Working With Student Teachers: Getting and Giving the Best

Workingwith StudentTeachers Gettingand Givingthe Best

MichaelA. Morehead LawrenceLyman Harvey C . Foyle

A SCARECROWEDUCATION BOOK TheScarecrowPress,Inc. Lanham,Maryland,and Oxford 2003

A SCARECROWEDUCATION BOOK Published in theUnitedStatesof America by Scarecrow Press,Inc. A Memberof theRowman& LittlefieldPublishing Group 4501ForbesBoulevard, Suite200,Lanham,Maryland20706 www.scarecroweducation.com

PO Box 317 Oxford OX2 9RU, UK Copyright 0 2003by MichaelA. Morehead, Lawrence Lyman, andHarveyC. Foyle

All rights reserved. No partof thispublication maybereproduced, storedin a retrievalsystem, or transmitted in anyformor by any means,electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, withoutthepriorpermission of thepublisher. BritishLibraryCataloguing in Publication Information Available

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Morehead,MichaelA. Workingwith student teachers : gettingandgivingthebest/ Michael A. Morehead, LawrenceLyman,HarveyC. Foyle. p. cm. “A ScarecrowEducation book.” Includes bibliographical references (p. ) andindex. ISBN 0-8108-4606-3(pbk.: a&. paper) 1. Student teachers-Supervision of. I. Lyman,Lawrence. D. Foyle, HarveyCharles.ID. Title. LB2157.A3M67 2003 370.71-4~21 2002012351 of @TM Thepaperusedin thispublicationmeetstheminimumrequirements AmericanNationalStandard for Information Sciences-Permanence of Paperfor PrintedLibraryMaterials,ANSVNISO239.48-1992. Manufactured in theUnitedStatesof America.

Contents

Introduction

1

BuildingPositiveRelationships

9

Planningand Sequencing

23

Supervising the StudentTeacher

41

in DiverseClassrooms HelpingStudentTeachersSucceed

57

The IncompetentStudentTeacher

73

The ExcellentStudentTeacher

85

The Principal’sRole

93

Appendix:ObservableInstructionalBehaviorsto Reinforce

101

Bibliography

105

Index

109

Aboutthe Authors

111

iii

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CHAPTER I

Introduction

Studentteachingis thecapstone of a preservice teacher’sprofessional preparationprogram.Althoughuniversitypolicies and curriculum largelystructure the experiences of thepreservice teacherpriorto the studentteachingexperience, thefinalinternship hasthemostinfluence on a preservice teacher’sdevelopment. Cooperating teachers anduniversityfacultymembers assigned to supervise anintern,therefore,play a crucialrolein a student teacher’sprofessional growth;theyneedspecific strategies they canusewhensupervising the instructionand activitiesof an intern. Thisbookis intendedto helpcooperating teachers anduniversitysupervisorsbetterassistinternsduringtheirfinal stagesof preparation. Necessary skillsfor thesementorsincluderecognizing andreinforcing appropriateinstructionalbehaviors,helpingstudentteachersclarify decision-making processes, and helpingidentifysolutionsto instructionalproblems.Of particularconcernto mostsupervisors is the studentteacherwho displaysincompetence in the classroom. Strategies for conferencing withinternsareoutlinedin thisbook,with specificattentiongivento bothincompetent andexcellentstudentteachers. Eachchapterin thisbookdiscusses a varietyof strategies that can enhancethe studentteachingexperiencefor both the cooperating teacherand the intern.“BuildingPositiveRelationships” offerssuggestions onhowto enhance relationsandbuildtrustthroughout theexperience.Trustis a key elementin therelationship betweena supervisor and studentteacherand is a fragile elementthat can be easily It is mostoftenthreatened thefirsttime shakenduringtheexperience. a mentorhasto dealwith a behaviorexhibitedby an internthatneeds modification. Chapter2 offerssuggestions on how to limit the lossof trustwhendealingwith difficultissues. 1

2

CHAPTER1

Chapter3, “PlanningandSequencing,” offersspecificexamplesof introducing theinternintothesettingandbeginningtheteachingexperience.Supervision strategies outlinedin chapter4 suggest specificexamplesof formativeand summativeconferences. Also discussed are strategies that candiffuseproblemsbeforetheybeginto threatenthe success of theexperience for bothmentorandintern. “Helping StudentTeachersSucceedin Diverse Classrooms” teachingstrategies andtopicsthatcanassistsu(chapter5 ) discusses pervisorsand studentteachersto moreeffectivelywork with a diversepopulationof individuals.It is apparentthat diversepopulationsprofoundlyinfluenceclassrooms today.All teachereducation programstoday emphasizediversityin their curricula,so interns shouldbe well groundedacademically aboutpluralisticissues.It is essentialthatcooperating teachersanduniversitysupervisors model appropriate, effective,andeducational practicerelatedto diversity. The chapter“TheIncompetent StudentTeacher”offerssuggestions on whenandhowto effectivelyworkthroughdifficultsituations. Becauseof thesignificance of notpassinganintern,it is essential thatall due processprocedures be followed.Chapter6 helpsoutlinethose strategies andoffersothersuggestions to assistthe mentor.Working with an “excellent”studentteachercanbejustaschallenging butin a muchdifferentway. Supervisors oftenerroneously believethatthese interns,because of theirhighperformance, needlessguidanceandasthata mentormightensistance. Chapter7 outlinesseveralscenarios counter,fromthepassiveinternwhohasexcellentpotentialandskills but is not utilizingthoseskillsto the fullestto an overlyaggressive one.Excellentinternsneedasmuchor morefeedbackduringthe studentteachingexperience asothersbut oftendo not receiveextensive supervision. “The Principal’sRole” (chapter8) outlinesexamplesof activities thatthe school’seducational leadershouldparticipatein. The authors realizethecomplexityof thispositionandhowchallenging it is to find timefor interns,butastheinstructional leader,theprincipalmodelsthe attitudesandsetsthe tonefor others.If a principaltakestime for interns,and emphasizes the importance of the internsto othersin the building,theentiredemeanor of theeducational community will beone of acceptance andsupport. In orderto enhancethe readabilityof the text,the authorshavedecidedto usea few termsinterchangeably. Studentteachers will sometimesbereferredto asinternsorpreservice teachers, cooperating teach-

INTRODUCTION

3

ersas mentors,anduniversitysupervisors as supervisors. Also, when referringto boththeuniversitysupervisor andcooperating teacher,the termsupervisors maybe used. The preserviceteacherneedsspecificinformationfromthe mentor throughout the studentteachingexperience andespeciallyduringthe firstweek.Theseearlyconversations ensurea positivestartandbetter communication for thefuture.Universitysupervisors shouldverifythat the informationtheyprovideremainsconsistent with the university’s policiesandguidelines for studentteaching.A list of helpfulmaterials to shareearlyin theexperience canbe foundin table1.1. THE NEED FOR CONFERENCING SKILLS

Giebelhaus andBowmanindicatethatfeedback is essential for theprofessionalgrowthof studentteachers.’When cooperating teachersare formallytrainedin assessment, certainareasof anintern’sprofessional growthcanbe enhanced. Theirresearch indicates thatformativefeedbackin conjunction with formaltrainingof the teachersupervisor has a positiveinfluenceon theprofessional development of thepreservice teacher.Conferencing strategies canassistthe supervisor in managing anddevelopingthe studentteacherduringtheformativephasesof the experience. Carusoindicatesthatsometimes it is necessary to makedifficultdecisionsrelatedto anintern’sprofessional status.2 Whenthisis necessary, it is a challengeto all parties.Althoughschoolprincipalscanwork effectivelywith studentteachers andsupervisors withintheirschoolsetting,thestudent teachingtriad(student teacher, cooperating teacher,and universitysupervisor) is thefoundation of theexperience. Interpersonal Table 1.l. MaterialsThat May Be Helpful to the Student Teacher P Seatingchartand classroster P Schoolhandbook 0 Copiesof or accessto curriculumguides U Copiesof or access to teacher‘seditionsof textbooks 0 Daily schedule 0 Lessonplan book 0 Districtand schoolcalendar 0 Staff roster P Map of school Q Copy of or accessto the SchoolImprovementPlan

4

CHAPTER 1

relationships amongthesethreelevelsof teachersemergeandare formalizedduringtheconferencing processandareimpactedby a variety of local,state,andnationaldemographics. Oneof theseis thechanging diversepopulation withintheUnitedStates. The 2000 censusshowsthattheUnitedStateschangedsignificantly between1990 and 2000. In 1990,the populationwas approximately 249 million,andby 2000,it hadgrownto 281.4million,anincrease of 13.2 percent. Table 1.2 showsthe breakdownby race/ethnicity. Also, by 2000, the Hispanicpopulationof 33.1 million (table 1.3) almost equaledtheblackpopulation of 34.7 m i l l i ~ n . ~ shouldmirrorthat The ethnicityof thosein the teachingprofession of thegeneral population; however,informationavailablein 1990indicatedthatthiswasnot thecase.TheAssociation of TeacherEducators (ATE) reported,“Prospective teachersare mainlywhite femalesfrom smalltownsor suburban communities whomatriculatein collegesless than100milesfromhomeandwhointendto returnto similarsettings to t e a ~ h These . ” ~ prospective teacherswere81 percentfemaleand92 percentWhite. TheU.S. Department of Education indicates thenumberof teachers in the UnitedStatesis increasing5 (seetable 1.4) andthatthe numberof teachers continues to increase at everylevel.TheU.S. Department of Educationsurveyin 1993-1994indicatedtheracialandethnicmakeupof theteacherpopulation is changing aswell (seetable1.5). Table 1.2. U.S. Population by Race/Ethnicity, 1990 and 2000 (in percentage) Ethnicity White Black Asian NativeAmerican Other

1990 Census

2000 Census

83.9 12.3 3.0 0.8

75.1 12.3 3.6 0.9 8.1*

-

‘other racesand the new rnultiracecategory

Table 1.3. Hispanic and Non-Hispanic U.S. Population, 1990 and 2000 (in percentage) Ethnicity Non-Hispanic Hispanic

1990 Census

91.o 9.0

2000 Census

87.5 12.5

INTRODUCTION

5

Table 1.4. Number ofTeachers in Public and Private Schools, 1985 and 1998 (in millions) Teachers

1985

1998

ElementaryTeachers SecondaryTeachers PublicSchoolTeachers PrivateSchoolTeachers

1.48 1.07 2.21

1.98 1.24 2.83 0.39

-

Table 1.5. Public Elementary and Secondary School Teachers by RacelEthnicity, 1993-1994 Racial/EthnicGroup

Percentage

White (Non-Hispanic) Black (Non-Hispanic) Hispanic Asian/PacificIslander NativeArnericadAlaskanNative

87.0 7.0 4.0 < 1.0 < 1.0

The enrollmentof minoritygroupsin UnitedStatesschools(table 1.6)is increasing.’ At thesametime,thenumberof minoritypreservice However,thesetwo populations are teachers (table1.7) is increasing8 not equal.For example,the populationof Black studentsin schools of (1996, 16.9percent)is not equallymatchedby the samepercentage preservice teachers goingintotheprofession (1995,9.0 percent). Table 1.6. Enrollment in Public Elementary and Secondary Schools by Race/Ethnicity, 1986,1993, and 1996 (in percentage) Race/Ethnicity

1986

1993

1996

White (Non-Hispanic) Black Hispanic AsianlPacificIslander Native AmericadAlaskanNative

70.4 16.1 9.9 2.8 0.9

66.1 16.6 12.7 3.6 1.1

64.2 16.9 14.0 3.8 1.1

Table 1.7. PreserviceTeachers by Race/Ethnicity 1989, 1991, and 1995 (in percentage) Race/Ethnicify

1989

1991

1995

White (Non-Hispanic) Black Hispanic AsiadPacificIslander NativeAmericadAlaskanNative Other

86.5 6.8 2.7 0.9 0.5 2.7

84.6 5.9 3.6 1.o 0.5 3.3

80.5 9.0 4.7 1.7 0.7 2.4

6

CHAPTER1

The preservice teacherpercentages aregrowingfor minoritygroups butnot at the samerateasthegeneralstudentpopulation. In reference to professional development schools(PDS) andthe attemptsto solve someof theseimbalances, Abdal-Haqqindicatesthatthe professional development schoolsmay actuallysustainthe imbalancedueto stringententryrequirements. The prevailingimbalancein the teachingforce,thatis, thepercentage of racial,ethnic,andlinguisticminoritystudents is increasing whilethe percentage of teachers from thesegroupsis decreasing or not keeping pace.. . . Althoughculturalcongruence is not a guarantee of effective teaching,diversityliteraturedoesconfirmthatit hasimportantadvantagesfor minoritygroupstudents. In addition,a diverseteachingforce benefitsall childrenand professionaleducatorsbecauseit exposes themto differentperspectives andprovidesthemwith opportunities to expandtheirviewsaboutwhohasthe powerthatcomesfrom knowledgeandskill.9

Whatdoesall of thisinformation aboutdemographics haveto dowith variousapproaches to conferences with studentteachers? Conferencing slullsbasedin research andpracticeare appropriate acrossracidethnic All teachers will needtrainboundaries. Therearetwofactorsto consider. ing in conferencing skillsin orderto be an effectivecooperating teacher andconducteffectiveconferences with parents, students, or othereducators.Also,asthenumberof minoritystudents increases, currentnonminorityteachers will needto be educated aboutstrategies for conferencing with minoritypreservice teachers, visitingwith parentsfrom differing racialor ethnicbackgrounds, andinteracting withadministrators whoare fromdifferentpopulations. A significant population change isoccurring in the UnitedStatesandin schools. Conferences areimportantandshould becomea partof all teachers’ andadministrators’ repertoire of skills. NOTES 1. CarmanGiebelhausand ConnieBowman,“TeachingMentors:Is It WorththeEffort?’ (paperpresented at theannualmeetingof theAssociation of TeacherEducators, Orlando,Fla., February2000),1-24. 2 . Joseph J. Caruso,“Cooperating TeacherandStudentTeacherPhasesof Development,” YoungChildren55, no. 1 (January2000):75-81. 3. LewisMumfordCenter,Universityof Albany,“A NationAblazewith Change,”USA Today,3 July2001,4(A).

