Encounter with God

ENCOUNTER WITH GO D

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ENCOUNTER WITH GO D An Introductio n t o Christian Worship an d Practic e

DUNCAN B . FORRESTE R

J. IAN H . McDONALD GIAN TELLIN I

Second Edition

T& T CLAR K INTERNATIONA L A Continuum imprint LONDON

•

NEW YORK

Published b y T&T Clar k Internationa l A Continuum imprint The Tower Building , 1 1 York Road , Londo n SE 1 7N X 15 East 26t h Street , Suit e 1703 , Ne w York , N Y 1001 0 www.tandtclark.com First editio n copyrigh t © T& T Clark Lt d 198 3 Second editio n copyrigh t © T& T Clar k Lt d 199 6 First publishe d 198 3 Second editio n 199 6 Reprinted 199 9 This editio n 200 4 All rights reserved. No part o f this publication ma y be reproduced o r transmitte d in any for m o r by any means, electronic o r mechanical, includin g photocopying , recording o r an y informatio n storag e o r retrieva l system, withou t permissio n in writing fro m th e publishers . British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Dat a A catalogu e recor d fo r thi s boo k i s available fro m th e Britis h Library ISBN 056708258 X (paperback ) Typeset b y Waverley Typesetters , Galashiel s Printed o n acid-fre e pape r i n Grea t Britai n b y Th e Cromwel l Pres s Limited , Wiltshire, U K

CONTENTS Preface t o the First Edition vi

i

Preface t o the Second Edition x

i

Chapter 1 WORSHI Chapter 2 TH Chapter 3 I

P AND CHRISTIAN PRACTIC E 1

E ROOT S OF CHRISTIAN WORSHI P 1 N SPIRIT AND IN TRUTH 3

Chapter 4 WOR

D AND SACRAMENT 5

6 6 3

Chapter 5 TH E WOR D AND THE WORDS IN WORSHIP - PREACHIN G 7

6

Chapter 6 TH E WOR D AND THE WORD S IN WORSHIP - PRAYE R 10

2

Chapter 7 BECOMIN

G A CHRISTIAN 12

1

Chapter 8 CHRISTIA N FORMATION 14

3

Chapter 9 TH E MEA L FOR THE LIF E OF TH E WORLD 16

8

Chapter 1 0 WORSHI P AND PASTORA L CAR E 19

0

Chapter 1 1 WORSHI P IN THE MODER N WORLD 21

2

Index of Proper Names

235

Index of Subjects

239

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PREFACE TO TH E FIRST EDITIO N 'Are you interested in Liturgy?' an old woman asked Dean Inge. 'No, Madam, neither do I collect butterflies,' the Gloomy Dean replied. Bu t if liturgy properly understood focuses and interact s with th e whole of life i t cannot be onl y the esoteric hobb y of a few, an d i f worship indeed i s a central activit y o f th e Church , the study of worship shoul d hav e a significant place i n depart ments and facultie s of theology an d i n seminaries and centre s of ministerial formation. Since theology, like worship, is a func tion o f the whole Church rathe r tha n th e preserv e of an elite, Christians who take their faith an d it s practice seriously should constantly be reviewing and discussin g their worship as part of the ongoing interactio n between theolog y an d practic e which is integral t o the Christia n Faith . This introductory textboo k is offered i n the hope that it will stimulate, provoke and encour age profitable study and reflectio n on worship, rooted both i n theology an d practice , o n th e part of theological students and seminarians, clergy and la y people o f various traditions. The writin g of this book wa s stimulated b y the experienc e o f teaching worshi p t o lively , responsiv e an d varie d group s o f students in th e ecumenica l contex t o f Edinburgh University's Faculty of Divinity. Most, but not all, of these students were preparing fo r th e ministr y of Presbyteria n o r Anglica n churches , but student s fro m othe r tradition s an d wit h different motiva tions leading them t o the study of worship also made distinctive and valuable contributions t o the discussions out o f which this book has arisen. We wish to thank our student s fo r comments , challenges, question s an d suggestion s whic h hav e playe d n o little par t i n carryin g forwar d ou r thinkin g on worshi p an d shaping thi s book. vii

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Encounter with God has three particula r emphases. I n th e first place, i t is written with the conviction tha t th e study of worship today mus t be ecumenical . The moder n convergenc e i n th e theology and practice of worship is based on the realization that the majo r ecclesiastica l tradition s shar e mor e i n term s o f th e principles and structure of worship than was commonly realized when the various traditions were studied and practised in virtual isolation fro m on e another . No w we can , an d must , tak e a broader vie w whic h i s full o f possibilitie s fo r th e renewa l o f worship and th e restoration o f Christian unity. Secondly, w e hav e mad e th e complementarit y o f Wor d and Sacramen t th e pivo t o f ou r argument . I n th e pas t eve n when th e theologica l principl e wa s affirmed, practic e ofte n denied it . Fo r example , i n churche s whic h gav e t o thei r ministers grea t freedo m i n th e conduc t o f worship , muc h attention wa s devoted i n theologica l educatio n t o homiletic s while th e principle s o f worship were ofte n give n perfunctor y treatment. A s a consequence worship sometimes degenerate d into nothin g bu t th e preliminarie s t o th e sermon , an d sacramental lif e becam e impoverished . I n churche s o f th e 'catholic' tradition , o n th e othe r hand , i t wa s no t un common fo r seminarie s t o devot e a majo r par t of thei r tim e to liturg y bu t t o inculcat e th e vie w tha t preachin g an d th e ministry of th e Wor d wer e little more tha n appendages . Thi s unhealthy polarizatio n i s clearly reflected i n man y textbooks . We have tried to do something to redress the balance and hope we hav e suggeste d som e way s i n whic h thi s fundamenta l principle o f th e theolog y o f worshi p ma y b e adequatel y expressed i n practice . In th e third place, we believe that worship should b e studie d primarily theologically. Kar l Barth was right to say of the adage Lex orandi, lex credendi, 'this saying is not simpl y a pious dictum, but on e o f the mos t intelligen t thing s that ha s ever bee n sai d about method in theology'. It is as important fo r theology tha t it takes seriously both worshi p and th e questions i t generates as it i s that th e stud y o f worshi p shoul d understan d itsel f a s a theological discipline . Som e ma y feel tha t we have give n to o little attentio n t o th e histor y of liturgy, but w e have restricte d the spac e devote d t o historica l matter s advisedly , because we feel it necessary t o stress that the study of worship is not a form of antiquarianis m - and , besides , th e necessar y historica l information i s easy to come by elsewhere.

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The thre e author s brough t varie d experienc e an d back ground t o teaching in Edinburgh an d th e writing of this book. Tellini was a Roman Catholic priest working on Eastern liturgies in Rome before becomin g a n Anglican and teachin g in various theological colleges. He now divides his time between teaching , in Edinburgh University, serving as a parish priest, and working on th e Scottis h Episcopa l Church' s Liturgica l Commission. McDonald wa s a paris h ministe r o f th e Churc h o f Scotlan d before teachin g Religious Education i n a college o f educatio n and developin g special expertis e i n the Ne w Testament an d i n homiletics. Forreste r was ordained in the Church o f South India where a n interes t i n worshi p wa s aroused whic h h e furthe r developed while chaplain of a new English university. It should not be beyond th e capacit y of a moderately competen t textua l critic t o work out whic h autho r ha s had primar y responsibilit y for which parts of the book. Eac h section ha s been revise d after discussion, bu t w e hav e no t sough t uniformit y of styl e an d although w e have substantia l agreement o n ou r approac h t o the theolog y of worship, we are stil l debating vigorously among ourselves som e o f th e position s presente d i n thes e pages . W e hope tha t thos e wh o rea d an d us e thi s book wil l join i n th e debate, recognizin g its importance fo r th e futur e vitalit y of the worship and theolog y of the Church. DUNCAN FORRESTE R J. IA N H. MCDONALD GIAN TELLINI

New College University of Edinburg h Easter, 1983

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PREFACE TO TH E SECOND EDITIO N The author s ar e deepl y gratifie d tha t th e firs t editio n o f this book ha s bee n foun d helpfu l b y so man y an d tha t a secon d edition has been called for. They have taken the opportunity to add thre e ne w chapters: o n 'Worshi p an d Christia n Practice ' (Duncan Forrester), 'Becoming a Christian' (Gian Tellini) and 'Christian Formation ' (Ia n McDonald) . Other chapter s hav e been revised , som e o f the m quit e radically . Gia n ha s adde d some stirrin g thought s o n th e theolog y o f worship , an d w e are happ y t o includ e a sectio n o n 'Ne w Development s i n Homiletics' b y Jolyon Mitchell , who lectures on th e Theolog y and Ethic s of Communication at Edinburgh University. A fellow of th e Colleg e o f Preachers , h e ha s worke d a s a BB C World Service and Radi o 4 producer an d journalist. It is our hope that this enhanced volum e will meet th e need s o f students studying the worship and theolog y of the Church, including preaching and Christia n formation. W e also hop e tha t i t will commen d the stud y of this vital area o f ministry to a wider readership. The author s ar e gratefu l fo r th e hel p receive d i n th e preparation o f this edition o f the book : particularly to Jolyon and Clar e Mitchel l and t o Jenny McDonal d fo r readin g th e proofs and makin g helpfu l suggestions ; and als o to the editor s of T&T Clark for thei r interest, skill and guidance .

IAN MCDONAL D

(on behalf of all the contributors)

New College University of Edinburgh November, 1995 XI

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CHAPTER 1

WORSHIP AND CHRISTIA N PRACTICE People worship. For most peopl e ritua l in some for m or othe r has importanc e i n thei r lives . The y ma y no t recogniz e tha t worship expresse s th e meanin g the y fin d i n life , an d offer s consolation, encouragement an d challenge . Bu t the ritual s of everyday life, th e ceremonies at marriage o r at a death, o r th e observances o f civi l society , lik e Remembranc e Sunday , o r university graduations, mea n a great dea l t o people. Worshi p relates to belief an d meaning , and als o t o practice an d socia l order. I t i s this interaction betwee n worship , which i s itself a form o f practice, and Christia n belief and practic e which is the central concern o f this book . The oldes t archaeologica l evidenc e suggest s tha t worship in some for m or othe r occupie d a central place i n th e activit y of people from th e daw n of history, and th e moder n world i s full of shrines, temples, mosques, churches , gospe l halls , meeting houses: places where activity relating to the holy, what Rudolph Otto spoke of as the mysterium tremendum et facinans, take s place. But i s it not tru e tha t in th e West , at least , society has becom e secular, worship ha s les s an d les s o f a recognize d place , an d fewer an d fewe r peopl e tak e par t i n worship , a t leas t a s traditionally understood? Ye t although th e formal expressions of Christia n worship ma y pla y a les s significan t rol e i n mos t Western societie s tha n onc e the y did, thes e ver y societies ar e not as free fro m worship as might appear a t first glance. There are, o f course , nation s i n th e Wes t wher e Christia n worship continues to hold a central place, as if to mock the sociologists ' generalizations about secularizatio n - Polan d an d the United States ar e case s i n point . An d eve n whe n fe w seem t o atten d worship frequently, larg e number s o f people feel th e nee d t o mark the great turning points of life - birth, maturity, marriage, 1

2 Encounter

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death - wit h Christia n rituals or 'rite s of passage', whic h give meaning to these transitions and allo w them t o be understoo d in th e contex t o f eternity. The ritual s of civil religio n ar e als o alive and well. Worship continues, in a multitude of forms, some of the m bizarre , others bu t vai n repetition s o f ritual s whic h seem t o hav e los t thei r significanc e long ago . Worshi p i s no t just a hobby of a few, like squash or model railways : an astonishingly large proportion o f humankind takes part in worship with at least some glimmering awareness of its significance. And this despite th e fac t tha t worship in modern societie s often seem s strangely anomalous - a quaint museum-piece, or a furtive and surreptitious activit y indulge d i n b y littl e curiou s clique s o f cranks and 'cognitiv e dissidents'. It is not easy to suggest an adequate definition o f worship, or of Christian worship . On e descriptio n o f Christia n worshi p might b e th e answe r t o th e firs t questio n i n th e Westminste r Shorter Catechis m (1648) : 'Man' s chie f en d i s to glorif y Go d and enjo y Hi m fo r ever. ' Thi s speak s of Christia n worshi p as ascribing to God the glory that is properly his and delighting in encountering God . I t als o suggest s tha t worshi p is a central , characteristically human , an d virtuall y universa l activity . Worship, encountering God , fo r Christian s is the pivota l an d most importan t thin g i n huma n life , tha t whic h focuses an d enriches th e whole of life, th e givin g of meaning t o existence, the purpos e fo r which people were made. The ver y word 'worship' i n English is odd. Basicall y it means the recognitio n an d celebratio n o f worth , value , goodness, holiness, wherever such qualitie s are t o be found. I n Englan d they still retain th e archai c usage o f referring t o 'Hi s Worship the Mayor' . And in the 166 2 Anglica n Prayer Book th e groo m says to the bride, 'With my body I thee worship' - he recognizes and celebrate s he r wort h and value , her lovableness . And this he does not only in words - th e words of lovers are sometime s pretty incoherent, but words are still important - bu t also with the body , i n action . Th e lov e tha t thi s worship celebrate s i s expressed an d strengthene d i n bodily acts; it is something tha t involves th e whol e personality . Th e kiss , th e cuddle , gazin g silently into one another's eyes , coitus - thes e are just some of the bodil y way s i n whic h lov e show s itself . An d lovers , lik e worshippers (indee d th e argumen t i s that the y are ver y much the same), use symbols that are charged with rich meaning: the bunch of flowers, the ring, the gift of perfume. In such symbolic

Worship and Christian Practice 3 acts a lover recognizes and celebrates the love and worth of the partner. They communicat e with one anothe r i n verbal, bodily and symbolic ways, and thei r communication bot h show s that love i s there, an d deepens , enlarge s and strengthen s th e lov e between them . But the English word 'worship ' has been narrowe d in meaning down the years, so that today it is rarely used excep t to refer to se t time s of forma l ritual . This i s misleading, in a s far a s it suggests that worship is a distinct, specialized part of life; just as medical care take s place i n clinics and surgerie s and hospitals , so worship takes place i n churches an d mosque s an d temples . At on e leve l this is quite true . Ther e ar e time s and place s fo r public worship, and most people draw a pretty clear distinction between what goes on in these times and places , and th e rest of life. Bu t thi s narro w sens e need s t o b e complemente d b y a broader understandin g o f worship . Christia n worship i s th e offering o f the whole of life; our relationshi p to God cannot be confined i n one compartmen t of our lives . Times of service are important if we are t o offer th e servic e o f our lives ; the specia l times sustain and deepen th e constant relationship .

Worship as Practice That strang e activit y calle d 'worship ' stand s a t th e hear t o f Christian practice . Yo u cannot understan d th e Christia n lif e without referenc e t o worship, and Christia n worship must b e understood a s a form of practice, an activit y in which one par ticipates rather tha n something on e observes o r contemplates . Worship i s th e distinctiv e activit y of th e peopl e o f God . I n worship God is encountered an d glorified, God's purposes ar e discerned, howeve r faintly , an d God' s peopl e ar e nourishe d and strengthene d fo r service . Worshi p i s no t jus t par t o f Christian practice, but it is the centre without which everything else fall s apart , th e plac e fro m whic h we may extrapolate th e other dimension s o f Christian practice , th e par t tha t clarifie s and sustain s the rest. In worship we are in touch with the lif e of heaven, an d despit e th e incompletenes s an d imperfectio n o f earthly worship, God can and does use for God's glory and th e good of humankind ou r frai l an d stumblin g efforts t o worship God. Worship, then , i s something tha t we do. 'Religion , like art, lives in so far as it is performed', wrote the anthropologist Victor

Encounter with God

4

Turner. 1 Christia n fait h ca n onl y liv e i f i t i s enacted bot h i n times of worship and i n life. It is a doing that involves the whole person, th e hea d just a s much a s the heart . I n worship we use symbols, an d words , an d gesture s i n comple x pattern s o f behaviour whic h communicat e meaning . Th e philosophe r Wittgenstein wrote that 'Language di d not emerg e fro m som e kind of ratiocination ... Childre n do not learn that books exist, that armchairs exist, etc. - the y learn t o fetch books , t o sit in armchairs, etc.'2 S o in worship we learn b y doing, by acting, by re-enacting th e stor y of the community . The pionee r anthro pologist, R. R. Marrett, said that what he called 'savage religion' was 'something not so much though t ou t as danced out'. 3 How religion i s 'dance d out ' i n worship , an d ho w thi s relate s t o thought abou t God , theology , an d th e practic e o f th e com munity of faith an d individua l believers ar e mai n concerns of this book.

Worship as Relationship One o f th e commones t misunderstanding s o f worshi p i s t o regard i t in a n impersona l way . When thi s happens worship is seen a s a mechanical or magica l process i n which worshippers ensure thei r salvatio n o r happines s b y manipulating super natural forces. But Christian worship, as Edward Schillebeeckx has so strikingly affirmed, i s an encounter , a meeting: Religion i s ... essentiall y a persona l relation o f ma n t o God , of person to person; a personal encounter or a personal communing with God. It is precisely in this that the essential condition for a life truly centred on Go d consists. It is because God lovingly takes th e initiative and comes down to meet man in grace that man lives in a condition o f active an d immediat e communicatio n wit h th e on e who, in this relationship, becomes the 'livin g God'. The act itself of this encounter of God and man, which on earth can only take place in faith , i s what w e call salvation . O n God' s part thi s encounter involves a disclosure o f himself b y revelation, and o n th e par t of man it involves devotion to God's service - tha t is religion.4 1

Victor Turner, Th e Anthropology o f Performance, Ne w Yor k 1986 , p. 48 . L. Wittgenstein, On Certainty, G. E. M. Anscombe and G . H. von Wright (eds.), New York 1969 , p. 62e . * R. R. Marrett, The Threshold o f Religion (1909), p . xxxi, quoted in Tom F . Driver, The Magic o f Ritual, San Francisc o 1991, p. 84 . 4 Edward Schillebeeckx, Christ the Sacrament of the Encounter with God, London 1963, p . 4. 2

Worship and Christian Practice 5

If worshi p i s a n encounte r betwee n Go d an d people , thi s must b e reflecte d i n th e qualit y of relationship s betwee n th e worshippers and thei r attitude to thei r neighbours . I t i s right and prope r t o emphasize tha t worship i s the recognitio n an d celebration o f the glor y and wort h of God. Thi s should hav e a priority in our understandin g o f worship a s a human activity. But it is also true that worshippers experience a n affirmation o f their own worth and value to God. They come to worship aware of thei r sins ; they confess the m an d experienc e th e forgivin g grace and love of God, the divine confirmation that, despite all, they are loved with an infinite love, and ar e of incalculable value to God . Worship, then , shoul d b e a n encounte r wit h Go d i n whic h we enjoy him. It shows, even in the midst of oppression, poverty and th e bleakes t o f circumstances , th e deligh t o f keepin g company with God, i n whom all true joys are to be found. This applies, o f course , t o th e whol e o f th e Christia n life . Bu t worship, if it percolates throug h th e whole of life as it should, is still the tim e set aside for loving attention to God. I n the best of families tim e need s t o be kep t fo r doin g thing s together , fo r enjoying on e another , fo r talking , for playin g together . O f course, thes e time s are no t th e whole of th e famil y relationship, but withou t them th e relationshi p may wither. We need , i n other words, to make time for God, jealously guarded time , in which w e give loving attention t o God , tha t th e whol e of ou r lives may be live d as a loving encounter wit h God . Worship i s enjoyin g God. We d o no t 'enjo y ourselves ' i n worship, indeed th e very opposite, for in worship our attention is directed awa y from ourselves , t o God an d t o our neighbour . In worship we look a t ourselve s honestly and confes s our sins ; then as forgiven sinners we can cease to be absorbed b y self and open ou t t o God an d God' s glory , and t o the neighbou r an d that neighbour' s needs . C . S . Lewi s i n hi s autobiography , Surprised b y Joy, describes how as a young man h e was engrosse d with hi s ow n inne r workings . H e constantl y an d morbidl y scrutinized hi s motivation, his attitudes, his feelings as if these were matters of supreme moment . Conversio n drew him out of himself; h e becam e fa r more ope n t o other people , far mor e sensitive t o thei r feelings , because h e wa s now open t o God . Worship shoul d encourag e th e capacit y fo r open , mature , confident an d hones t relationship . Sin, according t o a phras e beloved b y Augustine an d Luther , i s bein g incurvatus i n se,

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turned i n o n oneself . C . S. Lewis, like many others, foun d a n amazing release from this obsession wit h self when he was given the capacity of enjoying God and his neighbour. Understandin g worship as an encounter wit h God should sav e us from the traps of over-concentratio n o n ou r ow n inwardness , an d o f bein g obsessed wit h the minutiae of liturgy and th e details of worship as if these things were important i n themselves. They are simply aids, which ought t o b e unobtrusive , t o th e glorificatio n an d enjoyment of God by his people . In the encounter, God takes the initiative. God has promise d to b e wit h peopl e wheneve r tw o o r thre e ar e gathere d i n God's name . Go d keep s promises ! Encounte r involve s th e whole person, body , mind and spirit . And i n encounter lov e is expressed, sustaine d an d nurtured .

Worship and Faith It i s frequently hel d tha t a n articulat e belief , o r th e abilit y t o subscribe t o a creed o r confession, is in some way the necessar y qualification fo r takin g part in worship. The cree d is felt t o be like an entrance exam ; onl y those who pas s can belong in th e worshipping community . T o worshi p withou t havin g worke d out exactly what you believe, to this way of thinking, is dishonest and lackin g in integrity. This positio n depend s o n a typicall y moder n confusio n between fait h an d belief , as Wilfred Cantwel l Smith suggests , arguing that fait h is an orientation of the personality, to oneself, to one's neighbour, to the universe; a total response; away of seeing whatever one sees and o f handling whatever one handles; a capacity to live at a more than mundane level; to see, to feel, to act in terms of a transcendent dimension. Belief , o n th e othe r hand, is the holdin g o f certai n ideas.5 But i t is not enoug h t o sa y that whil e a n intellectuall y formulated belief i s not a requirement fo r worship, faith i n Cantwell Smith's sense is. For worship is radically misunderstood i f it is seen as the joyful expression o f the confident , unclouded fait h of th e communit y and al l its members. Th e sol e requiremen t for takin g part in worship is some element o f hunger, of desir e for trut h and for reality. For faith and belie f as well are nurture d 5

Wilfred Cantwell Smith, Faith and Belief, Princeton 1979, p. 12.

Worship and Christian Practice 1

and shaped i n worship, and find their expression an d fulfilmen t in worship. And often enoug h it is in worship tha t faith i s born, so tha t i n certai n tradition s peopl e wil l spea k o f th e Lord' s Supper a s a 'converting ordinance' . Worship and Theology Down th e age s the experience of worship ha s called fo r theo logical explication . Sometime s thi s ha s bee n n o mor e tha n elaborate explanation s for practices and symbol s whic h arose accidentally or i n rathe r strang e circumstances . Bu t it has also been tru e tha t muc h grea t theolog y ha s been th e attemp t t o interpret practices in worship and relat e the m t o the deposit of faith i n th e Bible . Neithe r th e doctrin e o f th e Trinit y no r orthodox christolog y ca n b e simpl y read of f the page s of th e Bible. Doctrinal formulation ha s to relate the faith t o changing cultural contexts, i t is true; but eve n more urgent i s the tas k of relating the practice s and formulation s used i n worship to the tradition of faith. How could Christian s worship Jesus as divine (as the y did fro m a very early stage) an d stil l be monotheists ? Thus, christolog y aros e ver y largely as an explanatio n o f how Christians worship. Likewise , baptis m was administered i n th e three-fold nam e befor e ther e was any agreement tha t the Holy Spirit was a separate hypostasis, le t alone a formulated doctrin e of th e Trinity . These, an d other , doctrine s emerge d ou t o f consideration o f what is said an d don e i n worship; the experi ence o f worship demands theological explication . We can properl y thin k of worship a s theology. Worshi p in all its forms an d element s is laden with theologica l insights, some of whic h ar e rarel y brough t t o verba l expression : theolog y i s acted out , expresse d i n practice . Worshi p i s th e vehicl e o f theology, communicatin g fa r mor e effectivel y tha n learne d treatises eve r can . Thus , Methodist s an d Lutheran s hav e fel t particularly strongl y tha t th e hymn s use d i n worshi p com municate the fait h i n a way that people can appropriate . Many Roman Catholic s felt that the changes in the mas s enjoined b y the Second Vatica n Council involved a change i n the 'faith once delivered t o the saints', and tha t the change in the language of worship from Latin to the vernacular separated the m fro m thei r fellow Catholics who worshipped i n other languages. Th e 166 2 Prayer Boo k was, and is , one o f the theological standards of the Church of England - an authoritative repository of the teaching

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of the Church whic h many Anglicans fel t was not at the mercy of cultural and theologica l fashions as the Alternative Book was believed t o be. We can thin k of theolog y a s worship. Anselm, for instance , believing that theology is faith seekin g understanding and tha t faith i s inseparabl e fro m worship , wrote som e o f hi s mos t significant works of theology in the form o f prayer, of dialogu e between God and th e theologian . Muc h classical theology is in the for m o f sermons , bearin g al l th e mark s tha t the y were originally delivered i n th e contex t o f worship. For centuries it was assumed tha t theological lecture s should star t with prayer, because theolog y is done in the presence of the living God, an d should therefore be reverent as well as rigorous. The Orthodo x Churches, i n particular , maintai n a livel y convictio n tha t theology should be doxology, that it should lead peopl e t o give praise t o God , tha t i t shoul d flo w naturall y an d unselfconsciously into worship. In a sense theolog y provide s a tes t of worship, and worshi p provides a tes t of theology . Theolog y shoul d properl y be th e friendly criti c o f worshi p an d preaching , seein g par t o f it s function a s the encouragement o f honesty and integrit y in th e church's worship and proclamation. There is nothing wrong in seeing worshi p a s a kin d o f theologica l laboratory , o n th e assumption tha t authenti c theolog y shoul d 'rin g true ' i n th e worship o f God' s people . Thi s i s not t o sugges t tha t worship and theolog y are , o r ough t t o be, indistinguishabl e from on e another, o r tha t ther e shoul d alway s b e complet e harmon y between them. Worship, like the canon of scripture, is a kind of repository o f insights , images an d convictions , some o f which appear t o die , an d other s o f which go dormant fo r centurie s until i n altere d circumstances , ther e i s what Austen Farre r called a 'rebirt h o f images' . Worshi p an d theolog y ar e bot h explorations int o th e ultimat e mysteries of life ; i t woul d b e strange (an d rathe r dull! ) i f they were always in step with on e another. One may in worship, for example, rejoic e to join 'with angels and archangels and all the company of heaven', while as a theologian havin g great difficulty in working out whether one believes i n angels , o r wha t we mea n b y heaven . Bu t i f afte r careful consideratio n we feel tha t the existenc e of angels must be stoutl y denied, an d tha t heave n i s simply the frui t o f fals e consciousness, the n in honesty we should attemp t to remove all such languag e fro m ou r order s of worship. To mov e betwee n

Worship and Christian Practice 9 worship an d theolog y convince d tha t bot h ar e orientation s towards th e sam e mysterie s is exhilarating an d productiv e i n both areas . It is also true that worship provides some significan t tests of theological position s - can they be prayed or preached ? Do they lead into worship? Do they engage reverentl y as well as rigorously with mysteries which are to be adored, explored, an d lived out i n practice? The ol d epigra m le x orandi lex credendi, the la w of praying and the la w of believing , point s t o th e trut h tha t th e doin g o f theology and th e practic e of worship should b e hel d togethe r for th e healt h o f each.6 Kar l Bart h called th e epigra m 'on e of the mos t profoun d description s o f th e theologica l method'. 7 What is at issue here i s not simpl y the relationshi p between an academic subject , Christia n theology , an d th e practic e o f worship, bu t th e prope r orientatio n toward s truth . Michael Polanyi, scientist , philosopher an d semina l Christia n thinker suggests tha t worshi p stimulates , provokes an d encourage s enquiry; i t point s toward s th e truth , an d sustain s seriou s seekers afte r truth ; bu t i t onl y indicates i n paradoxica l an d fragmentary way s th e natur e o f th e trut h whic h 'we se e i n a mirror dimly' , until at the las t we encounter the trut h 'fac e t o face' ( 1 Corinthian s 13:12) . Polanyi' s concer n i s wit h th e relationship of worship and enquiry in general. H e suggests that all form s of discipline d enquiry are nourished , hel d t o their task, and pointe d steadily towards the trut h by worship: It resembles not the dwelling within a great theor y of which we enjoy the complet e understanding , no r an immersio n i n the patter n of a musical masterpiece, but th e heuristi c upsurge whic h tries to break through the accepted frameworks of thought, guided by intimations of discoveries still beyond ou r horizons . Christian worshi p sustains, as it were, an eternal, neve r to be consummated hunch ; a heuristi c vision which is accepted for th e sak e of its irresolvable tension. I t is like an obsessio n wit h a problem know n t o be insoluble , whic h yet follows against reason, unswervingly, the heuristi c command , 'Loo k at th e unknown! ' Christianit y sedulousl y fosters , an d i n a sens e permanently satisfie s man' s cravin g fo r menta l dissatisfactio n b y offering hi m the comfor t o f a crucified God. 8 6

See P . d e Clerck , 'Lex orandi le x credendi: Sens originel e t avatar s historique s d'un adag e equivoque', i n Questions Liturgiques e t paraissiales, 59 (1978) , pp . 193 212; E.T. , Studio. Ijturgirsi, an d Geoffre y Wainwright , Doxology, Londo n 1980 , pp . 218-83 1 Karl Barth , Th e Humanity o f God, London, 1961 , p . 88 . 8 Michael Polanyi, Personal Knowledge, Londo n 1962 , p . 199 .

