent agency in 1975. The NTSB 2262 is responsible for investigating aviation accidents, determining O*NET-SOC the probable cause of accidents, 53-6051.01 and making recommendations
for safety improvements in the field of aviation. Outside of the United States, the growing need for air safety issues and regulations was addressed by the creation of the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) in 1947, and the International Air Transport Association (IATA) in 1945.
n the job The duties of an aviation safety inspector generally include making sure that aircraft are airworthy, that the facilities and equipment surrounding aircraft are safe, and that the personnel working on or flying aircraft complete their work safely and correctly. The specific duties of aviation safety inspectors depend on the area in which they specialize. Aviation safety inspectors usually work in one of three general areas: operations, pertaining to the operation of aircraft; manufacturing, pertaining to the manufacture of aircraft or related equipment; or airworthiness, pertaining to the maintenance and repair of aircraft and related equipment in order to ensure safe flight. In addition, the FAA has identified and defined eight different types of aviation safety inspectors: general aviation avionics inspectors, general aviation maintenance inspectors, general aviation operations inspectors, air carrier avionics inspectors, air carrier maintenance inspectors, air carrier operations inspectors, manufacturing inspectors, and cabin safety inspectors. These inspectors all administer and enforce safety regulations and uphold set standards. The differences are in the general areas that the inspectors regulate and/or the size of the aircraft they inspect. Aviation safety inspectors working in operations are concerned with the people operating aircraft and their training programs, equipment, and facilities. The inspector evaluates pilots, navigators, and flight instructors and issues initial certification that they are proficient and meet the necessary requirements. This certification is done on a continuing basis, and the inspector is responsible for that as well. They also evaluate the manner in which these workers are trained, the equipment they use, and the facilities in which they work and train to make sure they meet safety regulations and standards. One way an inspector might do this is by running simulations with flight personnel, ground crews, and air traffic controllers to monitor performance of the people and equipment involved. Aviation safety inspectors working in manufacturing are concerned with the design and manufacture of aircraft, aircraft parts, and avionics equipment. They examine these materials to make sure they match the necessary design specifications. Inspectors may use hand tools and test instruments to accomplish this. They also issue the
original certificates determining airworthiness for all aircraft. Inspectors in this area also inspect manufacturing facilities to make sure they meet safety regulations and standards. Aviation safety inspectors working in airworthiness are concerned with the repair and maintenance of aircraft, aircraft parts, and avionics equipment. They assess the skills of the mechanics that work on aircraft and related parts and equipment and issue initial certification that they are proficient and meet the necessary requirements. This certification is done on a continuing basis, and the inspector is responsible for that as well. They are also responsible for assessing and certifying repair facilities and evaluating mechanic training programs. Inspectors perform inspections of aircraft to determine airworthiness, checking for any problems due to damage or deficient components. One way they do this is by starting the aircraft being inspected and observing the gauges, meters, and other instruments to ensure they are working properly. These inspectors are also responsible for examining maintenance programs and facilities, the equipment and procedures used for maintenance, and maintenance schedules. They advise whether new equipment needs to be acquired or if existing equipment needs to be fixed or modified. They check maintenance records and flight logs to see if prescribed service and maintenance procedures were performed and completed in a timely manner.
n requirements High School High school students interested in a career in aviation safety should pursue a college prep curriculum, since a college degree is preferred for many positions in aviation safety inspection. Mathematics and science courses are especially useful. Coursework in communications will also be beneficial, since aviation safety inspectors need to ask questions, instruct others, and give oral and written reports of their findings.
Postsecondary Training A high school diploma or equivalency is the minimum eligibility requirement for all federal aviation safety positions; a college degree may be required for nongovernment positions. Experience is also required, some of which is general to all aviation safety positions. Other experience is specific to the different positions in the field of aviation safety. A college education can be used to substitute for some or all of the required experience, depending upon each position. For example, the federal government will allow the substitution of one year of school for nine months of general experience. A bach-
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An aviation safety inspector examines a combustion system for jets. (Brownie Harris/Corbis.)
elor’s degree in the fields of engineering, aeronautics, or air transportation is especially useful. All prospective aviation safety inspectors should have general experience that provides them with knowledge of the aviation industry and/or aircraft operation. Examples of positions that would qualify as general experience include being a pilot or crew member, an air traffic controller, an aviation mechanic, or an avionics technician. Some positions require specific experience. For example, an aviation safety inspector in operations needs experience as a pilot or copilot, a flight instructor, a flight test pilot, a flight inspector, or an aviation operations inspector. Some positions require that inspectors have the ability to operate specific types of aircraft. This experience can be gained from private flight schools, university flight schools, and military training. An aviation safety inspector in manufacturing needs experience with quality control in accordance with federal aviation regulations. The quality control experience should be with the production of aircraft, aircraft engines, aircraft propellers, or aircraft assemblies. Some positions require additional experience in supervision, management, and implementation of quality control programs. An aviation safety inspector focusing on airworthiness needs experience in supervising the repair and maintenance of aircraft, aircraft engines, or aircraft electronics communications and navigation systems. This experience must include being responsible for
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following federal aviation standards for airworthiness, or military regulations and safety standards. A job as a field service representative of an aircraft systems manufacturer or an aircraft equipment manufacturer may provide adequate experience for some positions, as well.
Certification and Licensing Certification requirements vary according to the position. For example, an aviation safety inspector working for the federal government in a position where he or she has to operate aircraft must have a commercial pilot certificate as well as a flight instructor certificate, both with single and multi-engine land and instrument ratings. An aviation safety inspector in a position where he or she has to operate aircraft in the air carrier field must have an airline transport pilot certificate. A commercial pilot certificate with multiengine land and instrument ratings, and eligibility for an airline transport pilot certificate will also suffice. Aviation safety inspectors in the area of manufacturing, working for the federal government at a GS-9 position or above, need an FAA mechanic certificate, with airframe and powerplant ratings. All certificates must be current.
as aircraft pilots, air traffic controllers, and aviation mechanics or repair workers. Visiting an airport and taking a tour will give you a broader understanding of the basis of aviation safety and will enable you to observe how aviation safety issues affect those careers and the public travelers who pass in and out of an airport on a daily basis. Visits can be arranged through most airports and many airlines, although there might be limitations due to security concerns. You should be aware that every branch of the military services offers opportunities for vital experience for these jobs, and many jobs that are closely related.
n employers Most aviation safety inspectors are employed by the federal government, with the majority working for the Department of Transportation, namely the FAA, and the NTSB. Other employers of aviation safety inspectors include consulting firms, insurance companies, and companies that specialize in aviation technology and industry. Some inspectors are self-employed and work as independent consultants. Aviation safety inspectors are classified under the heading of transportation inspectors. There are approximately 29,000 transportation inspectors in the United States.
Other Requirements
n starting out
Aviation safety inspectors must be methodical, have an eye for detail, and be able to accept responsibility. They must be persistent and patient as they perform inspections or follow an investigation to its conclusion. They also must be able to communicate well with others in order to reach a clear analysis of a situation and be able to report this information. Inspectors must be able to write effective reports that convey vast amounts of information and investigative work. For many careers in aviation safety, United States citizenship is required, as well as the ability to pass a background security check. Some positions have a minimum age requirement.
Aviation safety inspectors are generally not hired unless they have experience in the field of aviation, for example, as a pilot or crew member, an air traffic controller, an aviation mechanic, an avionics technician, or a manufacturing position in the aviation industry. A combination of work experience in the field of aviation and education in areas such as air transportation, engineering, or aeronautics will count as sufficient experience in some cases. After gaining the necessary experience, those interested in becoming an aviation safety inspector should apply for a position. One of the largest employers of aviation safety inspectors, the FAA, maintains a national register of qualified applicants. Persons interested in being hired by the FAA as an aviation safety inspector should contact the FAA for an application. Applicants who are deemed qualified and eligible for employment are placed on the national register for a period of one year. They are matched to any available job vacancies that fit their qualifications.
n exploring If you are interested in this career, you can begin exploring by arranging to shadow an aviation safety inspector at work. Talking with aviation safety inspectors and observing them as they work will give you a sampling of their duties, as well as the type of situations they encounter from day to day. Visits and interviews can be arranged through the FAA. Another option that will help you learn about aviation safety inspectors is to arrange to take a tour of an airport. Many aviation safety inspectors began with jobs such
n advancement Aviation safety inspectors who demonstrate superior job skills may be promoted to positions with an increase in salary and greater responsibility. Those
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Interview: Mike McKenna Mike McKenna recently attended the Institute of Aviation, University of Illinois-Urbana Champaign. Q. What made you want to study aviation? A. When I was in high school, I knew that I either wanted to be an engineer or fly. When the chance to fly in college became a reality at the University of Illinois, I thought that it was a great opportunity to study a unique field. Q. Please describe your classroom and flight studies. A. We had ground school twice a week for approximately two hours per session. The instructor discussed various topics pertaining to the current flight class in which students were enrolled. We flew three times a week for two hours each session. We also flew on the weekends.
who exhibit managerial skills may advance to a supervisory position, such as section or branch chief. Inspectors with strong teaching and training skills may become instructors at the FAA Academy. Aviation safety inspectors who have a recognized level of expertise may opt to work for themselves as independent consultants.
n earnings Transportation inspectors had median annual earnings of $49,490 in 2005, according to the U.S. Department of Labor. Salaries ranged from less than $22,610 to $91,710 or more annually. Aviation safety inspectors receive typical fringe benefits, which may include medical and dental insurance, life insurance, sick days, paid vacation days, and participation in a 401(k) or similar savings plan. In addition, government employees may receive a pension. Self-employed aviation safety inspectors are responsible for their own insurance and savings needs.
n work environment The work environment of an aviation safety inspector varies, depending on their employment situation. They usually work both indoors and outdoors, depending on the location and subject of the inspection or investigation. Many aviation safety inspectors who work for the government, consulting firms, or who are self-employed spend much time in the field and therefore will travel a great deal. Since they are
Q. Did you participate in any internships? A. I was very fortunate to participate in an internship with the National Transportation Safety Board. My duties included assisting investigators throughout the process of determining causes for accidents. Q. What advice would you give students who are interested in aviation? A. My best advice is do not major solely in an aviation-related field. For example, if you are interested in aviation management, I think it is best to get a basic business degree in addition to your various pilot licenses. Also, many students also major in engineering while pursuing a pilot license. These students are the most marketable after graduation. Q. What are your future employment plans? A. I plan to enter the field of aviation safety investigation. My internship made me very interested in this field.
responsible for inspecting aircraft and aircraft facilities, they will need to travel to the necessary locations in order to perform an inspection. Aviation safety inspectors investigating an accident will need to travel to the accident site. Aviation safety inspectors working for private companies may not need to travel as much, since many of their job duties will be performed inhouse. Aviation safety inspectors need to be able to work independently and as part of a team, since both qualities are warranted in different job situations. A normal workweek for an aviation safety inspector is 40 hours. However, additional hours may be necessary, for example, to finish an important inspection or to investigate an accident.
n outlook The U.S. Department of Labor predicts slower-thanaverage growth for all transportation inspectors. Employment opportunities should be slightly better for aviation safety inspectors as the federal government seeks to improve aviation safety and address security threats.
n for more information For career information, contact Federal Aviation Administration 800 Independence Avenue, SW, Room 810 Washington, DC 20591 Tel: 202-366-4000 http://www.faa.gov/careers
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Avionics Engineers and Technicians n overview Avionics (from the words aviation and electronics) is the application of electronics to the operation of aircraft, spacecraft, and missiles. Avionics engineers conduct research and solve developmental problems associated with aviation, such as instrument landing systems and other safety instruments. Avionics engineers are a subspecialty of the field of aerospace engineering. There are approximately 76,000 aerospace engineers in the United States. Avionics technicians inspect, test, adjust, and repair the electronic components of aircraft communications, navigation, and flight-control systems and compile complete maintenance-and-overhaul records for the work they do. Avionics technicians also calibrate and adjust the frequencies of communications apparatus when it is installed and perform periodic checks on those frequency settings. Avionics technicians hold about 25,600 jobs.
n history The field of avionics began in World War II, when military aircraft were operated for the first time using electronic equipment. Rockets were also being developed during this time, and these devices required electronic systems to control their flight. As aircraft rapidly grew more complicated, the amount of electronic apparatus needed for navigation and for monitoring equipment performance greatly increased. The World War II B-29 bomber carried 2,000 to 3,000 avionic components; the B-52 of the Vietnam era carried 50,000; later, the B-58 supersonic bomber required more than 95,000. As the military grew increasingly reliant on electronic systems, specialists were required to build, install, operate, and repair them. The development of large ballistic missiles during and after World War II and the rapid growth of the U.S. space program after 1958 increased development of avionics technology. Large missiles and spacecraft require many more electronic components than even the largest and most sophisticated aircraft. Computerized guidance systems became especially important with the advent of manned spaceflights. Avionics technology was also applied to civil aircraft. The race to be the first in space and, later, to be the first to land on the moon stimulated the need for trained specialists to work with newer and more complex electronic technology. The push for
achieving military superiority during the Cold War era also created a demand for avionics specialists and technicians. The commercial airline industry has been growing rapidly since the 1950s; since that time, more and more planes have been built, and the drive to provide greater comfort and safety for passengers has created an even greater demand for avionics engineers and technicians. Avionics continues to be an important branch of aeronautical and astronautical engineering. The aerospace industry places great emphasis on research and development, assigning a much higher percentage of its trained technical personnel to this effort than is usual in industry. In addition, stringent safety regulations require constant surveillance of in-service equipment. For these reasons there is a high demand for trained and experienced avionics engineers and technicians to help in the development of new satellites, spacecraft, aircraft, and their component electronic systems and to maintain those in service.
n the job Avionics engineers develop new electronic systems and components for aerospace use. Avionics technicians assist engineers in these developments. They also adapt existing systems and components for application in new equipment. For the most part, however, they install, test, repair, and maintain navigation, communications, and control apparatus in existing aircraft and spacecraft. Technicians use apparatus such as circuit analyzers and oscilloscopes to test and replace such sophisticated equipment as transceivers and Doppler radar systems, as well as microphones, headsets, and other standard electronic communications apparatus. New equipment, once installed, must be tested and calibrated to prescribed specifications. Technicians also adjust the frequencies of radio sets and other communications equipment by signaling ground stations and then adjusting set screws until the desired frequency has been achieved. Periodic maintenance checks and readjustments enable avionics technicians to keep equipment operating on proper frequencies. The technicians also complete and sign maintenance-andoverhaul documents recording the history of various equipment. Avionics engineers and technicians involved in the design and testing of a new apparatus must take into account all operating conditions, determining weight limitations, resistance to physical shock, the atmospheric conditions the device will have to withstand, and other factors. For some sophisticated projects, technicians will have to design and make their tools first
and then use them to construct and test new avionic components. The range of equipment in the avionics field is so broad that technicians usually specialize in one area, such as radio equipment, radar, computerized guidance, or flight-control systems. New specialty areas are constantly opening up as innovations occur in avionics. The development of these new specialty areas requires technicians to keep informed by reading technical articles and books and by attending seminars and courses about the new developments, which are often sponsored by manufacturers. Avionics technicians usually work as part of a team, especially if involved in research, testing, and development of new products. They are often required to keep notes and records of their work and to write detailed reports.
n requirements High School Persons interested in pursuing a career in avionics should take high school mathematics courses at least through solid geometry and preferably through calculus. They should take English, speech, and communications classes in order to read complex and detailed technical articles, books, and reports; to write technical reports; and to present those reports to groups of people when required. Many schools offer shop classes in electronics and in diagram and blueprint reading.
Postsecondary Training Avionics engineers must have a bachelor’s degree from an accredited college or university and may participate in a cooperative education program through their engineering school. Avionics technicians must have completed a course of training at a postsecondary technical institute or community college. The training should include at least one year of electronics technician training. If not trained specifically in avionics, students should obtain a solid background in electronics theory and practice. Further specialized training will be done on the job, where technicians work with engineers and senior technicians until they are competent to work without direct supervision. Larger corporations in the aerospace industry operate their own schools and training institutes. Such training rarely includes theoretical or general studies but concentrates on areas important to the company’s functions. The U.S. armed forces also conduct excellent electronics and avionics training schools; their graduates are in high demand in the industry after they leave the service.
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Certification or Licensing All states require engineers to be licensed. There are two levels of licensing for engineers. Professional engineers (PEs) have graduated from an accredited engineering curriculum, have four years of engineering experience, and have passed a written exam. Engineering graduates need not wait until they have four years experience, however, to start the licensure process. Those who pass the Fundamentals of quick facts Engineering examination after graduating are called engineers School Subjects in training (EITs) or engineer Mathematics Technical/shop interns or intern engineers. The EIT certification usually is valid Personal Skills for 10 years. After acquiring Mechanical/manipulative suitable work experience, EITs Technical/scientific can take the second examinaWork Environment tion, the Principles and Practice Primarily indoors of Engineering exam, to gain Primarily one location full PE licensure. In order to ensure that avionMinimum Education Level ics engineers are kept up to date Bachelor’s degree (engineers) on their quickly changing field, Some postsecondary training (technicians) many states have imposed continuing education requirements Salary Range for relicensure. $50,993 to $62,930 to Federal Communications $75,529+ (engineers) Commission (FCC) regulations $30,000 to $45,281 to $70,595+ (technicians) require that anyone who works with radio transmitting equipCertification or Licensing ment have a restricted radioteleRequired by all states (engiphone operator’s license. Such neers) a license is issued upon appliRequired for certain positions cation to the FCC and is issued (technicians) for life. Outlook
Other Requirements
More slowly than the average (engineers) About as fast as the average (technicians)
To be successful in this work, you should have strong science and mathematics skills. In addition, you will need to have good manual dexterity and mechanical aptitude and the temperament for exacting work.
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equipment. It is also possible to visit a large airfield’s repair facilities where avionics technicians inspect, maintain, and calibrate communications and control apparatus. You can also arrange to visit other types of electronics manufacturers. Useful information about avionics training programs and career opportunities is available from the U.S. armed forces as well as from trade and technical schools and community colleges that offer such programs. These organizations are always pleased to answer inquiries from prospective students or service personnel.
n employers About half of the 76,000 aerospace engineers employed in the United States work in the aerospace product and parts manufacturing industries. About 10 percent are employed in federal government agencies, primarily the Department of Defense and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. Other employers include engineering and architectural services, research and testing services, and search and navigation equipment firms. There are approximately 26,600 avionics technicians employed in the United States. Most technicians work for airlines or airports and flying fields. Other major employers include the federal government and aircraft assembly firms.
n starting out Those entering the field of avionics must first obtain the necessary training in electronics. Following that training, the school’s career services department can help locate
prospective employers, arrange interviews, and advise about an employment search. Other possibilities are to contact an employment agency or to approach a prospective employer directly. Service in the military is an excellent way to gain education, training, and experience in avionics; many companies are eager to hire technicians with a military background.
n advancement Avionics technicians usually begin their careers in trainee positions until they are thoroughly familiar with the requirements and routines of their work. Having completed their apprenticeships, they are usually assigned to work independently, with only minimal supervision, doing testing and repair work. The most experienced and able technicians go on to install new equipment and to work in research and development operations. Many senior technicians move into training, supervisory, sales, and customer relations positions. Some choose to pursue additional training and become avionics engineers. Avionics engineers are already at an advanced position but may move up to become engineering supervisors or managers.
n earnings The U.S. Department of Labor reports that median annual earnings of aerospace engineers with a master’s degree were $62,930 in 2004. Those with a bachelor’s degree earned an average of $50,993 a year, and those with Ph.D.’s earned an average salary of $75,529. Median earnings of avionics technicians were $45,281 in 2004, according to the U.S. Department of Labor. The top 10 percent of technicians earned more than $70,595 a year. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $30,000 a year. Federal government employees (not including armed forces personnel) on the average earn slightly less than avionics technicians employed by private aerospace firms. Their jobs, however, are more secure.
n work environment
This avionics engineer works to repair a damaged fuselage. (U.S. Air Force.)
Avionics engineers and technicians work for aircraft and aerospace manufacturers, airlines, and NASA and other government agencies. Most avionics engineers and technicians specialize in a specific area of avionics; they are also responsible for keeping up with the latest technological and industry advances. Their work is usually performed in pleasant indoor surroundings. Because this work is very precise, successful engineers and technicians must have a personality suited to meeting exact standards. Technicians sometimes work in closely cooperating teams. This requires an ability to work with a team spirit of coordinated effort.
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n outlook The U.S. Department of Labor predicts that employment for avionics engineers will grow more slowly than the average through 2014. Average employment growth is expected for avionics technicians during this same time period. The aerospace industry is closely tied to government spending and to political change, as well as to the economy, which also affects the aircraft and airline industries strongly. The decline in airline travel in recent years has led to reduced employment opportunities for avionics engineers and technicians. Despite this decline, avionics is an important and constantly developing field for which more and more trained engineers and technicians will be required. Reliance on electronic technology has grown rapidly and in virtually every industry. Many defense contractors have begun to branch out into other products, especially in the areas of electronic and computer technology. Commercial applications of the space program, including the launching of privately owned satellites, are also providing new opportunities in the aerospace industry.
n for more information For a list of accredited schools and colleges, contact Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology Inc. 111 Market Place, Suite 1050 Baltimore, MD 21202-4102 Tel: 410-347-7700 http://www.abet.org
Contact AIA for publications with information on aerospace technologies, careers, and space. Aerospace Industries Association of America 1000 Wilson Boulevard, Suite 1700 Arlington, VA 22209-3901 Tel: 703-358-1000 http://www.aia-aerospace.org
For information about scholarships, colleges, and career opportunities, contact the following: Air Force Association 1501 Lee Highway Arlington, VA 22209-1198 Tel: 703-247-5839 Email:
[email protected] http://www.afa.org
For career information and details on student branches of this organization, contact American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics
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The X Prize By far one the most interesting developments to happen in the aeronautics industry in the past few years is the X Prize, a $100 million award contributed by group of investors led by maverick millionaire Peter Diamandis. The goal: to build a spaceship that can carry three people into suborbital flight 100 kilometers (62.5 miles) above the Earth, and then repeat the feat within two weeks. Planned entries include traditional vertical-takeoff rockets, rocket/jet combinations, and even a rocket that launches from a balloon. Perhaps the most exciting is genius aircraft designer Burt Rutan’s SpaceShipOne, a rocketplane that is given a lift by “piggybacking” on a jet aircraft, the White Knight. Some of the investors behind X Prize teams include Amazon.com’s Jeff Bezos and Microsoft’s Paul Allen, who not only hope to fulfill their boyhood dreams of space flight, but also to revolutionize the space industry, inexpensively launching satellites, opening up a whole world of “space tourism,” and perhaps even building private space stations. Source: Wired magazine 11.07
1801 Alexander Bell Drive, Suite 500 Reston, VA 20191-4344 Tel: 800-639-2422 http://www.aiaa.org
For information on educational programs and to purchase a copy of Engineering: Go For It, contact American Society for Engineering Education 1818 N Street, NW Washington, DC 20036 Tel: 202-331-3500 http://www.asee.org
For information on general aviation, contact General Aviation Manufacturers Association 1400 K Street, NW, Suite 801 Washington, DC 20005 Tel: 202-393-1500 http://www.generalaviation.org
For information on careers and student competitions, contact Junior Engineering Technical Society 1420 King Street, Suite 405 Alexandria, VA 22314 Tel: 703-548-5387 Email:
[email protected] http://www.jets.org
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Ayurvedic Doctors and Practitioners
and ensure success in agriculture. Most experts believe that the Atharvaveda is the basis of Ayurveda. The word Ayurveda means “knowledge of life.” The oldest of the specifically Ayurvedic texts, the Charaka Samhita, was written in approximately 1000 b.c. and deals with internal medicine. This and more recent texts, such as the Astanga Hridayam, a compilation of Ayurvedic knowledge written in approximately a.d. 1000, provide Ayurvedic practitioners with the knowledge they need to help their patients. Ayurvedic medicine is officially accepted in India, where approximately 80 percent of those who seek medical help go to Ayurvedic doctors. In its country of origin, Ayurveda has been substantially modernized, and it now includes many techniques and medications that originated in the West. For example, in addition to ancient herbal formulas, Indian Ayurvedic doctors often prescribe antibiotics. Most Indian doctors have discarded the use of certain older practices that are described in early texts, such as the use of leeches for bloodletting.
n overview
n the job
Ayurvedic doctors and practitioners use theories and techniques developed thousands of years ago in India to bring people into physical, mental, emotional, and spiritual balance, thereby maintaining health, curing diseases, and promoting happiness and fulfillment. In the West, where Ayurveda is not an officially accepted and licensed form of medicine, only licensed medical doctors who are also thoroughly trained in Ayurveda can legally practice Ayurvedic medicine. These individuals are referred to as Ayurvedic doctors. Licensed practitioners of paramedical professions, such as nutritionists, psychologists, naturopaths, massage therapists, and acupuncturists, may, if they are also trained in Ayurveda and use Ayurvedic techniques in their professional work, be called Ayurvedic practitioners. Any non-M.D. who practices the full range of Ayurvedic medicine in the West, however, is seen as practicing medicine without a license, which is illegal.
Ayurveda is a way of life rather than simply a system of healing. It is a holistic system, which means that it views physical, mental, and spiritual health as intrinsically connected. An Ayurvedic doctor or practitioner treats the whole person, not simply the symptoms that a patient displays. Ayurvedic doctors and practitioners base their treatments and recommendations on a complex body of beliefs. One of the most important beliefs holds that everything in the universe is composed of one or more of the five elements: air, fire, earth, water, and ether (space). These elements are concepts or qualities as much as they are actual entities. For example, anything that has the qualities that Ayurveda associates with fire is a manifestation of fire. A person’s violent temper demonstrates the existence of fire within that person. For the purposes of treating people, Ayurveda distills the concept of the five elements to three combinations of two elements. These are the doshas, which may be thought of as qualities or energies. The first dosha, Vata, is a combination of air and ether, with air predominating. The second dosha, Pitta, is a combination of fire and water, with fire predominating. The third dosha, Kapha, is a combination of water and earth, with water predominating. Every person is dominated by one or more doshas, although every person contains some element of all three. The unique combination of doshas that appears in a person is that person’s tridosha, and that combination determines the person’s constitution, or prakriti.
For career and licensing information, contact National Society of Professional Engineers 1420 King Street Alexandria, VA 22314-2794 Tel: 703-684-2800 http://www.nspe.org/students
For career information, see AIAC’s Web site. Aerospace Industries Association of Canada (AIAC) 60 Queen Street, #1200 Ottawa, ON K1P 5Y7 Canada Email:
[email protected] http://www.aiac.ca
n history The Vedas, which may be up to 5,000 years old, are the oldest and most important scriptures of Hinduism, which is the primary religion in India. The Sanskrit word veda means “knowledge,” and the Vedas contain the knowledge and beliefs on which Hinduism is based. The Atharvaveda—the Veda that deals primarily with the practical aspects of life—contains chants, rites, and spells that are thought to enable believers to do such things as create love and goodwill among people, defeat enemies,
Because Ayurvedic theory holds that a person’s nature and personality are based on his or her doshic makeup, or tridosha, the first thing that an Ayurvedic doctor or practitioner does when seeing a patient is to determine what that doshic makeup is. This is done by various means, including observation of physical qualities such as build, nails, lips, hair color, eye color, and skin type; taking the pulse in various locations; examination of the “nine doors,” which are eyes, ears, nostrils, mouth, genitals, and anus; and questioning the patient about past history, present problems, goals, and so forth. After analyzing all this information, the practitioner determines which dosha or combination of doshas predominates in the patient’s makeup. Vata people tend to be extremely tall or extremely short and to have long fingers and toes. They are generally thin and have dark complexions and dry skin. The air element that predominates in their makeup makes them tend to be light, cold, and dry in various ways. They are often extremely creative, but their minds tend to flit from idea to idea, and they may be spacey and disorganized. Pitta people, who are dominated by the fire element, are generally of medium build, and their fingers and toes are of medium length. They tend to be fair in complexion, with blond, light brown, or red hair. All redheads are said to have a significant amount of Pitta in their tridoshas. Pittas are quick to anger, can be forceful and domineering, and are highly organized. They make good engineers, accountants, and managers. Kapha people, who are dominated by the water element, are generally large and well-built, with dark hair and oily skin. Their toes and fingers are short and thick. Kaphas may gain weight easily but have great physical stamina. They are usually calm people who avoid confrontation, but once they are angered, they hold a grudge. They like routine, tend not to be extremely creative, and are reliable. Once the practitioner has determined the patient’s tridosha and has ascertained what the patient’s condition, problems, and desires are, the practitioner creates a program that will improve the patient’s health and well-being. One of the most important methods that the practitioner will use is diet. If the patient’s tridosha is out of balance, controlled to an extreme degree by one of the doshas, the practitioner may put together a diet that will decrease that dosha and/or increase the others, gradually and safely bringing the patient to a state of balance. Ayurvedic practitioners must therefore have a thorough knowledge of foods, traditional nutrition, and cooking. Proper eating and good digestion are extremely important in Ayurveda, but Ayurvedic practitioners also use
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many other methods, among which are the techniques of panchakarma, which means “five actions.” Panchakarma is a powerful set of cleansing practices that is ideally undertaken only under the guidance of an Ayurvedic doctor. The treatment varies by individual, but generally a patient must undergo one to seven days of preparation before the treatment begins. The preparation involves oil massage and steam baths, which sometimes include herbal treatments. After the body is sufficiently cleansed, the panchakarma may begin. The first of the five practices is vamana, which involves removing excess Kapha from the stomach by inducing vomiting by gentle means. The second practice is virechana, which involves using laxatives to purge the body of excess Pitta. The third and fourth practices are both forms of vasti, or enema therapy, in which herbal preparations are used to remove Vata from the system. One form is relatively mild; the other is stronger. The fifth practice is quick facts nasya, which involves ingesting School Subjects liquid or powdered substances Biology through the nose. This practice Chemistry is generally used to treat illnesses Health that affect the head and neck. It can take up to 30 days to complete Personal Skills Communication/ideas the process of panchakarma. Helping/teaching There are many more aspects of Ayurvedic practice, and one Work Environment of the most important things Primarily indoors that doctors and practitioners Primarily one location do is advise patients regarding Minimum Education Level their lifestyle. They recommend High school diploma various practices, such as cleaning the tongue daily, engaging Salary Range in meditation, practicing yoga, $20,000 to $60,000 to and massaging the body with $150,000 oils suitable for one’s tridosha Certification or Licensing and the time of year. They may Recommended even advise patients regarding what kinds of clothes are best Outlook for them and where they will be Faster than the average most comfortable living. DOT
n requirements High School If Ayurvedic medicine interests you, learn as much as possible about health, medicine, science, and anatomy while in high school, just as you would to prepare for a career in Western medicine. Courses in biology
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Glossary of Ayurvedic Terms Ahamkara: The force that forms an individual person; an individual’s “I.” Ama: Toxins created by improper digestion. Aura: The energy field that surrounds the body. Bhavana: A process in which a mortar and pestle are used to improve the quality of a substance such as an herb. Dosha: Any of the three forces that allow the five elements to take form as flesh. Laxation: The use of mild laxatives to decrease an overabundant dosha. Prajnaparadha: A condition in which a person knowingly acts in a way that harms his or her health. Prakriti or prakruti: A person’s constitution. Prana: Life force or energy; corresponds to the Chinese term ch’i and the Japanese term ki. Purgation: The use of strong laxatives to decrease an overabundant dosha. Sattva: Equilibrium, balance. Shukra: Reproductive fluids. Tantra: A set of practices that utilize energy for spiritual purposes. Triphala: A compound used for purification and revitalization. Virya: The energy contained in a substance. Yukti: A process in which an effect is caused by making various factors unite at a particular place and time.
and chemistry are important. It will also be important to study the Hindu tradition and become familiar with Sanskrit terms. Studying Sanskrit, the language of the Vedas and the Ayurvedic texts, is a good idea, although it is not absolutely essential. Although Sanskrit is not offered in high schools, correspondence courses are available, and students in large cities may find Sanskrit courses in universities or may find teachers in an Indian community.
Postsecondary Training Postsecondary training depends on the path you want to take. To become a full-fledged Ayurvedic doctor in the West, you must be trained as a medical doctor as well as in Ayurveda, which means getting a bachelor’s degree, going to medical school, and completing an internship. According to Scott Gerson, M.D., a fully trained Ayurvedic doctor who runs the National Institute of Ayurvedic Medicine (NIAM), specializing in internal medicine or family practice is usually the best route for those who wish to become Ayurvedic doctors, although
it is possible to combine other medical specialties with Ayurvedic practice in a beneficial way. Those who wish to combine Ayurveda with careers as nutritionists, psychologists, naturopaths, and so forth must complete the educational and training requirements for those specialties as well as study Ayurveda. It is not a good idea to go into business in a Western country simply as an expert in Ayurveda, since no licensing is available and doing so may leave you open to charges of practicing medicine without a license. The single most important part of a doctor’s or practitioner’s Ayurvedic training is the completion of a rigorous course of study and practice. Naturally, a student who wishes to practice should select the most comprehensive course available. An excellent way to learn Ayurveda is to study at a good Indian institution and become a full-fledged Ayurvedic doctor in India. That kind of program typically takes five years to complete and also involves supervised practice afterward. Remember, though, that being licensed in India does not make it legal to practice as a doctor in the West. Alternatively, a student may study in the West, where various institutions offer Ayurvedic training. NIAM offers a three-year program in Ayurvedic medicine (see contact information at the end of this article).
Other Requirements Ayurvedic practitioners and doctors work closely with their clients, so it is essential that they be able to gain their clients’ or patients’ trust, make them comfortable and relaxed, and communicate effectively enough with them to gather the information that they need in order to treat them effectively. It is unlikely that an uncommunicative person who is uncomfortable with people will be able to build a successful Ayurvedic practice. In addition, a practitioner must be comfortable making decisions and working alone. Although some jobs are available in alternative health practices, most Ayurvedic doctors and practitioners have their own practices, and anyone who sets up shop will need to deal with the basic tasks and problems that all business owners face: advertising, accounting, taxes, legal requirements, and so forth. In addition, because Ayurveda is rooted in Hinduism, people whose religious beliefs are in conflict with Hinduism or who are uncomfortable with organized religion may be unwilling or unable to practice Ayurveda effectively.
n exploring The best way to learn about Ayurveda is to speak with those who practice it. Call practitioners and ask to interview them. Find practitioners in your area if you can, but
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do not hesitate to contact people in other areas. There is no substitute for learning from those who actually do the work. Although many practitioners run one-person practices, it may be possible to find work of some kind with a successful practitioner or a clinic in your area, especially if you live in a large city. You should also do as much reading as you can on the subject. Many books on Ayurveda are available. Also look for information on Ayurveda in magazines that deal with alternative medicine or Hinduism. You may also wish to read about traditional Oriental medicine, which is similar to Ayurveda in many ways.
$35,000 and $60,000. Ayurvedic doctors earn amounts up to—and in some cases even more than—$150,000.
n employers
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For the most part, Ayurvedic practitioners work for themselves, although some teach in institutions and others work for alternative clinics.
Although no official government analysis of the future of Ayurveda has yet been conducted, it seems safe to say that the field is expanding more rapidly than the average for all fields. Ayurveda has become relatively popular in a short period of time, largely because of the popularity of Deepak Chopra, an Ayurvedic expert who is also an M.D. It has certainly benefited from the popular acceptance of alternative medicine and therapies in recent years, particularly because it is a holistic practice that aims to treat the whole person rather than the symptoms of disease or discomfort. Because Western medicine is often viewed as mechanical and dehumanizing, many people are looking for alternative forms of medicine that take into account the whole person.
n starting out In addition to receiving training in medicine or in another professional field of your choice, you should begin by taking the best, most comprehensive Ayurvedic course of study you can find. After that, if you have not found an organization that you can work for, you should begin to practice on your own. You may rent an office or set up shop at home. Be sure to investigate the state and local laws that affect you. A practitioner who runs his or her own business must be well versed in basic business skills. Take courses in business or get advice from the local office of the Small Business Administration. Seek advice from people you know who run their own businesses. Your financial survival will depend on your business skills, so be sure that you are as well prepared as possible.
n advancement Because most Ayurvedic doctors and practitioners work for themselves, advancement in the field is directly related to the quality of treatment they provide and their business skills. Ayurvedic practitioners can advance in their field by proving to the members of their community that they are skilled, honest, professional, and effective. Before they can be financially successful, there must be a strong demand for their services.
n earnings Generally, Ayurvedic doctors earn what most doctors in their fields of specialty earn. The situation is the same for practitioners, who generally earn what other people in their fields earn. It is probably safe to say that Ayurvedic practitioners on the low end make $20,000 per year and up, practitioners in more lucrative fields make between
n work environment Ayurvedic practitioners usually work in their own homes or offices. Some practitioners may have office help, while others work alone. For this reason, they must be independent enough to work effectively on their own. Because they must make their clients comfortable in order to provide effective treatment, they generally try to make their workplaces as pleasant and relaxing as possible.
n for more information The AIVS provides on-site and correspondence training in Ayurveda, as well as courses in Sanskrit and other subjects that are of interest to Ayurvedic practitioners. It should be noted that correspondence courses do not qualify one as a practitioner, but they do prepare one for more in-depth training. American Institute of Vedic Studies (AIVS) PO Box 8357 Santa Fe, NM 87504-8357 Tel: 505-983-9385 Email:
[email protected] http://www.vedanet.com
The Ayurvedic Institute offers both on-site and correspondence courses in Ayurveda. Some of the organization’s resources are available only to those who pay a membership fee. Ayurvedic Institute 11311 Menaul Boulevard, NE Albuquerque, NM 87112 Tel: 505-291-9698 Email:
[email protected] http://www.ayurveda.com
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Deepak Chopra’s Center does not offer training for practitioners, but it does offer courses for those who are interested in using Ayurveda in their own lives. Chopra Center at La Costa Resort and Spa 2013 Costa del Mar Road Carlsbad, CA 92009 Tel: 888-424-6772 Email:
[email protected] http://www.chopra.com
The NIAM offers on-site training, sells correspondence courses, and sells Ayurvedic books and supplies. It offers a three-year training program in Ayurveda. National Institute of Ayurvedic Medicine (NIAM) 584 Milltown Road Brewster, NY 10509 Tel: 845-278-8700 Email:
[email protected] http://www.niam.com
Baggage Porters and Bellhops n overview Baggage porters and bellhops, known at some hotels as uniformed service attendants, bell attendants, or guest services attendants, are considered front-of-the-house jobs in the hotel industry. They are responsible for carrying guests’ luggage to their room upon arrival and back to the lobby when they depart. At times they may be asked to run errands or deliver items for guests. Though bellhops work from the bellstand—a desk or podium located in the hotel lobby—their work takes them all over the hotel property. Bellhops are also employed at airports, bus terminals, train stations, and just about any place of travel. There are about 57,000 baggage porters and bellhops employed in the United States.
n history Early in the hotel industry, the innkeepers—the hotel owners and their immediate families—were responsible for every aspect of running a hotel. Besides working the front desk, cleaning the rooms, and cooking the food, they also had to carry guests’ trunks and bags. As the industry grew, innkeepers, many of whom had more than one hotel to manage, found themselves in need of reliable employees. The bellhop occupation grew from the idea of ultimate guest service. Many of the larger luxuri-
ous hotels have numerous bellhops in their bellstand department. Bellhops and baggage porters are found in other areas of the travel and tourism industry as well. They work at transportation terminals such as airports, train stations, and cruise ships. In the late 1800s, the Pullman trains hired men, many of whom were African Americans, to work as porters for their first class sleeper cars. Referred to as Pullman porters, they were famous for the fine service and attention they gave to the first class passengers. The early Pullman porters had to abide by a strict behavior and work code and were highly respected members of the community. In time, Pullman porters became somewhat a symbol of black subservience, and the career became less popular.
n the job Edward Wilson, a uniformed service attendant at the Hotel Intercontinental, Chicago, Illinois, starts his eight-hour shift at 7 a.m. There’s no time for chatting or even a morning cup of coffee because a long morning of early checkouts and storage requests is about to begin. “We’re really busy from about seven to nine in the morning,” says Wilson. Guests who need to store their luggage until a flight later in the day can have the bellstand place their belongings in the storage area, more commonly known as the back closet. After guests are given claim tickets for each piece of luggage, the bags are stored according to size and weight. There is a late morning slow period before the crunch of the afternoon arrivals and check-ins. All attendants are taught the proper way to carry a bag, especially the heavy ones, so as not to injure themselves. Many times guests will have questions about the room services, the hotel property, or the area surrounding the hotel. If Wilson or the other attendants cannot readily help, they direct the guests to the proper department. Sometimes Wilson is asked to deliver packages, mail, or faxes to guests or to run errands for them. If the hotel is particularly busy, he may help in other departments. Depending on the hotel, attendants may be asked to assist guests with disabilities, deliver ice or other supplies, provide directions to area attractions, or even drive the hotel van. Tips are not mandatory, though hotel guests often give them in appreciation for good service. Attendants are allowed to keep the tips they receive, as compared to other industries where tips are pooled and divided equally among each employee. At the Hotel Intercontinental, Wilson and the other attendants are sent out in rotation. This method is fair and leaves working for big tippers to the “luck of the draw.”
Much of Wilson’s job relates to how well he deals with people—hotel guests and his co-workers. He views his fellow attendants as members of a team. “If I’m having a hard day at work,” he says, “I can always count on the guys to crack a joke, cheer me up, and get me going again.”
n requirements High School There is no educational requirement for this position, though many hotels will insist that you have a high school diploma or a GED equivalent. Classes that will help prepare you for this work include any that will hone your people and communications skills as well as classes that will make you physically fit. Therefore, you should take English and speech classes, any business classes that focus on customer relations, and physical education classes. Edward Wilson credits his high school speech class in particular in helping him deal with the large and diverse groups of guests at the hotel. You may also benefit from taking basic math classes, local history courses, and geography. Bell attendants are often asked for information about the area or directions to special attractions, so you will do well to know as much as you can about the location surrounding the hotel where you work.
Certification or Licensing Certification is not mandatory for this position. The most significant source of instruction for most bellhops is on-the-job training that may last up to one month. “At the Hotel Intercontinental, we had a week-long training program,” says Wilson. “We were taught the correct way to handle bags and how to store them properly according to their weight class.” If certification does interest you, the Educational Institute of the American Hotel and Lodging Association offers training and certification classes for bellhops and baggage porters and other members of uniformed service. If you aspire to manage the bellstand someday or move to other departments in the hotel industry, you might want to consider certification.
Other Requirements What makes a successful bellhop? Wilson says, “You should have good character and a friendly personality.” Since bell attendants are often one of the first hotel employees with whom a guest interacts, it’s important for them to make a good impression. This is a very people-oriented job. Even the most difficult guests must be served in an amiable and efficient manner. An outgoing personality and a desire to meet people from all over the country and world are good traits to have.
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n employers Some of the smaller and simpler motels do not offer services such as those provided by bellhops. Most larger hotels, however, will often employ more than one bellhop per shift. This is especially true for large hotels located in busy urban areas, near airports, and hotels know for their luxury atmosphere. Other places of employment are Amtrak train stations, where porters, sometimes known as red caps, provide baggage help and airports, where those who help customers with bags may be known as skycaps.
n starting out Edward Wilson found his job through a church-sponsored job search program. He was looking to change careers when he came across a job description for the Hotel Intercontinental bellstand department. Other methods for finding similar jobs include job fairs, job placement centers, newspaper want ads, and the Internet. Large hotels with Web sites often include postings of job openings, and a number of job agencies quick facts deal specifically with placing those School Subjects interested in hospitality jobs (for Physical education example, visit the Web site http:// Speech www.hospitalityonline.com). Don’t forget the old-fashioned way Personal Skills Following instructions of job hunting: Hit the pavement. Helping/teaching Apply directly to the hotel’s human resource department. Work Environment
n advancement With enough work experience, go-getters can advance to the position of bell captain. Bell captains supervise the bellstand, give assignments to the bellhops, and take calls. Most hotels employ two bell captains, one each for the day and night shifts. Another position for advancement is that of bellstand manager. Considered the head of the department, bellstand managers are responsible for making work schedules, assigning extra staff when forecasts are heavy, and resolving any service problems.
Primarily indoors Primarily one location Minimum Education Level
High school diploma Salary Range
$12,830 to $17,590 to $36,000 Certification or Licensing
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About as fast as the average DOT
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Most bell attendants are paid at an hourly rate, which may range from $6.17 per hour for the lowest 10 percent (making a yearly income
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Edward Wilson especially likes the camaraderie with the other attendants.
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A baggage porter takes a customer’s luggage to the lobby. (Index Stock Imagery.)
of $12,830 for full-time work) to as high as $17.34 per hour (roughly $36,000 a year) for the highest 10 percent. The median salary is $8.46 an hour, or $17,590 per year. Bellhops are often paid the minimum wage, which varies by state, and in some cases is higher than the federal minimum. Bell attendants’ total earnings are greatly supplemented with tips, which may add $100 a week or more to the income. A common rule for tipping bellhops is about $1 to $2 per piece of luggage. At some large, busy hotels bellhops may earn up to $100 a day in tips alone. Full-time employees are offered health insurance, sick and vacation time, and employee discounts. Some hotels give discounted room rates for their employees.
n work environment Their work takes bellhops all over the hotel property. They may be asked to unload luggage from a taxi and deliver it to a sleeping room, then be sent to a store to pick up a guest’s special request. When the hotel is at full capacity, bellhops may be asked to help other departments, such as the concierge, mail department, or business center. At larger hotels, there is usually more than one bellhop per shift. If checking in big groups or a guest with an extraordinarily large amount of luggage, attendants may be asked to work in pairs, so it helps to be a team player.
According to the U.S. Department of Labor, this field is expected to grow about as fast as the average through 2014. Employment in the hospitality industry, however, is greatly influenced by economic conditions, national events, and international events. During times of recession, fewer people spend money traveling for pleasure and businesses cut back on travel expenditures for employees. Additionally, events such as the terrorist attacks of September 2001 have a powerful, adverse effect on this industry. And since future attacks are unpredictable, the threat of terrorism will remain a destabilizing factor for the employment outlook of those in the industry. In addition to these negative factors on employment for bell attendants, many motels and smaller hotels increasingly are offering discounted sleeping rooms but very little service. Guests are expected to locate their rooms and carry their luggage. Some travelers, especially those on limited budgets, prefer to stay at these types of establishments. If this trend continues, there will be fewer jobs available for bellhops. Nevertheless, job openings will be created as workers leave due to retirement, job transfers, or for other reasons. Bellhops often have a high turnover rate. Large hotels and those focusing on customer comfort will always have a need for the bellstand department and bellhops. Part of a four-star hotel’s appeal rests in the sense of luxury and guest service provided. Bellhops and baggage porters at such lodging establishments are as much an expectation as they are a necessity. Baggage porters will continue to work at other travel venues such as the train or bus depot. Baggage service at airports, also known as Skycap service, is also popular.
n for more information For industry and career development information, contact American Hotel and Lodging Association 1201 New York Avenue, NW, Suite 600 Washington, DC 20005-3931 Tel: 202-289-3100 Email:
[email protected] http://www.ahla.com
For information regarding training and certification, contact American Hotel and Lodging Association Educational Institute 800 North Magnolia Avenue, Suite 1800 Orlando, FL 32803 Tel: 800-752-4567 http://www.ei-ahla.org
Bail Bondsmen n overview When someone is arrested for a crime, a bail bondsman (also known as a bail agent or bail bonding agent) pays the bail so that person can go free until it is time for the trial. The bondsman charges a fee of 10 to 15 percent of the total cash bond assigned by the court. If the person doesn’t appear for trial, the bondsman must either find the person or hire someone, known as a bail enforcement agent, fugitive recovery agent, or bounty hunter, to find the person and bring him or her back. Because the work bondsmen do relies on criminal activities, larger cities have the greatest need for bondsmen.
n history Bail bonding is a long-established tradition of the American legal system. Posting bail to temporarily free someone who is accused of a crime began in colonial times. Colonists lived under the English common law that they brought with them. People who were charged with crimes were released if someone in the community would vouch for them. At first, if the accused person didn’t show up for the trial, the person who guaranteed the accused person’s appearance had to face the punishment that would have been given to the accused person. Later, this practice changed so that property was used to guarantee the appearance of someone for trial. In that way, if the person failed to appear for trial, the person who promised that the accused would appear only lost property and did not have to face punishment. As crime increased and the need for making sure accused people showed up for court grew, the courts continued to allow the practice of posting bail. In fact, the Eighth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution states: “Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted.” Bail bonding today allows jail space to be freed for serious criminals and helps to ensure that everyone is truly “innocent until proven guilty.”
n the job Bail bondsmen work to ensure that a person released from jail will appear again in court as ordered. A “typical” case (although, in reality, every case is unique) a bail bondsman handles may play out like this: It’s late at night and the bondsman’s office phone rings. A woman on the other end of the line says her son has been arrested and his court date for trial is four months down the road. The judge set her son’s bail at $30,000,
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and she doesn’t have that kind of money. She doesn’t want her son to sit in jail for four months for something she’s sure he didn’t do. (The bondsman may have doubts about the arrested person’s guilt or innocence, but that’s not an issue for the bondsman to decide.) The mother wants the bondsman’s help in getting her son out on bail. She offers to pay the bondsman’s fee, which at 10 percent of the bail amount would be $3,000, in exchange for the bondsman covering the bail. At that point the bondsman must decide if the son is a good risk—if he doesn’t show up for his court date, the bondsman loses the money posted for bail. Before deciding to take the case, the bondsman does research. Using the phone and computers, the bonding agent gathers more information, such as the type of crime the son allegedly committed, any past record he may have, if he works and what his employer says about him, and what other ties he has to the community. After this research, the bondsman may quick facts decide to post bond or reject School Subjects the case. If the bondsman Business takes the case and posts bond, Government and the client shows up for Mathematics his court date, the bondsman gets the posted money back. If Personal Skills the client fails to show up for Communication/ideas Leadership/management court, either the bondsman himself goes after the client or Work Environment the bondsman hires bounty Indoors and outdoors hunters (also known as bail Primarily multiple locations enforcement agents and fugiMinimum Education Level tive recovery agents) to track Some postsecondary training down the son and bring him back. Depending on the state, Salary Range the court gives the bondsman $23,630 to $42,340 to from 90 to 180 days to have $113,290 the defendant back for trial Certification or Licensing before bail money is forfeited Required by certain states to the court system. Like insurance agents, bail Outlook bondsmen are calculated risk About as fast as the average takers. Every time they decide DOT to post bail for someone, they 186 are taking a financial risk. Most bondsmen have reliabilGOE ity standards that they use to 04.03.01 determine whether someone is more likely to show up for court NOC N/A or to run and hide. The bondsman looks into the person’s O*NET-SOC criminal record, employment N/A history, living arrangements,
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family situation, and community ties. The type of alleged crime also affects whether a person will run. The arrestee’s past criminal record and the state’s case against him or her is looked into as well. Some bondsmen consider first time offenders bad risks because those people are often most terrified about going to jail. People who have a history of crime patterns, such as prostitutes and drug users, are also considered bad risks. On the other hand, drug dealers and professional criminals are good risks because these groups of people usually need to stay in the same area and they want to keep the trust of a bondsman so they can rely on him or her later. To help cut down the risk of someone “jumping bail,” the bondsman spends a lot of time monitoring the people for whom bail has been posted. Some even include a stipulation in the agreement for posting bail that the accused person must call in on a regular basis to verify his or her whereabouts. If the accused person isn’t calling in on schedule, the bondsman can get a head start on tracking down the client.
Bail Me Out! If you are arrested, you can’t just flash a Get Out of Jail Free card and continue on your way. You do have four options; any or all of them may or may not be available to you depending on the court’s decision. n
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Cash bail: If you or someone on your behalf posts the full amount of the cash bail, you are free to go until your court date. If you show up for all proceedings, the money is returned to you. If you don’t show up, the money is forfeited to the court. Property bond: Some states allow you or others on your behalf to put up property (like a house, boat, land) as a guarantee that you will return on the court date. The same consequences apply if you don’t appear on the court date, the property is seized and later sold. Personal recognizance: This is the closest thing to a Get Out of Jail Free card—you are released and instructed to return for your court date. No money or property is put up to guarantee your return; the court is trusting in your character and conscience to bring you back. You’re most likely to get this type of bail only if the crime is a minor one and you are well known in the community. Surety bail: This is just another way of saying that a bail bondsman insures your return. You pay the bondsman a fee and the bondsman posts the bail with the court.
For some bondsmen, tracking down bail jumpers is part of their job, and it takes up much of their time. Other bondsmen choose to hire bounty hunters, who capture and return the client to the bondsman for a fee. Sometimes the bondsman will pay the bounty hunter as much as 50 percent of the total bond if the accused person is returned. The bondsman pays this high amount because it’s better to lose half the money that has been posted for bail than to lose all the money if the runaway isn’t returned. For the bail bondsman who takes tracking into his or her own hands, the search can lead all over the country. The bondsmen call the accused’s family, friends, employers, and anyone they can find to try and get a lead that will eventually take them to the bail jumper. They use computer databases to check into records showing credit activity, estates, and death certificates. When the person is located, the bondsman or bounty hunter confronts the individual and brings him or her back. For a potentially dangerous “skip,” the bounty hunter and a backup team may have to break down a door with guns drawn, or opt to work with the local sheriff ’s department in the instance of known violent offenders. Some bondsmen use firearms to protect themselves from possible harm. However, the bail bondsman’s job is mostly desk work, and often the reason a client misses a court date is because he or she has overslept, forgotten about it, or thought it was for a different day and time.
n requirements While the qualifications vary from state to state, the basic requirements for a bail bondsman are to be at least 18 or 21 years of age, have a high school diploma or GED, and have no felony police record.
High School To prepare for a career as a bail bondsman, consider focusing on computers, accounting, mathematics, government, social studies, and geography. Accounting, computers, and mathematics will prepare you to handle bookkeeping, record keeping, and negotiations concerning bail money. Because you’ll be using a computer for tracing bail jumpers, try to spend as much time as you can honing your computer skills.
Postsecondary Training Some college-level course work in criminal justice and psychology and training in law enforcement techniques are helpful. Many of today’s bail bondsmen have college degrees in criminal justice, although that is not a requirement. Depending on your state’s regulations, you may need to complete a certain amount of specific pre-work
and pre-licensing education. For example, one of Oklahoma’s requirements for those wishing to work as bail bondsmen is to complete 16 hours of education sponsored by the Oklahoma Bondsman Association before they can sit for their licensing exam and begin working.
Certification or Licensing Some states require would-be bail bondsmen to attain a property and casualty insurance license requiring several hours of class work under the jurisdiction of the State Director of Insurance or State Department of Professional Regulation. Wisconsin, Illinois, Oregon, and Kentucky ban for-profit bail bonding altogether. Other states require you to pass a bail-bond certification exam. Most states that require exams or licensing also require several hours of continuing education classes each year to keep the license current. You will need a gun license if you plan to use a firearm.
Other Requirements Bail bondsmen need to have people skills that allow them to effectively communicate with the clients and law enforcement officers they contact daily. They must also be able to deal with high levels of stress and tense situations. Bail bondsmen who do not hire bounty hunters must be physically fit in order to be prepared for any violent or challenging situation.
n exploring You can explore this career by becoming familiar with the justice system. For example, ask your high school guidance counselor or government teacher to help you arrange for a visit to the local police department. You can get a tour of the facilities, learn about arrest procedures, and hear from law enforcement professionals. In some cases, you may be able to arrange for a police ride-along to get a taste of what it takes to arrest or confront someone who does not want to cooperate. You can also familiarize yourself with the justice system by sitting in on open court proceedings. Another option is to give a bail bondsman a call and ask questions. Get on the Web and search under “bail bonding” to see just how many bail bondsmen are out there; check out their Web sites to learn what kinds of services are offered. Finally, try to get a part-time job that allows you to deal face-to-face with other people—anything from a crowd control team member at a concert to a security assistant at an amusement park. Working for a security office or for the local court system as a background checker is great experience as well.
n employers Bail bondsmen usually work for other bondsmen or own their own small businesses. Many bondsmen join
bail bondsmen
together to form a partnership to share the workload and to pool their resources. Established bondsmen usually hire several young bondsmen to do the background checking and research. Although almost all towns and cities have bail bondsmen at work, most bondsmen are in large towns and cities. The larger the population, the greater the opportunity for crime and the greater the number of crimes committed, which means the greater the need for bail bonds to be posted.
n starting out You probably won’t see as many ads in the newspaper for bondsmen as you do for say, administrative assistants, but keep an eye on the classifieds anyway—especially in the big city newspapers. If you want a more direct approach, try calling your local police for some recommendations of experienced bondsmen that you can contact to inquire about a job. Before becoming a bondsman, get your feet wet by doing background checks, chasing down leads, and handling paperwork. If work as a bondsman isn’t immediately available, start out in related jobs, such as security positions. Quite a number of bail agents also start out in the insurance business, learning such things as risk assessment and how to underwrite bonds.
n advancement A bail bondsman can remain an independent agent, owning his or her own business, or can advance to managerial positions with a managing general agent. In a partnership, a bondsman can advance to become the supervising bondsman, assigning work to more inexperienced bondsmen. There are various jobs that relate to the work of bail bondsmen, such as property and casualty insurance agent, detective, and the court system jobs of pretrial release officer, release on recognizance worker, and probation officer.
n earnings Because most bondsmen have their own businesses, earnings vary according to how much time and effort is invested in the job. Another important factor influencing the earnings of bail bondsmen is the number of their clients who show up for their court dates. According to the National Center for Policy Analysis in Dallas, 95 percent of a bondsman’s clients must show up in court for the business to be successful. According to information from the Occupational Outlook Quarterly, a Bureau of Labor Statistics publication, bail bondsmen just starting out and working for a firm may have yearly earnings of approximately $25,000. The bails set for many common charges, such as driving under the influence (DUI) and drug possession, are often not extremely high, perhaps
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What Every Bondsman Should Know Talk to anyone who is knowledgeable about bail bonding and bail bondsmen, and many of the following terms of the trade are sure to be heard. n
Bail enforcement agent: Commonly known as a bounty hunter, the bail enforcement agent tracks down and arrests a bail skipper.