INTRODUCTION

7

4. Association of TeacherEducators, “ImproveRecruitment and Selection,”in Restructuring theEducationof Teachers: Reportof the Commission on theEducationof Teachers intothe21stCentury(Reston,Va.: Association of TeacherEducators, 1991),16. 5. U.S. Department of Education, “Chapter5 , Elementary andSecondary Teachers, Projections of Education Statistics to 2010,”in EducationFinance Statistics Centel;NationalCenterfor EducationStatistics, Departmentof Education2000,at http://nces.edu.gov/pubs2OOO/projections/chapter5.ht (accessed14 September 2001). 6. ThomasSnyderandCharleneHoffman,“Schools andStaffingSurvey,” Digest of EducationStatistics1995, at www.aacte.org/Multiculturalfenrollment-ethnicityjr93-94.htm (accessed 14 September 2001). 7. T. Snyder,“Enrollment in PublicElementary andSecondary Schools by RacefEthnicity, 1986,1993,and1996(in percent),” Digestof EducationStatistics 1998, at www.aacte.org/Multicultura~enrollment_ethnicity~yr86-9396.htm(accessed 14 September 2001). 8. AACTE, “Surveyof TeacherEducation Enrollments by RacefEthnicity andGender,” AmericanAssociation of Colleges for TeacherEducation1989, 1991, 1995, at www.aacte.org/Multicultur~e~ollment_ethnicityjr89 95.htm(accessed 14 September 2001). 9. IsmatAbdal-Haqq,Voicesof Caution:EquityIssues,Professional Development Schools:Weighingthe Evidence(Thousand Oaks,Calif.: Corwin Press,1999),66-67.

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CHAPTER 2

Building Positive Relationships

Thecooperating teacherprovidescriticalsupportandguidance for the internassigned to herclass.Thementorhelpsensure a positivestudent an affirmativeprofessional relateachingexperience by developing tionship,supervising the intern’swork competently, and evaluating the skillsneededby the cooperating progress. Table 2.1 represents teacherin orderto assistanintern’sgrowthprofessionally andprovide a supportive atmosphere. It is importantto rememberthat the mentorprovidesopportunities for studentteachersuccess duringthe practicumexperience. Eventhe mostcaringandcompetent teachercannotguaranteethe success of an internin a specificclassroom setting.Skillsthatthe studentteacherbringsto the practicum,however,oftendetermine thedegreeof success he will experience. The attitude,maturity,and workethicwill alsoaffectthequalityof the studentteacher’sexperience.Thesefactorsare usuallybeyondthe controlof the mentor teacher.

Table 2.1.

Mentor Teacher Skills

Modeling and Explaining

Planning Skills

Supervision Skills

GoodTeaching Practices Positive,ProfessionalAttitude CommunicationSkills BuildingTrust PositiveRegard

InstructionalPlanning Sequencingthe Student TeachingExperience

CollectingData Reinforcing BrainstormingRemediating

9

10

CHAPTER2

INITIAL CONTACT WITH THE PROSPECTIVE STUDENT TEACHER

Interviewing A positiverelationship oftenbeginswhen the cooperating teacher interviewsthe prospectivestudentteacherprior to beginningthe teachingexperience. An interviewof twentyto thirty minuteslets a mentorbecomeacquainted with the studentteacherandmay identify potentialproblemsor conflictsthat need to be addressed beforea placement is finalized.Interviewscanassistbothpartiesin determining if the settingis appropriate. A list of possibleinterviewquestions is providedin table2.2. Whenmeetingfor the firsttime,the mentorneedsto realizethatan internwill be nervousandmightappearto lack confidence.'It is importantto rememberthatthestudentteacheris at an earlystagein professionaldevelopment andwill usuallygainconfidence whilebecoming familiarwith thementorandstudents. A potentialproblemfor someteachersis the comparisonof the prospectiveinternwith anotherwhom the mentorsupervised previously.Suchcomparisons arealmostalwaysunfairto boththeprevious studentteacherandtheprospective intern.Mentorsneedto be awareof thehumantendencyto makesuchcomparisons andbe carefultojudge eachprospective studentteacheron her ownmerits. Table 2.2.

Interview Questions for Prospective Student Teachers

These questionswere adaptedfrom a list created by professionaldevelopmentschool coordinatorsfrom EmporiaState Universityand mentorteachersand principalsfrom professionaldevelopmentschoolsin the Emporia(Kansas)and Olathe (Kansas) Public Schools.Mentorteachersshouldselect questionsfrom the listthat will elicitthe informationmost importantto them. 1. Tell me about yourself. 2. Why do you want to be a teacher? 3. Why are you interestedin studentteachingat this grade level?Why are you interestedin studentteachingat this school? 4. What kindsof experienceshave you had with children?Have you had experiences with culturallydiversegroupsof students? 5. Tell me about a studentwith whom you have workedand who was a real challenge for you. 6. What is your philosophyof teaching? 7. As a student, what subjectsdo you like best and why? 8. What are your strengths? 9. Tell me about a teacher who had a strongpositiveinfluenceon you.

BUILDING POSITIVE RELATIONSHIPS

11

Developinga PositiveRelationship

The professional relationship betweenthe internandthe mentoris crucialto the studentteacher’ssuccess.* A positive,professional relationshipcan help make the studentteacherfeel comfortablein the classroom. Additionally,when internsfeel accepted,they are more likely to demonstrate positiveattitudestowardstudents andadultsin theschool,andgivea genuineeffortin theassignment. A positive,professionalrelationship requiresthatthe mentorbe a competent professionalwhomodelsgoodteachingpractices andis capableof articulatA mentor’spositive,professional inghisreasons for teaching decisions. attitudetowardteaching,students, colleagues, andparentsis a crucial modelfor thestudentteacher’s development of attitudes andbehaviors. The cooperating teachermustcommunicate positivelyandeffectively sothatnecessary informationaboutthe teachingcontextis communicated.Buildingtrustwith thestudentteacherwill evolvefromthisopen andpositivecommunication approach. Thecooperating teacherastheinstructional leadermustberesponsible for providingfeedbackandguidanceto the preservice teacher.As KouzesandPosnerpointout, “Strategies, tactics,skills,andpractices are emptyunlesswe understand the fundamentalhumanaspirations thatconnectleadersandtheirconstituents.”?

PREREQUISITE MENTOR TEACHER SKILLS AND ATTITUDES

To be effective,a mentormustfirstbe a competent teacherin theclassroomandmustmodelbehaviors andattitudes expectedof goodteachers. One of the mostcriticalareasof a mentor’sperformance in the classroom is theabilityto establish andmaintaina positivelearningenvironmentfor all students. If this component of effectiveteachingis lacking,thestudent teacherwill almostcertainlybe betterservedin anotherclassroom. The placementof an internis notto supportor assist As cooperating teacherplacements arecona mediocreor poorteacher. sidered, it is essential thatthemostdedicated andbestteachers be given firstpriority. Not all educators who are effectiveteachersof K-12 studentsare equallyaseffectiveworkingwith studentteachers. Identifyingandarticulatingteachingdecisions is an important skillfor cooperating teachers. Thisrequiresa mentor tobe confidentin makingteachingdecisions and

12

CHAPTER2

notbe threatened or uneasywhenquestioned aboutthesedecisions by a preservice student. Thinkingaboutthereasonswhy a teachingdecision wasmadeandarticulating thosereasons is a metacognitive process that providesprofessional growthfor thementoraswell astheintern.4 A cooperating teachermustbe willingto acceptinputfromtheintern aboutobservations of the teachingandlearningprocesses occurringin theclassroom. Oneof themostrewardingaspects of a studentteacheris havinganothersetof eyesviewing thestudents in theclassroom. Like all goodteachers, mentorsmustmakeuseof all availableinput and ideasto improvetheirinteractions withstudents. Because teachers arerequiredto makesomanydecisions eachday,somedecisions couldbe clarifiedand improveduponthroughreflectionanddiscussion with anintern.5 Finally,cooperating teachersmustbe willing to sharetheir classroomsandstudents with anotherprofessional. Somecapableclassroom teachersare simplynot comfortablein relinquishing controlof their in the classroom students to another.If so,the internandthe students maysensethisreluctance. If thementor’sreluctance is obvious,theintern’sexperience is lesslikely to be successful. Insistingthatthe internuseonly strategies andmethodsof teaching usedby thementoris anotherindicationof unwillingness to relinquish control.Problemsin sharingtheclassroom andstudents aresometimes evidenced if thementorteacherfeelstheneedto publiclycorrecttheinternwhile he is teaching.Althoughpublicsuggestions may be necess a r y at times,suchcorrections will undermine thecredibilityof thestudentteacher.If aninternis corrected publiclynumerous times,students will stoplisteningto the internandbeginturningto the teacher,causing theinternto losetrustin thementor. for the mentorto intervene,usinga phrase If it becomesnecessary it thisway?”will be a moreeflike “Haveyou thoughtof describing fectiveapproach to thesituation.Thementormayalsowantto develop a signalthatindicatesto the studentteacherthereis a needto discuss somethingimmediately.As the semesterprogresses, more freedom mustbe grantedto theintern.Allowingstudentteachers to try different strategies andmethodsusuallybenefitsboththeinternandthestudents in theclassroom. Positive,Professional Attitude

Mentorsmustdemonstrate a positiveandprofessional attitudetowardteaching,students, parents,andcolleagues whenworkingwith an

BUILDING POSITIVE RELATIONSHIPS

13

intern.A myriadof challenges faceeveryclassroom teacher,but cynicismandnegativeapproaches arediscouraging anddrainingfor all professionals. A cooperating teacherwith a negativeattitudecanbe debilitatingto eventhe mostenthusiastic beginningteacher.Mentorswho view teachingas an excitingand rewardingprofessionare the best modelsfor futureteachers.Thesementorsare characterized by their willingness to try newideasandmethods withall students. Theirclassroomsareexciting,vibrantplaceswherechildrenareactivelyandpositivelyengagedin appropriate learningexperiences. Goodmentorsdemonstrate positiverelationships with students, and classroom management is accomplished whileprotecting thedignityof thestudent. Mentorsshoulddemonstrate equityin dealingwith students A highexpectation andbe regardedby students asfair andconsistent. for thelearningandsuccess of all students is a hallmarkof a goodmentor’sclassrooms. This standardshouldbe modeledin practiceby the mentor,expected of thestudents, andrequiredof theintern.Thesethree elements will improvethelikelihoodof theintern’ssuccess. The mentormustconsistently modelprofessionalism while dealing with colleagues, administrators, and parents.The cooperating teacher mustresisttheurgeto sharenegativefeelingsandattitudestowardanotherteacher,principal,student,or parent.This may be difficultin schools wheregossipin the facultyloungeis thenorm,but thementor mustsetthetonefor professional behaviorandovercome othernegative modelsobserved by a studentteacher.Sharingconfidential information aboutcolleagues, parents,or administrators mustbe doneonly in the contextof a “needto know”basis.If, in thejudgmentof thecooperating teacher,an internneedsto knowsomething to assisthim in performing histaskbetter,thementormayneedto discuss thisinformation. Communication Skills

The idealstudentteachingexperience is characterized by manyopportunitiesto shareideasand information,both formally and informally. Effeclivecommunication requiresthe mentorto demonstrate andgivingfeedback. skillsof listening,sharinginformation, Listeningeffectivelyto othersis a vital communication skill.Covey describes, “If I wereto summarize in onesentence thesinglemostimportant principle I havelearnedin thefield of interpersonal relations,it wouldbe this:Seekfirstto understand, thento be under~tood.”~ If the the pointsof mentoris communicating, shemustseekto understand

14

CHAPTER2

view, the educational decision-making processes, andthe concerns of thestudentteacher. Effectivelisteningtakestime. The cooperating teachermustfind time in an alreadybusyandovercrowded schedule to meetwith the internon a regularbasis.During thesemeetings,a mentorshould makethe effort to communicate anddemonstrate all of the characteristicsof goodlisteningandcommunicating effectively.By putting othertasksasideandtakingthetimeto listen,thementorletsthestudentteacherknowthather ideasareimportantandencourages sharing ideas.Demonstrating activelisteningskillswhile communicating with theinternwill improveinterpersonal relationsandfosteran environment of trust.Active listenersuse severaltechniques to accomplishgoals,suchasmakingcomments, askingquestions to draw the speakerout, andattemptingto gatherfurtherinformation.They alsousebodylanguage,includingeyecontact,posture,andpositive facial expressions. Finally, askingquestionsto clarify the point of view of the studentteacheris an importantstrategyfor effective communication. Positivecommunication with the studentteachercan also be enhancedthroughtheuseof affirmationstatements. Thesestatements can beused toencourage aninternencountering difficultieswith certainaspectsof teachingor studentrelations.Affirmationstatements canalso be usedto reminda studentteacherof beliefsor ideals.For example, assurethe studentteacherthat all studentscan learn andpersistence promotesstudentsuccess. Anotherusefor the affirmationstatement is to indicatethatthecooperating teacherhasfaithin thestudent teacher’s abilityto solvea problem.For example,the mentorshouldassurethe internthathe hastheskillsto planwell-organized lessons. Thecooperatingteachershouldlet theinternknowit will taketimeat first,butthat improvement will be seenquickly.Affirmationstatements thatreflect thementor’strueattitudesandaredeliveredwithoutsarcasm or hidden agendas canfacilitatepositivecommunication, evenin potentiallynegativesituations. EffectiveFeedback

One of the mostimportantfunctionsof the cooperating teacheris to providefeedbackaboutinstructional performance. Effectivefeedbackhasfive characteristics: amount,specificity,frequency,timing, andrelevancy.