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Worship is a way of dwelling in truth, which should encourag e a passion t o explore th e mysterie s of life .

Warship and Ethics9 Our relationship to God and our relationship to our neighbou r are interdependent . W e canno t cultivat e a clos e an d lovin g relationship wit h Go d i n worshi p while we ar e bein g mani pulative o r exploitativ e in ou r relationshi p t o our neighbour . The Sermo n o n th e Moun t put s it thus: 'So if you are offering your gift at the altar, and ther e remembe r tha t your brother ha s something agains t you, leav e you r gif t ther e befor e th e alta r and go ; first be reconcile d t o your brother and the n com e t o offer you r gift ' (Matthe w 5:23-24). I f Christia n worshi p i s isolated fro m th e sphere s o f politic s and economic s (th e way relationships within societ y are structured) , it loses its authenticity and easil y becomes th e opiu m o f th e people , a cover for injustice and oppression, or an irrelevance. Archbishop Trevor Huddleston reminde d u s o f thi s whe n h e commente d tha t many Christians are so concerned with the real presence i n the Eucharist tha t the y forge t th e rea l presenc e o f Chris t i n th e needy neighbour. Indee d w e have been reminde d recentl y by Jose Miranda and others tha t for many of the prophets th e real worship of God i s the doing o f justice, no t ritua l nor sacrifices . Hence the y se e worship misuse d a s an alternativ e t o ethica l behaviour, a distractio n fro m th e servic e o f th e neighbour , a disguise fo r injustic e an d oppression , an d constantl y liable to degenerate int o idolatry. Others, like the American theologia n To m Driver, emphasize the capacit y of ritua l t o liberat e an d transform. 10 I n worship, they argue, an alternativ e world is manifested which, by its very existence, challenge s 'th e rea l world' . Ritua l is concerned a s much wit h transformatio n a s with order and continuity . It can challenge th e presen t orde r by presenting th e order tha t is to come. Arid yet the reality of worship continues to be profoundly ambiguous. Totalitaria n regime s thi s centur y hav e tende d t o prohibit evangelistic and educationa l activit y on th e part of the Church, an d t o strive to control preaching , bu t t o regar d th e worship tha t goe s on withi n a recognize d churc h buildin g as °This section draw s on Dunca n Forrester' s article 'Ecclesiolog y an d Ethics : A Reformed Approach' , Th e Ecumenical Review 47/2 (1995) , pp. 148-54 . 10 Tom F . Driver, Th e Magic o f Ritual, San Francisc o 1991.

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relatively inoffensive . There hav e eve n bee n suggestion s tha t the Nazis , s o fa r fro m bein g worrie d b y th e movemen t fo r liturgical renewal, secretly encouraged i t on th e grounds tha t it made churc h peopl e les s concerne d wit h th e political , social and economic processe s aroun d them. " But, contrariwise, both the Naz i and th e communis t dictatorship s wer e a t pain s t o develop alternative secular forms of worship and rituals to wean the peopl e awa y from th e Church : evidence of the continuing power and influenc e of worship ove r behaviour an d belief. 1'2 But how , in a deepl y divided world, can w e worship so that the situatio n is challenged an d transformed ? Camillo Torres , the Colombian pries t who died a s a guerrilla, believed tha t in a society a s profoundl y unjus t an d divide d a s Colombi a i t was impossible fo r th e mas s t o be properl y celebrated . Hence , h e said, 'I too k of f my cassock t o be mor e full y a priest', and gav e up celebratin g mass. 13 I n a ver y differen t context , Ulric h Duchrow asks whether a Church which 'i s divided among active thieves, passiv e profiteers and deprive d victims ' i s indeed th e body o f Christ, capabl e o f celebrating th e Eucharist. 14 But we must recognize that we are not yet in the Kingdom for which we pray. Worship is for thos e seekin g that kingdom and it s justice, and is superfluous fo r those who have already arrived, for in th e New Jerusalem, ther e i s no need of a temple. Worship, after all, is for sinners, not for those who trust in their own righteousness , as we are reminde d b y th e parabl e o f th e Pharise e an d th e publican. An d i n worshi p we fin d God' s forgivenes s and th e grace of new beginnings . But we need to recover today ways in which worship may be a healing, transforming, effective sign of community and of hope, as well as a place in which division and hostilit y are overcome. If in worship we find the tru e natur e of Christian community and experience a little of the Kingdom tha t is to come, prefiguring the lif e o f that Kingdom , we are encounterin g somethin g tha t is sharply at variance with the way of the world. In a sense we are playing out th e roles appropriate t o the Kingdom and express ing fundamental ethical commitments. The Johannine saying, " See Dermot A. Lane, Foundation for a Social Theology, Dubli n 1984 , pp . 143-44 , 182. 12 See especially Christel Lane , Th e Rites of Rulers: Ritual in Industrial Society - Th e Soviet Case, Cambridg e 1981 ; an d Davi d I . Kertzer , Ritual, Politics awl Power, Ne w Haven 1988 . " J. Gerassi (ed.) , Camilla Torres: Revolutionary Priest, Harmondsworth 1979 , p . 9. 14 U. Duchrow , Global Economy, Geneva 1987 , p . 137 .

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'The brea d whic h I shal l giv e for th e lif e o f th e worl d i s my flesh' surel y implies that th e body broken on th e cross and th e bread broke n an d share d amon g believers ar e both for the lif e of th e world . T o shar e tha t brea d involve s quit e specifi c commitments to the hungry neighbour and t o the needs of the world. Thus , i t i s no t onl y legitimat e bu t als o necessar y t o explore th e theolog y and th e ethics of what happens and what is said i n Christian worship.

Worship and Community Worship is the activity of the people of God. I t is not somethin g that peopl e do i n isolation ; eve n whe n prayin g o n one' s own one i s prayin g wit h th e Church . Worshi p i s no t somethin g people watch, a kind of stage-show laid on for an audience, no r is it something the y listen to, lik e a lecture . Rathe r i t i s something that they do, and d o together. It is the central activity of the Christian fellowshi p which create s a s i t expresses , friendshi p with Go d an d wit h ou r neighbours . I n worshi p w e ar e i n fellowship wit h th e faithfu l o n eart h an d i n heaven . W e learn the profound interdependenc e o f which the writer of the Letter to th e Hebrew s wrot e when h e said , o f th e grea t saints of th e past, 'they , withou t us, shal l no t b e mad e perfect ' (Hebrew s 11:40). Christian worship expresses an d make s community in which hostilities and division s are overcome. The poo r and th e weak have a special place i n th e community . If they are despise d o r maltreated th e natur e o f th e Churc h a s 'member s on e o f another' is denied: Two visitors may enter your meetings, one a well-dressed man with gold rings, and th e othe r a poor ma n in grimy clothes. Suppose you pay special attention t o th e well-dressed ma n an d sa y to him, 'Please take this seat,' while to the othe r poor ma n you say, 'You stand over there, or sit here on th e floor by my footstool,' d o you not se e tha t you are discriminatin g among your member s and judging b y wrong standards ? Listen, m y dear friends : ha s no t God chose n those who ar e poo r i n th e eye s o f the worl d t o b e rich in faith an d to possess the kingdom he has promised to those who love him? And yet you have humiliated the poo r man (James 2:2-6). And Pau l warns the Corinthia n Christians , few of whom 'ar e wise b y any human standard , fe w powerful o r o f nobl e birth '

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that whe n the y sham e th e poore r member s a t th e Lord' s table 'i t i s not th e Lord' s Suppe r tha t you eat' ( 1 Corinthians 11:20). In worshi p th e storie s tha t are formativ e o f th e communit v are retold, re-enacted, recalled an d meditated upon . Th e stor v of the communit y of faith i s grafted togethe r with th e persona l stories o f the worshippers . Whe n th e king s of the ol d Anglo Saxon kingdom s o f Englan d wer e converte d t o Christianity , they looke d afres h a t thei r persona l an d dynasti c histories as represented b y the genealogies . Thes e trace d thei r descen t back man y generation s t o th e old Nors e god s - Thor , and Wodin an d s o on. Then, rathe r tha n renouncin g thei r stories , denying thei r histor y an d assumin g a n entirel y ne w identity, the Anglo-Saxo n king s simpl y extende d thei r genealogie s backwards, so that now, as Christians, they traced thei r descent through th e Norse gods to the patriarchs of the Old Testamen t and bac k to Adam. They had grafted thei r stories into the new salvation-history, an d assume d a Christia n identit y without a total repudiatio n o f th e old . Ever y believe r ha s t o relat e th e personal stor y t o th e stor y o f th e communit y o f faith , an d worship i s one o f th e crucia l place s wher e thi s grafting takes place. In th e Jewish Passove r a central par t of the ritual i s when th e youngest child present asks four questions : Why does this night differ fro m al l other nights? Fo r on al l other nights we eat either leavened bread or unleavene d bread; why on this night only unleavened bread? On all other nights we eat all kinds of herbs; why on this night only bitter herbs? On al l other nights we need no t dip ou r herb s even once ; why on this night must we dip them twice? On al l other nights we eat eithe r sitting o r reclining ; why on thi s night do we all recline? The repl y from th e elder s come s i n term s o f th e stor y o f th e first Passover an d of God's deliverance o f his people from Egypt, the story which they are ritually re-enacting, and th e story which tells th e chil d and th e whol e gathering wha t it means t o b e a Jew, wh o the y are . Th e grea t stor y o f God's peopl e dovetail s with thei r personal stories :

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We were Pharaoh's slaves in Egypt, then the Lord our God brought us forth wit h a might y hand an d a n outstretche d arm . And i f the Holy One, Blessed b e He , ha d no t brought our forefather s fort h from Egyp t the n we , our children , an d ou r children' s children , would still be slaves in Egypt. So, even though all of us were wise, all of us full o f understanding, all of us elders, all of us knowing the Torah, we should still be under the commandmen t to tell the stor y of the departur e from Egypt . And the mor e one tell s the stor y of the departure from Egypt , th e more praiseworthy he is.' 5 That i s precisely what happens a t th e Passove r feast . They tel l again th e ol d story , they sing and pra y about it , but abov e all they re-enac t th e firs t Passover , appropriatin g afres h th e story of God' s deliveranc e an d makin g i t liv e i n contemporar y experience. They glimpse in the story who they are, where they belong, and what their destin y is. In worshi p we look back . I n orde r t o understan d ourselve s and ou r time s we must hear agai n an d relat e ourselve s t o th e stories of God's dealings with God's people. We need constantly to reposses s ou r pas t a s somethin g tha t i s stil l operativ e an d influential i n the present . And i n this process w e see where we 'fit in'. But worship would quickly become maudlin , wistful an d disabling if it were simply concerned wit h the past. It also looks towards the future and encourage s hope and expectation , fo r the Go d wh o meet s u s i n th e presen t an d deal t wit h u s graciously in the pas t is also the Go d who will be with us in th e future, when all worship will find its fulfilment an d culmination in th e immediat e presenc e o f God . An d i n th e presen t i n worship and in life we act out the roles of the coming Kingdom. W. H . Aude n i s reputed t o hav e said : 'Huma n being s ar e b y nature actors, who cannot becom e something unti l the y have pretended t o be it.' 16 In this profound sense , Christian worship is a pretence, a form o f play-acting . All down the ages Christians have recognized tha t in worship they are doing something o f ultimate importance, celebratin g the myster y o f God' s lov e an d grace . The y hav e experience d the excitemen t an d th e challeng e o f encountering th e livin g God, and foun d tha t their thirst for God was both satisfie d an d challenged b y their worship in Spirit and i n truth. The y would lr>

N . N. Glatzer (ed.), The PassoverHaggada, withEnghsh Translation, Introduction and Commentary, New York 1969 , pp . 21-23 . 16 Cite d i n Driver , op. at., p. 79 .

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agree wit h Kar l Barth wh o sai d tha t 'Christia n worshi p is th e most momentous , th e mos t urgent , th e mos t gloriou s actio n that can tak e plac e i n human life'. 17 FURTHER READING Tom F . Driver, The Magic o f Ritual, New York 1991. Geoffrey Wainwright , Doxology, London , 1980 . David I . Kertzer, Ritual, Politics and Power, New Haven 1988 . Edward Schillebeeckx , Christ th e Sacrament, London 1963 . D. B. Forrester, 'Ecclesiology and Ethics : A Reformed Approach' , The Ecumenical Review, 47/2 (1995) , pp . 148-54 . FOR DISCUSSIO N 1. Wha t i s th e plac e o f Christia n worshi p i n moder n secula r societies? 2. Ho w should worship relat e t o the doin g of theology ? 3. Explor e some of the ways in which the Churc h i n its worship is a social ethic .

17 K . Barth , cite d i n J.-J. von Allmen , Worship: It s Theology an d Practice, Londo n 1965, p . 13 .

CHAPTER 2

THE ROOTS OF CHRISTIAN WORSHIP In 1966 , Loui s Bouye r argue d that , thoug h on e o f th e mos t original creation s o f Christianity , Christian worshi p di d no t spring up 'from a sort of spontaneous generation, fatherless and motherless like Melkizedech; i n discussin g Christian worship, on e must searc h fo r it s roots ; i n recountin g it s genesi s an d development, on e mus t strive t o understan d i t i n it s proper context.1 When Louis Bouyer wrote those words, the idea that the roots of Christia n worshi p wer e t o b e foun d mainly , thoug h no t exclusively, in Judaism wa s still a controversial one . Toda y i t is no more so . Progress in biblical studies and in the comparativ e study o f liturg y ha s show n no t onl y th e artificialit y o f th e dichotomy between th e Old and th e Ne w Testament, bu t als o the continuit y between th e worship of the Old Testament an d that of the New. 2 The Concept of Worship in the Old Testament Scholars hav e bee n know n t o discer n th e existenc e o f tw o distinct theologie s o f worship in the Ol d Testament. The first of thes e theologie s woul d b e overwhelmingl y base d o n th e liturgy o f th e Templ e i n Jerusale m an d therefor e heavil y dependent o n the role of the Levitical priesthood. Th e secon d of thes e theologie s woul d b e mainl y base d o n th e wide r platform o f everyda y life an d woul d therefor e appea r t o b e much mor e people-orientated . ' L . Bouyer , Eucharist: Theology an d Spirituality o f th e Euc.haristic Prayer, Notr e Dame, Indian a 1968 , p . 15. 2 Ibid, p . 19 .

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A priesthood-orientated theology of worship

According to some texts, 3 it would appear tha t the Holy One of Israel coul d b e encountere d onl y i n hi s ow n Templ e i n Jerusalem. It was in the Temple's sanctuary that the glory of the Lord was said t o reside, rather tha n i n the peopl e o f Israel as a whole. In these texts, we are confronted wit h a sharp distinction and separatio n o f the 'sacred ' from th e 'profane' . To give but one example , th e book o f Ezekiel decrees to the las t cubit the shape and measurement o f the Temple see n b y the prophe t i n his vision. The basi c architectural plan o f this Temple is that of the Templ e o f Solomon . Fe w but significan t departures ar e nevertheless taken from this basic architectural plan. Every time this happens , i t i s to emphasiz e th e separatio n o f th e sacre d from th e secula r an d t o safeguar d fro m defilemen t both th e holiness of God and th e holines s of his dwelling-place. 4 Divine laws are set out concerning those who are to be admitted to the Temple an d thos e who are excluded fro m the sanctuary. Of all Levitical priests , onl y th e son s o f Zado k ar e allowe d t o draw near to the Lord and minister to him. The kin g may come a s far as the gateway and th e people must remain outside. When they approach th e sanctuary, the sons of Zadok are enjoined t o wear special linen garments which they are then t o remove and leave behind i n the holy place 'lest they communicate holines s to the people wit h thei r garments' (Ezekie l 44:19). According to these texts, the highest possible worship can be rendered t o the Lord only on his own altar in his own Temple. With o r withou t the limitatio n t o th e son s o f Zado k whic h is peculiar t o th e boo k o f Ezekiel , the priest s ar e th e uniqu e 'personae' o f thi s worshi p b y th e Lord' s ow n decree . Th e people ca n be said to worship only in a secondary and derivative sense, an d tha t onl y b y attending fro m afar . Whe n 'drawin g near' (tha t is when offering sacrifice) , th e priests must perform their worship according t o absolute, immutable an d indispen sable rule s promulgate d b y God himself . The object s use d i n the performanc e o f worshi p ar e themselve s investe d wit h special holiness : th e vestments , th e vessel s an d eve n th e furniture. A s a consequence , the y mus t no t b e touche d b y 3 C f . e.g . Ezekie l 40-46 : Number s 1:50-54 ; 3:5-10 ; 4:15 ; Leviticus 1-7 ; 2 Chronicles 5:5; 13:10-12; Zechariah 14:16-20 . 4 T. Chary , Le s Prophetes e l le culle a partir d e I'ExiL, Paris-Tourna i 1955 , pp. 4-1 6 and 276.

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unauthorized hands . God' s unapproachable transcendenc e i s stretched to the limit and the manner of the Lord's presence in his Templ e i s understood quit e literall y i n spatia l terms . Th e basic unworthiness of all human beings is clearly stated, acces s to Go d bein g guarantee d onl y i n term s o f th e sacre d rite s performed b y a hierarchy of mediation. Failin g to observe th e universal culti c law , even o n th e par t o f th e Gentiles , would incur the most severe penaltie s such as drought o n th e land or even plague . A people-orientated theology of worship According to other texts, 5 worship would appear t o be a kind of 'spiritual sacrifice' leaving little room for outward ritual observances seen a s an en d i n themselves . It must be stresse d tha t in this context 'spiritual ' i s not t o b e take n a s synonymous wit h 'anti-materialistic'. The worshi p advocated b y these texts is not one o f withdrawal fro m th e world . On th e contrary , i t i s seen essentially i n th e faithfu l discharg e o f one' s dutie s o f brotherhood an d solidarit y toward s one' s fello w Israelites . I t consists o f obedienc e t o th e voic e o f th e Lor d an d o f faith fulness t o hi s covenant . I t mean s carin g fo r th e hungry , th e thirsty, the widow, the orphan, th e stranger, th e destitut e an d the oppressed, for the sake of the Lord . Th e aren a of this kind of worshi p i s as wide a s tha t o f lif e itself . Accordin g t o thes e texts, worship is not th e cult of an unapproachable God , bu t a celebration o f Immanuel , 'God-who-is-wit h us' . Acces s t o th e transcendent Go d i s not brough t abou t by a priestly hierarchy of mediation. On the contrary, the whole of the chosen People understands itsel f as called t o become the place where the glory of th e Lor d dwells : a holy , roya l natio n o f priest s spreadin g God's Word no t b y means o f sacred ceremonies , bu t b y their lives. Th e worshi p advocate d b y these text s i s clearly people orientated. N o har d an d fas t separatio n exist s betwee n th e sacred an d th e profane . I n it s origina l an d primar y sense , worship refers to the life and belief of a whole nation, a life and a belief that have immediate practica l and social consequences . In a secondary an d derivativ e sense, worshi p may then b e said 5 Cf. e.g . Exodus 19:5-6 ; Deuteronom y 10:12-22 ; Psalm s 50:7-23 ; 51:17-19 : Amos 2:6-8; 5:12-5 , 21-25 ; Hose a 6:4-10 ; 8:11-14 ; Isaia h 1:10-17 ; 56:6-8 ; 60 and 61 ; Micah 6:6-8 ; Jeremiah 7:1-12 , 22-23 ; Zecharia h 8:14-2 3 and 1 Samuel 15:22-23.

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to refe r als o t o outwar d moment s o f praye r an d encounte r reflecting, alongsid e al l th e othe r aspect s o f ethica l an d practical behaviour , a n indispensabl e inne r ('spiritual' ) attitude t o th e Go d wh o speak s an d act s accordin g t o a n eschatological plan. Unity and diversity in the Old Testament

From the publication in 1885 of Wellhausen's 'Prolegomena to the Histor y o f Israel' , biblica l scholar s hav e engage d i n a recurrently flarin g debat e ove r th e precis e natur e o f th e prophets' attitude t o the worship o f the Temple in Jerusalem . As E. Heaton wrote, the controversy 'has generated mor e hea t than light' , mainl y because o f a n unreadines s t o credi t th e biblical writers and redactor s with th e impartialit y of which we are not alway s capable ourselves. 6 Suffice it to say here with J. P. Hyatt tha t a substantia l consensu s i s bein g gathere d toda y around th e opinio n accordin g t o which 'th e ultimate Biblical and propheti c view is not tha t cultic worship can be completely dispensed with'. 7 In th e first place, prophet s appear regularl y on bot h side s of the argument. I n th e secon d place , as R. Daly points out, 'the very criticism of the prophets make s sense onl v on th e suppositio n tha t the y believed no t onl y in th e ide a o f sacrifice but als o in its practical efficacy'. 8 If th e tw o theologie s o f worshi p w e discerne d i n th e Ol d Testament ar e no t mutuall y exclusive , ho w ca n the y b e successfully mad e t o relat e t o eac h other ? Heavil y influenced by th e libera l Religionsgeschichte school, som e scholar s though t that the priest-centred theology of worship was the original one and tha t th e 'spiritua l sacrifice ' theor y wa s a later Hellenisti c development.9 A correctiv e t o thi s theor y wa s more recentl y supplied b y others wh o showed ho w th e ide a o f 'spiritualize d cult' went well bac k into Old Testament times. 10 On th e othe r hand, som e scholar s argue tha t th e priest-centre d conceptio n 6

E. W. Heaton, His Servants the Prophets, London 1949 , pp. 78-79 . J. P . Hyatt , Th e Prophetic Criticism o f Israelite Worship i n H . M . Orlinsk y (ed.) , Interpreting th e Prophetic Tradition, New York 1969, p. 210. 8 R. J. Daly , The Origins of the Christian Doctrine of Sacrifice, Londo n 1978 , p. 23 . 0 Cf. e.g. H. Wenschkew,Die Spirttualisierung der Kultusbegriffe in A Allen Testament: J'empel, Priesterund Opferin Neuen Testament, in Angelos 4 (1932) , pp. 70-281 . 10 Cf. H.-J. Hermisson, Spracheund Ritus im alt-israelischen Kult: Zur Spintualiesierung der Kultbegnffe i n Alien Testament, Wissenschaftlichen Monographie n zu m Alten un d Neuen Testament 19, Neukirchen-Vluyin 1965, pp. 156-60. Cf. also R. E. Clements, The Idea o f the Divine Presence in Ancient Israel Oxfor d 1965 , especially chapter 7 . 7

20 Encounter

with God

of worship , faithfull y reflecte d i n th e vocabular y o f th e Septuagint, was due more t o the corrupt ideal of worship at the times of the post-exili c Temple tha n t o the biblica l texts themselves.11 A similar and mor e attractiv e theory is that of T. Chary, who argues tha t ther e wer e indee d initiall y i n th e Ol d Testamen t not one bu t tw o understandings o f worship of which Jeremiah and Ezekiel were the forefathers. These two understandings did to a larg e exten t ru n i n opposit e directions , Ezekie l and hi s followers havin g broken awa y fro m th e traditio n o f th e earl y prophets t o introduc e int o th e histor y o f Israe l a ne w an d potentially dangerous factor, as Deutero-Zechariah and the preMaccabean sectio n o f th e boo k o f Danie l show. The concen tration of worship in the Temple o f Jerusalem an d th e rise of a distinctly priestly-orientate d mentalit y greatly contributed t o the stressin g o f th e Ezekiel-base d theolog y o f worship at th e expense o f that theology of worship which was characteristic of pre-exilic times . The balanc e ha d shifted . Th e emphasi s was now o n sacrificia l worshi p rathe r tha n th e impartin g of th e Torah; bu t thi s shif t wa s due mor e t o th e practica l abuse s condemned so totally and effectivel y by all the prophets tha n to any rea l elements i n th e theolog y o f Ezekiel himself. Thoug h heavily outweighed by the priest-centre d strand, th e Jeremiahbased theolog y o f worship di d no t di e ou t completely , bu t continued wit h th e Wisdo m literatur e an d th e 'psalm s of th e poor', to merge eventuall y with the previously more successful Ezekiel-based strand in the uneasy harmony of the Maccabean section o f th e boo k o f Danie l i n th e secon d centur y BC . The harmony reached a t this point was an uneasy one because i t was no more tha n a vision of hope for the future, a vision of perfect worship i n whic h th e ritua l elemen t woul d fin d complet e resonance i n the live s of a People embracing al l nations, race s and tongues . The people would then be truly a People o f Saints gathered aroun d th e 'Hol y o f Holies' , a ter m deliberatel y signifying i n th e opinio n o f the ancien t rabbis both a Templ e and th e person of the coming Messia h Son of Man.12 As anyone in Israel, a priest or not, was seen abov e al l as the subject o f God' s revelatio n an d covenant , i t woul d b e mis leading t o call the Peopl e of God a 'democracy'. Since i t was " Cf. S. Marsili, La Liturgia, momenta storico dellti salvezza, in Anamnesis, (AA.W.), vol. 1 , Torino 1974 , p . 38. 12 T. Chary , op. at., pp. 265-74 .

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21

principally throug h a n encounte r wit h th e livin g Go d tha t correct ethical behaviour was seen to ensue, it would be equally misleading to point exclusively to the mora l issue: justification by works was never a doctrinal theme in either Testament. Without falling into either trap , Chary's thesis takes nevertheless int o serious account the clas h between a strongly priest-orientated theology o f worshi p an d wha t migh t b e calle d rathe r mis leadingly a mor e 'democratic ' an d 'ethicall y minded' view . I t throws ne w ligh t o n W . Eichrodt' s masterl y account o f th e distinctive characte r o f th e priestl y tradition's understandin g of God and his dealings with man and th e world, of the place of man i n creation an d o f the meanin g an d purpos e of history. 13 In hi s comparativ e stud y of th e priesthoo d acros s time s an d cultures, L. Sabourin showe d tha t 'no serious investigations of Old Testamen t institution s ca n b e conducte d unles s du e attention i s also pai d t o th e stream s of traditio n which le d t o the text s a s we have them' . H e warne d u s tha t thi s applie d particularly to the study of the evolution of the Ol d Testamen t priesthood, 'sinc e the redaction o f the text s which are likel y to be informativ e depen d largel y o n th e priestl y circle s being investigated'. For him it was clear, for example, 'that the varying biblical interpretation s of th e Levitica l statu s reflect historical ambitions an d rivalries' , an d tha t 'som e text s se t fort h a program o f action, other s sanction , justify o r explain wha t has already taken place'.14 Without incurring such strictures, Chary successfully explains the evolution of the concept of worship in the Ol d Testament wit h du e car e t o both text s and traditions . Though stil l no t widel y known, Chary's thesis is no doub t th e most satisfactory theor y to be advanced so far.

The Concept of Worship in the New Testament In approachin g th e question o f what theology o f worship - if any - i s contained i n th e Ne w Testament, w e are agai n con fronted wit h th e usual, familiar difficultie s o f exegesis. O n th e one hand the Gospels in general and the Synoptics in particular are th e almos t exclusive source o f information o n th e lif e an d teaching o f Jesus. On th e other hand, th e Gospels are not th e most ancien t of Ne w Testament writings . Moreover , all thes e 13

436. M

Cf. W . Eichrodt , Theology o f th e Old Testament, vol . 1 , Londo n 1961 , pp . 392 L . Sabourin, Priesthood: A Comparative Study, Leide n 1973 , p . 102 .