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Collateral: Property that is sometimes given to the bail agent to guarantee payment.
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Failure to appear: The defendant doesn’t show up for the court date, and the bondsman begins the process for tracking the person down.
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Premium: The bail bondsman’s fee for posting bail for someone.
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Skip: Not only does the defendant not show up, he or she runs and hides from law enforcement officials and the bondsman or the bondsman’s bail enforcement agent. These bail “skippers” don’t have the odds on their side.
ranging from $500 or $600 to $3,000 or $4,000. In these cases a bondsman would earn $50 or $60 to $300 or $400, and because of these low amounts a bondsman must successfully handle quite a few cases a year to make a substantial living. While a specific annual salary range is difficult to determine, it may be helpful to consider earnings for insurance sales agents since bondsmen’s work is similar to that of insurance agents and they are often regulated under state departments of insurance. According to the U.S. Department of Labor, the median yearly income for insurance sales agents in 2005 was $42,340. Fifty percent earned between $30,330 and $68,050 that same year, while the lowest 10 percent had earnings of $23,630 or less, and the highest 10 percent had earnings of over $113,290. Earnings also depend on where the bondsman conducts business. Larger cities offer the most opportunity to make money; however, a well-run business in a medium-sized city can also be highly profitable. Bondsmen working for firms may receive typical benefits such as health insurance and vacation time. Those who run their own businesses must pay for such benefits themselves.
n work environment Bondsmen work out of offices; some do the work from their homes. Usually the bondsman is located close to the courthouse so the accused can get immediate service. Bondsmen can work alone or as a team
with other bondsmen and people who monitor clients and research background information. Bondsmen spend a lot of time doing paperwork; they must keep records detailing all of their actions and contracts with clients. Bail bondsmen who choose to do their own tracking may also spend time traveling to find bail jumpers. Tracking bail jumpers and bringing them back to court can be dangerous because these people are obviously desperate to remain free. Bail bonding is not a nine-to-five job. Because people get arrested at all hours, bondsmen are on call 24 hours a day. If a bail jumper needs to be rounded up, hours are spent in surveillance to determine just the right moment to move in. Bondsmen are in contact with many different people during the course of a day. They interview friends and relatives of a bail jumper and work with court personnel. Bondsmen use beepers and cellular phones to remain available to clients who may need their services.
n outlook Opportunities for bail-bonding work are growing as people with criminal justice, law enforcement, and insurance training enter and gain success in the field, thus gaining the public’s respect for the necessity of this work. Professional Bail Agents of the United States says the bail bondsman career is a growing field, but the use of personal recognizance bail has had a negative impact on its growth. (When judges release an accused person on their own personal recognizance, there is no need for bail bond service; however, there is also no guarantee that the person will show up for court.) Bail bonding is an industry under constant scrutiny by the justice system, primarily because of the authority of the bail bondsman to engage in activities that some law enforcers cannot perform (such as entering homes without a warrant in search of a bail jumper and crossing state lines to apprehend someone) and what is said to be a financial rather than moral interest in bringing criminals back to trial.
n for more information Visit this coalition’s Web site for information on bail laws and bounty hunter laws nationwide, state associations, and industry news. American Bail Coalition 1725 Desales Street, NW, Suite 800 Washington, DC 20036 Tel: 800-375-8390 Email:
[email protected] http://www.americanbailcoalition.com
bailiffs
For general information about the field and for specific information about working in California, contact California Bail Agents Association One Capitol Mall, Suite 320 Sacramento, CA 95814 Tel: 916-446-3038 http://www.cbaa.com
For more information on the work of bail bondsmen and links of interest, visit the PBUS Web site. Professional Bail Agents of the United States (PBUS) 1301 Pennsylvania Avenue, NW, Suite 925 Washington, DC 20004 Tel: 202-783-4120 Email:
[email protected] http://www.pbus.com
Bailiffs n overview Bailiffs handle anything and everything that goes on in and is associated with a courtroom. From keeping the room secure to providing food and housing for sequestered juries, the bailiff is responsible for managing the court’s business. Bailiffs also serve legal papers to individuals and businesses as ordered by the court. Although the majority of bailiffs work for the court system, some bailiffs are more like process servers because they work independently and own their own businesses. The Bureau of Labor Statistics reports there are approximately 17,160 bailiffs employed in the United States.
n history The first bailiffs date back to medieval England. Bailiffs in this time period were either in charge of managing a manor or managing a court. Bailiffs who worked for manors or estates had the responsibility of collecting fines and rent as well as supervising the activities on the grounds. Court bailiffs helped the judges during the two sessions of the Royal Court that were held every year. The early predecessor of the modern bailiff had police authority to protect the court and serve legal papers as well. In America, the constable performed many of the duties that now fall on the bailiff ’s shoulders. Along with the more pressing duty of keeping the peace, the constable attended to the courts and was responsible for taking care of jury members.
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Today, a bailiff is considered an officer of the court who has the authority to serve legal papers and confiscate property. Like the medieval bailiff and the American constable, modern bailiffs are responsible for attending to the needs of the court while it is in session and out of session.
n the job The majority of bailiffs in the United States serve in the court or legal system; however, some bailiffs own their own service businesses. Most people are more familiar with the courtroom bailiff who instructs people in the court to rise and be seated when the judge does and who swears in witnesses. These tasks and many others make up the courtroom bailiff ’s main duty, which is to serve the judge and the courtroom to which he or she is assigned. Depending on the state in which the bailiff is employed and the judge, the duties vary, but all bailiffs in the court system have some common responsibilities. First, the bailiff quick facts must maintain order during triSchool Subjects als. Security is an important part English of the bailiff ’s job. Although the Government judge and the jury are the bailiff ’s first concern, every person in Personal Skills Communication/ideas the courtroom is under the care Following instructions of the bailiff as far as personal safety is concerned. If a bailiff is Work Environment in tune with the goings-on in the Primarily indoors court, potential problems can be Primarily one location avoided and trouble can be spotMinimum Education Level ted before it erupts. Bailiffs are Some postsecondary training most respected if they run a safe and secure courtroom. Salary Range For Armando Suarez, a $17,320 to $33,800 to security transportation offi$55,960 cer for the Juvenile Court in Certification or Licensing Allen County, Indiana, ensurRequired by certain states ing secure transportation and a safe environment at court are Outlook large parts of his job. “My priAbout as fast as the average mary responsibility is the transDOT fer of juvenile inmates between 377 the detention facility and our local courthouse. Once at the GOE courthouse, my partner and I 04.03.01 are responsible for maintaining NOC security and safety in the juve6461 nile courts division.” The bailiff is basically the O*NET-SOC judge’s right hand. The bailiff 33-3011.00 swears in witnesses, handles
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A bailiff, center, leads a murder suspect to her seat in court, along with a sheriff. (Kyle Carter/Reuters/Corbis.)
articles of evidence, escorts prisoners to and from court, prepares reports, and does whatever else the judge may ask. Paperwork is also a segment of the bailiff ’s responsibilities, although the focus depends on the type of court in which the bailiff serves. “I am also responsible for
Bailiffs of Old From medieval times in England to today, bailiffs have carried out various duties in service to individuals and courts. Although the term bailiff is used as a blanket term today, that is, it covers all services offered by bailiffs in the court process, in the past different kinds of bailiffs performed specific tasks. Consider the following titles and responsibilities for bailiffs in the past: n
Bailiff-errant: A bailiff’s deputy.
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Bailiffs of franchises: In English law, these officers performed some of the duties of the sheriff’s office.
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Bedel: In English law, this court officer had the sole responsibility to summon men to appear in the court and make other public proclamations.
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High bailiff: This bailiff worked expressly with the English county court.
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Special bailiff: Specially appointed bailiff to serve papers or conduct some official proceeding for a onetime, specific case.
processing all juvenile warrants by dispersing them to local law enforcement and issuing notices of cancellation when appropriate,” Suarez adds. “Another part of my job entails collecting criminal records on those whom the court has ordered such information collected. This can be either on parents or guardians of juveniles in custody, persons applying for positions in the juvenile courts, or for purposes of determining court dispositions.” Bailiffs must also remind people of courtroom rules and enforce those rules if necessary. For example, a bailiff may tell someone in the court that smoking is not allowed or that their conversation is interrupting court proceedings. If necessary, the bailiff may remove uncooperative persons from the courtroom. Courtroom bailiffs are often also charged with taking care of the jury. When juries are sequestered, that is, not allowed to return to their homes during a trial, the bailiff must make arrangements for their food and lodging during the entire trial process. The bailiff usually accompanies jury members to any public places, such as restaurants, to make sure they do not have contact with the public. If a bailiff fails to keep the jury from seeing or hearing anything about the case at hand, the jury members may have to be replaced and the court proceedings brought to a grinding halt. The bailiff also serves as a guard wherever the jury is staying. Outside the confines of the courtroom and the responsibilities of the jury, the bailiff also serves legal papers such as court summonses, restraining orders, and jury summonses. Independent bailiffs also serve this function. They act as process servers and track down individuals or companies to serve them legal documents. Independent bailiffs also collect money or property that has defaulted back under a lease, lien, or mortgage. A bailiff may get an assignment to repossess a vehicle, for instance, or to inform tenants that the landlord is throwing them out because they haven’t paid the rent for six months. Independent bailiff work is usually done on an assignment or contract basis in which someone calls the bailiff and pays for a specific, one-time service.
n requirements High School Do you find the idea of managing a courtroom intriguing? If you think a career as a bailiff might be right for you, start preparing for it while you’re still in school. Take political science, communications, and law-related high school courses. If you have the opportunity to earn certificates in emergency skills, such as CPR or triage, take advantage of it as you prepare for a career that is centered on security and safety. Jim Marlow of Niagara Bailiff
Services recommends computers and communication classes. “I believe this industry will rely more and more on technology in the future. Also, since this business has a lot of interaction between people, and sometimes these people are not happy to see us, I would recommend any course that would sharpen your ‘people’ skills.”
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It’s Not Who You Know, It’s What You Know Bailiffs are expected to know a lot about the courtroom process, but that’s not all. To be a successful bailiff, you should be “in the know” about a lot of things. A wellrounded bailiff has knowledge in the following areas: n
The Law: Makes sense, doesn’t it? The bailiff needs to know the law of courtroom procedures, especially to ensure that all are abiding by them.
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Security: You can’t enforce security without some kind of force, so bailiffs must be knowledgeable about weapons, security operations and procedures, and prevention measures.
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The Language: You knew those English term papers would come in handy some day! Bailiffs have to be able to speak so that others can understand. A solid command of our language is just as important as any other skill a bailiff possesses.
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People: Bailiffs have to be ready for anything because they are working with defendants and inmates who may be dangerous or desperate. Learning how and why people behave the way they do can help the bailiff respond correctly. No, you don’t have to get a degree in psychology, but learning how to manage people would be a great asset.
Many states require bailiffs to have training from police academies or from other programs approved by the local government’s law enforcement training board. Smaller cities may substitute on-the-job training for police academy training. Since many courtroom bailiffs are assigned by sheriff ’s offices, the education requirements for bailiffs are generally the same as for other law enforcement officers. In fact, a good course of action is to contact your local sheriff ’s department and find out what deputy sheriff training programs are available. When you have completed the program and secured a position in the sheriff ’s department, you will have an inside edge for moving into a bailiff job. Training usually involves class work, meeting physical requirements, and getting supervised hands-on experience. Although college education is usually not required, many junior or community colleges offer classes related to public safety or protective services careers. Courses such as criminal law, report writing and communications, police functions, and ethics in the justice system can help you learn the courts and this type of work. The International Association of Court Officers & Services, Inc. (IACO&S), an affiliate of the National Sheriffs’ Association (NSA), offers training, workshops, and seminars covering topics such as court security, transportation, and legal issues. IACO&S and NSA also sponsor a yearly court security conference. The NSA Web site (http://www.sheriffs.org) has more information on training and the IACO&S.
to have firearms certification. Other employers may require bailiffs to have valid driver’s licenses for the state in which they work. Check with the law enforcement agency or your local courthouse to find out the specific requirements for your state.
Certification or Licensing
Other Requirements
Although most states do not require specific bailiff certification, certification as a peace officer or officer of the court is often required. States vary in their requirements; for example, requirements for bailiff certification in Missouri include completing a Peace Officer Standards and Training (POST) program, being at least 21 years of age, and having no criminal history. Candidates who fulfill such requirements and pass the Missouri Peace Officer Certification exam are then certified peace officers and can work as bailiffs. Other states may require bailiffs to be licensed law enforcement officers, such as police officers or sheriff ’s deputies. Some employers, such as sheriff ’s departments, may require bailiffs
Bailiffs interact with many different kinds of people. From the judge, to the inmate, to the jury member, the bailiff must communicate effectively to ensure the organized flow of information in the courtroom. Bailiffs must be good listeners as well, because they must respond to requests for information and react to disturbances and problems. To be a successful bailiff, you must be able to speak clearly, respond quickly, concentrate on the task at hand, and be aware of potential trouble. Also, because most bailiffs must be trained as law enforcement officers, you will need to pass physically demanding tests. Drug tests are also part of the requirements for becoming a peace officer.
Source: Public Employment Service
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n exploring Do you like the sound of a career as a bailiff? If you’d like to know what it would really be like, take some steps on your own to explore the career and get some inside information. Any contact you can have with law enforcement officers will be a big plus. Contact your local police station and request a tour of the facilities. Explain that you are considering a law enforcement career and ask if anyone would be willing to talk to you about typical police work. Sit in on some hearings or trials at your local courthouse and pay close attention to every move the bailiff makes. Try to spot his or her main duties. Try to arrange an interview either at the courthouse or over the phone to ask the questions you’ll no doubt have after seeing the bailiff in action. Talk to your guidance counselor or political science teacher about arranging a “Students in Court” day in which you and your friends play the role of different officers of the court in a mock trial. Do some research and interview a bailiff or two before the mock trial. Check into volunteer programs; many courts allow high school students to volunteer in various ways. If a program doesn’t exist, suggest creating one to your school counselor or principal.
n employers Most bailiffs work for the state and local courts and are employed by sheriff departments. Some bailiffs are assigned to actual courtrooms and others are assigned to specific judges. Bailiffs work throughout the country, but more bailiff positions are usually found in larger cities as compared to the smaller ones. Independent bailiffs also work all across the country, although they too usually find more work in larger cities.
n starting out To get into the bailiff field, you must either be appointed by the sheriff ’s office or be hired after gaining experience as a peace officer. According to Armando Suarez, employment in the sheriff ’s office is the most common way to become a bailiff: “Most bailiffs are usually sheriffs’ deputies or court officers assigned to work in the courts by the sheriff. If you are interested in this line of work, a career in law enforcement, specifically on a sheriff ’s department, would be the way to go.” After you are working in the sheriff ’s department, making your desire to be a bailiff known is the best way to get an opportunity to move into that position when it becomes available.
n advancement Bailiffs can advance to many careers in the area of law enforcement. Because most bailiffs are appointed by the sheriff’s office, they remain under the supervision of the
sheriff. Bailiffs can often move into supervisory roles within the sheriff’s department when they are prepared to end their work as bailiffs. Bailiffs can move laterally and become deputies focusing on something other than court security, or they can move up to become second-in-command or even sheriff. Additional training and experience are needed to move up to higher positions. Other possibilities include correctional officer and supervisory police officer. The many duties that a bailiff performs are an excellent preparation for most all other positions in law enforcement.
n earnings Earnings for bailiffs are often subject to the budget amounts in the sheriff’s department where the bailiff works. Bailiffs working for large, well-funded departments will have higher earnings than those at small departments with limited budgets. The Bureau of Labor Statistics estimates that bailiffs had a median yearly income of $33,800 in 2005. In addition, the bureau estimates 10 percent of bailiffs earned less than $17,320 annually and 10 percent earned more than $55,960 annually during 2005. Independent bailiffs are usually paid on a per-service contract, so income varies according to the prices set by the independent bailiff. Jim Marlow adds, “It is difficult to peg a salary for bailiffs, as most operate their own business. Bailiffs that work for another bailiff are usually paid a commission on the work completed.” Bailiffs usually receive comparable benefits to other sheriff ’s officers and deputies. Insurance, pension, vacation days, and other benefits are set by individual sheriff ’s departments.
n work environment Most of a bailiff ’s workday is spent indoors in a courtroom or in an office building. The bailiff works with many different people, including all the courtroom personnel, not to mention other law enforcement officials, probation officers, court clerks, and so on. A bailiff is seldom alone and must interact with others all day long. Because of the nature of the work, bailiffs are often placed in stressful situations and sometimes even dangerous ones. When not in the courtroom, a bailiff may transport prisoners or jury members to and from the courthouse. Bailiffs are also called on to leave the courtroom to serve papers or to conduct other official court business. Most of the bailiff ’s 40- to 45-hour workweek is spent inside the courtroom; the remaining hours are spent serving papers and performing other miscellaneous duties.
n outlook Although the U.S. Department of Labor does not give a specific employment outlook for bailiffs, the Occupa-
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tional Outlook Handbook mentions that job opportunities for correctional officers will grow more slowly than the average through 2014. This is mainly due to changes in sentencing guidelines that will lead to reduced growth in prisoner populations. However, the bailiff career is a longestablished one, and bailiffs are considered indispensable in courtroom settings. Because of this, bailiffs are needed and will continue to be a major part of the courtroom system. However, competition for positions in the entire law enforcement field is keen due to such factors as the challenges these jobs offer and the sense of purpose these job provide. In addition, the number of positions available may also be affected by local government funding. Job opportunities should be best in urban areas with lowering paying positions and relatively high crime rates. Other job openings will result from turnover as officers retire, transfer to other positions, or leave the field. Because the number of positions available depends on the amount of turnover and budgetary constraints, the number of job opportunities varies from year to year and from place to place.
n for more information The American Bar Association’s Division for Public Education provides information to teachers, students, and the general public about law education projects at the state and national level, careers in law, a glossary of legal terms, and more on its Web site. American Bar Association Division for Public Education 541 North Fairbanks Court Chicago, IL 60611 Tel: 312-988-5522 http://www.abanet.org/publiced
For more information on training opportunities and conferences, contact National Sheriffs’ Association 1450 Duke Street Alexandria, VA 22314-3490 Tel: 703-836-7827 Email:
[email protected] http://www.sheriffs.org
You will need to contact your local law enforcement office or state’s commission on peace officer training to find out about opportunities in your area. However, to get a general idea of what this training involves, visit the informative California Commission on Peace Officer Standards and Training Web site. California Commission on Peace Officer Standards and Training http://www.post.ca.gov
Bakery Workers n overview Bakery workers are the many different professionals who work to produce bread, cakes, biscuits, pies, pastries, crackers, and other baked goods in commercial, institutional, and industrial bakeries. There are approximately 166,000 bakers employed in the United States.
n history Baking, the process of cooking food using dry heat, is one of the oldest methods of cooking. The ancient Egyptians are credited with building the first known ovens, which were shaped like beehives and made of clay from the banks of the Nile River. Later cultures introduced various technological improvements, including the Roman cylindrical oven. By the middle of the second century b.c., there were professional bakers in Rome, and ordinary people could buy bread instead of having to make it themselves. The first mechanical dough mixer, powered by a horse or donkey walking in circles, was built by the Romans. In European cities during the Middle Ages, bakers formed associations called guilds, which carefully regulated how bread was made and how bakers were trained. Outside of cities, however, most baking was done at home or in a single village oven. Professional bakers were common in colonial America, but most settlers in small communities baked bread at home. The beginnings of an industrial society changed the American idea of self-sufficiency. Urban workers and apartment dwellers did not always have the time or facilities to make their own baked goods. Technology made possible huge ovens, mixers, and ways of controlling heat and measurements that enabled manufacturers to make mass quantities of good baked food at reasonable prices. In recent years, the popularity of bread machines has led more and more people to bake their own bread. Most Americans, however, still buy bread and other baked goods at the grocery store or from retail bakeries. Manufactured cookies and crackers are found on the shelves of nearly every American kitchen. The freshness, taste, and consistency of these products are the responsibility of bakery workers.
n the job Most bakery workers working for manufacturers (for example, a large company that produces hamburger buns or coffee cakes, which are eventually sold in the neighborhood grocery store) participate in only some of the
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stages involved in creating a baked item. These workers, or food batchmakers, are usually designated by the type of machine they operate or the stage of baking with which they are involved. In preparing the dough or batter for goods baked in an industrial bakery, different workers make the different components. Blenders tend machines that blend flour. Skilled technicians known as broth mixers control flour sifters and various vats to measure and mix liquid solutions for fermenting, oxidizing, and shortening. These solutions consist of such ingredients as yeast, sugar, shortening, and enriching ingredients mixed with water or milk. The broth mixer must carefully control the temperature of the broth; if it is just a few degrees too hot or too cool, the dough or batter will not rise properly. The broth mixer runs these solutions through a heat regulator and into dough-mixing machines. quick facts Batter mixers tend machines School Subjects that mix ingredients for batters for Family and consumer science cakes and other products. These Mathematics workers must select and install mixing utensils in huge mixers, Personal Skills depending on the kind of batter to Following instructions Technical/scientific be mixed. They regulate the speed and time of mixing and check the Work Environment consistency of the batter. Primarily indoors Other kinds of mixers and Primarily one location shapers include unleavenedMinimum Education Level dough mixers, who use a fiveHigh school diploma position mixer to make matzo; Apprenticeship sweet-goods-machine operators, who roll and cut sweet dough to Salary Range make rolls and other sweet prod$14,830 to $21,520 to ucts; and pretzel twisters, who $34,780 form pretzel shapes out of dough Certification or Licensing by hand or machine. CrackerRequired by certain states and-cookie-machine operators roll dough into sheets and form Outlook crackers or cookies before baking. About as fast as the average They check the machine’s work DOT and remove any malformed items 526 before baking. Wafer-machine operators perform similar tasks GOE with wafer batter. Batter scalers 08.03.02, 11.05.01 operate machines that deposit NOC measured amounts of batter on 6252 conveyors. Doughnut makers and doughnut-machine operators mix O*NET-SOC batter, shape, and fry doughnuts. 51-3011.00 Some workers operate machines
that grease baking pans or that place pie-crusts and fillings into pie plates for baking. Bakery helpers have general duties such as greasing pans, moving supplies, measuring dump materials, and cleaning equipment. Bakery helpers sit at benches or conveyor belts, where they may fill, enrobe, slice, package, seal, stack, or count baked goods. When baked goods are ready for delivery and sale, bakery checkers prorate and distribute baked goods to route-sales drivers, who deliver products to customers and try to drum up new business or increase business along their routes. Bakeries also employ bakery-maintenance engineers, also called bakery-machine mechanics or plant mechanics, to keep the many mixers, ovens, and other machines in good order. Bakery supervisors, who work in industrial bakeries, are sometimes assisted by bakers or all-around bakers in overseeing production. Bakers and all-around bakers, however, most frequently work in small businesses, hotels, or restaurants where they develop recipes and mix, shape, bake, and finish baked goods. Bread and pastry bakers, also known as pastry chefs, also work in restaurants, small businesses, such as the neighborhood bakery shop, and institutions, such as schools. Unlike bakery workers employed in industrial settings, these bakers and chefs often do much of their work by hand. They may have a fair amount of independence in deciding what items and how much of them to produce. Creativity is needed, especially when decorating an item made for a special occasion, such as a birthday cake for Billy or a wedding cake for John and Jane.
n requirements High School Many bakers begin as bakery helpers. Most employers prefer to hire high school graduates. Classes that will help you in this field include family and consumer science, which should teach you about food preparation, health, to learn about nutrition, and math, such as algebra and geometry, so that you are comfortable using numbers and making calculations. You may also want to take science courses such as biology and chemistry to get an understanding of substances’ properties and reactions. If you are interested in working as a bakery-maintenance engineer, take shop classes that will teach you to work with electricity and machinery.
Postsecondary Training Some bakery workers acquire useful skills through education in technical schools or in the U.S. Armed Forces. However, they usually complete their education on the job.
The skills that bakery helpers need to become bakers in wholesale baking plants can be learned in several ways. In some companies, bakery helpers can learn through formal apprenticeships. Apprenticeships consist of a blend of classroom and on-the-job instruction and take several years to complete. After they have some experience, bakery workers who have proved they are good employees but want to upgrade their skills may attend training courses offered by the American Institute of Baking. Others take correspondence courses and seminars offered by the American Institute of Baking at various locations. Bakers who successfully complete this training receive specialty certification in bread, cake, or cracker production. Some chef training schools have bakery programs for students interested in learning diverse baking skills, from basic bread to gourmet pastries. Some companies provide apprenticeships for employees who are training to be bakery-maintenance engineers. Another option is to take classes, correspondence courses, and seminars offered by the American Institute of Baking. Bakery workers may belong to the Bakery, Confectionery, and Tobacco Workers International Union. Route drivers may belong to the International Brotherhood of Teamsters, Chauffeurs, Warehousemen, and Helpers of America.
Certification or Licensing As mentioned in the previous section, the American Institute of Baking offers courses leading to certification in a number of areas. Designations that bakery workers can earn include Certified Baker—Bread and Rolls, Certified Baker—Cookies and Crackers, and Certified Maintenance Technician. Some employers may require certification; in other cases, certification is recommended for those wanting to advance their careers. In addition, most states require bakery workers to pass a physical exam and have a health certificate stating that they are free from contagious diseases.
Other Requirements Manual dexterity is important in many bakery jobs. Artistic ability is useful for those who enjoy decorating cakes, cookies, doughnuts, and other baked goods. Bakery workers must also be able to work well as part of a team, since they are all contributing something to create the finished products. Additionally, as with any professional working with food, they should have keen senses of smell and taste.
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n exploring While in high school, you may be able to get a part-time or summer job at a neighborhood bakery. Although you may only be responsible for taking customers’ orders and ringing up sales, you will be able to experience working in this environment. In addition to school courses, take baking or cooking classes that are offered locally by community centers, grocery stores, or tech schools. Ask your guidance counselor to help you arrange for a tour of a local bakery and talk to workers about their jobs. If there is a cooking school in your area, visit it and meet with the teachers to discuss this line of work.
n employers Bakery workers can find jobs in a wide variety of settings, from small retail bakeries and bakery departments in supermarkets to multinational companies with huge manufacturing plants. They also may work in wholesale bakeries or distribution centers as well as in restaurants and hotels.
n starting out Aspiring bakers can apply to bakeries for jobs as helpers or apprentices. Students can often find jobs or appren-
Learn More about It Bathie, George. Bakery for Profit: Starting a Small Bakery. London: Intermediate Technology, 2001. Calvel, Raymond. The Taste of Bread. Trans. Ronald L. Wirtz. New York: Aspen Publishers, Inc., 2001. Gisslen, Wayne. Professional Baking. 3d ed. Hoboken, N.J.: John Wiley & Sons, 2004. Glezer, Maggie. Artisan Baking Across America: The Breads, the Bakers, the Best Recipes. Wedmore, U.K: Artisan Press, 2000. Reinhart, Peter. The Bread Baker’s Apprentice: Mastering the Art of Extraordinary Bread. Berkeley, Conn.: Ten Speed Press, 2001. Schat, Zachary Y. The Baker’s Trade: A Recipe for Creating the Successful Small Bakery. Ukiah, Calif.: Acton Circle Publishing Company, 1998. Shapter, Jennie, and Christine Ingram. Bread Bakers Bible. London: Southwater Publishing, 2000. Taber, Sara Mansfield. Bread of Three Rivers: The Story of a French Loaf. Boston, Mass.: Beacon Press, 2001. Van Cleave, Jill. The Neighborhood Bake Shop: Recipes and Reminiscences of America’s Favorite Bakery Treats. New York: William Morrow & Co., 1997.
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Some experienced bakery workers can be promoted into management positions. The trend, however, is to fill management slots in bakeries with people who have college degrees in management or other business fields. Route-sales drivers may work into sales manager positions or become route supervisors.
n earnings The salary range for bakers and food batchmakers is wide due to factors such as size and type of employer, the employee’s experience, and job position. According to the U.S. Department of Labor, the median yearly earnings for all bakers were $21,520 in 2005. Salaries ranged from less than $14,830 to more than $34,780. Median yearly earnings for bakers working in the bakery products industry, however, were $24,060; those in the grocery store industry, $22,540; and those in restauraunts, $21,740. Bakery workers who are members of a union generally earn more and have better job security than those who are not. Most bakery workers are eligible for overtime pay and premium pay for weekend work. Route drivers often work on commission, receiving base pay plus a percentage of their sales. Workers in apprentice positions are normally paid less than the full wages of experienced employees. In addition to regular pay, employees often receive benefits such as paid vacations and holidays, health insurance, and pension plans.
n work environment A bakery worker checks on racks of pastries baking in the oven. (Rubberball Productions.)
ticeships through placement offices at baking schools. State employment offices and newspapers may provide leads. Local unions also have information about job openings.
n advancement Helpers who learn machine-operator skills may move into these positions, but usually only after years of experience. Because bakeries use many different kinds of machines and processes, versatile workers are the most likely to be promoted. Skilled machine operators can move into supervisory slots or become allaround bakers. These bakers may also move into work in hotels, restaurants, or retail bakeries. They may even open their own bakeries and bake their goods by hand.
Bakery workers usually work 40 hours a week, and some work night and evening shifts. Because baked goods can be frozen until they are needed, the number of plants operating around the clock is less than it used to be. Some bakery plants are air-conditioned. All are clean, since bakeries must meet state and federal standards. Bakery employees wear uniforms and caps or hairnets for sanitary reasons. Machines can be noisy, and working near ovens can be hot. Some jobs are strenuous, requiring heavy lifting. Those in a small bakery may find they must work early morning hours in order to have freshly baked goods ready for customers when the shop opens. They may spend much of their time on their feet and have a fair amount of interaction with the public.
n outlook The U.S. Department of Labor predicts that increasingly automated equipment and processes will result in an employment outlook of little change for food batchmakers and bakers in manufacturing. However,
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there may be a slight increase in the need for bakers at retail locations because of the growing number of traditional bakeries and specialty shops, such as cookie, muffin, and bagel shops. However, this will be offset by the emerging popularity of low-carbohydrate diets. Overall, the Department of Labor predicts growth that is about as fast as the average through 2014 for all workers in this field. Many current positions will become available as workers retire or change jobs.
n for more information For industry information, including salary surveys, contact American Bakers Association 1350 I Street, NW, Suite 1290 Washington, DC 20005-3300 Tel: 202-789-0300 Email:
[email protected] http://www.americanbakers.org
For information on scholarships, online courses, and employment opportunities, contact American Institute of Baking 1213 Bakers Way PO Box 3999 Manhattan, KS 66505-3999 Tel: 800-633-5137 Email:
[email protected] http://www.aibonline.org
This organization has industry information for the public and career information available to members. American Society of Baking PO Box 1853 Sonoma, CA 95476 Tel: 866-920-9885 http://www.asbe.org
Bank Examiners n overview Bank examiners investigate financial institutions to ensure their safety and soundness and to enforce federal and state laws. They arrange audits, review policies and procedures, study documents, and interview managers and employees. They prepare detailed reports that can be used to strengthen banks.
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A bank examiner’s fundamental duty is to make sure people do not lose the money they have entrusted to banks. Bank examiners protect account holders. They also protect the federal and state governments that are responsible for insuring financial institutions.
n history The First Bank of the United States, founded in Philadelphia in 1791, was an unqualified success. It acted as the federal government’s banker and received private and business deposits. The bank issued banknotes that could be exchanged for gold and succeeded in creating a national currency. In 1811, the visionary experiment came to an untimely end; despite the bank’s many successes, its charter was not renewed. In a time when states’ rights were considered supreme, a national bank was an unpopular idea. The second national bank fared just as well—and no betquick facts ter. Despite an impressive list of school subjects achievements, the bank failed English when President Andrew Jackson Mathematics vetoed its charter renewal. Personal Skills For the next several decades, Communication/ideas the nation adhered to a sysLeadership/management tem of “free banking,” meaning that bank charters were readily Work Environment granted to groups that met limPrimarily indoors ited standards. The number of One location with some travel state banks multiplied rapidly. Minimum Education Level Each state bank issued its own Bachelor’s degree banknotes, creating an untenable currency system. Salary Range In the 1860s, the U.S. Civil $33,950 to $63,090 to $111,200 War destroyed the South’s economy. Banks in the southern states Certification or Licensing did not have the resources to Required weather the difficulties. The only national financial organization, Outlook the Independent Treasury, was About as fast as the average ill-equipped to meet the ensuing DOT financial demands. The price of 160 “free banking” became painfully clear. GOE In 1864, as the nation strug04.04.02 gled to rebuild itself, the federal NOC government passed the National N/A Bank Act. Intended to bring about economic stability and O*NET-SOC prevent future bank failures, 13-2061.00 the act created the Office of the
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Comptroller of the Currency (OCC). The OCC initially had the power to charter national banks that could issue national banknotes. The OCC also was the first organization to conduct bank examinations. Unfortunately, the National Bank Act of 1864 did not bring about the desired stability. Over the next several decades, the country experienced four bank panics, the worst of which occurred in 1907. Bank panics were characterized by “runs on the banks,” during which people became fearful and tried to withdraw all their money, all at once. The banks often did not have enough cash in reserve and many failed. The Federal Reserve Act (1913) created a centralized reserve system that could lend banks money and prevent bank crises. In its early form, the Federal Reserve System was unable to prevent the bank failures that led, in 1929, to the Great Depression. In 1933, in response to the Depression, the Federal Reserve’s powers were extended. The Federal Reserve eventually would become a central bank that actively promoted monetary stability. Like the OCC, the Federal Reserve now regularly examines banks. The Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC) also was created in 1933. The FDIC pays depositors if an insured bank closes without the resources to repay people their money. The FDIC also is charged with the responsibility of preventing unsound banking practices within the banks it insures. The FDIC regularly examines all the banks it insures in order to ensure their safety and soundness. Since its creation, the FDIC has successfully prevented any widespread bank panics. The years since 1933 have not been without challenges, however. In the mid-1980s, hundreds of savings and loan banks failed, reinforcing the need for the regular, thorough examination of banks by the OCC, the Federal Reserve, the FDIC, and a number of other federal and state agencies. Today, most banks are examined on an annual basis, often by more than one regulatory organization.
n the job When most people think of bank examiners, they envision the examiner from It’s a Wonderful Life—a humorless bureaucrat who threatens to destroy George Bailey. In reality, bank examiners are public servants. They work to ensure that our nation’s banks remain strong and safe. Essentially, they protect our money and our nation’s economy. A bank examiner’s primary responsibilities are to ensure the safety and soundness of the bank he or she examines and to enforce the rules and regulations of the state or federal organization he or she represents. To accomplish this, bank examiners travel to different banks throughout the year. In most small- to medium-sized
banks, they set up temporary offices. In larger banks, they may have permanent offices. The examination process can take anywhere from a few weeks to several months, depending on the size of the bank. A few extremely large banks are examined constantly throughout the year. Bank examiners should not be confused with auditors or accountants. A bank examiner is as interested in a bank’s operations as in the bank’s financial records. Bank examiners conduct their examinations by reviewing a bank’s policies to see, first of all, whether the policies are sound. They then review the bank’s records to discover whether the bank is following its own policies. Bank examiners also observe the bank’s day-to-day operations and interview managers and employees. Ed Seifried, who served as a bank examiner within the OCC for more than 25 years, notes, “Bank examinations should involve dialogue and discussion. Banks may not like the process [of being examined], but they generally accept it if they feel that they are being assessed by people who treat them fairly and who understand banking.” Bank examiners usually work in teams under one bank-examiner-in-charge. Each member or group within a team studies a different area of the bank’s operations. One person or group might study the bank’s lending policies and procedures. Another might study the bank’s asset management. Still others examine the bank’s information technology or estate management. Different regulatory agencies examine different types of banks and different areas of operation. The chief bank examiner is responsible for assembling the team for each bank. The composition of these teams varies depending on the nature of each bank’s business. Because banking practices today are so complex, many regulatory organizations design their examination strategy around a bank’s greatest areas of risk. This so-called “supervision by risk” enables regulatory organizations to examine banks more frequently and with greater efficiency. “Every examination is tailored to the individual bank,” says Seifried. “The person in charge of the exam studies the bank in advance in order to develop an examination strategy.” Once a team of examiners has thoroughly reviewed different areas of a bank’s operations, they analyze their findings, draw conclusions, and prepare a report. This report is forwarded to the regulatory agency for review. It is then returned to the bank’s board of directors. These reports wield considerable power. A bank must act quickly to correct any problems identified in an examination. If a bank fails to do so, bank examiners have the authority to exact fines. In severe cases, a bank examiner can close banks or insist that they merge with other, more sound banks.
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Learn More about It Visit the following Web sites for fun facts and information on careers and financial news. 66 Ways to Save Money http://www.pueblo.gsa.gov/cic_text/money/ 66ways/index.html Bloomberg http://www.bloomberg.com Bureau of Engraving and Printing http://www.bep.treas.gov BusinessWeek http://www.businessweek.com Careers in Finance http://www.careers-in-finance.com Federal Reserve System: Fed 101 http://www.federalreserveeducation.org/ fed101%5Fhtml Financial Times http://www.ft.com Fincareer http://www.fincareer.com Forbes http://www.forbes.com
Because bank examiners must be able to exercise completely independent judgment about a bank’s operations, their reports are strictly confidential. “The confidentiality is to ensure that there is no interference with the regulatory process,” Seifried explains. “If bank examiners could be sued for rendering judgments, they might not be able to be as objective.”
n requirements High School If you are interested in entering this profession, you should begin laying a solid college prep foundation during high school. Take math courses, such as algebra and geometry, statistics, and business courses. Also, take as many computer courses as you can. You will be using computers throughout your career, and the more comfortable you are with this tool the better. You should also take English classes to develop good writing and communication skills. Researching, compiling reports, and presenting your findings will be a large part of your job as a bank examiner.
Fortune http://www.fortune.com Hoover’s http://www.hoovers.com Institutional Investor http://www.institutionalinvestor.com National Endowment for Financial Education High School Financial Planning Program http://www.nefe.org/hsfppportal/includes/main/ home.asp?portal=1 TheStreet.com http://www.thestreet.com United States Department of the Treasury: Education http://www.treas.gov/education United States Mint http://www.usmint.gov United States Secret Service: Know Your Money http://www.secretservice.gov/know_your_money. shtml Vault http://www.vault.com Wall Street Journal http://www.wsj.com
Postsecondary Training After high school, the next step on your road to becoming a bank examiner is to get a college degree. Typical majors for this field include accounting, economics, business administration, commercial or banking law, or other business-related subjects. Once you have graduated from college, you may choose to work immediately for a regulatory agency or you may gain applied business experience by working, for example, for a financial institution. Either option is acceptable, though more and more regulatory agencies are actively recruiting candidates who have some business experience. Another possibility is to complete your education while working at the same time through such programs as the OCC’s Bank Examiner Cooperative Education Program (see the Web site http://www. occ.treas.gov/jobs/coop.htm). Remember, though, that whatever route you pick, you won’t become a full-fledged bank examiner overnight. Those who begin their careers working for a regulatory agency generally start as assistant or associate examiners. If you enter the field after gaining business experience, you may start at a higher-level posi-
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tion, but it will still take some time and training to become a bank examiner. Regulatory agencies provide rigorous training for their bank examiners. Assistant bank examiners must take a series of courses and tests during their first several years as employees of a regulatory agency. They also gain on-the-job experience by working on examination teams. To become a bank examiner, you will need five or more years of experience in auditing or examining financial institutions. In addition, candidates with the best potential for advancement have experience with evaluating computer risk management in financial institutions. That is, they have a great deal of knowledge about assessing the security and flexibility of a financial institution’s computer system.
Certification or Licensing Some employers require their employees have or give promotion preference to employees with industry certifications, such as certified financial analyst or certified information systems auditor. In addition, bank examiners must be commissioned (approved) to examine banks only by a state or federal regulator before they can function as full-fledged examiners. This process typically takes five years. The Bank Administration Institute (BAI), an organization for financial professionals, also offers a number of courses that can help individuals prepare for careers as examiners.
Other Requirements Successful bank examiners are committed to lifelong learning. Even after you have reached the position of bank examiner, it will be important for you to stay on top of new computer developments, laws and regulations, and changes in the field. Also, you should be able to work well with others since you will be working with teams of examiners as well as interacting with professionals at the financial institutions being examined. Be prepared to travel as part of your job; often you will be sent from one financial institution to another to perform examinations. Finally, if you enjoy detailed and analytical work with numbers, this may be the field for you.
n exploring A good way to learn more about this field is by conducting informational interviews with various banking professionals. You also should read all the literature banks produce in order to learn about different types of accounts and saving mechanisms. College students should seek part-time jobs or internships within banks. Because bank examiners must be familiar with banking operations from the ground up,
one of the best places for a college student to gain experience is by working as a teller in a bank.
n employers Almost all bank examiners are employees of federal or state governing agencies. They work for the Office of the Comptroller of the Currency (OCC), the Federal Reserve System, the Office of Thrift Supervision, the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation, and many other federal and state agencies.
n starting out College graduates can enter this field via a number of avenues. The Office of Personnel Management (OPM) is the federal government’s human resources department. The OPM maintains a list of job listings and also can provide information about requirements, benefits, and salaries. Someone interested in this work should also contact an agency, such as the OCC, directly and apply for openings. Most federal regulatory agencies, and many state agencies, maintain job hotlines and Web sites. (For examples on the Web, visit the Careers at the OCC page, http://www.occ.treas.gov/jobs/careers. htm and the Jobs@FDIC page, http://www.fdic.gov/ about/jobs.) A number of private newsletters available in print or online, such as Federal Career Opportunities (http:// www.fedjobs.com) and Federal Jobs Digest (http://www. jobsfed.com) also list federal job openings.
n advancement Individuals usually enter this field as assistant examiners and, over the course of four to five years, progress to commissioned examiners. Commissioned examiners might be given responsibility for several small banks. As the examiner gains experience and establishes a reputation for integrity, insight, and thoroughness, he or she may be given responsibility for larger banks and larger teams of examiners. Examiners who handle larger banks also tend to earn more money. After many years, an examiner may be offered a supervisory position. Supervisors usually stay in one office and are responsible for managing a large number of examiners who are working in the field. Examiners also advance by moving to agencies that offer higher salary scales. Still others leave the profession entirely and put their skills to work as banking consultants. Because examiners study so many different banks, of varying degrees of soundness and efficiency, they can become highly successful, sought-after consultants.
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n for more information
The U.S. Department of Labor reports the median annual wage of financial examiners was $63,090, with 10 percent earning under $33,950 and 10 percent earning $111,200 or more. “Most experienced examiners earn about $60,000,” notes Ed Seifried, “but it depends largely on where they want to end up. Supervisors can earn substantially more than that, but they also have additional responsibilities and pressures.” Most state and federal employees receive excellent benefits, such as health insurance, dental and vision coverage, life insurance, retirement packages, savings plans, sick leave, paid holidays, disability insurance, and child care allowance. The benefits for government employees tend to be extremely competitive and difficult to match in the private sector.
BAI is an organization for financial professionals offering such things as seminars, training courses, and Banking Strategies magazine. Bank Administration Institute (BAI)
n work environment A bank examiner is a nomadic creature, spending several weeks or months in each location before moving on. Bank examiners often work closely with teams of up to 30 or 40 other examiners who also are separated from their family and friends. Most examination teams develop a strong sense of camaraderie that sustains them during the weeks they must live out of hotels. To compensate for the travel, many regulatory agencies offer examiners an extra day off every other week. Examiners who work in these agencies work nine business days and take the 10th day off. Bank examiners work in temporary offices, surrounded by professionals who may harbor ambiguous feelings about being examined. The work, however, can be interesting and rewarding. “It can be a great job,” says Ed Seifried. “I was with the OCC for more than 25 years and I spent 23 of those years in the field. I loved that part of it. When you’re in the field, you are surrounded by knowledgeable people who have a strong interest in getting problems resolved. You also have a lot of interesting conversations.”
n outlook The U.S. Department of Labor predicts job growth to be about as fast as the average through 2014 for financial examiners. The banking industry is undergoing tremendous consolidation, and government regulations are changing. As more and more banks merge, fewer examiners may be needed at the state and federal levels. While there may be fewer new positions in this job, those who do enter the field can expect considerable job security. Employment in this field is usually not affected by general economic fluctuations. In addition, job openings will result from the need to replace those who retire or leave for other positions.
One North Franklin, Suite 1000 Chicago, IL 60606-3421 Tel: 800-224-9889 Email:
[email protected] http://www.bai.org
The Federal Reserve System influences money and credit conditions in the United States, supervises and regulates banking, maintains the stability of the financial system, and provides certain financial services. For banking news, career opportunities, and publications, visit its Web site. Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System 20th Street and Constitution Avenue, NW Washington, DC 20551 Tel: 202-452-3000 http://www.federalreserve.gov
The Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC) is responsible for maintaining public confidence in the nation’s banking system. The FDIC provides deposit insurance for banks and savings associations. This resource can offer information about banking policies, regulations, and career opportunities. Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC) 550 17th Street, NW Washington, DC 20429-9990 Tel: 877-275-3342 Email:
[email protected] http://www.fdic.gov
The Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis is one of the 12 Federal Reserve Banks throughout the United States. This source can provide information about the economy, the history of banking in the United States, and career opportunities within the Federal Reserve. Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis 90 Hennepin Avenue, PO Box 291 Minneapolis, MN 55401 Tel: 612-204-5000 http://woodrow.mpls.frb.fed.us
The Office of Personnel Management is the primary human resources center for the U.S. government. This resource can provide additional information about requirements, training, opportunities, and salaries. Office of Personnel Management 1900 E Street, NW
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Washington, DC 20415-1000 Email:
[email protected] http://www.opm.gov
The Office of the Comptroller of the Currency (OCC) supervises national banks to ensure a safe, sound, and competitive national banking system. This resource can offer information about the opportunities, training, requirements, and salary scale within the OCC. Office of the Comptroller of the Currency (OCC) Independence Square 250 E Street, SW Washington, DC 20219-0001 Tel: 202-874-5000 Email:
[email protected] http://www.occ.treas.gov
The Office of Thrift Supervision (OTS) is the primary regulator of all federal and many state-chartered thrift institutions. This resource can offer information about the opportunities, training, requirements, and salary scale within the OTS. Office of Thrift Supervision (OTS) 1700 G Street, NW Washington, DC 20552 Tel: 202-906-6000 Email:
[email protected] http://www.ots.treas.gov
Barbers n overview Barbers shampoo, cut, trim, and style hair and shave, trim, and shape beards. While barbers are formally trained to perform other services such as coloring and perming hair, most barbers in barbershops do not offer these services. Barbers may also call themselves barber-stylists, and a few may even refer to themselves as tonsorial artists, an old-fashioned term which is derived from a Latin word meaning “to shear.”
n history Barbering boasts a long and rich history. The word barber is derived from the Latin word barba, meaning beard. Archaeologists tell us that the cave dwellers of 20,000 years ago scraped their whiskers with clam shells. There are several Biblical references that reflect the Egyptian preoccupation with facial hair and shaving. As early as 500 b.c., barbers began establishing
themselves in Greece, and their sidewalk shops became gathering places for discussions of sports, philosophy, politics, and gossip. Of course, not everyone appreciated the talkative barber: When King Archelaus, who ruled Macedon from 413 to 399 b.c., was asked by his barber how he wanted his hair cut, he replied, “In silence.” Greek barbers also served as dieticians, as well as setting broken bones, giving enemas, bloodletting, and performing minor surgeries. During the Dark Ages, barbers began to be known as barber-surgeons. They performed medical procedures such as bloodletting, tooth-extraction, and minor surgeries. In England, during the reign of Henry VIII, from 1509 to 1547, the two professions were separated by an act forbidding barber-surgeons to perform any surgical procedures except tooth extractions and bloodletting. In 1745, the final split between barbers and surgeons occurred under an act of George II. Following this act, the barber profession gradually declined to the status of wigmakers, as wigs became the rage during the 18th century. By the end of the 1700s, nearly all barbers, except those in remote areas, had ceased practicing surgical or dental procedures. Bloodletting was not abandoned as a practice until the 19th century, long after George Washington’s personal physician had literally bled him to death while attempting to cure a windpipe infection. The period between the Civil War and World War II was truly the heyday of the American barbershop. The familiar red and white pole—symbolizing the bandages used on a bleeding patient—was a welcoming sight to a weary traveler. In a short time, the dirty, scruffy, smelly stranger would be transformed into a bathed, shaved, perfumed and shorn gentleman. His boots would be shined, his pants pressed, and he may even have been offered a cigar and a mug of beer. During his grooming session, he was sure to be informed of local employment opportunities and where he might find room and board. Many barbershops were open 12 hours a day and even early Sunday morning, when, for a few nickels, a man could get his face lathered and shaved before church. As in ancient Greece and Rome, barbershops were places of gossip, socializing, and often live music (the famous “barbershop quartet” style of singing in four-part harmony). Today, barbershops—which once outnumbered saloons in many towns—are dwindling as beauty salons and spas flourish. With the gender line steadily eroding in matters of cosmetology, many men are turning to full-service shops for manicures and special hairstyles and procedures. However, most barbers have a loyal clientele, which steadily increases the longer a barber is in business. According to an executive of a national association for barbers, the average barber today has been on the job for 27.1 years.
Fashion and imitation have always played a significant role in the evolution of hairstyles. In earlier times, much like today, styles that met with disapproval among one generation became the accepted styles for the next. Barbers have observed various trends in business based upon the styles of the celebrities of the day. For example, many barbers saw business slow down gradually following the advent of Beatlemania. In the 1980s, the movie Top Gun spurred a renewed popularity of the short haircut. Today, celebrities such as Moby, Michael Stipe, and The Rock are credited by many for a surge in youngsters and men seeking very short haircuts that require frequent trimming.
n the job Most barbers in barbershops focus primarily on the basics of men’s grooming needs: hair cutting and trimming, shampooing, styling, and beard and mustache trimming and shaping. Many include a brief facial, scalp, and/or neck massage. While some barbers do perform other services, such as tinting or bleaching, most find that few of their customers seek such services, and those that do are more likely to head for a full-service salon. Shaving is far less common in barbershops today than it once was. The safety razor has made shaving at home a relatively quick and easy task, and the art of the straight-edge shave is little more than a relic of tonsorial history. Most customers who frequent barbershops are men, but some women—particularly those with short hair— do patronize barbers. Likewise, most barbers are men, but the field includes some female barbers as well. The equipment barbers utilize—clippers, razors, shears, combs, brushes, and so forth—must be kept in antiseptic condition. Often barbers must supply their own equipment. Barbers who operate their own shops must handle the details of answering phones and setting appointments, ordering supplies and paying bills, maintaining equipment, and keeping records. If they employ other barbers, they are responsible for the hiring and performance of their staff as well. Barbershops range from one-person operations to larger shops with many chairs and operators.
n requirements High School Many states require that barbers be high school graduates, although a few states require only an eighth grade education. High school students considering a career as a barber might find it helpful to take courses in health and business. Involvement in theater can provide you with opportunities to practice working on hair and attempting to create different styles as well as give you the opportunity to develop “people skills” you will need later when dealing with the public.
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Postsecondary Training Generally, a barber must complete a certain number of hours of barber school (ranging from 1,000 to 2,000 hours, depending on the state). Most states offer programs that include classroom work, demonstrations, and hands-on work and can be completed in 10 to 24 months. The barber must then pass an examination that includes a written test (and sometimes an oral test) and a practical examination to demonstrate that skills are mastered. A health certificate must also be obtained. In selecting a barber school, a student should be sure the school meets (and preferably exceeds) the state’s requirements for licensing. Some schools have waiting lists, so it may be prudent to apply early. At one time, a one- to two-year apprenticeship was required in many states before a barber was “full-fledged”; this practice is becoming less common as formal training is increasingly emphasized. In a few rural states, an apprenticeship can take the place of formal education, but this is an uncommon and difficult way to acquire sufficient skill and knowledge. quick facts
Certification or Licensing All barbers must be licensed to practice in the state in which they work, although the requirements vary from state to state. Some states have licensing reciprocity agreements that enable barbers to practice in another state without being retested. Some states require that barbers be at least 18 years old in order to be licensed. Unions were once prevalent among barbers, but they are becoming less common, especially in rural areas. Today there are fewer barbers in the workforce than there were decades ago, and a large percentage of them are self-employed. The National Cosmetology Association lists the United Food and Commercial Workers International Union as the principal union that organizes barbers.
School Subjects
Business Health Personal Skills
Artistic Mechanical/manipulative Work Environment
Primarily indoors Primarily one location Minimum Education Level
Some postsecondary training Salary Range
$14,770 to $21,760 to $36,180 Certification or Licensing
Required by all states Outlook
About as fast as the average DOT
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Other Requirements Barbering requires good finger dexterity and stamina, since barbers are required to be on their feet most of the day (although work environ-
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How Long Is Your Robe? During the days of barber-surgeons (from the 12th to the 18th centuries), barbers performed many medical services, such as bloodletting, extracting teeth, cauterizing wounds, and treating disease. Barbers were distinguished from surgeons and physicians by their titles: Barbers trained through apprenticeship were referred to as doctors of the short robe, whereas university-trained doctors were known as doctors of the long robe.
ments can often be adapted to accommodate workers with disabilities or special needs). Barbers should themselves be neat and well-groomed because they work in close proximity to their customers. Tact and patience are important characteristics, as is being a good listener. The ability to easily carry on light conversation is important, as well. Roy Bollhoffer, owner of Roy’s Barbershop in Highland Park, Illinois, stresses the importance of being a “people-person.” Says Bollhoffer about being a barber, “If you don’t like people, you’re in trouble.” Bollhoffer has owned his barbershop for 34 years; he bought it from a barber who started his business just after World War I. Nearly all of Bollhoffer’s customers have been with him for many years, and quite a few have patronized his shop for even longer than the 34 years Bollhoffer has been there. Like many barbers, Bollhoffer finds that once customers find a barber they like, they stick with him or her until the customers die or move, or until the barber retires. To be successful, barbers must understand the importance their customers place on their appearances and seriously strive to provide a look that pleases their customers. An executive in a national association for barbers noted, “You’re in the business of making people happy.” Barbers should have a sense of form and style in order to determine what looks would be most flattering for individual customers. A barber must also recognize when a style desired by a customer isn’t suited to the customer’s features or hair type in order to avoid customer dissatisfaction. These situations require firmness and diplomacy.
n exploring If you are interested in this career, try finding part-time employment in a barbershop or beauty salon to gain exposure to the nature of the work and the working conditions. Another avenue of exploration might be to call a barber school and ask for an opportunity to tour
the facilities, observe classes, and question instructors. Of course, nothing compares to talking to someone with firsthand experience; a chat with a local barber is a sure and easy way to obtain helpful and informative feedback.
n employers A barber’s domain is almost exclusively the barbershop. While some barbers may find work in a full-service styling salon, most of these businesses are seeking stylists with broader training and experience. Most barbers are self-employed, either owning their own shops or renting a chair at a barbershop. In the days before beauty salons were so prevalent—and before men frequented them—nearly all men had their hair cut by barbers. Today, these men still comprise a significant portion of barbershops’ clienteles, so opportunities for barbers may be better in areas with a higher concentration of older men. Some barbers are employed as teachers/trainers at barber schools, and some may also serve as inspectors for the State Board of Barber Examiners.
n starting out In most states, the best way (and often the only way) to enter the field of barbering is to graduate from a barber school that meets the state’s requirements for licensing and to pass the state’s licensing examination. Nearly all barber schools assist graduates with the process of finding employment opportunities. As barbershops are few in many areas, calling or visiting a barbershop is an excellent way to find employment. In some areas, there may be barbering unions which may be helpful in one’s job search. While a part-time job in a barbershop or beauty shop can be helpful in determining one’s level of interest in the field, satisfying the graduation requirements of an accredited barber school and becoming licensed is usually the only way to enter this occupation.
n advancement The most common form of advancement in the barbering profession is owning one’s own shop. This requires business experience and skill as well as proficiency in the barbering profession, and of course start-up requires capital outlay. Those who are successful as owners do reap higher earnings than barbers who rent a booth in a shop or are paid on a commission basis. Some even go on to own a chain of barbershops. In larger barbershops, there may be opportunities for management, but these are relatively rare. The longer a barber is on the job, though, the larger the clientele (and thus the security and income) becomes.