BUILDING POSITIVE RELATIONSHIPS

15

Amount

The amountof feedbackgivento a studentteacherneedsto be appropriate.Too muchfeedbackcanconfusean internandbe difficultto apply.Toolittlefeedbackmayinhibitthegrowthof thestudentteacher. In formativeconferences with an intern,concentrating on oneor two specificareasto maintain,change,or improveinstruction is advisable. Focusingon only oneor two key themeswill give the mentoran opportunityto determineif the studentteacheris ableto applythe feedbackandrecommendations. Specijcity

Feedbacksharedby thecooperating teacherusingspecificexamples from the intern’sdaily instructional techniques can enhanceunderstandingandperformance. Regular,specificfeedbackcanimprovean intern’sability to implementrecommendations and,therefore,impact the learningof students in a positivemanner.Suggestions for action need to focuson improvingand modifyinginstructional strategies. Specificand clearlydefinedrecommendations benefitthe internby clarifyingperformance expectations. Frequency

Frequency refersto howoftenfeedback is provided.Usually,shorter, morefrequentconferences arepreferable. Shortconferences canbe informalandput the studentteacherat ease.Frequency will likely occur at two key times.Oneis earlyin theexperience whenexpectations are beingclarified,usuallydaily,andsometimes hourly.The secondtime wouldoccurif theinternis havingdifficultiesperformingat an acceptablestandard. Consequently, frequentconferences andfeedbackareessentialto thesuccess of therelationship. Timing

Feedbackshouldbe timedsoit canbe usefulto the student.In the earlyweeksof the experience, feedbackis usuallymosteffectivebecausethe internhas many opportunities to apply the recommendations.Also,mentorsshouldbe sensitiveto the timingof feedbackafter a stressfulexperience.Most internsneed reassurance from the

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CHAPTER2

cooperating teacher.Specificsuggestions for changeassoonaspossibleafterteaching, particularly in theearlystages of anassignment, can helpa student teachersucceed. Relevancy

Thebestfeedback will berelevantandspecific. Relevantfeedback is specificanddealswith issues thatimpartinstruction andstudent learning duringthelesson. For example,if two students areoff taskandthe cooperating teacher addresses thatbehavior throughquestions orguided discussion, that is relevancy.If the mentordecidesto discuss lesson plansandignores discussing off-taskstudents with the internbecause sheis fearfulit mightimpacttheintern’sconfidence, thatis irrelevant. Usefulsuggestions fromthementorcanhelpthe studentteachergain confidence andmakeneededimprovements. Effectivecommunication is theby-product of thementor’sgenuine desireto understand thefeelingsandattitudes of thestudentteacher. Thisis a very importantelementin theprocess of buildingtrustwiththestudent teacher. BuildingTrust with the StudentTeacher

Developing a climateof trustwiththestudent teacher isnecessary for effectivesupervision to takeplace.7 According to Lymanet al., teachers in generalhavelegitimate concerns abouttheprocess of assessing their competence.* Whentrustbetweeninternandmentoris present, thestudentteacherwill morelikelybe successful in theassignment. Two kindsof trustareimportant: interpersonal andprocedural trust. Interpersonal trustis createdwhentheinternfeelsthatdifficultissues withthementorcanbe discussed without havingtheinformation used negativelyor communicated inappropriately to a thirdparty.For example,thestudent teachermayconfideto thecooperating teacherthat theworkloadis causing stress. Trustwouldbediminished considerably if thementorwereto sharethisinformation withotherpracticing teachersin theteachers’ lounge. whenaninternfeelsthatpersonal feelInterpersonal trustis enhanced ingsandproperty are treatedwithrespect anddignity.With somuchtodo, it is easyfor a mentorto inadvertently disregard a student teacher’s feelboth ingswithanunintended remark.Wheninterpersonal trustis present, partiesfeelcomfortable sharing concerns andresolving problems quickly. It is alsoimportantthat the studentteacherhavea physicalspace is professional, private,andsecureandwhere withintheclassroom that

BUILDING POSITIVE RELATIONSHIPS

17

professional andpersonalitemscanbe stored.Boththe students in the classroom andthementorneedto respectthispersonalspace.The mensothiscanoccur. tor shouldestablish an environment in theclassroom Procedural trustis built whenthe internknowsthatthe cooperating teacherclearlyunderstands theexpectations andpoliciesregardingthe An internhastherightto expectthementoranduniversity assignment. supervisor to abideby rulesandregulations setforthin universitydocumentsandprocedure manuals.A commonconcernoccurswhenthe studentteacheris askedto substitute for thementorwhenthementoris absentfromtheclassroom. Thisrequestalmostalwaysviolatestheuniversity’spolicyfor studentteachingandmayviolatedistrictpolicyand statelaw.9 Procedural trustis enhanced whenthementoranduniversitysupervisoradhereto schedules indicatedby the university.For example,if a weeklyconference betweenthecooperating teacherandinternis indicatedby universitypolicy,the mentorshouldmakesucha conferencea priority,evenif time considerations limit the lengthof sucha conference. Universitysupervisors shouldbecarefulto makethenumberof visitsto theclassroom asdirectedby theuniversity, meetwithin theprescribed lengthof time,andutilizetheappropriate formsfor giving formativeandsummative feedbackduringeachvisit. Lyman,Morehead,andFoylehaveidentifieda numberof additional factorsthatbuildteachertrust.Thesefactorsincludepositivetone,clear lo expectations, usefulfeedback,andconcernfor thestudentteacher. Positivetoneduringinteractions with internsresultsfromthementor focusingon theintern’sstrengths andpositiveactions.It is importantfor studentteachersto havea clearunderstanding of whatis donewell in sothattheseskillscanbe appliedin furtherstudentteachtheclassroom job interviews,andin theirownclassrooms. ing experiences, It is importantthat the internknow what the teacherexpectsand that the informationneededaboutthe teachingcontextis provided. Mentorsneedto makeclearstandards for effectiveteaching,aswell as any “petpeeves.”This may seeminsignificant, but manystudent teachingexperiences haveturnedsourbecause aninternwasunaware of a particularexpectation of a cooperating teacher.For example,a particularway to grade,a desire tocompletea sectionof material,or notbeingpunctualcancausea mentorto becomeirritatedwith a student teacher.Clarifyingthesepet peevesor concernsearly on will mostlikely alleviatefuture problems. Table2.3 providesa list of desiredbehaviorsthat may help the mentorclarify expectations for a studentteacher.

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CHAPTER 2

Table 2.3.

List of Behaviors Clarifying Cooperating Teacher Expectations

Attendance Attentionto detail Attitudetowardstudents Attitudetowardsupervision Attitudetowardteaching Communicatingwith parents Completingtasks on time Contentknowledge Dressfor studentteaching Enthusiasmfor teaching Evaluatingstudentwork Followingproceduresdevelopedby cooperatingteacher Planningeffectively Projectingconfidenceto students Punctuality(startingtime) Qualityof writtenwork Relationswith administration Relationswith facultylstaff Student-centeredapproachto teaching Tactfulapproval Turningin lessonplans (wholwhere) What to do when absent

.. .. ..

.

Concernfor theinterncanbe demonstrated in numerous ways.One of themostimportantis providinginformationaboutthe schoolenvironment.Specificinformationaboutthe contextof the schooland classroom in whichthestudent teacherwill be workingisneeded.Taking timeto orienttheinternto importantpersonnel, locationsof pertinentoffices,schoolprocedures, andculturehelpan internfeel at ease andmay avoidproblems. As indicatedearlier,usefulfeedbackbuildstrust.Feedback thatrecognizesuniquestrengths andqualitiesletstheinternknowhe is valued andappreciated by thementor.By identifyingstrengths anddiscussing them,a mentorwill improverelationsandtrust.Focusingon teaching behaviors ratherthanon personaltraitswhengivingfeedbackprovides thestudentteacherwith thebestopportunity to makepositivechanges thatimpactteaching. Communicating PositiveRegardfor StudentTeachers

Mentorscandemonstrate their supportfor an internby communistudentteachersneedto feel catingpositiveregard.As professionals, that their effortsare appreciated and that they are makinga positive

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differencein theirassignments. The cooperating teachercancommunicatepositiveregardand build confidenceby usingthe following strategies. Showingconsideration

Goal:For thementorto demonstrate a caringapproach. “I knowyouweren’tfeelingwell yesterday. Are youfeeling better today?” “How areyoudoingin youreveningclass?” “I heardyouhada greatinterview.Congratulations.” Showingappreciation

Goal:For thementorto recognizeandvalueeffort. “Thanks forall yourhardworkonthatbulletinboard.It looksgreat.” “I appreciate theway youhavebeenworkingwith Dudley.His attitudeis improving.” “It’s sucha helpto haveyouhere.” Sharingpositive feedback

Goal:Forthementorto sharepositivefeedbackfromothers. “Thesubstitute yesterday saidyoudid a greatjob with theclass.” “Theprincipaltoldmehowwell youhandledthedisruption onthe playground today.” “Amy’smothertold me how pleasedshewas with the creative writinglessons youareteaching.” Givingpositive feedbackaboutinstruction

Goal:Forthementorto sharepositiveobservation aboutinstruction. “Theclassscoreson thattestwereveryimpressive.” “Youhandledthatstudent’s incorrectanswerexpertly.” “Everystudent hada chance toparticipate successfully thismorning.”

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Table 2.4. Cooperating Teacher Checklist for Assessing Skills in Developing Positive Relationships with Student Teachers Proficient

Competent

Needs Work

1. I modelappropriateteachingbehaviors

and strategies.

2. I am able to explainthe reasonsfor teachingdecisionsI make. 3. I have a positive,professionalattitude in dealingwith students,colleagues, and parents. 4. I demonstrateeffectivecommunication skills. 5. I make expectationsclear to the student teacher.

6. I can buildstudentteachertrust. 7. I demonstratepositiveregardfor the studentteacher.

8. I am willingto share my classroomand studentswith anotherprofessional.

9. I am willingto investthe time and effort

it takes to developpositiverelationships with my studentteacher.

CHAPTER SUMMARY

Developinga positiverelationship requiresefforton thepartof boththe mentorandtheintern.Thementor’seffortis usuallyrewarded by thepositiveenvironment resulting frominterpersonal relations. Studentteachers whoworkwithcooperating teachers whotaketimeto developpositivereA lationships will findtheirexperience lessstressful andmorerewarding. checklist for thementorteacherto usein assessing hisskillin developing positiverelationships with a studentteacheris foundin table2.4. NOTES 1. Joseph J. Caruso,“Cooperating TeacherandStudentTeacherPhasesof Development,” YoungChildren55, no. 1 (January2000):75-81. 2. Dian YendolSilva, “TriadJoumalingas a Tool for Reconceptualizing Supervision in theProfessional Development School”(paperpresented at the

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annualmeetingof theAmericanEducational Research Association, New Orleans,La., April 2000),1-17. 3. JamesM. KouzesandBany Z. Posner,Credibility:How LeadersGain andLoseIt, WhyPeopleDemandIt (SanFrancisco, Calif.:Jossey-Bass, 1993),1. 4. Tom Ganser,“The Contribution of Serviceas a Cooperating Teacher andMentorTeacherto theProfessional Development of Teachers” (paperpresentedat theannualmeetingof theAmericanEducational Research Association,Chicago,Ill., March1997), 1-62. 5. Ganser,“TheContribution of Serviceasa Cooperating Teacher.” 6. Stephen R. Covey,The7 Habitsof HighlyEffectivePeople(New York: Simon& Schuster, 1989),235-60. 7. LawrenceLymanandHarveyC. Foyle,CooperatingGroupingfor InteractiveLearning: Students,Teachers,and Administrators (Washington, D.C.: NationalEducation Association, 1990),59-60. 8. LawrenceLyman,Alfred P. Wilson,C. Kent Garhart,Max 0. Heim, andWynona0.Winn, ClinicalInstructionandSupervision forAccountability (Dubuque, Iowa:KendalVHunt,1987),106. 9. SusanK. Slick,“A UniversitySupervisor Negotiates TerritoryandStatus,”Journalof TeacherEducation49, no. 4 (September-October 1998): 306-15. 10. LawrenceLyman,MichaelA. Morehead,andHarveyC. Foyle,“Building TeacherTrustin Supervision and Evaluation,”Illinois SchoolResearch andDevelopment 25, no.2 (Winter1989):54-59.