22

Encounter with God

writings, including the most ancient such as the Pauline epistles, are dependen t upo n a strea m o f preaching an d theologizin g the growth of which predates th e writings themselves. As R. Daly points out , althoug h th e chronolog y o f th e Ne w Testament is b y no w fairl y wel l established an d th e line s o f theologica l growth ar e becomin g increasingl y recoverable , no t enoug h work ha s a s yet been don e t o allo w even th e bes t exegesi s t o avoid altogethe r th e circularit y o f arguments. 15 Happily , th e different Ne w Testamen t sources , thoug h startin g fro m different points , appea r s o t o converg e o n th e subjec t o f worship a s t o sugges t basi c agreement . A prope r exegetica l study woul d hav e t o tak e ver y seriously th e complexitie s o f both Ne w Testament chronolog y an d theologica l growth . N o adequate stud y of the Ne w Testament theolog y of worship has appeared t o date . I n thes e pages , w e mus t therefor e b e tentative, relyin g on th e apparen t unanimit y of th e primary sources rathe r mor e heavil y than we would otherwise choose. The Synoptic Gospels and the Book of Acts The Gospels of Matthew and Luke portray Jesus' respect for the Temple b y puttin g o n hi s lip s traditiona l expression s o f contemporary Jewish piety. In the Gospel of Luke, Jesus is made to refer to th e Temple a s 'my Father's house ' (Luk e 2:49). In both th e Gospel of Matthew and the Gospel of Luke, Jesus refers to the Temple a s the 'hous e of God' (Matthe w 12:4; Luke 6:4). In th e Gospe l o f Matthew , Jesus quote s Psal m 48:2- 3 an d refers t o Jerusalem a s the cit y where Go d th e grea t Kin g has chosen t o dwel l (Matthe w 5:35). Al l three Synopti c Gospel s portray Jesus a s going t o the Temple ; he i s never sai d t o have prayed ther e o r t o have offere d sacrifice s (Matthew 21:14-23; Mark 12:35 ; Luke 19:47 ; 21:37). Mark and Luk e show us Jesus' preference fo r prayin g alon e an d i n secre t (Mar k 1:35 ; 6:46 ; Luke 5:16 ; 6:12 ; 11:1) , an d Matthe w make s hi m enjoi n hi s disciples t o d o likewis e (Matthe w 6:5-6). Matthe w seems t o imply tha t Jesus fel t a strange r t o th e Temple , an d tha t th e Church, base d o n th e confessio n o f Peter , shoul d als o b e a stranger t o it (Matthe w 17:24-27. Cf. also Matthew 16:16-18 in the light of Malachi 3:5). Jesus' rea l attitud e t o th e worshi p o f th e Templ e an d hi s championing of the 'spiritua l cult' (foreshadowe d i n Matthew 15

R. J. Daly, op. at., pp. 53-54.

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23

9:13), i s particularly evident i n th e accoun t al l three Synoptic Gospels give of the episode o f the cleansing of the Temple an d of the tria l of Jesus. It is made perfectly clear tha t the actio n of the cleansin g o f th e Templ e wa s directed agains t th e priest s and th e masters of the Law and no t against the merchants and money-changers b y making Jesus quot e publicl y Isaia h 56: 7 and Jeremiah 7:11 . The cleares t an d mos t reliabl e account of Jesus' tria l befor e th e Sanhedrin , parallele d i n Matthe w an d Luke, i s to be foun d i n th e Gospe l o f Mar k (Mar k 14:55-64). After man y accusations that could no t b e made t o stand u p in court, Mar k 14:5 8 give s us th e on e accusatio n o n th e basi s of which Jesus was condemned t o death: 'W e hear d hi m say , " I will destro y thi s temple tha t is made wit h hands , an d i n thre e days I wil l buil d another , no t mad e wit h hands." ' Sinc e th e Septuagint had reserve d th e expressio n 'mad e with hands' t o refer exclusivel y to idols , callin g th e Templ e o f Jerusalem a temple mad e b y hand s wa s tantamoun t t o denouncin g al l Temple practice s as idolatrous. This was something th e ancient prophets ha d neve r done. Challenged t o reply to these accusations, Jesus remain s obstinatel y silen t (Mar k 14:61) . Directly challenged b y the hig h priest , Jesus not onl y admits t o bein g the Messiah , but actuall y quotes Danie l 7:13 . I n doin g s o h e identifies himsel f wit h the So n of Man around whom th e ne w temple-community wa s to b e buil t an d wh o therefor e woul d spell th e en d o f th e ol d Templ e cul t (Mar k 14:61b-62) . N o further evidence is needed and Jesus is condemned. His crime, the crime for which he was condemned t o die, was not tha t he had claime d t o be th e Son of God (in a post-Nicaea sense), but that he had blasphemed against th e Temple, the most sacred of Jewish institutions. This interpretation o f the Synoptics is confirmed b y the Acts of the Apostles, chapters 5 and 6. Stephen fiercely criticizes the worship o f the Temple , quote s Exodu s 32:4-6, Amos 5:25-27, Isaiah 6:1, and ends by referring to the Temple as an idolatrou s artefact; upo n whic h h e i s immediately pu t t o deat h a s hi s Master was, and fo r the sam e reason . The Pauline epistles and Hebrews

The Gree k translatio n o f the Ol d Testament, th e Septuagint , uses leitourgein an d cognat e word s no t les s tha n 17 3 times t o refer t o th e priestl y worshi p o f th e Temple . I n th e Ne w

24 Encounter

with God

Testament, leitourgein and cognate words are used only fifteen times. Apar t fro m on e quotatio n i n th e Gospe l o f Luk e referring t o th e culti c rol e o f th e Levitica l priesthoo d i n Jerusalem (Luk e 1:23 ) an d a quotatio n i n th e boo k o f Acts which i t is practically impossible t o interpret correctl y without having recours e t o othe r book s o f th e Ne w Testament (Act s 13:2), leitourgein an d cognat e word s appea r entirel y i n th e Epistles: thre e time s i n th e Epistl e t o th e Romans , onc e i n 2 Corinthians, twic e in Philippians and seve n time s in the Epistle to th e Hebrews . Fro m thes e w e ma y safel y discar d fo r ou r purposes two passages from the Epistle to the Hebrews referrin g to th e culti c rol e o f th e Levitica l priesthoo d i n Jerusale m (Hebrews 9:2 1 an d 10:11) , two passages from th e sam e Epistle referring t o the angels' ministr y to God (Hebrew s 1:7-14) an d one passag e fro m Roman s referrin g t o civi l magistrate s a s 'ministers of God' (Roman s 13:6) . Of the remainin g passages , the tw o fro m Roman s an d th e tw o fro m Philippian s refe r respectively t o the leitourgia of Paul (Romans 15:16; Philippians 2:17) and th e leitourgia of Christians (Romans 15:27; Philippians 2:30); th e on e passag e fro m 2 Corinthian s refer s onl y t o th e leitourgia of Christians; the thre e from Hebrew s t o the leitourgia of Christ (Hebrews 8:1-2, 6). In all these passages, leitourgein and cognat e words ar e deliberatel y use d i n a polemica l sens e and directe d t o show, byway of contrast and antithesis , that th e leitourgia of Christians i s primarily a life of service t o others. O n the basi s of these texts, we may safely conclude that : 1. Chris t is the key-foundatio n stone of a new Temple not made by hands and compose d of living beings. 2. Chris t is the high priest of this new kind of worship, the leitourgos ton hagion (wher e to n hagion i s deliberately left t o signif y bot h the ne w templ e an d th e peopl e o f which th e ne w templ e i s composed). 3. Christ' s leitourgia was and i s one of obedience to God and servic e to others. 4. Throug h thei r obedienc e t o Go d an d servic e t o others , Christians are empowered to be with Christ one priest, one altar and one victim. 5. Lik e Christ's, the leitourgia of Christians is indeed a 'liturg y of life'. The them e o f th e priestl y sacrificia l community a s the ne w 'spiritual temple ' i s particularly stron g i n th e Epistl e t o th e

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Hebrews. In Hebrews 10:22 , the readers of the Epistle are given a last solemn exhortation t o 'draw near', that is to participate in Christ's high-priestl y sacrificial activity , and verse s 23-2 5 spell out what this sacrificial activity consists of, namely Christian lif e itself lived in community. Commenting o n thi s passage, R . Daly is in no doub t tha t 'livin g th e Christia n lif e ha s take n ove r th e atoning functio n of the sacrificia l cult' and tha t therefore 'th e deliberate si n o f Hebrew s 10:2 6 fo r whic h "ther e n o longe r remains a sacrifice for sins" would seem t o be th e separatin g o f oneself fro m the only sacrificial action tha t now has any validity: Christian lif e itself. 16 The New Temple theolog y of the Epistle to the Hebrews finds confirmation i n th e theolog y o f th e Pastoral s (e.g . 1 Timothy 3:15; 2 Timoth y 2:20-22 ; Titu s 2:14) , tha t o f th e Deutero Pauline corpu s (e.g . Ephesian s 2:19-22 ) an d als o i n thos e strictly Pauline passage s referrin g t o the Christia n communit y as God's dwelling in the Spirit (e.g. 1 Corinthians 3:9-17; 6:1519; 2 Corinthian s 6:16) . Furthe r impressiv e confirmatio n o f this interpretatio n i s to b e foun d i n thos e passage s i n whic h Paul expand s hi s ideas on Christia n servic e as 'liturgy of life' 17 and i n particula r i n th e pastora l sectio n o f th e Epistl e t o th e Romans (Roman s 12:1-15, 35). The First Letter of Peter

Quite apar t from the question o f its authorship, th e First Letter of Pete r deserve s her e a specia l mention . Thoug h a ver y practical letter , i t constitutes a valuable summar y of Christian theology7. The purpos e o f the letter is clear and uncontroversial : to give strength an d hop e to a Church persecute d for its beliefs. From the ver y beginning o f the lette r we learn, somewha t obliquely , that Go d ha s a providen t purpos e (1:2 ) b y which th e reader s were chosen t o receive salvation and to be obedient to the Lor d Jesus. Th e salvatio n th e reader s receive d consist s o f a ne w birth a s children o f Go d throug h th e resurrectio n o f Chris t from th e dea d (1:3-9) . I n searchin g an d inquirin g fo r thi s salvation, th e prophet s foretol d th e suffering s o f Chris t an d the grac e thos e suffering s would brin g (1:10-12) , bu t th e 16

Ibid., p . 73 . Cf. R . Corriveau, Th e Liturgy o f Life: A Study o f th e Ethical Thought o f St. Paul in His Letters o f the Early Christian Community, Studi a 25 , Brussels-Montrea l 1970 , pp . 155-80. 17

26 Encounter

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fullness of the salvatio n brought b y Christ will not appea r until the day of the final judgement (1:13) . Christ was destined from the foundatio n of th e world t o be th e Lam b without blemish (1:19-20). Th e reader s ar e therefor e exhorte d t o mak e a habit of obedience (1:14) : obedience t o God mean s love an d service to th e brethre n (1:22) . The gif t o f the new birth i s not enough. Lik e babes, th e reader s nee d th e nourishmen t of the milk o f spiritua l integrity : no w tha t the y hav e taste d th e goodness o f the Lord , tha t mil k wil l hel p the m t o grow up t o salvation (2:1-3) . Obedience an d spiritua l integrit y ar e th e secre t o f th e growth to salvation which th e reader s receiv e as a gift i n Christ Jesus. I t i s at thi s poin t i n th e lette r tha t Jesus i s called th e living ston e rejecte d b y me n bu t chose n b y Go d t o b e th e foundation-stone o f his new temple. The reader s are invited to 'draw near ' an d 'b e built ' lik e livin g stone s int o a spiritual house, to be a holy priesthood an d t o offer spiritua l sacrifices acceptable t o Go d throug h Jesu s Chris t (2:4—5) . Other s dis obeyed th e wor d o f God an d fo r thi s the y shall be punished . The readers , o n th e contrary , sinc e the y obeyed th e wor d o f God, ar e a chose n race , a roya l priesthood , a hol y nation , God's ow n people: i n other words , being unite d wit h Jesus in obedience t o God's word and purpose , the y are with hi m on e temple and one priesthood. The purpose of this new priesthood i s that th e reader s migh t declare th e wonderfu l deed s of hi m wh o calle d the m ou t o f darknes s int o hi s marvellou s light (2:6-10) ; th e wa y in whic h thi s new priesthoo d i s t o b e exercised consists of the discharge of one's duty to others (2:1113, 12). Christ suffered t o lea d u s t o Go d (3:18) . I n baptism , the reader s hav e died wit h Chris t (3:21) . They must therefor e arm themselve s with th e sam e resolutio n a s Chris t had : t o obey th e wil l o f Go d eve n i f thi s means sufferin g an d deat h (4:1-2). The ful l revelatio n o f Christ , th e lette r says , i s now clos e (4:7). In the meanwhile , each on e o f the priestl y body, having received his or her gif t for a purpose, mus t use it efficiently: like good stewards responsible for all these different grace s of God, they must put themselve s at the service of others, that in all this God ma y receive th e glor y which, throug h Jesus Christ, i s his due i n the world (4:8-11). Christ suffered fo r all who are pre pared t o accept the grace of the new priesthood. Th e suffering s of the reader s ar e a share i n th e sufferin g o f Christ: a blessing

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27

and a privilege (4:12-16). Yet , the lette r warns, the judgemen t which i s upon al l will begin wit h th e judgement of th e house hold o f God (4:17) . So even thos e who m God allow s to suffe r must trust themselves to the constancy of the creator an d g o on doing good, that is go on offering to God as his new temple an d his ne w priesthoo d th e worshi p of a good lif e i n Chris t (4:19 and 3:16) . Paul's familiar theme o f the ne w temple is firmly connecte d with th e concep t o f th e ne w priesthood . Bot h theme s ar e then clearl y expounded i n a way which i s strongly redolent o f the Paulin e idea l o f Christian servic e as a liturgy of life : al l in all, a strikin g confirmation of ou r interpretatio n o f th e Ne w Testament theolog y o f worship. Thejohannine literature The theolog y of Christian community as the new temple, greatly developed i n Pau l and Hebrew s and confirme d b y 1 Peter, is more clearl y articulated in thejohannine literature than in the Synoptics. For th e Synoptics , the Templ e wa s the hieron, or th e plac e where God could b e met. For the Gospe l o f John, th e Templ e was th e naos, o r th e plac e wher e Go d dwells . Th e ver y first chapter o f the Gospel of John states that the Word pitche d his tent amon g u s (1:14) . Commentin g o n thi s verse , R . Brown writes: 'When th e Prologue proclaims tha t th e Word mad e hi s dwelling among men , we are bein g tol d tha t th e fles h o f Jesus Christ is the ne w localisation of God's presence o n earth , an d that Jesus i s th e replacemen t o f th e ancien t Tabernacle.' 18 According t o Brown , the them e o f 'replacement ' i s th e re current theme of the first ten chapters of the Gospel of John. In chapters 2-4 , w e have th e replacemen t o f Jewish institutions and Jewis h religiou s views : th e replacemen t o f th e wate r fo r Jewish purification s in turnin g of water into wine a t Can a an d in th e announcement o f the new birth i n water and th e Spirit, the replacemen t o f th e Templ e i n th e episod e o f th e purification o f th e plac e wher e Go d dwell s and , finally , th e replacement o f worship at both Jerusalem an d Gerizi m in th e episode of the Samaritan woman. Chapters 5-10 ar e dominate d by Jesus' actio n an d discourse s o n th e occasio n o f religious feasts: th e replacemen t o f th e Passove r wit h th e ne w Manna 18

R. E . Brown , Th e Gospel according to John, vol. 1 , Ne w Yor k 1966 , p . 33 .

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from heaven , the replacemen t of the feast of Tabernacles wit h the ne w water and th e ne w light coming fro m Jesus , th e ne w Temple, an d th e replacement o f the festival of Dedication with the consecratio n o f th e Messia h So n o f Go d a s th e ne w Temple's altar. 19 The Gospe l o f John i s widely recognized t o b e more con cerned wit h making theological point s than with th e detail s of chronology. In order to make a theological point , i t places the episode o f the cleansin g of th e Templ e a t th e ver y beginnin g of Jesus' publi c lif e an d ministry : the cleansin g o f the Temple and it s replacement wit h th e perso n o f Jesus himsel f may well have happene d historicall y just befor e Jesu s died , bu t th e whole of his life an d ministr y cannot b e understood excep t i n the ligh t o f tha t replacement . Th e Gospe l o f John i s also th e only Gospel t o pu t o n Jesus' lip s Zecharia h 14:2 1 rather tha n Jeremiah 7:1 1 and Isaia h 56:7: in the new Covenant there shall be no trader in the house of the Lord because there shall the n be a new Temple, a new altar, a new sacrifice, a new priesthood, new worship, new light and ne w life-giving water. In vie w o f th e centralit y o f th e Templ e them e i n John, w e should stres s with R. Daly the importanc e o f John 19:34—37 . He writes: 'John's witness in 19:35 pushe s us to a clearer awareness that Jesus is the new temple, that he alone is the source of living water (i.e . faith), an d tha t b y drinking (believing in Jesus) w e also becom e source s o f livin g water for others. ' The whol e of that passag e - Dal y maintains - shoul d b e seen i n the light of John 10:1 7 (wher e Christ's sacrificia l self-givin g i s seen t o b e both perfectly voluntary and done in loving obedience t o God), John 13:1-15 (where the washing of the feet is seen a s an act of service fo r u s symbolizing Christ's readines s t o di e fo r other s and impellin g us to do th e sam e for th e sake of our brethren ) and of 1 John 3:16 (where we are exhorted to lay down our lives for th e brethren i n imitation of Christ's self-giving). In so doing, Daly successfully removes an y remaining doubt that 'the sam e intimate associatio n betwee n th e sacrific e of Chris t an d th e sacrifice o f Christians which we found i n Pau l and Hebrew s is also richl y witnessed t o in thejohannine writings'. 20 The boo k o f Revelatio n i s often dismisse d a s an unhelpfu l source fo r th e theolog y o f worshi p i n th e Ne w Testament.21 19

Ibid., pp . CXL-CXLI . R.J. Daly, op. at, p. 77. 21 Ibid., p. 82 . 20

The Roots o f Christian Worship 2

9

Since the greater part of the book consists of allegories to which we have long los t the key , this judgement ma y prove t o be to o severe. With regard t o the last section of the book of Revelation, not enoug h attentio n i s often pai d t o th e parallel s with th e books of Isaiah, Ezekiel and Zecharia h i n which the theme s of light an d water , so characteristic of th e Johannine literature, are also highly prominent. To use the familiar language of Hans Kung, i n it s last tw o chapters the boo k o f Revelatio n is aware that'the Church as it is' is not yet either 'the Church as it should be' or 'the Church as it shall be'. The real down-to-earth Church is stil l a plac e harbourin g th e cowardly , th e faithless , th e polluted, murderers , fornicators , sorcerers , idolater s and liars as well as th e hol y (21:8) . Th e Christia n 'ecclesia ' i s not ye t altogether th e Templ e embracin g all peopl e an d al l nations giving to God the pure worship of their spotless lives . The Lam b who died is indeed th e lamp of the new Temple (21:22-24 ) and the fountai n o f th e wate r o f life , bu t tha t lif e doe s not a s yet flow freel y i n th e mids t o f a cit y i n whic h n o on e practise s abomination an d falsehoo d (21:27-22 , 2a). Firml y plante d in the mids t of th e city , th e tre e o f lif e doe s no t ye t produc e it s fruits eac h month . The leave s of that tree ar e no t ye t properly used fo r th e healin g o f th e nation s (22:2b) . All th e familia r themes of the Johannine literature are present in these two last chapters, backe d i n eve n greate r profusio n b y reference s t o Isaiah, Ezekiel and Zechariah in which the same themes appear. Since th e evil-doe r is still doing evi l and th e filth y i s still bein g filthy here o n earth (22:11) , true worship will not tak e place in its entiret y until suc h tim e a s th e real , down-to-eart h practi calities of th e Christia n life wil l b e observed , an d observe d b y all (22:3) . A clear paralle l exists between Revelatio n 22: 8 an d John 19:35 . The judgement o f Revelation 22:10-15 is extended to the Christia n communit y as well as to the worl d a t large . A more down-to-eart h statemen t o f th e natur e o f tru e worship would be hard to find, and so would a more striking confirmation of the overall teaching of the New Testament on the subject. Warship, the Fathers and the Early Christian Writers No surve y o f th e root s o f Christia n worship, however brief, should forget to make reference to the way s in which the early Church understood th e subject in the ligh t of the teaching s of the Bible.

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There i s n o doub t tha t fo r th e majorit y of th e Church' s Fathers an d earl y writers the sacrific e expected o f Christians was tha t of obedience t o God. I n certain cases , th e sacrific e of obedience woul d take the form of partaking in the cup of Christ by actually laying down one' s life i n witness to the Gospel. 22 In more ordinary cases an d i n direct oppositio n t o the sacrificial system of the Old Testament, the only perfect and well-pleasing sacrifices Christian s undertook t o offe r wer e thos e 'o f praye r and givin g o f thanks , when offere d b y worthy people'.23 Th e early Churc h understoo d thi s 'spiritua l sacrifice ' i n th e mos t concrete of terms. So Clement of Alexandria (before AD 215) could write that the sacrifice which the Church offered was that of the 'composit e incense' of which the ancient Law spoke an d which, in the ne w Covenant, 'is brought togethe r in our song s of prais e b y purity of hear t an d righteou s an d uprigh t livin g grounded i n holy actions an d righteou s prayer'. 24 A strongly incarnational theology led the early Church t o see the perfec t temple o f God i n the 'spiritua l being'. 25 Individual Christians becam e suc h a templ e whe n the y acte d justl y throughout thei r lives and therefor e gav e God 'uninterrupted worship i n His own temple, that is in their own bodies'.26 The community o f suc h individuals , an d no t a building , wa s for them, collectively , the tru e hous e o f praye r an d worship. 27 In this sense, th e individua l Christians were see n a s 'the chose n stones well fitted for the divin e edifice of the Father'. 28 For th e Church' s Father s an d earl y writers , th e 'spiritua l sacrifice' o f Christians was a bloodless sacrifice,29 offered on a n altar which was both Chris t and th e compan y of believers.30 At the turn of the fifth century, Augustine (AD 354-430) could therefore write that 'the whole redeemed city, that is to say the congregation o r the communit y of the saints , is offered t o God as our sacrific e throug h th e grea t Hig h Priest , wh o offere d himself i n his passion fo r us , that we might be members o f his 22

Cf. e.g. Th e Martyrdo m of Polycarp , chapter 14 . Justin Martyr, Dialogue with Trypho. Clement of Alexandria, Stromala, book VII, chapter 6 , paragraph 34 . 25 The Epistl e of Barnabas, chapte r 14 . 26 Irenaeus of Lyons, Evangelical Demonstrations, n. 96. Cf. also Ignatius , Epistle of the Ephesians, chapte r 15 , and th e Epistl e of Barnabas, chapter 16 . 27 Justin Martyr , Dialogue withTryphon. 28 Ignatius, Epistle o f the Ephesians, chapter 9 . 49 Athenagoras, Plea for th e Christians, chapter 13 . M Ignatius, Epistle t o th e Magnesians; Polycarpus , Epistle t o th e Philippians, chapter 4. 28 21

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glorious head, according to the for m o f a servant'. 31 Augustine argued that , since 'tru e sacrifice s ar e work s o f merc y to our selves or others, done with reference t o God', it followed tha t 'this is the sacrifice of Christians: we, being many, are one bod y with Christ' an d tha t therefor e 'thi s is also th e sacrific e which the Church continually celebrates in the sacrament of the altar, known t o th e faithful , i n which she teache s tha t she hersel f is offered i n the offerin g sh e makes to God'. 32 Not surprisingly , the earl y Churc h wa s ofte n accuse d o f 'impiety' o r religiouslessness. 33 'Wh y hav e the y n o altars , n o temples, no consecrate d images?' , well-meaning pagan s asked themselves.34 I n thei r answer , th e earl y Church turne d thes e accusations into proud boasts . So Minucius Felix (third century AD coul d writ e tha t 'th e victi m fi t fo r sacrific e i s a goo d disposition, an d a pur e mind , an d a sincer e judgement . . . Therefore thos e who cultivate innocence supplicate God; those who cultivate justice mak e offering t o God; thos e wh o abstain from fraudulen t practices propitiat e God ; thos e wh o snatch human being s fro m dange r slaughte r th e mos t acceptabl e victim. These are our sacrifices, these our rites of God's worship: thus, among us those who are most just are those who are most religious.'35 Thus , Orige n (A D 253-54) coul d argu e agains t Celsus: 'We regard th e spirit of every good man as an altar from which arise s a n incens e whic h is trul y and spirituall y sweetsmelling, namel y th e prayer s ascendin g fro m a pur e con science . . . The statue s and gift s which ar e fit offerings t o God are th e work of no commo n mechanics , but ar e wrought and fashioned i n us by the Word of God . .. In all those, then, who plant an d cultivat e within their souls , accordin g t o th e divine word, temperance , justice, wisdom , piety , an d othe r virtues , these excellence s ar e th e statue s the y raise , i n whic h w e are persuaded tha t it is becoming for us to honour th e model an d prototype o f all statues: th e image o f th e invisibl e Go d . .. By far th e most excellen t of al l thes e (statues ) throughou t th e whole o f creatio n i s that image o f ou r Saviou r who said , u My Father i s in me."' 36 31

Augustine, City o/Gotl, book X, chapter 6. Jbtd. " Cf. Justin Martyr , The First Apology, chapter s 5 and 6 ; Athengoras, Plea jar the Christians, chapters 4 , 10 , 12 , 13 and 27 . 51 Minucius Felix, OcUwius, chapter 10 . 55 Op. at., chapter 32 . M Origen, Against Celsus, book VIII, chapter 17 . 32

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The early Church was often accused also of atheism, that is of the absenc e o f belief i n th e Stat e gods , and therefor e o f subversion an d civi l disobedience . Th e accusation , th e Father s argued, was deeply unjust : absence o f belief i n th e Stat e god s did no t a t al l involv e an y suc h consequences . S o Tertullia n (after A D 220) could firmly state that Christians everywhere did indeed 'invok e on behal f o f the safet y o f the emperor s a God who is everlasting, a God who is real, a God who is living . .. We already pray for th e emperors , tha t they may have a long life, a safe rule , a famil y fre e fro m danger , courageou s armies , a faithful senate , loyal subjects, a peaceful world, all that Caesars and the common people, pray for'. Since however, 'these things I cannot pray for from any one els e than fro m hi m fro m whom I know I shall get them' , I, 'who on accoun t of his teaching am put t o death', can onl y offer t o Go d th e bes t fat victim which God himsel f commanded: 'praye r arisin g from a pur e body , from a n innocent soul, from th e Hol y Spirit'.3 ' From the already quoted Minucius Felix (third century AD) we lear n tha t Christians were though t 't o threate n conflagra tion t o th e whol e world , an d t o th e univers e itsel f an d t o 'mediate it s destruction' i n th e hop e o f substitutin g 'a lif e o f want, hard work and hunger' with 'a blessed an d perpetua l lif e after death'. 38 I n thei r eagerness t o repl y to such accusations , the Father s an d th e earl y Christian writer s afford u s furthe r insights into the kin d of 'spiritua l worship' the y were advocating. The y stresse d tha t Christians , like other s i n th e Empire, were dutifu l citizens , deeply involved in th e comple x fabric o f their concrete historical , social, cultural and politica l environ ment. Their religio n was not on e o f destruction o r escape . So in th e Epistl e to Diognetu s we can rea d (thir d century ) that 'inhabiting Gree k a s well a s barbarian cities , according a s th e lot of each of them ha s determined, an d followin g th e customs of the native s in respect t o clothing, food an d th e res t of their ordinary conduct' , Christian s displaye d a s thei r onl y dis tinguishing mark 'their wonderful and paradoxica l metho d of life'. The y dwelle d i n thei r ow n countries , 'bu t simpl y a s sojourners'. A s faithfu l citizens , they share d al l thing s wit h others, ye t the y endured 'al l thing s as foreigners' . They di d good, yet they were 'punishe d a s evil-doers'. To su m up al l in one word , 'what th e sou l i s in th e body , tha t are Christian s in " Tertullian, Apologeticus, chapter 30. M Minuciu s Felix, Ortuvius, chapters 10, 1 1 an d 12 .