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Barbers can increase their opportunities for advancement by becoming licensed as cosmetologists and working in larger beauty shops that provide more complicated, varied, and advanced services. Opportunities for management or specializing in certain services are increasingly plentiful in full-service salons. Many states require a separate license for cosmetology, but often barbering training can be applied toward a cosmetology license. In a few states, the two licenses are combined into one hair styling license. Related career opportunities may exist if a barber wishes to become an instructor at a barber school or an inspector for the State Board of Barber Examiners.
n earnings Incomes can vary widely depending on a barber’s experience, the location of the shop, the number of hours worked, tipping habits of the clientele, and whether or not a barber owns the business. The personality and initiative of a barber also impacts the ability to draw a loyal following. The U.S. Department of Labor reports the median annual income for full-time, salaried barbers, including tips, as $21,760 in 2005. The highest paid 10 percent earned more than $36,180 per year, while the lowest paid 10 percent earned less than $14,770 annually. Many established barbers and barber/owners earn incomes that well exceed the median. One of the most frequently cited downsides to being a barber is a lack of benefits, particularly where there are no unions. Many barbers cannot get group insurance, and the cost of individual policies can be high. Also, since most barbers are either self-employed or working for small shops, benefits such as retirement plans, paid vacations, sick days, and so forth are often the exception to the rule.
n work environment Barbers generally enjoy pleasant work surroundings. The barbershop environment is usually friendly, clean, and comfortable. Many barbers can set their own hours, and although many work Saturdays, they typically take Sundays and weeknights off. Of course, this depends largely on the schedules of their clientele; barbers whose clientele consists mostly of retirees rarely find the need to work evenings. Stress levels and job pressures are lower than is the case with most jobs. Established barbers enjoy a unique security in that their clients are usually very loyal and always need haircuts. Most barbers don’t share the fears of lay-offs and other job insecurities common to other professions. Compared to their cosmetologist counterparts, barbers are exposed to fewer hair and nail chemicals, which also enhances the work environment. Most barbers have been on the
A barber cuts a young boy’s hair. (Dan Bosler, Tony Stone Images.)
job for many years, and there is clearly a great deal of pride and job enjoyment among barbers. This is a good profession for those who enjoy the company of other people.
n outlook Though as the beauty industry flourished, the number of old-fashioned barbershops has waned and more and more men turned to styling salons rather than barbershops to have their styling and grooming needs met, the trend is reversing. Short haircuts are coming back into style, and barbershops are reclaiming their place as neighborhood social centers. The U.S. Department of Labor predicts employment of barbers through 2014 should remain steady. Many job openings will also result from the need to replace retired workers, and since there are few qualified candidates, those entering the field may find good opportunities, depending on their location. Says Roy Bollhoffer, “I had another barber here with me for 27 years, but he retired. I’d love to find another barber to bring in, but there is a serious shortage of barbers now. And there will always be people who want to go to a barber. I’ve made a very nice living here.” In all likelihood, the outlook for this profession will be different for various cities, states, and regions of the country.
n for more information For information about the profession as well as a list of licensed training schools, contact National Accrediting Commission of Cosmetology Arts & Sciences 4401 Ford Avenue, Suite 1300 Alexandria, VA 22302-1432 Tel: 703-600-7600 http://www.naccas.org
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Bartenders n overview Bartenders mix and dispense alcoholic and nonalcoholic drinks in hotels, restaurants, cocktail lounges, and taverns. Besides mixing ingredients to prepare cocktails and other drinks, they serve wine and beer, collect payment from customers, order supplies, and arrange displays of bar stock and glassware. Bartenders, or their assistants, may also prepare fruit for garnishes, serve simple appetizers, replenish chips and pretzels, wash glasses, and clean the bar area. Approximately 474,000 bartenders work in the United States.
n history Tending bar was only one of the duties of the traditional innkeeper. When inns and small hotels were a family affair, and the drinks dispensed were no more complicated than a quick facts tankard of ale or a mug of mulled School Subjects wine, bartending specialists were English not required. Most recipes, such Mathematics as rum punch, were commonly known; indeed alcoholic beverages Personal Skills Following instructions were more commonly drunk (and, Helping/teaching because of dubious standards of public hygiene, safer) than nonalWork Environment coholic ones. However, beginning Primarily indoors in the nineteenth century, the temPrimarily one location perance movement helped to limit Minimum Education Level the acceptability of the widespread Some postsecondary training imbibing of distilled spirits. Drinking certain liquors in certain ways Salary Range became a luxury and a fashionable $11,900 to $15,433 to statement, and the cocktail glass $26,000 became the mark of the sophistiCertification or Licensing cate. The trend towards increasing Voluntary refinement of alcoholic beverages was only increased by the admitOutlook tance of respectable women to More slowly than the average bars, pubs, taverns, and saloons, DOT and before long, everything from 310 the absinthe frappe to the Manhattan had made its appearance. GOE The number of recipes has only 11.05.02 grown since; not even Prohibition NOC could stop the emerging science of 6452 mixology, as the all too often foul taste of the bootleg “bathtub gin” O*NET-SOC of the 1920s was not uncommonly 35-3011.00 disguised by elaborate recipes. Today, even in the average neigh-
borhood cocktail lounge or tavern, they may have to cope with requests for such exotic concoctions as Screaming Zombies, Harvey Wallbangers, Golden Cadillacs, Singapore Slings, and hundreds of new recipes for shot drinks, or “shooters,” complicated by the multiplicity of brands and flavors of liquor, beer, and “alco-pops.”
n the job Bartenders take orders from waiters for customers seated in the restaurant or lounge; they also take orders from customers seated at the bar. They mix drinks by combining exactly the right proportion of liquor, wines, mixers, and other ingredients. In order to work efficiently, bartenders must know dozens of drink recipes off the top of their heads. They should also be able to measure accurately by sight in order to prepare drinks quickly, even during the busiest periods. They may be asked to mix drinks to suit a customer’s taste, and they also serve beer, wine, and nonalcoholic beverages. A well-stocked bar has dozens of types and brands of liquors and wines, as well as beer, soft drinks, soda and tonic water, fruits and fruit juices, and cream. Bartenders are responsible for maintaining this inventory and ordering supplies before they run out. They arrange bottles and glassware in attractive displays and often wash the glassware. In some of these duties they may be assisted by bartender assistants, also known as bar backs. Bartenders are responsible for collecting payment on all drinks that are not served by the waiters of the establishment. This is done by either keeping a tab of the customers’ drink orders and then totaling the bill before the customer leaves—the same way the wait staff does for food bills—or by charging for each drink served. In either case, the bartender must be able to calculate the bill quickly and accurately. Although many cash registers automatically total the bill, the bartender must also have a good idea of what customers have ordered to help ensure the cash register receipt is correct. Bartenders who own their own businesses must also keep their own records, as well as hire, train, and direct their employees. Today, special machines can automatically mix and dispense certain drinks. They are generally found in larger operations. But even if they became more widespread, they could not replace bartenders. Bartenders still have the knowledge and expertise needed to fill unusual orders or to dispense drinks manually in case the automatic equipment does not function properly. In combination taverns and packaged-goods stores, bar attendants also sell unopened bottles of alcoholic and nonalcoholic beverages to be taken from the premises.
Taproom attendants prepare and serve glasses or pitchers of draft beer. One of the more important aspects of a bartender’s job is making sure a customer does not drive a car after consuming too much alcohol. The bar and the bartender who sold a customer drinks can be held responsible if the customer is arrested or has an accident while driving under the influence of alcohol. It is no longer just an act of kindness to limit the number of drinks someone has, or to keep someone from driving under the influence; it’s the law. The bartender must constantly evaluate the customers being served in the bar. It is the responsibility of the bartender to determine when a customer has had too much alcohol. Bartenders should also have good listening skills, as the barstool often doubles as an informal confessional. Many people become talkative after a drink or two, and a friendly ear can increase the size of a bartender’s tip significantly, and turn a customer into a “regular.”
n requirements High School Because bartenders must be good at calculating tabs, high school math classes are important to take. If you would like to own your own bar someday, consider taking business or accounting classes. You might also take home economics classes to gain exposure to food and beverage measurements and preparation. Communication is a key part of this job. The bartender who can chat with customers, making them feel at home and welcomed, and work well as part of a team will have the most success in this profession. To improve your communication abilities, therefore, take English, speech, and any other classes that offer you the opportunity to work on these skills.
Postsecondary Training A wide variety of vocational and technical schools offer complete courses in bartending. The American Bartenders Association recommends the completion of formal training to prepare for this work. Such training will not only teach you about mixology (how to make mixed drinks) but also instruct you in areas such as business and marketing. It is important to note, though, that you must be old enough (usually at least 21) to serve alcohol in order to attend bartending school. Many bartenders also learn their trade on the job. They usually have had previous experience as bartender helpers, waiters’ assistants, or waiters or waitresses.
Certification or Licensing Bartenders must be familiar with state and local laws concerning the sale of alcoholic beverages. Although not required to by law, many restaurants and hotels hire bar-
bartenders
Standard Bar Measures 1 dash (or splash)
1⁄32 oz.
1 teaspoon
1⁄8 oz.
1 tablespoon
3⁄8 oz.
1 pony
1 oz.
1 jigger
11⁄2 oz.
1 wineglass
4 oz.
1 split
6 oz.
1 cup
8 oz.
tenders who are certified in alcohol awareness. A bartender and an establishment that serves alcohol can be held liable in accidents or injuries caused by a customer who drinks too much. Most bartending courses include this certification in their training programs and some restaurants and hotels also offer alcohol awareness certification to all employees who serve alcohol.
Other Requirements Generally, bartenders must be at least 21 years of age, although some employers prefer they be older than 25. Bartenders must be in good physical condition in order to stand comfortably for long periods of time and to lift heavy cases of beverages or kegs of beer. Because they deal with the public, they must have a pleasant personality and a clean, neat appearance. (Of course, for certain sorts of bars, a clean, neat appearance can be a detriment!) In some states, bartenders must have health certificates assuring that they are free of contagious diseases. Because of the large sums of money collected in some bars, bartenders must sometimes be bonded. Bartenders should also have good common sense, knowing when a customer has had too much to drink, and how to handle uncomfortable social situations. They should also be familiar with a variety of alcoholic beverages—a gin and tonic made with high-quality gin tastes markedly different from one made with ordinary liquor, and the proper technique for pouring a pint of heavy stout from a tap is an art form in itself.
n exploring Because of the age requirement, students under the age of 21 will find it difficult to get actual bartending experience. Part-time or summer jobs as waiters’ assistants or waiters, however, will allow you to watch a bartender at work and in that way learn how to mix drinks and perform other bartending tasks. Preparing drinks at home is good experi-
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Standard Bar Equipment Can and bottle openers Corkscrew Glass stirring rod or long spoon Coil-rimmed bar strainer Tall, heavy-duty mixing glass or shaker Sharp stainless-steel paring knife for cutting fruit or peeling rind Wooden muddler or the back of a large wooden spoon for mashing herbs, fruit, etc. Large pitcher Fruit juice extractor Set of measuring spoons Jigger measure with half- and quarter-ounce indications Ice bucket and ice tongs Blender for mixing frozen drinks
ing bartending courses sometimes help their graduates find jobs. Application may be made directly to hotels, restaurants, cocktail lounges, and other businesses that serve alcoholic beverages. Some employment agencies specialize in placing hotel and restaurant personnel. Information about job opportunities may also be obtained from the local offices of the state employment service. The Hotel Employees and Restaurant Employees International Union also offers information on bartender apprenticeship programs.
n advancement With experience, a bartender may find employment in a large restaurant or cocktail lounge where the pay is higher. Opportunities for advancement in this field, however, are limited. A few persons may earn promotions to head bartender, wine steward, or beverage manager. Some bartenders go on to open their own taverns or restaurants.
n earnings
Bartenders may be employed in restaurants, bars, hotels, vacation resorts, social clubs, food service establishments, and anywhere alcohol is served to the public. Additionally, they can find work serving alcoholic drinks at private parties and residences. Catering services often hire bartenders to serve at special functions. Fewer than 10 percent are self-employed.
Earnings for this occupation cover a broad range and are influenced by such factors as the bartender’s experience, his or her ability to deal with the public, and even where he or she works. The U.S. Department of Labor reports that full-time bartenders had median hourly wages of $7.42 in 2004. A person working 40 hours a week at this pay rate would earn approximately $15,433 annually. The lowest paid 10 percent of full-time bartenders earned less than $5.72 per hour (or, less than approximately $11,900 annually), and the highest paid 10 percent made more than $12.47 per hour (more than approximately $26,000 annually). These earning figures do not include tips. With tips, bartenders’ yearly incomes may increase by thousands of dollars, depending on factors such as the bartender’s personality and service he or she gives, the establishment’s location, and the size of the bar. Besides wages and tips, bartenders may get free meals at work and may be furnished bar jackets or complete uniforms. Those who work full-time usually receive typical benefits, such as health insurance and vacation days.
n starting out
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ence, although in itself it does not qualify you to become a bartender. Any part-time or summer job that involves serving food and beverages to the public will give you the opportunity to see if you have the right temperament for this occupation. Further career exploration may include talking with school counselors, visiting vocational schools that offer bartending courses, interviewing bartenders, and reading bar guides and manuals.
n employers
Those interested in becoming bartenders often begin by working as bartender helpers, waiters’ assistants, or waiters. Small restaurants, neighborhood bars, and vacation resorts usually offer a beginner the best opportunity. Many people tend bar part-time while working at other jobs or attending college, often serving at banquets and private parties at restaurants, at hotels, or in private homes. Vocational schools offer-
Many bartenders work more than 40 hours a week. They work nights, weekends, and holidays, and split shifts are common. They have to work quickly and under pressure during busy periods. Also, they need more strength than average to lift heavy cases of liquor and mixers. Many bartenders feel the difficulties of the job are more than offset by the opportunity to talk to friendly customers, by the possibility of one day managing or
bed and breakfast owners
owning a bar or restaurant, or by the need for good parttime work. It is important that individuals entering this field like people, since they will be in constant contact with the public. Even when the work is hardest and the most hectic, bartenders are expected to be friendly and attentive to their customers. Patrons of a bar will often use the bartender as a sounding board or a confessor. All they really want is a sympathetic ear. Good bartenders will appear interested without getting personally involved in other people’s problems. The success of a restaurant or cocktail lounge depends on satisfied customers. For this reason, teamwork among the serving staff is crucial. Often working in cramped quarters, bartenders must cooperate quickly and willingly with other food and beverage service workers and make their workplace friendly and inviting to customers.
n outlook Employment for bartenders who is expected to grow more slowly than the average through 2014, according to the U.S. Department of Labor, as casual restaurants, which do not employ bartenders, become even more popular. Because of high turnover in this profession, however, bartending jobs should be readily available. This high turnover rate is due to the fact that many people work as bartenders for a short time as they pursue other careers, or while they are finishing school. Others view a bartending position as the first step on a career ladder that leads them to a career in restaurant or bar management.
n for more information This organization focuses on issues affecting those in hotel and restaurant management, foodservice management, and culinary arts. Among its publications are A Guide to College Programs in Hospitality and Tourism and Hosteur, a Webzine for high school and college students. For information about the broad field of hospitality, contact International Council on Hotel, Restaurant & Institutional Education 2810 North Parham, Suite 230 Richmond, VA 23294-4442 Tel: 804-346-48001 http://chrie.org
This organization offers a training program in responsible alcoholic beverage service. For more information, contact National Restaurant Association Educational Foundation 175 West Jackson Boulevard, Suite 1500 Chicago, IL 60604-2702
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Tel: 800-765-2122 Email:
[email protected] http://www.nraef.org
Bed and Breakfast Owners n overview A bed and breakfast is an inn, or small hotel, of about four to 20 rooms. Bed and breakfast owners either singlehandedly, or with the help of spouse and family, provide guests with a comfortable, home-like environment. These workers, sometimes called innkeepers or abbreviated to B & B owners, clean rooms, assign rooms to guests, keep books and records, and provide some meals. They also actively quick facts interact with guests and provide School Subjects information about tours, museBusiness ums, restaurants, theaters, and Family and consumer science recreational areas. According to a study conducted in 2000 by ProPersonal Skills Communication/ideas fessional Association of InnkeepLeadership/management ers International (PAII), there are approximately 19,000 bed and Work Environment breakfasts in the United States. Primarily one location Though a bed and breakfast may Indoors and outdoors be located in the very heart of a Minimum Education Level large city, most are located in High school diploma small towns, the country, and along oceans, lakes, or rivers. Salary Range
n history Though initially considered nothing more than a bed for weary travelers, inns became, over the centuries, clean and comfortable establishments that provided good rest and good food and served as important community centers. Some of the first Elizabethan theaters were simply the courtyards of English lodges. The lodging houses of the first American colonies were styled after these English inns and were considered so necessary that a law in 18th-century Massachusetts required that towns provide roadside lodging.
$7,000 to $75,000 to $168,000 Certification or Licensing
Required by certain states Outlook
About as fast as the average DOT
N/A GOE
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0632 O*NET-SOC
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The First Bed and Breakfast Le Grand Saint Bernard Hospice is considered the world’s first inn. Established by monks in a.d. 961 in the Swiss Alps, it served as a resting spot for pilgrims on their way to Rome. The monks originated the practice of sending Saint Bernard dogs (which, in popular imagination, carried small barrels of brandy attached to their collars) out into the Alps to rescue lost travelers.
These early examples of bed and breakfasts thrived for years, until the development of the railroad. Large luxury hotels popped up next to railroad stations and did a booming business. Some inns survived, but many became more like hotels in the process, adding rooms and giving less personal service. Other inns became boarding houses, renting rooms by the week and the month. When people took to the highways in automobiles, lodging changed once again, inspiring the development of motels and tourist camps. It has only been in the last 20 years or so that inns have become popular forms of lodging again, with bed and breakfasts opening up in historic houses and towns. In 1980, there were approximately 5,000 inns in the country; today, that number has almost quadrupled.
n the job Have you ever wanted to vacation with the FBI’s Public Enemy #1? Probably not. But in Tucson, Arizona, you can sit in the Jacuzzi of the Dillinger House Bed and Breakfast and imagine yourself the pampered 1930s-era bank robber John Dillinger. Mark Muchmore now owns the house and grounds where Dillinger was captured. Though a house with such history may not seem a natural source for a bed and breakfast, the history actually gives the place a unique distinction in the area. Dillinger’s respite in the desert town is part of local legend, and his capture is still celebrated with annual parties and dramatic re-creations in some of Tucson’s bars. One of the great appeals of bed and breakfasts are the stories behind them. Though not every bed and breakfast has a history as colorful as that of the Dillinger House, many do have well-documented backgrounds. Bed and breakfast owners therefore become great sources of local history and valuable guides to area sites. Most of the bed and breakfasts across the country are housed in historical structures: the Victorian houses of Cape May, New Jersey; Brooklyn brownstones; a house in Illinois designed by Frank Lloyd Wright. And many are furnished with antiques. Muchmore owned his house for
some time before turning it into a bed and breakfast. A job change inspired him to start a new business, opening up his home to guests. “I had always wanted to do something like this,” he says. “I already had the property, a large house, and two adjacent guest houses, so it seemed perfect.” As the name “bed and breakfast” suggests, a good homemade breakfast is an essential part of any inn stay. Muchmore’s day starts much earlier than Dillinger’s ever did and is likely much more serene; he’s typically up at 5 a.m. grinding coffee beans, harvesting herbs, and preparing to bake. “I accommodate any and all dietary restrictions,” Muchmore says, “and do it in such a way that my guests feel really paid attention to and respected.” After serving his guests their breakfast and cleaning up, Muchmore sees to business concerns such as answering email messages, calling prospective guests, and taking reservations. Once the guests have left their rooms, Muchmore can clean the rooms and do some laundry. After grocery shopping, he returns to his office for book work and to prepare brochures for the mail. Among all the daily tasks, Muchmore reserves time to get to know his guests and to make sure they’re enjoying their stay. “I like interacting with my guests,” he says. “I like hearing about their jobs, their lives, their likes and dislikes. I love to be able to give them sightseeing suggestions, restaurant tips, and from time to time, little extras like a bowl of fresh citrus from my trees.” It is such close attention to detail that makes a bed and breakfast successful. The guests of bed and breakfasts are looking for more personal attention and warmer hospitality than they’d receive from a large hotel chain. Though the owners of bed and breakfasts are giving up much of their privacy by allowing guests to stay in the rooms of their own homes, they do have their houses to themselves from time to time. Some bed and breakfasts are only open during peak tourist season, and some are only open on weekends. And even those open year-round may often be without guests. For some owners, inconsistency in the business is not a problem; many bed and breakfasts are owned by couples and serve as a second income. While one person works at another job, the other tends to the needs of the bed and breakfast. The Professional Association of Innkeepers International (PAII), a professional association for the owners of bed and breakfasts and country inns, classifies the different kinds of bed and breakfasts. A host home is considered a very small business with only a few rooms for rent. Because of its small size, the owner of a host home may not be required by law to license the business or to have government inspections. Without advertising or signs, these homes are referred to guests primarily
through reservation service organizations. A bed and breakfast and bed and breakfast inn are classified as having four to 20 rooms. They adhere to license, inspection, and zoning requirements and promote their businesses through brochures, print ads, and signs. A country inn is considered a bit larger, with six to 30 rooms, and it may serve one meal in addition to breakfast.
n requirements High School Because you’ll essentially be maintaining a home as a bed and breakfast owner, you should take home economics courses. These courses can prepare you for the requirements of shopping and cooking for a group of people, as well as budgeting household finances. But a bed and breakfast is also a business, so you need to further develop those budgeting skills in a business fundamentals class, accounting, and math. A shop class, or some other handson workshop, can be very valuable to you; take a class that will teach you about electrical wiring, woodworking, and other elements of home repair.
Postsecondary Training As a bed and breakfast owner, you’re in business for yourself, so there are no educational requirements for success. Also, no one specific degree program will better prepare you than any other. A degree in history or art may be as valuable as a degree in business management. Before taking over a bed and breakfast, though, you may consider enrolling in a hotel management or small business program at your local community college. Such programs can educate you in the practical aspects of running a bed and breakfast, from finances and loans to health and licensing regulations. Opportunities for part-time jobs and internships with a bed and breakfast are few and far between. Bed and breakfast owners can usually use extra help during busy seasons, but can’t always afford to hire a staff. But some do enough business that they can hire a housekeeper or a secretary, or they may have an extra room to provide for an apprentice willing to help with the business.
Certification or Licensing Though bed and breakfast owners aren’t generally certified or licensed as individuals, they do license their businesses, and seek accreditation for their inns from professional organizations such as PAII and the American Bed and Breakfast Association. With accreditation, the business can receive referrals from the associations and can be included in their directories. A house with only a room or two for rent may not be subject to any licensing requirements, but most bed and breakfasts are state regulated. A bed and
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breakfast owner must follow zoning regulations, maintain a small business license, pass health inspections, and carry sufficient liability insurance.
Other Requirements Bed and breakfast ownership calls upon diverse skills. You must have a head for business, but you have to be comfortable working among people, outside of an office. You must be creative in the way you maintain the house, paying attention to decor and gardening, but you should also have practical skills in plumbing and other household repair (or you should at least be capable of diagnosing any need for repair). A knowledge of the electrical wiring of your house and the phone lines is valuable. You’ll also need an ability to cook well for groups both large and small. “I’m easygoing,” Mark Muchmore says in regard to how he makes his business a success, “and I know how to set, and follow through on, personal and professional goals. I’m also a natural organizer, and pay attention to details.” Muchmore also enjoys meeting new people, which is very important. You’ll be expected to be a gracious host to all your guests. But you’ll also have to maintain rules and regulations; guests of bed and breakfasts expect a quiet environment, and smoking and drinking is often prohibited. If turning your home into a bed and breakfast, you should learn about city planning and zoning restrictions, as well as inspection programs. Computer skills will help you to better organize reservations, registration histories, and tax records. You should have some knowledge of marketing in order to promote your business by ads, brochures, and on the Internet.
n exploring PAII provides students with a free informational packet about innkeeping, and also puts together an “Aspiring Innkeepers Package” for those interested in the require-
America’s Biggest B&B Towns Cape May, New Jersey, and Eureka Springs, Arkansas, are credited with having the most bed and breakfasts in the country—each town has over 70 bed and breakfasts, inns, and manors. Eureka Springs, in the mountains of Northwest Arkansas, has the largest historic district in the United States, as well as natural springs long considered to have healing properties. Cape May, which became the first seashore resort in America in 1761, boasts the largest number of authentic Victorian structures in the country.
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The owners of a bed and breakfast in New England pose proudly outside the inn. (Ariel Skelley/Corbis.)
Most bed and breakfasts exist in rural areas and small towns where there are no large hotels. Though the number of inns in cities is increasing, only 19 percent of the inns in the United States are located in urban areas. According to PAII, the majority of inns (49 percent) are in small resort villages. Thirty-two percent of the inns are in rural areas. An innkeeper’s income is derived from room rental and fees for any “extras” such as additional meals and transportation. An inn’s guests are often from outside of the local area, but an inn may also cater to many area residents. Most guests are screened by reservation service organizations or travel associations; this helps to protect both the guest and the owner. Bed and breakfasts must pass certain approval requirements, and guests must prove to be reliable, paying customers.
n starting out ments of running a bed and breakfast. PAII publishes a newsletter and books on innkeeping, holds conferences, and maintains a very informative Web site (http://www. paii.org). If there are inns in your town, interview the owners and spend a day or two with them as they perform their daily duties. The owner may even have parttime positions open for someone to assist with preparing breakfast or cleaning the rooms—employment of staff has increased in the last few years. Some bed and breakfast owners occasionally hire reliable “innsitters” to manage their inns when they’re out of town. Even a job as a motel housekeeper or desk clerk can give you experience with the responsibilities of innkeeping. Bed and breakfasts, hotels, and resorts across the country often advertise nationally for seasonal assistance. For years, high school and college students have made a little extra money working in exotic locales by dedicating their summers to full-time hotel or resort jobs. Wait staff, poolside assistants, kitchen staff, housekeepers, and spa assistants are needed in abundance during peak tourist seasons. In some cases, you can get a paid position, and in others you may be expected to work in exchange for room and board. Even if your summer job is at a large resort rather than a small bed and breakfast, you can still develop valuable people skills and learn a lot about the travel and tourism industry.
Probably all the bed and breakfast owners you speak to will have different stories about how they came to own their businesses. Some, like Mark Muchmore, convert their own homes into inns; others buy fully established businesses, complete with client lists, marketing plans, and furnishings. Others inherit their bed and breakfasts from family members. And still others lease a house from another owner. Usually, bed and breakfast ownership requires a large investment, both in time and money. Before starting your business, you must do a great deal of research. Make sure the local market can support an additional bed and breakfast and that your house and grounds will offer a unique and attractive alternative to the other lodging in the area. Research how much you can expect to make the first few years, and how much you can afford to lose. Muchmore suggests that you be sure to promote your business, but don’t go overboard. “All advertising is not worth it,” he says. “I have found that small ads in local publications, one listing in a nationally distributed magazine, a home or Web page, and word of mouth are more than enough.” Established bed and breakfasts for sale are advertised nationally, and by innkeeper associations. Prices range from under $100,000 to over $1,000,000. An established business is often completely restored and includes antique furniture and fixtures, as well as necessary equipment.
n employers
n advancement
Innkeepers work for themselves. The charm of bed and breakfasts is that they are owned and operated by individuals, or individual families, who live on the premises. Though bed and breakfast “chains” may be a thing of the future, they are not expected to greatly affect the business of the traditional “mom and pop” operations.
Mark Muchmore sees expansion in the future of the Dillinger House Bed and Breakfast. “I see buying another property in the neighborhood,” he says, “and at that point operating as an inn/spa. This would enable me to hire a small staff and include some of the extras for my guests to make them feel even more pampered.” With the free time
that a staff would provide, Muchmore could dedicate more time to marketing and promotion. In many cases, a married bed and breakfast owner may continue to work full-time outside of the home, while his or her spouse sees to the daily concerns of the inn. But once a business is well-established with a steady clientele, both spouses may be able to commit full-time to the bed and breakfast.
n earnings Large, well-established bed and breakfasts can bring in tens of thousands of dollars every year, but most owners of average-sized inns must make do with much less. A survey by PAII provides a variety of income figures. A beginning bed and breakfast has an annual net operating income of $25,000, while one seven years or older has an average income of over $73,000. A small bed and breakfast with four rooms or fewer for rent has an annual net income of about $7,000; an inn of five to eight rooms has an income of $35,000; nine to 12 rooms, $80,000. An inn with 13 to 20 rooms has a net operating income of over $168,000. Fifty-five percent of bed and breakfast owners are dependent on outside income. Bed and breakfasts in the western part of the United States make more money than those in other parts of the country. An average net income of $68,000 per year is figured for inns in the West, followed by $58,000 for those in the Northeast, $38,000 in the Southeast, and $33,000 in the Midwest. According to PAII, bed and breakfasts charge from $38 to $595 per day, depending on size of the room and whether it has a private bath, fireplace, and other amenities.
n work environment Imagine yourself living in a beautiful, restored historical house among antiques and vacationers from all around the world. And you don’t have to leave to go to work. Though it sounds like an ideal environment, and it may not seem like you’re at work, bed and breakfast owners must perform many responsibilities to keep their property nice and pleasant. Their chores will mostly be domestic ones, keeping them close to the house with cooking, cleaning, gardening, and laundering. This makes for a very comfortable work environment over which they have a great deal of control. Though bed and breakfast owners work in their own home, they must sacrifice much of their privacy to operate their business. They must be available to their guests at all times to ensure that their stay is comfortable. However, even the most successful bed and breakfast isn’t always full to capacity, and many are only open on weekends—this may result in a few long work days, then a few days of
bed and breakfast owners
downtime. But to keep their business afloat, bed and breakfast owners will need to welcome as many guests as they can handle.
n outlook Some bed and breakfasts have been in business for decades, but it’s only been in the last 20 years that inns have become popular vacation spots. PAII estimates the number of inns in the country to be approximately 19,000, up from a measly 5,000 in 1980. Tourists are seeking out inns as inexpensive and charming alternatives to the rising cost and sterile, cookie-cutter design of hotels and motels. People are even centering their vacation plans on bed and breakfasts, booking trips to historical towns for restful departures from cities. As long as bed and breakfasts can keep their rates lower than hotel chains, they are likely to flourish. Recognizing the appeal of bed and breakfasts, some hotel chains are considering plans to capitalize on the trend with “inn-style” lodging. An inn-style hotel is even on its way to Disneyland! Smaller hotels composed of larger, suite-style rooms with more personalized service may threaten the business of some bed and breakfasts. But the charm and historic significance of an old house can’t easily be reproduced, so bed and breakfasts are expected to maintain their niche in the tourism industry. The Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) will also have some effect on the future of bed and breakfasts. Inns with more than six rooms are required to comply with the ADA, making their rooms and grounds handicapped accessible. When purchasing a property for the purpose of a bed and breakfast, buyers must take into consideration the expense and impact of making such additions and changes. Though some businesses may have trouble complying, those that can will open up an area of tourism previously unavailable to people with disabilities.
n for more information To explore the bed and breakfasts of New England, contact New England Innkeepers Association PO Box 1089 44 Lafayette Road, Unit 6 North Hampton, NH 03862-1089 Tel: 603-964-6689 Email:
[email protected] http://www.newenglandinns.com
Contact PAII to request their free student packet, which inludes information about innkeepers and their guests, seminars and consultants, and average operating expenses and revenues.
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Professional Association of Innkeepers International 207 White Horse Pike Haddon Heights, NJ 08035 Tel: 856-310-1102 Email:
[email protected] http://www.paii.org
Beekeepers n overview Beekeepers, also known as apiarists, care for and raise honeybees for commercial and agricultural purposes, such as honey production and crop pollination. Their duties might include assembling beehives and other equipment, buyquick facts ing and selling bees, establishing School Subjects settlements close to pollinationAgriculture dependent crops, transporting Biology wild beehives to a central location, Earth science raising queen bees, and harvestPersonal Skills ing and selling honey. BeekeepMechanical/manipulative ers may work on farms or small Technical/scientific plots of land to raise bees to assist in the production of grain and Work Environment Primarily outdoors other agricultural crops. It is said One location with some travel that one-third of food production in the United States depends on Minimum Education Level bees. Beekeeping may be a fullApprenticeship time job, a “sideline” job, or a hobby. Beekeepers usually work Salary Range $0 to $10,000 to $20,000 alone or as a member of a small team. Certification or Licensing
Required by certain states Outlook
Decline DOT
N/A GOE
N/A NOC
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n history Early rock paintings in Spain and Africa depict people gathering honey from trees or rock crevices while bees flew around them. Ancient Egyptian relics show the beekeeper taking honey from a hive while a helper drives the bees away with smoke. There is evidence that the Mayans kept a stingless, honey-storing bee. Relics from Belize and Mexico, including stone disks thought to have been the end stoppers on
wooden log-shaped hives, represent the oldest artifacts related to beekeeping in the New World. Early honey gatherers probably accidentally discovered that smoke calms bees when they used fire to drive off other animals. Beekeeping may have originally developed following the observation that swarms of bees will settle in any container with a dark, protected interior space. Pottery and natural containers, such as holes in trees or logs, provide shelter and protection for hive establishment. In some forested areas of Europe, hive clusters made from logs can still be found. Horizontal pottery hives are used along the Mediterranean, and straw hives, known as “skeps,” are still used in Belgium and France. The honeybee, which is not native to North America, was shipped to the colonies from England in the first half of the 17th century. For many years, straw skeps were used for hives, followed by log “gums.” With these crude hives, it was difficult to know when the bees had problems with disease or starvation or if they were queenless; the beekeeper could not inspect the combs to determine what was wrong. By the same token, it was difficult to extract honey from these hives without damaging or destroying the bee colony. Typically, beekeepers had to kill their swarms each fall by burning sulphur at the entrance of the hive; then the honey and beeswax could be removed. In the 17th and 18th centuries, beekeepers began to build movable-comb hives, which enabled them to inspect combs without damaging them. In 1789, Francis Huber invented the first movable-frame hive. The combs in this hive could be easily inspected like the pages of a book. In 1852, Lorenzo Langstroth, a minister from Pennsylvania, patented a hive with movable frames that hung from the top of the hive, leaving a 3/8-inch space between the frames and the hive body (the exact spacing at which bees will build comb they can move around, referred to today as “beespace”). By the turn of the 20th century, most beekeepers were using Langstroth’s system. Langstroth is known as “the father of modern beekeeping.” Modern beekeeping methods evolved very rapidly following the invention of Langstroth’s system. Wax-comb foundation, which made possible the consistent production of high-quality combs of worker cells, was invented in 1857. The centrifugal honey extractor was invented in 1865, enabling large-scale production of honey, and later in the century the radial extractor (where both sides of the frame are extracted at the same time) was invented. In 1889, G. M. Doolittle of New York developed the system for rearing queen bees that is still used today by all commercial queen-rearers. Bee smokers and veils evolved and
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improved. Also around this time, leaders in American beekeeping learned of the merits of the Italian honeybee, and they began to import these bees into the states. Today, the American version of the Italian honeybee is still widely used throughout the country. Today the most significant advances in beekeeping are related to the areas of bee management and the extracting process. In general, the dimensions of hives and frames have become more standardized, drugs are available for disease control, artificial insemination of queen bees is being used commercially, and colony rental is being used increasingly for crop pollination.
n the job In the spring, beekeepers set up new hives and repair old ones. A beginning beekeeper will have to purchase bees from a dealer. The beekeeper will set up the hive near an orchard or field where nectar will be available for the bees. A beekeeper’s primary task is the care and feeding of the bees. The hives must be inspected regularly for mite infestations and diseases. The bees must also occasionally be fed, especially during the winter months when forage is unavailable. Beekeepers ensure that the bees and their surroundings are healthy and clean. They watch out for robber bees, who will try to rob food from other hives when they are unable to find enough nectar to make honey. Beekeepers make it easier for the bees to defend the hive by limiting the size of the entrance. Beekeepers must also watch for “swarming,” a situation in which about half of the bees from a colony look for a new place to live because the hive has become too crowded or is no longer adequately ventilated. To prevent swarming, the entrance to the hive can be enlarged to improve air circulation, especially during the summer. The beekeeper might also clip the queen’s wing to prevent her from leaving with the swarm or move half the bees to a new hive with another queen. The queen bee also requires special attention. In a properly functioning hive the queen will be almost constantly laying eggs. If she becomes sick or old, the beekeeper will need to replace her. Beekeepers must wear special equipment when working with bees. A veil and plastic helmet protect the beekeeper’s head and neck from the stings of angry bees. Some beekeepers also wear thick clothing and gloves for protection, although many professionals feel that the thick clothes are too bulky and hot. Their choice is to risk the occasional sting to gain the benefit of wearing lighter clothing. A beekeeper uses smoke to keep the bees from swarming in anger. An angry bee gives off a scent that alarms the rest of the hive. Smoke, produced in a special smoker
Beekeepers need physical strength, endurance, and a love of the outdoors to be successful. (Scott Bauer, Agricultural Research Service Photo Unit, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture.)
device, masks the alarm scent, preventing the formation of an attack swarm. Beekeepers must purchase or construct special enclosures to contain the beehives. The most popular model in the United States is the Langstroth hive, a rectangular wood and metal construction that sits upon a stand to keep it dry. Harvesting honey is an important part of the beekeeper’s job. When the honey is ready for harvesting, beekeepers seal the honeycomb with beeswax. They remove the frames of honeycombs and take them to the extractor, where the honey is spun out of the
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Interview: Howland Blackiston Howland Blackiston, the author of Beekeeping For Dummies (John Wiley & Sons, 2002), has been a backyard beekeeper for more than 20 years. He has written many articles on beekeeping and has appeared on dozens of television shows, radio programs, and in numerous magazines. Howland is also co-founder and president of http://www.bee-commerce.com, an Internet-based superstore that offers beekeeping supplies and equipment for the hobbyist beekeeper, and is past president of Connecticut’s Back Yard Beekeepers Association, one of the nation’s largest regional clubs for the hobbyist beekeeper. Q. How did you become interested and involved in beekeeping? A. My first introduction to life inside the honeybee hive occurred many years ago during a school assembly. My classmates and I were shown a wonderful movie about the secret inner workings of the beehive. The film mesmerized me. I’d never seen anything so remarkable and fascinating. How could a bug be so smart and industrious? I couldn’t help being captivated by the bountiful honeybee. That brief childhood event planted a seed that blossomed into a treasured hobby some 20 years later. Q. As a beekeeping hobbyist, what sorts of activities do you do? A. As a beekeeper you continually discover new things about nature, bees, and their remarkable social behavior. Just about any school, nature center, garden club, or youth organization loves for you (as a beekeeper) to share your knowledge. Each year I make the rounds with my slide show and props, sharing the miracle of honeybees with my community. On many occasions my daughter’s teacher and classmates visited the house for an on-site workshop. I opened the hive and gave each wide-eyed student a close-up look at bees at work. Spreading the word to others about the value these little creatures bring to all of us is great fun. You’re planting a seed for our next generation of beekeepers. After all, a grade-school presentation on beekeeping is what aroused my interest in honeybees. I maintain half a dozen hives on my property in Weston, Connecticut. Beekeeping isn’t labor intensive. Sure, you’ll spend a weekend putting together
honeycomb. It is filtered and drained into a tank. The honey is stored in five-gallon buckets or in fifty-five gallon drums. This is a part of beekeeping where physical strength is important.
your new equipment. And beekeepers just love to spend every chance they can get visiting their bees. But frequent visits are optional. The actual time that you absolutely must spend with your bees is surprisingly modest. Other than your first year (when I urge new beekeepers to inspect the hive frequently to find out more about their bees) you need to make only five to six visits to your hives every year. Add to that the time that you spend harvesting honey, repairing equipment, and putting things away for the season, and you’ll probably devote 19 to 28 hours a year to your hobby (more if you make a business out of it). I pretty much work solo at this hobby, although my family and neighbors enthusiastically chipin during honey harvest weekend. Their reward? Fresh, pure honey still warm from the hive.
Q. To some people, beekeeping can seem like a dangerous venture. What sorts of safety precautions do you take? Do beekeepers often get stung? A. Perhaps the best-known part of the bee’s anatomy is its stinger. Quite honestly, that was my biggest apprehension about taking up beekeeping. I don’t think I’ve ever been stung by a honeybee, but I’d certainly felt the wrath of yellow jackets and hornets. I wanted no part of becoming a daily target for anything so unpleasant. I fretted about my fear for a long time, looking for reassurances from experienced beekeepers. They told me time and again that honeybees bred for beekeeping were docile and seldom inclined to sting. But lacking firsthand experience, I was doubtful. The advice turned out to be 100 percent correct. Honeybees are docile and gentle creatures. To my surprise (and delight), I made it through my entire first season without receiving a single sting. In the nearly 20 years that I’ve been keeping bees, not a single member of my family, not a single visitor to my home, and not a single neighbor has ever been stung by one of my honeybees. If you run like a banshee every time you see an insect, I suspect that beekeeping will be an uphill challenge for you. But if you love animals, nature, and the outdoors, and if you’re curious about how creatures communicate and contribute to our environment, you’ll be captivated by honeybees. If you like the idea of “farming” on a small scale, or you’re intrigued by the prospect of harvesting your own allnatural honey, you’ll enjoy becoming a beekeeper. Do I ever get stung? Sure. But usually not more than three or four times a year. In every case, the
Beekeepers also spend time keeping data on their colonies. Their records track information regarding the queens, any extra food that may have been required, honey yields and dates, and so forth.
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stings I take are a result of my own carelessness. I’m rushing, taking shortcuts, or am inattentive to their moods—all things that I shouldn’t do. The secret to avoiding stings is your technique and demeanor. Here are some helpful tips for avoiding stings: • Always wear a veil and use your smoker when visiting your hive. • Inspect your bees during pleasant daytime weather. Try to use the hours between 10:00 a . m . and 5:00 p . m . That’s when most of the bees are out working, and fewer bees are at home. Don’t open up the hive at night, during bad weather, or if a thunderstorm is brewing. • Don’t rush. Take your time and move calmly. Sudden movements are a no-no. • Get a good grip on frames. If you drop a frame of bees, you’ll have a memorable story to tell. • Never swat at bees. Become accustomed to them crawling on your hands and clothing. They’re just exploring. Bees can be gently pushed aside if necessary. • When woodenware is stuck together with propolis [a resinous, waxy material bees collect from the buds of trees], don’t snap it apart with a loud “crack.” The bees go on full alert when they feel sudden vibrations. • Never leave sugar syrup or honey in open containers near the hive. Doing so can excite bees into a frenzy, and you may find yourself in the middle of it. It can also set off robbing—an unwelcome situation in which bees from other colonies attack your bees, robbing them of their honey. • Keep yourself and bee clothing laundered. Bees don’t like bad body odor. If you like to eat garlic, avoid indulging right before visiting your bees. • Wear light-colored clothing. Bees don’t seem to like dark colors.
Q. What are some of the benefits of beekeeping? A. Why has mankind been so interested in beekeeping over the centuries? I’m sure that the first motivator was honey. After all, for many years and long before cane sugar, honey was the primary sweetener in use. I’m also sure that honey remains the principal draw for many backyard beekeepers. But the sweet reward is by no means the only reason folks are attracted to beekeeping. For a long time, the agricultural community has recognized the value of pollination by bees. Without the bees’ help, many commercial crops would suffer serious consequences. Even backyard beekeepers witness dra-
n requirements High School If you’re interested in beekeeping, you should take high school classes in business and mathematics to prepare
matic improvements in their gardens’ yields: more and larger fruits, flowers, and vegetables. A hive or two in the garden makes a big difference in your success as a gardener. The rewards of beekeeping extend beyond honey and pollination. Bees produce other products that can be harvested and put to good use, including beeswax, propolis, and royal jelly. Even the pollen they bring back to the hive can be harvested (it’s rich in protein and makes a healthy food supplement in our own diets). Although I can’t point to any scientific studies to confirm it, I honestly believe that tending honeybees reduces stress. Working with my bees is so calming—almost magical. I am at one with nature, and whatever problems may have been on my mind tend to evaporate. There’s something about being out there on a lovely warm day, the intense focus of exploring the wonders of the hive, and hearing that gentle hum of contented bees—it instantly puts me at ease, melting away whatever day-to-day stresses that I might find creeping into my life. Any health food store proprietor can tell you the benefits of the bees’ products. Honey, pollen, royal jelly, and propolis have been a part of healthful remedies for centuries. Honey and propolis have significant antibacterial qualities. Royal jelly is loaded with B vitamins and is widely used overseas as a dietary and fertility stimulant. Pollen is high in protein and can be used as a homeopathic remedy for seasonal pollen allergies
Q. How can someone who is interested in beekeeping become involved in the field? A. The first question to ask is, “When should I start on this adventure?” Winter is an ideal time to start beekeeping. Winter is a good time to order and assemble the equipment that you’ll need and to reserve a package of bees for early spring delivery. Use the winter months to read up on bees and beekeeping and become familiar with your equipment. I unmodestly suggest my own book, Beekeeping For Dummies. Be sure to join a bee club and attend their meetings. That’s a great way to learn more about beekeeping and meet new friends. Many clubs have special programs for new beekeepers and hands-on weekend workshops that show you how it’s done. Visit http://www.beeculture.com and click on “Who’s Who in the Bee Yard”. There you will find a list of bee clubs and associations in your state. Latch onto a mentor whom you can call on to answer questions and help you get started.
you for the records-keeping aspect of this work. Science classes, such as natural sciences, biology, and earth science, will give you an understanding of the environment as well as processes such as pollination. If your high school
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istics for a beekeeper, many beekeepers today feel that a shrewd business sense and marketing savvy are what’s most necessary to survive. Most commercial beekeepers seem to agree that the key to success as a beekeeper lies less in working with the bees than in working in the commercial business marketplace. Therefore, a good understanding of economics and basic business accounting is essential to the practice of beekeeping. Nevertheless, beekeepers still need physical strength, endurance, and a love of the outdoors to be successful. Of course, a beekeeper will also be working with large groups of insects, so this is not a job for people with aversions to insects or allergies to bee venom.
n exploring
This beekeeper is examining the honeycomb from a honeybee (Apis mellifera) hive. (Nigel Cattlin, Photo Researchers.)
offers agriculture classes, be sure to take those for added understanding of crop and animal production. Wood shop classes will also be useful if you intend to build your own hives.
Postsecondary Training
If you are interested in beekeeping, you should contact a local beekeeping association for advice and guidance. You should find an experienced, successful beekeeper who is willing to share his or her knowledge. A part-time job with a beekeeper would be an ideal introduction to the trade, but the opportunity simply to observe a beekeeper and ask questions is also invaluable. Read as much as you can about beekeeping. Start by checking out your local library for books on the subject; look for books written specifically for your part of the country. You should also subscribe to a beekeeping magazine, such as BeeCulture (on the Web at http://bee.airoot.com/beeculture) or American Bee Journal (http://www.dadant.com/abj.htm). Join a local chapter of 4-H or the National FFA (formerly Future Farmers of America). While you may not gain direct experience with beekeeping, you will be able to work on agricultural or other projects and gain management experience.
Many people learn to do this work by getting informal on-the-job training when working with an experienced beekeeper. Community or junior colleges that offer agriculture classes may also provide another avenue for learning about honey production and bee care. Finally, some states may offer apprenticeship programs in beekeeping. To find out what agency to contact in your state regarding apprenticeships, visit the Employment and Training Administration’s Web site at http://www.doleta.gov.
n employers
Certification or Licensing
n starting out
Beekeeping licenses are issued at the state level, and requirements vary from state to state. Some states do not require a license at all, although almost every state requires that the commercial beekeeper register every hive.
Since most beekeepers work independently, the most likely route of entry is to learn the basics and invest in some starting equipment. You can contact your local beekeeping association for advice. Keep in mind that if you hope to raise bees for commercial profit, you will need a substantial amount of capital to get started, and you’re likely to face several years without profits while you work to increase honey production. If you live in an area where
Other Requirements While a love of nature and the ability and desire to work alone were once among the most important character-
Beekeeping is a small and specialized profession. Some in the field estimate that there are under 2,000 professional beekeepers in the United States. The vast majority of beekeepers today do not depend on beekeeping for their income; they’re known in the trade as “sideliners” or hobbyists. Most beekeepers run their own independent business rather than work for a large commercial establishment.
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bees are raised, you should contact local beekeepers who may hire you for part-time or seasonal work.
try, as—despite protective gear—stings are an inevitable part of the job.
n advancement
n outlook
Advancement in this field most often comes as beekeepers increase the number of hives they own and increase their commercial sales. It isn’t likely that new beekeepers will be able to support themselves by beekeeping alone; most likely it will be a hobby or a sideline to supplement their living.
Since the 1980s, 90 percent of the nation’s wild honeybees have been wiped out by tracheal and varroa mites. Many beekeepers find that their bee colonies dwindle by over half each year, while costs are up as much as 100 percent. With less than 2,000 commercial beekeepers currently in operation in the United States and one third of our food supply dependent on honeybees for pollination, it might seem logical to assume that there will be increasing demand for their services in the future. However, since the North American Free Trade Agreement was passed, the need for orchard pollination services has shifted from the United States to Mexico. In addition, it is increasingly difficult for domestic producers to compete with the prices of imported honey. Foreign honey producers have fewer environmental regulations to abide by, lower wage rates to pay, and fewer worker benefits to provide. Thus, they are able to charge less for their product. Due to all of these factors, beekeepers in the United States are seeing demand for their services in decline. However, many continue to keep bees as a hobby or sideline business.
n earnings Earnings for beekeepers vary greatly, even from year to year, as honey prices fluctuate and production from hives changes. Other variables that affect earnings include the number of hives a beekeeper has, the type of honey produced, and the season’s weather conditions. Some beekeepers end up with no profits. Commercial beekeepers may only make in the $10,000 to $20,000 range. The National Agricultural Statistics Service reports the average price paid for the honey crop was approximately $0.67 per pound in 2001, and colonies averaged a production of 74 pounds. This means that a beekeeper could potentially earn about $50 from every colony owned. Remember, however, expenses and taxes have not been subtracted from this amount. To make a profit, a beekeeper typically needs to have thousands of colonies producing well. Medium and small sized operations usually have a difficult time turning any profit. Some beekeepers are able to earn income through raising hives to rent to crop growers. Rental fees vary, but it’s not unusual for a beekeeper to get $40 to $50 per hive for a two- to three-week period. Some small-scale beekeepers are able to market and sell specialty items (for example, beeswax-based products) that can be profitable, but again, this is usually a hobby or sideline, not an exclusive source of income.
n work environment Beekeepers work primarily outdoors. The “in-season” hours (mostly in the spring and summer) can be very long, and the work can be physically challenging. Those who enjoy nature might well be suited for beekeeping, but there are indoor components to the work as well, such as tending to business records, processing honey, and caring for equipment. This is a field that requires discipline and the ability to work without supervision. A beekeeper must spend many hours working alone in tasks that can be grueling. Many beekeepers work parttime at the trade while performing other agricultural duties. Those with a sensitivity to bee stings should certainly avoid this indus-
n for more information The American Beekeeping Federation acts on behalf of the beekeeping industry on issues affecting the interests and the economic viability of the various sectors of the industry. The organization sponsors an essay contest in conjunction with 4-H and also has a Honey Queen and Honey Princess Program. For more information, contact American Beekeeping Federation PO Box 1337 Jesup, GA 31598-1038 Tel: 912-427-4233 Email:
[email protected] http://www.abfnet.org
The Back Yard Beekeepers Association is a national club that provides their membership with interesting and practical information about the “how-to’s” of beekeeping. The club also provides the general public with educational programs about honeybees and the benefits of beekeeping in the community. Use the Web site to locate a club near you. Back Yard Beekeepers Association http://www.backyardbeekeepers.com
For information on the programs offered by these organizations and how to join, contact National 4-H Headquarters Families, 4-H & Nutrition
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CSREES/USDA 1400 Independence Avenue, SW Washington, DC 20250 http://www.4husa.org
National FFA Organization 6060 FFA Drive PO Box 68960 Indianapolis, IN 46268 Tel: 317-802-6060 http://www.ffa.org
The National Honey Board serves the honey industry by increasing demand for honey and honey products. Check out the Web site for information on the industry. National Honey Board 390 Lashley Street Longmont, CO 80501-1421 Tel: 303-776-2337 http://www.nhb.org
Beverage Industry Workers n overview Beverage industry workers are located throughout the United States, manufacturing and bottling (or otherwise packaging) soft drinks, including carbonated beverages, coffee, tea, juices, and mineral and spring waters. In addition to major locations where manufacturing, research and development, and administrative work are performed, many companies have smaller sites for bottling and distribution. Thus there are a variety of sites for larger companies as well as small, local manufacturers.
n history According to the National Soft Drink Association in Washington, D.C., the manufacturing of soft drinks in America began in the 1830s. However, the evolution of soft drinks took place over a much longer time period. The forerunners of soft drinks began more than 2,000 years ago when Hippocrates, the “Father of Medicine,” first suspected that mineral waters could be beneficial to our well-being. In America, the transition resulted from the discovery of the natural springs in New York. Scientists began studying the tiny bubbles fizzing from these waters—car-
bon dioxide. They perfected a way to produce artificially carbonated water in the laboratory. By the 1830s, pharmacists began to add ingredients from plants in an effort to improve the curative properties of soft drinks. Ginger ale, root beer, sarsaparilla, lemon, and strawberry were popular early flavors. The temperance movement, which tried to persuade people not to drink alcoholic beverages, helped create a market for these drinks. For many years, soft drinks were mixed in local pharmacies, but demand grew for them to be consumed in the home. Methods of bottling carbonated drinks were developed and in 1892 the “crown cap” was invented. It revolutionized the soft drink industry by preventing the escape of carbon dioxide from bottled beverages. Retail outlets began carrying the bottled drinks and the invention of “Hom-Paks,” the first six-pack carton, made it more convenient to carry products home.
n the job The beverage industry provides jobs in many phases of manufacturing, from mixing syrups for soft drinks to working on assembly lines for bottling, sealing, shipping, distributing, and selling the products. Plant, distribution, and sales managers are a few of the administrative positions, while maintenance, shipping, and technical workers are employed by most companies. There are many small companies involved at the bottling and wholesale level, where workers process, sell, and distribute beverages. Plants that process soft drinks require workers who control flows, pressures, temperatures, line speeds, carbonation, Brix (measurement of sugar solution), and in-line blending. Workers may be employed in growing and harvesting of beverage industry products, such as coffee, tea, citrus, and other fruits, as well as the processing, packaging, shipping, distribution, and sales of these products. Since many teas and coffees are imported from other countries, there are positions involving importing, processing, packaging, shipping, and distributing these products as well as in sales. There also are jobs in plants that create the sweeteners, syrups, bottles, cans labels, and other items that support the manufacturing and sale of beverages. In all areas of the beverage industry, positions range from unskilled laborers to highly paid administrative and sales staff. There also are many technical and scientific positions, where people work to create new types of beverages, new flavors, and new packaging as well as in quality control. In 2001 the Food and Drug Administration announced a final rule on juice processors’ need to
comply with HACCP (Hazardous and Critical Control Point) principles to ensure safe production of juices. The purpose of the HACCP system is to eliminate illnesscausing microbes and other hazards in the manufacturing process. To comply with the regulation, the industry began adding additional staff who have appropriate education and training in these areas. Still another area of employment related to the beverage industry is the recycling of cans and bottles.
n requirements High School A high school degree is required for many positions in the beverage industry, but that is only the beginning of preparation for this work. Courses in family and consumer science, chemistry, shop, mathematics, and business will help prepare you for both the job itself and further training that is required in this complex and multilayered field. Although there are almost always some positions available for unskilled laborers, it is unlikely that any advancement or job security can be obtained without at least a high school diploma. Much training is provided by beverage companies, but basic education is necessary to qualify for more sophisticated training programs.
Postsecondary Training Training as a laboratory technician can be advantageous in obtaining work in the beverage industry. An associate’s degree also is helpful, but more education is required for many positions. If you want to work in a management, supervisory, or quality control position, you will need at the minimum a college degree. Typical majors for those working in these areas include the sciences (biology and chemistry), engineering, or business. In addition, you will need to gain the applied skills and knowledge needed to manage a high-volume plant from in-house training, experience, and organizations, such as the International Society of Beverage Technologists (ISBT). ISBT, in conjunction with Florida International University, offers training workshops and seminars covering technical subjects related to the beverage industry. In addition, ISBT technical committees present papers or seminars on topics such as sanitation, packaging, and health and safety at the organization’s annual meetings.