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CHAPTER 3

Planningand Sequencing

Planningandorganizingthe studentteacher’stimein theclassroom is a crucialelementin providingopportunities for success. Whena mentor demonstrates time management andinstructional planningskills, theseexperiences are mucheasierfor the internto learn.Followinga specificplanfor sequencing the studentteachingexperience helpsensurethatan intern’stimein the assignment will be beneficial. TIME MANAGEMENT

Oneof themostchallenging elements in teachingis timemanagement.’ Teachersare expectedto managean instructional programwith everincreasingcontentand expectations, relatepositivelywith students, communicate effectivelywith parents,andserveascollegialmembers of schoolimprovement teams.Teachersalsoneedto balanceout-ofschoolresponsibilities suchasfamily andfriends. For thesereasons,decidingto becomea mentorand addingadditionalresponsibilities to an alreadychallenging loadneedsto be made with care. Potentialcooperating teacherswho alreadyfeel they are “stretched to the limit” mustthink carefullyaboutacceptingthe responsibility of workingwith an intern.Althoughinternsareoftenable to providevaluableassistance in theclassroom, developing a positive, professional relationship with the studentteacher,planningandorganizing her experiences in the classroom, and supervising canrequirea significantcommitment of time. Althoughtheamountof timeavailableto mentorsis limited,theways in whichthetimeis utilizedarenot.Somestrategies for effectivetime management includeorganizing,prioritizing,reducingpaperwork,and 23

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takingtimeforrelaxationandreflection.Considerable teaching timecan be lostwhenorganization is lacking.For example,poorfiling systems canmakeit difficult toretrieveneededmaterialsquickly.Keepingtrack of currentandfuturecommitments with a frequentlyupdatedcalendar helpsthe teacheranticipateandschedule appropriately. Modelingthis for aninterncansavehimvaluabletimein futureprofessional activities. Teachers whodo notutilizeeffectivestrategies for organizinginformationandtasksmayfeel evenmorefrustrated whenaddingthedemands of workingwith an intern. Prioritizingis anothertimemanagement skillrequiredof teachers. It is importantthatstudents in theclassroom arethementor’sfirstpriority. Basicresponsibilities are not alwaysdiscretionary, but accepting othertaskssuchascommitteeassignments, extracurricular duties,and community projectsshouldbe considered carefully.In addition,teachersmustalsofind timefor family,friends,andpersonalcommitments. Helpingan internrecognizethe importance of weighingoutsidecommitmentscarefullyduringteachingshouldbe partof the professional experience. A problemfor manyteachersis effectivelydealingwith significant of paperworkrequiredby a multitudeof agencies, government amounts regulations, districtandbuildingexpectations, andstudent recordkeeping.Onesuggestion is to lookfor waysto reducethenumberof papers thatthe teacherdealswith, suchasthe amountof paperwork submitted by students. It is certainlyimportantto checkfor studentunderstandingfrequently,butthisdoesnotalwaysrequirethecompletion of a paper-and-pencil taskthatmustbe graded.Checkingfor understanding while students are workingin classandassessing students in differentwayscanreducethe numberof papersandstill provideneeded feedbackto students abouttheirperformance. Most effectiveteachers developgradingsystemsthat allow flexibilityfor reviewingstudent work. Modelingthis for a studentteacheris essential. Time managemustbe discussed throughout an intern’sexperience. mentstrategies A concernfor manyteachersis the overwhelming amountof informationreceivedvia district,state,regional,andnationalreportingagenciesandelectronicmail.Althoughsomeof thesereportsandmessages areimportant,workingto reduceunwantedanduseless information can be time saving. Althoughit may seemcontradictory to suggesttime for reflection andrelaxationasstrategies for timemanagement, teachers whodo not engagein theseimportantactivitieswill usuallybe lessproductive. All

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teachersneedtime to reflectabouttheirteachingandotherimportant personalthings.Suchreflectionhelpsteachersprioritizeandmaintain a positive,constructive attitudetowardtheirprofession.2 Part of every studentteachingprogramwill requireprofessional andpersonal reflection by the intern.Cooperating teacherswho demonstrate reflection will fosterthatbehaviorby the intern.Time for relaxation,including appropriate wellnessactivitiessuchasexercise, helptheteachermaintainthefocusandbalanceessential for successful interactions with studentsandothercolleagues. As in manyotherareas,mentorteachersserveasa positiveor negative examplefor internsin theareaof timemanagement. Mentorswho managetimeeffectivelydemonstrate appropriate practicesthatinterns mayemulateasa professional. INSTRUCTIONAL PLANNING

Effectiveinstructional planningis a hallmarkof excellentteaching. Sincethehistoricaltrendin education hasbeento addrequirements to curriculumwithoutsubtracting othercontent,teachersare facedwith incredibleresponsibilities today.Educational goals,standards, andlevhavemultipliedalmostexponentially at national, elsof accountability state,andlocallevels.At thesametime,theinclusionof students with wide-ranging academicandsocialneedsmakesthe teachingof an expandedcurriculumevenmore~hallenging.~ Long-range planningby teachers helpsensurethatrequiredcurriculum outcomescan be addressed in the classroom.The cooperating teacher’sphilosophy,classroom rules,procedures and routines,and arrangement of the classroom mustbe carefullyconsidered by good teachersandbecomethe foundation for curriculumplanningandimplementati~n.~ Becausethe studentteacherwill not know how these importantelements of planningwereestablished, thementormustoutline anddescribereasons for thesebasicplanningdecisions. In orderto work with a studentteachereffectively,the mentormust carefullyanalyzetherequiredcurriculum outcomes of thegradeleveland subjectareas.Developinga long-rangeinstructional plan for meeting An effective theseobjectives throughout theacademic yearis necessary. long-range planincludes a timelinefor workingonoutcomes in eachsubject area.Curriculummaterials, includingtextbooks andotherresources usedin achieving positiveoutcomes, shouldalsobe identified.Datesfor

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mandateddistrictand statetestingandtimesfor reviewingneedto be notedaspartof thelong-termplanningprocess.Sharingthesestrategies withinternswill assistthemin presentandfutureinstructional planning. Onceplanningdecisions havebeenmade,thementorteacherandinterncanidentifyspecificcontentandoutcomes eachwill be responsible for. Oncethe studentteacherbecomes familiarwith requiredcontent, formulatingappropriateplans for instructionand identifying additionalresources for teachingcanoccur.Often,beginningeducators strugglewith decidingwhatimportanttopicsor concepts to teach.The mentorscan assistin guidingthe intern’sselectionof contentin the earlystagesof theexperience. While thestudentteacherbenefitsfromappropriate long-range planningby thementor,therealbeneficiaries arethe students in the classroom.Long-range planningcanfacilitatea smoothtransitionfromthe cooperatingteacher’sinstructionto the studentteacher’s.Another smoothtransitionwill occurwhenthe mentorresumesresponsibility for instruction. Effectiveplanningandimplementation ensures thatstudentshave thebestopportunities possible to learn,regardless of whois teaching. SEQUENCING THE STUDENT TEACHING EXPERIENCE

Beginningthe Experience

At thebeginningof thestudentteachingexperience, thecooperating teacherhasthreeimportanttasks:gettingacquainted with the intern; sharingexpectations, philosophy, andconcerns; andsharingnecessary informationaboutthe school,classroom, and students.The student teacherwill be anxiousto know thesethings.By sharingthe abovementionedinformationwith the intern,the acclimationandtransition intoteachingwill be moresuccessful. Foyle,Morehead,andLymanhaveidentifiedfive key behaviorsof mentorsthatcanassiststudentteachers in thebeginningof theirexperience.Thesebehaviorsare friendliness, openness, warm regard,listening,and empathy.6Severalof thesebehaviorswere discussed in chapter2, “BuildingPositiveRelationships.” By encouraging thestudentteacherto shareappropriate personaland professional information,the mentordemonstrates friendlinessand warm regard.Suggestions for personaland professionaldiscussion in the intern’sbackitemscanbe foundin table3.1. Beinginterested

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groundand experiences and anxiousto utilize slullsof the student teacherin theclassroom is alsoimportant. Severalissuesneedto be discussed with thestudentteacherearlyin the experience. Takingtime to clarifyexpectations, rules,andprocedureshelpspreventconfusion andfrustration. A listof importantissues to discuss canbe foundin tables1.1 (foundin chapter1) and3.2. Materialssuchas the schoolhandbookcanprovidehelpfulsupplemental information.It is especiallyimportantthat the studentteacherclearly understanddiscipline,confidentiality, and reportingpoliciesbefore workingwith students. Table 3.1.

Beginning Conferences with Student Teachers

These suggestionsare adaptedfromthe videotapeConferencingwithStudentTeachers: The BeginningConferenceby HarveyFoyle,MichaelMorehead,and LawrenceLyman (NewYork: InsightMedia, 1992). Usedwith permission. Thingsto Ask the StudentTeacher 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

Ask about the studentteacher’spersonaland professionalbackground. Ask the studentteacher why he or she choseteachingfor a profession. Ask about previousexperienceswith children. Ask what his or her biggestfear or concernis. Ask what his or her strengthsare. Ask abouthighschooland collegeactivitiesand favoritesubjects. Ask abouthobbiesand interests. Ask what subjector subjectshe or she wouldliketo teachfirst. Ask if the studentteacherhas any questionsor concernsand encouragethe studentteacher to ask questionsas they come up.

Table 3.2.

Topics to Cover in Initial Conferences

1. Share personaland professional backgroundinformation. 2. Share philosophyand expectations.Be sure to mentionpet peeves. 3. Clarifyexpectationsfor dress,arrivaltime, confidentiality,reportingof childabuse, schooland classroomrulesand procedures. 4. Take the studentteacher on a tour of the schooland introducethe studentteacher to colleagues,the principal,secretary,appropriatesupportpersonnel,and custodiansduringthe firstweek he or she is in the building. 5. Discussclassroommanagementproceduresand expectationsfor the student teacher with respectto discipline. 6. Discussactivitiesfor the first two weeks of school. 7. Developa schedulefor teachingand for conferencing with the studentteacher. 8. Give a briefoverviewof what is known aboutstudentsthe studentteacher willbe workingwith. Do not share negativeinformationat thistime. 9. Discusslessonplanningrequirements and dateson whichplansare due.

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Earlyconferences with the studentteacherwill primarilybe directed by thementor.Althoughthecooperating teachershouldencourage theinternto shareinformation andaskquestions, it is important thatthe mentor makeexpectations and necessary informationclearto the student teacher.Clarifyingexpectations aboutminorissuesearlyin theexperience(e.g.,punctuality, attendance) allowsbothpartiestheopportunity to discuss moresignificant issues later.TheuniversitySupervisor canassist boththementorandinternin thefirstweekandoutlinetopicsto discuss. Duringthefirstmeetingwith the student teacherandmentor,theuniversitysupervisor shouldverifythattheinternhasmetal therequirements fortheplacement andthatthementorhasall of thenecessary information fromtheuniversity. By makingan introductory visitearlyin theassignment,thesupervisor ensures thattheplacement of the student teacheris appropriate andthatthe mentorandinternhaveinformation neededregardingtheassignment. It is important thatboththestudent andthecooperatingteacherreceiveinformation on how to contactthe supervisor. A datefor thenextvisitshouldbeidentifiedanda tentativeschedule for al visitsby thesupervisor discussed. Theuniversity supervisor alsoneedsto shareexpectations forthestudent teacher, especially in the areas of lesson planning, attendance, substituting, andprofessional behavior. Duringthefirsttwo weeksin the classroom, mentorsshould provide opportunities for guidedobservation of thestudents. Guidedobservation helpstheinternbecomefamiliarwith the students andclassroom while settlingin. A guidefor classroom observation, suchastheonefoundin thingsfor thestudent teacherto lookfor. table3.3, canprovide specific Takingtimeto reviewtheintern’sobservations duringa weeklyconferencecanhelpmentors evaluateimportant factorssuchasanintern’s perceptions of the classroom and students. Additionally,cooperating teachers candetermine if theinternhasmadeaccurate observations and has“with-it-ne~s.”~ Observations madeby thestudentteacherthatdiffer fromthoseof thementorcanfacilitatediscussion andallowforclarof the observation guidecan ification.Occasionally, the discussion alertthementorthataninternhasmadeerrorsin observing or interactDiscussing ing with students duringtheinitialdaysof theassignment. theobservations earlyin an experience mayassistthementorin pointing outthepotentialchallenges for thestudent teacherandpossiblyalleviatepotentialproblems.If concerns arise,it is appropriate to visit with theuniversitysupervisor to clarifyquestions andconcerns. If an internis not awareof students’ interactions, behaviors, andattentiveness,serious classroom management issuescouldemergelater.

PLANNING AND SEQUENCING

Table 3.3.