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the world'. 39 Rathe r les s prudentl y an d i n a wa y hardl y calculated t o reassur e th e authorities , Tertullia n similarl y argued tha t Christian s were soli d citizen s and friend s o f th e Empire. H e pleade d tha t th e proo f of thi s was in th e fac t tha t 'nearly al l th e citizen s you hav e i n nearl y al l th e citie s ar e Christians . . . We ar e bu t o f yesterday , ye t w e hav e fille d al l that i s yours , cities , islands , fortifie d towns , countr y towns , centres o f meeting , eve n camps , tribes , classe s o f publi c attendants, th e palace , th e senate , th e forum ; w e have left yo u only your temples . w Broadly speaking, the theolog y of worship of the Fathers and early Christia n writer s contain s an d reflect s al l th e familia r themes o f the New Testament theolog y of worship: the worshi p of Christians i s both 'spiritual ' an d 'perfect ' no t becaus e i t is free fro m material , social, this-world y elements , bu t precisel y because i t presuppose s a n involvemen t i n th e affair s o f thi s world a s tota l an d unreserve d a s th e involvemen t o f th e Incarnate Word . A s christolog y an d soteriolog y developed , they wer e increasingl y brought t o bea r upo n th e concep t o f Christian worship , as i n Irenaeu s (bisho p o f Lyon s fro m AD 177-78) and Hippolytus (AD 235), and above all Origen (AD 253-54), wh o mos t eloquentl y taugh t tha t th e whol e o f Christian lif e wa s a sacrific e an d whos e mai n concer n i t was therefore t o show how the Church and indee d th e whole world are calle d to share i n th e sacrific e o f Christ. 41 The earl y Father s an d Christia n writer s ar e remarkabl y consistent i n thei r teaching s o n th e subjec t o f Christia n worship. Yet , as so ofte n th e theolog y o f worship o f th e earl y Church contained th e see d o f its own destruction. Clemen t o f Rome, who did no t hesitat e to teach that true sacrifice was a life according t o th e wil l o f God, 42 wa s the firs t solitar y voic e t o uphold strict regulations on the subject of worship and t o teach that priestly worship should b e offered at the appropriate time, in th e appropriat e places , by appropriate persons , la y worship being boun d b y the law s pertaining t o lay people.43 In makin g this claim, Clement made recours e t o th e very Old Testamen t 30

The Epistl e to Diognetus, chapters 5 and 6 . Tertullian, Apolegelicus, chapter 37 . 41 Irenaeus , Against Heresies, boo k IV, chapters 30 and 31. For Hippolytu s and Origen, see R. Daly, op . at., pp. 98-100 and 122-27 . 12 Cf. Clement , Th e First Epistle to the Corinthians, chapter s 1 0 an d 31 . Th e attribution t o Clement of Rome is not certain . " Ibid., chapters 18 , 35 and 52. 40

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regulations whic h th e othe r Christia n writer s wer e s o bus y proving t o hav e bee n superseded , th e mos t notabl e amon g these bein g the so-calle d Epistl e of Barnabas. After th e establishment o f Christianity as the only permitte d religion within the Roman Empire under Theodosius I (AD 371), th e flood-gate s o f th e Churc h wer e open t o all kinds of barely-Christianized attitudes . Huma n natur e wa s soon t o d o the rest, since attempting to tame the sacred come s more easily to a human being tha n allowing oneself t o be swept up by it. In practical terms, the original freedom o f Christian worship soon turned int o th e ossificatio n o f liturgica l forms. 44 B y th e beginning o f th e fift h century , th e privat e hous e wher e th e Church met 45 had universall y become the ecclesia (Eglise, Iglesia, Chiesa, Eglwys} o r kyriakon (kirk , church): th e hous e of God, a temple fille d wit h sacred object s th e mos t importan t o f which was the stone altar of sacrifice standing in a 'sanctuary' reserve d for th e ordained and separated from the rest of the building by the 'tetravela' 46 - a cloth-screen designe d t o insure, a s John Chrysostom himself (A D 354—407) explained, 47 that no profan e eye woul d se t it s gaze o n th e 'sacre d mysteries ' (cf . Exodus 36:35-36). Within that sanctuary there would be place d seve n ceremonial candlestick s a s a latter-da y 'menorah' : a perfec t outward reconstructio n o f th e Templ e whos e vei l (Matthew 27:51) wa s torn fro m to p t o bottom. 48 Under th e onslaugh t o f such practices , the teachin g of the earlie r Father s was soon t o be overlaid by all kinds of ex post facto theologies. Throughout these changin g times , th e Churc h continue d t o teac h tha t Christian worshi p was worship 'i n spiri t and i n truth' : charity should no t preven t u s from asking ourselves what , if anything, was understood by that.

14

For this , see e.g. K. Latte, Romische Religiongeschichle, Munchen 1960 , p. 62 . Cf. e.g. 1 Corinthians 16:19 Cf. Duchesne (ed.) , Liber Pontificate, vol . 2 , p . 120. "John Chrysostom , Homilies on the Epistle t o the Ephesians, horn . 4 . 48 For this , se e S . Marsili, I.M. Liturgia, momenta storico delta salvezza, in Anamnesis (AA.W.), vol 1 , Torino 1974, pp . 53-58. 45

46

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FURTHER READING R. K . Yerkes , Sacrifice i n Greek an d Roman Religious an d Early Judaism, Londo n 1953 . R. J. McKelvey , Th e New Temple: Th e Church in the New Testament, London 1969 . R. Corriveau, The Liturgy o f Life: A Study o f the Ethical Thought o f St. Paul in His Letters to the Early Christian Communities, Studia 25, Brussels-Montreal 1970 . R. J. Daly, The Origins of the Christian Doctrine of Sacrifice, London 1978. P. F. Bradshaw and L . A. Hoffma n (eds.) , Th e Making of Jewish and Christian Worship, Notr e Dame 1991 . FOR DISCUSSION 1. Ho w far does our ide a of God influenc e our worship ? 2. Doe s i t mak e sens e toda y t o speak o f hol y places an d hol y things? 3. Wha t inferences for a renewed understanding o f the Lord' s Supper, i f any, may be legitimatel y drawn from th e biblica l and earl y patristic understanding of the natur e of Christian worship?

CHAPTER 3

IN SPIRIT AND IN TRUTH The word worship comes from the Anglo-Saxon weorthscipe that, in turn , comes fro m a root meanin g t o honour. In ou r contex t therefore, worship should mean the act of paying divine honour to God. Let it be said from th e outset tha t this word can be confusing to Jew s an d Christian s alike . It s Ne w Testamen t Gree k equivalent i s proskynesis, meanin g originall y th e actio n o f falling down to the ground i n an attitude of humble submission before someone 'worthier ' than ourselves, but in the context of religious ceremonie s i t wa s use d mainl y b y pagans , wh o approached thei r gods i n fea r an d trembling. 1 Th e favourit e New Testament word s for the same thin g were on th e contrary the Greek equivalents (douleia and latreia) o f the Old Testament Hebrew word s for service (sheret an d 'abodah). Fo r Jews an d Christians alike, therefore, worship should be not so much the act of paying honour to God as the seruicewe are t o offer i n term s of his final purpose, individuall y and collectively , throug h th e manner an d qualit y of ou r live s (including , of course , ou r practices of devotion) . The words, actions and gestures we use in our worship are so familiar t o us that as a rule we tend not t o question eithe r thei r nature o r thei r effectiveness . Th e way s of our worshi p are no t by and larg e th e produc t o f our ow n discoveries as individual worshipping communities, but a precious inheritance from th e past handed dow n t o us by tradition. Som e sociologist s would say that the y are par t of the commo n sens e world of everyday life, o f what everybody knows , and therefor e par t o f a socia l stock of assumed an d unchallenged knowledge/Ofte n enough , 1 Fo r th e attitud e o f Christians , see e.g . Irenaeu s o f Lyons , Evangelical Demonstration 96.

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when aske d why we should ac t in such ways, our answe r would be a vague assertion tha t th e Churc h ha s behave d i n thi s way for a long , lon g time : becaus e o f it s obvious connectio n wit h the sacred , worshi p i s ofte n though t t o shar e i n th e ver y unchangeability of God . All to o ofte n w e assume tha t what we do no w means t o u s what i t meant t o ou r forefathers . We have n o rea l guarante e that worship as set out i n th e liturgica l books , worship as proposed b y th e culti c officials , worshi p a s explaine d b y theologians, an d worshi p as lived by the congregation s ar e i n fact on e an d th e sam e thing . Th e trut h i s tha t n o for m o f worship, no t eve n tha t o f th e Ne w Testament, mirror s th e essence o f worship perfectl y and fo r al l times . A s Hans Kun g remarks with regard t o the theolog y o f the Church , 'a delicate balance mus t be struc k betwee n th e unthinkin g conservatism of a dead past , a n attitud e whic h i s unconcerne d wit h th e demands of the present, and th e careless rejection o f the living past, an attitud e which is all too concerned wit h the transitory novelties o f th e present'. 2 T o remai n tru e t o itself , Christian worship mus t alway s allo w itself t o b e conditione d ane w by history; i t mus t alway s be bot h a cal l an d a respons e withi n constantly changing historical situations. The histor y of the Christian Church in its complex pattern of growth an d decay , renewe d understanding , forgetfulnes s an d betrayal provide s ampl e materia l fo r th e constructio n o f a theology of worship. The embarrassmen t is one o f riches. Th e problem i s one o f method . Th e dange r i s not tha t we might pervert truth , but tha t we might forget tha t al l human knowledge, includin g theology , i s provisiona l b y definition . Th e truth o f the Go d who gives himself to his people shoul d neve r be confuse d wit h statement s abou t it . A s Karl Bart h wrote , theology wil l alway s b e ' a thinking , an investigatio n an d a n exposition whic h are relativ e and liabl e t o error', 3 sinc e all theology ca n do is 'attempt to understand, expound, see, hear , state, survey, co-ordinate and presen t th e theoretica l meanin g and the practical consequences o f an encounter-dialogue which must be experienced befor e i t is talked about'. 4 Some theologian s hav e attempte d t o solv e th e methodo logical impasse by attributing to the worship of their Church an 2 1 1

H. Rung, Th e Church, London 1971 , pp . 4-6, 13-14. K. Barth, Dogmatics in Outline, London 1966 , p . 11 . Ibid., p. 9.

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artificial kin d of changelessness the bette r t o judge individua l historical development s on th e basi s of thei r conformit y with the suppose d archetyp e of th e ancien t liturgica l books. Th e certain knowledg e tha t Christia n worship i s constantly conditioned ane w by history and cultur e should dissuad e u s fro m treading thi s path . Othe r theologian s hav e adopte d a s their touchstone a syste m o f confessiona l theolog y buil t without much reference to either liturgical documents or historical fact. The perennia l quarrels between th e Catholics and Protestant s of ol d shoul d b e enoug h t o dissuad e u s fro m followin g i n these footsteps . Yet other scholar s have chosen t o engage i n a purely phenomenological study of the history of religions in an attempt t o fin d a minimu m common denominator . Withou t wishing to criticize the appropriateness of this method i n other fields of study, one ca n only lament its exclusive application in theological research. On the understanding that the paramount reality of Christian experience i s that Go d speak s t o u s i n th e here-and-now , we shall attempt to construct an organic and coheren t framework (theology) withi n whic h w e might understand mor e deepl y a particular phenomeno n (worship ) from th e vantag e poin t of the fait h o f the Churc h an d i n th e ligh t o f our commitmen t and actio n in the world of today. Christian Warship The Psalm s and Prophet s of the Old Testament taugh t us that God take s no deligh t in the sacrific e of bulls and rams . The New Testament teaches us that God takes no particular delight in ou r liturgica l endeavours. Christia n worshi p i s worship in spirit an d i n truth . I t i s not s o much a questio n o f tim e an d place an d eve n les s a questio n o f correct words an d suitabl e ceremonies, bu t abov e al l a questio n o f th e righ t attitud e of openness, surrender and obedience to God in a life consecrate d to his purpose . Worship i n spiri t and i n trut h i s not disembodied ; i t i s no t divorced fro m everyday experience. I n spiritua l worship, th e real God encounters and addresses the real human being, and the rea l human being is made abl e to respond in th e power of the Spirit . True worship is not escape from th e temporal , bu t communion betwee n th e huma n an d th e divine . A s God encounters u s wit h hi s Word , w e ar e identifie d wit h God' s

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purpose an d ar e made abl e t o consecrate ou r existences t o his will. I n themselves , liturgica l word s an d gesture s ar e neithe r good nor bad. They are not transparent and therefore ma y hide and vei l what truly lie s behind them . Bein g unable t o carry by themselves a meanin g o f thei r own , the y ca n onl y point t o a reality greate r tha n themselves . A s such, the y ar e neve r con demned in the Scriptures. We are so built that, without outward expression, spiritua l realities cease t o b e presen t an d t o have meaning for us. Worship can only be conducted i n th e huma n tongue, according t o human ways. Even before a word is on ou r mouth, th e Lor d know s i t altogether , an d sinc e w e d o no t understand the tongu e of angels, Go d addresses us in our own language. The word 'tradition' (in the Greek, parddosis) refers to a process whereb y something i s offered, handed ove r t o us. For the communit y of faith, wha t is primarily offered an d hande d over t o u s i s th e realit y o f Go d himsel f a s a gif t o f lov e ('paradosis', i n th e singular) . Abou t thi s fundamenta l fact , there is a variety of'traditions' ('paradoseis , in the plural), some of which are expresse d i n liturgica l form an d non e o f which exhausts th e meanin g o f God' s self-gift . I n givin g to u s bot h himself and hi s power to transform what is still imperfect, God speaks. Ou r rol e i n worshi p i s tha t o f obedienc e t o God' s spoken Word . In speakin g of worship, we often forge t tha t nothing ca n b e added t o or take n awa y from God' s purpose. Th e respons e of the Churc h i s not a condition fo r th e ultimat e coming o f th e Kingdom. The Kingdo m will come whatever we do or fail t o do. By grace , w e are calle d t o giv e embodimen t t o th e Kingdo m and to share in God's creative, redeeming and fulfilling activitv . If we refuse t o co-operate, the los s wil l be our s and no t God's . When we approach Go d in worship, we do so only too awar e of our needs . Ou r need s ar e alway s fulfilled , thoug h no t alwav s according t o the measure of our expectations . As St. Augustine writes, 'n o on e wil l thin k h e di d a benefi t t o a fountai n b v drinking or to the light by seeing'.5 Strictly speaking, God does not nee d ou r worshi p eithe r i n term s o f what we do i n ou r churches o r i n term s of what we do wit h ou r lives . It i s we who need t o worship , so tha t we migh t attai n t o th e unit y o f th e faith, t o mature manhood , t o the measur e o f the stature o f the fullness of Christ (Ephesians 4:13-14). 5

Augustine, City o f God, book 10 , chapter 6 .

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According to th e same Epistle , the experienc e o f Christians is that 'the Go d and Fathe r of our Lor d Jesus Chris t chose u s before th e foundatio n of the worl d to be hi s children'. God' s empowering call is not onl y to satisfaction, but als o to mission. The teaching of the Old Testament Prophets , reinforced by the New Testament, i s unequivocal o n thi s subject: lif e mus t fee d our worship as worship must feed our life . What we do when we worship ha s n o valu e i f th e Wor d ha s n o resonanc e i n th e quality of our existence . In all kinds of ways, God makes known to us , hi s Church , 'th e myster y of hi s will , accordin g t o th e purpose which he set forth in Christ as a plan for the fullness of time, to unite all things in him, things in heaven and thing s on earth'.It is our belief that, within this will and purpose, 'w e who first hoped i n Christ have been destined t o live for the praise of God's glory ' (Ephesian s 1:3-14). Worship i s therefore bot h a personal an d a corporate encounte r wit h God. Th e Wor d of God i s spoke n an d w e ar e renewe d fo r th e servic e o f hi s Kingdom. The initiativ e i s God's, th e powe r i s God's: our s is only th e respons e o f a lif e transforme d b y th e Spirit . Ou r experience show s the trut h o f wha t th e Bibl e teaches: i f in a strict sense the word 'worship' refers primarily to what happens when we gather to pray, in a wider sense i t embraces the whole of our lives . The worshi p in spiri t and i n trut h whic h i s characteristic of Christians should be governed by these three simple principles: 1. Christia n worshi p an d Christia n lif e ar e indissolubl y linke d together. 2. A corporate activit y needed b y us an d no t b y God, Christia n worship i s bot h th e momen t an d th e consequenc e o f a n encounter i n which God gives himself t o his people as a gift o f love, reveal s t o the m hi s wil l fo r th e world , demand s an d empowers a response, and consecrates to his purpose the life of the whole communit y of faith. 3. Therefore , befor e i t is seen as an activity of people towards God , Christian worship should be seen as an activity of God directed towards thos e who m Go d ha s chose n t o liv e an d wor k t o hi s praise and glory .

The Worship of Jesus the Christ Among others , S . Marsil i teache s tha t ou r salvatio n ha s a historical dimension and contains three distinct moments. The

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first momen t wa s one o f prophec y an d announcement . I n it ther e wa s disclosed th e eterna l lov e o f Go d wit h whic h th e Father, who wishes all people t o be saved , chose u s as his own children i n hi s dea r So n ( 1 Timoth y 2:4 ; Ephesian s 1:4 ; 2 Timothy 1:9) . The secon d momen t wa s that of th e fullnes s o f time. Th e tim e o f preparatio n bein g over , th e Word , no w Incarnate, wa s himself th e beare r o f th e goo d new s o f th e present event of salvation. In this second moment , th e Word of salvation becomes 'reality in people', that is 'flesh' (Joh n 1:14) . It was the moment i n which the grace given to us from eternity was actualize d i n th e appearin g o f ou r Saviou r ( 2 Timoth y 1:10). In the Word made flesh, the reality of salvation found its two constitutiv e elements : perfec t at-onemen t wit h Go d an d the fullnes s o f worship . Th e thir d moment , th e momen t i n which w e live , i s both th e resul t an d th e perpetuatio n o f th e second moment : th e 'tim e o f Christ' continue s int o th e 'tim e of the Peopl e of God'. Made one with Christ, his at-onement is our at-onement , hi s worshi p i s ou r worship . Whe n Go d addresses u s i n worshi p w e can respon d becaus e w e are on e Body with Christ, the one hig h priest . Christ's priesthood make s of hi m th e primar y sourc e o f ou r worship . I n worship , we respond t o Go d i n Christ, with Christ, through Christ, becaus e we have been mad e one Bod y with him. When tw o or three are gathered together , ther e i s the Church. There is also her Lord , the Incarnat e Word . Th e Wor d whic h i s announcement , proclamation and cal l to salvation is made present . Th e cal l is heard an d th e powe r t o respon d i s given.* 1 A s E . Brunne r remarks, 'a n exchang e take s plac e her e tha t i s wholly without analogy i n th e spher e o f thinking . The onl y analog y i s th e encounter betwee n huma n beings , the meeting of person wit h person'.7 In worship, Christ is our onl y Mediator. We are with him on e priest, one altar, one victim. His self-offering i s our self-offering , his obedienc e ou r obedience , hi s priesthood ou r priesthood . His response is our response . As Scripture says, we are crucifie d with Christ: since our lif e i s hidden wit h Christ in God, i t is no longer w e who live , but Chris t who live s in us , and th e lif e we now liv e i n th e fles h w e liv e b y faith i n th e So n o f Go d wh o loved us and gav e himself for us (Galatian s 2:20). h Cf. S. Marsili, 'La liturgia, momento storic o dcllasalvessa', in Anamnesis, vol. 1, Torino 1974 , pp. 88-92. 7 E. Brunner, Truth as Encounter, London 1964 , p . 114 .

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In th e perso n o f Jesus, th e peopl e o f Palestine me t th e God who calle d them . I n him , the y me t th e huma n bein g wh o responded t o God with the perfec t answer. In his life , the y saw the perfec t example o f the respons e of God required o f them . As th e Epistl e t o th e Philippian s says , 'thoug h h e wa s in th e form o f God, h e di d not coun t equality with God a thing to be grasped, bu t emptie d himself , takin g th e for m o f a servant , being bor n in the likeness of men', and 'bein g found in human form h e humble d himsel f an d becam e obedien t unt o death , even deat h o n a cross ' (Philippian s 2:6-8). Becaus e o f hi s obedience and i n fulfilment o f the prophecie s o f Isaiah, Christ is the perfect servant and th e perfect worshipper o f God (i n th e Hebrew,'ebed YHWH means both) . In him, we have the perfec t high priest . Fro m th e Epistl e t o th e Hebrew s w e lear n tha t 'when h e appeare d a s the hig h pries t o f the goo d thing s tha t have come , the n throug h th e greate r an d mor e perfec t ten t (which i s his Body) h e entere d onc e an d fo r al l into th e Hol y Place, takin g no t th e bloo d o f goat s an d calves , bu t hi s own blood, thus securing an eternal redemption' . We learn tha t 'he entered no t a sanctuar y mad e wit h hands , a cop y o f th e tru e one, bu t int o heave n itself , no w to appea r i n th e presenc e o f God o n ou r behalf , an d that , therefore , 'h e i s trul y th e mediator of the new covenant' (Hebrew s 9:11-24): subjectively, because o f hi s obedience , an d objectivel y becaus e o f hi s very being in whom the fullness of God was pleased t o dwell. In him, as the ancient Easter liturgy sings, 'heaven and earth are joined in one , an d ma n i s reconciled t o God'. 8 H e i s therefor e th e 'bridge' as well as the 'bridge-maker' (in the Latin, pontifex, that is 'high priest') . The belie f of th e Churc h i s that th e fullnes s o f deity dwells bodily in Christ and tha t from his fullness we have all received, grace upo n grac e (Colossian s 2:9 ; John 1:16) . W e therefor e believe tha t throug h th e hig h priesthoo d o f Jesus th e lif e o f God ha s become our lif e an d that , through th e Incarnatio n of the Son , Go d has now a human face . Through Chris t the hig h priest, all have now direct access to grace an d ar e mad e abl e t o 'draw near' an d offe r thei r existence a s a service o f love and a spiritual sacrifice . We are no w a new temple, a spiritual house built of living stones to be a holy priesthood ( 1 Peter 2:5). Hans Kung writes: 'Christians do no t stan d o n th e threshol d o f the temple lik e impur e peopl e beggin g fo r grace , i n fea r an d * These words survive in the abbreviate d rite s of today: cf. The New Sunday Missal, London 1981 , p. 63.

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trembling': they are themselve s the ne w temple of which Jesus is th e cornerstone , s o tha t 'th e decisiv e facto r i n thei r ne w situation i s not the barrier tha t divides them from God, but th e fellowship whic h link s them t o God throug h Christ'. 9 The fellowshi p which links us t o Go d throug h Chris t is the fellowship of the Hol y Spirit. It is through th e mediation o f the Holy Spirit that the mediation o f Christ the high pries t bears its fruit within us. Since we do no t kno w how to pray as we ought, the Spirit himself, who dwells in us, intercedes with us and help s us i n ou r weaknes s (Roman s 8:26-27). W e are strengthene d with migh t throug h th e Spiri t i n ou r inne r bein g s o tha t through th e power at work within us, God is able to do far more abundantly tha n al l that we ask or thin k (Ephesian s 3:16-20): when we worship, we worship in , with and throug h Chris t th e high pries t in th e unit y and powe r of the Hol y Spirit. The doctrin e o f th e objectiv e mediation o f Christ th e hig h priest (common to many of the Greek Fathers) and the doctrine of th e mediatio n o f th e Spiri t soo n disappeare d bot h fro m Western theolog y an d Wester n liturgica l formularies. As A. J. Jungmann explained , thi s was due t o an excessiv e reactio n t o the danger s o f Arianism i n Europe. 10 Europ e wa s saved fro m Arianism, bu t th e pric e pai d fo r tha t rescu e wa s a seriou s perversion o f th e understandin g o f worship . Fro m a joyou s encounter wit h Go d throug h Chris t and i n th e fellowshi p o f the Holy Spirit, worship became the action of an impure peopl e begging for grace an d offerin g from afar, in fear and trembling and b y mean s o f huma n mediators , du e homag e o f prais e interspersed wit h repeate d entreaties fo r a forgiveness already offered b y God t o al l wh o woul d car e t o accep t it . Neithe r Catholics nor Protestant s are free from thi s indictment and n o truly Christian theology of worship can be constructed unti l the two forgotte n doctrine s - th e mediatio n o f Chris t an d th e mediation o f the Hol y Spirit - ar e reinstated no t onl y i n our books, but first and foremost in the consciousness of the Peopl e of God. The Worship of Christ's Body A human bein g can perceiv e Go d only by means of something created. I t may be a word, a sentence o r a poem. I t may be a '•' H. Kung , op . at., p. 373 . J. A. Jungmann, Pastoral Liturgy, passim.

10

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sculpture, a painting o r a piece o f music. I t may be a natura l occurrence such as a storm i n the mountains, the becalming of the sea, a sunrise or a sunset. It may be, and i t often is, another human being. In thi s sense, th e very person o f the Incarnat e Word was the highest possible mean s of God's presence t o us. Since the fles h and bloo d o f Jesus canno t b e me t i n thi s fashion today , th e Church whic h i s Christ's Bod y i s called int o bein g a s a living temple of God's presence . A s E. Schillebeeckx teaches , thi s is what we mean whe n we say that the Churc h i s called t o be th e earthly sacrament of the primordial Sacrament which is Jesus th e Christ. We may choose not t o respond t o God's call. Even when we respond , ou r answe r i s never complete . T o b e faithfu l t o God's Word, the Churc h has to be renewed day by day. In th e las t chapte r w e sai d tha t wher e tw o o r thre e ar e gathered together , ther e i s the Churc h an d ther e i s her Lord : to be the Body of Christ on earth, the Church needs to meet for both praye r and action. When the Church meets for prayer, the meeting must be so ordered a s to facilitate both th e encounte r between Go d and hi s People an d th e empowering tha t ensues from it . The words , th e sounds , th e action s and th e gesture s 'that compose ou r worship must be directed t o this end without trace o f self-indulgence o r complacency . T o achiev e thi s end , the leader i n worship must pay attention to the Word of God as well as to the law s of human nature . The Go d o f ou r fait h too k humanit y seriously enoug h t o become fles h an d t o pitch his tent among th e pilgri m people. No truly viable theology of worship can be constructed without a mor e extensiv e theological anthropolog y tha n we possess t o date: anyone who takes the human less seriously than the divine can do so only at his or her ris k and peril . The work needed i n this direction i s of staggering proportions . Worship, Theology and Anthropology Open a book o n theologica l anthropolog y an d wha t wil l you find? A cogent demonstratio n o f how sinful w e are an d o f how much we are i n need o f redemption. S o far, so good. But very often yo u wil l als o fin d littl e o r nothin g abou t huma n phenomenon a s such o r abou t th e consequence s o f th e fac t that Go d create d u s mal e an d femal e an d gav e u s corporea l existence in a world that has not yet reached it s final goal.

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Many disciplines , bot h ol d an d new , are dedicate d t o th e study o f huma n beings : philosophy , history , psychology , sociology, anthropology , biology , physiolog y and medicine , economics an d politic s t o mention bu t a few. The state d scop e of theology is to view everything rationally in the ligh t of God's revelation. Theologica l anthropolog y (th e stud y o f huma n beings from th e poin t of view of theology) coul d therefor e b e defined a s 'the attemp t of human being s t o attain self-understanding throug h reflectio n i n th e ligh t o f God's revelation' . The purpos e of all search fo r knowledge i s self-understanding. The purpos e o f theological anthropology shoul d therefor e b e to understan d ourselves , i n th e ligh t o f God' s revelation , as human beings in th e concrete circumstance s of our existence. Viewing the human phenomeno n in the abstract would not be enough. In Christianity , th e huma n phenomeno n ca n onl y b e interpreted christologically . Christ is the first-bor n o f th e ne w creation (Colossian s 1:15) . Ar e we not mean t t o attai n t o th e full measur e of the stature of Christ (Ephesians 4:13)? Without such a christological understanding of the human phenomenon, the life and missio n of the Church would be impaired. So would its worship, the power-house o f our growth. According t o A . Cuva , withi n th e contex t o f theologica l anthropology th e human phenomeno n shoul d be approache d from a dynamic-functional a s well a s fro m a static-ontic point o f view.'' From a dynamic-functional poin t o f view , a huma n bein g should b e approache d i n th e ligh t o f hi s o r he r fou r basi c functions: 1. The theological function. Though long fallen into disuse, the word 'theological ' stil l bes t expresse s th e meanin g t o b e conveyed here : th e firs t an d mos t fundamenta l functio n o f a human bein g i s tha t o f enterin g b y grac e int o a livin g relationship with God. 2. The social function. After one's relationship with God conies, in orde r of importance, one's relationship with othe r huma n beings. W e are socia l animal s tha t canno t full y 'be ' excep t i n relationship wit h other s (th e gender functio n shoul d b e considered as an important subsection of the socia l function) . 11 A . Cuva , 'Line e d i antropologi a liturgica' , i n Nel dec.enna.le. dell Costitutione 'Sarrosanrtum Concilium', Rome 1974, pp. 1-31.