Other Requirements The issue of water quality is increasingly critical in this field. The Environmental Protection Agency is decreasing the levels of lead it deems tolerable in beverages. The agency also is concerned about the by-products of disinfection: trihalomethanes and chloroforms.
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Products that increase the biological oxygen demand stem primarily from the sweeteners and flavorings used in the industry, and several municipalities now demand pretreatment of such products. This means that more scientific education is required for some areas of the beverage industry. More issues involving quality control are likely to produce more jobs requiring technical skills. Additional business and management skills are needed for strategic planning to address these issues.
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quick facts School Subjects
Chemistry Family and consumer science Personal Skills
Following instructions Technical/scientific Work Environment
Primarily indoors Primarily one location Minimum Education Level
High school diploma Salary Range
$23,700 to $45,000 to $85,000+
n exploring
Certification or Licensing If you are interested in a career None available in this field, begin exploring by doing some research. Read Outlook industry publications and visit About as fast as the average their Web sites to learn about DOT new trends, terminology, and 529 important manufacturers. Beverage World magazine http://www. GOE beverageworld.com), Beverage 08.03.02 Digest newsletter (http://www. NOC beverage-digest.com), and Tea & 9213, 9461, 9465, 9617 Coffee Trade Journal (http://www. teaandcoffee.net) are good publiO*NET-SOC cations to take a look at. If there N/A is a manufacturing plant in your area, try to get a summer or parttime job there. No matter what position you get, you’ll have an inside look at the beverage industry. If there isn’t a plant in your area, look for work in any setting offering
Soft Drink Facts n
The first cola-flavored beverage was produced in 1881.
n
Approximately 450 different soft drinks are now available in the U.S. market.
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Of soft drinks consumed, approximately 77 percent are packaged and 23 percent dispensed from fountains.
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Approximately 500 bottlers operate in the United States.
Source: National Soft Drink Association
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Words to Know Concentrate or beverage base: Material manufactured from company-defined ingredients and sold to bottlers for use in the preparation of syrups through the addition of sweetener and/or water. CSD: Carbonated soft drink. Fountain: Beverage system used by retail outlets to dispense product into cups or glass for immediate consumption. HFCS (High Fructose Corn Syrup): A common sweetener made from corn. High fructose corn syrup is less expensive than cane sugar. PET (Polyethyene Terephthelate): Plastic used to make soft drink bottles. Soft drink: Nonalcoholic carbonated beverage containing flavorings and sweeteners; excludes flavored waters and carbonated or noncarbonated teas, coffees, and sports drinks. Syrup: Concentrate mixed with sweetener and water, sold to bottlers and customers who add carbonated water to produce finished soft drinks. Unit case: Unit of measurement equal to 24 eight-ounce servings. Source: National Soft Drink Association
interaction with the beverage industry, such as grocery stores, juice bars, coffee shops, and delivery services. These should also provide you with valuable work experience and give you the opportunity to learn what consumers like, how supplies are ordered and delivered, and what new products are available.
n employers Employers in the beverage industry range from small bottling companies and importers of tea and coffee to international corporations such as Coca Cola, Pepsi Cola, Hills Brothers, Maxwell House, Nestle, and Lipton Tea. Positions in route sales, advertising, and distributing are available in most cities and many smaller communities.
n starting out Positions in the beverage industry may be advertised in the employment section of local newspapers. Some workers belong to unions, and information about employment is available through union offices. Some positions may be listed with employment agencies. Applying to the human resources department of a local plant or company is a good way to find out about available jobs. Talking to a
route salesman who may be visiting a local supermarket is another method of gaining information about companies. Large plants may offer tours to students and other individuals who may be seeking employment or who want to learn about the industry.
n advancement With sufficient technical education and training, such as a degree in chemistry, workers can expect to advance to more technical positions in research and development or quality control. A college degree in business, management, or marketing as well as in-house training may lead to supervisory and management positions. Many years of experience in the industry may be necessary to reach higher administrative posts.
n earnings Earnings for beverage industry workers vary based on their specific responsibilities, the size of their employer, the location, their union affiliation, their experience, and other such factors. Those in management, supervisory, research and development, or engineering positions naturally tend to have higher earnings. A sampling of job postings from Wade Palmer & Associates, a recruitment firm for food and beverage manufacturing professionals, provides some salary ranges for a variety of positions. For example, the firm’s Web site (http://www.job-recruiters.com) advertised quality control/assurance supervisor positions from around the country with a general salary range of $45,000 to $85,000 in 2005. Maintenance team leaders, responsible for overseeing the maintenance and repair of processing and packaging machinery, had a range of $50,000 to $63,000. Warehouse/distribution team leaders had a general range of $42,000 to $55,000. These salary ranges did not include bonuses and earnings could be higher in individual cases. Of course, these earnings do not represent incomes for executives at the top of major corporations who may earn hundreds of thousands of dollars annually. For workers on the production line, the U.S. Department of Labor provides earnings figures for a number of production occupations. The department reports, for example, that first-line supervisors/managers of production workers had mean annual earnings of $46,140 in 2005. Packaging and filling machine operators and tenders in the food and beverage industry had a mean annual of $23,700, also in 2004. The National Soft Drink Association reports that the soft drink industry alone employs approximately 183,000 people across the country and creates a total of 1.6 million jobs and approximately $8 billion per year in salaries and wages.
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Beverage industry workers generally have good benefits packages, including such things as health insurance, retirement plans or pensions, and paid vacation time.
n work environment According to the National Soft Drink Association, the modern bottling plant is a highly automated, sanitary environment. Highly sophisticated equipment handles the entire process, from the delicate mixing procedure to bottling to packaging. Compliance with HACCP has resulted in stricter standards of sanitation in the beverage industry. As with any plant in which technical equipment is used, there are always some safety risks. Eye-hand coordination plays an important role in this area.
n outlook Beverage World Publications Group, publishers of Beverage World magazine, reports the global beverage marketplace is a $700 billion industry. The National Soft Drink association reported that in 2002, retail sales for domestic consumption alone was over $61 billion. Today, numerous mega-plants operate around the clock, seven days a week. New drink products enter the market each year, and during the past decade, specialty companies, such as Starbucks Coffee and the many herbal tea manufacturers, have added millions of dollars and hundreds of jobs to the workplace. In addition to regular coffee, customers now can choose from espresso, café latte, hazelnut, mocha, and combinations of flavors. Energy drinks represent another growing area in the beverage industry. Figures from Beverage Marketing Corporation, a research group, revealed that dollar and volume growth in this segment was 110 percent during 2000 to 2001. In addition to growth from new products, carbonated soft drinks, the old stand-bys, continue to dominate the U.S. beverage industry. Despite rising concerns about obesity, the average American still drinks gallons and gallons of carbonated soft drinks every year. In fact, the National Soft Drink Association reported that in 2002 the average amount was just under 53 gallons for every American. As long as people are thirsty, there should be steady job opportunities in this field.
n for more information To learn more about the bottled water industry, water facts, and read news releases, visit the International Bottled Water Association’s Web site. International Bottled Water Association 1700 Diagonal Road, Suite 650 Alexandria, VA 22314 Tel: 703-683-5213 http://www.bottledwater.org
For more information on education, the annual meeting, and links to related trade groups, visit the ISBT Web site. International Society of Beverage Technologists (ISBT) 8110 South Suncoast Boulevard Homosassa, FL 34446 Tel: 352-382-2008 http://www.bevtech.org
For information on the soft drink market, contact American Beverage Association 1101 16th Street, NW Washington, DC 20036 Tel: 202-463-6732 http://www.amerbev.org
Bicycle Mechanics n overview Bicycle mechanics use hand and power tools to repair, service, and assemble all types of bicycles. They may do routine maintenance and tune-ups, or completely rebuild damaged or old bicycles. Bike manufacturers, dealers, retail bike and sporting goods stores, and general merchandise stores may employ bicycle mechanics. The popularity of bicycles and the fact that many riders lack the time to repair their bikes makes for a steady employment outlook for bicycle mechanics. Approximately 8,000 bicycle mechanics work in the United States.
n history Bicycles have been said to be the most efficient means ever devised to turn human energy into propulsion. The first successful bicycle was built in Scotland around 1839. It, like the bicycles built for many years afterward, had a large front wheel that was pedaled and steered, and a smaller wheel in back for balance. In time, advances in design and technology improved the ease with which riders could balance, steer, brake, and get on and off bicycles. The first modern-looking bicycle, with equal-sized front and rear wheels and a loop of chain on a sprocket drive, was built in 1874. By the early 1890s, pneumatic tires and the basic diamond-pattern frame made bicycles stable, efficient, and fairly inexpensive. Bicycle riding became a popular recreation, and, in some countries around the world, a major form of transportation. In the 20th century, bicycle performance was further improved by
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lightweight frames with new designs and improved gear mechanisms, tires, and other components. After automobiles became the dominant vehicles on American roads, bicycles were usually considered children’s toys in the United States. However, the environmental movement of the 1960s and 1970s, and the resulting concern with polluting fossil fuels, saw a resurgence in their popularity among adults that has continued to this day. With the increasing costs associated with cars and environmental concerns, more people are using bikes, not only for exercise, racing, or touring, but also for short trips to the store, to visit friends, or to go to work.
n the job Repairing bicycles takes mechanical skill and careful attention to detail. Many repairs, such as replacing brake cables, are relatively simple, while others can be very complicated. Mechanics use a variety of tools, including wrenches, quick facts screwdrivers, drills, vises, and School Subjects specialized tools to repair and Physics maintain bikes. There are many Technical/shop different brands of bikes, both domestic and foreign, and each Personal Skills Following instructions has its own unique characteristics Mechanical/manipulative and mechanical problems. Bicycle mechanics work on both Work Environment new and used bicycles. They may be Primarily indoors required to do emergency repairs Primarily one location or routine tune-ups, or they may Minimum Education Level need to repair and recondition used High school diploma bikes so they can be sold. Many new bikes come from the manufacSalary Range turer unassembled, and mechan$14,550 to $20,910 to ics working at a bicycle dealership $29,520 or shop must assemble them and Certification or Licensing make adjustments so they operate Voluntary properly. Many department stores and discount houses that sell bikes Outlook contract out this type of assembly About as fast as the average work to dealerships or bike shops, DOT and it can be very profitable. 639 Some of the basic repairs that bicycles need can easily be done GOE by the owner, but many cyclists 05.03.02 lack the tools, time, or initiative NOC to learn how to service their bikes. 7445 They prefer to take most problems to professional bicycle mechanics. O*NET-SOC One type of repair is fixing a flat 49-3091.00 tire. Leaks in clincher tires (those
with a separate inner tube) can be fixed at home, but many owners choose to take them to a bicycle mechanic. Repairing sew-up tires (which have no inner tube) is a more complicated process that generally requires a mechanic. Mechanics can also build wheels, replace and tighten spokes, and “true,” or align the wheels. To build a wheel, the mechanic laces the spokes between the rim and the hub of the wheel and then tightens them individually with a special wrench until the wheel spins without wobbling. A truing machine is used to test the balance of the wheel as it spins. The gear mechanism on multiple-speed bikes is another common concern for bicycle mechanics. On some bikes, gears are shifted by means of a derailleur, which is located on the back wheel hub or at the bottom bracket assembly where the pedals and chain meet. This derailleur frequently needs adjustment. The mechanic aligns the front and rear gears of the derailleur to reduce wear on both the chain and the gear teeth and adjusts the mechanism to keep constant pressure on the chain. Gear mechanisms vary greatly among different makes of bicycles so mechanics have to keep up with current models and trends. Bicycle mechanics must be able to spot trouble in a bike and correct problems before they become serious. They may have to straighten a bent frame by using a special vise and a heavy steel rod. They may be asked to adjust or replace the braking mechanism so that the force on the brakes is spread evenly. They may need to take apart, clean, grease, and reassemble the headset, or front hub, and the bottom bracket that houses the axle of the pedal crank. Mechanics who work in a bike shop sometimes work as salespeople, advising customers on their bike purchases or accessories, including helmets, clothing, mirrors, locks, racks, bags, and more. In some shops, especially those located in resort areas, bike mechanics may also work as bicycle-rental clerks. Where winters are cold and biking is seasonal, bike mechanics may work part of the year on other recreational equipment, such as fitness equipment, snowmobiles, or small engines.
n requirements High School Completion of high school or other formal education is not necessarily required for a job as a bicycle mechanic, although employers may prefer applicants who are high school graduates. If you are considering this kind of work, you will benefit from taking vocational-technical or shop classes in high school. Such classes will give you the opportunity to work with your hands, follow blueprints or other directions, and build equipment. Science
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classes, such as physics, will give you an understanding of the principles at work behind the design of equipment as well as helping you to understand how it functions. Since you will most likely be working in a retail environment, consider taking business, accounting, or computer classes that will give you business skills. Don’t forget to take English or communication classes. These classes will help you develop your communication skills, an asset when dealing with customers, as well as your research and reading skills, an asset when your work includes reviewing maintenance and repair documentation for many different types of bikes.
Certification or Licensing Bicycle maintenance courses are offered at some technical and vocational schools, and there are at least three privately operated training schools for mechanics. Bicycle manufacturers may also offer factory instruction to mechanics employed by the company’s authorized dealers. Completion of many of the courses offered earns the mechanic certificates that may help when seeking a job or when seeking a promotion.
Other Requirements For the most part, bike mechanics learn informally on the job. At least two years of hands-on training and experience is required to become a thoroughly skilled mechanic, but because new makes and models of bikes are constantly being introduced, there are always new things to learn that may require additional training. Many times a bicycle distributor visits bike mechanics at a shop to make sure the mechanic’s work is competent before the shop is officially permitted to sell and service a new kind of bike. Because of this steady stream of new information, bicycle mechanics must have a desire to study and add to their knowledge. Bicycle mechanics also need excellent hand-eye coordination and a certain degree of physical endurance. They may work with small tools to make fine adjustments. Often much of their work is performed while they stand, bend, or kneel. Mechanics must be independent decision makers, able to decide on proper repair strategies, but they should also be able to work comfortably with others. Frequently they will need to interact with customers and other workers.
n exploring Many people become interested in bicycle repair because they own and maintain their own bikes. Taking general maintenance and tune-up classes that some bike shops offer for bicycle owners is a good way for you to explore your interest in working with bikes. Visit with the bicycle
A bicycle mechanic tunes up a bicycle to get it ready for summer. (Bill Truslow, Tony Stone Images.)
mechanics at these shops and ask them for their insights. How did they start in this line of work? What do they enjoy most about it? What is the most challenging aspect of the job? If a local shop does not offer classes, consider taking courses at a private school such as the United Bicycle Institute or the Barnett Bicycle Institute (contact information is at the end of this article). Bike shops sometimes hire inexperienced students as assistants to work on a part-time basis or during the summer when their business is most brisk. Such
Street Bikes, Mountain Bikes, and Hybrids To most people, a bike is something that collects dust in the garage after you get your learner’s permit, but to those lucky enough to live in a neighborhood or town where a bike path makes them a viable means of transportation, the choice of what to ride can make a big difference. Mountain bikes are what you see BMX (bicycle motor cross) riders use. They tend to be small, light, and rugged, and have smaller wheels and thicker tires that can grip the ground. Some are outfitted with accessories that allow the rider to do tricks, but their real advantage is that they can be even when the ground is muddy or snowy. Conversely, road or touring bikes are what you see in the Tour de France. They have thinner tires, turned-down handlebars, and larger wheels—all of which makes them very fast, but rather delicate and best used on pavement. There are also hybrids (or trail bikes), which are a compromise between the mountain bike and the street bike, and comfort bikes, which are designed for adults to ride with an upright posture and a more padded seat.
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a job is probably the best way to find out about this type of work. There are various magazines available at larger newsstands, bookstores, or public libraries that are devoted to recreational cycling and serious bicycle racing. These magazines often include the technical aspects of how bicycles are constructed and operated, and they may provide helpful information to anyone interested in bike repair. Bicycle associations can provide additional information regarding classes, industry news, and employment.
n employers There are approximately 7,000 bicycle mechanics working in the United States, and they are employed nationwide. They may work in local bicycle shops, for large sporting goods stores, or for bicycle manufacturers. Resorts and some retail stores also hire people with these skills. Bicycle mechanics may also be required to repair other types of equipment or serve as sales clerks.
n starting out If you are a beginner with no experience, start out by contacting local bike shops or bike manufacturers to find one that is willing to hire trainees. Check the Yellow Pages for a list of bicycle dealers in your area. Bike dealers may also be willing to provide on-the-job training. In addition, the want ads of your local newspaper are a source of information on job openings. Also, try joining a local bicycling club that will allow you to network with other enthusiasts who may know of open positions. People who have learned bike repair and have accumulated the tools they need may be able to do repair work independently, perhaps using ads and referrals to gradually build a small business.
n advancement There are few opportunities for advancement for bicycle mechanics unless they combine their interest in bikes with another activity. For example, after a few years on the job, they may be able to start managing the bike shop where they work. Some mechanics move on to jobs with the bicycle department of a large department or sporting goods store and from there move up to department manager or regional sales manager. Another possibility is to become a sales representative for a bicycle manufacturer or distributor. Some bicycle mechanics are merely working their way through college. Others want to own and operate their own bike stores. If they gain enough experience and save or borrow enough money to cover start-up costs, they may be able to establish a successful new business. College courses in business, management, and accounting
are recommended for aspiring shop owners. Bicycle businesses tend to do best in progressive communities where there are publicly funded bike paths and people actively look for alternatives to America’s automobile culture.
n earnings Many bicycle mechanics work a standard 40-hour week. In some areas of the country, mechanics may find that their hours increase in the spring, when people bring their bikes out of storage, and decrease when the weather gets colder. Workers in this field are typically paid on an hourly basis, with salaries ranging from $7.00 per hour ($14,550 per year) for the lowest 10 percent, comprising trainees and inexperienced mechanics, to $14.19 an hour ($29,520 a year) for the top 10 percent. According to the U.S. Department of Labor, the median salary for bicycle repairers in 2002 was $10.05 an hour, or $20,910 a year. Benefits vary depending on the shop or facility where employed and the number of hours worked. Some jobs may include standard benefits.
n work environment Bicycle mechanics do much of their work indoors standing at a workbench. They work constantly with their hands and various tools to perform the prescribed tasks. It is a job that requires attention to detail and, in some cases, the ability to diagnose and troubleshoot problems. Because of the wide variety of bicycles on the market today, mechanics must be familiar with many different types of bicycles, and their problems and repair procedures. Although it is sometimes greasy and dirty work, it is, in general, not very strenuous. Most heavy work, such as painting, brazing, and frame straightening, is done in larger bike shops and specialty shops. Once the job is mastered, workers may find it somewhat repetitious and not very challenging. It may also be frustrating in cases where bicycles are so old or in such bad shape that they are virtually irreparable. Most often, bicycle mechanics choose this profession because they are cycling enthusiasts themselves. If this is the case, it may be very enjoyable for them to be able to work with bicycles and interact with customers who are fellow cyclists. Mechanics work by themselves or with a few coworkers as they service bikes, but in many shops they also deal with the public, working the register or helping customers select and purchase bicycles and accessories. The atmosphere around a bike shop can be hectic, especially during peak seasons in shops where mechanics must double as clerks. As is true in any retail situation, bicycle mechanics may sometimes have to deal with irate or rude customers.
billing clerks
n outlook Cycling continues to gain in popularity. People are bicycling for fun, fitness, as a means of transportation, and for the thrill of racing. Bikes don’t burn gas or pollute the atmosphere, and they are relatively cheap and versatile. With personal fitness and the preservation of the environment as two of the nation’s biggest trends and concerns, the bicycling industry looks to a positive future. The U.S. Department of Labor predicts employment for bicycle mechanics to grow about as fast as the average through 2014. Bicycle repair work is also relatively immune to fluctuations in the economy. In times of economic boom, people buy more new bikes and mechanics are kept busy assembling, selling, and servicing them. During economic recessions, people take their old bikes to mechanics for repair.
n for more information For biking news and to read online articles from the magazine Adventure Cyclist, contact Adventure Cycling Association 150 East Pine Street PO Box 8308 Missoula, MT 59807 Tel: 800-755-2453 Email:
[email protected] http://www.adv-cycling.org
For information on courses in bicycle repair and mechanics, contact Barnett Bicycle Institute 2755 Ore Mill Drive, Number 14 Colorado Springs, CO 80904 Tel: 719-632-5173 http://www.bbinstitute.com
For news and information about upcoming races and events, contact League of American Bicyclists 1612 K Street, NW, Suite 800 Washington, DC 20006-2850 Tel: 202-822-1333 Email:
[email protected] http://www.bikeleague.org
For more information on the industry, contact National Bicycle Dealers Association 777 West 19th Street, Suite O Costa Mesa, CA 92627 Tel: 949-722-6909 Email:
[email protected] http://www.nbda.com
For information on beginning to advanced courses in repair, frame building, and mechanic certification, contact United Bicycle Institute 401 Williamson Way PO Box 128 401 Williamson Way Ashland, OR 97520 Tel: 541-488-1121 Email:
[email protected] http://www.bikeschool.com
Billing Clerks n overview Billing clerks produce and process bills and collect payments from customers. They enter transactions in business ledgers or spreadsheets, write and send invoices, and verify purchase orders. They are responsible for posting items in accounts payable or receivable, calculating customer charges, and verifying the company’s rates for certain products and services. Billing clerks must make sure that all entries are accurate and up-to-date. At the end of the fiscal year, they may work with auditors to clarify billing procedures and answer questions about specific accounts. There are approximately 523,000 billing clerks employed in the United States.
n history The need to record business transactions has existed ever since people began to engage in business and commerce. As far back as 3000 b.c., Sumerians in Mesopotamia recorded sales and bills for customers on clay tablets. Wealthy traders of early Egyptian and Babylonian civilizations often used slaves to make markings on clay tablets to keep track of purchases and sales. With the rise of monarchies in Europe, billing clerks were needed to record the business transactions of kings, queens, and rich merchants and to monitor the status of the royal treasury. During the Middle Ages, monks carried out the tasks of billing clerks. As the industrial revolution spread across Europe, increasing commercial transactions, billing clerks became a necessary part of the workforce. Computer technology has changed the way clerks record transactions today, allowing for billing information and financial transactions to be recorded electronically, eliminating the need for paperwork. But billing clerks continue to occupy a central role in the business world, managing the day-to-day inner workings of company finance.
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n the job Billing clerks are responsible for keeping records and upto-date accounts of all business transactions. They type and send bills for services or products and update files to reflect payments. They also review incoming invoices to ensure that the requested products have been delivered and that the billing statements are accurate and paid on time. Billing clerks set up shipping and receiving dates. They check customer orders before shipping to make sure they are complete and that all costs, shipping charges, taxes, and credits are included. Billing clerks are also troubleshooters. They contact suppliers or customers when payments are past due or incorrect and help solve the minor problems that invariably occur in the course of business transactions. Billing clerks enter all transaction information onto the firm’s account ledger. This ledger lists all the company’s transactions such as items bought or sold as well as quick facts the credit terms and payment and receiving dates. As payments School Subjects Business come in, the billing clerk applies English credit to customer accounts and Mathematics applies any applicable discounts. All correspondence is carefully Personal Skills filed for future reference. Nearly Following instructions Technical/scientific all of this work is currently done using spreadsheets and computer Work Environment databases. Primarily indoors The specific duties of billing Primarily one location clerks vary according to the nature Minimum Education Level of the business in which they High school diploma work. In an insurance company, the transaction sheet will reflect Salary Range when and how much customers $19,370 to $27,780 to must pay on their insurance bills. $40,600 Billing clerks in hospitals comCertification or Licensing pile itemized charges, calculate None available insurance benefits, and process insurance claims. In accounting, Outlook law, and consulting firms, they More slowly than the average calculate billable hours and work DOT completed. 214 Billing clerks are also often responsible for preparing sumGOE mary statements of financial sta09.03.01 tus, profit-and-loss statements, NOC and payroll lists and deductions. 1431 These reports are submitted periodically to company manageO*NET-SOC ment, who can then gauge the 43-3021.00 company’s financial performance.
Clerks may also write company checks, compute federal tax reports, and tabulate personnel profit shares. Billing clerks may have a specific role within a company. These areas of specialization include the following: Invoice-control clerks post items in accounts payable or receivable ledgers and verify the accuracy of billing data. Passenger rate clerks compute fare information for business trips and then provide this information to business personnel. COD (cash-on-delivery) clerks calculate and record the amount of money collected on COD delivery routes. Interline clerks compute and pay freight charges for airlines or other transportation agencies that carry freight or passengers as part of a business transaction. Settlement clerks compute and pay shippers for materials forwarded to a company. Billing-control clerks compute and pay utility companies for services provided. Rate reviewers compile data relating to utility costs for management officials. Services clerks compute and pay tariff charges for boats or ships used to transport materials. Foreign clerks compute duties, tariffs, and price conversions of exported and imported products. Billing-machine operators mechanically prepare bills and statements. Deposit-refund clerks prepare bills for utility customers. Raters calculate premiums to be paid by customers of insurance companies. Telegraph-service raters compute costs for sending telegrams. Billing clerks may work in one specific area or they may be responsible for several areas.
n requirements High School A high school diploma is usually sufficient for a beginning billing clerk, although business courses in computer operations and bookkeeping are also helpful. In high school, take English, communications, and business writing courses. Computer science and mathematics courses will also be helpful. Training in spreadsheet programs such as Microsoft Excel will be invaluable. Some companies test their applicants on math, typing, and computer skills, and others offer on-the-job training.
Postsecondary Training Community colleges, junior colleges, and vocational schools often offer business education courses that can provide you with additional training.
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Other Requirements
n earnings
If you hope to be a billing clerk, you should have excellent mathematical and organizational skills, be detail oriented, and be able to concentrate on repetitive tasks for long periods of time. In addition, you should be dependable, honest, and trustworthy in dealing with confidential financial matters.
Salaries for billing clerks depend on the size and geographic location of the company and the employee’s skills. Full-time billing and posting clerks earned a mean hourly wage of $13.36 in 2005, according to the U.S. Department of Labor (DOL). For full-time work at 40 hours per week, this hourly wage translates into an annual income of approximately $27,780. The DOL also reported that salaries for these workers ranged from less than $19,370 to more than $40,600. Earnings also vary by responsibilities; for example, the DOL reports that billing clerks working in the management offices of companies and enterprises earned a mean of $14.54 per hour in 2005. This hourly amount translates into a yearly salary of approximately $30,250 for full-time work. Billing clerks with high levels of expertise and management responsibilities may make more than this amount. Full-time workers also receive paid vacation, health insurance, and other benefits.
n exploring You can gain experience in this field by taking on clerical or bookkeeping responsibilities with a school club, student government, or other extracurricular activities. If you are interested in the field, you can work in retail operations, either part time or during the summer. Working at the cash register or even pricing products as a stockperson is a good introductory experience. It also may be possible to gain some experience by volunteering to help maintain the bookkeeping records for local groups, such as churches and small businesses.
n employers Employers of billing clerks include hospitals, insurance companies, banks, manufacturers, and utility companies. Of the approximately 523,000 billing clerks employed in the United States, roughly one-third work in the health care field.
n starting out Your high school job placement or guidance office can help you find employment opportunities or establish job contacts after you graduate. You may also find specific jobs through classified newspaper advertisements. Most companies provide on-the-job training for entry-level billing clerks in order to explain to them company procedures and policies and to teach them the basic tasks of the job. During the first month, billing clerks work with experienced personnel.
n advancement Billing clerks usually begin by handling routine tasks such as recording transactions. With experience, they may advance to more complex assignments—which entail computer training in databases and spreadsheets—and assume a greater responsibility for the work as a whole. With additional training and education, billing clerks can be promoted to positions as bookkeepers, accountants, or auditors. Billing clerks with strong leadership and management skills can advance to group manager or supervisor. There is a high turnover rate in this field, which increases the chance of promotion for employees with ability and initiative.
n work environment Like most office workers, billing clerks usually work in modern office environments and average 37 to 40 hours of work per week. Billing clerks spend most of their time behind a desk, and their work can be routine and repetitive. Working long hours in front of a computer can often cause eyestrain, backaches, and headaches, although efforts are being made to reduce physical problems with ergonomically correct equipment. Billing clerks should enjoy systematic and orderly work and have a keen eye for numerical detail. While much of the work is solitary, billing clerks often interact with accountants and management and may work under close supervision.
n outlook The U.S. Department of Labor predicts that opportunities for billing clerks will grow more slowly than the average through 2014. A number of factors contribute to this slow growth rate. For example, technological advancements—computers, electronic billing, and automated payment methods—will streamline operations and result in the need for fewer workers. Additionally, the responsibilities of billing clerks may be combined with those of other positions. In smaller companies, for example, accounting clerks will make use of billing software, making billing clerks obsolete. Many job openings will result from the need to replace workers who have left for different jobs or other reasons. The health care sector should remain a large employer in this field.
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n for more information For additional career information, contact Office & Professional Employees International Union 265 West 14th Street, 6th Floor New York, NY 10011 Tel: 800-346-7348 Email:
[email protected] http://www.opeiu.org
Bindery Workers n overview Binding, or finishing, is the final step in the printing process. Bindery workers take the printed pages that go into books, magazines, pamphlets, catalogs, and other materials and quick facts fold, cut, sew, staple, stitch, and/ School Subjects or glue them together to produce Mathematics the finished product. Technical/shop Bindery workers typically work in commercial printing plants or Personal Skills Mechanical/manipulative specialized bindery shops. Some Technical/scientific bindery workers perform highly specialized tasks that require a Work Environment certain amount of training; other Primarily indoors bindery workers perform simple, Primarily one location repetitive tasks that are easily Minimum Education Level mastered. Approximately 81,000 High school diploma people are employed in bindery work in the United States. Salary Range
$16,190 to $25,050 to $41,470 Certification or Licensing
None available Outlook
Decline DOT
653 GOE
08.03.05 NOC
9473 O*NET-SOC
51-5011.02
n history Bookbinding is an ancient and honored craft. As early as the third century a.d., when books were still written on papyrus and animal skins, pages of parchment manuscripts were stored between two boards. During the Middle Ages, bookbinding was developed into a fine art by monks in monasteries who decorated the board covers of sacred books with elaborate bindings made of metal, jewels, ivory, and enamel. Around the year 900, the English introduced the use of leather to cover the boards and soon
became leaders in this field. English kings employed binders to decorate the books in the royal library. Nobles and other powerful figures followed their monarchs’ lead and established their own libraries of luxuriously bound volumes. These fine bindings were usually decorated with coats of arms or family crests. In this way, the bookbinder became a highly regarded artist. With the invention of the printing press in the 15th century, the demand for books grew among ordinary citizens, and the making and binding of books was transferred from monasteries and palaces to the shops of printers and binders. Today, the art of hand bookbinding is increasingly rare. There are still shops where skilled workers bind rare and restored books, but most finishing is now highly automated both for books and for other printed pieces.
n the job The average bindery worker today is a skilled machine operator. Collating, inserting, and other bindery tasks are periodically done by hand, but the bulk of binding processes are automated: cutting, folding, gathering, stitching, gluing, trimming, and wrapping. Finishing also might include embossing, die cutting, and foil stamping. There are several different types of binderies: edition binderies, which specialize in large volumes of books and magazines; pamphlet binderies, which make pamphlets; trade or job binderies, which finish smaller quantities on a contract basis for printers and publishers; and manifold or loose-leaf binderies, which bind blank pages and forms into ledgers, notebooks, checkbooks, calendars, and notepads. Hand bookbinders work in small shops where they bind special-edition books or restore and rebind old books. Hand bookbinding offers a wide variety of projects. Bindery work ranges from simple to complex. Some binding jobs, such as preparing leaflets or newspaper inserts, require only a single step—in this case folding. The most complicated binding work is edition binding, or the production of books from large printed sheets of paper. Book pages are usually not produced individually but are printed on a large sheet of paper, six or eight at a time. These large sheets are folded by a machine into units called signatures, and the signatures are joined together in the proper order to make a complete book. The signatures are then assembled by a gathering machine and sewed or glued together to make what is called a book block. The book blocks are compressed in a machine to ensure compactness and uniform thickness, trimmed to the proper size, and reinforced with fabric strips that are glued along the spine. The covers for the book are cre-
ated separately and are pasted or glued to the book block by machine. Books may undergo a variety of finishing operations, such as gilding the edges of pages or wrapping with dust jackets, before they are inspected and packed for shipment. A similar procedure is used in the binding of magazines, catalogs, and directories. In large binderies, the operations are usually done in an assembly-line fashion by workers who are trained in just one or two procedures. For example, a stitcher operator runs the machines that stitch printed matter along its spine or edge. Other workers might specialize in the cutting, folding, or gathering processes. Much of this work involves setting up equipment and adjusting it as needed during the binding process.
n requirements High School People with some knowledge of printing and binding are likely to have an advantage when they apply for jobs in the field. High school students interested in bindery careers can gain some exposure to bindery work by taking shop courses or attending a vocational-technical high school.
Postsecondary Training Occupational skill centers, often operated by unions, can also provide an introduction to the industry. Postsecondary training in graphic arts, often offered at community and junior colleges, is also useful. Local offices of printing industry associations offer individual courses related to the field. Formal apprenticeships are becoming less common but are available for workers interested in acquiring highly specialized skills. A four-year apprenticeship is usually needed to learn how to restore and bind rare books. Shorter apprenticeship programs combining on-thejob training with classroom instruction may be required for union shops. Four-year college programs in graphic arts are recommended for people who want to work in bindery shop management. With today’s fast-changing technology, all bindery workers are likely to need occasional retraining once employed in a job.
Other Requirements Accuracy, neatness, patience, and good eyesight are among the qualities needed for bindery occupations. Careful attention to detail may be the most important requirement for a bindery worker. Errors made in this final stage of the printing process can be costly if it means reinvesting labor and materials to redo previous steps. Finger dexterity is essential for workers who count, insert, paste, and fold, while mechanical skill is required of those who operate automated equipment. Artistic ability and imagination are required for hand
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The Ties That Bind You’ve seen one binding, you’ve seen them all, right? Wrong. Bindery work is highly specialized and involves a wide range of processes. The average book is finished with a technique called perfect binding, in which the pages and the cover are held together with glue. Other common methods of binding: n
Saddle stitching: Gathering and binding signatures of paper at the centerfold using wire stitches that looks like staples. As they move through the stitcher, the folded sheets rest on supports called saddles. This process is commonly used to bind booklets, brochures, and pamphlets.
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Smyth sewing: Bookbinding by sewing thread through the backfold of a signature (group of pages) and from signature to signature. This holds the signatures together while allowing the book to lay flat.
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Spiral binding: Binding loose sheets of paper together by threading a continuous wire coil through holes near the margin of the pages. This method is often used for notebooks and calendars.
Source: Careers in Graphic Communications, Graphic Arts Technical Foundation
bookbinding. In general, employers look for individuals with good communication skills and strong mathematical and mechanical aptitude.
n exploring You may be able to find out firsthand about bindery work through a summer job in a local bindery. By observing operations and talking with experienced employees, you can both learn and earn. In addition, many trade and vocational schools offer courses that teach the basics of the trade. Some schools even have work-study arrangements with trade or job binderies that enable students to broaden their experience in the field. Contacts made during this training period may be useful in securing full-time employment after graduation. Industry experts say that any exposure to the printing industry is valuable background for a job in the bindery field.
n employers Of the approximately 81,000 bindery workers in the United States, the majority are employed in commercial printing plants. In addition, a large number of bindery
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may find jobs through their school’s placement office. And industry association offices often run job listing services.
n advancement Most bindery workers learn their craft through on-thejob training. Entry-level employees start by doing simple tasks, such as moving paper from cutting machines to folding machines. As workers gain experience, they advance to more difficult tasks and learn how to handle one or more finishing processes. It generally takes one to three months to learn how to operate a new piece of equipment. Skilled workers can advance to supervisory positions, but opportunities for this type of advancement are mostly limited to larger binderies. Advancement is likely to be faster for workers who have completed an apprenticeship program than for those who have learned skills solely through on-the-job training.
n earnings
An employee of a bookbindery applies gold leaf by hand on a book. (Heinz von Heydenaber/dpa/Corbis.)
workers are employed at bindery trade shops. These shops provide binding services for printers without binderies or printers with too much binding work to complete on their own. Bindery work is done in printing plants, which may be located in out-of-the-way places where materials and labor are cheaper.
n starting out Information on apprenticeships and training opportunities is available through the state employment service, binderies, or local chapters of printing industry associations. People who want to start working first and learn their skills on the job should contact potential employers directly, especially if they want to work in a small nonunion bindery. Openings for trainee positions may be listed in newspaper want ads or with the state employment service. Trade school graduates
Bindery workers’ earnings vary according to the type of work they do, where they live, and if they are covered by union contracts. The U.S. Department of Labor reports that skilled bookbinders had median annual earnings of $25,050 in 2005. The lowest paid 10 percent earned less than $16,190 per year, and the highest paid 10 percent made more than $41,470. Workers under union contracts usually have higher earnings. The average workweek for bindery workers is between 35 and 40 hours, although many work more than that. Generally, full-time employees are paid overtime wages if they work more than 40 hours. Benefits typically include health insurance, paid vacation time, and retirement plans.
n work environment Modern binderies are usually well lighted and well ventilated, but they are often noisy. Certain jobs can be strenuous, requiring workers to stand for long periods of time and repeatedly reach, stoop, kneel, and lift and carry heavy items. Because many tasks are done in an assembly-line manner, bindery workers must be able to tolerate doing repetitious, monotonous tasks.
n outlook The U.S. Department of Labor predicts employment for bindery workers will decline through 2014. Because the binding process is becoming increasingly mechanized, the need for workers to do certain tasks is dwindling. New, automated equipment in binderies can perform a number of operations in sequence, beginning with raw stock at one
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end of the process and finishing with the final product. These machines shorten production time, increase plant productivity, and reduce overall labor requirements. Furthermore, the entire publishing industry is cutting back on expenses, looking to shave costs however possible. This tends to create a tight market environment for its manufacturing end. Knowledgeable workers, however, are needed to oversee the use of new technologies. Those with upto-date computer skills and mechanical aptitude will have the best opportunities in the field. “The pace of the industry has changed dramatically,” says Bob Goodman of Zonne Bookbinders in Chicago, Illinois. “It used to be that a job was scheduled over three or four weeks. Now everything is needed ‘by tomorrow.’” Because of this faster pace, Goodman says many binderies rely heavily on temporary workers to complete large jobs quickly. Most full-time job opportunities will come from the need to replace workers who leave the field for different jobs, retirement, or other reasons.
n for more information This trade association represents trade binders, looseleaf manufacturers, and suppliers throughout the United States, Canada, and Europe. For industry news and other resources, contact Binding Industries Association International 100 Dangerfield Road Alexandria, VA 22314 Tel: 703-519-8137 http://www.bindingindustries.org
This coalition serves as a clearinghouse, resource center, and coordinator of programs promoting career awareness, training, and a positive industry image. Graphic Communications Council 1899 Preston White Drive Reston, VA 20191-4367 Tel: 703-264-7200 Email:
[email protected] http://www.npes.org
This union represents U.S. and Canadian workers in all craft and skill areas of the printing and publishing industries. For information on education and training programs available through local union schools, contact Graphic Communications International Union 1900 L Street, NW Washington, DC 20036 Tel: 202-462-1400 http://www.gciu.org
Biochemists n overview Biochemists explore the tiny world of the cell, study how illnesses develop, and search for ways to improve life on earth. Through studying the chemical makeup of living organisms, biochemists strive to understand the dynamics of life, from the secrets of cell-to-cell communication to the chemical changes in our brains that give us memories. Biochemists examine the chemical combinations and reactions involved in such functions as growth, metabolism, reproduction, and heredity. They also study the effect of environment on living tissue. If cancer is to be cured, the earth’s pollution cleaned up, or the aging process slowed, it will be biochemists and molecular biologists who will lead the way.
n history Biochemistry is a fairly new science, even though the concept of biochemistry is said to have its roots in the discovery of the fermentation process thousands of years ago. In fact, the basic steps used to make wine from grapes were the same in ancient times as they are today. However, the rather unchanging methods used for alcohol fermentation do not nearly reflect the revolutionary changes that have occurred throughout recent history in our knowledge of cell composition, growth, and function. Robert Hooke, an English scientist, first described and named cells in 1665, when he looked at a slice of bark from an oak tree under a microscope with a magnifying power of 30x. Hooke never realized the significance of his discovery, however, because he thought the tiny boxes or “cells” he saw were unique to the bark. Anton van Leeuwenhoek, a Dutchman who lived in Hooke’s time, discovered the existence of single-celled organisms by
quick facts School Subjects
Biology Chemistry Personal Skills
Mechanical/manipulative Technical/scientific Work Environment
Primarily indoors Primarily one location Minimum Education Level
Bachelor’s degree Salary Range
$29,950 to $71,000 to $115,980+ Certification or Licensing
Required in certain positions Outlook
As fast as the average DOT
041 GOE
02.02.03 NOC
2112 O*NET-SOC
19-1021.00, 19-1021.01
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observing them in pond water and in animal blood and sperm. He used grains of sand that he had polished into magnifying glasses as powerful as 300x to see this invisible world. In 1839, nearly two centuries after Hooke’s and Leeuwenhoek’s discoveries, two German biologists, Matthias Schleiden and Theodor Schwann, correctly concluded that all living things consisted of cells. This theory was later expanded to include the idea that all cells come from other cells, and that the ability of cells to divide to form new cells is the basis for all reproduction, growth, and repair of many-celled organisms, like humans.
Controversies in Emerging Biotechnology Genetic engineering has opened up enormous potential for ending hunger, healing the sick, and helping people live longer lives. However, there are a number of controversies that have arisen from the new technology. In addition to securing patents, biotechnology lawyers of the future will have to deal with many of these issues in the work— sometimes by dealing with established government bodies, sometimes by lobbying legislators to draft new laws, and sometimes in the courtroom. According to law, it is possible to patent not just a DNA sequence that someone made in the lab, but one decoded from nature. Many people are disturbed by the fact that a corporation can “own” the sequence of nucleic acids that make them who they are. It also means that one company can control the snippet of genetic information that, say, causes Alzheimer’s disease. Anyone who developed a therapy to prevent the disease would have to pay a royalty to the company, which can dramatically increase the price of treatment. Another controversy concerns genetically modified organisms, or GMOs, used as food. Some worry that people who eat (for instance) corn that has a peanut gene inserted to make it more resistant to pests might have an allergic reaction to the peanut proteins. Others worry that hardier and stronger genetically engineered crops might spread into the wild, supplanting their natural kin and wreaking havoc on the ecosystem’s delicate balance. Cloning is another area of concern. Cloning, right now, is an imperfect science; cloned animals tend to age rapidly and be generally unwell. Should the desires of grieving parents who want an exact duplicate of their dead child be allowed to trump that child’s quality of life? Who has a right to create a human being as a science experiment? And if a human baby is cloned with just enough of his or her genetic code modified, is the child patentable?
Over the past 40 years, a powerful instrument called the electron microscope has revealed the complex structure of cells. Every cell, at some state in its life, contains DNA, the genetic material that directs the cell’s many activities. Biochemists have widened their scope to include the study of protein molecules and chromosomes, the building blocks of life itself. Biology and chemistry have always been allied sciences, and the exploration of cells and their molecular components, carried out by biochemists and other biological scientists, has revealed much about life. Watson and Crick’s breakthrough discovery of the structure of DNA in 1953 touched off a flurry of scientific activity that led to a better and better understanding of DNA chemistry and the genetic code. These discoveries eventually made it possible to manipulate DNA, enabling genetic engineers to transplant foreign genes into microorganisms to produce such valuable products as human insulin, which occurred in 1982. Today, the field of biochemistry crosses over into many other sciences, as biochemists have become involved in genetics, nutrition, psychology, fertility, agriculture, and more. The new biotechnology is revolutionizing the pharmaceutical industry. Much of this work is done by biochemists and molecular biologists because this technology involves understanding the complex chemistry of life.
n the job Depending on a biochemist’s education level and area of specialty, this professional can do many types of work for a variety of employers. For instance, a biochemist could have a job doing basic research for a federal government agency or for individual states with laboratories that employ skilled persons to analyze food, drug, air, water, waste, or animal tissue samples. A biochemist might work for a drug company as part of a basic research team searching for the cause of diseases or conduct applied research to develop drugs to cure disease. A biochemist might work in a biotechnology company focusing on the environment, energy, human health care, agriculture, or animal health. There, he or she might do research or quality control, or work on manufacturing/production or information systems. Another possibility is for the biochemist to specialize in an additional area, such as law, business, or journalism, and use his or her biochemistry or molecular biology background for a career that combines science with regulatory affairs, management, writing, or teaching. Ph.D. scientists who enter the highest levels of academic life combine teaching and research. In addition to teaching in university classrooms and laboratories, they also do basic research designed to increase bio-
chemistry and molecular biology knowledge. As Ph.D. scientists, these professionals could also work for an industry or government laboratory doing basic research or research and development (R&D). The problems studied, research styles, and type of organization vary widely across different laboratories. The Ph.D. scientist may lead a research group or be part of a small team of Ph.D. researchers. Other Ph.D. scientists might opt for administrative positions. In government, for example, these scientists might lead programs concerned with the safety of new devices, food, drugs, or pesticides and other chemicals. Or they might influence which projects will get federal funding. Generally, biochemists employed in the United States work in one of three major fields: medicine, nutrition, or agriculture. In medicine, biochemists mass-produce life-saving chemicals usually found only in minuscule amounts in the body. Some of these chemicals have been helping diabetics and heart attack victims for years. Biochemists employed in the field of medicine might work to identify chemical changes in organs or cells that signal the development of such diseases as cancer, diabetes, or schizophrenia. Or they may look for chemical explanations for why certain people develop muscular dystrophy or become obese. While studying chemical makeup and changes in these situations, biochemists may work to discover a treatment or a prevention for a disease. For instance, biochemists discovering how certain diseases such as AIDS and cancer escape detection by the immune system are also devising ways to enhance immunity to fight these diseases. Biochemists are also finding out the chemical basis of fertility and how to improve the success of in vitro fertilization to help couples have children or to preserve endangered species. Biochemists in the pharmaceutical industry design, develop, and evaluate drugs, antibiotics, diagnostic kits, and other medical devices. They may search out ways to produce antibiotics, hormones, enzymes, or other drug components, or they may do quality control on the way in which drugs and dosages are made and determined. In the field of nutrition, biochemists examine the effects of food on the body. For example, they might study the relationship between diet and diabetes. Biochemists doing this study could look at the nutrition content of certain foods eaten by people with diabetes and study how these foods affect the functioning of the pancreas and other organs. Biochemists in the nutrition field also look at vitamin and mineral deficiencies and how they affect the human body. They examine these deficiencies in relation to body performance, and they may study anything from how the liver is affected by a lack of vitamin B to the effects of poor nutrition on the ability to learn.
biochemists
Biochemists involved in agriculture undertake studies to discover more efficient methods of crop cultivation, storage, and pest control. For example, they might create genetically engineered crops that are more resistant to frost, drought, spoilage, disease, and pests. They might focus on helping to create fruit trees that produce more fruit by studying the biochemical composition of the plant and determining how to alter or select for this desirable trait. Biochemists may study the chemical composition of insects to determine better and more efficient methods of controlling the pest population and the damage they do to crops. Or they could work on programming bacteria to clean up the environment by “eating” toxic chemicals. About seven out of 10 biochemists are engaged in basic research, often for a university medical school or nonprofit organization, such as a foundation or research institute. The remaining 30 percent do applied research, using the discoveries of basic research to solve practical problems or develop products. For example, a biochemist working in basic research may make a discovery about how a living organism forms hormones. This discovery will lead to a scientist doing applied research, making hormones in the laboratory, and eventually to mass production. Discoveries made in DNA research have led to techniques for identifying criminals from a single strand of hair or a tiny blood stain left at the scene of a crime. The distinction between basic and applied research is one of degree, however; biochemists often engage in both types of work. Biochemistry requires skillful use of a wide range of sophisticated analytical equipment and application of newly discovered techniques requiring special instruments or new chemical reagents. Sometimes, biochemists themselves must invent and test new instruments if existing methods and equipment do not meet their needs. Biochemists must also be patient, methodical, and careful in their laboratory procedures.
n requirements Although they usually specialize in one of many areas in the field, biochemists and molecular biologists should also be familiar with several scientific disciplines, including chemistry, physics, mathematics, and computer science. High school can provide the foundation for getting this knowledge, while four years of college expands it, and postgraduate work directs students to explore specific areas more deeply. The following describes possible strategies at each level and includes a community college option.
High School If you have an interest in biochemistry as a high school student, you should take at least one year each of biology,
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Two biochemists work with artificial spider’s thread they have produced with the aid of genetically modified bacteria. (Matthias Schrader/dpa/Corbis.)
chemistry, physics, algebra, geometry, and trigonometry. Introductory calculus is also a good idea. Because scientists must clearly and accurately communicate their results verbally and in writing, English courses that emphasize writing skills are strongly recommended. Many colleges and universities also require several years of a foreign language, a useful skill in this day and age, as scientists frequently exchange information with researchers from other countries.
Postsecondary Training Some colleges have their own special requirements for admission, so you should do a little research and take any special courses you need for the college that interests you. Also, check the catalogs of colleges and universities to see if they offer a program in biochemistry or related sciences. Some schools award a bachelor’s degree in biochemistry, and nearly all colleges and universities offer a major in biology or chemistry. To best prepare yourself for a career in biochemistry or molecular biology, you should start by earning a bachelor’s degree in either of these two areas. Even if your college does not offer a specific program in biochemistry or molecular biology, you can get comparable training by doing one of two things: (1) working toward a bachelor’s degree in chemistry and taking courses in biology, molecular genetics, and biochemistry, including a biochemistry laboratory class, or (2) earning a bachelor’s degree in biology, but taking more chemistry, mathematics, and physics courses than the biology major may require, and also choosing a biochemistry course that has lab work with it. It really doesn’t matter if you earn a bachelor of science (B.S.) or a bachelor of arts (B.A.) degree; some
schools offer both. It is more important to choose your courses thoughtfully and to get advice in your freshman year from a faculty member who knows about the fields of biochemistry and molecular biology. Many careers in biochemistry, especially those that involve teaching at a college or directing scientific research at a university, a government laboratory, or a commercial company, require at least a master’s degree and prefer a doctorate or Ph.D. degree. Most students enter graduate programs with a bachelor’s degree in biochemistry, or in chemistry or biology with supplementary courses. Because biochemistry and molecular biology are so broad-based, you can enter their graduate programs from such diverse fields as physics, psychology, nutrition, microbiology, or engineering. Graduate schools prefer students with laboratory or research experience. However you get there, a graduate education program is intense. A master’s degree requires about a year of course work and often a research project as well. For a Ph.D. degree, full-time course work can last up to two years, followed by one or more special test exams. But the most important part of Ph.D. training is the requirement for all students to conduct an extensive research project leading to significant new scientific findings. Most students work under a faculty member’s direction. This training is vital, as it will help you develop the skills to frame scientific questions and discover ways to answer them. It will also teach you important laboratory skills useful in tackling other biochemical problems. Most students complete a Ph.D. program in four or five years.
Certification or Licensing Biochemists who wish to work in a hospital may need certification by a national certifying board such as the American Board of Clinical Chemistry.
Other Requirements A scientist never stops learning, even when formal education has ended. This is particularly true for biochemists and molecular biologists because constant breakthroughs and technology advances make for a constantly changing work environment. That is why most Ph.D.’s go for more research experience (postdoctoral research) before they enter the workplace. As a “postdoc,” you would not take course work, earn a degree, or teach; you would be likely to work full-time on a high-level research project in the laboratory of an established scientist. Typically, this postdoctoral period lasts two to three years, during which time you would get a salary or be supported by a fellowship. Though not essential for many industry research jobs, postdoctoral research is generally expected of those wishing to become professors. Also, because biochemis-
try and medicine are such allies, some Ph.D. recipients also earn their medical degrees, or M.D.’s, as a physician does. This is to get the broadest possible base for a career in medical research.
n exploring The analytical, specialized nature of most biochemistry makes it unlikely that you will gain much exposure to it before college. Many high school chemistry and biology courses, however, allow students to work with laboratory tools and techniques that will give them a valuable background before college. In some cases, high school students can take advantage of opportunities to train as laboratory technicians by taking courses at a community college. You might also want to contact local colleges, universities, or laboratories to set up interviews with biochemists to learn as much as you can about the field. In addition, reading science and medical magazines will help you to stay current with recent breakthroughs in the biochemistry field.
n employers Government agencies at the federal, state, and local levels employ about four out of every 10 biological scientists. At such agencies these scientists may do basic research and analyze food, drug, air, water, waste, or animal tissue samples. Biochemists also work for university medical schools or nonprofit organizations, such as a foundation or research institute, doing basic research. Drug companies employ biochemists to search for the causes of diseases or develop drugs to cure them. Biochemists work in quality control, research, manufacturing/production, or information systems at biotechnology companies that concentrate on the environment, energy, human health care, agriculture, or animal health. Universities hire biochemists to teach in combination with doing research.
n starting out A bachelor’s degree in biochemistry or molecular biology can help you get into medical, dental, veterinary, law, or business school. It can also be a stepping-stone to a career in many different but related fields: biotechnology, toxicology, biomedical engineering, clinical chemistry, plant pathology, animal science, or other fields. Biochemists fresh from a college undergraduate program can take advantage of opportunities to get valuable on-the-job experience in a biochemistry or molecular biology laboratory. The National Science Foundation and the National Institutes of Health, both federal government agencies, sponsor research programs for undergraduates. Groups who can particularly benefit from these programs include women, Hispanics,
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African Americans, Native Americans, Native Alaskans, and students with disabilities. Your college or university may also offer senior research projects that provide hands-on experience. Another way to improve your chances of getting a job is to spend an additional year at a university with training programs for specialized laboratory techniques. Researchers and companies like these “certificate programs” because they teach valuable skills related to cell culture, genetic engineering, recombinant DNA technology, biotechnology, in vitro cell biology, protein engineering, or DNA sequencing and synthesis. In some universities, you can work toward a bachelor’s degree and a certificate at the same time. Biochemists with a bachelor’s degree usually begin work in industry or government as research assistants doing testing and analysis. In the drug industry, for example, you might analyze the ingredients of a product to verify and maintain its quality. Biochemists with a master’s degree may enter the field in management, marketing, or sales positions, whereas those with a doctorate usually go into basic or applied research. Many Ph.D. graduates work at colleges and universities where the emphasis is on teaching.
n advancement The more education you have, the greater your reward potential. Biochemists with a graduate degree have more opportunities for advancement than those with only an undergraduate degree. It is not uncommon for students to go back to graduate school after working for a while in a job that required a lesser degree. Some graduate students become research or teaching assistants in colleges and universities, qualifying for professorships when they receive their advanced degrees. Having a doctorate allows you to design research initiatives and direct others in carrying out experiments. Experienced biochemists with doctorates can move up to high-level administrative positions and supervise entire research programs. Other highly qualified biochemists who prefer to devote themselves to research often become leaders in a particular aspect of their profession.
n earnings According to a report by the National Association of Colleges and Employers, beginning salaries in 2005 for graduates with bachelor’s degrees in biological science averaged $31,258 per year. The U.S. Department of Labor reports that biochemists and biophysicists had average annual incomes of $71,000 in 2005. Salaries ranged from less than $29,950 to more than $115,980 per year.