29

Classroom Observation Guide

Duringthe firsttwo weeks of school,moststudentteachersbenefitfrom guided observationtasks, whichhelpthem becomeorientedto the students,teacher, and classroom.The studentteachershouldobserveand interactwith studentsas directed by the mentorteacherand answeras many of the questionsas possible.When the studentteacher has completedthe observationprocess,the studentteacher and mentorteacher shouldconferenceto determinethe accuracyof the studentteacher’s observations and conclusions. 1. How doesthe mentorteachermake studentsfeel welcomeon the firstday of class?How doesthe mentorteacherinvolvestudentsduringthe firstweek of class so that studentsfeel as thoughthey are a part of the class? 2. How doesthe mentorteacherreducestudentanxietyand fear duringthe firstdays of class? 3 How doesthe teacherget to knowstudentsbeforethey arrivein classand during the firstdays of class? 4. What are the classroomand schoolrulesfor students?What is the role of the studentteacher in classroomdisciplineand management? 5. How does the mentorteacherpositivelyreinforcedesiredstudentbehaviorsin the classroom? 6. How doesthe mentorteachercheckto make sure that studentsunderstandwhat has been taught? 7. How are groupsestablished?Why doesthe mentorteachergroupstudents? 8. Whichstudentsappear to be leadersin the classroom?How do you know? 9. Whichstudentshave goodverbalskills?How do you know? 10. Whichstudentsseem to learnquicklyand easily? How do you know? 1 1 . Whichstudentsappear to be sociallyskilledin the classroom?How do you know? 12. Whichstudentsappear to be shy and reticent?How do you know? 13. Which studentsappear to have difficultygettingalongwithothers?How do you know? 14. Whichstudentsneed extra helpto understandand participateappropriately? All the time or only in certainsubjects?What do these studentsdo when they are frustrated?How do you know? 15. Whichstudentsappear to need moreattention(positiveor negative)from the mentorteacher and the studentteacherthan others?How do these studentsget the attentionthey want? How do they reactif they do not get the attentionthey want? How do you know? 16. What other interestingor unexpectedthingshave been observed?

Anotherappropriate taskfor the studentteacherduringthefirsttwo is to brieflyinterviewstudents in theclass.(At weeksof theassignment thesecondary level,it mightbejusta few students in eachclass.)A list of possibleinterviewquestions canbe foundin table3.4.Thesebrief interviewscanhelpthestudentteachergainvaluableinformation about the personalities, learningstyles,and interestsof students.Mentors shouldencourage internsto shareanyinteresting or unexpected things discovered duringthe interviews.Thisinformationcanbe valuableto

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thementoraswell. Interviewswill alsoenhance theinterpersonal relationsof an internwith students in theclass. Few studentteacherswill be satisfiedby only observingandinterviewingduringthe first two weeksof their assignments. Cooperating teachersshouldprovideopportunities for internsto assumeresponsibility for routineclassroom tasks,suchastakingattendance, completing calendaractivities,readingto students,or workingwith small groups.A simpleprojectat theelementary level,suchascreatinga bulletinboardof self-portraits createdby students in theclass,canbe sata unitplanrelatedto future isfying.At the secondary level,developing teachingmightbe appropriate. The approachmentorsusewhenintroducing the studentteacherto the classcan be an importantfactorin determiningsuccess. By presentingthe internto the students as a teacherratherthana “student” teacher,thementorsignalsit is expectedthatthe classtreatthe intern with the samerespectaccordedall teachers. The mentormustalsolet parentsknowthereis anotherteacherworkingin theclassroom. Parents may be curiousor concerned if their childtells themabouta student teacherthey were unawareof. (This is especiallysignificantfor elementaryclassrooms.) It is importantduringthefirsttwo weeksof the studentteachingassignmentto havea brief, daily conference. Thisbrief conference providesan opportunity for thestudentteacherto askquestions or express concerns or frustrations. It is importantto encourage the internto ask questions aboutroutinesin the classroom, studentbehaviorand attitudes,andthementor’sinstructional andbehaviordecisions. If thestudentteacheris reluctantto askquestions anddoesnot seemto be able to analyzetheclassroom, students, andteaching, thismaybe a concern Table 3.4. Possible Structured Interview Questions for Student Teachers to Use with Students 1. Tell me about your family. Brothers and sisters? Pets? 2. Have you always lived here? What other places have you lived? 3. What are you good at? 4. What is your favorite subject in school? 5. What gives you the most trouble in school? 6. What are you looking forward to this year? 7. What are you nervous about this year? 8. What do you like to do outside of school? 9. What is the best book you ever read? 10. What do you think makes somebody a good teacher?

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to sharewith the universitysupervisor. Daily conferences alsoallow thementoranopportunity to clarifyexpectations anddealdirectlywith anyissuesthatmightbe of concern,suchasan internnotbeingpunctual or completingassignedtasksin a timely manner.Conferences earlyin the semester will give the cooperating teacheran opportunity to address theseconcerns beforetheybecomeproblematic. Gettingthe StudentTeacherMore Involvedin the Classroom

By the third week,moststudentteachersare readyto take overat leastonesubjectarea.As partof the plan,the mentorwill usuallyencouragea studentteacherto assumetheseresponsibilities. In a middle schoolor secondary assignment, the studentteachermay work with a particularclassperiod.Sometimes internsaregiventoomuchresponsibilitytooearly.The old modelof “sinkor swim”is notacceptable. If an assigned mentorleavesan internon her own afteronlya week,the mentoris not meetinghis professional responsibilities andhis action borderson professional malpractice. Somestudentteachers needa little moretimeto adjustto theclassroombeforeassuming responsibilities for the wholeclass.Theseinternsmay benefitfrom workingwith a smallgroupof students first, suchasa readinggroupin an elementaryclassroom. Middle andhigh schoolinternsmayworkwith cooperative groupsto helpstudents with problemsor answerquestions. Thesetypesof introductoryactivities areappropriate for all interns,butsomewill takelongerto becomeacclimatedto an experience. Professional judgmentof the mentoris essentialin thisfirst phaseandcanhavea significantimpacton future success. Planningfor additionalresponsibilities shouldbe donecollaboratively andtakeplaceduringthe secondweek.Involvingtheuniversity supervisor at thisjunctureis essential. Eachweekthereaftershouldincludea discussion of futureresponsibilities to be assumed by the studentteacher.Duringthis time, it is usuallyhelpfulfor the mentorto carefullyreviewthewrittenplansfor teachingwith theinternandoutline expectations for planningandimplementing. If possible,thementor shouldmodelthe first lessonandthenpermitthe internto teacha second,similarlessonto theclass. As the internbeginsto havedirectresponsibility for planningand teaching,it is importantfor thementorto bein theclassroom. Thisprovidesan opportunity to noteexamples of positivecommunication with

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students, appropriate instructional practices,and goodmanagement strategies as they are observed. Thesedesiredbehaviors canbe reinforcedin a brief,daily conference. This feedbackin the earlystages will bebeneficial for bothparticipants. First,trustwill be enhanced by thiscommunication. Second, clarification of expectations by thementorrelatedto instruction will enhance theintern’sperformance. Finally, it shouldquickentheimplementation of effectiveclassroom managementstrategies for theintern. for thementorto recordanyconcerns or changes It is alsoimportant theinternshouldmakewhileteaching. Specificsuggestions for change shouldbe givenbeforetheinternworkswith the students again.If a mentorobserves thatthestudent teachersuccessfully incorporates suggestions intofutureinstruction, it is especiallyimportantto reinforce thepractice. Basedonthestudent teacher’s progress, additional subjectareasor sotheycan academic periodsshouldbe addedto theirresponsibilities plan andimplement instruction as a full-timeteacher.The lengthof full-timeteaching is oftennegotiable andcanvaryfromthreeto eight weeks.Mostmentorsarereluctantto giveup theirclassfor a significantperiodof time,butinternsneedat leastthreeweeksof full-time teaching. Everystudent teacherneedstimeto bein full controlof the classwithoutinterruption froma mentor.Duringa full sixteen-week semester, a two-to four-weekperiodshouldbe sufficient. Earlyin the experience, theinternshouldusethecooperating teacher’s materials andlessons. If thecooperating teacheris concerned thattheinternis notprogressing asexpected, it is essential to conferwith theuniverhis inputandexpertise sity supervisor. By notifyingthe supervisor, canbeutilizedif it becomes necessary to makechanges to thestudent teachingexperience. Fromthethirdweekof theassignment until themidpoint,the studentteachershouldbe accepting additional responsibilities for planningandteaching. Thementorshouldbegivinglessspecificfeedback aboutlessonplansasthestudent teacherevidences theabilityto plan moreappropriately. Moresophisticated typesof analysis shouldbegin taking place as well. For example,comparinginteractionwith maledfemales, monitoring levelsof questions, or reflectingon student learningshouldemerge. A concern oftenobserved at thisstageof thestudent teaching expeAs an internassumes morererienceis timeandstress management.

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sponsibility for planningandinstruction, it is commonfor him or her to feel overwhelmedand anxiousaboutthe responsibilities assumed and evento feel inadequate. Thesefeelingsmay comefrom the intern’songoingcomparisonof himselfor herselfto the cooperating teacheror othermasterteachers.8 Positiveandspecificreinforcement from the mentorwill help relieve anxiety.Using affirmationstatethe internthatthe menmentsasdiscussed in chapter2 will reassure tor hasconfidence in herabilities. As the studentteacherassumesincreasingresponsibilityin the classroom, lessons shouldbe observed to assess howtheinternis handling classroom management. An intern’sawareness of studentmisbehavior,abilityto anticipateproblemsbeforetheyoccur,anduseof positive,effectivestrategiesto deal with minor behaviorproblems shouldbe observed.Observations and suggestions aboutclassroom management mustbe sharedduringweeklyconferences or moreoften as necessary. Duringthe early stagesof an assignment, it is essential to identifyandoffersuggestions relatedto classroom environment and management. It is importantnot to leavetheinternalonein theclassroomfor morethanbrief periodsof timeuntilthementoris convinced he canhandledisciplineeffectively. Studentteachersshouldalsobe gainingskill in instructional planning,teaching,andassessment. SpecificfeedbackaboutteachingdecitheStudentTeacher”)needs sionsdiscussed in chapter4 (“Supervising to be givenon a dailybasisor in theweeklyconference. Somementors preferto writea brief noteto the studentteacherafterobserving a lessonto identifywhathasgonewell andwhatshouldbe changed.This strategycanprovidepromptfeedbackto thestudent teacherandfurnish a recordof thestrengths andweaknesses thatcanbe sharedwith a universitysupervisor duringhervisitto theclassroom. All feedbackneeds to be specificandfocuson oneor two key themes.Discussing more thanoneor two issuescanseemoverwhelming to theintern.Also,determiningwhich topicsare mostimportantto reviewcan be difficult whentherearemultipleconcerns. The MidpointAssessment

Themidpointof thestudentteacher’s experience shouldbe marked by a summativeevaluationof strengths and weaknesses. Most universitiesrequirethat a universitysupervisor be part of the midpoint

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conference and that a summativeevaluationbe completedand discussedwith the studentteacher.At the midpoint,the universitymay also requestthat the mentor assigna letter grade to the student teacher’sprogress to date.At thistime,in fairnessto all parties,it is expectedthat any seriousconcernsbe sharedwith the intern.Due processand general,professional expectations warrantsuchdisclosureduringthemidpointassessment. Not overratingtheprogress of thestudentteacherat thispointin the experience is important.Strengths will, of course,be discussed, with It specificexamplesso theinterncancontinueto growprofessionally. is alsoimportant,however,to helpthestudent teachersetgoalsfor improvement duringtheremainderof theexperience. Evenwhenthestudentteacheris makingexemplaryprogress, a planto continueprofessionalgrowthand development is essential.Suggestions for helping outstanding internsmaybe foundin chapter7 (“TheExcellentStudent Teacher”). With someinterns,concerns at themidpointmaybe seriousenough to requireuniversitysupervision in thissummative conference. When mentorsbelieveseriousconcerns exist,cooperating teachersmustinvolvetheuniversitysupervisor in themidtermevaluation.The university supervisor can assistin formulatinga specificplan for improvement.Additionalinformationfor dealingwith student teachers whoare experiencing difficultiescanbe foundin chapter6 (“TheIncompetent StudentTeacher”). Discussing any weaknesses duringthe summative midtermconferencecaninfluencetheintern’sfutureattitudetowardsupervisors. Most importantly, the issueof trustanda senseof respectcanbe impacted aresubstantive, in orderto ensure negatively. If identifiedweaknesses trust,openness, andcontinued respect,supervisors mustreaffirmtheir beliefin thepotentialsuccess of theintern. Cooperating teachers shouldmakesurethatinternshavea clearunderstanding of the mentor’sassessment of their progress to dateand clearlyunderstand the expectations for improvement duringthe final portionof the assignment. By beingclearaboutconcerns or problems at t h stime,theinternhasan opportunity to improvesothesummative conference at theendcanbe morepositiveandthe overallexperience moresuccessful. Sometimeduringthismidpoint,a substantive transitionshouldbegin to emergein anintern’sprofessional growth.As conferences con-