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3. The historical function. Living by grace in freedom, a person is called t o realiz e himsel f or hersel f i n tim e an d spac e an d t o bring his or her contribution to the history of the world in terms of God's ultimate design o f salvation . 4. Th e cosmic function . Our rol e as human beings in the cosmos is one of responsibility to the rest of creation. Theology teaches us not onl y that we must respect everythin g that Go d brings into being, bu t als o tha t creatio n a s a whole i s waiting with eage r longing for the revealin g of the childre n of God, when it will be set free fro m its bondage t o decay and obtain the glorious liberty of the childre n of God (Roman s 8:18-22).

From a static-onti c poin t of view, th e huma n phenomeno n should be approached under tw o fundamental aspects: 1. The oneness of a human being. Against the false dichotomy or trichotomy o f body an d soul o r body, soul an d spirit, biblica l theology teache s u s that a huma n being , mal e o r female , is a single and uniqu e psycho-physical unit. 2. Th e bodiliness of a human being . Sinc e we are a single psycho physical unit, body and sou l (o r body, soul and spirit ) ar e bu t two 'aspects ' o f on e an d th e sam e reality . Contemporar y theological anthropolog y must rehabilitate th e bodily an d loo k upon a human being as a person incarnate.

In th e ligh t o f th e above , i s i t legitimat e t o spea k o f a branch o f theologica l anthropolog y tha t migh t b e calle d liturgical anthropology? Huma n being s hav e fel t th e nee d t o ritualize for a s long as they have been o n thi s earth. Shoul d i t not be legitimate therefore t o study also th e manne r in which ritualization i s and/o r shoul d b e done ? Thoug h ver y fe w theologians have as yet bothered t o g o down this road, whe n put lik e tha t th e questio n answer s itself. Ther e shoul d b e a theological disciplin e called liturgica l anthropology and , in short, its purpose shoul d be th e stud y of homo liturgicus. What is liturgy? Th e Secon d Vatican Council defines it as 'the work of Christ's priesthood in which our sanctification (i.e . our growth t o the ful l measur e of the statur e of Christ) i s signified and effecte d b y means o f visible signs and throug h whic h the Body o f Christ , bot h Hea d an d members , exercise s th e wholeness of it s public worship'. As good a definition a s any, and on e tha t ha s th e great advantag e of not tryin g t o reduc e what happens in the liturgy to the sol e activity of the people of God.

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According t o Ambrosius Verheuil 12 there i s in th e liturg y a double direction : a descendin g an d a n ascendin g line . Th e descending lin e dominate s i n th e catechetica l par t o f th e liturgy, such as in the Servic e o f the Word, an d i n sacramenta l rites. Th e mos t characteristi c thin g of Christia n liturg y is th e celebration o f ou r Redemption : Go d invite s u s an d call s u s together throug h th e redeemin g Wor d o f th e Proclamation , and this Redemption i s pre-eminently expressed and actualize d for us in the sacraments. Redemption comes to us solely through the initiative of God the Father, who sent his Son to earth a s the visible form of the Father's love. In th e catechetica l part of th e liturgy and in the sacraments Go d invites us to faith through hi s Word and, through Christ , focuses on u s his redeeming actio n and come s t o enrich hi s people with divine life . The ascending line dominates i n the praise and thanksgivin g whereby the community of faith gives its answer to God's saving action o n it . The liturg y o f praye r a s an ac t o f huma n being s always comes second, because i t can only be an answer, but th e ultimate purpos e o f God' s savin g action o n th e Churc h i s to make i t possibl e fo r i t t o ascen d t o hi m i n tru e prais e an d thanksgiving. The liturg y in its totality is both th e act of God and th e act of the Church . It is therefore fundamentall y a dialogue, a divine word an d a huma n answer , a wonderfu l exchang e o f gift s whereby Go d give s t o u s himsel f an d hi s divin e lif e an d we , empowered b y him, give to him ever y fibre or ou r bodie s an d every moment of our existence . This doubl e movement i s present i n al l part s of th e liturgy. The tw o movements mus t be distinguished , bu t certainl y not separated. I t is not a s if God first came t o us in Christ and we , having been se t on th e righ t path b y him, can the n ascen d t o God, s o t o speak , o n ou r ow n steam . Th e tw o aspect s ar e inextricably interwoven , realized togethe r a t al l moments , i n whatever sectio n o f the liturgy : God i s continually descendin g to us and we are continuall y ascending to him. The liturg y is therefore a meeting betwee n Go d and huma n beings. It is an 'encounter with God', not yet entirely direct, but in th e grea t meeting point that is Christ. It is not yet a meeting 'face t o face ' either , bu t a meetin g unde r th e vei l o f sign s in which God reveals himself to us and make s known his will. 12

Cf. A. Verheuil, Introduction t o the Liturgy, Londo n 1969 , pp . 17-19 .

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A. Verheuil give s this provisional definitio n o f liturgy (provisional because as yet incomplete): 'a personal meeting, under the vei l of signs , o f Go d an d hi s Churc h an d wit h th e tota l person o f each one o f its members, in and throug h Chris t and in the unity of the Holy Spirit'.13 From this definition, Verheuil develops in more detail five basic aspects of the liturgy : 1. The theocentric character of the liturgy: the liturgy is a personal encounter with God. 2. Th e christocentnc character o f th e liturgy : the encounte r takes place in and throug h the Mediato r Christ. 3. Th e ecclesial character o f th e liturgy : the encounte r doe s no t take plac e primaril y wit h individuals , bu t wit h th e livin g community of the Church . 4. The sign character of the liturgy : the encounte r doe s no t tak e place directly, but throug h th e veil of 'signs with power'. 5. Th e bodily character of the liturgy: it addresses itself to the whole person an d invite s to worship th e whol e huma n bein g i n th e dual unity of both bod y and soul .

Because of the sign and bodily character of the liturgy, liturgical anthropolog y shoul d pa y grea t attentio n t o th e anthropological law s of language. Huma n being s can expres s meaning no t onl y with words , but als o wit h gesture, postur e and sig n and invariably do so at their most effective by means of a combination of the two . We can therefor e spea k of a liturgical language as a sub-section of religious language. Religious language, and therefore a fortiori liturgical language, ca n onl y be th e languag e o f a specifi c community situated i n a specifi c socio-tempora l contex t an d wil l i n con sequence b e subjec t to th e dynamis m regulating th e cultural evolution of community itself.14 As the communit y evolves, has new experiences an d face s ne w challenges, the languag e of its worship mus t evolv e wit h i t an d reflec t th e thu s modifie d network o f relationship s between it s members . I f it doe s no t evolve i n thi s way , th e languag e o f worshi p wil l becom e detached fro m th e actua l circumstance s o f our existenc e an d behind th e times in terms of the evolution of human languages. Liturgy i s for huma n beings , an d no t th e othe r way round. No benefit comes to God from our worship, of which we are the only beneficiaries. The liturg y must therefore reac h u s in ou r ls 14

/fe/.,p. 13. A. Cuva , op . at., p . 17 .

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real lives . Tha t i s what the liturg y is for. I t mus t be therefor e both expressio n an d exercis e o f the huma n condition . In ful l respect o f th e huma n person , th e liturg y mus t valu e an d augment al l huma n values . It s mod e o f expressio n mus t b e accessible t o people living in the here-and-no w and reflec t the conditions of the time s in which we live. Liturgical celebrations must b e th e celebration s o f a specifi c assembl y o f which the y are mean t t o be th e concret e expression. I f it does not d o so, the liturg y wil l b e a t onc e bot h de-humanizin g an d de humanized. Cu t of f from everyda y lif e an d fro m th e worl d i n which w e live , th e liturg y will b e expose d t o th e dange r o f alienation. However, to say that liturgy is for people and tha t it must link up with today's life does not mean tha t today's liturgy must take its measures fro m the modern world. Liturgy is for people, bu t it cannot resign itsel f to be as we still are. We should never forge t that in the liturgy God lowers himself to our leve l to lift us up to his (se e th e theocentric character o f th e liturgy) . The prope r balance mus t b e foun d betwee n thes e tw o complementary exigencies without ever losing sight of either. The sign character of the liturgy also presents its own demands. Sign-making activity is a universal religious phenomenon. Th e presence o f sign s ma y be foun d i n al l religions . They for m a religious category of their own and ar e a legitimate and usefu l way to present and conside r a religion, eve n i f the sign s them selves may point i n different directions.15 In fact, i t may well b e said tha t human being s ar e th e creator s o f rituals. For human beings, th e creatio n o f rite s capable o f expressing adequatel y those thing s the y dee m mos t importan t i s lik e a secon d nature. 16 The importanc e o f the stud y of symbolic language i n the liturg y cannot b e underestimated. 17 The sign s we adopt i n the liturg y must b e such a s to make i t possible for God's Word to reach u s in the concretenes s o f our existence . They must be based o n th e authenti c experienc e o f th e worshippin g com munity, respec t al l genuine huma n value s and promot e the m 13 M.-D. Chenu, 'Anthropologie e t liturgie' , in L a Liturgied'apres Vatican II, Paris 1967, p . 54. 16 E. Kennedy, 'The Contribution o f Religious Ritua l to Psychological Balance', Concilium 2.7, Feb. 1971 , pp . 53-58. 17 Cf. A. Vergote, 'Symboli c Gestures and Action s i n th e Liturgy' , Concilium 2.7, Feb. 1971 , pp. 40-52; E. Kennedy, op. at.; A. Greeley, 'Religious Symbolism, Liturgy and Community' , ibid. pp. 59-69 ; an d G . Tellini, 'Of Symbols , Worship an d th e Word', in C. Robertson (ed.) , Singing th e Faith, Norwich 1990 .

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by engendering commitmen t t o God's eschatological pla n fo r creation. Conclusion It i s a recognize d characteristi c o f childhood , an d therefor e of immaturity , t o se e onesel f an d one' s immediat e needs , supposed o r true , a s the centr e o f th e universe . Smal l infant s and ver y young children firml y believ e tha t all their wants will be satisfie d b y carefu l manipulatio n o f thei r parents . Thi s childish trai t is nowhere mor e apparen t tha n i n th e popula r conception o f worship. Many cultures, past and present , have chosen t o believe that, by accurately performing the appointed rituals, the gods might be made t o be favourably influenced towards us and make them to bestow on us the benefits that are the object of our desires. If it was not fo r thi s self-centred reason , t o what purpose shoul d one bothe r t o supplicate th e gods ? This is not wha t Christian worship is about. In th e first place , th e wor d worship shoul d b e considere d t o have tw o distinct, if correlated meanings . I n th e wider sense, it should mea n th e leitourgia of one's life as expressed in Romans 12. In th e narrowe r sense , i t should b e considere d t o refer t o the moment , i n th e Gree k (kairos) i n which , in an d throug h Christ an d i n th e powe r o f th e Spirit , Go d encounter s hi s people, transforms them wit h his power an d set s the m fre e t o be Christ' s Body i n th e world . In thi s second, narrowe r sense , the worship of the gathered community (that is the liturgy) is the moment (tha t is the kairos) i n which God re-announces an d re-actualizes the mystery of Christ (that is, his eternal plan of salvation) throug h th e mystery o f the Church (that is, through th e earthly realit y of th e Bod y of those who ar e calle d t o becom e the chosen instrument s of the comin g of God's kingdom).18 Hans Rung puts it most beautifully in these words: The Church does not derive its life only from the work which Christ did an d finishe d i n th e past, no r onl y fro m th e expecte d futur e consummation o f hi s work , bu t fro m th e livin g an d efficaciou s presence of Christ in the present. Christ is present i n the entire lif e of th e Church . Bu t Chris t i s above al l presen t an d activ e i n th e worship o f the congregation to whic h he calle d u s i n hi s Gospel , an d 18

Cf. G. Tellini, 'Of Time, Calendars an d Lectionaries' , i n D . Gray (ed.), Th e Word in Season, Norwich 1988 , pp . 60-62 .

In Spirit an d i n Truth 5

1

into which we were taken up i n baptism, in which we celebrate th e Lord's Supper an d fro m whic h we are sen t agai n t o ou r wor k of service in the world. In thi s congregation ther e occurs in a special way God's service to the Church an d th e Church' s service to God. Here God speaks to the Church through hi s word, and th e Church speaks t o Go d b y replyin g i n it s prayer s an d it s song s o f praise . Here th e crucifie d an d rise n Lor d become s present throug h hi s word an d hi s sacrament , an d her e w e commi t ourselve s t o hi s service: by hearing the Gospe l i n faith , b y confessing our sins , b v praising God's mercy and by petitioning the Father i n Jesus' name, by taking part in the meal of the Lord who is present amon g us and by providing the basis for our servic e of one anothe r b y our publi c confession o f fait h an d b y prayin g fo r on e another . This is fundamentally where the Church is, where the Church, the community, the congregation, happens.™

In bot h it s wider and it s narrower sense , worshi p is the on e response require d b y God . I n it s narrowe r sense , i t i s th e moment in which the Church happens. In ou r worship , Go d encounter s u s throug h a syste m o f visible, physical , material means . Th e nee d fo r suc h mean s stems from ou r natur e as whole persons. Suc h mean s ar e use d in worship because we need them, and not because God is supposed to deligh t i n the m i n an y way. They mus t b e vehicle s both of God's call to us and of our answe r to God. I n other words, they must be realized human salvation, that i s means o f pardo n an d grace. The y mus t b e th e visible , historica l an d concret e actualization o f th e Word . The y mus t b e eikones to n pragmdton (Hebrews 10:15) : earthl y sign s charge d wit h th e powe r o f a reality tha t totall y transcend s them . Thes e sign s charged wit h power (i.e. symbols) are not in themselves worship. Yet without them worshi p is impossible. Neithe r ar e th e symbol s which we use i n worshi p i n an y way unique. The y ar e onl y on e o f th e many ways in which God concretely reaches ordinary men and women, grafts them int o the Myster y of Christ, and transform s them int o a chosen race, a royal priesthood ( 1 Peter 2:9) , that is in the Bod y of those who offer t o the consumin g fire of God, with reverenc e an d awe , the acceptabl e worshi p of brotherly love (Hebrew s 12:28 ; 13:1) , having themselves becomes, sacrific e of praise continually offered t o God (Hebrew s 13:15).

10

H. Rung, op. at., pp. 23^35.

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with God FURTHER READING

A. Greeley , 'Religious Symbolism , Liturg y and Community' , Concilium 2..7', 1971, pp . 59-69 . E. Kennedy , The Contributio n o f Religious Ritua l to Psychological Balance', Concilium 2.7, 1971, pp . 53-58. G. Tellini , 'O f Symbols , Worshi p an d th e Word' , i n C. Robertson, Singing the Faith, Norwich 1990 . A. Vergote , 'Symboli c Gesture s an d Action s in th e Liturgy' , Concilium Z.7, 1971, pp. 40-52. A. Vergote , 'L a realisatio n symboliqu e dan s 1'expressio n cutuelle', La Maison Dieu, f.lll (1972) , pp. 110-31. FOR DISCUSSION 1. Ho w fa r i s i t desirable , o r eve n possible , fo r mode s o f liturgical expressio n t o remai n unchange d throug h th e centuries? 2. I f n o civilizatio n o r cultur e i s naturall y Christian, i s i t important tha t th e Churc h develop s a cathechesi s an d a consequent pattern of formation in matters both human and liturgical? How can i t do this ? 3. Doe s the liturg y presuppose conversion? If so, is the liturg y primarily for thos e who believe? How can it go beyond th e stage of the seeker or cathechumen? 4. I n wha t sens e ma y th e Churc h b e calle d th e earthl y sacrament of Jesus Christ, the Primordial Sacrament?

CHAPTER 4

WORD AN D SACRAMEN T We understand worship as being an encounter wit h God, which can be illumine d by analogies wit h encounter s amon g huma n beings. A n encounte r take s plac e betwee n people ; i t i s intersubjective. I n th e stric t sens e we cannot encounter things , o r even animals , but onl y personal being s or (t o use C. S. Lewis's term) a God who is 'beyond personality'. The whol e Christia n understanding o f God an d hi s dealings with people rule s ou t an understandin g o f worshi p whic h i s les s tha n a persona l meeting. Christian worship is not aw e in fac e o f an irresistible and unresponsiv e Power, nor i s it the attempt t o manipulate by magic o r placat e b y offerings remot e deitie s o r th e force s of nature. Christian worshi p is an 'I-Thou' , no t a n 'I-It' , relationship . But immediately we must qualify these words. As they stand they effectively expres s th e persona l natur e o f Christia n worship, but the y would allow one t o understand worshi p as 'the fligh t of the alone to the Alone'. In fact, Christian worship is always a communal affair , an d tha t i n tw o senses. First , a s w e argue elsewhere in this book, all prayer and al l worship is the worship of the Church . The individua l worshipping is never alone bu t alwaysjoining at least spiritually with the whole Church on earth and wit h 'angel s an d archangel s an d al l th e compan y o f heaven'. We come to God as 'our Father ' even when we worship alone - a good reminder that we bring our neighbours an d our fellows wit h u s whe n w e come befor e God . A t th e hear t o f Christian worshi p i s th e worshi p o f th e congregation , th e fellowship o f those who encounter Go d together , Go d i n on e another an d on e anothe r i n God . Prayerfu l believer s wh o abstract themselves from th e worship of the congregation, like the U N Secretar y Genera l Da g Hammerskjold, ar e distinctly 53

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anomalous, a s W . H . Aude n note d i n hi s introductio n t o Hammerskjold's remarkable book of thoughts, Markings^ The norm mus t be participation i n congregational worship 'both as a disciplin e and a s a refreshment' , a s well a s an awarenes s o f participation in the fellowship of the saints. In the second place , Christian worshi p i s communal becaus e i t i s participation i n the lif e of the Holy Trinity. God himself, in trinitarian theology, must be understood on th e mode l o f a fellowship rathe r tha n an isolate d individua l person . I n worshi p we encounter th e Father, ou r Father , throug h Jesus Christ . In othe r words , h e offers ou r worship ; he is , as it were, our spokesman ; h e give s access to the Father ; we share i n his encounter a s Son with his Father. That i s why prayer i s normally addressed t o the Fathe r 'through Jesus Christ our Lord' . And our capacit y to worship and ou r inclinatio n t o worshi p ar e th e wor k o f th e Spirit , moving u s toward s an d encouragin g u s i n th e mysterium tremendum of an encounte r wit h the livin g God . At th e huma n leve l a n encounte r i s no t a superficia l o r momentary meeting but an engagement a t depth in which each becomes awar e o f th e myster y of th e other . Rea l encounte r always involve s an elemen t o f mystery : no t a contrive d an d artificial myster y but th e authenti c myster y that i s integral t o personality and onl y reveals itself to love: above all , the tender , reliable covenant-love of which the bible speaks. And encounte r is not a partia l matter , bu t a meeting wit h whole people. Th e disembodied voic e w e hear o n th e radi o ma y thrill, delight , infuriate o r instruc t us ; w e becom e awar e o f th e speaker' s thoughts an d styl e of speaking; but w e do no t encounte r th e person. T o watch an athlete breakin g a record or a great orator speaking on televisio n ma y be a fuller experience, bu t i t is still far shor t o f an encounter . Eve n to see an acto r o r a musician perform - whil e i t ma y be a n enriching , o r infuriating , or depressing experience , while it may deepen our understandin g of th e huma n conditio n o r deligh t ou r sense s and ma y even enrich ou r capacit y for understandin g an d sensitiv e relation ships - i t is not an encounter wit h th e actor o r musicia n a s a person. For people are complex a s well as mysterious - th e two are not unconnected - an d there i s more t o the actor tha n his acting, and t o the musician than his playing. Of course, human meeting i s often ver y partial , wit h peopl e shieldin g muc h o f 1

London 1964 .

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55

themselves from others , o r actin g a par t rathe r tha n openin g themselves t o an encounte r a t dept h wit h th e other . Bu t real encounter i s lasting and deep , and involve s the whole person, not just some qualities, aspects or dimensions. The encounte r with Go d i n Jesus Christ, which is Christian worship, i s no t th e hearin g o f a disembodie d voic e bu t a meeting wit h th e incarnat e Word , with the one who expresses in hi s being and hi s works the ver y heart of God, who is God's complete an d adequat e communicatio n t o humanity . Nor i s Christian worship a matter of'naked signs' , of sacramental acts and symbol s whic h magicall y ensur e a meetin g wit h trans cendent powers, in isolation from words , the Word, or speech . No, Christian worship i s rather th e encounte r with th e living, speaking Lor d wh o i s himself both th e livin g Wor d an d th e primordial sacrament . I f worship is understood a s encounter , Word an d Sacramen t belon g together . The y ar e com plementary; both ar e necessary, for they interpret and illumine one anothe r and neithe r in itself is complete o r adequate. God has chosen Word an d Sacramen t as the two-dimensiona l locu s of hi s encounte r wit h hi s people , an d t o separat e them , o r neglect on e i n favou r of th e other , i s to invit e an incomplet e encounter an d a n inadequate understanding o f God and how God relates to people. Almost al l th e Churche s ar e toda y rediscoverin g th e vita l unity of Word an d Sacramen t and seekin g t o express i t mor e adequately i n their worship. But it still remains tru e that many in th e Reforme d an d Luthera n Churche s regar d worshi p as essentially preaching , wit h th e res t o f th e servic e see n a s n o more tha n the preliminaries to the sermon. An d there are stil l seminaries an d facultie s of theolog y wher e detaile d attentio n is given to trainin g in homiletics but ver y little time is devoted to th e principle s of liturgy , so tha t clerg y wh o hav e almos t complete freedo m i n th e constructio n an d conten t of publi c worship hav e a ver y sketchy preparation fo r thi s vital par t o f their role. In Roman Catholic and some Anglican seminaries, on th e othe r hand , th e ministr y o f th e Wor d ha s sometime s been treate d a s a rathe r unimportan t postscrip t t o liturgy . Students hav e bee n give n detaile d instructio n i n th e histor y and practic e o f th e Church' s liturg y (bu t seldo m muc h theology of worship), while the training in homiletics has been rudimentary. Eve n som e curren t textbook s reflec t an d perpetuate thi s unfortunat e split betwee n th e Wor d an d th e

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Sacrament, so that one ca n go through books such as The Study of Liturgy2 and gain the impression that the ministry of the word, and preachin g i n particular , playe d n o par t i n th e worship of Christendom dow n th e ages . And man y book s o n homiletic s proceed with sublime disregard o f the fac t tha t preaching is an integral par t o f Christia n worshi p an d canno t properl y b e considered i n isolation fro m thi s context. The presen t boo k regard s th e unity of Word an d Sacramen t as a fundamenta l principl e o f Christia n worship , whic h ha s been rediscovered b y modern theology of all traditions but still has to penetrate full y into the practice of the Churches' worshi p and th e educatio n o f clerg y an d al l who lea d th e worshi p of God's people. The recovery , in practice a s well as in theology , of the complementarity of Word and Sacramen t involves crossfertilization an d mutua l enrichmen t betwee n th e tw o grea t traditions, the one emphasizing the place of the Word, and th e other the centrality of the sacraments, and must be a major contribution to the ecumenical renewa l of worship, which is surely at th e hear t o f th e revitalizatio n of the Churc h an d Christian faith an d practice . The Ward Christianity understands worshi p as the encounte r wit h God' s Word; speech and hearing are indispensable to the authenticity of this meeting; God becomes really present wit h his people in his Word. And according t o Augustine, i n a phrase belove d o f the Calvinist Reformers, a sacrament itsel f is a verbum visible, a visible word. In worship we hear the Word of God addressed to us, callin g us , encouragin g us , challengin g us , forgivin g us, nourishing us , upliftin g us , strengthenin g us . All this implie s that we must have , as it were, a sacramental understandin g o f the Word in worship, just as we must understand th e sacrament s as encounters wit h the Go d who addresses us in his Word. As Karl Barth ha s observed , th e Wor d meet s us i n a three fold form : i n preachin g (whic h i s discussed i n chapte r 5) , i n scripture and as the Word incarnate , Jesus Christ, to whom th e scriptures bea r witness. 3 Clearly , scriptur e i s a n importan t element, an d on e whic h require s carefu l handling . Scriptur e always points beyon d itself : 'W e do th e Bibl e a poor honour', 2 3

SPCK, 1978 . Church Dogmatics 1/1, Edinburg h 1936 , pp. 98-140.

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7

writes Kar l Barth , 'an d on e unwelcom e t o itself , whe n w e directly identif y i t wit h thi s somethin g else , wit h revelatio n itself.'4 To avoid suc h verbal idolatry is important, bu t i t is also necessary t o have a clear ide a of how scripture function s in th e believing communit y an d ho w i t speak s a s Word. A historical perspective allow s us a useful point o f entry. (i) Scripture and worship in ancient Israel and Judaism The practic e o f worshi p i s strongl y reflecte d i n th e Ol d Testament scripture s as we know them. Indeed , th e recita l of sacred traditio n at Israel' s religious festival s wa s an importan t part of the process whereby the traditions of Israel were shaped and developed . One function of scripture i s to give authoritative guidance for worship, cult and ritual ; another is to narrate th e story o f salvatio n in th e contex t o f worship. I t has , therefore , an importan t interpretative function for the worshippers: Give ear, O my people, to my teaching; incline your ears to the words of my mouth! I will open my mouth i n a parable; I will utter dark sayings from o f old, things that we have heard and known , that our father s have told us. We will not hid e them from thei r children, but tel l to the coming generation the glorious deeds of the Lord, and hi s might, and th e wonders which he has wrought. (Psal m 78:1-4) Ritual, story , interpretation , revelatio n . . . : thes e importan t elements in the worship of Israel are not only the direct concern of scripture ; the y also serve , i n conjunctio n wit h scripture , t o involve the worshippers i n the divine mystery and i n the inner , contemporary meanin g of worship. Psalm 116 , for example, is the liturg y used b y the person wh o has come to the Temple to pay hi s vo w an d mak e a thank-offerin g t o Yahweh . I t i s particularly appropriate t o one wh o has been very ill and wh o promised in his distress to fulfil just such a vow on his recovery . Notice th e lovin g respons e o f on e wh o find s hi s prayer s answered, th e recollectio n o f hi s distress , th e celebratio n o f God's mercy, and th e paying of the vow itself. The liturg y makes personal t o th e worshippe r th e relationshi p betwee n Yahweh and Israe l (cf. Deuteronomy 26:5-10). 1

Op. at., p. 126.

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Diversity i s particularly noticeable i n post-exili c Judaism, no t least in the place given to scripture. To th e priest s in the templ e tradition (cf . the Sadducee s i n Jesus' day) , the Book s o f Mose s formed th e Torah , th e essentia l an d onl y scripture. Fo r them , scripture prescribe d an d interprete d th e cult, and directe d th e way of the worshippers. In these terms, the priest was the teache r of Israel . The destructio n o f th e Templ e b y th e Babylonians , however, le d t o ne w religious developments . Th e absenc e o f Temple worship in Babylon gave an impetus to the editing, study and standardizin g of th e Tora h a s scripture , an d calle d int o being a new, or a t least greatly enlarged, clas s of scribal expert s in the Torah an d written tradition. The ris e of the synagogues in post-exilic Judaism provided centre s for the discussion and study of the Torah a s a continuing duty, allied to the saying of prayers. The scriba l teachers (later , rabbis) regarde d scriptur e as essentially the Torah, but admitted the Prophets an d later the Writings as authoritative commentary on the Torah, interpretin g and applying it to the dail y lives of the people . That , too , wa s the function of the rabbis ' sayings , the 'traditio n of the elders' on which the Pharisees o f Jesus' da y place d s o muc h emphasis . Indeed , s o important was the interpretation an d applicatio n of scripture t o the rabbis that it could even be said that the modern commentar y which relate d directl y to th e contemporar y situatio n wa s more important than th e ancient text considered i n isolation. Another broad groupin g migh t be characterized as sectarian, the Essenes of Qumran being the most accessible example. Here , the worship took place within monastic communities, which had their ow n distinctiv e cultic practice s (especiall y washings o r baptisms); an d scripture , not confine d t o th e Book s o f Moses , was copied, studied and interpreted i n relation to the community which believed that it had a special role t o play in the Las t Days. Such eschatologica l belief s governe d al l aspect s o f thei r life . Their scriptural interpretation was designed t o reveal the hidde n meaning which the text held for them, standing as they believed at or nea r the completion o f God's mighty works in Israel. They wrote commentaries on the scriptures with this purpose i n mind. A characteristic procedure wa s to cite th e scriptur e tex t (some times with modifications ) and ad d a n exposition , usuall y introduced b y 'interpreted , thi s concern s ... ' o r som e simila r formula.5 ' 'Midrash' (commentary ) could b e both explici t and implicit ; see G. Vermes, The Deatl Sea Scrolls in English, Harmondsworth 1962 .