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Colleges and universities also employ many biochemists as professors and researchers. The American Association of University Professors reports that salaries for postsecondary teachers with Ph.D.’s range from $45,763 for a lecturer to $100,682 for a full tenured professor. Biochemists who work for universities, the government, or industry all tend to receive good benefits packages, such as health and life insurance, pension plans, and paid vacation and sick leave. Those employed as university faculty operate on the academic calendar, which means that they can get summer and winter breaks from teaching classes.
n work environment Biochemists generally work in clean, quiet, and welllighted laboratories where physical labor is minimal. They must, however, take the proper precautions in handling chemicals and organic substances that could be dangerous or cause illness. They may work with plants and animals; their tissues, cells, and products; and with yeast and bacteria. Biochemists in industry generally work a 40-hour week, although they, like their counterparts in research, often put in many extra hours. They must be ready to spend a considerable amount of time keeping up with current literature, for example. Many biochemists occasionally travel to attend meetings or conferences. Those in research write papers for presentation at meetings or for publication in scientific journals. Individuals interested in biochemistry must have the patience to work for long periods of time on a project without necessarily getting the desired results. Biochemistry is often a team affair, requiring an ability to work well and cooperate with others. Successful biochemists are continually learning and increasing their skills.
n outlook Employment growth for biological scientists, including biochemists, is expected to be about as fast as the average through 2014, according to the U.S. Department of Labor, as the number of trained scientists has increased faster than available funding. Competition will be strong for basic research positions, and candidates with more education and the experience it brings will be more likely to find the positions they want. Employment is available in health-related fields, where the emphasis is on finding cures for such diseases as cancer, muscular dystrophy, AIDS, and Alzheimer’s. Additional jobs will be created to produce genetically engineered drugs and other products in the new and rapidly expanding field of genetic engineering. In this area, the outlook is best for biochemists with advanced degrees who can conduct genetic and cellular research. A caveat exists, however. Employment
growth may slow somewhat as the number of new biotechnology firms slows and existing firms merge. Biochemists with bachelor’s degrees who have difficulty entering their chosen career field may find openings as technicians or technologists or may choose to transfer their skills to other biological science fields. It is estimated that over the next decade, 68 percent of those entering the workforce will be women and members of other minority groups. The federal government, recognizing this situation, offers a variety of special programs (through the National Science Foundation and the National Institutes of Health) to bring women, minorities, and persons with disabilities into the field.
n for more information For additional information about careers, education, and scholarships, contact the following organizations: American Association for Clinical Chemistry 1850 K Street, NW, Suite 625 Washington, DC 20006-2213 Tel: 800-892-1400 Email:
[email protected] http://www.aacc.org
American Chemical Society 1155 16th Street, NW Washington, DC 20036 Tel: 800-227-5558 http://www.chemistry.org
American Institute of Biological Sciences 1444 Eye Street, NW, Suite 200 Washington, DC 20005 Tel: 202-628-1500 Email:
[email protected] http://www.aibs.org
American Society for Biochemistry and Molecular Biology Education Information 9650 Rockville Pike Bethesda, MD 20814-3996 Tel: 301-530-7145 Email:
[email protected] http://www.asbmb.org
American Society for Investigative Pathology 9650 Rockville Pike Bethesda, MD 20814-3993 Tel: 301-634-7130 Email:
[email protected] http://www.asip.org
Biofeedback Therapists n overview Biofeedback training is a process that helps patients gain control of their responses to stress, anxiety, physical strain, and emotional stimuli. Special instruments monitor a variety of physiological conditions, including heart rate, skin temperature, muscle tension, and blood pressure. Biofeedback therapists assist patients in interpreting the information gathered through monitoring. They help them learn to control individual body functions and reactions in ways that can decrease stress and alleviate the effects of a wide range of disorders, such as migraine headaches, gastrointestinal concerns, and epilepsy.
n history Biofeedback therapy has a relatively short history. The term itself did not come into widespread use until roughly 1969, when the results of four separate lines of research converged into a new approach to the treatment of a variety of medical and psychological conditions. Until the early 1960s, psychologists generally accepted the premise that biological responses typically thought to be “involuntary,” or under the control of the autonomic nervous system (such as heart rate, stomach acid secretion, blood pressure, or skin resistance) could not be modified or influenced using measurable instrumental means. Instead, this form of conditioned learning was thought possible only for responses that were under “voluntary” control, such as skeletal muscle responses. A definitive statement of this collective assumption appeared in a 1961 textbook, prompting a number of scientists to begin studies to refute it. Four areas of study in particular yielded notable results. One approach employed a shock-avoidance paradigm in which subjects could avoid mild electrical shocks by making appropriate adjustments in heart rate. These studies demonstrated that statistically significant increases and decreases in heart rate could be obtained using instrument-based conditioning techniques. Other work achieved similar results using a positive reinforcement paradigm rather than shock avoidance. About the same time, several other researchers showed that galvanic skin response, the ability of the body to conduct minute amounts of naturally occurring electrical current across the skin, could also be controlled by individuals. As these reports surfaced, critics began to appear. They pointed to the fact that some voluntary responses
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can elicit a response that appears to be autonomic or involuntary. For instance, changes in heart rate can be initiated by altering respiration patterns or tensing certain muscle groups—both responses under voluntary control. If changes in heart rate, an autonomically mediated response, were “caused” by changes in responses under voluntary control, critics argued, such a demonstration would not prove that heart rate itself could be changed by voluntary control. A third line of research sought to address this concern, removing the effect of voluntary responses from the equation. Laboratory rats were injected with curare, a drug that paralyzes all skeletal muscles (including those that enable the animals to breathe). They then were maintained on artificial respiration, which kept them alive and exactly regulated their breathing. Finally, an electrode was implanted in the hypothalamus, the part of the brain that regulates body temperature, certain metabolic processes, and other involuntary activities, so the researchers could control quick facts its actions. With this preparaSchool Subjects tion, scientists showed that sevBiology eral involuntary responses could Psychology be spontaneously conditioned— not only heart rate, but blood Personal Skills pressure and urine formation, Helping/teaching Technical/scientific among others. This demonstration of large magnitude changes Work Environment in the responses of the internal Primarily indoors organs in animals encouraged Primarily one location researchers to speculate on the Minimum Education Level wide range of human psychoBachelor’s degree somatic disorders that might be treatable with biofeedback. Salary Range Eventually, a fourth avenue of $30,000 to $50,000 to research emerged in the field of $200,000 electroencephalography (EEG), Certification or Licensing the study of electrical activity Recommended in the brain. Several scientists began to study whether subjects Outlook could “voluntarily” produce cerFaster than the average tain EEG patterns—particularly DOT the alpha rhythm, a distinctive N/A rhythm associated with deep relaxation. Because of the simiGOE larity in the subjective experience N/A of a “high alpha state” with that reported for meditation, selfNOC N/A control of EEG patterns attracted much attention beyond the sciO*NET-SOC entific community, helping the N/A entire field to grow.
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n the job Biofeedback therapy is a treatment that over the last three decades has shown considerable promise for patients with a wide range of conditions and disorders. Because it can be adapted to so many uses, it has developed more as a complementary skill than as a separate career. Biofeedback therapists come from a variety of backgrounds—physicians, social workers, psychologists, physical therapists, chiropractors, speech pathologists, even dental hygienists, among others. These professionals incorporate biofeedback learning techniques into the more traditional treatments they regularly provide. While it is not impossible to have a career in biofeedback without underlying training in a different field, few people are trained only as biofeedback therapists. It is true, however, that many therapists with experience in other disciplines choose to focus their practices largely on biofeedback. An understanding of the uses of biofeedback begins with an understanding of the effects of stress. Stress often arises from major life changes, such as divorce, the death of a loved one, a move to a new home, or even celebrating holidays with family. In such high-stress times, a person’s body undergoes “fight-or-flight” reactions. The body reacts physiologically to a person’s mental and emotional concerns. The effects of a typical fight-or-flight situation, such as a mugging or assault, may be considerable. A person reacting to such a potentially life-threatening situation will experience physiological changes. But much smaller stresses to a person’s system, such as anxiety the night before an important exam, can also have lingering negative effects. An exam is not a life-threatening situation, but if someone perceives
A biofeedback therapist fits sensors to a test subject at a biofeedback conference. (Tony Savino, Image Works.)
it that way, these perceptions can cause the same types of physiological changes. Some people are terrified to speak in front of a group. There is no physical danger, but the speaker feels threatened in nonphysical ways—he or she may trip, forget lines, mispronounce words, fail at getting a message across, or be ridiculed. The speaker becomes nervous and tense, activating the fight-or-flight response when there is no real reason to do so. Scientists believe that if people can learn to make themselves ill in this way, by moving their body systems out of balance, they might very well be able to learn to reverse the process and make themselves well. Biofeedback training teaches patients to restore balance to their body systems by voluntarily controlling generally involuntary reactions to various forms of stress. There are three primary forms of biofeedback therapy; they involve the measurement of skin temperature, muscle tension, and brain waves. Each form is useful in a different range of disorders and conditions, and the list continues to grow. Skin temperature biofeedback is often used with a therapeutic technique called autogenic training. Skin temperature is affected by blood flow, which is affected by stress. When a person is tense, blood vessels narrow, limiting the flow of blood in the body and causing skin temperature to drop. Biofeedback therapists place sensors on the hands or feet to determine blood flow. Autogenic training involves mastering passive concentration, and when properly practiced, helps the patient relax deeply through a number of repeated formula phrases. (“My right arm is heavy. My right arm is heavy. My right arm is heavy. My left arm is heavy....”) The relaxation improves blood flow and raises skin temperature. These techniques have been shown to aid patients suffering from severe migraine headaches, Raynaud’s disease (a disorder of the blood vessels in the extremities characterized by extreme sensitivity to cold), and hypertension or high blood pressure, among other complaints. Muscle tension biofeedback, or electromyograph (EMG) biofeedback training, involves using sensitive electrodes to detect the amount of electrical activity in muscles. Auditory and visual feedback helps patients learn to control the pace and intensity of this activity. Autogenic training may be used in these situations as well to encourage relaxation. Many disorders respond to EMG biofeedback therapy, including tension headaches, anxieties, phobias, and psychoses. The last line of research is the study of brain waves using electroencephalograph (EEG), or neurobiofeedback. Brain waves display certain characteristic rhythmic patterns. Beta rhythms are fast and have small amplitude;
they predominate when you are awake or mentally aroused. Alpha rhythms, the first to be identified in EEG biofeedback therapy, are extraordinarily symmetrical, have large amplitude, and increase in most patients when they close their eyes and relax their bodies. Theta rhythms continue the slide toward sleep and increase as a person becomes drowsy, corresponding to early dreaming states. Delta rhythms are irregular and occur in heavy, dreamless sleep. Biofeedback training that teaches patients to seek the alpha state has been shown to be helpful in the treatment of epilepsy, attention deficit disorder, autism, and obsessive-compulsive disorders, among other maladies. Scientists currently are exploring the use of EEG training in enhancing creativity and improving learning. A biofeedback therapist’s approach depends on his or her primary training. Physicians use biofeedback to complement medical remedies. Social workers use biofeedback to help patients cope with the social and emotional effects of chronic and sometimes debilitating problems. Music therapists use music and rhythm in conjunction with biofeedback to help patients understand and control physiological and emotional reactions. Other professionals who might use biofeedback therapy include nurses, psychiatrists, physical therapists, and anyone involved in health care or counseling work.
n requirements High School To enter this range of careers you will need science courses, such as biology and anatomy. Physical education and health will give you some understanding of the physical aspects of biofeedback. Since counseling skills are also important, classes in psychology and sociology can be helpful. Biofeedback currently is a rapidly expanding field. The marriages of art and biofeedback (as in an art therapy practice) or sports and biofeedback (as in the development of specialized training programs for top athletes) are just two of the many more unusual applications of this discipline.
Postsecondary Training Most people who practice biofeedback therapy first become licensed in some other area of health care. Biofeedback then becomes an area of specialization within their practices. A biofeedback therapist may have a master’s degree in social work, a Ph.D. in psychology, a nursing or medical degree, or some other professional designation. After receiving this professional degree (which may take 10 or more years, in the case of a medical degree), you then take courses in biofeedback from approved schools.
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What Problems Can Biofeedback Help? According to the Association for Applied Psychophysiology and Biofeedback, this therapy can help in the treatment of the following: n
Migraine and tension headaches. Studies with follow-ups as long as 15 years show the treatment is effective.
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Essential hypertension. One study found 80 percent of individuals with this condition reduced their prescription medications or no longer needed them at all after biofeedback training.
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Attention deficit disorder/attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADD/ADHD). Practitioners report patients with these conditions who receive EEG biofeedback have 60 to 80 percent improvement and need less medication.
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Panic and anxiety disorders. Studies have shown people with these disorders who receive biofeedback training are much more able to control these states.
The Biofeedback Certification Institute of America (BCIA) provides a listing of approved schools and required course work on its Web site (http://www.bcia. org). Though many institutions offer workshops in biofeedback and may even offer biofeedback training programs and degrees, not all of them are approved by the certifying board. Some biofeedback therapists do practice without certification, but these uncertified therapists are not recognized by the professional organizations.
Certification or Licensing The BCIA was created to establish and maintain standards for practitioners who use biofeedback and to certify practitioners who meet those standards. BCIA certification requires you to have a minimum of a bachelor’s degree granted by a regionally accredited academic institution in one of the following approved health care fields: counseling, chiropractic, dental hygiene, dentistry, exercise physiology, medicine, nursing, occupational therapy, physical therapy, physician’s assistant, psychology, recreational therapy, rehabilitation, respiratory therapy, social work, speech pathology, and sports medicine. Those who do not have a degree in one of these fields may be eligible for certification through a special review. Candidates must complete 150 hours of training at an accredited biofeedback training program. This involves coursework as well as hands-on experience. Class work
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covers topics such as neuromuscular intervention, the autonomic nervous system, and professional conduct. The clinical training involves working directly with patients while under careful supervision and using a variety of biofeedback techniques. Candidates must also receive biofeedback, have supervised patient case conferences, and complete a comprehensive course in human anatomy, human biology, or human physiology. Once all of these requirements are fulfilled candidates are eligible to take the rigorous written certification exam. At this time, BCIA certification is not mandatory, but is recommended. In addition to its general program, the BCIA offers a specialty certification in EEG biofeedback.
Other Requirements The practice of biofeedback therapy involves a great deal of personal interaction. As a result, you must enjoy being around a variety of people. Biofeedback practitioners also need excellent communication skills and must be careful listeners, able to pay attention to details. A genuine empathy for patients is important as well. Because biofeedback is a growing but still fairly new field, business and management skills will be important. Therapists generally are responsible for building their own practices, and like most other health care professionals, typically
Biofeedback and Music Therapy Audio feedback is a standard intervention which allows patients to hear physiological changes, and make adjustments to bring them further under control. But these tones needn’t be limited to simple beeps any longer, and with the popularity of music therapy, many imaginative options are available. Modern computerized biofeedback systems can assign live-sounding digital representations of musical instruments and sounds to muscle groups of choice—perhaps an orchestral string section to your bicep, a flute to your abs, or maybe a snare drum for your heart. Music may also be used to assist patients in achieving a relaxed state. Spoken images of relaxation, light, and color, in conjunction with music, all are typical in guided imagery sessions and have been shown to be successful. Other uses of music in biofeedback include music as a reward for appropriate behavior modification—for instance, the automatic playing of a favorite piece when the patient’s heart rate has reached the desired point. Still other methods involve the patient more directly, such as vocal toning, chanting, or drumming.
spend many hours dealing with insurance, managed care, and financial issues.
n exploring You can begin exploring this field by contacting and interviewing biofeedback therapists in your area to gain a more specific understanding of their day-today activities. If your school participates in an annual science fair, consider using the opportunity to develop a presentation on biofeedback. Many simple experiments are possible and appropriate for this setting. (Consider a sophisticated take on mood rings, for instance.) Outside school, you can practice a number of forms of noninstrumental biofeedback. Yoga and Zen meditation both will help you become more attuned to your own body and its rhythms—an important skill to have as a biofeedback therapist. Learning either of these disciplines will give you a taste of how body systems can be trained to respond to intention and outside control and will teach you how to recognize some of your own body’s feedback patterns.
n employers Biofeedback therapy has been shown to be useful in the treatment of such a wide variety of conditions and disorders that therapists can be found in a number of background specialties, from medicine and psychology to occupational therapy and dentistry. This means that biofeedback therapists are employed by many different types of institutions. They often have private practices as well. If you can envision ways in which biofeedback can assist people in whatever career field you might find yourself, chances are you can build a practice around it, either alone, or working with a group or for an institutional employer. Medical centers are the most common place of employment for biofeedback therapists, but more and more corporations are finding applications for biofeedback in the workplace.
n starting out Most biofeedback therapists come to the discipline with established practices in other fields. Once you have received the minimum of a bachelor’s degree in your primary field, you can begin to think about specific training in biofeedback therapy. (A master’s or sometimes even a doctorate is preferred to a bachelor’s, depending on your areas of study.) BCIA certification may be the most appropriate first goal for beginning therapists as it will lend credibility to your training and help you build your practice. Therapist candidates can earn BCIA certification concurrently with training, and they offer the option of taking courses on a part-time basis.
n advancement Advancement opportunities are dependent on the main specialty a therapist has chosen and the environment in which he or she is working. Continuing education is important to any health care professional, so biofeedback therapists advance within their practices by developing their skills and learning about new methods of treatment. In some cases, such as academic medical centers, the addition of biofeedback therapy to a practice may assist the therapist in reaching promotion goals.
n earnings Biofeedback therapists generally charge from $50 to $150 per session. Depending on the level of their experience, the size of their client base, and their level of training, biofeedback therapists can have substantial earnings. Because biofeedback therapists come from different professional backgrounds, however, it is difficult to give a salary range for them as a group. For example, a clinical psychologist with a Ph.D. is going to make more money practicing biofeedback than will a social worker with a master’s degree. Therapists working in more urban areas generally make more money than those in smaller communities. A therapist just starting out may have annual earnings in the $30,000s. More established therapists, even in rural areas, may make around $50,000, while those working in larger communities, often handling many patients, may make up to $200,000 a year.
n work environment Biofeedback therapists typically spend much of their time working one-on-one with patients. As with most health care practices, they may work in any number of environments, from solo private practices to larger medical centers or corporate complexes. Their responsibilities run the gamut from one-on-one patient visits to collaborative efforts with physicians and diagnosticians tackling difficult cases. Therapists primarily work in an office, although the increasing portability of computers means this may eventually change as well, allowing biofeedback practitioners even to consider house calls on a regular basis.
n outlook The employment outlook for biofeedback therapists is good. According to the U.S. Department of Labor, the overall rate of job growth in the health care field will be faster than the average through 2012. While the department does not provide specific projections for biofeedback therapists, it is logical to conclude they will be in demand for several reasons. One reason is the growing population of Americans aged 65 and over. People in this age group are more likely to need and seek out treatments for many
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different conditions. This will increase the demand for most health care industry workers, including biofeedback therapists. Also, because most individuals have some sort of medical insurance, the costs of care, including nontraditional courses of treatment such as biofeedback therapy, have become more affordable. According to EEG Spectrum International, many insurance plans cover biofeedback therapy for treatment of certain conditions. In many cases, patients seek the assistance of biofeedback therapists after more traditional medical treatment has failed. On the other hand, some people choose to look first to alternative forms of health care to avoid medications or invasive surgery. In addition, continued research within the field of biofeedback should allow for the treatment of more disorders. Subspecialties like neurobiofeedback are increasing dramatically. The study of brain waves in cases involving alcoholism, attention deficit disorder, insomnia, epilepsy, and traumatic brain injury point to new biofeedback treatment methods. Some conditions, such as chronic headaches, are often better treated through biofeedback therapy than through more invasive medical treatment.
n for more information AAPB is dedicated to the promotion of biofeedback as a means of improving health. Their Web site is a good place to begin to gather more details about the field. Association for Applied Psychophysiology and Biofeedback (AAPB) 10200 West 44th Avenue, Suite 304 Wheat Ridge, CO 80033-2840 Tel: 303-422-8436 Email:
[email protected] http://www.aapb.org
For more information about biofeedback, certification, and approved programs, contact Biofeedback Certification Institute of America 10200 West 44th Avenue, Suite 310 Wheat Ridge, CO 80033-2840 Tel: 303-420-2902 Email:
[email protected] http://www.bcia.org
For more on neurofeedback, including research, news, and practitioners, contact EEG Spectrum International Inc. 21601 Vanowen Street, Suite 100 Canoga Park, CA 91303 Tel: 818-789-3456 http://www.eegspectrum.com
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Biologists n overview Biologists study the origin, development, anatomy, function, distribution, and other basic principles of living organisms. They are concerned with the nature of life itself in humans, microorganisms, plants, and animals, and with the relationship of each organism to its environment. Biologists perform research in many specialties that advance the fields of medicine, agriculture, and industry. Approximately 77,000 biological scientists are employed in the United States.
n history The biological sciences developed slowly over the course of human history. Early humans practiced an inexact form of biology when they established agriculture. They quick facts observed the environment School Subjects around them to determine Biology what types of seeds yielded Physiology consumable food, when to plant, when to water, and Personal Skills when to harvest the seeds for Mechanical/manipulative Technical/scientific planting in the next season. Early humans improved their Work Environment way of life as a result of their Indoors and outdoors primitive forays into science. Primarily multiple locations It wasn’t until modern Minimum Education Level times that biology developed Bachelor’s degree into an exact science. Our ancestors learned to differSalary Range entiate between desirable and $31,258 to $60,190 to undesirable plants (taxon$99,020 omy), to seek out and live in Certification or Licensing more habitable environments Required for certain positions (ecology), to domesticate plants (agronomy and hortiOutlook culture) and animals (animal About as fast as the average husbandry), and to eat a suitDOT able diet (nutrition). Eventu041 ally, plants and animals were classified; later they were studGOE ied to see how they functioned 02.03.01, 02.03.03 and how they related to other organisms around them. This NOC 2121 was the beginning of zoology (animal science) and botany O*NET-SOC (plant science). 19-1020.01, 19-1021.00, The Greek philosopher 19-1022.00, 19-1023.00 Aristotle created one of the
first documented taxonomic systems for animals. He divided animals into two types: blooded (mammals, birds, amphibians, reptiles, and fishes) and bloodless (insects, crustaceans, and other lower animals). He also studied reproduction and theorized, incorrectly, how embryos developed in animals. From the second century to the 11th century, the Arabs made important advances in biological understanding. Unlike the Europeans, they continued to study from the base of knowledge established by the Greeks. Avicenna, a Persian philosopher and physician, wrote the Canon of Medicine, one of the most influential and important publications on medical knowledge in the world at its time—and for the next seven centuries. The field of biology has expanded rapidly in the last two centuries. The French physician Louis Pasteur developed the field of immunology, and his studies of fermentation led to modern microbiology. Many other achievements became possible because of improvements in the microscope. Scientists could isolate much smaller structures than ever before possible. Matthias Schleiden and Theodor Schwann formulated the idea that the cell is the fundamental unit of all organisms. Gregor Mendel discovered the principles of heredity through crossbreeding pea plants. While the 19th century can be considered the age of cellular biology, the 20th and early 21st has been dominated by studies and breakthroughs in biochemistry and molecular biology. The discovery of the atomic structure allowed the fundamental building blocks of nature to be studied. Living tissues were found to be composed of fats, sugars, and proteins. Proteins were found to be composed of amino acids. Discoveries in cell biology established the manner in which information was transmitted from one organism to its progeny. Chromosomes were recognized as the carriers of this information. In 1944, Oswald Avery and a team of scientists were able to isolate and identify DNA as the transmitter of genetic information. In 1953 James Watson and Francis Crick deciphered the complex structure of DNA and hypothesized that it carried the genetic code for all living matter. Biological science is the foundation for most of the discoveries that affect people’s everyday lives. Biologists break new ground to improve our health and quality of life and help us to better understand the world around us.
n the job Biology can be divided into many specialties. The biologist, who studies a wide variety of living organisms, has interests that differ from those of the chemist, physicist, and geologist, who are concerned with nonliving matter. Biologists, or life scientists, may be identified by their
specialties. Following is a breakdown of the many kinds of biologists and their specific fields of study: Anatomists study animal bodies from basic cell structure to complex tissues and organs. They determine the ability of body parts to regenerate and investigate the possibility of transplanting organs and skin. Their research is applied to human medicine. Aquatic biologists study animals and plants that live in water and how they are affected by their environmental conditions, such as the salt, acid, and oxygen content of the water and temperature, light, and other factors. Biochemists study the chemical composition of living organisms. They attempt to understand the complex reactions involved in reproduction, growth, metabolism, and heredity. Biophysicists apply physical principles to biological problems. They study the mechanics, heat, light, radiation, sound, electricity, and energetics of living cells and organisms and do research in the areas of vision, hearing, brain function, nerve conduction, muscle reflex, and damaged cells and tissues. Bio-technicians, or biological technicians, assist the cornucopia of biological scientists in their endeavors. Botanists study plant life. Some specialize in plant biochemistry, the structure and function of plant parts, and identification and classification, among other topics. Cytologists, sometimes called cell biologists, examine the cells of plants and animals, including those cells involved in reproduction. They use microscopes and other instruments to observe the growth and division of cells and to study the influences of physical and chemical factors on both normal and malignant cells. Ecologists examine such factors as pollutants, rainfall, altitude, temperature, and population size in order to study the distribution and abundance of organisms and their relation to their environment. Entomologists study insects and their relationship to other life forms. Geneticists study heredity in various forms of life. They are concerned with how biological traits such as color, size, and resistance to disease originate and are transmitted from one generation to another. They also try to develop ways to alter or produce new traits, using chemicals, heat, light, or other means. Histopathologists investigate diseased tissue in humans and animals. Immunologists study the manner in which the human body resists disease. Limnologists study freshwater organisms and their environment. Marine biologists specialize in the study of marine species and their environment. They gather specimens
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at different times, taking into account tidal cycles, seasons, and exposure to atmospheric elements, in order to answer questions concerning the overall health of sea organisms and their environment. Microbiologists study bacteria, viruses, molds, algae, yeasts, and other organisms of microscopic or submicroscopic size. Some microorganisms are useful to humans; they are studied and used in the production of food, such as cheese, bread, and tofu. Other microorganisms have been used to preserve food and tenderize meat. Some microbiologists work with microorganisms that cause disease. They work to diagnose, treat, and prevent disease. Microbiologists have helped prevent typhoid fever, influenza, measles, polio, whooping cough, and smallpox. Today, they work on cures for AIDS, cancer, cystic fibrosis, and Alzheimer’s disease, among others. Molecular biologists apply their research on animal and bacterial systems toward the goal of improving and better understanding human health. Mycologists study edible, poisonous, and parasitic fungi, such as mushrooms, molds, yeasts, and mildews, to determine which are useful to medicine, agriculture, and industry. Their research has resulted in benefits such as the development of antibiotics, the propagation of mushrooms, and methods of retarding fabric deterioration. Nematologists study nematodes (roundworms), which are parasitic in animals and plants. Nematodes transmit diseases, attack insects, or attack other nematodes that exist in soil or water. Nematologists investigate and develop methods of controlling these organisms. Parasitologists study animal parasites and their effects on humans and other animals. Pharmacologists may be employed as researchers by pharmaceutical companies. They often spend most of their time working in the laboratory, where they study the effects of various drugs and medical compounds on mice or rabbits. Working within controlled environments, pharmacologists precisely note the types, quantities, and timing of medicines administered as a part of their experiments. Periodically, they make blood smears or perform autopsies to study different reactions. They usually work with a team of researchers, headed by one with a doctorate and consisting of several biologists with master’s and bachelor’s degrees and some laboratory technicians. Physiologists are biologists who specialize in studying all the life stages of plants or animals. Some specialize in a particular body system or a particular function, such as respiration. Wildlife biologists study the habitats and the conditions necessary for the survival of birds and other wildlife.
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n requirements High School High school students interested in a career in biology should take English, biology, physics, chemistry, Latin, geometry, and algebra.
Postsecondary Training
An entomologist and a technician examine insect cell cultures that will be used for metabolic studies. (Agricultural Research Service Photo Unit, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture.)
Their goal is to find ways to ensure the continuation of healthy wildlife populations, while lessening the impact and growth of civilization around them. Zoologists study all types of animals to learn their origin, interrelationships, classifications, life histories, habits, diseases, relation to the environment, growth, genetics, and distribution. Zoologists are usually identified by the animals they study: ichthyologists (fish), mammalogists (mammals), ornithologists (birds), and herpetologists (reptiles and amphibians). Biologists may also work for government agencies concerned with public health. Toxicologists, for example, study the effects of toxic substances on humans, animals, and plants. The data they gather are used in consumer protection and industrial safety programs to reduce the hazards of accidental exposure or ingestion. Public-health microbiologists conduct experiments on water, foods, and the general environment of a community to detect the presence of harmful bacteria so pollution and contagious diseases can be controlled or eliminated.
Prospective biologists should also obtain broad undergraduate college training. In addition to courses in all phases of biology, useful related courses include organic and inorganic chemistry, physics, and mathematics. Modern languages, English, biometrics (the use of mathematics in biological measurements), and statistics are also useful. Courses in computers will be extremely beneficial. Students should take advantage of courses that require laboratory, field, or collecting work. Nearly all institutions offer undergraduate training in one or more of the biological sciences. These vary from liberal arts schools that offer basic majors in botany and zoology to large universities that permit specialization in areas such as entomology, bacteriology, and physiology at the undergraduate level. The best way to become a biologist is to earn a bachelor’s degree in biology or one of its specialized fields, such as anatomy, bacteriology, botany, ecology, or microbiology. For the highest professional status, a doctorate is required. This is particularly true of top research positions and most higher-level college teaching openings. Many colleges and universities offer courses leading to a master’s degree and a doctorate. A study made by the National Science Foundation showed that among a group of biologists listed on the National Scientific Manpower Register, 10 percent held a bachelor’s degree, 33 percent held a master’s or professional medical degree, and the remaining 57 percent had earned a doctorate. Candidates for a doctorate specialize in one of the subdivisions of biology. A number of sources of financial assistance are available to finance graduate work. Most major universities have a highly developed fellowship (scholarship) or assistantship (part-time teaching or research) program. Organizations, such as the U.S. Public Health Service and the National Science Foundation, make awards to support graduate students. In a recent year, for example, the Public Health Service made 8,000 fellowship and training grants. In addition, major universities often hold research contracts or have their own projects that provide part-time and summer employment for undergraduate and graduate students.
Ceritfication or Licensing A state license may be required for biologists who are employed as technicians in general service health organizations, such as hospitals or clinics. To qualify for this license, proof of suitable educational background is necessary.
Other Requirements Biologists must be systematic in their approach to solving the problems that they face. They should have probing, inquisitive minds and an aptitude for biology, chemistry, and mathematics. Patience and imagination are also required since they may spend much time in observation and analysis. Biologists must also have good communication skills in order to effectively gather and exchange data and solve problems that arise in their work.
n exploring Students can measure their aptitude and interest in the work of the biologist by taking courses in the field. Laboratory assignments, for example, provide information on techniques used by the working biologist. Many schools hire students as laboratory assistants to work directly under a teacher and help administer the laboratory sections of courses. School assemblies, field trips to federal and private laboratories and research centers, and career conferences provide additional insight into career opportunities. Advanced students often are able to attend professional meetings and seminars. Part-time and summer positions in biology or related areas are particularly helpful. Students with some college courses in biology may find summer positions as laboratory assistants. Graduate students may find work on research projects conducted by their institutions. Beginning college and advanced high school students may find employment as laboratory aides or hospital orderlies or attendants. Despite the menial nature of these positions, they afford a useful insight into careers in biology. High school students often have the opportunity to join volunteer service groups at local hospitals. Student science training programs (SSTPs) allow qualified high school students to spend a summer doing research under the supervision of a scientist.
n employers Approximately half of all biological scientists work for the government at the federal, state, or local level. The majority of those who do not work for the government are involved in the drug industry, which includes pharmaceutical companies, hospitals, biotechnology companies, and laboratories. The area in which biologists work is influenced by their specialties. Marine biologists, for example, can find employment with the U.S. Department of Interior,
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the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. They may also find employment in nongovernmental agencies, such as the
Profile: Carolus Linnaeus (1707–1778) Swedish naturalist Linnaeus developed systematic methods for classifying and naming plants and animals. He devised the classifications of class, order, genus, and species, and established as standard the binomial (two-name) system for giving scientific names to plants and animals. Linnaeus placed human beings in the order of primates, giving our species the scientific name Homo sapiens. Linnaeus classified thousands of plant species, assigning plants to 24 classes according to the number and position of their stamens and pistils. Although later botanical knowledge revealed that this system was inadequate, it did lay the foundation for the science of plant taxonomy, as well as for Darwin’s theory of evolution. Here, for instance, is the classification of the domestic dog, Canis familiaris: Kingdom: Animalia (animals) Phylum: Chordata (animals with a spinal cord) Subphylum: Vertebrata (vertebrate) Class: Mammalia (mammals) Subclass: Theria (mammals that give birth to live young) Order: Carnivora (carnivores) Family: Canidae (related animals, such as coyotes, dogs, foxes, jackals, and wolves, some of which can crossbreed) Genus: Canis (dog) Species: familiaris (domesticated dog) Classification of the cork oak tree, Quercus suber: Kingdom: Plantae (plants) Subkingdom: Tracheophyta (plants with a vascular system) Division: Anthophyta (flowering plants) Class: Dicotyledonae (seed plants that produce embryos with paired cotyledons and net-veined leaves) Order: Fagales (a collection of similar families of trees) Family: Fagaceae (beeches and other trees, chiefly having unisexual flowers) Genus: Quercus (Latin for the oak tree) Species: suber (Latin for “to be in season”)
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Scripps Institution of Oceanography in California and the Marine Biological Laboratory in Massachusetts. Microbiologists can find employment with the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, the Environmental Protection Agency, and the Department of Agriculture, among others. They may also work for pharmaceutical, food, agricultural, geological, environmental, and pollution control companies. Wildlife biologists can find employment for the U.S. Public Health Service, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, and the Forest Service, among many others.
n starting out Biologists who are interested in becoming teachers should consult their college placement offices. Public and private high schools and an increasing number of colleges hire teachers through the colleges at which they studied. Private employment agencies also place a significant number of teachers. Some teaching positions are filled through direct application. Biologists interested in private industry and nonprofit organizations may also apply directly for employment. Major organizations that employ biologists often interview college seniors on campus. Private and public employment offices frequently have listings from these employers. Experienced biologists often change positions as a result of contacts made at professional seminars and national conventions. Special application procedures are required for positions with government agencies. Civil service applications for federal, state, and municipal positions may be obtained by writing to the agency involved and from high school and college guidance and placement bureaus, public employment agencies, and post offices.
n advancement In a field as broad as biology, numerous opportunities for advancement exist. To a great extent, however, advancement depends on the individual’s level of education. A doctorate is generally required for college teaching, independent research, and top-level administrative and management jobs. A master’s degree is sufficient for some jobs in applied research, and a bachelor’s degree may qualify for some entry-level jobs. With the right qualifications, the biologist may advance to the position of project chief and direct a team of other biologists. Many use their knowledge and experience as background for administrative and management positions. Often, as they develop professional expertise, biologists move from strictly technical assignments into positions in which they interpret biological knowledge. The usual path of advancement in biology, as in other sciences, comes from specialization and the
development of the status of an expert in a given field. Biologists may work with professionals in other major fields to explore problems that require an interdisciplinary approach, such as biochemistry, biophysics, biostatistics (or biometrics). Biochemistry, for example, uses the methods of chemistry to study the composition of biological materials and the molecular mechanisms of biological processes.
n earnings Earnings for biological scientists vary extensively based on the type and size of their employer, the individual’s level of education and experience, and the area of biology in which the scientist specializes. The median salary for all biological scientists was $60,190 in 2005, as reported by the U.S. Department of Labor. Salaries ranged from less than $33,430 to more than $99,020. In 2005 general biological scientists working for the federal government earned an average annual salary of $69,908. Those specializing in certain areas tended to have slightly higher annual incomes. Ecologists, for example, had an average salary of $72,021 per year; microbiologists reported an average of $80,798; geneticists averaged $85,170; and physiologists, $93,208. According to the National Association of Colleges and Employers, those with bachelor’s degrees in the biological sciences had beginning salaries averaging $31,258 per year in 2005. In general, the highest salaries were earned by biologists in business and industry, followed by those self-employed, working for nonprofit organizations, in military service, and working for the U.S. Public Health Service or other positions in the federal government. The lowest salaries were earned by teachers and by those working for various state and local governments. Biologists are usually eligible for health and dental insurance, paid vacations and sick days, and retirement plans. Some employers may offer reimbursement for continuing education, seminars, and travel.
n work environment The biologist’s work environment varies greatly depending upon the position and type of employer. One biologist may work outdoors or travel much of the time. Another wears a white smock and spends years working in a laboratory. Some work with toxic substances and disease cultures; strict safety measures must be observed. Biologists frequently work under pressure. For example, those employed by pharmaceutical houses work in an atmosphere of keen competition for sales that encourages the development of new drug products, and, as they are identified, the rapid testing and early marketing of these products. The work is very exacting, however, and phar-
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maceutical biologists must exercise great care to ensure that adequate testing of products has been properly conducted. Some biologists, including botanists, ecologists, and zoologists, may undertake strenuous, sometimes dangerous, fieldwork in primitive conditions. Marine biologists work in the field, on research ships or in laboratories, in tropical seas and ocean areas with considerably cooler climates. They will be required to perform some strenuous work, such as carrying a net, digging, chipping, or hauling equipment or specimens. Marine biologists who work underwater must be able to avoid hazards, such as razor-sharp coral reefs and other underwater dangers. Wildlife biologists work in all types of weather and in all types of terrain and ecosystems. They may work alone or with a group in inhospitable surroundings in order to gather information.
n outlook The U.S. Department of Labor predicts employment for biological scientists to be as fast as average through 2014, although competition will be stiff for some positions. For example, Ph.D.s looking for research positions will find strong competition for a limited number of openings. Government funding is currently plentiful (some 1 in 3 applications for research grants are approved), but a recession or shift in political power can cause the loss of funding for grants and the decline of research and development endeavors. Private industry will need biologists to work in sales, marketing, and research management. Companies developing new drugs, modified crops, environmentally friendly products, and the like will need the expertise of biological scientists. The U.S. Department of Labor also predicts that even companies not solely involved in biotechnology will be increasingly using biotechnology developments and techniques in their businesses. This should cause more job opportunities for biological scientists in a variety of industries. Biologists with advanced degrees will be best qualified for the most lucrative and challenging jobs, although this varies by specialty, with genetic, cellular, and biochemical research showing the most promise. Scientists with bachelor’s degrees may find openings as science or engineering technicians or as health technologists and technicians. Many colleges and universities are cutting back on their faculties, but high schools and two-year colleges may have teaching positions available.
n for more information For information on careers in biology, contact American Institute of Biological Sciences 1444 Eye Street, NW, Suite 200 Washington, DC 20005
Tel: 202-628-1500 Email:
[email protected] http://www.aibs.org
For a career brochure, career-related articles, and a list of institutions that award academic degrees with a major in physiology, contact American Physiological Society 9650 Rockville Pike Bethesda, MD 20814-3991 Tel: 301-634-7164 http://www.the-aps.org
For information on careers, educational resources, and fellowships, contact American Society for Microbiology 1752 N Street, NW Washington, DC 20036 Tel: 202-737-3600 http://www.asm.org
For career information, including articles and books, contact Biotechnology Industry Organization 1225 Eye Street, NW, Suite 400 Washington, DC 20005 Tel: 202-962-9200 http://www.bio.org
For information on careers in the marine sciences, contact National Aquarium in Baltimore 501 East Pratt Street, Pier 3 Baltimore, MD 21202-3194 Tel: 410-576-3800 http://www.aqua.org
For information on specific careers in biology, contact National Institutes of Health 9000 Rockville Pike Bethesda, MD 20892 Tel: 301-435-1908 Email:
[email protected] http://www.nih.gov
For information on specific careers, contact the FDA’s job hotline. U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) 5600 Fishers Lane Rockville, MD 20857-0001 Tel: 888-463-6332 http://www.fda.gov
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Biomedical Engineers n overview
Biomedical engineers are highly trained scientists who use engineering and life science principles to research biological aspects of animal and human life. They develop new theories, and they modify, test, and prove existing theories on life systems. They design health care instruments and devices or apply engineering principles to the study of human systems. There are approximately 9,700 biomedical engineers employed in the United States.
n history Biomedical engineering is one of many new professions created by advancements in technology. It is an interdisciplinary field that brings together two respected professions: biolquick facts ogy and engineering. School Subjects Biology is the study of life, and Biology engineering, in broad terms, studies Chemistry sources of energy in nature and the properties of matter in a way that Personal Skills is useful to humans, particularly in Helping/teaching Technical/scientific machines, products, and structures. A combination of the two fields, Work Environment biomedical engineering developed Primarily indoors primarily after 1945, as new techPrimarily one location nology allowed for the applicaMinimum Education Level tion of engineering principles to Bachelor’s degree biology. The artificial heart is just one in a long list of the products Salary Range of biomedical engineering. Other $44,060 to $71,840 to products include artificial organs, $113,590 prosthetics, the use of lasers in surCertification or Licensing gery, cryosurgery, and ultrasonics, Voluntary and the use of computers and thermography in diagnosis. Outlook
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n the job Using engineering principles to solve medical and health-related problems, the biomedical engineer works closely with life scientists, members of the medical profession, and chemists. Most of the work revolves around the laboratory. There are three interrelated work areas: research, design, and teaching.
Biomedical research is multifaceted and broad in scope. It calls upon engineers to apply their knowledge of mechanical, chemical, and electrical engineering as well as anatomy and physiology in the study of living systems. Using computers, biomedical engineers use their knowledge of graphic and related technologies to develop mathematical models that simulate physiological systems. In biomedical engineering design, medical instruments and devices are developed. Engineers work on artificial organs, ultrasonic imagery devices, cardiac pacemakers, and surgical lasers, for example. They design and build systems that will update hospital, laboratory, and clinical procedures. They also train health care personnel in the proper use of this new equipment. Biomedical engineering is taught on the university level. Teachers conduct classes, advise students, serve on academic committees, and supervise or conduct research. Within biomedical engineering, an individual may concentrate on a particular specialty area. Some of the well-established specialties are bioinstrumentation, biomechanics, biomaterials, systems physiology, clinical engineering, and rehabilitation engineering. These specialty areas frequently depend on one another. Biomechanics is mechanics applied to biological or medical problems. Examples include the artificial heart, the artificial kidney, and the artificial hip. Biomaterials is the study of the optimal materials with which to construct such devices, bioinstrumentation is the science of measuring physiological functions. Systems physiology uses engineering strategies, techniques, and tools to gain a comprehensive and integrated understanding of living organisms ranging from bacteria to humans. Biomedical engineers in this specialty examine such things as the biochemistry of metabolism and the control of limb movements. Rehabilitation engineering is a new and growing specialty area of biomedical engineering. Its goal is to expand the capabilities and improve the quality of life for individuals with physical impairments. Rehabilitation engineers often work directly with the disabled person and modify equipment for individual use.
n requirements High School You can best prepare for a career as a biomedical engineer by taking courses in biology, chemistry, physics, mathematics, drafting, and computers. Communication and problem-solving skills are necessary, so classes in English, writing, and logic are important. Participating in science clubs and competing in science fairs will
give you the opportunity to design and invent systems and products.
Postsecondary Training Most biomedical engineers have an undergraduate degree in biomedical engineering or a related field and a Ph.D. in some facet of biomedical engineering. Undergraduate study is roughly divided into halves. The first two years are devoted to theoretical subjects, such as abstract physics and differential equations in addition to the core curriculum most undergraduates take. The third and fourth years include more applied science. Worldwide, there are over 80 colleges and universities that offer programs in biomedical engineering. During graduate programs, students work on research or product development projects headed by faculty.
Certification or Licensing Engineers whose work may affect the life, health, or safety of the public must be registered according to regulations in all 50 states and the District of Columbia. Applicants for registration must have received a degree from an American Board for Engineering and Technology-accredited engineering program and have four years of experience. They must also pass a written examination administered by the state in which they wish to work.
Other Requirements You should have a strong commitment to learning if you plan on becoming a biomedical engineer. You should be scientifically inclined and be able to apply that knowledge in problem solving. Becoming a biomedical engineer requires long years of schooling because a biomedical engineer needs to be an expert in the fields of engineering and biology. Also, biomedical engineers have to be familiar with chemical, material, and electrical engineering as well as physiology and computers.
n exploring Undergraduate courses offer a great deal of exposure to the field. Working in a hospital where biomedical engineers are employed can also provide you with insight into the field, as can interviews with practicing or retired biomedical engineers.
n employers There are approximately 9,700 biomedical engineers working in the United States. About 30 percent are
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Biomedical Industry Breakthroughs n
artificial hearts and kidneys
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artificial joints
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automated medicine delivery systems
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blood oxygenators
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cardiac pacemakers
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defibrillators
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laser systems used in surgery
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medical imaging systems (mris, ultrasound, etc.)
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sensors that analyze blood chemistry
employed in the areas of scientific research and development and pharmaceutical and medicine manufacturing. In addition, many biomedical engineers are employed in hospitals and medical institutions, and in research and educational facilities. Employment opportunities also exist in government regulatory agencies.
n starting out A variety of routes may be taken to gain employment as a biomedical engineer. Recent graduates may use college placement services, or they may apply directly to employers, often to personnel offices in hospitals and industry. A job may be secured by answering an advertisement in the employment section of a newspaper. Information on
Words to Know Bioinstrumentation: Building machines for the diagnosis and treatment of disease. Biomaterials: Anything that replaces natural tissue. These can be artificial materials or living tissues grown for implantation. Biomechanics: Developing mechanical devices like the artificial hip, heart, and kidney. Cellular, tissue, and genetic engineering: Application of engineering at the cellular and subcellular level to study diseases and design intervention techniques. Clinical engineering: Application of engineering to health care through customizing and maintaining sophisticated medical equipment. Systems physiology: Using engineering principles to understand how living systems operate.
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job openings is also available at the local office of the U.S. Employment Service.
are in clean, well-lighted environments, using sophisticated equipment.
n advancement
n outlook
Advancement opportunities are tied directly to educational and research background. In a nonteaching capacity, a biomedical engineer with an advanced degree can rise to a supervisory position. In teaching, a doctorate is usually necessary to become a full professor. By demonstrating excellence in research, teaching, and departmental committee involvement, one can move from instructor to assistant professor and then to full professor, department chair, or even dean. Qualifying for and receiving research grant funding can also be a means of advancing one’s career in both the nonteaching and teaching sectors.
It is expected that there will be a greater need for skilled biomedical engineers in the future. Prospects look particularly good in the health care industry, which will continue to grow rapidly, primarily because people are living longer and require better medical devices and equipment. The U.S. Department of Labor predicts employment for biomedical engineers to increase much faster than the average through 2014. New jobs will become available in biomedical research in prosthetics, artificial internal organs, computer applications, and instrumentation and other medical systems. In addition, a demand will exist for professors to train the biomedical engineers needed to fill these positions. Because of the increased demand for biomedical engineers, the number of degrees granted in the field has increased significantly. Graduates with a bachelor’s degree will face stiff competition for entry-level jobs. Thus, people entering this field are strongly encouraged to pursue a graduate degree to increase their job prospects.
n earnings The amount a biomedical engineer earns is dependent upon education, experience, and type of employer. According to the U.S. Department of Labor, biomedical engineers had a median yearly income of $71,840 in 2005. At the low end of the pay scale, 10 percent earned less than $44,060 per year, and at the high end, 10 percent earned more than $113,590 annually. According to a 2005 survey by the National Association of Colleges and Employers, the average beginning salary for biomedical engineers with bachelor’s degrees was $48,503, while those with master’s degrees started at $53,022. Biomedical engineers can expect benefits from employers, including health insurance, paid vacation and sick days, and retirement plans.
n work environment Biomedical engineers who teach in a university will have much student contact in the classroom, the laboratory, and the office. They also will be expected to serve on relevant committees while continuing their teaching, research, and writing responsibilities. As competition for teaching positions increases, the requirement that professors publish papers will increase. Professors usually are responsible for obtaining government or private research grants to support their work. Those who work in industry and government have much contact with other professionals, including chemists, medical scientists, and doctors. They often work as part of a team, testing and developing new products. All biomedical engineers who do lab work
n for more information For more information on careers in biomedical engineering, contact American Society for Engineering Education 1818 N Street, NW, Suite 600 Washington, DC 20036 Tel: 202-331-3500 http://www.asee.org
For information on careers, student chapters, and to read the brochure Planning a Career in Biomedical Engineering, contact or visit the following Web site: Biomedical Engineering Society 8401 Corporate Drive, Suite 140 Landover, MD 20785-2224 Tel: 301-459-1999 Email:
[email protected] http://www.bmes.org
For information on high school programs that provide opportunities to learn about engineering technology, contact JETS. Junior Engineering Technical Society (JETS) 1420 King Street, Suite 405 Alexandria, VA 22314 Tel: 703-548-5387 Email:
[email protected] biomedical equipment technicians
http://www.jets.org
For Canadian career information, contact Canadian Medical and Biological Engineering Society PO Box 51023 Orleans, ON K1E 3W4 Canada Tel: 613-837-8649 Email:
[email protected] http://www.cmbes.ca
Visit the following Web site for more information on educational programs, job listings, grants, and links to other biomedical engineering sites: The Biomedical Engineering Network http://www.bmenet.org
Biomedical Equipment Technicians n overview Biomedical equipment technicians handle the complex medical equipment and instruments found in hospitals, clinics, and research facilities. This equipment is used for medical therapy and diagnosis and includes heartlung machines, artificial kidney machines, patient monitors, chemical analyzers, and other electrical, electronic, mechanical, or pneumatic devices. Technicians’ main duties are to inspect, maintain, repair, and install this equipment. They disassemble equipment to locate malfunctioning components, repair or replace defective parts, and reassemble the equipment, adjusting and calibrating it to ensure that it operates according to manufacturers’ specifications. Other duties of biomedical equipment technicians include modifying equipment according to the directions of medical or supervisory personnel, arranging with equipment manufacturers for necessary equipment repair, and safety-testing equipment to ensure that patients, equipment operators, and other staff members are safe from electrical or mechanical hazards. Biomedical equipment technicians work with hand tools, power tools, measuring devices, and manufacturers’ manuals. Technicians may work for equipment manufacturers as salespeople or as service technicians, or for a health care facility specializing in the repair or maintenance
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of specific equipment, such as that used in radiology, nuclear medicine, or patient monitoring. In the United States, approximately 37,000 people work as biomedical equipment technicians.
n history Today’s complex biomedical equipment is the result of advances in three different areas of engineering and scientific research. The first, of course, is our everincreasing knowledge of the human body and of the disease processes that afflict it. Although the accumulation of medical knowledge has been going on for thousands of years, most of the discoveries leading to the development of medical technology have occurred during the last three hundred years. During the past one hundred years especially, we have learned a great deal about the chemical and electrical nature of the human body. The second contribution to biomedical technology’s develquick facts opment is the field of instruSchool Subjects mentation—the design and Biology building of precision measuring Technical/shop devices. Throughout the history of medicine, physicians and Personal Skills Mechanical/manipulative medical researchers have tried Technical/scientific to learn about and to monitor the workings of the human Work Environment body with whatever instruments Primarily indoors were available to them. However, Primarily one location it was not until the industrial Minimum Education Level revolution of the 18th and 19th Associate’s degree centuries that instruments were developed that could detect the Salary Range human body’s many subtle and $22,880 to $39,570 to rapid processes. $62,790 The third area is mechanizaCertification or Licensing tion and automation. BiomediRecommended cal equipment often relies on mechanisms, such as pumps, Outlook motors, bellows, control arms, About as fast as the average etc. These kinds of equipment DOT were initially developed and 639 improved during the industrial revolution; however, it was not GOE until the 1950s that the field of 02.05.02 medical technology began incorNOC porating the use of automation. N/A During the 1950s, researchers developed machines for anaO*NET-SOC lyzing the various components 49-9062.00, 51-9082.00 of blood and for preparing tis-
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sue specimens for microscopic examination. Probably the most dramatic development of this period was the introduction of the heart-lung machine by John Haysham Gibbon of Philadelphia in 1953, a project he had been working on since 1937. Since the 1950s, the growth of biomedical technology has been especially dramatic. Thirty years ago, even the most advanced hospitals had only a few pieces of electronic medical equipment; today such hospitals have thousands. And, to service this equipment, the biomedical equipment technician has become an important member of the health care delivery team. In a sense, biomedical equipment technicians represent the newest stage in the history of technicians. The first technicians were skilled assistants who had learned a trade and gone to work for an engineer or scientist. The second generation learned a technology, such as electronics. The most recent generation of technicians needs integrated instruction and competence in at least two fields of science and technology. For the biomedical equipment technician, the fields may vary, but they will most often be electronics and human physiology.
n the job Biomedical equipment technicians are an important link between technology and medicine. They repair, calibrate, maintain, and operate biomedical equipment working under the supervision of researchers, biomedical engineers, physicians, surgeons, and other professional health care providers. Biomedical equipment technicians may work with thousands of different kinds of equipment. Some of the most frequently encountered are the following: patient monitors; heart-lung machines; kidney machines; blood-gas analyzers; spectrophotometers; X-ray units; radiation monitors; defibrillators; anesthesia apparatus; pacemakers; blood pressure transducers; spirometers; sterilizers; diathermy equipment; patient-care computers; ultrasound machines; and diagnostic scanning machines, such as the CT (computed tomography) scan machine, PET (positron emission tomography) scanner, and MRI (magnetic resonance imaging) machines. Repairing faulty instruments is one of the chief functions of biomedical equipment technicians. They investigate equipment problems, determine the extent of malfunctions, make repairs on instruments that have had minor breakdowns, and expedite the repair of instruments with major breakdowns, for instance, by writing an analysis of the problem for the factory. In doing this work, technicians rely on manufactur-
ers’ diagrams, maintenance manuals, and standard and specialized test instruments, such as oscilloscopes and pressure gauges. Installing equipment is another important function of biomedical equipment technicians. They inspect and test new equipment to make sure it complies with performance and safety standards as described in the manufacturer’s manuals and diagrams, and as noted on the purchase order. Technicians may also check on proper installation of the equipment, or, in some cases, install it themselves. To ensure safe operations, technicians need a thorough knowledge of the regulations related to the proper grounding of equipment, and they need to actively carry out all steps and procedures to ensure safety. Maintenance is the third major area of responsibility for biomedical equipment technicians. In doing this work, technicians try to catch problems before they become more serious. To this end, they take apart and reassemble devices, test circuits, clean and oil moving parts, and replace worn parts. They also keep complete records of all machine repairs, maintenance checks, and expenses. In all three of these areas, a large part of technicians’ work consists of consulting with physicians, administrators, engineers, and other related professionals. For example, they may be called upon to assist hospital administrators as they make decisions about the repair, replacement, or purchase of new equipment. They consult with medical and research staffs to determine that equipment is functioning safely and properly. They also consult with medical and engineering staffs when called upon to modify or develop equipment. In all of these activities, they use their knowledge of electronics, medical terminology, human anatomy and physiology, chemistry, and physics. In addition, biomedical equipment technicians are involved in a range of other related duties. Some biomedical equipment technicians maintain inventories of all instruments in the hospital, their condition, location, and operators. They reorder parts and components, assist in providing people with emergency instruments, restore unsafe or defective instruments to working order, and check for safety regulation compliance. Other biomedical equipment technicians help physicians, surgeons, nurses, and researchers conduct procedures and experiments. In addition, they must be able to explain to staff members how to operate these machines, the conditions under which a certain apparatus may or may not be used, how to solve small operating problems, and how to monitor and maintain equipment.
In many hospitals, technicians are assigned to a particular service, such as pediatrics, surgery, or renal medicine. These technicians become specialists in certain types of equipment. However, unlike electrocardiograph technicians or dialysis technicians, who specialize in one kind of equipment, most biomedical equipment technicians must be thoroughly familiar with a large variety of instruments. They might be called upon to prepare an artificial kidney or to work with a blood-gas analyzer. Biomedical equipment technicians also maintain pulmonary function machines. These machines are used in clinics for ambulatory patients, hospital laboratories, departments of medicine for diagnosis and treatment, and rehabilitation of cardiopulmonary patients. While most biomedical equipment technicians are trained in electronics technology, there is also a need for technicians trained in plastics to work on the development of artificial organs and for people trained in glass blowing to help make the precision parts for specialized equipment. Many biomedical equipment technicians work for medical instrument manufacturers. These technicians consult and assist in the construction of new machinery, helping to make decisions concerning materials and construction methods to be used in the manufacture of the equipment.
n requirements High School There are a number of classes you can take in high school to help you prepare for this work. Science classes, such as chemistry, biology, and physics, will give you the science background you will need for working in a medical environment. Take shop classes that deal with electronics, drafting, or blueprint reading. These classes will give you experience working with your hands, following printed directions, using electricity, and working with machinery. Mathematics classes will help you become comfortable working with numbers and formulas. Don’t neglect your English studies. English classes will help you develop your communication skills, which will be important to have when you deal with a variety of different people in your professional life.