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tinue, a studentteacherwho is maturingprofessionally shouldbe movingfroma survivalmodeto a role as“teacher.”Thiscanbestbe determinedby listeningto the studentteacher’scommentsabout teachingand observinghis interactionswith students.The focus shouldnowbe on “learningandneedsof children”andnoton theinternsthemsel~es.~ If thisoccurs,theremainderof thesemester should be professionally productive.If the focuson childrenis not evident, thenthisis a seriousindicationthatan intern’sprofessional growthis not occurringadequately. The universitysupervisor andcooperating teachermustconferandensuretheyarein agreementaboutthisobservation. If theyare,thencorrectiveactionshouldbe takenimmediately. The Final Weeksof the StudentTeachingExperience

During the secondhalf of the experience,mostinternswill continueto assumemoreresponsibility for planningandteachingin the classroom. During the final weeksof the experience,the mentor’s weekly conferencestrategieswith the studentteacherwill usually change.In the earlyweeksof an assignment, mentorsareusuallydirective,providingspecificreinforcement andsuggestions for modificationof teachingas appropriate. Later in the experience,mentors will encourage internsto take a moreactivepart in weeklyconferences.’OClarificationandbrainstorming strategies will requirean intern to analyzeher performance andfacilitatemoreinteractionwith the mentor.The goal of conferences with competentand excellent l1 studentteachersis to causemorereflectionabouttheir teaching. Studentteachers needto identifywhatis goingwell, aswell asidentify problemsand suggestpossiblesolutions. This processof reflectionis anintegralpartof professional growthnecessary for success of theintern. Weeklyformativeconferences with thestudentteachershouldfocus on refininginstructional strategies, utilizingvariedmethodsof assessment,andanticipating problemsthatmay occur.Writtenlessonplans maybe lessdetailedif the internhasevidenced the abilityto planappropriately, yet it is importantto discuss short-andlong-termgoals,as well as ensureall studentsare beingtaughteffectively.By thistime, pacingof lessonsand an ability to determinehow quickly students completeassignments shouldbe an acquiredskill. If the internis still

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havingdifficultywith theseissues,comprehensive dailyplanningmay still be required. An importantstrategyto assistin evaluatingperformance is the use of videotape.Somestudentteachersbalk at the idea of videotapingbecausethey feel uncomfortable watchingthemselves. However,therearefew bettertechniques for any educatorto getrealistic feedbackon strengthsand weaknessesrelated to the teaching process. Mentorsmaygivean internthechoiceof viewingthevideotapeprivatelyor with the mentorpresent.Somemay electto watch the first videotapedepisodeby themselves; this is not uncommon andallowsan individuala privateopportunity to reflect.Later,when tapedepisodes are viewedtogether,cooperating teacherscan assure theinternthatbothstrengths andweaknesses arebeingobservedand discussed. Videotapesmadethroughoutthe experiencecan provide feedbackaboutnonverbalcues,movementin the classroom, possible behaviorsmissed,inconsistency in feedback,and professional teachinggrowth.Someschooldistrictsrequesta videotapeof new teachersaspartof the application process,soit is importantto make surethisexperience is madeavailable. As mentionedearlier,the focusof the studentteacherusually changes astheexperience progresses. At thebeginning,mostinterns tend to focuson themselves and what they are doing.Sharingpersonalfeelingsandreactionsat thistime is mostimportantwhenvisiting with the mentor.With mostcompetentand excellentinterns, this self-centered focuswill changeduringthe studentteachingexperience.The focuschangesfrom beingpreoccupied with how they are doingto whatis happeningandhow the students arereactingto instruction. Thismay be oneof thebestinformalassessments of the studentteacher’sreadinessfor his own classroom. To observethis changein focusis an excellentindicationthat appropriateprofessionalgrowthis transpiring. Concludingthe Experience

One importantexperienceto make availableis an opportunityto participatein conferences with parents.Numerousstudiesconducted by Moreheadindicatethatfirst-yearteachers feel inadequate in their preparation relatingto issuesconcerning parentsandparent-teacher conferences. Dependingon the competence and confidenceof the studentteacher,the mentormay allow the internto take the leadin

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someof theconferences. Beforeconferences occur,goalsandappropriatemethodsusedto shareinformationshouldbe discussed and a planfor themeetingwith parentsshouldbe reviewed.It is especially importantfor the studentteacherto learnwaysto dealwith difficult parentsin a positive,professional manner.Appropriatemodelingby the mentorshouldoccurfirst andthe opportunity to lead a few parent-teacher conferences is necessary. The mentorandotherteachers shouldbe presentto assistthe studentteacherandhelpwith any potentialproblems.Role-playingmight be goodpreparationafter the sothatan interncaniron outminorflawswithfirst fewconferences out fear of beingineffective.Remindingan internthat eachparent conference shouldstartwith a positivecommentandfocuson only oneor two key issuesat a time will go a longway towardensuring futuresuccess. Invitinga buildingadministrator to visit while an internis teaching is alsoan activitythatcanassistprofessional growth.A principalor assistantprincipalwill providevaluablefeedbackaboutteachingand otherimportantprofessional issues.More informationon waysthe administrator canhelpstudentteacherscanbe foundin chapter8 (“The Principal’sRole”). As the experienceconcludes, planningfor a smoothtransitionof the mentor’sreturnto teachingshouldoccur.It is usuallyhelpfulfor the studentteacherto “give back”responsibility for teachingsubjectsor academicperiodsas they were assigned. By the final week of an experience, the studentteachermaybe responsible, as shewas earlierin the experience,for only oneor two subjectareasor academicperiods. At the conclusion of the experience,the cooperating teacherhas severalimportanttasks.First, havinga summativeevaluationconferencereviewingthe studentteacher’sprogressand assigninga gradewill be necessary. Most universities will askmentorsto completea final evaluationform.Additionally,a mentorwill be askedby thestudentteacherto completea referenceletterfor a placement file, whichwill be sentto a universityplacementoffice.Mentorssometimesfind it difficultto writean appropriate referencefor thestudent teacher’scareerplacementfile. Suggestions for writingthesecanbe foundin table3.5. It is importantto rememberthatthesetwo forms servedifferentpurposes. Recommendation lettersarejust that, and shouldfocuson the positive.If seriousweaknesses exist,professionalresponsibility requiresmentionof thoseweaknesses. Thefinal

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Table 3.5.

Suggestions for CooperatingTeachers in Writing References for Interns

The followingsuggestionsmay be used for writingevaluationsof studentteachers. Four ParagraphFormat: Sentencesummarizingstudentteacher assignment;Sentences describingcharacteristics and traits,suchas enthusiasm,creativity, willingnessto work hard, rapportwith students,staff, and parents Sentencesdescribingplanningand organizationalskills,abilityto evaluateeffectively,abilityto use a varietyof methodsand strategies, developand implementappropriateinstructionalobjectives Sentencesdescribingabilityto motivateand manage students, abilityto keep studentsinterestedand involved,providefor individualstudentdifferences Overallsummaryof the studentteachingassignmentpredictionfor successof studentteacher in fulltime teaching

Paragraph1: Paragraph2: Paragraph3: Paragraph4:

The followingexamplescan be helpfulin qualifyjngstatements. Qualifyingwords: Usually Sometimes May Probably

Often Occasionally With (conditions) Showsthe potentialto

Qualifyingstatements: StrongPerformance: QualifiedStatement: StrongPerformance: Qualifiedstatement: StrongPerformance: QualifiedStatements:

MissSmithdemonstratedexcellentrapportwith students. MissSmithusuallydemonstratedexcellentrapportwith students. MissSmith managedincidentsof classroommisbehavior appropriatelyand fairly. Miss Smithoftenmanagedincidentsof classroom misbehaviorappropriatelyand fairly. MissSmithwill do well in futureteaching. MissSmithmay do well in futureteaching. MissSmithmay do well in futureteachingif providedwith strongguidanceand supervision.

The followingdescriptivewordscan be used when developingreferencelettersor writingfinalevaluationsfor the university ExcellentPerformance extraordinary excellent distinguished superb exceptional special superior noteworthy notable extensive outstanding

GoodPerformance good capable competent effective appropriate proper favorable above average positive productive

PLANNINGAND SEQUENCING

Fair Performance adequate sufficient suitable fair satisfactory acceptable average passable ordinary

39

Poor Performance below standard unprepared inadequate weak unqualified unacceptable unfit inappropriate

universityevaluationshouldfocuson successes but is intendedto help the intern grow professionally and shouldindicateareasfor improvement. Theendingconference in mostsituations is a celebration of a job well done.Unlikethefirstconferences, whichwerecontrolled primarilyby the mentor,the final conference shouldbe a professional dialogueabout teaching.The internshouldbe encouraged to reflecton whatwentwell duringthe experience andhow thosestrengths may be usedin future teaching. Encouraging a student teacherto reflectonhighlights of thesemesterandthingsshefindsmostmemorable helppromote thecelebration. In a finalconference, open-ended questions helpensurethattheintern is an activeparticipant in theconference. As the experience concludes, internsshouldbe encouraged to analyzethekindsof instructional methodsandstrategies used,provideexamples of professionalism exhibited, andidentifyareasto improve.Thestudent teachershouldbe encouraged of teaching techniques, subject matter,celebration tofocusonknowledge of success, andgoalsettingfor thefuture.12 If theinternhashada positive experience, it is importantthathe havethe cooperating teacher’s schoolandhomecontactinformation to addto hisprofessional resume. Thiswill allowprospective employers a contact pointif theyshouldhave questions aboutt h spotentialemployee. Because manystudent teachers moveat theendof theirexperience, a permanent address suchastheparents’shouldbe sharedwith thementor. CHAPTER SUMMARY

A well-planned student teachingexperience depends onshort-andlongtermplanningfacilitatedby thementoranduniversitysupervisor. Mentorswhoaregoodmanagers of timeanddemonstrate effectiveplanning skillsarebestequipped to helpstudentteachers. At thebeginningof the studentteachingexperience, the mentorneedsto be directive,making

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sureexpectations andneededinformationareunderstood andprovided. A sequence for havingthestudentteacherassumeteachingresponsibilitiesneedsto be developed andsharedwith boththeinternanduniversity supervisor. The progress of the studentteacher,asdiscussed in frequentformativeconferences, mayresultin modifyingthisplan. Ideally, an internwill becomeincreasinglyreflectiveand able to evaluateperformance throughout theexperience. Feedback is crucialto thestudent teacher’soptimalprofessional growthat all stages of theexperience.Continuingto shareobservations abouttheintern’sperformance, interactions, and growththroughoutthe experiencewill help makethe assignment andfutureteachingsuccessful.

NOTES 1. Lawrence Lyman,“A Professor Returnsto theClassroom in a ProfesERIC Resources in Education(paperpresented sionalDevelopment School,” at thenationalconference of theKansas UniversityProfessional Development Schools Alliance,KansasCity,Mo., February2000). 2. Tom Ganser,“The Contribution of Serviceas a Cooperating Teacher andMentorTeacherto theProfessional Development of Teachers” (paperpresentedat theannualmeetingof theAmericanEducational Research Association,Chicago,Ill., March1997),1-62. 3. Tara S. Azwell, HarveyC. Foyle, LawrenceLyman,and Nancy L. Smith,Constructing Curriculumin Context(Dubuque,Iowa: Kendall/Hunt, 1999),12-1 8. 4. Azwellet al., Constructing Curriculumin Context,543-47. 5. Azwell et al., Constructing Curriculumin Context,549-65. 6. HarveyC. Foyle,MichaelA. Morehead,andLawrenceLyman,Conferencingwith StudentTeachers:TheBeginningConference (New York: InsightMedia,1992),videotape. 7. C. M. Charles,BuildingClassroom DisciplinefromModelsto Practice (NewYork: Longman,1989),27-39. 8. Joseph J. Caruso,“Cooperating TeacherandStudent TeacherPhases of Development,” YoungChildren55,no. 1 (January 2000):75-81. 9. Caruso,“Cooperating TeacherandStudent Teacher,” 75-81. 10. J. M. Cooper,“Supervision in TeacherEducation,” InternationalEncyclopediaof Teachingand TeacherEducation(1995):593-98. 11. KenZeichnerandD. P. Liston,“Teaching Student Teachers to Reflect,” HarvardEducational Review57 (1987):23-48. 12. Foyleet al., Conferencing withStudentTeachers.