Word an d Sacrament 5

9

It must not be thought that such radically creative procedures were found only in sectarian Judaism. Because the tradition s of Israel wer e constantl y interpreted an d applie d i n th e livin g context of community worship and practice , new meaning was constantly being found in them . I t was said tha t every word of scripture ha d sevent y aspects, 6 s o ther e wa s plent y o f ne w meaning t o b e discovere d b y each generation ! Hence , th e literature expanded . Deuteronom y i s just suc h a recastin g of th e ancien t laws ; th e Priestl y Cod e i s a furthe r example . The boo k w e call Isaia h encapsulate s a length y tradition o f prophetic exposition . Chronicle s recast s th e historica l tradition; apocalyptists and sectarians were similarly expansive, and s o on . Finally , th e rabbi s close d th e canon , th e lis t o f books recognize d a s scriptur e an d henc e regulativ e of fait h and life . (Th e precis e dat e whe n the y di d s o is unknown certainly later than Jamnia, c. AD 95: the priestly tradition had closed it s canon man y centuries previously.) But th e expan sion o f meanin g necessar y t o a livin g communit y was no t halted or 'put on ice' by such action. The rabbini c tradition of authoritative expositio n continue d an d wa s itself encoded i n Mishnah and Talmud . How can we sum up scriptur e and it s relation t o worship in ancient Israe l an d Judaism ? Emergin g fro m an d operatin g within worshippin g communities , scriptur e reflect s an d i s shaped by their worship in many respects. I t also regulates an d informs continuin g worship. It relates and interpret s th e story of God' s wonder s i n th e histor y of th e people , an d enjoin s recital o f the m i n worship. It enshrines and encapsulate s th e truth given to Moses but rediscovere d i n new ways from generation t o generation. I t helps Israel to walk in God's ways and t o trust fo r th e future . Hence , whil e i t prescribe s ritua l an d liturgical action, it can als o attack Temple an d cul t when they do no t trul y reflec t God' s wil l an d purpos e fo r hi s people . Designed t o spea k a contemporar y Wor d t o th e believin g community, i t continue s t o d o s o throug h commentar y an d renewed application . Of course , th e danger s wer e immense : such as legalism, pedantry, and openness t o external influenc e (e.g. hellenizing) . Bu t suc h danger s wer e no t exclusiv e t o Judaism. Th e resilienc e of th e Jewish biblica l tradition i s well attested b y its history since biblical times. 6

See I. Epstein, Midmsh Rtibbah I (Genesis), Freedman and Simo n (eds.) , London 1939, p . xi.

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(ii) Scripture and worship in the early Christian tradition

Christian worshi p ha s alway s had a scriptura l dimension: th e Old Testament was there from th e beginning; bot h in Hebrew and i n Greek translatio n (th e Septuagint, second centur y BC) . Although th e scriptura l cano n wa s open-ended i n th e firs t century, al l inspire d writin g wa s recognize d a s usefu l fo r teaching th e truth an d refutin g error . .. (2 Timothy 3:16) . So where did Christian use of scripture in worship differ fro m th e Jewish? In the Jewish Christianity of the early days, the difference was not to o marked. Th e brethre n worshipped i n the Temple an d were t o b e foun d i n th e synagogue s unti l suc h time s a s the y were declared personae non gratae. Why? The root cause is found at th e core of the Christia n position: belie f in Jesus a s Messiah and Lord . If this was understood in a limited way, the Christians might have remained a sect within Judaism - albeit an extremely heterodox one. Bu t as soon as Jesus' Lordship was interpreted in a radical way, so that the foundations of Judaism were shaken at thei r mos t vita l points - Law , Temple, nation-hoo d - the n the possibilit y o f compromis e wa s rule d out . Afte r initia l hesitation, the salvatio n tha t Chris t offered was made ope n t o all believers, without distincdon o f race, sex or status. In Christ, the Ne w Age ha d bee n established ; th e Ol d wa s swept away. The End-tim e ha d com e into the mids t o f history. Her e was a new 'eschatologica l community' , an d i t wa s wholly Christocentric, centred o n th e Word . Such a position wa s of immense consequenc e fo r scriptura l interpretation. I t i s tru e tha t th e Ol d Testamen t ha s a n expectation o f the future: whether the coming forth of a 'shoot from th e stump of Jesse', or 'the Day of the Lord', or Elijah th e Prophet, or 'on e like a son of man', or the servant of the Lor d . . . But the earl y Christians did no t limi t thei r interes t i n th e scriptures t o th e expositio n o f suc h passages . Becaus e the y regarded Jesus th e crucified and rise n Christ , as the fulfilmen t of al l God' s wor k throug h Israel , the y believe d tha t al l th e scriptures testifie d t o him . As the Jesus of th e Fourt h Gospe l says t o his fellow Jews, 'Yo u searc h th e scripture s because yo u think that in them you have eternal life ; and i t is they that bear witness to me; yet you refuse t o come t o me tha t you may have life' (Joh n 5:35f.) . Jesus as the Christ was therefore th e starting point o f thei r scriptura l interpretation . The y rea d th e Ol d

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Testament i n th e ligh t of thei r Christia n fait h an d foun d i t responding i n innumerabl e way s to thei r interrogation . I t was as i f th e motif s which coalesce d i n Chris t wer e prefigure d i n varied an d fragmentar y way s i n th e stor y o f God' s previou s dealings with Israel. Hence Pau l can tak e th e notio n o f Moses' veil and use it to suggest that the splendour o f the old covenant was a fading splendour ( 2 Corinthians 3:13) - not because ther e is anything in the Mosai c tradition t o suggest this , but becaus e Paul knows that 'wha t once ha d splendour ' (i.e . the religio n of the ol d covenant ) 'ha s com e t o hav e n o splendou r a t all , because o f the splendour that surpasses it' ( 2 Corinthians 3:10). For Paul , thi s wa s not a tortuou s o r far-fetche d argument : it wa s nothing othe r tha n 'th e ope n statemen t o f th e truth ' (2 Corinthian s 4:2) , as th e trut h wa s revealed i n Christ . Th e cycle o f interpretatio n bega n wit h Christ , rea d th e Ol d Testament i n th e ligh t of Christian faith , an d the n foun d th e scriptures witnessing to the finality and completio n tha t Christ represented. Suc h interpretatio n wa s integra l t o Christia n worship an d essentia l t o evangelis m among th e Jews. No t fo r nothing di d Pau l spen d thre e sabbath s i n th e synagogu e a t Thessalonica, arguing from th e scriptures and 'explainin g and proving that it was necessary for the Christ to suffer an d t o rise from th e dead, and saying , "This Jesus, whom I proclaim t o you. is the Christ" ' (Act s 17:3). This Christo-centrism was not a merely intellectual stance, a kind o f hermeneutical gam e playe d o n th e chequer-boar d o f Judaistic biblical usage. I t permeated th e whole Christian community, which resonated t o the crucified-and-risen Christ . The relational aspec t cam e t o th e for e i n communit y lif e an d worship: 'where two or three are gathered togethe r i n my name, there a m I i n th e mids t o f them' . Th e ne w communit y was nothing less than 'th e temple o f the living God' ( 2 Corinthians 6:16), separate d alik e from th e ol d communit y with it s faded glory an d fro m th e paganis m o f th e nations , bu t abov e al l enjoying th e welcom e o f Go d wh o was a Fathe r t o them , hi s sons and daughters. In fact , scriptur e an d worshi p inter-relat e i n severa l way s here. Th e worshi p an d communit y lif e ar e informe d b v scripture. Because Christ came 'not to destroy the Torah but to fulfil it' , the Christian s could us e and adap t Jewish psalm s and liturgies; henc e th e 'psalm s an d hymn s an d spiritua l songs ' (Colossians 3:16, Ephesian s 5:19), the great hymnic utterances

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in Revelation, and the Odes of Solomon, 'the earliest Christian Hymn-book'.7 Hence , too , th e doxologies , th e us e of 'Amen', and th e grea t confessions : Cullman n ha s observed , 'Al l thes e old confessio n formula e hav e thi s in common , tha t the y ar e Christocentric and tha t they stress the present Lordship o f Christ'. 6 Christian prophets , too , woul d injec t scriptura l lesson s an d interpretations into the service of worship, as the Spiri t moved them; a criterio n o f genuin e prophec y wa s agai n Christo centrism.9 This Christo-centrism was only possible b y reason o f a strong deposit o f traditio n abou t Jesus the Christ ; both hi s teachin g and th e apostoli c witnes s t o hi s life , deat h an d resurrection . One ca n se e it in operation whe n Pau l explicitl y cites a 'wor d of th e Lord ' t o correc t erro r i n hi s churches . Paul' s us e o f the traditio n o f th e las t suppe r ( 1 Corinthian s 11:23-26 ) i s particularly informative . He stresse s th e chai n o f tradition , records th e action at the meal and its purpose i n a concise an d careful way , and enlarge s freel y o n th e point s h e want s th e Corinthians t o understan d i n particular . However , fro m ou r point o f view , th e mos t significan t fac t i s tha t Pau l cite s dominical traditio n a s th e complet e mode l fo r Christia n practice, t o b e imitate d an d applie d i n th e contemporar y situation. Here we have Christian traditio n alread y possessin g a prescriptiv e function . An d th e apostl e himsel f wa s con sciously contributing to a deposit o f apostolic letters , designe d to b e rea d i n churche s an d eve n t o circulat e amon g the m (though possibl y conceived b y the writer as having immediat e rather tha n long-ter m significance) . From th e earliest days of the Christian movement, therefore , the 'searching of the scripture' in the context of 'the apostles' teaching and fellowship ' was a creative movement which led to a definitiv e understandin g o f th e scripture s i n Christo-centric perspective. Lik e th e Ethiopia n i n Act s 8:26-40 , Christian s and enquirer s nee d guidanc e i n order t o 'understand' ; an d like Philip , apostles an d communit y leader s ('prophet s an d teachers') ha d t o begin wit h th e scriptur e an d relat e th e good news of Jesus (cf . Acts 8:35). Hence, th e logi c of the situatio n suggests tha t the Old Testament scripture s wer e accompanie d 7 J. H. Charlesworth, Th e Odes o f Salomon, Oxford 1973 , p. vii (Preface) . * Early Christian Worship, E.T. , Londo n 1953 , p . 23 . 9 Cf. 1 Corinthians 12:3; and see in particular James Moffatt's comments in loc, in hi s volume on 1 Corinthians in th e MofFat t Ne w Testament Commentaries .

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in Christia n worship by Christian commentary; tha t thi s commentary would comprise 'the things concerning Jesus'; and that the commentato r woul d attemp t t o brin g scripture s an d Christian traditio n alik e int o dynami c relationship with th e contemporary situatio n o f th e hearers . I t i s therefor e no t surprising tha t impressiv e evidenc e ha s bee n pu t forwar d t o suggest that Matthew, for example, 'wrote his Gospel to be read in churc h roun d th e year; he too k th e Jewish Festa l Year , an d the patter n o f lections prescribed therefor , as his base; and i t is possible for us to descry from M S evidence for which feast, an d for whic h Sabbath/Sunday , an d eve n o n occasio n fo r which service, an y particular verse s wer e intended'. 10 Whatever ma y be th e fina l verdic t o f scholarshi p o n thi s detaile d case , i t certainly fit s th e genera l patter n tha t ha s emerge d i n ou r discussion. It was inevitable that in course o f time, the traditions concerning Jesus, 'hande d dow n t o u s b y th e origina l eyewitnesses and servant s of th e Gospel ' (Luk e 1:2), would ceas e to be simply 'the utterances of a living and abidin g voice'" and acquire written form. In th e cas e of Paul's (an d other) letters , written t o specific churche s as part of his care o f the churches, the questio n wa s one o f collection an d perhap s eve n editing. Certainly, 1 Clement (96-97 AD) is familiar with Pauline writings as well as being 'saturated' in the Old Testament.12 Justin (c. AD 155) completes th e picture: . . . o n th e da y called Sunda y ther e i s a meetin g i n on e plac e o f those wh o liv e i n citie s o r th e country , an d th e memoir s o f th e apostles or th e writing s o f th e prophet s are rea d a s lon g a s tim e permits. Whe n th e reader has finished, the president in a discourse urges and invite s (us ) to the imitatio n o f these noble things. The n we all stand up togethe r and offe r prayer s . . .1S

The prayer s ar e followe d b y th e Eucharist . I t i s noteworthy that th e servic e begins with scriptur e lessons ; the n come s th e homiletic application; then th e sacrament. There is no specifi c suggestion o f lectionary here: the readings seem 'ope n ended'; but ther e i s a decide d mov e toward s a Christia n cano n o f scripture. Although thi s matter would not be finally settled until much later , i t i s interestin g tha t Eusebiu s conducte d hi s 10

M. D. Goulder, Midrash and Lection in Matthew, London 1974, p. 172. Papias (earl y second century) , cited i n Eusebiu s H.E. III.39 . ;2 Cf. C. C. Richardson, Early Christian Fathers, London 1953 , p . 37. 'Justin, Apology 1,67 ; se e Richardson , op . cil., p. 287 .

11

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research int o th e issu e by noting which books were actually in use in the churches .

(Hi) Scripture and worship How may we express briefly the relations between scripture an d worship? (a) Scripture permeates worship. Ol d an d Ne w Testament s proceed fro m livin g communitie s o f faith . The y includ e compelling examples of these communities at worship. In the Old Testamen t w e hav e th e prayer s o f Solomo n a t th e dedication o f th e Temple , th e Boo k o f Psalm s with it s wide range o f spirituality and worship , and th e worship practices of Israe l i n festival . I n th e Ne w Testamen t w e hav e th e instructions given by Jesus to th e disciple s on th e matte r o f prayer, an d i n th e apostoli c letter s a variet y o f prayer s i s exemplified: thanksgiving , supplication, intercession , an d at leas t b y implicatio n confession . Th e sam e source s giv e abundant evidenc e o f th e praise s tha t ar e inheren t i n all worship. Ail interesting aspect of all this is the extent t o which the Ol d Testament prayer s and prais e wer e take n ove r an d 'christianized' in the churches . Th e hymn s which we find in the Gospel s (cf . firs t tw o chapter s o f Luke ) ar e directl y derived fro m th e worship of Israel, yet they refer specificall y to th e comin g o f Christ . Th e earl y Christian s apparently made th e transposition withou t difficulty. Fo r them, Jesus was Lord. I t is not without significance that th e first outside view we have of Christian worship speaks of them 'singin g hymns to Christ as to a god'.14 The languag e neede d for such hymns was readily available throug h th e scripture s an d worshi p of Israel and Judaism. Th e intensit y of Christian devotion, fired by prophet and charismatic , sparked th e gap and mad e th e transposition possible . By its very nature, worship is offered by worshippers in their particular situatio n i n life . I n th e Christia n traditio n abov e all worship must not become so formalized as to be thought less and automatic. Th e teachin g of Jesus expressly forbids it. There must always be a contemporary aspect to worship, otherwise i t is not trul y the offerin g o f the worshipper. That is not t o say that Christians cannot use the words of others i n M

Pliny , Epistle s X (t o Trajan) , xcvi.

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the worship they offer. As we have seen they have traditionally done s o in using scriptural language, and not least the Lord's Prayer itself . Bu t the y mus t identif y wit h th e scriptura l meaning s o that it speaks fo r them. The mos t famou s example o f scriptural worship is the us e of th e Psalms , pros e an d metrical , i n Christia n worship . Literally, thei r point s o f referenc e ar e outwit h th e Christia n tradition: th e plac e o f Zio n i s a cas e i n point . However , Christian worship itself provided the context which informed and reinterpreted th e psalmist's imagery. Thus, Zion became the symbo l for th e Churc h o r th e Ne w Jerusalem, whil e th e spiritual lif e o f th e psalmis t wa s reinterpreted i n Christia n terms. Christian worship supplies its own hermeneutic, which is simila r t o tha t applie d fro m th e beginnin g t o th e Ol d Testament. Sometime s thi s is made explicit by appending t o a psalm , fo r example , a n ascriptio n o f prais e i n Christia n terms. Whil e w e can mak e n o objectio n t o thi s practice, i t would b e unfortunat e i f thi s appendag e wer e regarde d a s legitimizing o r 'christianizing ' th e Ol d Testamen t materia l for us e in Christian worship . Generally speaking , th e scripture s hav e immensel y en riched Christia n worshi p throughou t th e ages . The y hav e given a wealth of symbolism which has helped th e worshippe r to understand hi s or her own position i n relation t o God and the koinonia, an d als o t o expres s thi s i n prayer . I n short , Christian praye r mus t b e contemporary , bu t no t merely contemporary, wit h th e worshippers. I n their devotions, the y are unite d with the devotion s of the faithfu l o f all the ages ; and nothing is better equipped t o give expression t o this facet of thei r experienc e tha n th e languag e an d symbolis m o f scripture, their commo n heritage . (b) Scripture i s itself a major element i n worship. Th e churc h service tha t Justi n describe s bega n wit h a n unspecifie d number o f scripture readings. Probabl y a certain informality characterized th e proceedings : possibly interpretations an d discussions o f meaning intersperse d the readings. Certainly , exposition followed . On e thin g i s clear: scriptur e itsel f was the firs t majo r elemen t i n th e service . I t represent s an d conveys th e revelatio n o f Go d t o man , supremel y i n Jesus Christ. Without this , ther e ca n b e n o Christia n worship . I n time, i t was thought fittin g t o begi n worshi p o n a not e o f praise an d prayer , before introducin g th e Word . Th e focu s

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has no t changed . On e simpl y approache s i t i n a wide r liturgical context than Justin's order provides. Thus, worshippers today approach th e plac e of revelation through prais e an d prayer . Th e readin g o f th e scripture s takes the m beyond th e vestibule , so to speak , into th e hol y place wher e Go d reveal s himsel f throug h th e scriptures . Hence ther e i s an obligatio n o n th e par t o f thos e leadin g the worshi p to ensur e tha t th e lesson s ar e a s appropriat e and meaningfu l a s possible . Ther e is , however, n o auto matic relationshi p betwee n readin g th e scripture s an d hearing th e Wor d o f God . T o identif y th e Wor d wit h th e words o f scriptur e i n a litera l an d positiv e way is a majo r error whic h obscure s th e movin g of the Spiri t i n th e heart s and mind s o f th e worshippin g community . Henc e on e might say that the words of the Bibl e are hear d a s the Word of Go d onl y i n th e contex t of worship and devotio n where the huma n spiri t i s mad e ope n t o God' s Spirit . A pre condition i s the attentiv e hearing o f th e words ; participation b y the congregation i n reading - orall y or silently helps toward s thi s end . A ful l appreciatio n o f th e liturgical movemen t o f th e servic e - hearin g th e Word , responding t o th e Word, exposition o f the Word , response to the exposition - alert s worshippers to the demand whic h the servic e i s placin g upo n them . Ther e i s therefor e a n element of mystery at the heart of the liturgy here: a mystery which consist s of nothin g shor t o f th e encounte r o f Go d and hi s people. Truly, when this encounter take s place, it is as the gif t o f God an d a s an ac t of his grace. Ye t the liturg y itself als o help s worshipper s i n thei r searc h fo r Go d an d for th e divin e revelatio n through th e scriptures . 'Seek an d ye shall find . ..' is appropriate t o them , 'fo r i t is in seeking that we are found . . ." Finally, the impression may have been given that Christian worship as described her e i s rather academi c and cognitive. This ha s no t bee n th e intention , althoug h on e woul d wis h to sugges t tha t in th e positio n i n whic h th e Churche s find themselves toda y i t i s important tha t al l worshippers wh o have th e capacit y shoul d understan d wha t i s involve d in Christian worship and interpretation , and b e able t o 'giv e a reason fo r th e fait h tha t i s i n them' . Bu t th e Christia n response t o the divine approach i s a response o f 'the whole person': it involves both th e cognitive and affectiv e domains,

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and i s concerned wit h knowledge, feeling, relationships an d action. (c) Scripture gives specific warrant for certain practices in worship Go therefore and mak e disciples of all nations, baptizing them in th e nam e o f th e Fathe r an d o f th e So n an d o f th e Hol y Spirit . . . For I received from th e Lor d what I also delivered to you, that the Lord Jesus on the night when he was betrayed took bread, and when he ha d give n thanks , he brok e it , and said , 'This is my body which is for you. Do this in remembrance o f me' . . .

Whatever else may be said about these passages, two liturgical acts are expressly warranted by them: baptism and th e Lord' s Supper. This i s no t th e plac e t o follo w ou t th e baptisma l con troversies o f man y centuries . Th e dominica l warran t sanctions baptism in the con text of evangelism and teaching . Matthew see s 'al l nations ' (i.e . th e Gentiles ) a s potential catechumens, t o be baptize d b y water an d s o received int o the tru e Israel . I t mus t b e admitte d tha t th e Evangelist's concern i s far removed from later controversies. He does not specify whether adults alone should be baptized and children excluded, an y mor e tha n h e specifie s a t wha t ag e on e becomes adult! He does not specify how the rite of baptism is to b e carrie d out , althoug h som e hint s ma y perhap s b e derived from othe r New Testament writings. The basi c point is that baptism, in Christian understanding, is carried out by Christ's warrant. When th e rite is administered, appropriat e scriptural passage s ar e read , bot h a s warrant for an d inter pretation o f th e meanin g o f baptism . Thus, i n th e cas e o f infant baptism, the reading of the 'child pericopae' interprets what th e churc h i s doin g i n term s o f Jesus ' attitud e t o children whil e instructing the adult s present o n importan t aspects o f discipleship . A s always , th e church' s teachin g function i s important. The whole rite, being Christo-centric, is properly interpreted furthe r in terms of Christian doctrine: but care shoul d b e taken not t o overload th e liturg y with to o much didacti c material, for thi s will lessen th e impact of the liturgical action rather tha n enhance it . The Lord' s Supper is the clima x of Christian worship . Its place i n th e liturg y i s discussed below . One notes , however,

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that when Pau l was writing t o the Corinthians , a eucharistic tradition - whether as 'the breaking of bread' or the Agapeor fellowship mea l - wa s already i n existence : Pau l wa s not introducing th e sacramen t fo r th e firs t time . Equally , Pau l had t o assert hi s apostolic authorit y i n order t o correct th e excesses whic h Churc h traditio n b y itsel f wa s unabl e t o handle. Hence th e significance of incorporating the narrative of 1 Corinthians 11:23ff. in the communion service as warrant and mode l fo r th e liturgica l practice. On e note s als o th e kerygmatic emphasi s i n Paul : 'fo r a s ofte n a s you ea t thi s bread and drink this cup, you proclaim the Lord's death until he comes'. The Lord' s Suppe r i s a powerful proclamatio n of the Cros s and Resurrection , an d thi s proclamation mus t be made an d heard . Th e ministr y of Word an d Sacramen t is a unity. Indeed , i n th e ful l servic e o f Christia n worship, th e people o f Go d ar e helpe d b y the liturg y to approac h Go d through th e vestibule of praise an d praye r to the hol y place where th e Wor d i s hear d an d understoo d an d respons e made; and finally to the mos t holy place where the bread of life i s offered i n word and action : a holy mystery interpreted by scripture and therefor e properly the object of study in the continuing teaching ministry of the Church. Sacrament The ter m 'sacrament ' i s not foun d i n th e Bible , and wa s not used i n th e earlies t Church , althoug h wha t w e no w kno w as sacramenta l worshi p was a centra l focu s o f th e encounte r with God . Th e equivalen t ter m t o sacramen t i n th e Ne w Testament i s mysterion, 'mystery' . I n th e synopti c Gospel s we read o f th e 'myster y o f th e Kingdo m o f God' . I n Pau l th e mystery i s God's pla n fo r th e salvatio n of al l which has bee n realized i n histor y as wel l a s reveale d i n Christ' s deat h an d resurrection - th e 'paschal mystery ' which is implanted agai n and agai n i n histor y through th e proclamatio n o f th e Word . The 'myster y o f God ' ( 1 Corinthian s 2: 1 i n som e MSS ) i s identical with the myster y of the crucified Jesus (1 Corinthians 1:23; 2:2) , and with the proclamatio n o f the Gospel. The good news, God' s secre t plan , i s no w reveale d an d realize d i n the event s o f passio n an d resurrection . Th e myster y which had bee n hidde n i n Go d i s now revealed throug h th e Spiri t (1 Corinthian s 2:7-16) . I n Colossian s an d Ephesian s i t i s

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explained that the mystery once secret and no w made manifes t is tha t i n Christ , Go d wa s reconciling th e whol e cosmo s t o himself, and al l things are involved in a process which might be called 'christification ' (Colossian s 1:15-29 , 2:8-12 ; Ephesian s 1:8-10, 2:4-10, 3:1-13),. To sum up the New Testament under standing of the ter m mysterion: it is used in three related senses : (a) God's secret purpose for the salvation of all, now revealed in Chris t (e.g . Roman s 2:25 , 8:19-21); (b) A n earthl y reality expressing i n a hidden wa y a meaning relate d t o God's secret plan (e.g . Ephesian s 5:32 ; Revelatio n 1:20 , 17:5-7) ; (c ) A n historical happening with a special significanc e related to God's plan (e.g . 1 Corinthians 15:51; 2 Thessalonians 2:7). In secular usage mysterion meant, in a general way, a secret, while the plural form, mysteria referred t o the cults of the paga n 'mystery religions' . Th e questio n o f th e relatio n o f earl y Christianity to these myster y religions is a very complex matter into which we cannot go here, except to say that most moder n scholarship reject s th e view , enthusiasticall y propounded i n a former generation , tha t early Christianity (an d particularl y its cult) was shaped very largely on th e model of a mystery religion. The Father s are on th e whole very cautious about any use of the term myster y to refe r specificall y t o Christia n worship, presumably because the y fear confusion with the paga n rites of the mystery religions. But Clement of Alexandria — notable among the Father s for hi s eagerness t o relat e th e Fait h t o it s cultural context - speak s of three Christia n mysteries, or categories of mysteries: first , th e 'lesse r mysteries ' whic h were receive d a s preparation o r preliminar y t o greate r ones , fo r example , initiation b y baptism ; secondly , th e 'greate r mysteries' , th e central truth s o f th e Faith , which were t o b e live d an d con templated s o tha t graduall y more o f thei r meanin g becam e plain an d coul d b e appropriate d b y believers; and thirdly , th e 'great mystery ' whic h th e othe r mysterie s reflec t o r poin t towards, Jesus Chris t himself. The Lati n Fathers seem t o have had a certain suspicion of the Greek ter m mystenonand tende d to borro w a curren t ter m sacramentum a s a n alternative . Sacramentum ha d a pluralit y o f meanings , bu t th e on e whic h made i t most suitabl e fo r Christia n usag e wa s the sacramentum miiitiae, th e ritua l o f entr y o f recruit s int o th e Roma n army , which include d th e takin g of a solemn oat h o f loyalty and was often accompanie d b y the 'bran d of fidelity ' (fidei signaculum). Tertullian was the first to use sacramentum in a Christian context.