Postsecondary Training To become qualified for this work, you will need to complete postsecondary education that leads either to an associate’s degree from a two-year institution or a bachelor’s degree from a four-year college or university. Most biomedical equipment technicians choose to receive an associate’s degree. Biomedical equipment technology is a relatively new program in some schools and may also be
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Beginnings of Biomedical Technology Biomedical technology began in the 1970s, when consumer advocate Ralph Nader publicized a document that suggested that patients in hospitals were being killed by microshock, the leakage of an electrical current whose level is below the sensation of feel and is therefore almost impossible to detect. The leakage can be caused by improper grounding, a loose wire inside the instrument, or leaking components. According to the document, microshock was occasionally causing patients’ hearts to fibrillate, which is similar to a heart attack. The awareness of microshock and its potential hazards created a need for technicians who could test the electronic equipment to ensure proper grounding and minimal leakage of current. And this is where the biomedical technology industry began.
referred to as medical electronics technology or biomedical engineering technology. No matter what the name of the program, however, you should expect to receive instruction in such areas as anatomy, physiology, electrical and electronic fundamentals, chemistry, physics, and biomedical equipment construction and design. In addition, you will study safety methods in health care facilities and medical equipment troubleshooting, as it will be your job to be the problem solver. You should also expect to continue taking communication or English classes since communications skills will be essential to your work. In addition to the classroom work, many programs often provide you with practical experience in repairing and servicing equipment in a clinical or laboratory setting under the supervision of an experienced equipment technician. In this way, you learn about electrical components and circuits, the design and construction of common pieces of machinery, and computer technology as it applies to biomedical equipment. By studying various pieces of equipment, you learn a problem-solving technique that applies not only to the equipment studied, but also to equipment you have not yet seen, and even to equipment that has not yet been invented. Part of this problem-solving technique includes learning how and where to locate sources of information. Some biomedical equipment technicians receive their training in the armed forces. During the course of an enlistment period of four years or less, military personnel can receive training that prepares them for entry-level or sometimes advanced-level positions in the civilian workforce.
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This biomedical equipment technician is repairing blood pressure testing equipment. (Index Stock Imagery.)
Certification or Licensing The Association for the Advancement of Medical Instrumentation (AAMI), affiliated with the International Certification Commission for Clinical Engineering and Biomedical Technology, issues a certificate for biomedical equipment technicians (called CBET) that is based on a written examination, work experience, and educational preparation. In some cases, the educational requirements for certification may be waived for technicians with appropriate employment experience. Although certification is not required for employment, it is highly recommended. Technicians with certification have demonstrated that they have attained an overall knowledge of the field and are dedicated to their profession. Many employers prefer to hire technicians who have this certification.
Other Requirements Biomedical equipment technicians need mechanical ability and should enjoy working with tools. Because this job demands quick decision-making and prompt repairs, technicians should work well under pressure. You should also be extremely precise and accurate in your work, have good communications skills, and enjoy helping others—an essential quality for anyone working in the health care industry.
n exploring You will have difficulty gaining any direct experience in biomedical equipment technology until you are in a training program or working professionally. Your first hands-on opportunities generally come in the clinical and laboratory phases of your education. You can, however, visit school and community libraries to seek out books written about careers in medical technology. You
can also join a hobby club devoted to chemistry, biology, radio equipment, or electronics. Perhaps the best way to learn more about this job is to set up, with the help of teachers or guidance counselors, a visit to a local health care facility or to arrange for a biomedical technician to speak to interested students, either on site or at a career exploration seminar hosted by the school. You may be able to ask the technician about his or her educational background, what a day on the job is like, and what new technologies are on the horizon. Try to visit a school offering a program in biomedical equipment technology and discuss your career plans with an admissions counselor there. The counselor may also be able to provide you with helpful insights about the career and your preparation for it. Finally, because this work involves the health care field, consider getting a part-time job or volunteering at a local hospital. Naturally, you won’t be asked to work with the biomedical equipment, but you will have the opportunity to see professionals on the job and experience being in the medical environment. Even if your duty is only to escort patients to their tests, you may gain a greater understanding of this work.
n employers Many schools place students in part-time hospital positions to help them gain practical experience. Students are often able to return to these hospitals for full-time employment after graduation. Other places of employment include research institutes and biomedical equipment manufacturers. Government hospitals and the military are also employers of biomedical equipment technicians.
n starting out Most schools offering programs in biomedical equipment technology work closely with local hospitals and industries, and school placement officers are usually informed about openings when they become available. In some cases, recruiters may visit a school periodically to conduct interviews. Also, many schools place students in part-time hospital jobs to help them gain practical experience. Students are often able to return to these hospitals for full-time employment after graduation. Another effective method of finding employment is to write directly to hospitals, research institutes, or biomedical equipment manufacturers. Other good sources of leads for job openings include state employment offices and newspaper want ads.
n advancement With experience, biomedical equipment technicians can expect to work with less supervision, and in some cases they may find themselves supervising less-experienced
technicians. They may advance to positions in which they serve as instructors, assist in research, or have administrative duties. Although many supervisory positions are open to biomedical equipment technicians, some positions are not available without additional education. In large metropolitan hospitals, for instance, the minimum educational requirement for biomedical engineers, who do much of the supervising of biomedical equipment technicians, is a bachelor’s degree; many engineers have a master’s degree as well.
n earnings Salaries for biomedical equipment technicians vary in different institutions and localities and according to the experience, training, certification, and type of work done by the technician. According to the U.S. Department of Labor, the median annual salary for medical equipment repairers was $39,570 in 2005. The top 10 percent in this profession made $62,790 a year, while the lowest 10 percent made $22,880 per year. In general, biomedical equipment technicians who work for manufacturers have higher earnings than those who work for hospitals. Naturally, those in supervisory or senior positions also command higher salaries. Benefits, such as health insurance and vacation days, vary with the employer.
n work environment Working conditions for biomedical equipment technicians vary according to employer and type of work done. Hospital employees generally work a 40-hour week; their schedules sometimes include weekends and holidays, and some technicians may be on call for emergencies. Technicians working for equipment manufacturers may have to do extensive traveling to install or service equipment. The physical surroundings in which biomedical equipment technicians work may vary from day to day. Technicians may work in a lab or treatment room with patients or consult with engineers, administrators, and other staff members. Other days, technicians may spend most of their time at a workbench repairing equipment.
n outlook Because of the expanding healthcare field and increasing use of electronic medical devices and other sophisticated biomedical equipment, there is a steady demand for skilled and trained biomedical equipment technicians. The U.S. Department of Labor predicts employment for this group to grow about as fast as the average through 2014. In hospitals the need for more biomedical equipment technicians exists not only because of the increasing use of biomedical equipment but also because hospital
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Words to Know Calibrate: To adjust or set a device so that it records and measures accurately. Defibrillator: An electronic device that creates an electric shock designed to restore the rhythm of a fibrillating heart. Fibrillation: Irregular, rapid contractions of the heart muscles that cause the heartbeat and pulse to fall out of synchronism. Heart-lung machine: A machine used to divert blood from the heart during heart surgery and to keep it oxygenated and in circulation. Metabolic imaging: Noninvasive methods of seeing inside the body, such as positron emission tomography (PET), magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), X-ray computed tomography (CT or CAT scan), and ultrasound. Pulmonary function machine: A machine that examines and measures a patient’s breathing efficiency and analyzes the gases throughout the lungs.
administrators realize that these technicians can help hold down costs. Biomedical equipment technicians do this through their preventive maintenance checks and by taking over some routine activities of engineers and administrators, thus releasing those professionals for activities that only they can perform. Through the coming decades, cost containment will remain a high priority for hospital administrators, and as long as biomedical equipment technicians can contribute to that effort, the demand for them should remain strong. For the many biomedical equipment technicians who work for companies that build, sell, lease, or service biomedical equipment, job opportunities should also continue to grow. The federal government employs biomedical equipment technicians in its hospitals, research institutes, and the military. Employment in these areas will depend largely on levels of government spending. In the research area, spending levels may vary; however, in health care delivery, spending should remain high for the near future.
n for more information For information on student memberships, biomedical technology programs, and certification, contact Association for the Advancement of Medical Instrumentation 1110 North Glebe Road, Suite 220 Arlington, VA 22201-4795 Tel: 800-332-2264 http://www.aami.org
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Bodyguards n overview Bodyguards, sometimes called personal protection officers or personal security workers, protect their clients from injury, kidnapping, harassment, or other types of harm. They may guard a politician during a political campaign, a business executive on a worldwide trip, a movie star going to the Academy Awards, or anyone else who wants personal protection. Bodyguards may be employed by a government agency, by a private security firm, or directly by an individual. Bodyguards work in potentially dangerous situations and must be trained to anticipate and respond to emergencies. They may carry weapons. Bodyguards need to combine the ability to react quickly and expertly in a tense or dangerous situation with the ability to predict, prevent, or avoid many of these situations. quick facts School Subjects
Physical education Psychology Personal Skills
Following instructions Helping/teaching Work Environment
Indoors and outdoors Primarily multiple locations Minimum Education Level
Some postsecondary training Salary Range
$22,330 to $37,413 to $70,000+ Certification or Licensing
Recommended Outlook
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n history People, especially rich and powerful people, have always needed protection. Whether a CEO visiting an overseas plant or a political candidate on a campaign, people who make important decisions or control large sums of money always had guards whom they could trust by their side. As security demands became more complex, the role of bodyguard evolved and expanded. No longer was it enough to simply know how to use a gun or to be particularly adept at martial arts. Bodyguards were expected to help devise strategies to avoid problem situations. They used new surveillance techniques, planning strategies, and other tactics to anticipate possible dangerous situations. In recent times bodyguards have become involved in many different types of situations. Rock stars or movie stars hire bodyguards to protect themselves against being mobbed by overzealous fans. Executives of large corporations are also likely to enlist the aid of a bodyguard
to protect against possible kidnapping or other types of harm. Bodyguards often accompany their clients overseas because police in other countries might not be able to provide the type of security the clients feel they need. Bodyguards often drive their clients from place to place while on assignment.
n the job Although a bodyguard’s ultimate responsibility is relatively straightforward—to protect a client from danger—there are a wide variety of tasks involved in this assignment. Bodyguards are part personal aide and part police officer. As personal aides, bodyguards help plan and implement schedules; as police officers, they protect their clients at public or private events. They often act in their client’s business and publicity interests, as well; stories of camera-snatching bodyguards have become common fodder for the gossip pages. Bodyguards face possible danger whenever they are on duty. When there was an attempted assassination of President Ronald Reagan in March 1981, for example, his Secret Service bodyguards quickly shielded the president with their own bodies as gunshots were fired. Bodyguards may have to sacrifice their own security in defense of those they are hired to protect. Of course, bodyguards are not just sitting targets. They are trained to react appropriately in any situation, life-threatening or not. Skilled bodyguards do all they can to minimize danger to those they are protecting, as well as to themselves. As a result of their careful preparation, bodyguards carry out most assignments relatively uneventfully. By keeping a watchful eye on their clients, bodyguards are able to avoid many possible problems. In most cases, people are not actually out to harm a client but are simply interested in meeting an important person. Bodyguards learn not to overreact to these encounters, and in most cases, a polite warning eliminates any potential problem. When a client hires a bodyguard for a specific event, the bodyguard will determine how many additional people may be needed to provide adequate protection. The client’s schedule and travel arrangements will be coordinated for maximum security and, if the client is appearing at a public event, the bodyguard will become familiar with the location, especially the exits and secured areas, in case the client needs sudden and immediate protection from danger. Bodyguards often work in tandem with other security people as part of a large security operation. For example, bodyguards may help develop a plan to safeguard a major politician who is giving a speech, while security guards develop a plan to safeguard the building where the speech will take place. All security personnel meet to discuss
overall arrangements to ensure that specific details are worked out. Typically, one person will coordinate the security operations. Bodyguards are hired to protect their clients, and activities that infringe on this job must be avoided. At an awards ceremony, for example, a bodyguard must keep an eye on the client and not gawk at celebrities. Bodyguards should not confuse the glamour and excitement of an assignment with self-importance. Indeed, it is the person who can remain calm in the midst of an exciting event and can sense possible danger when all eyes are elsewhere who makes a skillful bodyguard.
n requirements High School Since bodyguards must be prepared for any possibility, the more skilled and knowledgeable they are in a range of areas, the better the protection they can offer someone. If you are interested in becoming a bodyguard, in high school you should take courses in a variety of subjects, including psychology, English, and especially physical education.
Postsecondary Training Bodyguards often begin their careers in civilian law enforcement or the military, where they learn the necessary skills of crowd control, use of weapons, and emergency response. Those wanting to become a security professional working for a government agency, such as the U.S. Department of State, will need to complete a bachelor’s degree. Generally, bodyguards have some higher education, although a college degree is not always necessary. A well-educated person can often be the most responsive to rapidly changing situations, and, of course, work in crowd psychology, law, and criminal justice can help a bodyguard better understand the demands of the job. On-the-job experience with different types of people in stressful situations is an integral part of the training. Depending on the employer, new hires may also need to complete between several weeks to several months of training covering topics such as criminal law, use of firearms, personal protection techniques, and first aid.
Certification or Licensing Certification, while not required, will enhance your professional image in the eyes of potential employers. The American Society for Industrial Security administers the certified protection professional program. Applicants must have a certain amount of professional experience and pass a multiple choice exam focusing on seven areas of security management: emergency management, investigations, legal aspects, personnel security, physical secu-
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rity, protection of sensitive information, and security management.
Other Requirements Since many bodyguards are former police officers, bodyguards generally must be above the minimum age for police officers. This minimum age varies from 18 to 21, depending on the city or state. If a bodyguard comes from the police ranks, he or she must also have passed a thorough physical exam. Many bodyguards also begin their careers as security guards or as other types of security personnel, for which they receive special training. Other bodyguards come from a military background. Excellent physical fitness is a requirement for a bodyguard. Despite a popular image of bodyguards as big and tough men, and despite the fact that larger men can serve as deterrents, extreme physical strength is not an absolute requirement and many women have made successful careers as bodyguards. It is much more important that a bodyguard combine intelligence, sensitivity, and bravery with the ability to act quickly and decisively. The ability to blend into a crowd is also helpful. Many bodyguards receive training in martial arts, and increasingly they are incorporating the study of counterintelligence operations, electronic security devices, and surveillance techniques. Bodyguards often have training in first aid. Many bodyguards are also trained in specialized defensive driving techniques that enable them to maintain better control of a vehicle in emergency situations. However, being a bodyguard is not carte blanche to engage in action-movie heroics. Bodyguards must understand the appropriate use of force, especially since they can be arrested—or sued—for going over the line. Bodyguards who travel overseas must be well versed in the language and culture of the host country. Good verbal skills are vital, and a bodyguard must be able to communicate directions to people at all times. A bodyguard must also be aware of what to expect in any situation. That is why an understanding of the customs of areas in which they will be working can help the bodyguard perceive unusual events and be alert for possible problems. Similarly, the legal use, registration, and licensing of weapons differs from country to country, and the bodyguard who travels overseas needs to be familiar with the regulations governing weapons in the country in which he or she is working. Since bodyguards often work with important people and around sensitive information, they may be required to take a lie detector test before they begin work. Background checks of their work and personal histories may also be required. Bodyguards who work as permanent employees of a client must also exercise discretion and
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maintain confidentiality. Bodyguards should have a keen eye for detail and be able to spot trouble long before it happens. This ability to anticipate problems is crucial. A good bodyguard should rarely have to stop a kidnapping attempt as it occurs, for example, but should instead try to prevent the attempt from happening, through a combination of careful planning and skilled observation. If action is needed, however, the response must be swift and effective.
n exploring Because bodyguards must be mature and highly skilled, it is difficult to obtain real opportunities to explore this career while still in high school. Nevertheless, there are chances to take classes and talk to people to get a feel for the demands of the profession. Classes in criminal justice should give an indication of the challenges involved in protecting people. Talking to a police officer who works part-time as a bodyguard is another good way of learning about opportunities in this field. Many police departments hire high school students as police trainees or interns, providing an excellent introduction to careers in security and law enforcement. Without the requisite skills and experience, it is difficult to get summer work as a bodyguard. It may be possible, however, to work in some other capacity at a security firm that hires bodyguards and in this way interact with bodyguards and learn more about the day-today rewards and challenges of the profession.
n employers Bodyguards can find work with private security firms and government agencies. They are also employed by politicians, rock stars, and other individuals in the public eye who need personal protection.
n starting out Many people begin a career as a bodyguard on a parttime basis; for example, police officers often take on assignments while off-duty from police work. The reason that most of them start on a part-time basis is that the police training they receive is ideal preparation for work as a bodyguard. In addition to the excellent training a police officer receives, the officer is often in a good spot to receive job offers. Someone looking for a bodyguard may call the local police station and ask if there are officers willing to take on an assignment. Then, as a person acquires greater experience as a bodyguard and more and more people know of the person’s skills and availability, additional work becomes available. That person may then work full-time as a bodyguard or continue on a part-time basis.
Military service may also provide the background and skills for entry into this field. Many bodyguards enter this career after service in one of the military Special Forces, such as the Green Berets or the Navy SEALs, or after experience in the Military Police. Other bodyguards enter this field through a career with private security companies and often begin training while employed as security guards. Careers with the Secret Service, the Federal Bureau of Investigation, or other government police and intelligence agencies may also provide the necessary background for a career as a bodyguard. In fact, a successful history with one of these respected agencies is among the most attractive factors for potential employers.
n advancement Those who enter the field as part-time bodyguards may soon find full-time work. As bodyguards develop their skills and reputation, they may be hired by private security firms or government agencies. They may be given additional training in intelligence operations, surveillance techniques, and the use of sophisticated firearms. Some bodyguards find opportunities as personal protection and security consultants. These consultants work for private companies, evaluating personal security operations and recommending changes. They may begin their own security services companies or advance to supervisory and director’s positions within an existing company.
n earnings Many bodyguards begin their careers on a part-time basis and earn between $25 and $50 per hour for routine assignments. These assignments might last several hours. Earnings for full-time bodyguards vary enormously, depending on factors such as the guard’s experience, the notoriety or prestige of the client, the type of assignment, and whether the bodyguard is employed directly by the client or through a security agency. Highly dangerous, sensitive, or classified assignments generally pay more highly than do more routine protective assignments. Training in special skills, such as electronic surveillance also brings higher wages. According to findings by the Economic Research Institute, bodyguards just starting out in the field average a salary of approximately $22,330. Those with five years of experience average approximately $27,570 annually, and those with 10 years of experience average approximately $31,400. Depending on for whom the bodyguard works, earnings may be higher than these. For example, Distinguished Domestic Services, a placement agency for domestic professionals, reported on its Web site (http://distinguisheddomestics. com) that personal protection officers can expect a sal-
ary range of $40,000 to $70,000 annually. The agency also notes that these security personnel have usually had some type of government training. On its Web site, the Bureau of Diplomatic Security of the U.S. Department of State (http://www.state.gov/m/ds/career) reported a starting salary range for its special agents in security of $37,413 to $51,788 in 2006. Bodyguards employed by private security firms may receive health and life insurance benefits and other benefits. Benefits vary for those employed by private clients. Bodyguards who work as part of a government agency receive health and life insurance, vacation, holiday, and sick leave pay, and a pension plan. Self-employed bodyguards must provide their own insurance.
boilermakers and mechanics
Those with the most skill and experience will enjoy the best employment prospects. While the majority of bodyguards continue to be men, the increasing use of advanced security technologies will open up more and more opportunities for women.
n for more information For information on security careers and the certified protection professional designation, contact American Society for Industrial Security 1625 Prince Street Alexandria, VA 22314-2818 Tel: 703-519-6200 Email:
[email protected] http://www.asisonline.org
n work environment A bodyguard goes wherever the client goes. This means that the job can be physically demanding. Bodyguards must also have the strength and coordination to take actions to protect the client if the situation warrants it. A bodyguard must be able to act swiftly and decisively to thwart any attempt to harm his or her client. Bodyguards must be willing to risk their own safety to protect their clients. They should be comfortable handling firearms and using physical means of restraining people. Since bodyguards must accompany their clients at all times, there is no set work schedule. Bodyguards often work highly irregular hours, such as late evenings followed by morning assignments. It is also not unusual to work weekends, since this is when many high-profile clients make public appearances. Travel is a frequent requirement of the job.
n outlook Opportunities for bodyguards are likely to be strong as more and more people look for protection from an increasing number of threats such as stalkers, terrorists, and violent demonstrators. In addition, the threat of kidnapping and terrorism is always present for politicians, celebrities, business leaders, and others who enjoy wide recognition, and these individuals will take steps to safeguard themselves and their families by hiring bodyguards. As more and more companies enter the global economy, their business will take their executives to more areas of social and political unrest, and companies will need to increase their efforts for protecting their employees. Government agencies will continue to hire bodyguards, but much of the growth in employment will take place in the private sector. Many bodyguards will find work with private security companies. Some estimates suggest that employment in private security may nearly double over the next decade.
For more information on the Bureau of Diplomatic Security and the U.S. Department of State, visit this agency’s Web site. Bureau of Diplomatic Security U.S. Department of State 2201 C Street, NW Washington, DC 20520-0099 Tel: 202-647-4000 http://www.state.gov/m/ds
Your local Secret Service field office or headquarters office can provide more information on becoming a special agent. To learn more about secret service work, find career fairs, and get contact information for field offices, visit the agency’s Web site. U.S. Secret Service 950 H Street, NW, Suite 8400 Washington, DC 20223-0001 Tel: 202-406-5708 http://www.treas.gov/usss
Boilermakers and Mechanics n overview Boilermakers and boilermaker mechanics construct, assemble, and repair boilers, vats, tanks, and other large metal vessels that are designed to hold liquids and gases. Following blueprints, they lay out, cut, fit, bolt, weld, and rivet together heavy metal plates, boiler tubes, and castings. Boilermaker mechanics maintain and repair boilers and other vessels made by boilermakers. There
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quick facts School Subjects
Mathematics Technical/shop
are approximately 19,000 boilermakers working in the United States.
n history
Boilers first became important during the Industrial Revolution, when steam power emerged as a practical way to drive various Work Environment kinds of machinery. A boiler is an Indoors and outdoors apparatus that heats a liquid, usuPrimarily multiple locations ally water, and converts it to vapor. Minimum Education Level Boilers were first made and used Apprenticeship in England in the beginning of the 18th century. Manufacturers first Salary Range used iron and then began using $30,430 to $48,050 to $70,950 steel in boilers because steel could withstand more heat and presCertification or Licensing sure in use. During the 19th and None available 20th centuries, a series of design changes and improved alloys made Outlook boilers useful in a wide variety of Little change or more slowly than the average industrial applications. Because boilers are often DOT operated at extremely high pres805 sures, faulty construction, bad repairs, or improper operation GOE 06.02.02 can be very dangerous. Explosions were not uncommon. NOC During the late 19th century, 7262 regulations were put in place in some localities to prevent O*NET-SOC accidents caused by careless 47-2011.00 construction. Workers in the industry began organizing in the 1880s. By 1893, the two unions representing workers in boilermaking and similar trades met in Chicago to unite into what was then called the International Brotherhood of Boiler Makers, Iron Ship Builders, Blacksmiths, Forgers, and Helpers. It was not until 1908, however, that rules and regulations were developed to apply to any sizable area. Massachusetts created a Board of Boiler Rules in that year, and Ohio followed with its own set of rules in 1911. By 1934, 19 states and 15 cities had such codes. Today, as a result of the combined efforts of industry, labor unions, and government, safety codes are practically universal. The American Society of Mechanical Engineers and the International Brotherhood of Boilermakers have been leaders in the promotion and enforcement of the codes of safe manufacture and maintenance. Personal Skills
Mechanical/manipulative Technical/scientific
n the job Some boilermakers and mechanics work at or near the site where the boiler, tank, or vat is installed. Such sites include petroleum refineries, schools, and other institutions with large heating plants, factories where boilers are used to generate power to run machines, factories that make and store products such as chemicals or beer in large tanks, and atomic energy plants. Others work in shops or factories where boilers and other large vessels are manufactured. Boilermakers who do layout work usually work in a shop or factory. These workers follow drawings, blueprints, and patterns to mark pieces of metal plate and tubing indicating how the metal will be cut and shaped by other workers into the sections of vessels. Once the sections are fabricated, other workers at the shop, called fitters, temporarily put together the plates and the framework of the vessels. They check the drawings and other specifications and bolt or tack-weld pieces together to be sure that the parts fit properly. In doing the final assembly at the site, boilermakers first refer to blueprints and mark off dimensions on the base that has been prepared for the finished vessel. They use measuring devices, straightedges, and transits. They attach rigging equipment, such as hoists, jacks, and rollers, to any prefabricated sections of the vessel that are so large they must be lifted into place with cranes. After crane operators move the sections to the correct positions, the boilermakers fine-tune the alignment of the parts. They use levels and check plumb lines and then secure the sections in place with wedges and turnbuckles. With cutting torches, files, and grinders, they remove irregularities and precisely adjust the fit and finally weld and rivet the sections together. They may also attach other tubing, valves, gauges, or other parts to the vessel and then test the container for leaks and defects. Boilermakers also work in shipbuilding and in repairing the hulls, bulkheads, and decks of iron ships. In a typical repair, boilermakers first remove damaged metal plates by drilling out rivets and cutting off rivet heads with a chipping hammer. Then they take measurements of the damaged plates or make wooden patterns of them so that new plates can be made. They install the new plates, reaming and aligning rivet holes, then fastening on the plates by driving in rivets. Sometimes similar work is done on ships’ boilers, condensers, evaporators, loaders, gratings, and stacks. Field construction boilermakers work outdoors and move from one geographic location to another. They join construction teams in erecting and repairing pressure vessels, air pollution equipment, blast furnaces, water treatment plants, storage tanks, and stacks and liners.
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They can be involved in the erection of a 750,000-gallon water storage tank, the placement of a nuclear power plant reactor dome, or the construction of components on a hydroelectric power station. Boilermaker mechanics maintain and repair boilers and other vessels. They routinely clean or direct others to clean boilers, and they inspect fittings, valves, tubes, controls, and other parts. When necessary, they check the vessels to identify specific weaknesses or sources of trouble. They update components, such as burners and boiler tubes, to make them as efficient as possible. They dismantle the units to replace worn or defective parts, using hand and power tools, gas torches, and welding equipment. Sometimes repairs require that they use metalworking machinery, such as power shears and presses to cut and shape parts to specification. They strengthen joints and supports, and they put patches on weak areas of metal plates. Like fabrication and installation work, all repairs must be done in compliance with state and local safety codes.
Is Boilermaking for You?
n requirements High School
Do you understand that, based on employment conditions, you may be unemployed from time to time?
A high school diploma is required for all applicants to the boilermaking trade. In the past, people have become boilermakers through on-the-job training, but apprenticeships are now strongly recommended. To gain an apprenticeship, an applicant must score well on an aptitude test. You can prepare yourself for this test and the career by taking math classes and shop classes throughout high school. Courses that give you the opportunity to learn blueprint reading, welding, and metalworking are especially helpful.
Postsecondary Training Formal apprenticeships usually last four years. An apprentice receives practical training while working as a helper under the supervision of an experienced boilermaker. In addition to working, trainees attend classes in the technical aspects of the trade. Apprentices study subjects such as blueprint reading, layout, welding techniques, mechanical drawing, the physics and chemistry of various metals, and applied mathematics. While on the job, apprentices practice the knowledge they have acquired in the classroom. They develop such skills as using rigging and hoisting equipment, welding, riveting, and installing auxiliary devices and tubes onto vessels.
Other Requirements Mechanical aptitude and manual dexterity are important characteristics for prospective boilermakers. Because the work can be very strenuous, stamina is needed for jobs that require a great deal of bending, stooping, squatting,
Working as a field construction boilermaker is challenging though lucrative. Take a minute to answer these questions from the Boilermakers Apprenticeship Program; your responses will help you decide. Are you willing to do demanding and strenuous physical work? Are you willing to work at heights of 200 to 1,000 feet above the ground? Are you willing to travel and live away from home for long periods of time to maintain employment? Are you willing to work in all types of adverse conditions? Are you willing to make a commitment to four years of onthe-job training? Are you willing to complete the self-study lessons and onthe-job modules?
Are you dedicated to performing a job to the best of your ability and in compliance with employer standards? Are you willing to attend classroom instructions, when available, in addition to your regular working hours?
or reaching. Before they begin work, boilermakers may need to pass a physical examination showing that they are in good enough health to do the work safely. On the job, they must be able to work well despite noisy surroundings, odors, working at heights or in small, enclosed spaces, and other discomforts and dangers. It is also important that they be cautious and careful in their work and that they closely follow safety rules.
n exploring You may be able to observe boilermakers or workers who use similar skills as they work on construction projects or repair and maintenance jobs. For example, welders and equipment operators lifting heavy objects with elaborate rigging can sometimes be seen working at sites where large buildings are being erected. High school shop courses, such as blueprint reading and metalworking, can give you an idea of some of the activities of boilermakers. With the help of shop teachers or guidance counselors, you may be able to arrange to talk with people working in the trade. Information may also be obtained by contacting the local union-management committee in charge of apprenticeships for boilermakers.
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technical schools and sometimes high schools with metal shop courses may also help their graduates locate such positions. Other good approaches are to apply directly to employers and to contact the local office of the state employment service.
n advancement Upon completing their training programs, apprentices qualify as journeymen boilermakers. With experience and the right kind of leadership abilities, boilermakers may be able to advance to supervisory positions. In fabrication shops, layout workers and fitters who start as helpers can learn the skills they need in about two years. In time, they may move up to become shop supervisors, or they may decide to become boilermakers who work on-site to assemble vessels.
n earnings
A boiler mechanic examines a malfunctioning boiler in the basement of a school. (George Lane/Associated Press.)
n employers Approximately 19,000 boilermakers work in the United States. Of that number, slightly more than half work in the construction industry. Others work in manufacturing, employed primarily in boiler manufacturing shops, iron and steel plants, petroleum refineries, chemical plants, and shipyards. Still others work for boiler repair firms, for railroads, and in Navy shipyards and federal power facilities.
n starting out There are a limited number of apprenticeships available in boilermaking; only the best applicants are accepted, and there may be a waiting period before the apprenticeship starts. Sometimes workers begin as helpers in repair shops and enter formal apprenticeships later. These helper jobs are often advertised in newspapers. Vocational and
According to the U.S. Department of Labor, the median hourly wage for boilermakers in 2005 was $23.10. For full-time work at 40 hours per week, this wage translates into a median annual income of $48,050. The department also reported that the lowest-paid 10 percent earned less than $14.63 per hour, or approximately $30,430 per year for full-time work. At the other end of the pay scale, the highest-paid 10 percent made more than $34.11 per hour (approximately $70,950 annually). According to the International Brotherhood of Boilermakers, annual earnings vary greatly because of the temporary, cyclical nature of the work. Apprentices start at about 60 percent of journeyman wages. Earnings also vary according to the part of the country where boilermakers work, the industry that employs them, and their level of skill and experience. Pay rates are usually highest for boilermakers doing installation work in the construction industry and lower for those in manufacturing industries, although workers in construction may not be employed as steadily. Workers in the Northeast, the Great Lakes area, and cities in the far West tend to earn the highest wages. Boilermakers tend to make more than boilermaker mechanics. Among employees in boiler-fabrication shops, layout workers generally earn more while fitters earn less. Both layout workers and fitters normally work indoors; therefore, their earnings are not limited by seasonal variations in weather. Most boilermakers are members of unions, and union contracts set their wages and benefits. The largest union is the International Brotherhood of Boilermakers, Iron Ship Builders, Blacksmiths, Forgers, and Helpers. Other boilermakers are members of the Industrial Union of Marine and Shipbuilding Workers of America; the Oil, Chemical, and Atomic Workers International Union; the
United Steelworkers of America; the International Association of Machinists and Aerospace Workers; and the United Automobile, Aerospace, and Agricultural Implement Workers of America. Among the fringe benefits established under union contracts are health insurance, pension plans, and paid vacation time.
n work environment Boilermaking tends to be more hazardous than many other occupations. Boilermakers often work with dangerous tools and equipment; they must manage heavy materials; and they may climb to heights to do installation or repair work. Despite great progress in preventing accidents, the rate of on-the-job injuries for boilermakers remains higher than the average for all manufacturing industries. Employer and union safety programs and standards set by the federal government’s Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) are helping to control dangerous conditions and reduce accidents. The work often requires physical exertion and may be carried on in extremely hot, poorly ventilated, noisy, and damp places. At times it is necessary to work in cramped quarters inside boilers, vats, or tanks. At other times, workers must handle materials and equipment several stories above ground level. Sometimes installation workers work on jobs that require them to remain away from home for considerable periods of time. To protect against injury, boilermakers and mechanics use a variety of special clothing and equipment, such as hard hats, safety glasses and shoes, harnesses, and respirators. A 40-hour week is average, but in some jobs, deadlines may require overtime.
n outlook The U.S. Department of Labor projects little or no change in the employment rate of boilermakers through 2014. One reason for this is the current trend of repairing and retrofitting, rather than replacing, boilers. In addition, the smaller boilers currently being used require less on-site assembly. Finally, the automation of production technologies and the increasing use of imported boilers will cut down on the need for boilermakers. During economic downturns, boilermakers, including layout workers and fitters, may be laid off because many industries stop expanding their operations and install very few new boilers. On the other hand, boilermaker mechanics are less affected by downturns because they work more on maintaining and repairing existing equipment, which requires their services regardless of economic conditions. Despite little projected growth, there will be openings for boilermakers every year as experienced workers leave
book conservators
the field. Workers who have completed apprenticeships will have the best opportunities for good jobs.
n for more information For information about boilermaker apprenticeships, contact Boilermakers National Apprenticeship Program 1017 North 9th Street Kansas City, KS 66101-2624 Tel: 913-342-2100 Email:
[email protected] http://www.bnap.com
For additional career information, contact International Brotherhood of Boilermakers, Iron Ship Builders, Blacksmiths, Forgers and Helpers, AFL-CIO 753 State Avenue Kansas City, KS 66102-2516 Tel: 913-371-2640 http://www.boilermakers.org
Book Conservators n overview Book conservators treat the bindings and pages of books and other objects to help preserve original materials for future use. Their work often includes removing a book block from its binding, sewing, measuring, gluing, rebinding, and using special chemical treatments to maintain the integrity of the item. Most conservators work in libraries, in museums, or for special conservation centers.
n history In order to understand the history of book conservation as a field, it is important to learn something about the evolution of books and bookbinding. Early books were not bound, but rather rolled, such as ancient Egyptian papyrus rolls and early Christian parchment rolls. Eventually the rolls were cut into a number of flat panels sewn together along one edge, thus allowing for a book that was more convenient, portable, and enduring. Early Latin codex manuscripts were made up of folded sheets gathered into signatures, or groups of folded pages, and sewn together. Wooden boards were then placed on either side of the sewn signatures. In time, the entire volume was covered with leather or other animal skins to
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hide the sewing cords and provide protection to the pages. The basic constructional elements of bookbinding have changed little in the past 1,800 years, but the materials and methods used have matured considerably. Before the invention of the printing press, religious orders were often charged with copying texts by hand. These same monastic groups also assumed the roles of bookbinder and conservator. One of the main goals in creating books is the conservation and dissemination of knowledge. In order to pass that knowledge on to future generations, many early bookbinders began the legacy of conservation by using high quality materials and excellent craftsmanship. A book that is well-crafted in the first place will need less invasive conservation as the material ages. Historically, then, those who created the books had the specialized knowledge to conserve them. Conservators today are often quick facts from the same mold as early School Subjects bookbinders. They have the speArt cialized knowledge of how books History have traditionally been crafted, and they use technologically Personal Skills Artistic advanced adhesives, papers, and Mechanical/manipulative binding techniques to ensure that materials created centuries Work Environment ago will be around for years to Primarily indoors come. Primarily one location The establishment of book Minimum Education Level conservation as a career field Bachelor’s degree apart from bookbinding probably began when the first courses Salary Range in conservation and preservation $19,720 to $34,090 to were taught at a library school, or $60,180 when a professional library assoCertification or Licensing ciation first addressed the topic. Voluntary Thus, although early bookbinders dealt with issues of material lonOutlook gevity, conservation as a field has About as fast as the average only been around for 100 years DOT or so. 102
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n the job Book conservators work to slow down or stabilize the deterioration of books and other printbased materials. They repair books that have been damaged by misuse, accident, pests, or normal wear and tear; treat items
that may have been produced or repaired with inferior materials or methods; and work to ensure that the books will be around for the future. Before beginning any conservation efforts, book conservators must examine the item to be restored, determine the extent and cause of the deterioration, evaluate their own conservation skills, and decide on a proper course of action. In deciding how to treat an item, the book conservator must first consider the history of the item. When was it made? Book conservators must have a good knowledge of the history of bookmaking in order to serve the needs of the item. A book bound by hand in Italy in 1600 will have different needs than a volume bound by machine in 1980. The book conservator also needs to consider what other repairs have been made to the book over the years. Sometimes a shoddy repair job in the past can create more work for today’s conservator. For example, someone 30 years ago may have taped a torn page to keep it from ripping out entirely. Unfortunately, this hasty action, coupled with tape that will not stand the test of time, could lead to cracked, yellowing tape and stained book pages. When repairing a ripped sheet, book conservators use a pH-neutral (acid-free) adhesive, such as wheat paste, and Japanese paper, or a special acid-free book tape. Since high levels of acidity in papers and materials increase the rate of deterioration, all materials that conservators use must be acid-free and of archival quality. Book conservators also think about the current and future use of the book. For a common, high-use volume that will be checked out of the library frequently, they may repair the book with cheaper, lower-quality materials that will survive being tossed into a backpack and repeated trips through the return chute. For a textbook that is reprinted each year, for example, a thick piece of tape may be an adequate conservation method. If such a book is falling out of its cover, the conservator may need to remove the bookblock entirely, repair or replace the end sheets and headbands, and re-glue the bookblock back into the cover. If the cover of the book is broken, the conservator may need to fit the text block into a new cover. This involves measuring out the binder’s board and book cloth, cutting the materials to size, gluing the cloth onto the board, sizing in the bookblock, then finally gluing and setting the book. After the glue is dry, the conservator will inspect the item to ensure that all materials were fitted in properly, and that all problems were corrected. Rare books that are handled less frequently or only by specially trained and careful users can have less invasive repairs in order to maintain the integrity of
the original item. For instance, a conservator may choose to make a box to house a book rather than repair a broken spine. If the conservation work would lessen the value of the book, sometimes it’s better to simply stop the deterioration rather than to repair the damage. The historical and monetary value of a book is a key factor in deciding upon treatment. As with any antique, often less restoration is more. On a recent antiques television program, an owner refinished an antique table and thereby reduced its resale value by thousands of dollars. The same can be said for books. Many old and rare books have great value because of the historical materials and methods in evidence. Sometimes pests are encountered in conservation work. Beetle larvae and other insects may feast upon crumbs left in books, the pulp of the paper, or the adhesive, and make holes in the text. The conservator will assess the extent of the damage and prescribe a treatment. For critter damage to books, the most important thing is to ensure that any infestation is under control. The conservator needs to make sure that all bugs in a book are dead; if not, the items may need to be taken to a professional for fumigation. Once that is complete, the conservator can look at possible repair options. If the damage is under control, the conservator will probably opt for further damage prevention in lieu of repair. Often conservators treat books for only part of their day. They might also spend much time working on ways to minimize the need for conservation and repair work in the first place. Book conservators who work as part of a large department have other duties, such as dealing with patrons, reference work, security, training assistants, fielding calls from the public, giving seminars, and teaching. Conservators may also serve on groups and committees devoted to preservation, conservation, and the administration of a conservation lab or department.
n requirements High School You should plan on taking a college preparatory course load while in high school. Classes, such as history, literature, art, foreign languages, chemistry, and mathematics will all help you build a strong background for book conservation. By studying history, you can learn the social and historical contexts of books and knowledge. Understanding the history of an item can give you a better perspective on approaching the material as a conservator. Strong knowledge of literature can help you appraise the potential value of a book. A
book conservators
This book conservator hand-repairs rare library books. (David Joel, Tony Stone Images.)
comprehension of foreign languages allows you to deal with a wider variety of books from around the globe. Chemistry and math will begin to teach you about the composition and measurement of the materials you will be using. Art will teach you how to use your hands to create beautiful works that last.
Postsecondary Training In the past, book conservators gained their training by participating in an apprenticeship or internship. Today, graduate programs in book conservation have become the primary method of training to enter this field, although some students still enter this field after earning a bachelor’s degree and completing an apprenticeship or internship to round out their training. A bachelor’s degree in art, art history, or one of the fine arts may help you gain entry into a book conservation apprenticeship or internship program. Your school may offer courses, or even an undergraduate degree, in the book or paper arts, which often include classes in preservation and conservation. You will also need to take courses that help you learn how to select items for conservation, how to purchase and best utilize your conservation materials, and how to prepare documentation on your conservation methods and treatments. Upon earning a bachelor’s degree, you should attend a graduate school that offers training in book conservation. These programs are commonly offered by the art conservation departments of academic institutions. Some students may wish to attend library school to earn a master’s degree in library science with a concentration in book and document conservation. Again, advanced degrees may not be necessary for some positions, but they can always help you gain more promi-
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nent positions—particularly in administration—and perhaps command a higher salary. Additionally, any special skills you gain through advanced education will make you more attractive to potential employers and private clients.
Certification or Licensing Some book conservators gain certification from their library school or from professional organizations such as the Academy of Certified Archivists. The certification process generally requires a mix of formal study of theory and practice, as well as a certain amount of actual experience in the field. Certification is not officially required by any federal, state, or local agencies, but some employers may request, or require, a certified book conservationist for particular positions or projects. Also, certifying organizations compile a list of all their certified conservators. If someone contacts an organization looking for a conservator, the agency will refer the client to member book conservators in the area.
Other Requirements Book conservators need be able to think creatively. Conservation projects require the conservator to visualize the end product before beginning work. Conservators
Be a Book Conservator Now Although in-depth conservation is best left to the pro fessionals, there are many ways you can begin your career as a conservator today. The key to conservation is to avoid the need for conservation. You can help in these efforts by doing the following: n
Keep books out of the sun; ultraviolet rays can discolor materials and increase deterioration.
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Don’t throw materials around; treat them with respect.
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Never bend pages to mark your place; use a bookmark.
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Keep food and drinks away from the materials you are using; crumbs left in books can be an invitation to pests.
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Don’t hold books open face down on a surface; this can break the binding.
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Don’t use books as coasters; find something else to hold your drink!
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Use quality materials for basic repairs.
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If you accidentally damage a library book, bring it to the attention of the librarian when you return it so it can be repaired before further damage occurs.
should enjoy problem solving and be able to decide the best way to conserve the materials. Having a knack for hands-on work is key as well, since book conservators spend a majority of their time inspecting materials and making repairs by hand. Since book conservators routinely work with musty, moldy, and mildewed books, they should not be overly sensitive to odors. They also deal with sharp instruments, such as awls, knives, and paper cutters, so for safety reasons they should have a certain amount of facility with their hands. Book conservators also work with adhesives and chemicals, so they must take care not to spill materials. Although much of their day is spent working with books, many conservators deal with the public as well. Book conservators, therefore, should be able to communicate well, and with a certain measure of tact, with many types of people. They should be able to explain conservation options to clients and to best determine what procedures will meet the needs of the material and the owner.
n exploring If you are interested in becoming a book conservator, you should start out by learning all you can about how books are made. Study the history of books and of binding. Purchase an inexpensive, hardcover book at a used bookstore and take it apart to see how the bookblock is sewn together and how it is connected to the cover. Then try to put the book back together. There are many “how to” bookbinding guides to help you. Check out Hand Bookbinding: A Manual of Instruction by Aldren A. Watson (New York: Dover Publications, 1996) or ABC of Bookbinding: A Unique Glossary With Over 700 Illustrations for Collectors & Librarians by Jane Greenfield (New Castle, Del.: Oak Knoll Books, 1998) for the history of different styles of bookbinding and definitions of terms used in the field. Contact the conservation or preservation department at your local library. The department may offer tours of its facilities or workshops on the proper care of books. Contact professional librarian associations; they may have divisions devoted to conservation. Community colleges and art museums often have weekend or evening classes in the conservation and book arts. Finally, you might try contacting your local park district or community center to suggest sessions about book conservation. Many such groups offer summer day camps or after-school programs and look for input from participants about what types of activities are of inter-
est. Plus, if you have had some conservation experience of your own, you could offer to teach younger students about how they can begin conserving books by taking good care of their own materials and the books they check out of the library.
n employers College and university libraries, public libraries, institutional libraries, and special libraries all employ book conservators. These organizations may have an entire department devoted to the conservation and preservation of materials, or the tasks of conservation may be bestowed upon another division, such as an archival or rare book collection. Museums sometimes have a specific book conservator post, or they may offer such duties to an interested art conservationist. Book conservators also work for companies devoted to material conservation. Binderies may hire a conservationist as a quality control consultant. A number of book conservators are self-employed, working on a freelance or part-time basis for organizations and private citizens. They may be part of a nationwide network of certified book conservators. Often, potential clients contact book conservators through membership in professional organizations.
n starting out Book conservation is a field that relies heavily on skill, reputation, and word-of-mouth communication. While earning your bachelor’s or master’s degree, you should try to get an internship, apprenticeship, or assistantship in conservation or a related field. Take all the courses you can that will help you gain conservation skills. You may also be able to get a part-time or summer job in your school library’s preservation or conservation department. Many part-time positions or internships can turn into full-time jobs after the incumbent has proven his or her skills or completed specific educational requirements. Once you complete a training period, you might consider becoming certified. Certification can be a deciding factor in gaining employment, since certain companies and organizations may require book conservators to have official affirmation of their qualifications from an outside agency. You should also join a conservator’s organization in order to get to know professionals in the field. Since many conservator positions are in libraries, you may wish to join a professional library association as well. Professional organizations often have job listings available to members. They also publish journals and newsletters to
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keep members up-to-date on new developments in the field. If you are looking to be a self-employed conservator, you may wish to volunteer your services until you have established yourself. Volunteering to assist nonprofit organizations with their conservation needs will give you good exposure to help you learn more about book conservation and the skills that potential clients are seeking.
n advancement Book conservators who demonstrate a high level of skill in their craft can move on to positions with more responsibility. They may be called upon to train assistants in book conservation or to teach conservation techniques at a library school, certification program, or conservation lab. They may also transfer their skill in dealing with rare and fine materials and work more in the art community as art conservators, appraisers, or artists. With more experience and education, a book conservator can become an archivist, curator, or librarian. Many book conservators prefer to move away from full-time conservation and work on freelance projects instead. With advanced computer knowledge, book conservators can help bring rare and fragile materials into the digital age. They may learn how to make materials available on the Internet and become virtual curators. They may also move on to actual exhibition work. Knowing how to preserve materials gives them the advantage in knowing how to exhibit them safely. As book conservators gain more prominent positions, the trend is away from materials and toward administration. Beginning conservators will often spend most of their day dealing directly with the materials to be conserved. Conservators who move on to more advanced positions generally spend more time training others; evaluating materials and methods; dealing with outside suppliers, customers, and associations; attending meetings; and planning for the future of the department and the field.
n earnings It is difficult to say how much the average book conservator makes, since many conservators work part time, are self-employed, or have positions that encompass other duties as well. In general, the salary range for book conservators may fall within the range the U.S. Department of Labor reports for all conservators, and museum technicians. In 2005, this group of professionals had a median annual income of $34,090. The lowest-paid 10 percent earned less than $19,720 yearly, and the highest-paid 10
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percent made more than $60,180 per year. Often the size of the employer affects how much a conservator earns, with larger employers able to pay more. In addition, book conservators in major metropolitan areas generally earn more than those in small cities, and those with greater skills also command higher salaries. Conservators who work for libraries, conservation organizations, large corporations, institutions, or government agencies generally receive a full range of benefits, including health care coverage, vacation days, paid holidays, paid sick time, and retirement savings plans. Self-employed book conservators usually have to provide their own benefits. All conservators have the added benefit of working with rare and unique materials. They have the opportunity to work with history and preserve an artifact for the future.
n work environment Because of the damage that dirt, humidity, and the sun can cause to books, most conservators work in clean, climate-controlled areas away from direct sunlight. Many conservation labs are small offices, which often employ the conservator alone or perhaps with one or two part-time assistants. Other labs are part of a larger department within an organization; the University of Chicago’s Regenstein Library, for instance, has a conservation lab within the Special Collections department. With this type of arrangement, the book conservator generally has a few student and nonstudent assistants who work part-time to help with some of the conservation duties. Book conservators are always on the move. They use their hands constantly to measure, cut, and paste materials. They also bend, lift, and twist in order to reach items they work on and make room for new materials. Also, books are not always an easy size or weight to handle. Some oversized items need to be transported on a book truck from the stack area to the conservation area for treatment. Most book conservators work 40 hours a week, usually during regular, weekday working hours. Depending on the needs of their department and the clientele they serve, book conservators may need to be available some weekend hours. Also, some book conservators may agree to travel to the homes of clients to view materials that may require conservation.
n outlook The future of book conservation as a profession will most likely grow about as fast as the average through 2014. The U.S. Department of Labor notes that while the outlook for conservators in general is favorable, there is strong
competition for jobs. Book conservators who are graduates of conservation programs and are willing to relocate should have the best opportunities for employment. Those who can use their conservation skills in tandem with other abilities may also find more job openings. Book conservators with an artistic bent, for instance, could bring their conservation skills to an exhibition program at an art museum. Conservators who enjoy public contact could use their practical experience to teach classes in conservation techniques. Some people are concerned that our increasingly digital society will create fewer opportunities for book conservators. They claim that new technologies, such as television, computers, telephones, and the Internet have changed communication styles so drastically that printed books will eventually become obsolete. While it is true that more advanced technology will bring new challenges to conservation, these advances should also increase opportunities for conservators who can blend these developments with traditional conservation efforts. For example, a book conservator with excellent computer skills and Web-authoring knowledge can work on a project to digitize rare book collections and make them available to people all over the world.
n for more information For certification information, contact Academy of Certified Archivists 90 State Street, Suite 1009 Albany, NY 12207-1716 Tel: 518-463-8644 Email:
[email protected] http://www.certifiedarchivists.org
For information about how to become a conservator, contact American Institute for Conservation of Historic and Artistic Works 1717 K Street, NW, Suite 200 Washington, DC 20006-5346 Tel: 202-452-9545 Email:
[email protected] http://aic.stanford.edu
For information about preservation methods, services, and opportunities, contact the following association: Library of Congress Preservation Directorate 101 Independence Avenue, SE Washington, DC 20540-4500 Tel: 202-707-5213 http://lcweb.loc.gov/preserv
book editors
For a wealth of information about conservation topics, check out this project of the Preservation Department of Stanford University Libraries: Conservation OnLine http://palimpsest.stanford.edu
Book Editors n overview Book editors acquire and prepare written material for publication in book form. Such formats include trade books (fiction and nonfiction), textbooks, and technical and professional books (which include reference books, such as this one). A book editor’s duties may include contracting for and evaluating a manuscript, accepting or rejecting it, rewriting, correcting spelling and grammar, researching, and fact checking. Book editors may also work directly with printers in arranging for proofs and with artists and designers in arranging for illustrations and determining the physical specifications of the book. Approximately 96,270 editors work for newspapers, magazines, and book publishers in the United States. Book editors are employed at small and large publishing houses, book packagers (companies that subcontract book production for larger publishing houses), associations, and government agencies.
n history The origins of the publishing industry probably began soon after people developed written language, perhaps in Sumer in approximately 4000 b.c. After it became possible to record information in writing, somebody had to decide which information was worth recording. Technically speaking, the first record-keepers were the first publishers and editors. Some of the first things deemed suitable for publication were accounting records, genealogies, laws, and religious rituals and beliefs. For thousands of years, European books were produced by the laborious process of hand copying— first by the slave-secretaries of ancient Greece and Rome, and then by the monks of the medieval world, whose busy quills preserved both sacred and secular texts. Editors ensured that errors did not creep into the manuscripts—a critical task, when the words on the page were those originally written by the fathers of the Church, or considered to be handed down by God. The works that were published were intended for
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the small, elite group of educated people who could read and who could afford to buy books. For the most part, these people were clergymen and members of the upper class who had intellectual interests. Books of that era generally were written and edited in Latin, the common languages of the educated classes in Europe. The first printed books in the West were produced in the Rhine Valley by Johannes Gutenberg in about 1440. Gutenberg’s press, adapted from the wine press, began the first revolution in information technology. Over time literacy spread and newly affordable books on all sorts of subjects began to be written in the languages of the countries in which they were published. In addition to setting the author’s words in type, printers also often performed what we would now call editorial tasks. Having a book printed was often a risky business venture, often financed by the author himself. quick facts Beginning in the 19th century, School Subjects the various tasks performed by Computer science publishing concerns became English more specialized. Whereas in Journalism early publishing a single person Personal Skills would often perform various Artistic functions, in later publishing, Communication/ideas employees performed a narrow range of tasks. Instead of havWork Environment ing a single editor, a publication Primarily indoors would have an editorial staff. Primarily one location One person would be responMinimum Education Level sible for acquisitions, another Bachelor’s degree would copyedit, another would be responsible for editorial tasks Salary Range that related to production, and $26,910 to $45,510 to $85,230 so forth. Editing has also been powCertification or Licensing erfully affected by technology. None available Printing came into existence only after Gutenberg had adapted Outlook the necessary technology, and it About as fast as the average has changed in various ways as DOT technology has developed. The 132 most important recent developments have been those that have GOE made it possible to transfer and 01.02.01 edit information rapidly and NOC efficiently. The development of 5122 the computer has revolutionized editing, making it possible O*NET-SOC to write and rewrite texts elec27-3041.00 tronically and to transmit cor-
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rected texts almost instantaneously from one part of the world to another. This article, for instance, was written on one computer, e-mailed to the publisher, sent out to a copyeditor, and then uploaded back to the publisher, and then sent with others to the designer for electronic typesetting.
n the job The editorial department is generally the main core of any publishing house. Procedures and terminology may vary from one type of publishing house to another, but there is some general agreement among the essentials. Publishers of trade books, textbooks, and reference books all have somewhat different needs for which they have developed different editorial practices. The editor responsible for seeing a book through to publication may hold any of several titles. The highest-level editorial executive in a publishing house is usually the editor in chief or editorial director. The person holding either of these titles directs the overall operation of the editorial department. Sometimes an executive editor occupies the highest position in an editorial department. The next level of editor is often the managing editor, who keeps track of schedules and deadlines and must know where all manuscripts are at any given time. Other editors who handle copy include the senior editors, associate editors, assistant editors, editorial assistants, and copy editors. In a trade-book house, the editor, usually at the senior or associate position, works with manuscripts that he or she has solicited from authors or that have been submitted by known authors or their agents. Editors who seek out authors to write manuscripts or conceptualize other projects are also known as acquisitions editors. In technical/professional book houses, editors commonly do more researching, revising, and rewriting than trade-book editors do. These editors are often required to be skilled in certain subjects. Editors must be sure that the subject is comprehensively covered and organized according to an agreed-upon outline. Editors contract for virtually all of the material that comes into technical/professional book houses. The authors they solicit are often scholars. The editor has the principal responsibility in evaluating the manuscript. Editors who edit heavily or ask an author to revise extensively must learn to be highly diplomatic; the art of author-editor relations is a critical aspect of the editor’s job. When the editor is satisfied with the manuscript, it goes to the copy editor. The copy editor usually does the final editing of the manuscript before it goes to the
typesetter. On almost any type of manuscript, the copy editor is responsible for correcting errors of spelling, punctuation, grammar, and usage. It is important for a copy editor to be aware of the house style and procedures for the publishing house for which he or she works. Consistency is the mark of a professional copy editor. The copy editor marks up the manuscript to indicate where different kinds of typefaces are used and where charts, illustrations, and photos may be inserted. It is important for the copy editor to discover any inconsistencies in the text and to query the author about them. The copy editor then usually acts as a liaison between the typesetter, the editor, and the author as the manuscript is typeset into galley proofs and then page proofs. In a small house, one editor might do the work of all of the editors described here. There can also be separate fact checkers, proofreaders, style editors (also called line editors), and indexers. An assistant editor could be assigned to do many of the kinds of jobs handled by the senior or associate editors. Editorial assistants provide support for the other editors and may be required to proofread and handle some administrative duties. They also often read through a trade book house’s “slush pile” of submissions. Finally, and most importantly, there is the paperwork. Though working with words is the main attraction of a career in publishing, all editors must keep careful records. Changes must be recorded, manuscripts must be tracked, and authors and copy editors must be paid on time.
n requirements High School If you have an interest in a career as an editor, the most obvious classes that will prepare you include English, literature, and composition classes. You should also become familiar and comfortable working with word processing programs, either through taking a computer science class or through your own schoolwork. Taking journalism classes will give you the opportunity to practice different writing styles, including short feature pieces and long investigative stories. Art classes can also be useful to learn basics of photography and illustration, and to learn about elements of design and page appearance. Take advantage of any clubs or extracurricular activities that will give you a chance to write or edit. Joining the school newspaper staff is a great way to explore different tasks in publishing, such as writing, editing, layout, and printing.
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Postsecondary Training A college degree is a requirement for entry into the field of book editing. For general editing, a degree in English or journalism is particularly valuable, although most degrees in the liberal arts are acceptable. Degrees in other fields, such as the arts, history, sciences, psychology, or mathematics can be useful in publishing houses that produce books related to those fields. Textbook and technical/professional book houses in particular seek out editors with strengths in certain subject areas.