CHAPTER 4

Supervisingthe StudentTeacher

Appropriate supervision of the studentteacheris essential for positive,professional growth.Qualitysupervision depends ontheability of mentorsto builda positive,professional relationship with theintern,andto planandorganizethe studentteacher’sprofessional activitiesefficiently.Effectivesupervisors havethe ability to collect necessary dataaboutthe studentteacher’sperformance andreflect on it duringformativeand summativeconferences.Supervisors needto be skillfulin reinforcingappropriate behaviors andattitudes while helpingthe internclarify decision-making processes. Brainstorming solutions to instructional andbehaviorproblems andremediatingareasof weakness or concernare alsoessential for successful supervision. TWO MODELS OF SUPERVISION

Themodelof supervision utilizedby mentorsimpactstheway theyinteractwith student teachers. Althoughmanymodelsof supervision exist, mostcanbe summarized asmodelsof eithercongruency or discrepancy. Bothmodelscantheoretically improvetheperformance andprofessional growth,butthecongruency modeltendsto resultin morepositiveattitudestowardthesupervision process.2 Supervisors whousecongruency asa modelfor supervision seekto identifyareasof strength in performance. Thesupervisor looksfor actionsthatareeffectivein helpingstudents learn.Whenconferring with the studentteacher,the supervisor emphasizes thepositiveaspects of performance andidentifies strengths whenever possible. 41

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Supervisors who use a discrepancy modelconcentrate on areasof weakness in performance. The supervisor looksfor actionsthatareinterferingwith studentlearning.Whenconferencing, thesupervisor emphasizestheaspects of the studentteacher’s performance thatareinhibiting positiveinstruction. The focusof supervisory conferences is on weaknesses andhowtheycanbe modified. Whenmentorsusea congruency modelof supervision, conferences ark morepositivebecausethe studentteachergainsconfidence from knowingwhat is beingdonewell. When the studentteacherunderstandsthatherpracticesarecongruent with effectiveteaching,sheis morelikely to usesuchmethodsmoreoftenin futureteaching,both in the presentassignment andeventuallyin her own classroom. Perhapsthemostimportantbenefitof responding to supervision in a caring, positivemanneris that internsare morelikely to respondsimilarly to their own students.’The congruency modelis mosthelpful throughout the intern’sexperienceandis primarilyformativein approach.Thediscrepancy modelis usedwheninternscontinueto make mistakesandfind it difficultto modifybehavior.If a supervisor uses the discrepancy model,shemustbe awareof its impacton trustand how the intern will communicatein the future. The discrepancy model shouldbe usedwith caution,but it is a necessary tool that sometimes mustbe used. FORMATIVE AND SUMMATIVE CONFERENCES

Supervisors usetwo basictypesof conferences with studentteachers. In formativeconferences, the internand supervisor work togetherto identifyeffectiveandineffectiveteachingstrategies, behaviors, andattitudes.Formativeconferences alsoinvolveplanningandgoalsetting for thefuture.Thistypeof conference is ongoingthroughout theexperienceandoccursbothformallyand informally. Mentorsshouldplanat leastoneformativeconference perweek,realizingthatthereshouldbe numerousinteractions that consistof formativediscussions eachday. Planningandscheduling formativeconferences ensuresthattheytake placeeachweek. Summativeconferences are evaluativein nature.Suchconferences typicallyoccurat themidpointandendof the studentteachingexperience.Additionalsummative conferences maybe necessary if an intern

SUPERVISING THE STUDENT TEACHER

43

is not meetingtheexpectations of the supervisors. Duringthe summative conference, supervisors typicallyshareresultsof previousevaluationsof performance and makeappropriate suggestions for improvementin thefuture. Formativeconferences are usuallymore usefulthan summative conferences becausethey provide specificfeedbackthat can be quickly implementedby an intern.Theseconferences are usually less formal and more loosely structuredthan summativeconferences,whichencourages honestyandopenness. Whenheldon a regular basis,formativeconferences helpin omittingsurpriseandanxiety from the evaluationprocess.If executedappropriately,data sharedin the summativeconferences will comefrom the formative shouldoccurat themidterm conferences and,therefore,no surprises or endingevaluation. At the beginning of theexperience, formativeconferences shouldbe supervisor d i r e ~ t eBoth d . ~ thementoranduniversitysupervisor needto ensurethattheinternunderstands theexpectations for studentteaching and is makinga positiveadjustment to the classroom. Duringinitial formativeconferences, thementorandsupervisor will focusprimarily onreinforcingthepositiveandprovidepremeditation for anyproblems or concerns noticed.Addressing anddealingwith potentialproblems earlycanalleviateseriousdifficultiesthatmightemergelater.Supervisorsshouldaddress evenminorconcerns immediately.Too often,supervisorsassumethese“little”issueswill disappear, only to find out latertheyarea preludeto moreseriousconcerns. Therefore,the mentor mustdealwith the little irritantsimmediately. As the studentteachergainsconfidence andexperience, the formative conferencecan becomemore of a dialogue.Clarifying and brainstorming strategies usedby supervisors canencourage theintern to analyzeperformance and suggestwhat has gonewell and what needsfurtherwork. By the end of the studentteachingexperience, mostinternsshouldbe encouraged to leadtheconference. Analyzing what hastakenplacein a systematic manner,determiningwhat has gonewell, anddecidinghow to deal with problemsare key signals that professional growthhasoccurred.This processreadiesthe student teacherfor his own classroomwhere suchdecisionsmustbe madeindependently. Keepinga recordof the datesand contentof formativeconferencesprovidesimportantdata,whichhelpsmakeevaluationeasier.

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A suggested formfor a weeklyformativeconference canbe foundin is recommended, table4.1.Althoughat leastoneweeklyconference mentorsmay sharedata any time. Somementorspreferto sharea journalwith their studentteacher,recordingobservations andideas immediately.The internrespondsto the mentor’sfeedbackin the journal,facilitatinga writtendialog.Thisprocess oftenhasan unanticipatedoutcome-both individualsimprovetheir ability to articulate thoughtsand reflectionsaboutteaching.This outcomefrom journalwritingusuallyemergesin deeperandmorereflectivethinking aboutt e a ~ h i n g . ~ Therecordsof formativeconferences formthebasisfor thesummative evaluationof the studentteacher’sperformance. When accurate records are kept,thesupervisor hasaninvaluable reference to usewhen completingsummativeevaluations or writingreferencelettersfor interns.In theeventthatthestudentteacherishavingdifficulty,theformativeconference recordsareimportant evidence thatthestudent teacher hasbeenprovidedwith frequentfeedbackaboutperformance. Thisin-

Table 4.1.

Weekly Conference Form and Summative Conference Form Samples

These conferenceand summativeevaluationformsare fromthe elementaryProfessional DevelopmentSchools,EmporiaState University. They are printedon self-duplicating paper withcopiesdistributedas noted.The weeklyconferenceform is usuallycompletedby the studentteacherafter conferencing withthe mentorteacherto reducementorteacher paperwork. Weekly ConferenceForm StudentTeacher

Mentor

Week of ConferenceAgenda: TargetActivitiesfor Next Week: StudentTeacher Signature

MentorTeacher Signature

Date: Copiesto: studentteacher, mentorteacher, principal,universitysupervisor

SUPERVISING THE STUDENT TEACHER

45

EvaluationConferenceSummary End of first fiveweeks

(Circleappropriateone):

End of secondfive weeks

StudentTeacher SchoolAssignment

Grade Level

MentorTeacher StrengthsObserved

Areas to Work On

Plan for the Next Five Weeks

My signatureon thisform indicatesthat I have discussedthisevaluationin conference with the mentorteacher. It does not necessarilyimplythat I agree with the evaluation. Signatureof StudentTeacher

Date

Signatureof MentorTeacher

Date

Copiesto: studentteacher, mentorteacher, principal,universitysupervisor

formationandrecordkeepingoftenprovesinvaluablewhenthe issue of “dueprocess” is discussed. University supervisorsalso find formativeconferencerecords helpful.By readingthe weekly summaryof the discussions between mentorandintern,the universitysupervisor cancomparethe triad’s of the experience. The supervisor caneasilyidentifyarassessments easof concernthatwerediscussed previously.It is alsorecommended thattheformativeconference recordbe sharedon a regularbasiswith the buildingprincipal.Becausethe principalis the instructional leaderin the school,it will assistherif parentsshouldcall aboutthe class,or in futurehiringdecisions. The summativeconference will proceedmoreprofessionally when formativeconferences havebeenconducted and weeklyrecordshave beenkept.Thestudent teacherwill tendto belessanxious,sincethereis

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alreadyfamiliaritywithissuesto bediscussed. Thefinal summative conferenceis morelikelyto bea celebration of thestudent teacher’s progress andendon a positive note if formativeconferences havealleviatedprevioustroublespots.If thereare seriousconcerns, then the internhas previously beenapprised of themthroughformativeconferences. REINFORCING

Oneof themostimportantthingsa supervisor candoduringthesupervisionprocess is reinforcedesirable instructional behaviors. Reinforcement has numerous important benefitsfor thestudent teacher.Whenreinforcement is genuineandaccurate, theinternfeelsthatthesupervisor is competent, caresabouthersuccess, andfeedbackis worthwhile.Becausethestudentteacherrealizesthatthesupervisor is interested in his success, trustis enhanced. When reinforcement is usedeffectively,an internis able to make teachingbehaviors,which may havebeenintuitivelyused,part of a conscious decision-making process in futureplanningandinstruction. Studentteachersaremorelikely to seekhelpfrommentorsandsupervisorswho reinforceeffectivebehaviorsthanfrom thosewho utilize thediscrepancy model.Themostimportantbenefitof appropriate reinforcement maybe thatthe studentteacheris morelikely to usethereinforcedinstructional behaviors, resultingin improvedlearningandbehaviorin theclassroom. Effectivereinforcement of instructional behaviorsresultsfrom focus,timeliness, straightforwardness, anda positivetone.Focusresults fromlimitingthe numberof reinforcedbehaviorsaftera singleobservation.It is moreproductive to focuson oneor two specificbehaviors thatcanbe productivelyusedin futurelessons. Whena supervisor attemptsto introduce toomanyissues,two thingscanoccur.First,theintern canbecomeoverwhelmed and,therefore,not able to respondto anyrecommendations. Second,an internmightbeginfeelinga serious levelof inadequacy andloseconfidence thatmayneverbe regained. Thevalueof reinforcement is lessened whentoomuchtimepasses betweenthebehaviorandthereinforcement. Somestrategies forreinforcing behaviorin a timelymannerare a writtennoteor a brief,informalconThis canbe ferencewiththeinternwherepositivebehavioris mentioned. donebetweenclasses, duringtransitiontimes,or duringa classbreak. Thismeans Whenreinforcing, thesupervisor needsto be straightforward. thatthe supervisor is genuinely reinforcing an appropriate behavior,not

SUPERVISING THE STUDENT TEACHER

47

usingreinforcement asa lead-into unpleasant informationor feedback. Thislasttechnique, thoughsometimes used,creates a levelof mistrust and cannegatively impactthementor-intern relationship. Oneproblemof positivereinforcement is thatsomestudentteachers are not comfortable discussing what they do well. An internmay devaluethe reinforcement by commenting thatthe behaviorwasn’timportant,wasn’tdonesatisfactorily, or did not takemucheffort.When reinforcement takesplaceoften,andsupervisors positivelyconfrontattemptsto devalueefforts,internswill morelikely acceptreinforcement qualityteachingandenhance futureperformance. asa wayto recognize For reinforcement to be effectivein improvingstudentachievement andattitudes in theclassroom, teachingbehaviors discussed musthave a real effecton students in the classroom. Effectiveinstructional behaviorsthatpositivelyaffectstudentlearningcanbe groupedintofive categories: analyzing,prescribing, determining strategies, creatinginstructional design,andperformingassessments. Observable examples of eachof thesecategories canbe foundin the appendix. Analyzing behaviorsinvolvesthe mannerin which the student teachersetsgoalsandobjectives for learning.Appropriate diagnosis of diversestudentneedsis evidenceof effectiveinstructional analysis. Analysisalso involvesmakingsurethat appropriatestateand local competencies arebeingaddressed andmet. Prescribing effectivewaysto organizelearningfor students requires numerous decisions. Whenprescribing instructional activitiestomeetthe needsof learners,effectiveinternswill utilize studentgroupingsthat bringtogetherstudents with varyingacademic abilities.Learningactivitiesshouldbe clearlyfocusedon the instructional objectivefor a given lessonandtheobjectives shouldbe clearlyunderstood by students. Prescribingdecisionsalsoincludeways to facilitatehigher-levelstudent thinking,problemsolvingduringinstruction, andcreativethinking. Determiningappropriate instructional strategies is anothercategory of decisionmalung.Effectivestudentteachersaccommodate multiple intelligencelevels and make adaptationsfor the needsof learners. Strategies areselectedthathelpstudents understand andremember lesto becomeactivelyengaged in thelearnsonswhile motivating students ingprocess. Thiscategoryalsoincludes management decisions madeby andproductively involved. theteacherto keepstudents positively Effectivelessondesignincludesfocusingstudents on learningand providingan appropriate reviewof whathasbeenlearnedpreviously. Instructionalinput and modelingshouldbe clear and focused.The teacherchecksfor understanding duringthelessonandguidedpractice

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activities.Closureis providedfor eachinstructional sequence andappropriateindependent practiceis assigned. Assessment decisions takeplacebefore,during,andafterinstruction. Beforeteaching,the internneedsto determinehow the students will demonstrate thattheyhaveachieved learningobjectives. During instruction,checkingfor understanding providesinformation that helpsadjust the paceandcontentof instruction as needed.After instruction, assessmentprovides evidence of student learningandinformation on whichto basefurtherinstruction.How internsuse assessment to evaluatetheir donotperteaching will offerexcellent insightfor thementor.If students formwell on a givenassessment, theinternmustreflectoneachelement of theinstructional process to determine thereasonfor lackof success. If aninternis concerned aboutstudent performance andleadinga discussion on how to rectifytheproblem,sheis askingtherightquestions. However,if an internis blamingstudents, parents,or previousteachers, thistypeof discussion shouldalerta supervisor of potentialproblems. If an interndemonstrates thisbehavior,thesupervisors shouldmeetimmediatelyto determine appropriate actions.An internwho is reflectingon student performance froma problem-solving perspective ismorelikelyto be a successful teacherandbettermeettheneedsof students. Theabove-described instructional behaviors canassistin guidingthe supervision of the instructional process.Thesefive instructional behaviors,if implementedeffectively,can positivelyimpact student learning.As a mentormonitorsthesefive behaviors,studentlearning shouldbe enhanced andtheintern’steachingimproved. Whenreinforcingappropriate teachingbehaviors, thementoror universitysupervisor shoulddo four things:identify,label,connect,and extend.First, the supervisorshouldidentifythe productivebehavior thathasbeenobserved. Thisbehaviorshouldbe onethathaspositively impactedstudentlearning.Next, thesupervisor shouldlabelthebehavior by givingit a namethatthe studentteacherwill recognizein later conferences. Thislabelinggivesbothpartiesa contextual reference for futurediscussions. Sincemanydifferentterms forinstructional behaviorsexist,the studentteacherneedsto becomefamiliarwith whatthe is labelingas“motivation”or “guidedpractice.” supervisor is connecting thebehavior Thethirdfactorin effectivereinforcement to studentlearning.The supervisor shouldtell howthebehaviorhelped to understand a conceptor ideaor howinterestandmotivation students wasfacilitated.Finally,thesupervisor should,whenappropriate, extend thebehaviorto otherteachingsituations by suggesting howthisteach-