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In th e cas e o f baptism, h e understoo d i t on th e mode l o f th e military recruit's sacramentum, as indicating a binding faith an d commitment of one's self and th e star t of a new life. His talk of marriage as a sacrament suggests that he saw sacramentum as a direct translatio n o f th e mysterion o f Ephesian s 5 , where th e analogy between the love of Christ for his church and a husband and wif e i s declare d ' a grea t mystery' . Cypria n interpret s sacramentum in a less legal (o r military ) way than Tertullian ; a sacrament is a matter of symbols, figures, and sign s representing spiritual realities . Accordingly he speak s o f th e Eucharis t as a sacrament i n additio n t o baptis m an d marriage . Hilar y of Poitiers knows of three sacramenta: initiation, Eucharist and th e incarnation. But the three are clearly not 'o n a level', as it were: the Incarnatio n i s the foundatio n an d basi s for th e othe r two; they draw their meaning and significance from the Word mad e flesh. Augustine, th e firs t grea t systematize r o f Lati n theology , understood a sacramen t a s th e 'sign ' o f a sacre d reality , th e visible for m o f a n invisibl e grace. H e distinguishe d fou r com ponents: (a ) th e signum, th e outwar d visibl e an d materia l element, such as bread, wine, or water; (b) the virtus sacramenti, the 'virtue ' o r inward , invisibl e grace conveye d i n th e sacra ment; (c) th e verbum, the spoke n formul a pronounce d b y th e minister whic h provide d th e lin k betwee n th e sig n an d it s 'virtue'. The verbum is, in fact, the Word of God, not a magic spell, an d th e sacramen t mus t neve r b e separate d fro m th e Word o r i t cease s t o b e a sacrament . A s Augustine wrot e i n relation t o baptism : 'Tak e awa y th e Wor d an d th e wate r i s nothing but water. But when th e Word i s joined to the elemen t the resul t is a sacrament. . . Where does the wate r get it s lofty power to bathe th e body and cleanse th e soul if it is not throug h the actio n o f th e Word ? An d no t becaus e i t i s spoken, bu t because i t i s believed.' 15 (d) Th e 'agent' o f the sacrament i s Christ himself, wh o is th e Word. On e canno t bu t notic e tha t i n th e transition from th e Ne w Testament understandin g o f mysterion to th e develope d theolog y o f sacramentum in Augustine some thing ha s bee n los t an d th e concep t ha s bee n significantl y narrowed. Wha t ha d originall y denoted God' s secret pla n fo r all creation revealed and realized in Christ, and only derivatively the cult in which the Church re-present s th e mystery of Christ, *•' O n Ike Gospel of John 80.3, cite d i n J. Martos , Doors to the Sacred, Londo n 1981 , pp. 191f .

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now suggest s mer e rite s rathe r tha n on-goin g realities . Th e primordial 'sacramentality ' o f Chris t i s all but forgotten , an d the understandin g of the cult consequently impoverished an d opened to all sorts of distortions. Sacraments considered a s rites are viewed in isolation fro m thei r proper context and accorded a significanc e o n thei r ow n whic h differ s substantiall y from the primitiv e view. No w ne w question s o f a quit e differen t order arise, such as the number o f sacraments tha t exist (Pete r Lombard taugh t tha t ther e wer e seven ; th e Reformatio n recognized onl y two) or whether explicit institution by Christ is required t o mak e a sacramen t (Hug o o f St. Victor - twelft h century - emphasized th e need fo r dominical institution, as did the Reformers , bu t ther e wa s disagreement a s to ho w explicit such institutio n nee d be) . Consequently , Thoma s Aquina s taught tha t the sacrament s work ex opere operato, which came t o be interprete d a s a wa y of affirmin g th e objectivit y o f th e sacraments and thei r independenc e o f th e spiritual , moral o r emotional state of the minister or of the recipients. Sacraments, he taught, are the work of God and not of man, and th e minister (representing th e Church ) an d th e Churc h itsel f (i n whos e name th e rit e is administered) ar e only instrumental causes of Christ's own savin g activity. A sacrament i s an objectivel y valid offer o f grac e mad e b y Go d himself . Sacraments confe r th e grace the y signify , no t fo r an y superstitiou s reaso n o r i n a magical way , but becaus e i n the m Chris t th e Hig h Pries t i s acting throug h hi s Body , represente d b y th e minister , whose worthiness, while desirable, is not essential to the efficacy of th e sacrament. Afte r Thoma s th e prevalen t lega l an d juridica l thinking resulte d i n th e validit y o f th e sacramen t bein g see n as dependin g upo n th e correc t performanc e o f th e rit e i n the prescribe d form , wit h th e prope r words , b y th e legall y authorized minister . Thi s legalisti c understandin g o f th e sacraments became ver y widespread in the later Middle Ages so that sometime s a juridica l vie w almos t totall y obscure d a theological understandin g o f their meaning and significance. The Reformatio n attempte d t o recove r a biblica l under standing o f th e sacrament s but wa s only partially successful in escaping fro m th e legac y o f th e late r Middl e Ages . Th e Reformers' view s covered a wide spectrum, fro m th e Zwinglia n extreme where they were understood as little more than visual aids fo r th e commemoratio n o f pas t events , t o stron g affirmations o f th e Rea l Presenc e o f Christ with his people i n

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their celebration. Fo r an act of worship to be a sacrament it had to have been specificall y institute d by the Lord , with a promise of divin e grac e attached ; accordingl y onl y tw o sacraments , rather than the mediaeval seven, were recognized. This narrowing of the category of sacrament was not reall y a recovery of th e New Testamen t vie w - a s we have see n th e earl y Church was perfectly familia r wit h baptis m an d th e Lord' s Suppe r bu t understood the m a s element s i n th e vas t mysterion o f God' s dealings with mankin d i n Christ rather tha n th e tw o members of a particular class of rites. The stron g affirmatio n tha t Word and Sacramen t belonge d togethe r protecte d th e tw o sacraments fro m a n unhealth y isolation , bu t fel l shor t o f a rediscovery of the primitive comprehensiveness. Becaus e sacramental quality was believed t o inhere onl y in baptism and th e Eucharist, th e theologica l understandin g o f othe r form s of worship was inhibited and th e Reforme d Churche s were even reluctant to speak of preaching a s sacramental althoug h thei r practice seemed t o suggest such an interpretation. In principle the assertio n o f the complementarit y o f Word and Sacramen t and th e understanding of a sacrament as a verbum visibile, or as a seal and confirmation of God's Word of promise, should have opened up th e recover y of the prope r integration of Christian worship int o th e econom y o f salvation ; in practic e mediaeva l problems about th e number an d validity of the sacraments and opposition t o lat e mediaeva l sacramentalis m ensure d tha t a narrow vie w o f sacramentalit y wa s maintained whil e baptism and th e Eucharist were separated sharpl y from all other form s of worship (whic h were thereb y deprive d o f any sacramenta l significance) an d theologicall y relegated t o little more tha n an appendix rathe r tha n relatin g t o th e hear t o f th e Christian mystery. The Easter n Churche s followe d a very different path . The y continued t o us e th e ter m 'mystery ' i n thei r liturgie s in th e biblical sense : fo r the m th e Incarnation , th e Eucharist , Marriage, Baptism , th e Veilin g o f a Virgin , the settin g apar t of oil for liturgical use and numerou s othe r events, acts, rites, and doctrine s ar e al l 'mysteries' , i n th e sens e tha t the y ar e earthly realitie s fundamentall y related t o Christ , th e mystery of ou r salvation . Ther e wa s no questio n o f identifyin g two , three, seven , o r mor e rites as sacraments o r mysterie s t o th e exclusion o f al l else . Rather , the y wer e concerne d wit h identifying th e whol e of revelatio n an d salvatio n with a serie s

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of historical , tempora l focuse s o f encounte r fundamentall y related t o th e primordia l myster y of Christ . These views were partially abandoned onl y where the influence of Latin though t led t o th e adoptin g o f Wester n post-Aquina s sacramenta l theology. At the heart of the modern movement fo r liturgical renewal is a recover y o f th e understandin g o f sacramen t a s mystery, never totall y lost in th e East . Goin g bac k t o scripture an d th e Fathers, pioneer s suc h a s Odo Case l i n German y understoo d sacraments as rites in which participants encountered the living Christ, and his saving activity was re-presented t o them. Worship was seen as participation in the mysteries of the Christian Faith, and th e rit e itsel f had a significanc e which was simply instrumental. Buildin g o n suc h foundation s a numbe r o f recen t theologians, mos t notabl y Edwar d Schillebeeckx , hav e developed a sacramenta l theolog y whic h faithfull y reflect s neglected emphase s i n Scriptur e an d th e Father s an d trans cends man y ancien t controversies , suggestin g possibilitie s of ecumenica l consensu s i n thi s fiel d s o lon g devastate d by warring armies . Sacrament s ar e understoo d a s lovin g encounters betwee n th e believe r an d Go d which , like lovin g encounters between tw o human beings , reveal truths which are not apparen t o n th e surfac e o r accessibl e t o th e detached , 'objective' observer. Disciples o f today , jus t a s th e disciple s o f lon g ago , i n encountering Jesus com e int o touch wit h a mystery which they know t o be th e myster y of God's being an d acts , the secre t o f the universe and th e meaning of life. In the primary sense, then, we shoul d spea k o f Jesus Chris t as bein g th e Sacrament. 16 I n Christ, th e Incarnate Son , throug h hi s physical, historica l an d material humanity we encounter th e mystery, and th e reality of God himself . I n a secondar y sense , th e Churc h whic h i s th e Body o f Chris t shoul d b e regarde d a s a sacrament . I t i s th e community in tim e an d space , th e visibl e fellowship, in which the Go d an d Fathe r o f our Lor d Jesus Christ is encountered , and as his Body, it represents Christ sacramentally to the world. Thus, th e Churc h i s also t o be understood a s the sacramen t of the unity of all mankind: it shows in sacramental for m the saving purpose o f God fo r al l humanity, it is a sig n of hope fo r all , a working model (t o use a rather crude image) of what God wills lh Cf . th e titl e o f Schillebeeckx' s book , Christ th e Sacrament o f the Encounter with God, Londo n 1963 .

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for everyone: lovin g fellowship with God and with one another . And th e Churc h i s a sacramen t becaus e th e visible , empirica l reality of the fellowship points beyond itself to its Lord, to Christ the sacramen t o f th e encounte r wit h God . Thirdly , ther e ar e sacraments o f the Church which are sacraments, Schillebeeck x argues, precisel y because they are also acts of Christ himself. 'A sacrament', h e writes , 'i s primaril y an d fundamentall y a personal ac t of Christ himself which reaches and involve s us in the for m o f an institutiona l ac t performe d b y a person i n th e Church who. . . is empowered to do so by Christ himself. M 7And since the sacraments ar e acts of Christ, Schillebeeckx insist s that 'he mus t in some way have institute d the m himself'. 18 Indeed, without conceding th e extreme Protestan t positio n tha t ther e are two and onl y two sacraments, baptism an d th e Eucharist, an emerging ecumenica l consensu s concur s i n accordin g a very real primacy to these two rites while affirming tha t the y canno t be properl y understoo d excep t a s specia l focuse s o f a mor e broadly conceive d sacramentality . Go d i s no t confine d t o encountering hi s people onl y in baptism an d th e Eucharist, but he has trysted to meet them there, and these two meeting place s encourage an d hel p believer s t o discern th e presenc e of God elsewhere an d encounte r him in Christ i n all sorts of times and places, which thereb y becom e sacramental. Fo r wherever Go d is encountered believers may say, with Jacob, 'This is none other than th e house of God, an d thi s is the gate of heaven' (Genesi s 28:17.) Finally, to understand sacraments as ways of introducing an d intensifying th e experienc e o f encounte r wit h Go d i n Chris t involves th e necessit y o f holdin g togethe r th e Wor d an d th e Sacrament. Apar t from th e Word, the symbol s and action s of a sacrament would mystif y rather tha n revea l the mystery of God's purpose i n Christ; the Word integrate s these acts and symbol s into the mystery of salvation; Word, symbol and action mutually clarify one another and cannot be held apar t without danger of radical distortion. 19

17

Op . at., p. 62 . Op . aL, p. 137 . 10 Thus, D . Coggan advocate s a bi-foca l understandin g o f th e mean s of grace : '. . . the Livin g God comes t o u s both i n the Sacramen t of the Bod y and Bloo d of Christ an d i n th e sacramen t o f the Wor d . . .': Th e Sacrament o f the Word, Londo n 1989, p . 24. 18

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FURTHER READING J. Barr , Ol d and New in Interpretation (2n d edn.), London 1982 . —, Holy Scripture: canon, authority, criticism, Oxford 1983 . —, Th e Scope and Authority o f the Bible (Explorations in Theolog y 7), Londo n 1980 . D. Coggan, Th e Sacrament o f the Word, Londo n 1989 . A. Lewis, 'Ecclesia ex Auditu: A Reformed View of th e Churc h as the Communit y of the Word' , The Scottish Journalof Theology, vol.35, 1982, pp . 13-31 . C. F . D. Moule, Worship i n th e New Testament, London 1961 . H. H. Rowley , Worship i n Ancient Israel, Londo n 1967 . E. Schillebeeckx, The Sacrament of the Encounter with God, Londo n 1971. D. N . Power , Th e Eucharistic Mystery: Revitalizing the Tradition, London & Dublin 1993 . FOR DISCUSSION 1. 'Th e liturgy is scripture's home rathe r than its stepchild, and the Hebre w an d Christia n Bible s were th e Church' s first liturgical books.' (A. Kavanagh.) What then is the importance of the worshipping community for the interpretation of the Bible? 2. Ho w far is scripture itself dependent o n th e traditio n of th e faith community , and ho w fa r i s Church traditio n guide d and correcte d by scripture? 3. Wha t do you consider to be the most creative way of viewing the relationship of Word and Sacrament ? 4. I s a 'non-sacramental ' servic e o f worshi p a defectiv e o r incomplete for m of Christian worship?

CHAPTER 5

THE WORD AN D THE WORDS I N WORSHIP - PREACHIN G Introduction Preaching i s in crisis . Thi s awarenes s ha s bee n wit h u s fo r som e time now , reducing pastora l moral e an d congregationa l fervour . But the wa y out, towar d ne w effectiveness in preaching , i s not ye t clear. Wha t i s quit e evident , though , i s tha t th e ol d topical / conceptual approac h t o preachin g i s critically, i f not terminally , ill.1

Talk o f crisi s can b e dramati c an d alarmist . A crisis can b e 'talked up'. Yet there ca n be little doubt tha t in many societies today, and in many Christian communities, preaching does not emerge as an outstandingly effectiv e mod e of communication . Doubtless the reason s ar e complex, an d rais e many questions about the secularization of society (and its impact upon church communities) an d th e relationshi p betwee n preachin g an d culture. Some preachin g has been enormousl y effective i n th e modern world . Here on e think s not s o much of the American media evangelists, with thei r huge following , no r eve n of Bill y Graham, wit h hi s remarkabl e preachin g crusades , bu t a t a n arguably deeper leve l of Martin Luther King in the Civi l Rights campaign, and Desmond Tutu in the struggle against Apartheid. In th e las t two cases, on e ca n discern a total coalescin g o f the concerns o f people and preache r fo r a changed world , and a readiness to hear language and imagery as immediately relevant to thei r situation . People , preacher and biblica l tex t were all part o f th e contemporar y momentu m fo r chang e an d trans formation. 2 1

R . L. Eslinger, A New Hearing, Nashville 1987 , p. 11 . For a discussion o f hermeneutics , cf. J. I . H. McDonald , Biblical Interpretation and Christian Ethics, Cambridge 1993 , pp . 200-46 . 2

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Situations which give rise to crisis talk could hardl y be mor e different. Th e sermon i s no more tha n a conventional elemen t in a conventional act of worship. There is an apparently deter mined passivity on the part of the congregation, combined wit h a lack of expectation tha t anything will change. Such preachin g is a non-event. It may result from basic errors or misconceptions on the preacher's part, whether abou t the nature o f communication or what is to be communicated. Bu t it is too easy to blame it all on the preacher. Preacher an d congregation together may bear a share of the blame. Together they have failed t o generat e the kin d of situation in which the Spiri t of God can move . But possibly both ar e victims of a kind of cultural captivity in which it is very difficult t o sing or respon d t o the Lord' s song.3 To begi n t o addres s thi s situatio n i s a dauntin g task , wel l beyond th e scop e o f this chapter. It s complexity demonstrates the fac t tha t preachin g cannot properl y b e viewed i n isolatio n from th e worshi p an d communit y lif e o f whic h i t i s part . I f the sermo n i s a non-event, perhap s muc h th e sam e i s true o f the worship . If th e sermo n i s emotional froth , perhap s th e worship i s like tha t too . Preachin g presuppose s a degree o f expectation: no t o f bein g entertained , no r havin g one' s prejudices o r opinion s reinforced , but o f having the horizons of one' s understandin g widene d an d one' s commitmen t t o Christian discipleship challenged and strengthened. Yet, while accepting the importance o f this lively community context, it is still legitimate to separate ou t for special treatment some of the presuppositions o f effectiv e preaching . Le t i t b e sai d tha t preaching i s never easy , and tha t th e preache r i s ultimately in the hand o f God and delivers the message he or she believes to be give n fro m above . Nevertheless , tha t doe s no t spar e th e preacher the struggle not only to prepare a sermon that will be effective bu t als o t o understand , lik e an y professional , th e nature an d implication s o f th e tas k entruste d t o him o r her . This is what is addressed i n thi s chapter. This tas k itsel f i s wide rangin g an d canno t b e discusse d exhaustively. However , severa l importan t dimension s ma y be indicated briefly here. One involve s biblical interpretation. The New Testament message , a s is well known, comes to us from th e alien cultural setting of the Graeco-Roman world, two thousand years ag o (o r th e equall y strang e worl d o f ancien t Israel) . 3

Cf. chapter 1 1 below .

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Rudolf Bultmann had littl e need to exaggerate it s alien natur e (which perhap s h e did) ; nor Denni s Nineham th e difficult y o f communicating acros s cultures. 4 The horizon s o f th e ancien t world wer e ver y differen t fro m thos e o f today . Ye t the Ne w Testament writing s not onl y mov e i n th e though t worl d o f demons, 'principalitie s and powers ' an d angeli c appearances ; they also deal with explosive issues such as 'eating meat offered to idols' , 'Korban ' an d th e table-fellowshi p at Antioch. 5 In all such issues there is an attempt to apply, in the relevant cultural setting, th e Christia n messag e o r 'goo d news ' a s th e basi c principle an d motiv e o f Christia n existence . Thi s i s what is translatable into other cultures and ages . And its translatability is enhanced i n that there is, down the ages, a chain of Christian worship and witness, each lin k of which denotes th e attempt, in a differen t cultura l milieu , t o expres s th e gospe l i n con temporary terms . T o stan d i n thi s traditio n an d recogniz e oneself to be part of this chain is to acknowledge that the gospel can b e translated meaningfull y int o th e languag e an d cultur e of today . I t doe s n o more , however , tha n provid e a n initia l impetus to the process. The actua l translatio n has to be undertaken afresh in each generation, i f not in every sermon o r act of worship. The secon d dimensio n is that of communication. Communication theor y ca n teac h u s th e rudiment s o f th e science , bu t preaching ha s t o com e t o term s with th e fac t tha t communi cation itself has been revolutionized in modern society. In times past, th e preache r wa s the communicato r pa r excellence, th e fountainhead o f wisdom and inspiration . As Derek Weber ha s emphasized, the media age has changed th e situation radically. In a medi a ag e (fille d wit h message s of al l shape s an d colours , wrapped up in 3-hour films and 10-secon d sound bites, surrounded by compute r technolog y an d psychologica l researc h int o soun d and image response) the preache r feels like an amateur in a world of professional communicators. 6 The proble m mus t b e addressed ; i t cannot b e bypassed . Th e effect of television in particular maybe to shorten th e attentio n 1 Cf. R . Bultmann, 'The Ne w Testament an d Mythology' , i n Kerygma an d Myth (ed. H . W. Bartsch), London 1954 , pp . 1-44 ; D. E. Nineham, The Use and Abuse of the Bible, London 1976 , passim. For a review of Nineham , cf. R. H. Preston , 'Need Dr Nineham be so Negative?', Expository TimesXC 9, 1979, pp. 275-80. ' For mea t offered t o idols , see 1 Corinthians 8; 'Korban' occur s in Mar k 7:11; on Antioch , see Galatians 2. 6 D. C. Weber, Discerning Images, Edinburgh 1991 , p . 91.

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span, t o crav e visua l images , t o see k participation , and t o demand straightforwar d language. Traditional preachin g doe s not accor d wit h thes e emphase s bu t the y may point th e way to effective moder n preaching . Suc h question s ar e addresse d below. Yet th e mos t importan t dimensio n o f al l remains . Th e 'source' of the message i s two-fold: in the immediate perspective the sourc e i s the encode r (i.e . the preacher , teacher , liturgist or communicator ) bu t ultimately , it transcend s th e huma n dimension. The word s of the encode r ar e designe d t o convey the Wor d fro m Beyond , th e addres s o f th e wholl y Other . Liturgist an d preache r a s part o f th e Church , bea r witnes s to the Word from Beyond made manifest in the human dimensio n in th e perso n o f Jesus th e Christ . Through him , preacher an d liturgist are given a Word t o speak; indeed a Word t o embody . Underlying ou r attempt s t o grappl e wit h homiletic s an d liturgies is a confidence tha t the work on which we are engage d is part of a much larger scene , not only in this-wordly terms bu t in term s of the communio sanctorum. Ultimately, it is God's work that we do, and th e issues are in his hand. All this has been the work of God. H e has reconciled u s to himsel f through Christ , an d ha s enliste d u s i n th e ministr y o f recon ciliation. Go d wa s in Christ , reconcilin g th e worl d t o himself , n o longer holding people's misdeeds against them , and has entrusted us with th e ministr y o f reconciliation . W e ar e therefor e Christ' s ambassadors. It i s as if God wer e appealin g to you through us : we implore yo u in Christ's name, be reconciled t o God.7

Origins Preaching i s sometimes assume d t o b e a peculiarl y Christia n phenomenon an d t o characteriz e particularl y the Reforme d Christian tradition . I n fact , i t characterize s man y religiou s traditions. After hi s enlightenment, Siddhartha Gautama , th e Buddha, committe d himsel f t o a preachin g ministry . Th e Benares sermon , wit h it s kerne l o f dhamma, translate d hi s spiritual experience int o intelligible doctrine; th e 'sermo n o n burning' set s fort h th e Buddhis t vie w o f huma n existenc e a s fevered b y passion s an d thu s enslave d t o th e world. 8 I n 7 2 Corinthians 5:18-20, RF.B . * Cf. Man's Religious Quest, Whitfield Fo y (ed.), London 1978 , pp . 176-82 .

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Christianity, the catholic tradition of East and West enshrined a great preachin g tradition : Origen, John Chrysostom , Gregory of Nazianzus , Augustine, Ambrose an d Savonarol a are name s to conjure with in this regard. The prophets of Israel were essentially messengers o f Yahweh. The formul a 'Thus say s th e Lor d . . .' appear s t o b e derive d from th e sendin g o f roya l messages : Thu s say s my Lord th e King . . .' I t i s a proclamation , t o b e delivere d wit h sovereign authority. Th e apprehensio n o f th e messag e fall s withi n th e realm of religious mystery and i s not full y open t o our scrutiny . Often, we deduce, it occurred i n the course of intense religious experience; it was accompanied by a commission to convey the message, whateve r th e consequences , sometime s wit h mor e than a sense of urgency, almost a compulsion to utter the divine communication. Amos at Bethel and Jeremiah a t the gat e o f the Temple ar e examples o f prophec y whic h assume s th e for m o f a proc lamatory sermon . Deuteronom y provides furthe r example s of sermons a s th e instrument s of propheti c leadership . A characteristic o f tru e prophec y i s that i t uses intelligibl e language (cf. Paul in 1 Corinthians 14) an d tha t it reinforces and applies the tradition of Moses, the magnaliaor mighty works of salvation which God wrought in Israel in th e event of the Exodus and a t Sinai. Preaching in the prophetic tradition consists primarily of two related forms : th e messag e o f salvation and th e message of judgement. I n addition , i t can conve y eschatological urgency ('the da y of th e Lor d i s near . . .'). Thes e characteristic s are carried ove r int o earl y Christianity . Here, th e messag e o f salvation (euangelion: good news) predominates; but its obverse is the warning against rejecting God's grace an d incurrin g his judgement, an d th e eschatological emphasis , though modified by th e fac t tha t th e Chris t ha s alread y com e i n th e mids t of history, nevertheles s remain s stron g i n Ne w Testament proc lamation. One o f the distinguishing marks of post-exilic Judaism is the emergence o f written scripture, th e Torah , as focal i n th e lif e and worshi p of th e faith-community . Wit h i t ther e cam e th e synagogue, th e scribes , rabbini c exegesi s - an d synagogu e preaching. A t wha t poin t th e homil y o r sermo n becam e a regular par t o f synagogu e worshi p i s unclear , bu t Luk e 4 implies i t wa s no t uncommo n i n Jesus ' time , whil e i n Alexandria, Philo was a philosophical preacher with apologeti c

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objectives. However , the rabbini c traditio n o f preachin g was fundamentally exegetical . There wer e tw o forms o f homil y which merit particular note. One was the proem homily, in which the preache r selecte d a text which would enable hi m t o bring the secon d lesso n (fro m 'th e Prophets' ) int o ne w lif e an d relevance for the hearers and move on fro m ther e t o elucidate the primar y lesson (fro m th e Torah) . A s with th e Pharisai c tradition generally , th e emphasi s wa s on th e clai m of divine obligation o n th e live s of the hearers . Henc e parable , analogy and illustratio n formed a prominen t par t o f the homily . The second majo r form was known as the yelammedenu homily. Here the startin g poin t wa s a questio n pu t b y th e leader s o f th e congregation: 'Let our teache r instruc t us . . .' I n th e ministr y of Jesus, th e addres s i n th e synagogu e a t Nazaret h and th e discourse o n th e brea d o f life i n th e Fourt h Gospe l appea r t o be o f th e forme r type , while question s suc h a s I s i t lawfu l t o heal on the sabbath?' (Matthew 12:10) appear to be of the latter variety.9 That th e synagogu e homily was at leas t influence d i n it s development by external models, especially hellenistic preaching, is very likely, for Greek rhetoric and educatio n had a lasting impact on Jewish practice , even when Greek culture as a whole was rejected as inimical to the Jewish faith.10 Popular preaching emerged in the Greek worlds with the diatribe, which deliberately adapte d philosoph y to th e popula r market . The homily was therefore a homely, conversational presentation of a philosophical position : the wor d implie s 'familiar dialogue' . Vivi d illustrations and analogies abounded. Question s - sometime s rhetorical, sometimes direc t - brough t th e hearers into active engagement with the subject-matter. Humour, repartee, stories and a variety of rhetorical device s heightene d th e effect . I n a later phase , however , th e homil y becam e muc h mor e o f a formal discourse or lecture. There can be little doubt that early Christian preaching was considerably influenced by the GraecoRoman homiletic tradition and tha t the synagogue homily also mediated rhetorica l for m and art . Examples of early Christian preaching in the New Testament suggest tha t th e variou s strand s wer e wel l represente d i n it . The propheti c strand is reflected in the kerygmatic sermons of Peter an d Pau l i n Acts : the y proclaim th e Christia n magnalia 0 10

Cf. J. I . H. McDonald, Kerygma an d Didrtche, Cambridge 1980 , pp . 48ff . Cf. M. Hengel, Judaism an d Hellenism I, London 1974 , pp . 65-83.

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or 'might y acts of God'; they call for repentance, with urgency born o f a n eschatologica l faith . Indeed , suc h propheti c models pinpoin t th e basi c Christia n stanc e fro m whic h th e scriptures of the Ol d Testament ar e 'peshered ' o r give n thei r distinctive Christia n interpretation. However , Paul's address to th e synagogu e congregatio n a t Antioc h i n Pisidi a (Act s 13:15-41) bears some resemblance t o a proem homily, though it has bee n thoroughl y Christianized . Another goo d exampl e of a Christianize d synagogu e sermo n i s th e speec h o f Stephen (Act s 7:2-53) , whil e a mor e hellenisti c exampl e i s the Areopagu s speec h i n Act s 17:22-31 . Paul' s preachin g is echoed i n man y o f hi s letters , an d homileti c influenc e i s strong i n letter s suc h a s Hebrews and 1 Clement. The word s dialegesthai (Act s 20:7, 9) and homilein (20:11) both sugges t that Paul's preachin g invite d participatio n i n dialogu e an d argu ment. The mai n factor which separates Justin's description of early Christian worshi p fro m tha t o f th e Ne w Testamen t i s tha t Christian writing s have take n thei r plac e alongsid e th e Ol d Testament scriptures , an d Christia n preachin g i s basically exegetical. I n Origen , th e homil y expound s a pericop e o r selected passag e vers e b y verse . Eve n suc h unpromisin g material a s th e Son g o f Song s i s expounde d i n thi s way in two homilies. I n Origen , carefu l commentar y or textua l study lays th e foundation s o f homiletics , thoug h o f cours e h e had hi s ow n assumption s abou t ho w scriptur e shoul d b e interpreted.11 The homily , however , wa s no t th e onl y preachin g fro m Origen knew . H e use d logos t o describ e a mor e systematic discourse o n a selecte d theme . Augustine , too, distinguishe d between homil y an d sermon , th e forme r bein g relativel y informal an d th e latter (the sermo} referrin g t o a discourse i n a great basilica . Th e sermo ha d a mor e systemati c structure , building u p a n argumen t b y logica l step s an d reachin g a conclusion which combine d th e complete d argumen t with a n appeal t o th e hearers . Increasingly , i t reproduce d th e procedures an d device s of classica l rhetoric , an d wa s a for m " Origen ha d a three-fol d exegetica l method : th e litera l o r direc t sens e (e.g . Song of Songs is a love poem or lyric) ; the deeper or indirec t sens e (th e Song is an allegory of Christ an d th e Church) ; and th e spiritual (th e Song offers an imag e of heaven: the marriag e o f the Logo s and th e huma n soul) . Cf. R. P. Lawson, Origen: the Song o f Songs, Commentary an d Homilies, London 1957 , pp . 8ff. ; R . A . Greer , Origen, London 1979 , pp . 23f .