Other Requirements Book editors should have a sharp eye for detail and a compulsion for accuracy (of both grammar and content). Intellectual curiosity, self-motivation, and a respect for deadlines are important characteristics for book editors to have. Knowledge of word processing and desktop publishing programs is necessary as well. It goes without saying that if you are seeking a career in book editing, you should not only love to read, but love books for their own sake as well. If you are not an avid reader, you are not likely to go far as a book editor. The craft and history of bookmaking itself is also something in which a young book editor should be interested. A keen interest in any subject, be it a sport, a hobby, or an avocation, can lead you into special areas of book publishing.
n exploring As previously mentioned, joining your school’s newspaper staff is a great way to explore editing and writing while in high school. Even if your duties are not strictly editorial, gaining experience by writing, doing layout work, or even securing advertisements will help you to understand how the editing stage relates to the entire field of publishing. Joining your school’s yearbook staff or starting your own literary magazine are other ways to gain valuable experience. You might be able to find a part-time job with a local book publisher or newspaper. You could also try to publish your own magazine or newsletter. Combine one of your other interests with your desire to edit. For example, if you are interested in sports, you could try writing and editing your own sports report to distribute to family and friends. Since editing and writing are inextricably linked, be sure to keep your writing skills sharp. Outside of any class assignments, try keeping a journal. Try to write something every day and gain practice at reworking your writing until it is as good as you can make it. Explore different
This book editor is proofreading pages. (Lawrence Migdale, Tony Stone Images.)
kinds of writing, such as short stories, poetry, fiction, essays, comedic prose, and plays. If you are interested in becoming a book editor, you might consider joining a book club. Other interesting book Web sites, such as http://www.literarymarketplace.com or http://www.mediabistro.com, may be of interest if you’d like to learn more about publishing companies.
n employers Book editors may find employment with small publishing houses, large publishing houses, the federal government, or book packagers, or they may be self-employed as freelancers. The major book publishers are located in larger cities, such as New York, Chicago, Los Angeles, Boston, Philadelphia, San Francisco, and Washington, DC. Publishers of professional, religious, business, and technical books are dispersed throughout the country. There are approximately 96,270 editors employed in the United States (including book editors and all other editors).
n starting out New graduates can find editing positions through their local newspaper or through contacts made in college. College career counselors may be able to assist in finding book publishers to apply for jobs. Another option is to simply look them up in the Yellow Pages or Internet and apply for positions directly. Many publishers will advertise job openings on their corporate Web sites. However, by far the most helpful thing a would-be editor can do is to gain experience and contacts through internships and volunteer
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Types of Publishers The publishing industry is very diverse, and not all publishing houses are alike. Different companies have different specialties. Here’s a brief look at some of the types of publishing houses where an editor might be employed. Trade publishing is what most people think about when they think of book publishing. Most of the fiction and nonfiction books you find at your local bookstore fit into the trade category. However, not every editor at a trade house gets to work with the next bestseller! There are many niches, such as how-to, fine art books, romance novels, and science fiction. Academic publishers produce books for a scholarly audience. They tend to have a smaller audience, less distribution, and pay less in royalties than other publishing houses, but are extremely important to academic disciplines. Reference publishers publish encyclopedias, dictionaries, and directories. Putting these complicated works together can be somewhat hectic, but working for a reference publisher can be very interesting, since you will get to help develop and edit a variety of materials. Small presses, or independent publishers, tend to have less scope, distribution, and resources than larger publishers, but they are nonetheless important, since they can take risks or appeal to niche markets that would not be worthwhile to larger companies. They might have a very focused audience, they may publish books that are controversial or carry a heavy political slant, or they may publish works by up-and-coming authors who do not yet have enough of a following to have the larger presses’ attention. Vanity presses, also sometimes called subsidy presses, work on a “pay-to-be-published system,” relying on funding from their authors, rather than the sales of the books they publish, to make a profit. (The usual system is that an author will receive a royalty, or percentage on sales of their book, and an advance against the royalties up front.) Many vanity presses are of somewhat dubious quality, and have the reputation of being more concerned with the author’s money than for the success of their book. There are also other sorts of publishers for every market, such as those who produce calendars and novelty books—each of which has its own sorts of demands. It is important to know that these categories of publishers are neither exhaustive nor mutually exclusive. For example, one publishing house might publish both trade and reference titles, and perhaps even journals.
work. Starting positions are generally at the assistant level and can include administrative duties in addition to basic editing tasks.
n advancement An editor’s career path is dependent on the size and structure of the book publisher. Those who start as editorial assistants or proofreaders generally become copy editors. The next step may be a position as a senior copy editor, which involves overseeing the work of junior copy editors, or as a project editor. The project editor performs a wide variety of tasks, including copyediting, coordinating the work of in-house and freelance copy editors, and managing the schedule of a particular project. From this position, an editor may move up to become first assistant editor, then managing editor, then editor in chief. As editors advance, they are usually involved in more management work and decision-making. The editor in chief works with the publisher to ensure that a suitable editorial policy is being followed, while the managing editor is responsible for all aspects of the editorial department. Head editors employed by a publisher may choose to start their own editing business, freelancing full time.
n work environment Book editors do most of their work on a computer, either in an office setting or at home. When working alone, the environment is generally quiet to allow the editor to concentrate on the work at hand. Editors also work in teams, allowing for an exchange of ideas and collaboration. They typically work a normal workweek schedule of 40 hours per week, though if a book is near a deadline, they may work longer hours to get assignments done on schedule.
n earnings Earnings for book editors vary based on the size of the employer and the types of books it publishes, geographic location, and experience of the editor. The U.S. Department of Labor reports the median yearly salary for all editors was $45,510 in 2005. For all editors in 2005, the salaries ranged from a low of less than $26,910 to a high of more than $85,230 annually. In general, editors are paid higher salaries at large companies, in major cities, and on the East and West Coasts. Publishers usually offer employee benefits that are about average for U.S. industry. There are other benefits, however. Most editors enjoy working with people who like books, and the atmosphere of an editorial
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department is generally intellectual and stimulating. Some book editors have the opportunity to travel in order to attend meetings, to meet with authors, or to do research.
n outlook According to the U.S. Department of Labor, employment for writers and editors should grow about as fast as the average through 2014, although competition for positions will be strong. The growth of online publishing will increase the need for editors who are Web experts. Other areas where editors may find work include advertising, public relations, and businesses with their own publications, such as company newsletters. Turnover is relatively high in publishing—editors often advance by moving to another firm or by establishing a freelance business. There are many publishers and organizations that operate with a minimal salaried staff and hire freelance editors for everything from project management to proofreading and production.
Email:
[email protected] http://www.spannet.org
Literary Market Place, published annually by R. R. Bowker, lists the names of publishing companies in the United States and Canada as well as their specialties and the names of their key personnel. Literary Market Place http://www.literarymarketplace.com
Mediabistro is an online community and networking center for media professionals. Mediabistro http://www.mediabistro.com
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n for more information
n overview
The following organization’s Web site is an excellent source of information about careers in editing. The ACES organizes educational seminars and maintains lists of internships. American Copyeditors Society (ACES)
Bookkeeping and accounting clerks record financial transactions for government, business, and other organizations. They compute, classify, record, and verify numerical data in order to develop and maintain accurate financial records. There are approximately 1.8 million bookkeeping, accounting, and auditing clerks employed in the United States.
3 Healy Street Huntington, NY 11743-5323 http://www.copydesk.org
For additional information about careers in publishing, contact the following: Association of American Publishers 71 Fifth Avenue New York, NY 10003-3004 Tel: 212-255-0200 http://www.publishers.org
Publishers Marketing Association 627 Aviation Way Manhattan Beach, CA 90266-7107 Tel: 310-372-2732 Email:
[email protected] http://www.pma-online.org
Small Publishers Association of North America PO Box 1306 425 Cedar Street Buena Vista, CO 81211-9211 Tel: 719-395-4790
n history The history of bookkeeping developed along with the growth of business and industrial enterprise. The first known records of bookkeeping date back to 2600 b.c., when the Babylonians used pointed sticks to mark accounts on clay slabs. By 3000 b.c., Middle Eastern and Egyptian cultures employed a system of numbers to record merchants’ transactions of the grain and farm products that were distributed from storage warehouses. The growth of intricate trade systems brought about the necessity for bookkeeping systems. Sometime after the start of the 13th century, the decimal numeration system was introduced in Europe, simplifying bookkeeping record systems. The merchants of Venice—one of the busiest trading centers in the world at that time—are credited with the invention of the double entry bookkeeping method that is widely used today. As industry in the United States expands and grows more complex, simpler and quicker bookkeeping methods and procedures have evolved. Technologi-
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cal developments include bookkeeping machines, computer hardware and software, and electronic data processing.
n the job Bookkeeping workers keep systematic records and current accounts of financial transactions for businesses, institutions, industries, charities, and other organizations. The bookkeeping records of a firm or business are a vital part of its operational procedures because these records reflect the assets and the liabilities, as well as the profits and losses, of the operation. Bookkeepers record these business transactions daily in spreadsheets on computer databases, and accounting clerks often input the information. The practice of posting accounting records directly onto ledger sheets, in journals, or on other types of written accounting forms is decreasing as computerized record keeping becomes more quick facts widespread. In small businesses, School Subjects bookkeepers sort and record all Business the sales slips, bills, check stubs, Computer science inventory lists, and requisition Mathematics lists. They compile figures for Personal Skills cash receipts, accounts payable Following instructions and receivable, and profits and Technical/scientific losses. Accounting clerks handle the Work Environment clerical accounting work; they Primarily indoors enter and verify transaction data Primarily one location and compute and record various Minimum Education Level charges. They may also monitor High school diploma loans and accounts payable and receivable. More advanced clerks Salary Range may reconcile billing vouch$19,030 to $29,460 to $44,390 ers, while senior workers review invoices and statements. Certification or Licensing Accountants set up bookkeepVoluntary ing systems and use bookkeepers’ balance sheets to prepare periodic Outlook summary statements of financial More slowly than the average transactions. Management relies DOT heavily on these bookkeeping 216 records to interpret the organization’s overall performance and GOE uses them to make important 07.02.02 business decisions. The records NOC are also necessary to file income 1431 tax reports and prepare quarterly reports for stockholders. O*NET-SOC Bookkeeping and account43-3031.00 ing clerks work in retail and
wholesale businesses, manufacturing firms, hospitals, schools, charities, and other types of institutional agencies. Many clerks are classified as financial institution bookkeeping and accounting clerks, insurance firm bookkeeping and accounting clerks, hotel bookkeeping and accounting clerks, and railroad bookkeeping and accounting clerks. General bookkeepers and general-ledger bookkeepers are usually employed in smaller business operations. They may perform all the analysis, maintain the financial records, and complete any other tasks that are involved in keeping a full set of bookkeeping records. These employees may have other general office duties, such as mailing statements, answering telephone calls, and filing materials. Audit clerks verify figures and may be responsible for sending them on to an audit clerk supervisor. In large companies, an accountant may supervise a department of bookkeepers who perform more specialized work. Billing and rate clerks and fixed capital clerks may post items in accounts payable or receivable ledgers, make out bills and invoices, or verify the company’s rates for certain products and services. Account information clerks prepare reports, compile payroll lists and deductions, write company checks, and compute federal tax reports or personnel profit shares. Large companies may employ workers to organize, record, and compute many other types of financial information. In large business organizations, bookkeepers and accountants may be classified by grades, such as Bookkeeper I or II. The job classification determines their responsibilities.
n requirements High School In order to be a bookkeeper, you will need at least a high school diploma. It will be helpful to have a background in business mathematics, business writing, typing, and computer training. Pay particular attention to developing sound English and communication skills along with mathematical abilities.
Postsecondary Training Some employers prefer people who have completed a junior college curriculum or those who have attended a post–high school business training program. In many instances, employers offer on-the-job training for various types of entry-level positions. In some areas, work-study programs are available in which schools, in cooperation with businesses, offer part-time, practical on-the-job training combined with academic study. These programs often help students find immediate employment in simi-
lar work after graduation. Local business schools may also offer evening courses.
Certification or Licensing The American Institute of Professional Bookkeepers offers voluntary certification to bookkeepers who have at least two years of full-time experience (or the part-time or freelance equivalent), pass an examination, and sign a code of ethics. Bookkeepers who complete this requirement may use the designation certified bookkeeper.
Other Requirements Bookkeepers need strong mathematical skills and organizational abilities, and they have to be able to concentrate on detailed work. The work is quite sedentary and often tedious, and you should not mind long hours behind a desk. You should be methodical, accurate, and orderly and enjoy working on detailed tasks. Employers look for honest, discreet, and trustworthy individuals when placing their business in someone else’s hands. Once you are employed as a bookkeeping and accounting clerk, some places of business may require you to have union membership. Larger unions include the Office and Professional Employees International Union; the International Union of Electronic, Electrical, Salaried, Machine, and Furniture Workers-Communications Workers of America; and the American Federation of State, County, and Municipal Employees. Also, depending on the business, clerks may be represented by the same union as other manufacturing employees.
bookkeeping and accounting clerks
Fun Facts about Coins n
The United States Mint, which produces the coins we use everyday, was created by an act of Congress on April 2, 1792.
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The first Mint buildings were constructed in Philadelphia, the nation’s capitol at the time. The Philadelphia mint is still in operation today. Along with the Denver mint (established in 1862), it minted more than 8.8 billion coins in 2005.
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The first coins ever produced by The United States Mint: 11,178 copper cents, which were delivered in March 1793.
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Until 1837, pennies were made of pure copper. Today, pennies are made up of 97.5 percent zinc and 2.5 percent copper (copper-plated zinc).
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To conserve copper during World War II, The United States Mint issued “gray” steel pennies.
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It’s a man’s world. Only two women have ever been portrayed on circulating coins in the United States. Sacagawea—a Shoshone girl who played a key role in guiding the explorers Lewis and Clark across what is now the western United States—appeared on the dollar coin, which was introduced in 1999 and is still in circulation today. Susan B. Anthony, a women’s suffragist, appeared on the dollar coin, which was circulated from 1979 to 1981.
Source: The United States Mint
n exploring You can gain experience in bookkeeping by participating in work-study programs or by obtaining part-time or summer work in beginning bookkeeping jobs or related office work. Any retail experience dealing with cash management, pricing, or customer service is also valuable. You can also volunteer to manage the books for extracurricular student groups. Managing income or cash flow for a club or acting as treasurer for student government are excellent ways to gain experience in maintaining financial records. Other options are visiting local small businesses to observe their work and talking to representatives of schools that offer business training courses.
n employers Of the approximately 1.8 million bookkeeping, auditing, and accounting clerks, many work for personnel supplying companies; that is, those companies that provide part-time or temporary office workers. Approximately
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25 percent of bookkeeping and accounting clerks work part time, according to the U.S. Department of Labor. Many others are employed by government agencies and organizations that provide educational, health, business, and social services.
n starting out You may find jobs or establish contacts with businesses that are interested in interviewing graduates through your guidance or placement offices. A workstudy program or internship may result in a full-time job offer. Business schools and junior colleges generally provide assistance to their graduates in locating employment. You may locate job opportunities by applying directly to firms or responding to ads in newspaper classified sections. State employment agencies and private employment bureaus can also assist in the job search process.
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n advancement Bookkeeping workers generally begin their employment by performing routine tasks, such as the simple recording of transactions. Beginners may start as entry-level clerks, cashiers, bookkeeping machine operators, office assistants, or typists. With experience, they may advance to more complex assignments that include computer training in databases and spreadsheets and assume a greater responsibility for the work as a whole. With experience and education, clerks become department heads or office managers. Further advancement to positions such as office or division manager, department head, accountant, or auditor is possible with a college degree and years of experience. There is a high turnover rate in this field, which increases the promotion opportunities for employees with ability and initiative.
n earnings According to the U.S. Department of Labor, bookkeepers and accounting clerks earned a median income of $29,460 a year in 2005. Earnings are also influenced by such factors as the size of the city where they work and the size and type of business for which they are employed. Clerks just starting out earn approximately $19,030 or less. Those with one or two years of college generally earn higher starting wages. Top-paying jobs average about $44,390 or more a year. Employees usually receive six to eight paid holidays yearly and one week of paid vacation after six to 12 months of service. Paid vacations may increase to four weeks or more, depending on length of service and place of employment. Fringe benefits may include health and life insurance, sick leave, and retirement plans.
n work environment The majority of office workers, including bookkeeping workers, usually work a 40-hour week, although some employees may work a 35- to 37-hour week. Bookkeeping and accounting clerks usually work in typical office settings. They are more likely to have a cubicle than an office. While the work pace is steady, it can also be routine and repetitive, especially in large companies where the employee is often assigned only one or two specialized job duties. Attention to numerical details can be physically demanding, and the work can produce eyestrain and nervousness. While bookkeepers usually work with other people and sometimes under close supervision, they can
expect to spend most of their day behind a desk; this may seem confining to people who need more variety and stimulation in their work. In addition, the constant attention to detail and the need for accuracy can place considerable responsibility on the worker and cause much stress.
n outlook Although the growing economy produces a demand for increased accounting services, the automation of office functions will continue to improve overall worker productivity. Fewer people will be needed to do the work, and employment of bookkeeping and accounting clerks is expected to grow more slowly than the average through 2014, according to the U.S. Department of Labor. Excellent computer skills will be vital to securing a job. Despite lack of growth, there will be numerous replacement job openings, since the turnover rate in this occupation is high. Offices are centralizing their operations, setting up one center to manage all accounting needs in a single location. As more companies trim back their workforces, opportunities for temporary work should continue to grow.
n for more information For information on certification and career opportunities, contact
American Institute of Professional Bookkeepers 6001 Montrose Road, Suite 500 Rockville, MD 20852 Email:
[email protected] Tel: 800-622-0121 http://www.aipb.org
For information on accredited educational programs, contact Association to Advance Collegiate Schools of Business 777 South Harbour Island Boulevard, Suite 750 Tampa, FL 33602-5730 Tel: 813-769-6500 http://www.aacsb.edu
For more information on women in accounting, contact Educational Foundation for Women in Accounting PO Box 1925 Southeastern, PA 19399-1925 Tel: 610-407-9229 Email:
[email protected] http://www.efwa.org
Border Patrol Officers n overview Border patrol officers patrol more than 8,000 miles of border between the United States and Canada and between the United States and Mexico, as well as the coastal areas of the Gulf of Mexico and Florida. It is their duty to enforce laws regulating the entry of aliens and products into the United States. They are employed by the U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Service (USCIS) of the Department of Homeland Security.
n history As long as civilizations have established borders for their countries, people have guarded those borders and fought over them. All over the world, societies have created rules and regulations for entry into their countries. Some welcome strangers from other lands, but other societies only allow foreigners to live among them briefly before requiring them to leave. The borders between the United States and its northern and southern neighbors have been peacefully maintained almost continuously since the founding of the countries. However, federal immigration laws make it necessary for border patrol officers to protect the citizens of the United States by patrolling its borders. Their job is to prevent illegal entry at all of the borders and to arrest or deport those who attempt to enter illegally. In recent years, an increase in narcotics trafficking has made the job of the border patrol officer even more challenging. In addition to preventing the entry of aliens, border patrol officers also prevent the entry of illegal substances, and patrol the borders to prevent terrorists from entering the United States.
n the job Border patrol officers are federal law enforcement officers. The laws that they are hired to enforce deal with immigration and customs. U.S. immigration law states that people wishing to enter the United States must apply to the government for permission to do so. Those who want to work, study, or vacation in the United States must have appropriate visas. Those who want to move here and stay must apply for citizenship. Customs laws regulate materials, crops, and goods entering the United States. To ensure that foreigners follow these rules, border patrol officers are stationed at every border entry point of the United States.
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Members of the border patrol cover the border on foot, on horseback, in cars or jeeps, in motor boats, in airplanes, and, most recently, on mountain-bikes. They track people near the borders to detect those who attempt to enter the country illegally. They may question people who live or work near the border to help identify illegal aliens. When border patrol officers find violators of U.S. immigration laws, they are authorized to apprehend and detain the violators. They may deport, or return, illegal aliens to their country, or arrest anyone who is assisting foreigners to enter the country illegally. Border patrol officers work with local and state law enforcement agencies in discharging their duties. Although the uniformed patrol is directed from Washington, D.C., the patrol must have a good working relationship with officials in all of the border states. Local and state agencies can be very helpful to border patrol officers, primarily because these agencies are aware of the peculiarities of the terrain in their area, and they are familiar with the operating procedures of potential aliens or drug smugglers. Border patrol officers work 24 hours a day along the borders with Mexico and Canada. During this time they may be called upon to do “just about anything you can imagine,” according to Paul Nordstrom, a GS-7 border patrol agent at Truth or Consequences, New Mexico. “I’ve worked with snow rescues of illegal aliens, catching attempted murderers, apprehending stolen vehicles,” he says. He has escaped gunfire more than once. At night, border patrol officers may use night-vision goggles to spot trespassers. In rugged areas that are difficult to patrol on foot or on horseback, helicopters are used for greater coverage. At regular border crossing points, officers check all incoming vehicles for people or materials hidden in car trunks or truck compartments. The prevention of drug smuggling has become a major part of the border patrol officer’s work. The increase in drug traffic from Central and South America has led to increased efforts by the USCIS to control the border with Mexico. Drug-sniffing dogs have been added to the patrol’s arsenal. Work for border patrol officers has become more dangerous in recent years, and all officers are specially trained in the use of firearms. Some employees of the USCIS may specialize in areas of immigration or customs. Immigration inspectors enforce laws pertaining to border crossing. They work at airports, seaports, and border crossing points and may question people arriving in the United States by boats, trains, or airplanes. They arrest violators of entry or immigration laws. Customs officers work to prevent the import of contraband, or illegal merchandise. Most of their work is
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involved with illegal narcotics. Customs officers search the cargo of ships and airplanes; baggage in cars, trucks, trains, or buses; and mail. They work with travelers as well as with the crews of ships or airplanes. If they discover evidence of drug smuggling or other customs violations, they are responsible for apprehending the offenders. Occasionally, border patrol officers may also be called upon to help local law enforcement groups in their work. This may involve searching for lost hikers or travelers in rugged wilderness areas of the northern or southern United States.
The minimum educational requirement for anyone wishing to train as a border patrol officer is a high school diploma, although a bachelor’s degree is preferred. If you are still quick facts in high school, take geography, School Subjects social studies, and government Foreign language courses. This will help give you a Geography general background for the field. Government Take a foreign language class, specifically, Spanish; fluency in this Personal Skills Following instructions language will give you an advanLeadership/management tage over other job applicants. Indoors and outdoors Primarily multiple locations Minimum Education Level
High school diploma Salary Range
$25,195 to $32,755 to $62,049 Certification or Licensing
None available Outlook
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Because of the nature of border patrol work, you will not be able to receive direct experience. Courses in immigration law, Spanish, and criminal justice are helpful, however, as is a good sense of direction, geography, and experience hiking in and knowledge of wilderness areas. Also, since the job can be very demanding physically, you should build your stamina and strength by exercising regularly. School and local libraries may have books with information on criminal justice and law enforcement.
n employers
n requirements High School
Work Environment
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Postsecondary Training College majors in criminal justice, law, and sociology are highly regarded as preparation for this field, as is previous military training or law enforcement experience. Knowledge of Spanish and other languages is also helpful.
Other Requirements Border patrol officers must be U.S. citizens. Test scores on an entrance exam admit potential patrol officers to the training program. Successful completion of post-academy courses during the one-year probation period following training, as well as acceptable scores on two mandatory tests in Spanish and law, is required before placement. Good character references are important, and civil service tests are also sometimes required.
Border patrol officers are employed by the federal government. After training and completion of the oneyear probation period, a border patrol officer may be appointed to one of four states: California, Texas, Arizona, or New Mexico. These Southwest border states require the most officers, with nearly 150 stations throughout the United States and Puerto Rico. While employment at these sites tends to fluctuate depending on the employers’ perception of need for a given area each year, the larger sites employ anywhere from 100 to 1,000 officers, and recent improvements in funding have guaranteed a steady increase for both officers and support staff nationwide. An officer’s placement is determined at the time of graduation. An individual may request relocation at this time, but at the risk of termination. Though not all states are equipped with border patrol stations, all are required to have at least two immigration stations. Upon promotion, supervisory or investigative positions with the USCIS may be available in these areas.
n starting out Prospective border patrol officers must pass an entrance exam before being accepted into a 16-week training course at one of three Border Patrol Academies: the Federal Law Enforcement Training Center in Glynco, Georgia; the Advanced Training Facility in Artesia, New Mexico; or the Satellite Training Facility in Charleston, South Carolina. The course teaches the basics of the immigration laws the officers will uphold. They undergo physical training and instruction in law enforcement and the safe use of firearms. Border patrol officer trainees are also taught Spanish as part of their training. After graduation from the Border Patrol Academy, agents return to their duty stations for a one-year probation period, where they will continue their academic and field training under the supervision of a sector training officer. Two mandatory tests in Spanish and
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Interview William Botts has spent practically his whole life with the INS/USCIS and the border patrol. After all, his father, Gene Botts, is a 33-year veteran of the Immigration and Naturalization Service who spent 10 years with the border patrol and wrote a book, The Border Game, on the challenges confronting today’s USCIS officers and investigators. Botts is a GS-13-level assistant border patrol agent-in-charge at the Nogales station. His station is one of eight on the Arizona/ Mexico border that comprise the Tucson sector, which is currently the number-one sector for total alien arrests and the number-two sector for narcotics seizures. Q. Why did you decide to pursue the border patrol? A. I was looking for something that was not behind the desk. Unfortunately, in my present position, I still spend more time behind the desk. But I was looking for something outdoors. My father is a 33-year veteran of the INS, a retired investigator, so I had a pretty good idea of the nature of the job. It sounded interesting. Q. What part of the job do you find most challenging? A. The smuggling operations. Smuggling organizations, in particular, have grown more sophisticated with the aid of cellular phones and other means. And narcotics, for the obvious reasons. Q. Can you recall the first time you were confronted with a dangerous situation? A. An alien smuggler tried to run me over. This was probably one to one-and-a-half years after I started duty. Now, in particular it’s very dangerous with the increase in narcotics smuggling. There are a lot more aliens, and a lot more guns. We had an agent, assigned to this station, who was killed in the line of duty three days before I arrived at this duty station.
law are administered at six and 10 months. All agents must pass these mandatory exams or they will be refused admittance into the border patrol. Once they complete the course, they will be stationed along the Mexican border. Border patrol officers take orders from their sector chiefs. Border patrol officers generally enter at the GS-5 or GS-7 levels, depending on the level of their education. Entry at the GS-7 level is generally restricted as part of the Outstanding Scholars’ Program, which requires a grade-point average of 3.5 or
Q. What do you most like about the border patrol? A. The outdoors. I particularly like this part of the country. And the periodic moments of excitement. Q. What might others find most challenging about the job? A. You see a lot of poor people, desperate people. You can certainly understand why they’re coming to this country, but our job is to send them back to theirs. It’s more than aliens from Mexico. We see Romanians, Bulgarians, aliens from Guatemala, El Salvador, and, more recently, Hondurans and Nicaraguans. You see some really heartbreaking situations. Q. What is the biggest misconception about the border patrol? A. The most common misconception is that we have a high degree of dislike for people from Mexico and other aliens, that we treat them poorly. That’s just not true. Quite often we are saving the lives of the people we are arresting. We commonly administer first-aid to aliens. We carry water and bandages. And we quite frequently feed the people we arrest before we send them back to their country. Q. What activities can prepare those who wish to enter the border patrol? A. Physical fitness is chief. A working knowledge of Spanish is also helpful, but not required. Q. What advice would you give to those wishing to become a border patrol agent? A. Try to research the job. Contact the border patrol stations. You can ask to speak to an agent or supervisor, or quite often you will be put in contact with a public information officer who can provide you with information. If you live in proximity to a station, just stop by. Also, understand that if you are hired by the border patrol, there is a 99.9 percent chance you will be stationed at the southern border.
higher during specified periods of an applicant’s college career.
n advancement After their first year, all border patrol officers advance to the GS-9 journeyman level. From there, they may compete for positions at the GS-11 level. With experience and training, border patrol officers can advance to other positions. They may become immigration
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U.S. Border Patrol agents escort a suspect to a holding vehicle after the suspect was apprehended in Gadsen, AZ, for allegedly crossing in the U.S. illegally. (Alfred J. Hernandex/AP.)
inspectors or examiners, deportation officers, or special agents. Some border patrol officers concentrate on the prevention of drug smuggling. They may advance to become plainclothes investigators who spend months or even years cracking a smuggling ring. They may lead criminal investigations into an alien’s background, especially if there is suspicion of
Learn More about It Andreas, Peter. Border Games: Policing the U.S.—Mexico Divide. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 2000. Byrd, Bobby, and Susannah Mississippi Byrd, eds. The Late Great Mexican Border: Reports from a Disappearing Line. El Paso, Tex.: Cinco Puntos Press, 1996. Demmer, Byron, et al. Border Patrol Exam. 3rd ed. Albany, N.Y.: LearningExpress, 2006. Hart, John M. Border Crossing: Mexican and Mexican-American Workers. Wilmington, Del.: Scholarly Resources, 1998. Lorey, David E. The U.S.-Mexican Border in the Twentieth Century: A History of Economic and Social Transformation. Wilmington, Del.: Scholarly Resources, 1999. Moore, Alvin E. Border Patrol. Santa Fe, N. Mex.: Sunstone Press, 1988. Urrea, Luis Alberto. By the Lake of Sleeping Children: The Secret Life of the Mexican Border. New York: Anchor Books, 1996. Vila, Pablo. Crossing Borders, Reinforcing Borders: Social Categories, Metaphors and Narrative Identities on the U.S.-Mexico Frontier. Austin, Tex.: University of Texas Press, 2000.
drug involvement. Others may prefer the immigration area and work checking passports and visas at border crossings. Border patrol officers may also advance to supervisory positions. With experience, some border patrol officers leave the front lines and work in the service areas of the USCIS. They may interview people who wish to become naturalized citizens or administer examinations or interviews. Many of the higher echelon jobs for border patrol officers require fluency in Spanish. Advancement within the border patrol comes with satisfactory work. To rise to supervisory positions, however, border patrol officers must be able to work competitively. These positions are earned based on the agency’s needs as well as on the individual’s merit.
n earnings Border patrol officers begin at either the GS-5 or GS-7 grade, depending on their level of education. In 2006 these grades paid $25,195 to $32,755 and $31,209 to $40,569 per year, respectively. GS-9 or journeyman salaries paid $38,175 to $49,632 per year. The highest nonsupervisory grade for a border patrol officer is GS-11, which paid between $46,189 and $62,049 in 2006. Officers in certain cities, such as New York, Los Angeles, Boston, San Francisco, Chicago, Washington, D.C., and others are entitled to receive additional locality pay, which adds roughly 16 percent to the base salary. Law enforcement officials employed by the federal government are also entitled to additional pay of 25 percent of their base salary. Overtime and pay differentials for night, weekend, and holiday work can also greatly increase an officer’s salary. As federal workers, border patrol officers enjoy generous benefits, including health and life insurance, pension plans, and paid holidays, sick leave, and vacations.
n work environment The work of a border patrol officer can be tiring and stressful. Because officers must cover the borders continuously, hours are irregular and shifts tend to vary. “Balancing shift work and having to adjust to that in your family is difficult,” says border patrol agent Paul Nordstrom. Most officers spend more time outdoors in jeeps, cars, helicopters, or on horseback than they do in offices. Still, there is a great deal of paperwork to process on each person detained; that usually requires several hours. The work may be dangerous, and many decisions must be made quickly. Border patrol officers must confront many people throughout their shift, and they must remain alert for potential illegal entry into the United States. Many people who attempt to enter
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the United States illegally have undergone extreme risk and hardship. Border patrol officers encounter emotionally intense situations just as frequently as hostile, violent ones. For example, illegal aliens suffer extremes of heat and discomfort of crowding into the back of a hot, stuffy truck in order to enter the United States; returning to their country is oftentimes as uncomfortable. Border patrol officers must be able to cope with the stress and trauma of such situations. Finally, most of those who attempt to enter the country illegally will do so again and again. Even as agents prevent one group from entering the country, elsewhere several other groups of illegal aliens may be successfully crossing the border. Border patrol officers must be able to work at what may, at times, seem a futile and frustrating task. Despite the difficulty of the job, work as a border patrol officer can be very rewarding. Border patrol officers perform a necessary function and know they are contributing to the safety of our society.
n outlook The U.S. Department of Labor projects employment for all police officers and detectives (including border patrol officers) to increase faster than average through 2014. There has been growing public support of drug prevention activities, including the prevention of drug smuggling. Public support of the war on drugs has enabled the INS to continue to increase its surveillance of U.S. borders. After the terrorist attacks in 2001, growing concerns over the level of illegal immigration have created an urgent need for more border patrol officers. The proposed fiscal year 2007 budget requests funding for an additional 1,500 border patrol agents to increase security at U.S. borders.
n for more information For information about employment opportunities, frequently asked questions, and links to other government sites, check out the USCIS Web site or contact U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Service 425 I Street, NW Washington, DC 20536-2542 Tel: 800-375-5283 http://www.uscis.gov
Information about entrance requirements, training, and career opportunities for all government jobs can be obtained from the U.S. Office of Personnel Management. For more information about publications, job listings, or qualifying screening exams, contact
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U.S. Office of Personnel Management 1900 E Street, NW Washington, DC 20415-0001 Tel: 202-606-1800 http://www.opm.gov
For current information on employment procedures, compensation, benefits, and requirements, as well as links to helpful books and other sources of information, check out the following Web site: United States Border Patrol Unofficial Web Site http://honorfirst.com
Botanists n overview Botanists study all different aspects of plant life, from cellular structure to reproduction, to how plants are distributed, to how rainfall or other conditions affect them, and more. Botany is an integral part of modern science and industry, with diverse applications in agriculture, agronomy (soil and crop science), conservation, manufacturing, forestry, horticulture, and other areas. Botanists work for the government, in research and teaching institutions, and for private industry. The primary task of botanists is research and applied research. Nonresearch jobs in testing and inspection, or as lab technicians/technical assistants, also are available. Botany is an extremely diverse field with many specialties.
quick facts School Subjects
Agriculture Biology Personal Skills
Helping/teaching Technical/scientific Work Environment
Indoors and outdoors Primarily one location Minimum Education Level
Bachelor’s degree Salary Range
$31,258 to $63,670 to $90,000+ Certification or Licensing
None available Outlook
About as fast as the average DOT
n history Plant science is hundreds of years old. The invention of microscopes in the 1600s was very important to the development of modern botany. Microscopes allowed minute study of plant anatomy and cells and led to considerable research in the
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field. It was in the 1600s that people started using words like botanographist or botanologist, for one who describes plants. In the 1700s, Carolus Linnaeus, a Swedish botanist and taxonomist (one who identifies, names, and classifies plants) was an important figure. He came up with the two-name (genus and species) system for describing plants that is still used today. In all, Linnaeus wrote more than 180 works on plants, plant diseases, and related subjects. In Austria during the 19th century monk Gregor Johann Medel did the first experiments in hybridization. He experimented on garden peas and other plants to figure out why organisms inherit the traits they do. His work is the basis for 20th and 21st century work in plant and animal genetics. As interest in botany grew, botanical gardens became popular in Europe and North America. Botany is a major branch of biology; the other is zoology. Today, studies in botany reach into many areas of biology, including genetics, biophysics, and other specialized studies. It has taken on particular urgency as a potential source of help for creating new drugs to fight disease, meeting food needs of developing countries, and battling environmental problems.
n the job Research and applied research are the primary tasks of botanists. Literally every aspect of plant life is studied: cell structure, anatomy, heredity, reproduction, and growth; how plants are distributed on the earth; how rainfall, climate, soil, elevation, and other
Profile: John Bartram (1699–1777) John Bartram was the first native-born American botanist. Born at Marple, near Philadelphia, he became interested in botany as a child and studied the subject on his own. In 1728 he founded the first botanical gardens in North America at Kingsessing. The 27-acre tract is now a part of the Philadelphia park system. Bartram was the first American botanist to experiment with breeding and improving plants. In search of new plants, he explored the Allegheny and Catskill mountains and made trips to Florida and the Carolinas. Famous in Europe as well as in America, he was appointed botanist to King George III of England in 1765. Bartram exchanged plants with many European botanists. The Swedish botanist Carolus Linnaeus called him the “greatest natural botanist” of his time.
conditions affect plants; and how humans can put plants to better use. In most cases, botanists work at a specific problem or set of problems in their research. For example, they may develop new varieties of crops that will better resist disease. Some botanists focus on a specific type of plant species, such as fungi (mycology), or plants that are native to a specific area, such as a forest or prairie. A botanist working in private industry, for example, for a food or drug company, may focus on the development of new products, testing and inspection, regulatory compliance, or other areas. Research takes place in laboratories, experiment stations (research sites found at many universities), botanical gardens, and other facilities. Powerful microscopes and special mounting, staining, and preserving techniques may be used in this sort of research. Some botanists, particularly those working in conservation or ecological areas, also go out into the field. They inventory species, help re-create lost or damaged ecosystems, or direct pollution cleanup efforts. Nonresearch jobs in testing and inspection or as lab technicians/technical assistants for universities, museums, government agencies, parks, manufacturing companies, botanical gardens, and other facilities also are available. Botany is an extremely diverse field with many specialties. Ethnobotanists study the use of plant life by a particular culture, people, or ethnic group to find medicinal uses of certain plants. Study of traditional Native American medicinal uses of plants is an example. (For more information, see Ethnoscientists.) Forest ecologists focus on forest species and their habitats, such as forest wetlands. Related studies include forest genetics and forest economics. Jobs in forestry include work in managing, maintaining, and improving forest species and environments. Mycologists study fungi and apply their findings in agriculture, medicine, and industry for development of drugs, medicines, molds, and yeasts. They may specialize in research and development in a field such as antibiotics. Toxicologists study the effect of toxic substances on organisms, including plants. Results of their work may be used in regulatory action, product labeling, and other areas. (For more information, see Toxicologists.) Other botanical specialists include pteridologists, who study ferns and other related plants, bryologists, who study mosses and similar plants, and lichenologists, who study lichens, which are dual organisms made of both alga and fungus.
botanists
The mite species Aceria anthocoptes may prove useful as a control agent for weeds. From left to right, Chris Frye, botanist with the Maryland Department of Natural Resources, ARS acarologist Ron Ochoa, and ARS plant physiologist John Lydon identify a thistle species as Cirsium horridulum and note where the highest mite population is most likely to be. (Scott Bauer, Agricultural Research Service Photo Unit, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture.)
n requirements High School To prepare for a career in botany, high school students can explore their interests by taking biology, doing science projects involving plants, and working during summers or school holidays for a nursery, park, or similar operation. College prep courses in chemistry, physics, biology, mathematics, English, and foreign language are a good idea because educational requirements for professional botanists are high. Nonresearch jobs (test and inspection professionals, lab technicians, technical assistants) require at least a bachelor’s degree in a biological science or botany; research and teaching positions usually require at least a master’s degree or even a doctorate.
Postsecondary Training At the undergraduate level, there are numerous programs for degrees in botany or biology (which includes studies in both botany and zoology). The master’s level
and above usually involves a specialized degree. One newer degree is conservation biology, which focuses on the conservation of specific plant and animal communities. The University of Wisconsin has one of the biggest programs in this area. Another key school is Yale’s forestry school, which offers degrees in areas such as natural resource management.
Other Requirements Botanists chose their profession because of their love for plants, gardening, and nature. They need patience, an exploring spirit, the ability to work well alone or with other people, good writing and other communication skills, and tenacity.
n exploring The Botanical Society of America (BSA) suggests that high school students take part in science fairs and clubs and get summer jobs with parks, nurseries, farms, experiment stations, labs, camps, florists, or landscape archi-
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tects. Hobbies like camping, photography, and computers are useful, too, says BSA. Tour a botanical garden in your area and talk to staff. You can also get information by contacting national associations. For example, write to the Botanical Society of America for a booklet on careers in botany.
n employers Botanists find employment in the government, in research and teaching institutions, and in private industry. Local, state, and federal agencies, including the Department of Agriculture, Environmental Protection Agency, Public Health Service, National Biological Service, and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) employ botanists. Countless colleges and universities have botany departments and conduct botanical research. In private industry, botanists work for agribusiness, biotechnology, biological supply, chemical, environmental, food, lumber and paper, pharmaceutical, and petrochemical companies. Botanists also work for greenhouses, arboretums, herbariums, seed and nursery companies, and fruit growers.
n starting out With a bachelor’s degree, a botanist’s first job may be as a technical assistant or technician for a lab. Those with a master’s degree might get work on a university research project. Someone with a doctorate might get into research and development with a drug, pharmaceutical, or other manufacturer. For some positions, contract work might be necessary before the botanist gains a full-time position. Contract work is work done on a per-project, or freelance, basis: You sign on for that one project, and then you move on. Conservation groups like The Nature Conservancy (TNC) hire hundreds of contract workers, including ecologists and botanists, each year to do certain work. Contract workers are especially in demand in the summer when there’s a lot of biology inventory work to be done. Opportunities for internships are available with local chapters of TNC. It’s also possible to volunteer. Contact the Student Conservation Association for volunteer opportunities. (Contact information can be found at the end of this article.) Land trusts are also good places to check for volunteer work.
n advancement Federal employees generally move up the ranks after gaining a certain number of hours of experience and obtaining advanced degrees. The Botanical Society of America, whose membership primarily comes
from universities, notes that key steps for advancing in university positions include producing quality research, publishing a lot, and obtaining advanced degrees. Advancing in the private sector depends on the individual employer. Whatever the botanist can do to contribute to the bottom line, such as making breakthroughs in new product development, improving growing methods, and creating better test and inspection methods, will probably help the botanist advance in the company.
n earnings The U.S. Department of Labor reports that biological scientists made median annual salaries of about $63,670 a year. According to the National Association of Colleges and Employers, in 2005 graduates with a bachelor’s degree in biological sciences received average starting salary offers of $31,258 a year; those with master’s degrees received offers of $33,600, and those with Ph.D.’s received offers of $42,244. Biological scientists working for the federal government earned average salaries of $69,980 a year in 2005, with some making more than $90,000. At times, research botanists deeply involved with a project put in a lot of overtime. In exchange, they may be able to work fewer hours other weeks, depending on the specific employer. Botanists performing fieldwork also might have some flexibility of hours. In private industry, the workweek is likely to be a standard 35 to 40 hours. Benefits vary but usually include paid holidays and vacations, and health insurance.
n work environment Botanists work in a wide variety of settings, some of them very pleasant: greenhouses, botanical gardens, and herbariums, for example. A botanist working for an environmental consultant or conservation organization may spend a lot of time outdoors, rain or shine. Some botanists interact with the public, such as in a public park or greenhouse, sharing their enthusiasm for the field. Other botanists spend their days in a lab, poring over specimens and writing up the results of their research. As scientists, botanists need to be focused, patient, and determined. Some research spans many hours and even years of work. A botanist needs to believe in what he or she is doing and keep at a project until it’s completed satisfactorily. The ability to work on one’s own is important, but few scientists work in a vacuum. They cooperate with others, share the results of their work orally and in writing, and, particularly in private industry, may need to explain what they’re doing in layman’s terms.
bounty hunters
Educational requirements for botanists are high and so much of the work involves research. Therefore it is important to be a good scholar and enjoy digging for answers.
n outlook Employment growth at a rate about as fast as the average for all biological scientists, including botanists, is expected through 2014, according to the U.S. Department of Labor. Botanists will be needed to help meet growing environmental, conservation, pharmaceutical, and similar demands. However, budget cuts and a large number of graduates have made competition for jobs strong. Government employment opportunities should stay strong, but will depend in part on the continued health of the national economy. Federal budget cuts may jeopardize some projects and positions. Experts say the outlook is best for those with an advanced degree.
Charlestown, NH 03603-0550 Tel: 603-543-1700 http://www.thesca.org
This government agency manages more than 450 national wildlife refuges. The service’s Web site has information on volunteer opportunities, careers, and answers to many frequently asked questions. U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service U.S. Department of the Interior 1849 C Street, NW Washington, DC 20240-0001 Email:
[email protected] http://www.fws.gov
Bounty Hunters
n for more information
n overview
For the booklets Careers in Botany and Botany for the Next Millennium, contact Botanical Society of America
Bounty hunters, also known as bail enforcement agents or fugitive recovery agents, track down and return individuals who are fugitives from justice. People who get arrested are often given the opportunity to post bail money so they can go free while waiting for a hearing or trial. When these people post the bail money, they are promising that they will return on the assigned court date. If they do not return on that date, they lose their bail money (or the bail bondsman loses his) and become fugitives from justice. Bounty hunters spend time researching and interviewing to get leads on the person they are tracking. Bounty hunters working in the United States account for thousands of arrests annually.
PO Box 299 St. Louis, MO 63166-0299 Tel: 314-577-9566 Email:
[email protected] http://www.botany.org
For information on school and internship programs, news on endangered species, and membership information, contact National Wildlife Federation 11100 Wildlife Center Drive Reston, VA 20190-5362 Tel: 800-822-9919 http://www.nwf.org
For information about internships with state chapters or at TNC headquarters, contact The Nature Conservancy (TNC) 4245 North Fairfax Drive, Suite 100 Arlington, VA 22203-1606 Tel: 800-628-6860 Email:
[email protected] http://nature.org
To learn about volunteer positions in natural resource management, contact Student Conservation Association 689 River Road PO Box 550
n history The history of the bail process dates back to English common law. People who were charged with crimes against the king were allowed to go free if someone else guaranteed that the individual would return. If that did not happen, the person who guaranteed the return of the individual often had to pay the price instead. In America, this process continued but gave birth to the modern bail bondsman and bounty hunter, who worked together to ensure that accused people appeared for hearings, trials, and sentences. Specifically, bounty hunting grew as a profession during the westward expansion of the United States. Because fugitives would often run as far west as possible to get away from local law enforcement, bounty hunters were often found tracking lawbreakers in the Old West. Though in many states fugitive-recovery activities have come
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to be performed by marshals, sheriffs, and detectives, the bail-bond system ensures that bounty hunters still flourish in our country.
n the job Bounty hunters work in conjunction with bail bondsmen and the court system. The scenario plays out as follows: An individual is arrested for breaking a law. The individual is given the chance to be freed from jail if he or she guarantees to be at court on a certain date by posting a large amount of money. Most people who are arrested do not have these large sums of money on hand, so they enlist the services of a bail bondsman who provides the money to the court. The individual must pay the bondsman a fee—usually 10 percent of the actual posted bond. If the individual does not show up on the court date, the bondsman can either try to bring the person in or hire a bounty hunter to track the person down. The bounty hunter is paid only if the fugiquick facts tive is returned to court. School Subjects After the bounty hunter is English on the case, the main goal is to Government locate the fugitive as quickly and as safely as possible. Although Personal Skills Communication/ideas the time frame varies from state Following instructions to state and court to court, bail enforcement agents usually have Work Environment 90 days at the most to bring back Indoors and outdoors the fugitive. Locating a fugitive Primarily multiple locations requires research, detection, and Minimum Education Level law enforcement skills. “Most Some postsecondary training of the time it takes time and patience,” explains bail enforceSalary Range ment agent John Norman. $20,000 to $40,000 to “Many days are spent interview$60,000+ ing people, tracing paper trails, Certification or Licensing sitting in vehicles for countless Required by certain states hours of surveillance, just to await that moment to re-arrest Outlook this individual.” Bounty hunters About as fast as the average can use almost any means posDOT sible to re-arrest a fugitive. In N/A most states they can enter the homes of fugitives if they believe, GOE beyond a reasonable doubt, that N/A the fugitive is inside. Sometimes NOC the bounty hunter will interN/A view family members or check the trash at the fugitive’s home O*NET-SOC to find a clue as to where he or N/A she has gone. Most bounty hunt-
ers use weapons to protect themselves and to persuade a fugitive to return peacefully. “The field can also be very dangerous,” Norman cautions. “Getting shot at or knifed is not uncommon.” After the fugitive is found, the bounty hunter makes a private arrest of the individual and takes the fugitive back to jail to await trial. “This process of retrieval can be easy sometimes and hard others,” Norman adds. Although most bounty hunters re-arrest the fugitive themselves, some locate the fugitive and then alert the local law officials to make the actual arrest. Bounty hunting is not all tracking people and bringing them back alive, however. Bounty hunting is a business, and like any other business, it must be run efficiently. In order to get work, bail enforcement agents must be able to advertise their services to become part of as many bail bondsmen “networks” as possible. Some bondsmen work with just a select few bounty hunters, while others send out their fugitive recovery requests to large networks of bounty hunters who compete against each other to bring back the fugitive. Because bounty hunters get paid only if they bring the person back, care must be taken to use resources wisely. Someone who spends $1,000 to find a fugitive with a reward for only $750 will not be in business long. Besides monetary resources, many bail enforcement agents have research assistants who work for them. Enforcement agents must be able to manage their employees in these situations. Bounty hunters also often work under contracts with law enforcement or bail bondsmen. They must be able to draw up contracts and be well-informed regarding all the legal aspects of those contracts.
n requirements High School Although you will not find a class at school called Bounty Hunting 101, there are some courses that can help you prepare for a job in this field while you are still in high school. Classes in government, political science, communication, and business will help you prepare for the legal and business side of bounty hunting. If you have the opportunity to take self-defense or martial arts courses, they can give you skills sometimes necessary in the actual apprehension of a fugitive. Foreign languages may come in handy as well, depending on the area of the country where you may be working.
Postsecondary Training You are not required to have any college training to be a bounty hunter. However, training is important
for success and safety as a bail enforcement agent. “One way or another, you should have at least some sort of training in law enforcement and criminal justice,” John Norman recommends. If a college degree or vocational school is in your future, aim for criminal justice studies or police academy training. If you want to focus immediately on bail enforcement, some training opportunities are available. The National Institute of Bail Enforcement in Arizona and the National Association of Bail Enforcement Agents, for example, provide training seminars. (For contact information on these programs see the list at the end of this article.)
Certification or Licensing Regulations covering bounty hunters’ activities vary by state. It is, therefore, very important that you check with your state’s attorney general’s office, department of public safety, or professional licensing board to determine the rules for your area. In addition, it is important to be aware of other state’s regulations in case your work takes you there. For example, some states, such as Illinois, prohibit bounty hunting. Some states, such as North Carolina, have as part of their requirements that “bail runners” work for only one bail bondsman or bail bond agency. Other states, such as Mississippi and Connecticut, have licensing requirements for bail enforcement agents; however, the licensing requirements themselves vary from state to state. And finally, some states, such as Georgia, have requirements such as registration with a sheriff ’s department or other agency. Generally, licensing involves passing a written test, passing a drug test and background check, being at least a certain age, being a U.S. citizen, and having completed some type of approved training. Anyone using a gun must, of course, have a license to do so.