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that was to have much influence o n th e Christia n traditio n of preaching.

Theology The notio n tha t th e Gospels , and muc h othe r materia l in th e Bible, are essentiall y kerygmatic, tha t is , designed t o proclai m God's messag e o f salvation , wa s given prope r prominenc e by Martin Kahle r i n 1892 . H e wrote , Th e rea l Chris t i s th e preached Christ , an d th e preache d Chris t i s th e Chris t o f faith.' 12 Thereafter , fo r th e bes t par t o f a century . Reforme d theology ha s bee n 'dialectical' , 'kerygmatic' , 'th e theolog y of the Word' . Henc e i t i s integrall y relate d t o th e preachin g ministry. Throug h th e wor k o f Kar l Rahne r an d others , thi s emphasis has also come to the fore in Roman Catholic thinking. Karl Bart h wa s one o f th e mos t outstandin g proponent s o f kerygmatic theology . Particularl y i n his earlier writing s - fo r example, i n th e Word o f Go d and th e Word o f ma n - h e gav e prominence t o th e perspectiv e o f th e preacher , concerne d to relat e simultaneousl y t o th e wor d o f scriptur e an d th e world of his hearers. Even in the Church Dogmatics, the emphasis he place d o n preachin g i s evident i n th e wa y he pinpointe d the thre e forms of the Word o f God: (i ) th e proclaime d Word ; (ii) th e writte n Word; (iii ) the reveale d Word. 13 Th e proc lamation whic h th e preache r make s Sunda y b y Sunda y nourishes the faith of the Church. It is not simply a human process; fo r wher e th e Wor d i s trul y proclaimed , th e Hol v Spirit i s at work i n th e proclamatio n leadin g th e hearer s int o truth (cf . John 16:13) . Indeed , i t ha s been suggeste d tha t we can appl y the ful l Trinitaria n analogy and develop - bu t with suitable cautio n - th e relation betwee n th e written Wor d and God th e Son, and th e relation between th e revealed Word and God th e Father. The Ne w Testament seem s t o requir e thes e analogies . The y ar e not artificia l dogmatic constructions, but reflec t trul y the fac t tha t it is the Father who creates and command s with his Word, that it is the So n who is the expectatio n o f the Ol d an d th e witnes s of th e New Testament, and tha t it is the Holy Spirit who leads us into th e full trut h afte r th e Ascension. 14 12

Dersogennantehistorische festis und dergeschichtUche Iriblische Christus, Leipzig 1892, p. 63 (E.T. , Philadelphi a 1966) . " Cf. Church Dogmatics I.I; E.T., Edinburgh 1936 , pp. 98-140. 11 D. Ritschl , A Theology o f Proclamation, Richmond, Va. 1963 , p. 29 .

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On th e othe r hand , on e coul d clai m tha t al l three 'persons ' or 'mode s o f being' ar e presen t a t eac h stage , an d tha t th e christological dimensio n i s particularly relevant to th e under standing of preaching. Rudolf Bultman n combine d thre e mai n element s i n hi s kerygmatic mode, (a) It is dialectical: God i s proclaimed through the Wor d h e utters , particularl y on th e Cross . Bultman n has a stron g affinit y wit h Paulin e theology : 'W e preac h Chris t crucified . . .'. (b) I t draws freely fro m Heidegger' s existential analysis of human existence . How does the Word of preachin g relate t o thos e wh o hea r it ? It summon s the m t o decision . I t calls upo n the m t o adop t a ne w understanding o f thei r own existence: to effect th e transition , by the grac e of God throug h his Word , fro m th e 'inauthentic ' lif e o f unbelie f t o th e 'authentic' life of faith. Hence, according t o Bultmann, biblical language and imagery ('myth'), which derived from a n ancient world-view wholly alien to modern man , has t o be interprete d existentially. Heidegger' s descriptiv e analysi s o f huma n existence, Bultmann believed, was of great assistance in setting out th e meaning of the 'ne w life in Christ' for his hearers, (c) I t makes ful l us e o f biblical criticism to enable u s to understan d the purpor t of the tex t in its ancient context and s o identify its essential messag e fo r today . Thus , whe n th e biblica l text is preached an d hear d a s the Word o f God, something happens: i n Bultmann's terms, preaching is an event that effects change or transformation i n th e lif e o f the hearer . I n som e sense , he o r she becomes a new being.17 This relational aspect of preaching i s beautifully develope d by Paul Tillich in a justly celebrated sermon: Sometimes at that moment a wave of light breaks into our darkness, and i t is as though a voice were saying: 'You are accepted . Yo u are accepted, accepte d b y that which is greater tha n you, and th e nam e of which you do no t know . Do not as k for the nam e now; perhaps you will find it later. D o not tr y to do anything now ; perhaps later you wil l d o much . D o no t see k fo r anything ; do no t perfor m anything; do no t inten d anything . Simply accept th e fact that you are accepted!' I f that happens t o us, we experience grace . After suc h an experience w e may no t b e bette r tha n before , an d w e ma y not believe mor e tha n before. Bu t everything is transformed . . .'8 17 For an introduction to Bultmann's thinking and it s relationship to Heidegger , cf. J. Macquarrie, An Existentialist Theology, London 1954. 18 Th e Shaking of the Foundations, London 1949 , pp. 161fT .

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Preaching is therefore a personal transaction in the fulles t sense: a person-to-perso n encounter , permeate d b y grace. The proc lamation must be made lovingly, for it is an expression o f and a vehicle for the love of God. It is - no w and forever - good news (gospel), eve n thoug h i t carrie s th e pai n o f revelatio n o f th e truth abou t oneself , or the sting of judgement o r rebuk e (an d the preache r ca n neve r exclude himsel f o r herself ; he o r she , too, is a receptor). It is gospel because , i f it is authentic Word, it conveys with the judgement th e assurance tha t God accepts us now. that this gracious moment o f truth i s the effectin g o f th e transformation, th e wo w of salvation. Nevertheless, we do well to heed the protest of J. B. Metz and others against the 'privatizing' of the gospel, which occurs when preaching i s relate d to o exclusivel y t o th e individual. 19 Preaching, lik e worship , i s a communit y action ; and , lik e worship, it sends u s out int o the world in Christ's name. 'Go d so loved the world . . .' The ministry of Jesus was a public event, as political as it was spiritual. It is all too eas y for preache r an d congregation t o retrea t int o th e comfortabl e shelter o f som e form o f neo-orthodoxy. The essentia l complemen t o f 'ortho doxy' (righ t belief) i s 'orthopraxis': right expression o f faith i n action. Love to God is inseparable from love to neighbour, and the latter involves action i n the world. If Christians are t o shar e in Christ' s ministr y o f reconciliation , the n preachin g mus t provide some o f the trainin g for this front-line engagement . Exegesis Important a s i t i s fo r th e preache r t o hav e a theologica l understanding o f preaching , th e aci d tes t come s whe n h e o r she sit s dow n a t th e des k t o prepar e th e sermo n fo r nex t Sunday. I f the preache r i s to be faithfu l t o th e ministr y of th e Word, a central concern mus t be with a sound exegesis . Allied to thi s is the necessit y to communicate wit h th e hearers . Th e preacher mus t steer a course, as Karl Barth put it, 'between th e problem o f human lif e on the one hand and th e content of the Bible o n th e other' . Ther e ar e n o eas y answer s t o thi s predicament, nor should anything offered below be interpreted in tha t way. At most, certain guidelines can b e indicated. (a) The preacher owes it to the hearers, to have a knowledge and appreciatio n o f the ful l rang e o f th e Biblica l literatur e 19

Cf. Theology of th e World, Londo n 1969 , pp . 107-15 .

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that comprise s th e cano n o f scripture , t o b e awar e of th e findings o f Biblica l scholarshi p and t o b e abl e t o appl y it s insights to the interpretation of scripture. All this represents, as it were, the primar y elements of his or he r science . The preache r wil l only reach a defensible and productiv e resolution of the problem of scripture through an intelligent study of all the evidence . That ther e i s considerable dange r in divorcin g th e academi c an d th e practica l (theoria an d praxis) i s illustrated from tim e t o tim e b y solecisms perpe trated b y churchmen : e.g . th e appea l i n tim e o f wa r o r conflict t o the warlik e Yahweh, leader of Israel's hosts in th e destruction o f her enemies ; the appeal to the Mosaic Law to justify capita l punishmen t o r oppositio n t o (say ) bloo d transfusion o r spiritualism, or th e appeal of the first<entur y codes cite d in the Ne w Testament t o justify oppositio n t o all forms o f abortio n o r t o th e relaxin g of th e la w on homo sexuality; or th e patheti c spectacle o f the 'creationist ' versus 'evolutionist' debat e i n som e circle s today . Suc h 'direc t transference' o r 'instan t exegesis ' take s n o accoun t o f th e importance of th e contex t o r th e difficult y o f extrapolatin g texts in thi s way. (b) The use of a lectionary assists exegesis. It is helpful to have a carefully arrange d selectio n of passages - usuall y Old Testament, Epistle and Gospel - related t o the Christian Year; for th e liturgica l season itsel f is a help t o interpretation, an d the lectionar y provides a disciplin e for th e preacher . On e cannot simply repeat one's favourite passages or themes; and the disciplin e impose d b y th e lectionar y afford s greate r objectivity t o th e us e o f scriptur e an d make s fo r bette r coverage o f th e whol e rang e o f biblica l texts . Above all , it requires the preache r t o clarify hi s or her understandin g of the relationshi p of Old Testament, Epistl e and Gospel . Whatever part of th e Bibl e it comes from, a biblical passage attempts som e kin d o f crystallization ; of faith , tradition , message, understanding o f life, or gospel . I t is a crystallization that includes the origina l receptors in th e faith-perspectiv e in question. Late r generation s (includin g ourselves) ar e partl y excluded fro m immediat e appreciatio n o f thi s perspectiv e because th e origina l communicatio n presuppose d a wholl y different cultura l setting from our own. Hence th e need, in the Church as in Judaism, for interpretation, midrash, exposition -

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in short, for the work of exegesis that 'gives the sense', translates and applies the meaning in modern terms . Christian exegesis is Christo-centric, sinc e Jesu s th e Chris t represent s th e ful l expression o f God' s savin g work ; henc e th e interpla y of Ol d and New Testaments, and the Christian /?es/^rstandpoint. Even' exegetical sermon , therefore , i s a ne w crystallizatio n of th e Gospel of Christ; a new statement of God's acceptanc e o f us in Christ. An d thi s ne w statemen t involve s th e receptors , th e congregation. Preachin g i s a n even t whic h change s an d reshapes thei r lives , thei r community and thei r world. E. Best concludes his study of exegetical preaching i n thi s way: The purpos e o f al l understanding o f Scripture i s to mak e Chris t appear i n hi s churc h s o tha t h e shape s tha t churc h t o b e lik e himself. Th e purpos e o f th e preachin g i s th e formatio n o f th e church to be the true body of Christ. The purpose of the devotiona l study o f Scriptur e i s the harmonizin g o f th e individua l int o th e whole which is the church . Bu t the preache r need s to remembe r that ther e ar e mor e factor s a t wor k tha n hi s preachin g i n th e shaping o f the church t o be the tru e body of Christ. Certainly this takes place throug h worshi p and in the sacraments, bu t it also takes place as the individual member s come to their own understanding, form i n themselve s a new crystallization, an d s o contribute to th e upbuilding o f the whol e body. The movemen t i s then from Chris t through th e crystallizations which are Scripture and th e histor y of the churc h int o th e crystallization o f the sermon an d ou t agai n t o be th e lif e o f the Church , whic h i s the lif e o f the rise n Lord , an d the onl y crystallization tha t reall y counts.20

The method s o f exegesi s ar e governe d b y our overal l under standing of exegetical interpretation. Careful study of the text, with commentaries, is a prerequisite; but th e material from th e commentary is not th e substanc e o f th e sermon . I f it were so, the sermo n would , almos t certainly , b e academicall y overcharged an d conceptuall y inappropriate t o the congregation , and i t would in consequence lose impact. Commentaries enrich our understanding of the passage and enable us to bring about a mor e worth y crystallization of th e Gospe l fo r th e congrega tion. 'Every sermo n shoul d b e ruthlessl y unitar y i n it s theme, ' writes Ian Pitt-Watson, with perhaps some exaggeration.21 'This is th e firs t an d grea t commandment! ' I t i s importan t t o 20 Z1

Cf. E . Best, From Text t o Sermon, Edinburgh 1978 , p . 113 . Cf . A Kind of Folly, Edinburg h 1976 , p . 65 .

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determine wha t the centra l thrust or them e o f the passag e is. Provided the selected them e is inherent in the passage and no t extraneously imposed , i t i s o f muc h hel p i n establishin g a consistent lin e o f approac h i n th e interpretatio n an d expo sition, for it establishes the kerygmatic unity - th e crystallization of truth - tha t brings the hearers into active exploration of the meaning fo r themselves . H. Thielicke commends thi s textualthematic kind of approach . First, in this way one remain s within the tex t and allow s it to be an end i n itself. On e discover s in it a centre an d peripher y and on e illuminates it on th e basi s of its main ideas . Second, this way of determining the theme not only helps to keep the sermon tru e t o the tex t but also help s the preache r t o achieve order an d clarity .. . Third, the method is also helpful to the hearer. He retains it better and can more readil y pass i t on to the others . .. But the themati c sermon i s helpful most of all to hearers who ar e interested i n a question and perhaps have no desire to listen to any biblical exposition whatsoever. This wil l b e tru e especiall y of thos e wh o ar e o n th e fringe s o r outside th e church . They ma y sit up an d tak e notic e whe n the y find tha t th e them e announce d i s 'Th e Meanin g o f Life ' an d perhaps the y will be much surprised t o hear a sermon o n the Rich Young Ruler subsumed under thi s theme. They may also recognize that some unexpecte d problem s are deal t with in the Bible. 22

Forms Thielicke's exegetical procedure aptl y illustrates the relationship betwee n th e substanc e o f th e sermo n (i.e . exegetica l concern) an d th e for m whic h th e sermo n assumes . Biblica l material, in fact, prompts more tha n one form , as we shall see. Thielicke seem s mos t a t hom e wit h th e themati c (o r textua l thematic) discourse , but i t has its drawbacks. (a) Thematic preaching. A descendant o r hei r of the traditio n of classica l rhetoric , themati c preachin g represent s th e systematic developmen t of a selected theme , which ma y be based o n a verse , a passag e o r eve n a boo k o f scripture . Sometimes parodie d a s 'three points and a poem', it has an introduction, designe d t o captur e th e attentio n o f th e 27

Th e Trouble with the Church, London 1966 , pp . 63ff .

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listeners and to lead them t o interested engagement wit h the substance of the discourse. It develops its argument by means of a series of reasoned steps ; not only systematically expounding an d commendin g th e them e o r thesis , but als o refuting objections o r counter-theses , a s th e whol e armour y o f rhetorical device s - questions , illustrations , anecdotes , quotations, repetitions , similes and other figure s - i s at the disposal o f th e speaker . Th e impac t whic h th e preache r hopes t o achiev e does no t operat e a t th e intellectua l level alone (eve n i f th e argumentativ e natur e o f th e procedur e might suggest otherwise) : i t is concerned with the emotion s and th e will , th e affectiv e an d volitiona l a s wel l a s th e cognitive. I t seek s a respons e fro m th e hearer s a s whol e beings. The conclusion , therefore , i s not only the goal of the argument: i t i s th e crownin g appea l t o th e listeners , summoning the m t o respond i n fait h an d obedienc e t o th e Word whic h ha s bee n mediate d t o the m throug h th e exploration of the theme . There i s virtually a consensu s amon g homiletician s tha t traditional conceptua l preachin g simpl y doe s no t com municate i n today' s world. On e o f it s ancestors i s the sermo delivered in the larg e basilica , with an overtone , perhaps, of the lectur e hal l o r larg e auditorium . Bu t man y o f th e liturgical setting s in whic h th e themati c discours e i s use d today are not of this type. One think s of the sparsely attended evening service , or th e mornin g servic e i n a rura l are a o r depopulated cit y centre; and on e reflect s also on th e TV age, the effect of the mass media o n communication, and a whole range o f socia l change s whic h mar k of f ou r ag e fro m it s predecessors. I s the declamator y form o f oration reall y suitable, whe n th e settin g migh t sugges t a mor e informal , perhaps conversational , typ e o f talk ? I t highlight s th e authority of the preacher, but may also suggest that he or she stands 'si x fee t abov e contradiction' , beyon d challeng e o r questioning, despite th e fac t tha t some sermo n conten t may be ope n t o questio n o r positivel y invit e discussion . I n considering th e mos t appropriat e for m o f sermon , th e preacher must reflect on it s relation t o the congregation an d the liturgical setting. Again, does the thematic discourse lend itself t o th e expositio n o f every typ e o f scripture , whether prose o r verse , narrative or parable , epistl e o r apocalyptic book? One migh t take 'rac e relations ' or 'prejudice ' a s the

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theme of the parable o f the Good Samaritan, but thi s hardly does justice t o th e paraboli c story whic h Jesus told , whic h seems t o requir e a different form o f discourse, namel y on e much mor e directl y relate d t o narrativ e o r story-telling . There is therefore a direct relation betwee n sermon form and the nature o f the scriptural material. (b) Popular exposition. I n its early Christian setting, the homily is essentiall y the expositio n an d discussio n o f a passag e o f scripture (o r 'pericope') . The applicatio n o f the passag e t o the live s of the participant s is kept in view throughout an d i s sometimes mad e explici t at th e end. A s H. J. C . Pieterse ha s put it , 'We can say . . . that a homily is linked t o a pericope, which it expounds verse by verse in a largely analytical way; that i t i s characterized b y a n intimat e atmospher e an d i s geared t o dialogue wit h listeners.23 Pieterse points out tha t it is particularly suited t o 'factual ' texts : by which we take hi m to mean text s which only come t o life fo r readers or hearer s when the y are mad e awar e o f th e backgroun d o r setting-in life. Fo r example, t o understand wha t Paul was saying about 'meat sacrificed to idols', on e ha s to learn somethin g o f the social an d historica l situatio n o f th e earl y Christian s a t Corinth an d als o of groups and tendencie s alread y forming in thei r community. It is the preacher' s tas k to elucidate thi s 'background', so that th e whole congregatio n ca n read an d explore th e passage an d com e t o an understanding o f Paul's meaning an d ai m i n writing . Thus , preache r an d con gregation ar e brought int o dialogue not only with each other but with the biblical writer. Their minds meet with his or he r mind, an d thei r live s ar e ope n t o th e challeng e o f th e message. The advantage s of this method ar e considerable. I t invests authority not i n th e preache r (wh o is seen as a facilitator of interpretation) bu t i n the text . It can be applied t o a variety of type s of texts : t o poem s an d psalm s a s well a s letter s o r other prose passages . Taken t o its logical conclusion, it would provide opportunit y fo r puttin g question s t o the expositor , and fo r sharing idea s and insights , and i t would thus obviate the inheren t weaknes s of the monologue as a mode of communication. 2X 'Sermon Forms' , i n Journal o f Theology fo r Southern Africa 36 , 1981 , p . 12 ; Communicative Preaching, Pretoria 1987 , pp. 158-63 .

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1

The metho d a s described abov e lends itself to the smaller, more intimate group: the evening or mid-week service, or the bible stud y group. Th e discussio n o r 'feed-back ' ma y b e relatively informa l o r i t ma y b e structure d (e.g . dividin g into smalle r groups) . Man y ma y fee l tha t th e lac k o f such opportunitie s i n man y churche s i s an eviden t weak ness, bu t tha t preacher s an d congregation s nee d tim e t o adjust t o a new situation which puts th e preache r in a mor e vulnerable positio n an d th e congregatio n i n a mor e activ e role, whic h ma y no t b e t o everyone' s liking . Bu t i f we genuinely believ e tha t preachin g ha s t o d o wit h com municating meaning , bot h adjustment s ar e essential . On e reflects o n th e nee d fo r muc h mor e effectiv e adul t educa tion i n ou r churches . I t i s a ga p whic h th e expositor y homily can g o some way to fill. (c) Th e story sermon. Th e Gospel s consis t largel y of stories . The story-telle r clearly had a n importan t plac e i n th e com munication of the early Christian message, and especially the tradition about Jesus. The Old Testament relate s the story of Israel, Jesu s himsel f wa s a skille d story-telle r an d earl y Christian preachin g focuse d o n th e stor y of salvation . It i s surprising, therefore , tha t many modern preacher s ten d t o make relativel y littl e use o f th e ar t o f story-telling , except when talkin g to children or fo r th e purpos e o f illustrating a thematic discourse . I n othe r words , th e moder n preache r seems to be much less dependent o n th e stor y than his biblical predecessors. Ye t i t i s doubtfu l i f narrativ e text s ca n b e properly expounde d withou t makin g substantia l us e o f narrative. The stor y is more than the means of conveying the message. I t i s no t dispensable . I n a rea l sense , i t i s th e message. I n th e interactio n of th e character s i n a give n situation an d i n th e dram a tha t is generated i n th e telling , the hearers are drawn into dialogue with the picture of reality that is created i n th e narrative . In thi s way, they are brough t to questio n thei r ow n understandin g o f lif e i n a ne w an d radical way. To mak e prope r us e o f th e narrativ e form , preacher s must d o thei r homewor k o n th e biblica l narrative . They must observe carefully how the biblical story-teller structured his narrative, what his aims were an d wha t devices he use d to effec t them . They mus t also conside r ho w modern inter -

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preters (preacher and hearer) might engage with the theme of th e stor y a s somethin g tha t matter s vitall y i n thei r lives . The followin g is a brief example, usin g the stor y of Jonah: Introduction. Ho w difficul t i t i s to forgiv e one's enemies ! Focus o n a tellin g image o f th e struggl e t o forgive : fo r example, th e struggl e man y former POW s have t o forgive their enemie s o f hal f a centur y ago , especiall y i f the y received bad treatment at their hands. Or present a picture of individual s wh o surprise d themselve s b y findin g reconciliation possibl e - thoug h neve r easy . The story of Jonah is about this very issue . I. Focu s briefly on th e powe r and glor y of ancient Assyria, whose capita l wa s Nineveh: o n it s war s of imperia l con quest: on it s conquest an d subjugatio n o f Northern Israe l (Jonah's country), when The Assyrian came down lik e the wolf on th e fold , And hi s cohorts were gleaming in purple and gold; And th e sheen of their spears was like stars on th e sea, When the blue wave rolls nightly on deep Galilee. (Byron ) The result : th e destructio n o f th e country , th e rui n o f a culture an d religion , th e dismemberin g o f Israel , th e imposition o f alien ways . How dreadful, whe n everythin g that is precious to you collapses before your very eyes. Such is the legac y of wars, ancient and modern . II. Jonah , a s th e prophe t o f th e Lord , i s told t o g o an d preach God' s messag e o f salvatio n t o th e peopl e o f Nineveh, the Assyrians whom he hated. Picture the struggl e in Jonah's heart an d mind . H e does not want his enemies to b e saved . H e pray s fo r thei r destruction . Focu s o n Jonah's attempt t o frustrate God's purpose by sailing off in the opposite direction . Forgivenes s i s never an easy matter - eve n fo r a prophe t o f the Lord! Nor was it easy for his people. III. Th e stor y tell s o f God' s determinatio n tha t huma n hardness o f heart will not triumph. The harder Jonah tries to escape from God, th e more God pursues him and return s him to his vocation. The episode of the great fish highlights the struggl e betwee n Go d an d Jonah i n a most dramati c way. But it is impossible t o escape from God . Hi s purpose demands fulfilment , eve n when we try to frustrate it.

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IV. Jona h returns to his mission with a heavy heart, hopin g that he will die before he sees the salvation of his enemies. But even that hope i s shattered, as God frustrates his tactics time and tim e again. Finally , the prophet has to face up to the reality he trie d so hard t o conceal fro m himself . While he fel t suc h bitterness towards the enemie s o f his people , God was concerned for all the people of Nineveh - t o say nothing of their cattle (which also matter). Conclusion. Bitterness , resentment, eve n hatre d charac terize th e huma n condition , especiall y when peopl e hav e suffered terribly . That wa s Jonah's experience . An d on e can easily justify to oneself one's implacable hostility. Yet Jonah, who thought he was opposing th e enemies of God, learned t o hi s chagrin tha t Go d wa s concerned fo r thes e very people . We don' t kno w how Jonah fel t afte r h e was compelled t o realiz e ho w Go d sa w things . Probabl y a current o f resentment woul d last a long tim e within him. Maybe he trie d t o tell himself tha t Go d might forgive, but he himself was only human. But, like us, he could no t shut out th e Voice which says: Love your enemies and pra y for your persecutors ; onl y so can you b e childre n o f your heavenly Father, wh o causes th e su n to ris e o n goo d an d ba d alike , an d send s th e rai n o n th e innocent an d th e wicked. (Matthe w 5:44-45, REB )

New Developments in Homiletics 'How can preachers work within an increasingly visual culture?' This i s on e o f th e mos t pressin g question s face d b y homileticians today . Thi s issue , combine d wit h th e problem s outlined earlie r i n thi s chapter, hav e le d som e commentator s to argue tha t the sermon i s 'under attack'24 and that 'preaching is i n crisis'. 23 Suc h pressur e ha s le d t o a numbe r o f ne w approaches t o the ar t o f preaching. 26 A central assumptio n o f this section i s that 'televisio n and motio n picture s have shape d a visuall y orientated generation'. 27 Ou r visua l culture i s like a bank o f TV monitors showin g many different scene s - i t has 24

Klaas Runia, Th e Sermon Under AtUick, Exeter 1983.. Richard L . Eslinger, A Ne w Hearing, Nashville 1987, p. 11 . 26 See A New Hearingfor a clear exposition o f ne w movements withi n homiletics. 27 Patricia Wilson-Kastner , Imagery for Preaching, Minneapolis 1989 , p . 21 .

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many faces. This section wil l identif y fou r aspect s o f thi s visual culture, an d explor e wha t th e recen t development s withi n homiletics can contribute to those attempting t o communicat e in suc h a rapidly evolving context . (i) From static points to imaginative moves One significan t shif t i n ou r perspectiv e o f realit y coul d b e highlighted b y contrasting th e Lumier e brothers' earliest film shots i n 189 5 wit h recen t actio n movie s suc h a s Ro b Roy, Braveheart and th e Batman triology. This first film, Sortie d 'usine, was made b y a stationary camera as workers left th e Lumieres ' factory.28 Th e resul t resemble s a pictur e wit h movin g figure s on it . The curren t movi e industry , represente d b y the actio n adventure genre , relie s o n ver y differen t techniques . Tight editing an d rapi d cut s combin e wit h movement s o f camer a angles to allow viewers to see and hea r fa r more tha n the y ever could without the camera's aid. Davi d Buttric k recognizes th e significance o f this shift: Times have changed, and so, apparently, has human consciousness. We loo k a t movie s from earl y i n ou r centur y and laug h a t thei r stilted, fixed-camer a unreality . Nowaday s a singl e scen e i n a television drama may involve hundreds o f different camer a angles from camera s mounted o n movin g booms. W e view th e produc t and remar k its realism. The electroni c medi a ar e a produc t o f a changed, highl y complex huma n consciousnes s and, in turn , act on the consciousness of the age. 29

On th e basis of this change in perceptio n Buttric k argues fo r a similar developmen t i n approache s t o makin g move s within preaching. A single, fixed, point of view adopted by a preacher, may seem slo w and turgi d t o an audienc e mor e use d t o rapid shifts i n viewing angles. The parables , fo r example , provid e man y opportunities fo r preachers t o invit e thei r listener s t o join the m i n makin g imaginative leaps . Conside r th e classi c tal e o f th e Goo d Samaritan (Luk e 10:29-37) , wher e th e stor y coul d b e retol d from a variety of angles. Persuadin g th e listener t o stand by the 28

Lumiere fil m Sortie d'usine (1895) , i n Early Cinema, Primitive and /*u>neer.