Other Requirements Bounty hunters must be able to handle high-stress situations that are often dangerous. Because of the nature of the work, the bounty hunter should be trained in the use of firearms and other weapons. Bounty hunters must be physically fit and able to defend themselves in dangerous situations.
n exploring Bounty hunting can be dangerous, so you may be wondering how you can explore the field without getting hurt. That is a good question, but there are ways you can get an idea about the situations you would be encountering without being thrown into the thick of
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Bounty Hunters on TV The Lone Ranger began airing in 1949 and portrayed a ranger and his sidekick Tonto cleaning up the Old West. It helped popularize the Western as a television genre. Wanted: Dead or Alive, starring Steve McQueen, aired from 1958 to 1961 and showed bounty hunting as a respectable career. Gunsmoke (1955–75) depicted the bounty hunter as lawless instead, and often showed the main character, Matt Dillon (played by James Arness), going up against ruthless bounty hunters. More recently, the cameras of American Bounty Hunter (1996) and U.S. Bounty Hunter (2003) have followed real bounty hunters as they tracked down fugitives. Then, of course, there are always sciencefiction treatments of the subject, like the famous 1998 Japanese anime series Cowboy Bebop, which follows the misadventures of a group of wisecracking intergalactic bounty hunters.
a fight. First, do some research. Contact your local and state authorities and ask for information about current laws and how they affect bounty hunters. Now that you have that information under your belt, you can contact your local police and ask to go on a ride-along with the specific focus on the times officers assist bounty hunters. (This “assistance” is usually just sitting in the patrol car to further persuade the fugitive that this is the real thing.) You may get the chance, from a safe distance, to watch the bounty hunter in action. Some cities and counties also conduct “citizen police academies” that train the public on many police situations and safety issues. Enroll in any programs you can find that provide this kind of information and training. Contact a bail bondsman (you will find many listed in the phone book) and find out if they are also bounty hunters. Ask any questions you may have. Try to interview several bondsmen to get a more balanced view of what it is like to work in the bail bonding and fugitive recovery business. As stated earlier, much of the bounty hunter’s time is spent running the business. Join any clubs at school that focus on business, such as Junior Achievement.
n employers Most bounty hunters work independently. Many run their own businesses and contract their services to bail bondsmen and other individuals. Some bounty hunters are also bondsmen, and they combine the services into one business. These bounty hunters are part-timers, because most of their time is spent on bail bonding
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or investigating. “Some [bail enforcement agents] such as myself have their own companies,” explains John Norman. “However, a lot of agents work directly under the bondsman. The bondsman is our main source of work in either case.” Bondsmen either hire bounty hunters on a case-by-case basis or they hire them as full- or part-time employees. Some bounty hunters are also hired by private individuals for other services, such as recovering missing persons, finding persons who are not paying child support, and uncovering insurance fraud.
n starting out Although most bail enforcement agents own their own businesses, the majority start out working and learning the business from bail bondsmen or other bail enforcement agents. The best, most direct way to get started in the fugitive recovery field is to approach several bondsmen or bail enforcement agencies in your area. Most bounty hunters start out as research assistants or skip tracers. Skip tracers do the background and frontline interviewing to try to find the general location of the fugitive. The more training you have, the better chance you will have at landing that first job. You may have to start off in some form of law enforcement before you will be considered experienced or skilled enough to go into bounty hunting for a bondsman. Some starting points include jobs such as security guards, campus police, and researchers for private investigators.
n advancement Because most bail enforcement agents own their own agencies, they are at the top of their business with no higher position to be had. However, because of the competition within the fugitive recovery field, there is a drive to be the “best of the best” and have the highest fugitive recovery rate. Bail enforcement agents want to be able to maintain and advertise a very high rate of return, and the best and highestpaid in the field are able to produce over 90 percent of the fugitives they track. Many bail enforcement agents chase the goal of perfection as strongly as they chase each fugitive. Bounty hunters who work for other bail enforcement agents or bondsmen can work toward owning their own agency. Usually success in tracking down fugitives is the path toward the recognition and marketability necessary to start a new fugitive recovery business.
n earnings The bounty hunting business, like any other, takes time to develop, and bounty hunters who start their own
agencies have many out-of-pocket expenses for items such as handcuffs and advertising. Some may end up losing money or only earning enough to break even. For those who manage to build up a business, however, earnings can be quite good. The National Center for Policy Analysis’ 2000 report Privatizing Probation and Parole states that bounty hunters generally earn between $20,000 and $30,000 for part-time work. A 2001 article on the CNNMoney Web site (http://money. cnn.com/smbusiness) notes that while most bonds are fairly small (meaning that a bounty hunter does not earn much from one recovery), annual incomes can be good because there are plenty of fugitives on the run and lots of work is available. According to CNNMoney, bounty hunters generally earn between $40,000 and $60,000 per year. It is important to note, however, that in this business earnings can vary greatly from month to month, depending on how many fugitives the bounty hunter is able to bring in, the bail bond for these fugitives, and expenses incurred in the process. Well-established bail enforcement agents with excellent reputations often get the highest-paying cases, such as for a fugitive who has run on a $100,000 bail, and may find their yearly earnings approaching the hundred thousand dollar mark. Because they own their own businesses, most bail enforcement agents do not receive medical benefits. A few who work for well-established agencies may receive some types of benefits, but it is not the norm for the field. “In this business, sometimes it is slow or there is no business and there are lengthy times between paychecks. There are also no benefits like pensions, insurance, or things of that nature in most cases,” says John Norman.
n work environment Bounty hunters spend much of their time traveling in search of a fugitive or waiting for hours for a fugitive to appear. Because apprehending a fugitive is easiest in the middle of the night or early morning, the bounty hunter keeps odd hours and may work especially long hours when close to capturing a fugitive. A bail enforcement agent works on an asneeded basis, so there may be stretches of inactivity depending on the bondsman’s needs for service. The number of hours worked varies with the number of fugitives being sought at any one time and the amount of time remaining to bring the fugitive in. Bounty hunters are often in perilous situations where injury or even death is a possibility. John Norman describes bail enforcement as a “painstaking, unforgiving business.”
brewers
n outlook Employment for bounty hunters is increasing about as fast as the average for all other occupations, although this field has a narrow niche in the bail bonding business. Competition among bail enforcement agents continues to propel the field as a profession and as an asset to our legal system. Because bail bond agents and bail enforcement agents are working in private business, there is no cost to the taxpayer for the apprehension of these fugitives (as there would be if, for example, police officers worked exclusively on these cases). Another benefit of the private bail enforcement agent system is its high success rate (some professionals estimate it at 85 percent) for recovery of fugitives. Given the large percentage of recoveries and the lack of cost to local government, the future looks good for this profession. The ability of bail enforcement agents to work successfully within the parameters of the law should keep this field growing steadily in the future.
n for more information Visit the Bail Bond Recovery Resource Center of The National Association of Investigative Specialists, Inc., Web site. The resource center has information on the work of bounty hunters, laws affecting bounty hunting, and training materials. Bail Bond Recovery Resource Center The National Association of Investigative Specialists, Inc. PO Box 82148 Austin, TX 78708 Tel: 512-719-3595 http://www.pimall.com/nais/bailr.html
For training information and to read sections from the newsletter Hunters Net, visit the NABEA Web site. National Association of Bail Enforcement Agents (NABEA) PO Box 129 Falls Church, VA 22040-0129 Tel: 703-534-4211 http://www.nabea.org
For information about fugitive recovery seminars, contact National Institute of Bail Enforcement PO Box 667 Spring Grove, IL 60081 Tel: 815-675-0260 Email:
[email protected] http://www.bounty-hunter.net
Brewers n overview Brewers oversee the production of many different styles of beer. They develop recipes that consist of various types and blends of the four basic ingredients: barley malt, hops, yeast, and water (and occasionally fruits, wheat, rice, and corn). Brewers add these ingredients into brewing vessels in accordance with the style of beer they are brewing and their own recipe. Brewers also tend to the brewing equipment. They monitor gauges and meters, as well as turn valves, open hatches, and occasionally stir.
n history The brewing of beer predates recorded history. Fermented drinks were a necessity, as early civilizations often could not help polluting their water supplies. Various beer-like drinks were discovered by many ancient civilizations including the Babylonians, Egyptians, Chinese, and Incas. Beer became especially prevalent in regions unsuitable for growing wine grapes. In the ninth century, Charlemagne (742–814) declared brewmasters among the artisans and laborers necessary for the prosperity of his kingdom. By the 11th century, modern beer, as we know it, was produced in the great breweries of Germany, and its commercial success grew significantly for the next several hundred years. In 1609, American colonists placed want ads in a London newspaper asking for brewers to come to America. Many prominent Americans were concerned with the brewing of beer, including Samuel Adams (1722–1803), Thomas Jefferson (1743–1826), and George Washington (1732–99), who employed brewers at his Mount Vernon estate. The great American brewing dynasties began with the German immigrants who arrived in the mid-1800s and settled in the Midwest. By the late 1800s there were more than 2,200 commercial breweries in the United States, the largest of them being Anheuser-Busch, Pabst, Miller, Stroh, and Schlitz. The basic methods of brewing quality beers have not changed much in the last 500 years. Although massmarket beers common in America today may skip steps, hasten others, or substitute ingredients for cost-cutting measures, the true science and art of craftbrewing has endured and resurged in the 1990s to produce fine American beers comparable (or, arguably, superior) to the best of the European market. Today’s serious American brewer who is concerned with producing quality beers in the European or early American tradition is typically called a craftbrewer. Craftbrewers work
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at microbreweries, brewpubs, and contract brewers, known in the industry as third-tier brewers.
n the job Brewers are concerned with all aspects of beer production, from selecting the exact blend and kind of flavoring hops, to the number of minutes the wort (liquid formed by soaking mash in hot water and fermenting it) boils. Beer styles and flavors are as multifarious as wine, and the craftbrewer can produce any number of beers for any occasion. Like great chefs, craftbrewers take particular pride in their recipes and enjoy presenting their “masterpieces” to others. There are certain guidelines for each style of beer, but within those guidelines the brewer may experiment to create a truly unique flavor of a particular style. For example, a brewer who is making a pilsner must use bottomfermenting lager yeasts (as opposed to top-fermenting ale yeasts), a light, dry barley malt (as opposed to a darker, roasted barquick facts ley malt), and a specific few types School Subjects of hops (most notably saaz, spalt, Biology tettnanger, and hallertauer). With Chemistry these basic guidelines observed, the brewer can experiment with Personal Skills Following instructions such things as blending malts and Technical/scientific hops, adding other flavors (such as honey, fruit, herbs, and spices), Work Environment and varying boiling and lagering Primarily indoors times. Primarily one location The first step in brewing a Minimum Education Level batch of beer is for the brewer Some postsecondary training to decide what style he or she wants to brew. There are more Salary Range than 50 styles of beer, many $28,910 to $51,440 to cousins of each other. Others are $92,660 completely original and in their Certification or Licensing own class. All beers fall in one Required for certain positions of two categories: ales or lagers. Among the more common styles Outlook many American craftbrewers are About as fast as the average brewing today are ales (including DOT pale ales, brown ales, and Scotch 183 ales), pilsners, bocks, and double bocks, stouts, porters, and wheat GOE beers (commonly know by their 08.03.02 German name Weiss- or WeizenNOC bier). With a particular beer style 9213, 9465 in mind, the brewer will seek the best ingredients to brew it. O*NET-SOC The four basic ingredients N/A of beer are malted barley, hops,
yeast, and water. Some smaller breweries may use a malt extract. Some beers may call for wheat, rice, or corn in addition to barley. Malted barley not only contributes to the flavor and color of the beer, but more important, it provides food (fermentable sugars) for the yeast to produce alcohol. Brewers have a host of different types of yeast to choose from depending on the particular flavor they seek. There are two main varieties, top-fermenting ale yeasts and bottom-fermenting lager yeasts, and within each of these two varieties there are hundreds of strains, each imparting a different flavor to the beer. Hops come from a herbal flower added to provide a contrasting bitterness and flavor to the sweet malt (called boiling hops), and to add a very important bouquet to the beer (called finishing, or aroma hops). Because beer is about 90 percent water, all serious brewers take the purity of their water very seriously. Water that has been treated with chlorine or that is rich in other minerals can impart unwanted flavors into a beer. Malted barley must go through a mashing stage in the brewing process. Brewers grind the malted barley in specialized machines so that its husk is removed and the kernel broken. Next they add a precise amount of water and raise the temperature to between 150 and 160 degrees Fahrenheit to dissolve the natural sugars, starches, and enzymes of the barley. Brewers may vary the temperature and time of the mashing process to achieve a desired color or flavor. To complete the mashing process, the brewer strains out the barley grains. The remaining sweetened liquid, called malt extract, is now ready to become the wort. Initially, wort is concentrated, unhopped beer. The brewer transfers the wort from the mashing vessel to a brewing kettle where boiling hops are added. This is usually just a matter of turning valves. Depending on the style of beer, the brewer will have selected a particular style or blend of hops. Some brewers use the actual hop leaf and others use a pelletized version. The hopped wort is boiled for an hour and a half to two and a half hours according to brewer preferences. After the wort has cooled to 50–60 degrees Fahrenheit for lagers and 60–70 degrees Fahrenheit for ales, the hop leaves or pellet residue are removed in a process called sparging, and the wort is now ready for its most vital ingredient, yeast. To ensure quality and consistency, many brewers culture their own yeast, but some smaller brewpubs or microbreweries use prepackaged yeast. Once the wort is cooled, the brewer transfers it to a starting tank where the yeast is added and the fermentation process begins. Depending on the style of beer and the desired results,
the brewer will choose either an open or closed fermentation. Open fermentation is less common because it leaves the beer susceptible to airborne bacteria. However, some styles of beer require it. Most beers go through two basic fermentations; some beers require more. The initial contact of the wort and yeast spurs a fervent fermentation that produces alcohol and a foamy head called kraeusen. The brewer decides how long he or she wants this fermentation to last, generally between five and 14 days. After the desired time for the primary fermentation, the brewer transfers the beer to a lagering kettle (also called a conditioning kettle) where the beer is allowed to age. The fermentation continues but at a slower pace. The brewer must strictly regulate the temperature during the lagering time: 60–70 degrees Fahrenheit for ales, and 35–50 degrees Fahrenheit for lagers. After the desired aging or maturation of the beer, anywhere from two weeks to several months, the beer is again transferred to a storage tank where it is ready to be bottled. This step is necessary to leave any yeast or hops sediment behind so it is not present in the bottle or keg. Brewers add carbonation to their beers either by injecting carbon dioxide into the storage tank just before it is to be bottled or kegged (this is typical of mass-produced beers) or, more common among craftbrewers, by adding a priming sugar, usually dry malt extract or corn sugar diluted in boiled water. If the brewer uses priming sugars, the beer must sit again for one to four weeks before it is ready to be served. Brewing is both a creative and highly methodical craft requiring precise attention to detail. Brewers must monitor pH (acidity and alkalinity) levels in water and test water purity. They frequently use calculations to predict yields, efficiencies of processes, yeast maturation cycles, alcohol volume, bittering units, and many other factors. They study yeast physiology, metabolism, the biochemistry of fermentation and maturation, and the effects alternative brewing methods as well as bacteria, protozoa, and mold have on beer flavor and color. They constantly study methods of quality control and brewing efficiency. Some craftbrewers at microbreweries may also help in bottling their beer. Workers at a brewpub (an establishment that is a combination brewery and restaurant) may stand behind the bar to pour drafts as well as work as waitstaff. At small breweries, brewers frequently sterilize their tanks, kettles, hoses, and other brewing equipment. Brewers who have the right resources and live in the right environment may grow, harvest, and store their own hops. Many craftbrewers
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Learn More about It Fix, George J. Principles of Brewing Science: A Study of Serious Brewing Issues. 2nd ed. Boulder, Colo.: Brewers Publications, 2000. Foster, Terry. Pale Ale: History, Brewing Techniques, Recipes. 2nd ed. Boulder, Colo.: Brewers Publications, 1999. Gold, Elizabeth, and Kim Adams, eds. Brewery Planner: A Guide to Opening and Running Your Own Small Brewery. 2nd ed. Boulder, Colo.: Brewers Publications, 1997. Goldhammer, Ted. The Brewers’ Handbook. Mt. Shasta, Calif.: KVP Publishers, 2000. Leventhal, Josh. Beer Lover’s Companion: A Guide to Producing, Brewing, Tasting, Rating and Drinking Around the World. New York: Blackdog & Leventhal Publishing, 1999. Lewis, Michael J., and Tom W. Young. Brewing. New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers, 2000. Nachel, Marty. Regional Guide to Brewpubs and Microbreweries. Pownal, Vt.: Storey Books, 1995.
are responsible for marketing their beer or designing logos. Some manage the brewpub or microbrewery. But a brewer’s primary duty is always to brew beer, to experiment and come up with new recipes, and to seek out the right ingredients for the particular style of beer that is being brewed.
n requirements High School In today’s competitive job market, aspiring brewers will need a high school degree to land a job that offers growth possibilities, a good salary, and challenges, including positions in the craftbrewing industry. High school classes in biology, chemistry, and mathematics will be particularly useful if you are interested in becoming a brewer. Classes in biochemistry and microbiology will prepare you for the more specialized aspects of brewing that serious craftbrewers must master. A background in science and mathematics is needed for brewers to perform basic brewing and engineering calculations and to follow technical discussions on brewing topics. Classes in home economics or family and consumer science can teach you basic kitchen skills, common units of cooking measurement, and the organizational skills you need to prepare and complete complex recipes. If you are interested in running your own microbrewery, be sure to take business, accounting, and computer science classes to help you prepare for managing a business.
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A brewer inspects bottles of beer as they file past a light panel. (Paul A. Souders/Corbis.)
Postsecondary Training Employers today prefer to hire only brewers who have completed some kind of formal training program in brewing sciences, or who have had extensive apprenticeship training at another brewery. The following three institutions are the most prominent U.S. schools offering programs on brewing sciences and the business of brewing. The Siebel Institute of Technology & World Brewing Academy is located in Chicago, Illinois, with a partner campus in Munich, Germany. The Siebel Institute offers courses on specific topics, such as brewing microbiology, and the World Brewing Academy offers a diploma program that lasts 12 weeks and involves work done in Chicago and Munich. The American Brewers Guild is located in Woodland, California. The Craft Brewers Apprenticeship Program of the American Brewers Guild lasts 27 weeks and combines classroom work with hands-on experience. Graduates receive a diploma and job placement assistance. The University Extension, University of California, Davis, Professional Brewing Programs offers certificate options as well as a master brewers program. Although a college degree is not required for admission to the professional brewing programs, you will need to have completed college coursework in the following areas: biological sciences
(biology, biochemistry, microbiology), chemistry, physics, mathematics (pre-calculus), and engineering. It is highly recommended that you complete an organized course of study through one of these programs. Students who learn at a brewing sciences school will have a particular advantage in landing a job as a brewer because employers know graduates have received training in the many highly technical aspects of brewing. Topics covered usually include brewing raw materials, brewhouse theory and practice, fermentation, storage and finishing, packaging and engineering topics, quality control, microbiology laboratory, and sensory evaluation.
Certification or Licensing Breweries of any size must be licensed both by the state in which they are located and the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, and Firearms, which is part of the U.S. Treasury Department. Owners of breweries are responsible for obtaining and maintaining these licenses.
Other Requirements Brewers must have an avid appreciation for beer and an excellent sense of taste. They must be able to detect all of a particular beer’s subtleties and nuances through
taste and aroma. They should also be able to distinguish between styles of beer. Brewers need good organizational and problemsolving skills as well as creativity. If a batch of beer turns out bad, the brewer must be able, through tests or experience, to pinpoint what went wrong and why. Beer takes time to brew. While the process can be hastened, craftbrewers should have the patience to allow beer to brew in its natural time. Brewers must be able to follow recipes and procedures closely, but they must also know when and how to go beyond a recipe’s direction, or when to vary a procedure to achieve a desired result. Since they must be able to legally sample their wares, brewers must be 21 or older.
n exploring Most breweries, whether a microbrewery, a brewpub, or one of the major mass-production breweries, offer tours of their facilities. This is an excellent opportunity to learn what actually goes on in a brewery, to see the brewing equipment and the raw ingredients, and to ask questions. Those 21 and older will be able to sample the various styles of beer at the brewery and ask questions of the masterbrewer. Homebrewing is a popular trend that has been growing rapidly for the past decade. Those 21 and over can learn firsthand how to brew small batches of beer at home. The equipment and ingredients needed to begin brewing can be found at some larger liquor stores or through mail order. There are numerous books and magazines available on the subject. Zymurgy, the American Homebrewers Association’s magazine, focuses on homebrewing issues, and The New Brewer, the Institute for Brewing Studies’ magazine, covers topics of interest to microand pubbrewers. Sample articles as well as information on other publications can be found at the Association of Brewers’ Web site, http://www.beertown.org. Most brewers began their experience with brewing by brewing first at home. So you’re not of legal drinking age yet? Don’t worry, you can still learn some of the basic skills of a brewer by making nonalcoholic carbonated drinks, such as sodas. Articles on this topic are frequently found in beer magazines because so much of the same equipment is used to make each. Some breweries have part-time jobs available to students. They usually entail sanitizing the brewing equipment after a batch has been made or transporting heavy bags of ingredients. This is an excellent opportunity to learn how the brewing machines work, to get to know the various types of ingredients, and to see the types of challenges and pressures brewers face firsthand.
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n starting out The best career path for an aspiring craftbrewer is to begin as a homebrewer, learning the basic methods and science of brewing and possibly developing a personal style. Until recently, many brewers still learned the trade through hands-on experience as an apprentice at a microbrewery or brewpub. Although this is still an option, an increasing number of brewers are completing formal postsecondary training, making the market more competitive. Due to the recent renaissance in American brewing, employers are looking to hire highly qualified brewers who will not require years of on-the-job-training but can immediately begin producing quality beers. An added benefit of getting postsecondary training is the job placement assistance any respected school provides to its graduates. Currently, however, there are not enough trained craftbrewers to fill the demand, so many breweries still employ apprentices who have some experience in brewing—generally as homebrewers. Apprentices may spend several years learning the craft from a masterbrewer. They usually begin by sanitizing brewing vessels, preparing ingredients for the masterbrewer, and doing some administrative work, all the while taking notes and observing brewing techniques. Breweries looking for trained craftbrewers often post job openings at brewing schools or advertise in trade magazines or local papers. There are many beer festivals and homebrewing contests where breweries—particularly new breweries—seek out the brewers of winning beers and offer them work.
n advancement Brewers advance as the popularity of their beer increases and continual sales are made. Most microbreweries and brewpubs are led by the so-called masterbrewer (often the one who developed the recipe), and depending on the size of the brewery, there may be general brewers who help in the brewing process. After demonstrating resourcefulness in technique, or after developing a successful beer recipe on their own, these general brewers may advance to masterbrewer at the brewery where they work, or they may transfer to become masterbrewer at a different brewery. Their work will still be the same, but as masterbrewer, they will be able to relegate work to others and earn a larger salary. After an approximate two-year period of learning the brewing process, an apprentice will advance to become a general brewer or even masterbrewer. Most brewers are content to remain masterbrewer of a microbrewery or brewpub, but some may advance to management positions if the opportunity arises. Brewery
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managers are responsible for the day-to-day operations of a brewery, including managing finances, marketing, and hiring employees. Many microbreweries are operated by a small staff, and advancement for brewers may simply mean increasing brewery output and doing good business.
n earnings Salaries for those in the brewing business vary considerably based on several factors, including the exact position a person holds, the size of the brewery, its location, the popularity of its beer, and the length of time the brewery has been in business. Brewers running their own microbreweries or brewpubs, like any small business owner, may have very low take-home wages for several years as the business becomes established. An article appearing on November 11, 2000, in Creative Loafing Atlanta, a newsweekly, reports masterbrewers at microbreweries may expect earnings in the $35,000 to $45,000 range. According to the Economic Research Institute, masterbrewers with five years of experience average $46,170, with top earnings at $57,250 per year. The institute also reports that those with 10 years of experience average $53,098 annually, and top earnings were $65,000. This is consistent with the U.S. Department of Labor’s figures, which state that in 2005, food scientists (which is, essentially, what a brewer is) earned a median salary of $51,440, with the lowest 10 percent earning less than $28,910, and the highest 10 percent earning more than $92,660. Benefits packages vary from business to business. Brewers running their own businesses must pay for benefits (health insurance, retirement plans, etc.) themselves. Brewers employed by breweries can generally expect health insurance and paid vacation time. Other benefits may include dental and eye care, life and disability insurance, and a pension plan. Many employers will pay for all or part of a brewer’s training. A brewer’s salary can increase by yearly bonuses or profit sharing if the brewery does well in the course of a year. Most brewers confess that the greatest benefit of their job is free beer.
n work environment Brewers perform a variety of tasks requiring different skills. Most of their time is spent in the brewery preparing the next batch of beer. At many small microbreweries and brewpubs, brewers are responsible for all of the brewery operations. Before preparing a batch of beer, they use hoses and brushes with a sanitizing solution and clean all of the kettles. Since sanitization is a crucial part of brewing, this job must be very thorough and is, therefore, often strenuous. Temperatures in breweries are strictly controlled, in some cases to as low as 40 degrees Fahrenheit.
On brewing days, the brewer weighs and measures ingredients. He or she inspects the brewing equipment to ensure it is both properly sanitized and in working order. Frequently a brewer watches over several different batches of beer all at different stages of production. The most stressful part of a brewer’s job is waiting for the beer to be completed and wondering if anything went wrong. Throughout various stages of the brewing process, brewers sample the beer to make certain everything is as it should be. Brewers generally produce the same one to four beer recipes each time they brew. With standardization of the brewing process, most errors can be eliminated. The size of the brewery dictates a craftbrewer’s working hours. A small brewery can only produce a limited amount of beer at one time. Brewers may have days when they are not brewing at all. Instead they may perform maintenance on equipment, prepare yeast cultures, or even grow and harvest hops. Many brewers experiment with new styles of beer by brewing small five-gallon batches. Brewers spend a lot of time tasting many different styles and brands of beers to determine what qualities make the beer good and what qualities make it bad, so that they can improve their own beer. Brewers, especially those at small breweries, may work odd hours (until very late at night or very early in the morning) in order to move the brew from one stage in the brewing process to another. Brewers usually work about 40 hours a week. Those who own breweries or brewpubs, however, often work much longer hours than this to complete all the management tasks required of a business.
n outlook America is currently in the midst of a beer renaissance. An increasing number of people have discovered that beer can be as complex as wine and equally enjoyable. Clearly, taste preferences have changed for a large segment of the beer-drinking population from the bland, almost watery styles of the major beer manufacturers to a more complex, hearty style of the craftbeer producers. Even the major brewers like Miller, Anheuser Busch, and Coors have acknowledged the craftbrewing trend by introducing their own premium-style beers—and to great success. Although craftbrewing accounts for only a small percentage (about 3 percent) of the U.S. beer market, it is a growing segment of the beer industry. According to the Institute for Brewing Studies, there are now more than 1,400 microbreweries, brewpubs, and regional specialty breweries operating across the country. The craftbrewing industry sold 9% more beer in 2005 than in 2004, making craftbrewing the fast growing segment of the U.S. alcohol industry. As people
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have become accustomed to the availability of unique tasting beers, they have created a growing market for these products. Like any small business, just-opened brewpubs and microbreweries will succeed or fail on an individual basis. The craftbrewing industry itself, however, is here to stay. A strong demand for excellent brewers exists, and those with training should have the best opportunities.
n for more information ABG prepares people to work in the craftbrewing field and offers its Craftbrewers Apprenticeship Program both at the school and through distance education. For more information, contact American Brewers Guild (ABG) 1001 Maple Street Salisbury, VT 05769-9445 Tel: 800-636-1331 Email:
[email protected] http://www.abgbrew.com
Visit the Web site of the Association of Brewers for industry statistics, information on professional brewing and homebrewing, and related publications. Information and links are also available to the American Homebrewers Association and the Institute for Brewing Studies, which are divisions of the Association of Brewers. Association of Brewers 736 Pearl Street Boulder, CO 80302-5006 Tel: 303-447-0816 http://www.beertown.org
For information on courses and the diploma in brewing technology, contact Siebel Institute of Technology & World Brewing Academy 1777 North Clybourn Avenue, Suite 2F Chicago, IL. 60614-5520 Tel: 312-255-0705 Email:
[email protected] http://www.siebelinstitute.com
For more information about the Professional Brewing Programs offered through the University Extension, University of California, Davis, contact: University Extension 1333 Research Park Drive Davis, CA 95616-4852 Tel: 800-752-0881 http://universityextension.ucdavis.edu/brewing
Bricklayers and Stonemasons n overview Bricklayers are skilled workers who construct and repair walls, partitions, floors, arches, fireplaces, chimneys, and other structures from brick, concrete block, gypsum block, and precast panels made of terra cotta, structural tile, and other masonry materials. Stonemasons build stone walls, floors, piers, and other structures, and they set the decorative stone exteriors of structures, such as churches, hotels, and public buildings. Approximately 177,000 bricklayers and stonemasons work in the United States.
n history Sun-baked clay bricks were used in constructing buildings more than 6,000 years ago in Mesopotamia. Along with brick, stone was used in ancient Egypt in many structures. The Romans introduced masonry construction to the rest of Europe and made innovations in bricklaying, including the use of mortar and different types of bonds, or patterns. As the Roman Empire declined, so did the art of bricklaying. During the most intense period of cathedral building in Europe, from about the tenth century to the 17th century, stonemasons formed guilds in various cities and towns. These guilds functioned much as today’s unions do, organizing career standards and protecting their local members’ livelihoods. They had the same categories of workers: apprentices, journeymen, and masters. Not until the great fire of London in 1666 did the English start to use brick again for construction. The Chinese also were experts in bricklaying and stonemasonry, the best example of their work being the Great Wall of China, built in stages from the 3rd century b.c. to the 17th century a.d. High in the Andes of South America, Incan stoneworkers had perfected their art by the 12th century. Although some brick houses made of imported bricks were built in Florida by the Spanish, the first bricks made by Europeans in North America were manufactured in Virginia in 1612. These bricks were handmade from clay, just as they were in ancient times. Machines were not used in the manufacturing of bricks until the mid-18th century. Changes in the content of bricks came shortly afterwards. Concrete and cinder blocks were developed at this time, as was structural clay tile. Today, attractive kinds of brick, called face brick, can be used in places where appearance is especially important. The use of face brick has helped to
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popularize brick in modern construction. Various colors of brick can be made by using iron oxides, iron sulfides, and other materials. By varying the bond and hue of brick, many interesting artistic effects can be achieved. Stone is a durable, adaptable material for building purposes, although one of its drawbacks is that it may be much more difficult to cut and transport than alternative materials. Today it remains popular, particularly as a material for enhancing the appearance of important structures like hotels, public buildings, and churches. In modern construction, a covering of stone veneer about two inches thick is applied in various patterns to exterior surfaces of buildings; the veneer is anchored and supported on a steel frame. quick facts School Subjects
Mathematics Technical/shop Personal Skills
Mechanical/manipulative Technical/scientific Work Environment
Primarily outdoors Primarily multiple locations Minimum Education Level
High school diploma Apprenticeship Salary Range
$23,990 to $41,860 to $64,800 (bricklayers) $20,120 to $34,640 to $56,570 (stonemasons) Certification or Licensing
None available Outlook
Faster than the average DOT
861 GOE
06.02.01 NOC
7281 O*NET-SOC
47-2021.00, 47-2022.00
n the job When bricklayers and stonemasons begin work on a job, they usually first examine a blueprint or drawing to determine the designer’s specifications. Then they measure the work area to fix reference points and guidelines in accordance with the blueprint. If they are building a wall, bricklayers traditionally start with the corners, or leads, which must be precisely established if the finished structure is to be sound and straight. The corners may be established by more experienced bricklayers, with the task of filling in between the corners left to less experienced workers. Corner posts, or masonry guides, may be used to define the line of the wall, speeding the building process. A first, dry course may be put down without mortar so that the alignment and positioning of the brick can be checked. In laying brick, bricklayers use a metal trowel to spread a bed or layer of soft mortar on a prepared base. Then they set the brick into the mortar, tapping and working each brick into the correct position. Excess mortar is cut off, and the mortar joints are smoothed with special tools that give a neat, uniform look to
the wall. In walls, each layer, or course, is set so that vertical joints do not line up one on top of another but instead form a pleasing, regular pattern. The work must be continually checked for horizontal and vertical straightness with mason’s levels, gauge strips, plumb lines, and other equipment. Sometimes it is necessary to cut and fit brick to size using a power saw or hammer and chisel. Around doors and windows, bricklayers generally use extra steel supports in the wall. Bricklayers must know how to mix mortar, which is made of cement, sand, and water, and how to spread it so that the joints throughout the structure will be evenly spaced, with a neat appearance. They may have helpers who mix the mortar as well as move materials and scaffolding around the work site as needed. Some bricklayers specialize in working with one type of masonry material only, such as gypsum block, concrete block, hollow tile used in partitions, or terracotta products. Other bricklayers, called refractory masons, work in the steel and glass manufacturing industries and specialize in installing firebrick and refractory tile linings of furnaces, kilns, boilers, cupolas, and other high-temperature equipment. Still others are employed to construct manholes and catch basins in sewers. Stonemasons work with two types of stone: natural cut stone, such as marble, granite, limestone, or sandstone; and artificial stone, which is made to order from concrete, marble chips, or other masonry materials. They set the stone in many kinds of structures, including piers, walls, walks, arches, floors, and curbstones. On some projects, the drawings that stonemasons work from specify where to set certain stones that have been previously identified by number. In such cases, helpers may locate the stones and bring them to the masons. Large stones may have to be hoisted into place with derricks. In building stone walls, masons begin by setting a first course of stones in a bed of mortar, then build upward by alternating layers of mortar and stone courses. At every stage, they may use leveling devices and plumb lines, correcting the alignment of each stone. They often insert wedges and tap the stones into place with rubber mallets. Once a stone is in good position, they remove the wedges, fill the gaps with mortar, and smooth the area using a metal tool called a tuck pointer. Large stones may need to be anchored in place with metal brackets that are welded or bolted to the wall. Similarly, when masons construct stone floors, they begin by spreading mortar. They place stones, adjusting their positions using mallets and crowbars and periodically checking the levelness of the surface. They
may cut some stones into smaller pieces to fit, using hammer and chisel or a power saw with a diamond blade. After all the stones are placed, the masons fill the joints between the stones with mortar and wash off the surface. Some stonemasons specialize in setting marble. Others work exclusively on setting alberene, which is an acid-resistant soapstone used in industrial settings on floors and for lining vats and tanks. Other specialized stone workers include composition stone applicators, monument setters, patchers, and chimney repairers. Stone repairers mend broken slabs made of marble and similar stone. Bricklayers and stonemasons sometimes use power tools, such as saws and drills, but for the most part they use hand tools, including trowels, jointers, hammers, rulers, chisels, squares, gauge lines, mallets, brushes, and mason’s levels.
n requirements High School As with many jobs, employers of bricklayers and stonemasons will often prefer that you have a high school education or at least a GED. Take as many courses as possible in shop, basic mathematics, blueprint reading, and mechanical drawing. Take college prep courses in engineering if your school offers them. It may also help you on the job if you have taken core courses like English and general science and have a driver’s license. Another piece of good advice is to join or help form a student chapter of an organization like the National Association of Home Builders. You will get benefits like issues of various journals in the building industry, lowcost admission to the International Builders’ Show, and opportunities to take part in exciting activities like visiting construction sites, sponsoring restoration projects at your school, and helping repair homes for the elderly and underprivileged. Check such Web sites as http:// www.hbi.org.
Postsecondary Training The best way for you to become a bricklayer or stonemason is to complete an apprenticeship. Vocational schools also provide training in these fields. However, many people learn their skills informally on the job simply by observing and helping experienced workers. The disadvantage of this approach is that informal training is likely to be less thorough, and it may take workers much longer to learn the full range of skills necessary for the trade. Apprenticeship programs are sponsored by contractors or jointly by contractors and unions. Programs that
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How Do You Begin to Build a Building? In the United States, the construction of any building often can’t proceed without the input of a diverse group of subindustries, with many individuals and organizations involved at many stages, from the making of necessary components to the final touch-up work. As a general rule, the laws in each state require a registered architect or engineer (or both) to first execute the design of the structure and to make sure that it complies with public health, zoning, and building code requirements; it must also conform to the requirements of the owner. The architect or engineer then converts these requirements into a set of drawings and written specifications that usually are sent to interested general contractors for bids (a bid is like an estimate, or quote, of the work to be performed and of the cost of the work). The contractors who make the most acceptable bids then give work out to other contractors, called the subcontractors, who will do such work as the plumbing, painting, electrical wiring, and structural frame construction and erection. Contractors usually work under the observation of an architect or engineer, who acts as an agent of the owner of the building being built. State and local inspectors review the work for general compliance with the local building codes. The responsibilities of the contractor, architect, and engineer usually end when the local authorities approve the building for occupancy and the owner accepts the building. Source: Funk & Wagnalls New Encyclopedia, 1995
are not sponsored by unions are also available. Applicants for apprenticeships need to be at least 17 years old and in good physical condition. As an apprentice, you would spend about three years learning as you work under the supervision of experienced bricklayers or stonemasons. In addition, you would get at least 144 hours of classroom instruction in related subjects, such as blueprint reading, applied mathematics, and layout work. In the work portion of your apprenticeship, you would begin with simple jobs, like carrying materials and building scaffolds. After becoming familiar with initial tasks, you would eventually take part in a broad range of activities. In the course of an apprenticeship, you can become qualified to work with more than one kind of masonry material.
Other Requirements In bricklaying and stone masonry, you often have to carry materials and sometimes relatively heavy equipment,
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stone masonry. Some groups visit construction sites; others participate in repairing homes; others help organize repairs on their own school buildings. Hands-on experience is one of the best ways to explore the building trades. If you are too young to get such experience, at least contact others who have already started their careers. For example, try to contact participants from the International Masonry Institute’s Masonry Camp. In 1998, participants were expected to develop a ferry terminal/visitors’ center on Swan’s Island, Maine. One camper from Hawaii had this to say: “I learned a great deal more about masonry in the 10 days I was at camp than the six years I was in architecture school. That’s something worth shouting from the top of the volcanoes here!” (For more information, visit the IMI’s Web site at http://www.imiweb.org.)
n employers Bricklayers and stonemasons are employed in the building industry for such companies as general contractors or specific building contractors, both large and small. Jobs are available across the country but are concentrated in city areas. Those who are skilled in business matters can start their own companies or be contractors; more than 1 in 4 of the approximately 177,000 bricklayers and stonemasons in the United States are self-employed. A stonemason begins at a corner of a new site to lay the first of many tiers of stone. (Mark Battrell Photography.)
such as scaffold parts and rows of brick. Since you’ll be mixing mortar and laying brick and stone, you must not mind getting dirty and being on your hands and knees. You should enjoy doing demanding work and be disciplined and motivated enough to do your job without close and constant supervision. Sometimes, you might be presented with building challenges that require either mental or physical aptitude. The ability to get along with co-workers is also important as many bricklayers and masons work in teams.
n exploring Opportunities are sometimes limited for high school students to directly experience work in the field of bricklaying and stonemasonry. It is fortunate, however, that student groups exist that provide opportunities for experience and exploration. One such group is the National Association of Home Builders Student Chapters Program, which has chapters in high schools and vocational and technical schools. By becoming a member, you get to experience the “real world” of construction, including bricklaying and
n starting out The two main ways that people start out in these fields are through formal apprenticeship programs and as helpers or laborers who gradually learn their skills on the job. Helper jobs can be found through newspaper want ads and from the local office of the state. If you want to apply for an apprenticeship, you can get more information from local contractors, the state employment service, and the local office of the International Union of Bricklayers and Allied Craftworkers. The Home Builders Institute can also be of help. Another option may be to enter a bricklaying program at a vocational school. Such a program combines classroom instruction with work experience. If you’ve taken classes at a vocational school, the placement office there may be able to help you find a job.
n advancement Bricklayers and stonemasons with enough skill and experience may advance to supervisory positions. Some union contracts require a supervisor if three or more workers are employed on a job. Supervisors sometimes become superintendents at large construction sites. With additional technical training, bricklayers and stonemasons may become cost estimators. Cost estimators look at building plans, obtain quotations
on masonry material, and prepare and submit bids on the costs of doing the proposed job. Another possible advancement is to become a city or county inspector who checks to see if the work done by contractors meets local building code regulations. Some bricklayers and stonemasons go into business for themselves as contractors.
n earnings According to the U.S. Department of Labor, the median hourly pay of bricklayers was $20.13 in 2005. A person working full-time at this pay rate would have annual earnings of approximately $41,860. Earnings for bricklayers ranged from a low of less than $11.54 per hour (approximately $23,990 annually) to a high of more than $31.15 per hour (about $64,800 yearly) during that same time period. The U.S. Department of Labor reports the median hourly wage for stonemasons as $16.66 in 2005. This wage translates into annual earnings of approximately $34,640 for full-time work. The lowest-paid 10 percent of stonemasons earned less than $9.68 per hour (approximately $20,120 yearly), and the highest-paid 10 percent made more than $27.20 hourly (about $56,570 annually). Of course, earnings for those who work outside can be affected by bad weather, and earnings are lower for workers in areas where the local economy is in a slump. The pay also varies according to geographic region. The beginning hourly rate for apprentices is about half the rate for experienced workers. In addition to regular pay, various fringe benefits, such as health and life insurance, pensions, and paid vacations, are available to many workers in this field.
n work environment Most bricklayers and stonemasons have a 40-hour workweek. They are usually paid time and a half for overtime and double time for work on Saturdays, Sundays, and holidays. Most of the work is done outdoors, where conditions may be dusty, hot, cold, or damp. Often workers must stand on scaffolds that are high off the ground. They may need to bend or stoop constantly to pick up materials. They may be on their feet most of the working day, or they may kneel for long periods. Some of the hazards involved with this work include falling off a scaffold, being hit by falling material, and getting injuries common to lifting and handling heavy material. Whereas poor weather conditions used to affect work schedules and job site conditions, protective sheeting is now used to enclose work areas. The use of this sheeting makes it possible to work through most inclement weather.
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Apprentices and experienced workers must furnish their own hand tools and measuring devices. Contractors supply the materials for making mortar, scaffolding, lifts, ladders, and other large equipment used in the construction process. Well-qualified bricklayers and stonemasons can often find work at wages higher than those of most other construction workers. But because the work is seasonal, bricklayers and stonemasons must plan carefully to make it through any periods of unemployment.
n outlook Employment for bricklayers and stonemasons is predicted to be excellent through 2014, according to the U.S. Department of Labor. Many workers leave the field each year for less strenuous work, retirement, or other reasons. In addition, the U.S. is experiencing a building boom, and population and business growth will always create the need for new facilities (such as homes, hospitals, long-term care facilities,
Cyclopean Masonry If you were an ancient Egyptian stonemason, you probably would have worked on some of the most dramatic structures in history: the pyramids. Unlike today’s masonry, which generally involves using mortar to join stones, in ancient Egypt stonework was generally squared and fitted without mortar. This type of building using huge irregular blocks of stone without mortar is called Cyclopean masonry, and examples of this style have been found throughout Europe, in China, and in Central and South America. The Great Pyramid was built as the tomb of the Pharaoh Khufu and is one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. When it was built, it measured 481 feet high, with a square base measuring 756 feet on each side. The remains of about 70 pyramids can still be seen in Egypt and Sudan. The pyramids in the Americas are arranged around ceremonial plazas. The earliest complex, built around 1200 b.c., is at the Olmec site of La Venta in southeastern Mexico. Other ceremonial centers in central Mexico, the Mayan region of the Yucatan Peninsula, Guatemala, Honduras, and the Andean region of Peru may have been based on the Olmec plan. The largest mounds in the New World include the Pyramid of Quetzalcoatl at Cholula outside Puebla, Mexico; the Pyramid of the Sun in Teotihuacan, near Mexico City; and the Huaca del Sol in Moche, Peru. Source: Funk & Wagnalls New Encyclopedia, 1995
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and offices) and result in a demand for these skilled workers. During economic downturns, bricklayers and stonemasons, like other workers in construction-related jobs, can expect to have fewer job opportunities and perhaps be laid off.
n for more information This labor union promotes quality construction and builds markets for general contractors. For more information on apprenticeships and training through its National Center for Construction Education and Research, contact Associated General Contractors of America 333 John Carlyle Street, Suite 200 Alexandria, VA 22314-5767 Tel: 703-548-3118 Email:
[email protected] http://www.agc.org
Tel: 847-301-0001 Email:
[email protected] http://www.masoncontractors.org
Broadcast Engineers n overview Broadcast engineers, also referred to as broadcast technicians, or broadcast operators, operate and maintain the electronic equipment used to record and transmit the audio for radio signals and the audio and visual images for television signals to the public. They may work in a broadcasting station or assist in broadcasting directly from an outside site as a field technician. Approximately 34,000 broadcast engineers work in the United States.
n history The HBI is the educational arm of the National Association of Home Builders. For more information on education and training programs, contact Home Builders Institute (HBI) 1201 15th Street NW, Sixth Floor Washington, DC 20005-2842 Tel: 202-371-0600 http://www.hbi.org
For information on design and technical assistance as well its annual masonry camp for chosen apprentices, contact International Masonry Institute The James Brice House 42 East Street Annapolis, MD 21401-1731 Tel: 410-280-1305 http://imiweb.org
For information on available publications, contact International Union of Bricklayers and Allied Craftworkers 1776 Eye Street, NW Washington, DC 20006-3700 Tel: 202-783-3788 Email:
[email protected] http://www.bacweb.org
For information on specialized education and research programs and apprenticeship opportunities, contact Mason Contractors Association of America 33 South Roselle Road Schaumburg, IL 60193
At the end of the 19th century, Guglielmo Marconi (1874–1937), an Italian engineer, successfully sent radio waves across a room in his home and helped launch the 20th-century age of mass communication. Marconi quickly realized the potential for his experiments with radio waves. By 1901 he had established the Marconi Wireless Company in England and the United States and soon after successfully transmitted radio signals across the Atlantic Ocean for the first time. At first, radio signals were used to transmit information and for communication between two points, but eventually the idea was developed that radio could be used for entertainment, and in 1919, the Radio Corporation of America, or RCA, was founded. Families everywhere gathered around their radios to listen to music, drama, comedy, and news programs. Radio became a commercial success, and radio technology advanced, creating the need for skilled engineers to operate the complicated electronic equipment. In 1933, frequency modulation, or FM, was introduced; originally there had been only amplitude modulation, or AM. This vastly improved the quality of radio broadcasting. At the same time, experimentation was occurring with higher frequency radio waves, and in 1939 at the World’s Fair in New York City, RCA demonstrated television. The effect television had on changing mass communication was as dramatic as the advent of the radio. Technology continued to advance with the introduction of color imaging, which became widely available in 1953. The number of VHF and UHF channels continued to increase; in the 1970s cable television and sub-
scription television became available, further increasing the amount and variety of programming. Continuing advances in broadcast technology ensure the need for trained engineers who understand and can maintain the highly technical equipment used in television and radio stations. One of the recent changes in technology that affects broadcast engineers is the switch from analog to digital signals. These changes provide ongoing challenges for television and radio stations.
n the job Broadcast engineers are responsible for the transmission of radio and television programming, including live and recorded broadcasts. Broadcasts are usually transmitted directly from the station; however, engineers are capable of transmitting signals on location from specially designed, mobile equipment. The specific tasks of the broadcast engineer depend on the size of the television or radio station. In small stations, engineers have a wide variety of responsibilities. Larger stations are able to hire a greater number of engineers and specifically delegate responsibilities to each engineer. In both small and large stations, however, engineers are responsible for the operation, installation, and repair of the equipment. The chief engineer in both radio and television is the head of the entire technical operation and must orchestrate the activities of all the technicians to ensure smooth programming. He or she is also responsible for the budget and must keep abreast of new broadcast communications technology. Larger stations also have an assistant chief engineer who manages the daily activities of the technical crew, controls the maintenance of the electronic equipment, and ensures the performance standards of the station. Maintenance technicians are directly responsible for the installation, adjustment, and repair of the electronic equipment. Video technicians usually work in television stations to ensure the quality, brightness, and content of the visual images being recorded and broadcast. They are involved in several different aspects of broadcasting and videotaping television programs. Technicians who are mostly involved with broadcasting programs are often called video-control technicians. In live broadcasts using more than one camera, they operate electronic equipment that selects which picture goes to the transmitter for broadcast. They also monitor on-air programs to ensure good picture quality. Technicians mainly involved with taping programs are often called videotape-recording technicians. They record performances on videotape using video cameras and tape-recording equipment, then
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splice together separate scenes into a finished program; they can create special effects by manipulating recording and re-recording equipment. The introduction of robotic cameras, six-foot-tall cameras that stand on two legs, created a need for a new kind of technician called a video-robo technician. Video-robo technicians operate the cameras from a control room computer, using joysticks and a video panel to tilt and focus each camera. With the help of new technology, one person can now effectively perform the work of two or three camera operators. Engineers may work with producers, directors, and reporters to put together videotaped material from various sources. These include networks, mobile camera units, and studio productions. Depending on their employer, engineers may be involved in any number of activities related to editing videotapes into a complete program.
n requirements High School Take as many classes as you can in mathematics, science, computers, and shop, especially electronics. Speech classes will help you hone your abilities to effectively communicate ideas to others.
Postsecondary Training Positions that are more advanced require a bachelor’s degree in broadcast communications or a related field. To become a chief engineer, you should aim for a bachelor’s degree in electronics or electrical engineering. Because field technicians also act as announcers on occasion, speech courses and experience as an announcer in a school radio station can be helpful. Seeking education beyond a bachelor’s degree will further the possibilities for advancement, although it is not required.
Certification or Licensing The Federal Communications Commission licenses and permits are no longer required of broadcast engineers. However, certification from the Society
quick facts School Subjects
Computer science Mathematics Personal Skills
Mechanical/manipulative Technical/scientific Work Environment
Indoors and outdoors Primarily multiple locations Minimum Education Level
Some postsecondary training Salary Range
$15,190 to $29,130 to $63,180+ Certification or Licensing
Recommended Outlook
About as fast as the average DOT
194 GOE
01.02.03 NOC
5224 O*NET-SOC
27-4011.00, 27-4012.00, 27-4014.00
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Top Radio Formats 1. News/Talk/Information 2. Adult Contemporary 3. Contemporary Hit Radio 4. Urban 5. Rock 6. Hispanic 7. Country 8. Oldies 9. Alternative 10. New AC/Smooth Jazz 11. Religion 12. Adult Standards 13. Classical Source: Arbitron Format Trends Report, Fall 2002 (Note: Ages 12 and over)
of Broadcast Engineers (SBE) is desirable, and certified engineers consistently earn higher salaries than uncertified engineers. The SBE offers an education scholarship and accepts student members; members receive a newsletter and have access to their job line.
Other Requirements Broadcast engineers must have both an aptitude for working with highly technical electronic and computer equipment and minute attention to detail to be successful in the field. You should enjoy both the technical and artistic aspects of working in the radio or television industry. You should also be able to communicate with a wide range of people with various levels of technical expertise.
n exploring Reading association publications is an excellent way to learn more about broadcast engineering. Many of the associations listed at the end of this article offer newsletters and other publications to members—some even post back issues or selected articles on their Web sites. You might also consider reading Broadcast Engineering (http://www.broadcastengineering.com), a trade publication for broadcast engineers and technicians. Experience is necessary to begin a career as a broadcast engineer, and volunteering at a local broadcasting station is an excellent way to gain experience. Many
schools have clubs for persons interested in broadcasting. Such clubs sponsor trips to broadcasting facilities, schedule lectures, and provide a place where students can meet others with similar interests. Local television station technicians are usually willing to share their experiences with interested young people. They can be a helpful source of informal career guidance. Visits or tours can be arranged by school officials. Tours will allow you to see engineers involved in their work. Most colleges and universities also have radio and television stations where students can gain experience with broadcasting equipment. Exposure to broadcasting technology also may be obtained through building and operating an amateur, or ham, radio and experimenting with electronic kits. Dexterity and an understanding of home-operated broadcasting equipment will aid in promoting success in education and work experience within the field of broadcasting.
n employers According to the CIA World Factbook, there were 13,750 radio stations and 2,218 television stations in the United States in 2006. These stations might be independently operated or owned and operated by a network. Smaller stations in smaller cities are good starting places, but it is at the larger networks and stations in major cities where the higher salaries are found. Some broadcast engineers work outside of the radio and television industries, producing, for example, corporate employee training and sales programs. Approximately 34,000 broadcast technicians are employed in the United States.
n starting out In many towns and cities there are public-access cable television stations and public radio stations where high school students interested in broadcasting and broadcast technology can obtain an internship. An entry-level technician should be flexible about job location; most begin their careers at small stations and with experience may advance to larger-market stations.
n advancement Entry-level engineers deal exclusively with the operation and maintenance of their assigned equipment; in contrast, a more advanced broadcast engineer directs the activities of entry-level engineers and makes judgments on the quality, strength, and subject of the material being broadcast. After several years of experience, a broadcast engineer may advance to assistant chief engineer. In this capacity, he or she may direct the daily activities of all of the
broadcast engineers
Broadcast engineers prepare to broadcast a television show. (Associated Press/Ed Reinke.)
broadcasting engineers in the station as well as the field engineers broadcasting on location. Advancement to chief engineer usually requires at least a college degree in engineering and many years of experience. A firm grasp of management skills, budget planning, and a thorough knowledge of all aspects of broadcast technology are necessary to become the chief engineer of a radio or television station.
n earnings Larger stations usually pay higher wages than smaller stations, and television stations tend to pay more than radio stations. Also, commercial stations generally pay more than public broadcasting stations. The median annual earnings for broadcast technicians were $29,130 in 2004, according to the U.S. Department of Labor. The department also reported that the lowest paid 10 percent earned less than $15,190 and the highest paid 10 percent earned more than $63,180 during that same period. Technicians employed in radio and television broadcasting had mean annual salaries of $31,890 in 2004. Experience, job location,
and educational background are all factors that influence a person’s pay.
n work environment Most engineers work in broadcasting stations that are modern and comfortable. The hours can vary; because most broadcasting stations operate 24 hours a day, seven days a week, there are engineers who must work at night, on weekends, and on holidays. Transmitter technicians usually work behind the scenes with little public contact. They work closely with their equipment and as members of a small crew of experts whose closely coordinated efforts produce smooth-running programs. Constant attention to detail and having to make splitsecond decisions can cause tension. Since broadcasts also occur outside of the broadcasting station on location sites, field technicians may work anywhere and in all kinds of weather.
n outlook According to the U.S. Department of Labor, the overall employment of broadcast technicians is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations
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through 2014. There will be strong competition for jobs in metropolitan areas. In addition, the Department of Labor predicts that a slow growth in the number of new radio and television stations may mean few new job opportunities in the field. Technicians trained in the installation of transmitters should have better work prospects as television stations switch from their old analog transmitters to digital transmitters. Job openings will also result from the need to replace existing engineers who often leave the industry for other jobs in electronics. Some engineers may find work outside of broadcasting. As the new technology becomes more accessible, new industries are discovering the usefulness of visual communications. More and more corporations are creating in-house communications departments to produce their own corporate and industrial videos. Videos effectively explain company policies ranging from public safety (aimed at their customers) to first aid (aimed at their employees). Also, videos of high quality can introduce a company to potential clients in the best light. In addition to industrial work, videographers are in great demand today for the production of commercials, animation, and computer graphics. The field of videography is changing rapidly with the introduction of new and cheaper computer systems and desktop software packages. Maintenance workers will always be in demand, even with the new technology. Someone will always have to be on hand to fix broken equipment and to keep new equipment in good working order.
n for more information Visit the BEA’s Web site for useful information about broadcast education and the broadcasting industry. Broadcast Education Association (BEA) 1771 N Street, NW Washington, DC 20036-2891 Tel: 888-380-7222 Email:
[email protected] http://www.beaweb.org
For information on union membership, contact National Association of Broadcast Employees and Technicians Email:
[email protected] http://nabetcwa.org
For broadcast education, support, and scholarship information, contact National Association of Broadcasters 1771 N Street, NW
Washington, DC 20036-2891 Tel: 202-429-5300 Email:
[email protected] http://www.nab.org
For information on student membership, scholarships, and farm broadcasting, contact National Association of Farm Broadcasters PO Box 500 Platte City, MO 64079-0500 Tel: 816-431-4032 Email:
[email protected] http://nafb.com
For information on careers in the cable industry, visit the NCTA’s Web site. National Cable and Telecommunications Association (NCTA) 1724 Massachusetts Avenue, NW Washington, DC 20036-1903 Tel: 202-775-3550 http://www.ncta.com
For scholarship and internship information, contact Radio-Television News Directors Association and Foundation 1600 K Street, NW, Suite 700 Washington, DC 20006-2838 Tel: 202-659-6510 Email:
[email protected] http://www.rtnda.org
For information on membership, scholarships, and certification, contact Society of Broadcast Engineers 9102 North Meridian Street, Suite 150 Indianapolis, IN 46260-1896 Tel: 317-846-9000 Email:
[email protected] http://www.sbe.org
Visit the society’s Web site for information on scholarships, membership for college students, and links to useful resources. Society of Motion Picture and Television Engineers 3 Barker Avenue White Plains, NY 10601-1509 Tel: 914-761-1100 http://www.smpte.org
Business Managers n overview Business managers plan, organize, direct, and coordinate the operations of firms in business and industry. They may oversee an entire company, a geographical territory of a company’s operations, or a specific department within a company. Of the 2.7 million managerial jobs in the United States, about 60 percent are found in retail, services, and manufacturing industries.
n history Everyone has some experience in management. For example if you schedule your day so that you can get up, get to school on time, go to soccer practice after school, have the time to do your homework, and get to bed at a reasonable hour, you are practicing management skills. Running a household, paying bills, balancing a checkbook, and keeping track of appointments, meetings, and social activities are also examples of managerial activities. Essentially the term manage means to handle, direct, or control. Management is a necessary part of any enterprise in which a person or group of people are trying to accomplish a specific goal. In fact civilization could not have grown to its present level of complexity without the planning and organizing involved in effective management. Some of the earliest examples of written documents had to do with the management of business and commerce. As societies and individuals accumulated property and wealth, they needed effective record keeping of taxes, trade agreements, laws, and rights of ownership. The technological advances of the industrial revolution brought about the need for a distinct class of managers. As complex factory systems developed, skilled and trained managers were required to organize and operate them. Workers became specialized in a limited number of tasks, which required managers to coordinate and oversee production. As businesses began to diversify their production, industries became so complex that their management had to be divided among several different managers, as opposed to one central, authoritarian manager. With the expanded scope of managers and the trend toward decentralized management, the transition to the professional manager took place. In the 1920s, large corporations began to organize with decentralized administration and centralized policy control. Managers provided a forum for the exchange and evaluation of creative ideas and technical innovations. Eventually these management concepts spread from
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manufacturing and production to office, personnel, marketing, and financial functions. Today management is more concerned with results than activities, taking into account individual differences in styles of working.
n the job Management is found in every industry, including food, clothing, banking, education, health care, and business services. All types of businesses have managers to formulate policies and administer the firm’s operations. Managers may oversee the operations of an entire company, a geographical territory of a company’s operations, or a specific department, such as sales and marketing. Business managers direct a company’s or a department’s daily activities within the context of the organization’s overall plan. They implement organizational policies and goals. This may quick facts involve developing sales or proSchool Subjects motional materials, analyzing the Business department’s budgetary requireComputer science ments, and hiring, training, and Economics supervising staff. Business managers are often responsible for Personal Skills Helping/teaching long-range planning for their Leadership/management company or department. This involves setting goals for the Work Environment organization and developing a Primarily indoors workable plan for meeting those One location with some travel goals. Minimum Education Level A manager responsible for a Bachelor’s degree single department might work to coordinate his or her departSalary Range ment’s activities with other $45,720 to $68,210 to departments. A manager respon$145,600+ sible for an entire company or Certification or Licensing organization might work with None available the managers of various departments or locations to oversee Outlook and coordinate the activities of About as fast as the average all departments. If the business is DOT privately owned, the owner may 189 be the manager. In a large corporation, however, there will be a GOE management structure above the 11.05.01 business manager. NOC Jeff Bowe is the Midwest Gen0611 eral Manager for Disc Graphics, a large printing company headO*NET-SOC quartered in New York. Bowe 11-1011.00, 11-1011.02, oversees all aspects of the com11-1021.00, 11-3031.01 pany’s Indianapolis plant, which
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employs about 50 people. When asked what he is responsible for, Bowe answers, “Everything that happens in this facility.” Specifically, that includes sales, production, customer service, capital expenditure planning, hiring and training employees, firing or downsizing, and personnel management. The hierarchy of managers includes top executives, such as the president, who establishes an organization’s goals and policies along with others, such as the chief executive officer, chief financial officer, chief information officer, executive vice president, and the board of directors. Top executives plan business objectives and develop policies to coordinate operations between divisions and departments and establish procedures for attaining objectives. Activity reports and financial statements are reviewed to determine progress and revise operations as needed. The president also directs and formulates funding for new and existing programs within the organization. Public relations plays a big part in the lives of executives as they deal with executives and leaders from other countries or organizations, and with customers, employees, and various special interest groups. The top-level managers for Bowe’s company are located in the company’s New York headquarters. Bowe is responsible for reporting certain information about the Indianapolis facility to them. He may also have to work collaboratively with them on certain projects or plans. “I have a conversation with people at headquarters about every two to three days.” he says. “I get corporate input on very large projects. I would also work closely with them if we had some type of corporate-wide program we were working on—something where I would be the contact person for this facility.” Although the president or chief executive officer retains ultimate authority and responsibility, Bowe is responsible for overseeing the day-to-day operations of the Indianapolis location. A manager in this position is sometimes called a chief operating officer or COO. Other duties of a COO may include serving as chairman of committees, such as management, executive, engineering, or sales. Some companies have an executive vice president, who directs and coordinates the activities of one or more departments, depending on the size of the organization. In very large organizations, the duties of executive vice presidents may be highly specialized. For example they may oversee the activities of business managers of marketing, sales promotion, purchasing, finance, personnel training, industrial relations, administrative services, data processing, property management, transportation, or legal services. In
smaller organizations, an executive vice president might be responsible for a number of these departments. Executive vice presidents also assist the chief executive officer in formulating and administering the organization’s policies and developing its long-range goals. Executive vice presidents may serve as members of management committees on special studies. Companies may also have a chief financial officer or CFO. In small firms, the CFO is usually responsible for all financial management tasks, such as budgeting, capital expenditure planning, cash flow, and various financial reviews and reports. In larger companies, the CFO may oversee financial management departments, to help other managers develop financial and economic policy and oversee the implementation of these policies. Chief information officers, or CIOs, are responsible for all aspects of their company’s information technology. They use their knowledge of technology and business to determine how information technology can best be used to meet company goals. This may include researching, purchasing, and overseeing the setup and use of technology systems, such as Intranet, Internet, and computer networks. These managers sometimes take a role in implementing a company’s Web site. In companies that have several different locations, managers ma