SUPERVISING THE STUDENT TEACHER

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ing behaviorcouldbe appropriately usedin othersituations. To assist theprofessional growthof anintern,thesupervisor couldaskthestudent teacherto offer suggestions of whereandhow thisbehaviorcouldbe usedin theotherclassroom experiences. Examples of clarificationquestionscanassistin thisprocess. CLARIFICATION

Clarificationis the appropriate useof questioning to gainunderstanding andfacilitatestudentteacherparticipationin formativeand summativeconferences. Benefitsof clarificationincludeimproveddialog betweeninternsandsupervisors, improvedunderstanding of decisionmakingprocesses, moreaccurate analysisof performance, andencouragementfor self-analysis by the studentteacher.6 it is approAs theinternbecomes moreskilledandgainsconfidence, priateto involvehim morein the supervisory conference. Clarification helpsaccomplish this by askingparticipants to analyzetheir teaching behavior. Whenusing clarification, it is important thatthesupervisor listen carefullyand ask follow-upquestions to promoteunderstanding. Clarificationquestions mustseekinformation, not makestatements or implyjudgments. For example,askingif a studentteacherwas aware thatfourstudents in thebackof theroomwereoff taskduringa lesson is not necessarily a questionbut rathera statementof concernabout managementskills. Someappropriate clarificationquestionscan be foundin table4.2. Helpinga supervisor gainunderstanding abouta lessonfrom a studentteacher’s perspective is animportantuseof clarification questions. Askinghow an interndecidedstudents werereadyfor the lesson,for Table 4.2.

Examples of Clarification Questions

1. How did you feel about the lessonyou taught?

2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

What thingsturnedout well? What strategiescouldyou use when you teach again tomorrow? If you were goingto teach this lessonagain, wouldyou do anythingdifferently? What strategiesdid you use to ensure that the studentsunderstoodwhat you were teaching? How did you keep studentson task duringthe lesson? Which managementstrategyworkedthe best for you duringthis lesson? How did you keep studentsengaged in the instruction? How did you feel about the new strategyyou tried duringthis lesson? What did you learn from teachingthis lesson?

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example,assistsa supervisor’s understanding of how decisionsabout contentandorganization of instruction weredetermined. Askingabout selected instructional strategies for a particularlessonletsa supervisor know how decisionsare madeaboutcontentandthe useof teaching methods. Assessment decisions canbebetterunderstood by askinghow the internknew students understood whatwasbeingtaughtor why a decisionwasmadeon a particularassessment strategyfor a giveninstructional sequence. Clarification questions canalsobe usedto checktheintern’sperceptionsaboutstudents and how they reactedto a lesson.Askingfor an analysisof classmotivationor of an individualstudent’s attentiveness helpstheteacherthinkaboutwhatwasobserved whileteaching.Inquiring aboutpositiveaspects of the lessonallowsthe supervisor to know howwell thestudent teacheris analyzinghisor herownteaching. Clarificationstrategies canhelpestablish a positivetoneduringpresent andfutureconferences. At the beginningof a conference, for example,a supervisor shouldaskwhataspects of a lessonpleasedthestudentteacher.A positivestatement may precedea questiondesignedto werereally seta positivetone.Oneexampleis, “I noticedthe students involvedin the lessonthis morning.How did you get themsointerested?’Thisquestionletstheinternknowthe supervisor noticedpositive thingsabouta lessonandencourages sharing. Theuniversity supervisor is lessinvolvedwiththeday-to-day instructionalprocess in theclassroom thanthecooperating teacher.Duringuniversitysupervisor visits,clarification helpsa supervisor understand what went on in classprior to the supervisor’s visit and how the student teacherintendsto continue. Afterwards,if the Supervisor feelsstudents to clarhavenotunderstood a conceptwell, it maybe moreappropriate ify thangiveadvice.If theresponse to a clarification question indicates aninternwasawareof theproblemandhasplannedanappropriate strategyforreteaching thenextday,thena supervisor canreinforcethisdecision.By usingclarification asdepictedabove,thestudent teacherwill be moreactivelyinvolvedin the supervision processand ableto mature professionally. Universitysupervisors may find it helpfulto askif the lessonsobservedduringthevisitweretypicalfor thatgroupof students. Special circumstances of whichthesupervisor wasunawaremayhaveaffected thestudents’ behaviors andattitudesduringthelesson. When theintern clarifies,for example,that students wereuninterested in the fractions lessonbecausethe classhamsterhad escapedand they were still on

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“hamster watch,”thesupervisor is savedfromattempting to remediate whenit maynotbe necessary. Universitysupervisors sometimes visit whenstudentteachersand their students are not at theirbest.Whenthe supervisor observes or learnsthroughclarification thattheobservation is nottypicalof what normallygoeson in the classroom, the universitysupervisor should schedule anothervisit soonto observea morerepresentative example of teaching. Thishelpsassure an internthatthesupervisor is committedto beinghelpfulandsupportive. Duringeachvisit,theuniversityrepresentative shouldvisitwiththe cooperating teacherto evaluatea varietyof topics.Usingclarifying questions withthementorwill assistin determining if thementor’sand intern’sperceptions andreflections aresimilar.Whenperceptions are similar,usuallya positiveexperience is takingplace.If thesupervisor receives mixedmessages anddetermines thatperceptions by thementor andinternare different,it will be necessary to havea three-way conference to determine thedegreeof discrepancy. BRAINSTORMING

In orderto meettheneedsof theirmanydiversestudents, internsneed to becomeskilledproblemsolvers. Theabilityto respond to students in newanddifferentwaysisoneof thehallmarks of teachereffectiveness. Tryingnewstrategies requirestheencouragement of bothsupervisors. Unfortunately, supervisors oftenprovideanswers andsolutions to studentproblems ratherthanencourage thestudent teacherto usecreative problem-solving ~trategies.~ Brainstorming provides anopportunity fortheinternandsupervisor to think of alternative strategies for meetingstudent needsin theclassroom. Whenan internhasbeensuccessful with students, brainstorming canbe usedto determine waysto build on the successful experience. Brainapproaches forinstruction, storming canalsobeusedto designalternative management, or assessment whena problemor concern hasdeveloped. may Planning forfutureinstruction isalsoanareain whichbrainstorming it wouldbeappropriate toinvolveotherteachers or behelpful.If possible, Theopportunity to shareandcreatewithpeerscan internsin thisprocess. professional development activity. be an excellent Brainstorming usuallyfocuses ononeof threeprimarygoals:fluency, originality, or flexibility.Fluencyinvolvesthinkingof asmanyideasas

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possible. Often,student teachers developa singleideaor strategyrather thanexploringmany.Someof the mostcreativeideascan comeafter many different ideashavebeenintroduced, analyzed,and discussed. Originalityinvolvesthinkingof strategies thatare new to the individual.For example,a studentteachermay decideto try expanding on a strategythathasbeenusedpreviouslywith success. The internmay alsobe willingto try an approach suggested in a methodsclass.Originality may alsoinvolvea shiftof paradigms,with new prioritiesbecomingthefocusof efforts. Flexibilityis perhapsthemostdemanding of thethreebrainstorming goals.Flexibilityrequiresthatthestudentteachershiftfromoldpatterns of thinkingandreflectin waysthatmayrequirea newthoughtprocess. Flexibilitymaybe particularlyuncomfortable sinceold habitsof thinking andapproaching problemsolvingmay be deeplyingrained. To utilize brainstorming, thementoror universitysupervisor needsto be sure sufficienttimeis provided.Identifyingoriginalideasto solvechallengingproblems involvingstudents is noteasy,andsolutions cannotbe determinedwithouta commitment of timeandenergy. As with manyaspects of the supervision process, thedegreeof trust betweensupervisor andstudentteacherinfluencesa willingness to be creativeandconsiderideasthatmay seemrisky.Whentrustis present, theinternfeelsmorecomfortable in suggesting ideasthatmay,without explanation, seemunproductive or evensilly. In classrooms, student teacherswill needto thinkcreativelyto solvethe inevitableproblems that occur.Lettingthe internparticipatein developingpossiblesolutionsto problemsprepares herto acceptthischallenge. Encouraging the studentteacherto becomean activeparticipantin brainstorming andproblemsolvingprovidesan opportunity for shared responsibility betweenall partiesin thetriad.If a supervisor suggests a solutionto a problem,thestudentteachermaybelesscommitted to implementing it andblamethe supervisor if success is not achieved. Brainstorming requiresthat a supervisor help the internbecome comfortable with uncertainty. Thereis hardlya singlecorrectanswer for any givenclassroom challenge,andwhathasworkedin onesituationmay not work in another.Studentteachersneedto understand that when a solutionis unsuccessful, it doesnot mean failurebut ratherindicatesa willingness to try a varietyof strategies anddemonstratesflexibility.All ideasarevaluablewhenbrainstorming andthey shouldbe considered asfutureoptionsfor instruction or solvingparticularproblems.

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Divergentquestions are often the mostsuccessful techniqueused whenbrainstorming to generatea varietyof options.Divergentquestionsareopenended.Thesupervisor shouldnotattemptto steerthestudentteachertowarda particularansweror ideaby askingthequestions. Divergentquestions can help participants think aboutinformationalreadyknownor experienced and applythatinformationto occurring problems.Supervisors may alsousedivergentquestions to helpan internreflecton differentstrategies while solvingproblemsin theclassroom.In theeventthe studentteacheris unableto thinkof possiblealternatives,the supervisor shouldhave severalworkablestrategies in mindto suggest. Convergent questions, whichhaveonly onecorrectanswer,arenot usuallyhelpfulwhenbrainstorming andusuallylimit or enddiscussion of newideas.Similarly,evaluativequestions, whichrequirevaluejudgmentsand can usuallybe answeredwith yes or no, alsohinderthe brainstorming process. It is sometimes helpfulfor thesupervisor to use thestrategyof “hitchhiking” whenbrainstorming with anintern.Hitchhikingoccurswhenthe supervisor addsinformation,ideas,or suggestions to the studentteacher’sresponses. Hitchhikingcan producea helpfulprofessional dialogbetweenthesupervisor andstudentteacher. REMEDIATION

It is sometimes necessary to usepartof a conference for remediation. Remediation is theprocess of correcting inappropriate decisions or actionsandredirecting thestudentteacherto moreappropriate strategies. Remediation doesnotneedto be threatening andis a usefulpartof the learningprocess. At the beginningof the experience, the mentorwill likely useremediationto help the studentteacherunderstand the mentor’sexpectations. A simplecorrectionearlycanavoidproblemsandbehaviors that might irritate the mentorlater in the assignment. Most teachers,whenestablishing a classroom climateat the beginningof a newyear,respondquicklyto students whosebehaviorsdonotmeet theirexpectations. This quickresponse to behaviorsexhibitedby an internis alsonecessary and can alleviatepotentialcommunication problemsin thefuture.For example,if an internis notturningin paperworkin a timely manneror is arrivinglate, it is essentialto remediatethesebehaviorsearly.

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Remediationis alsoneededwhen actionsby the studentteacher violate appropriateteachingpractices.Supervisors need to make sureinternsunderstand thebehavioror strategythatis unacceptable and why. The cooperating teacheralsoneedsto suggesta specific alternativethat the studentteacherwill be expectedto utilize. For example,sometimes beginningteachersrespondto only a handful of studentssuchas the brightestor thosein need of more attention becauseof behaviorissues.Whateverthe cause,a mentormust pointthisout andoffer positivealternatives for the internto implement. Remediation is mosteffectivewhenthe supervisor followsup with positivereinforcement as the concernis remediedor the alternative successfully employed.Unfortunately, not all problemswith student teachers are simpleones.Continueddifficultywith the sameareasor This seriousareasof concernmay requiremoreintenseremediation. topicis coveredin detailin chapter6. Whetherthe remediation is something as simpleas turningin paperworkon time, or as significantas givingmisinformation when teaching,all issuesshouldbe dealtwith as soonaspossible.Often, cooperating teachershopethat a particularproblemwill dissipate with time,but thishardlyeverhappens. Most of the time,the problem persistsand the mentorbecomesfrustrated,whichbuildsover time.By notdealingwith theconcernearly,aninternis lesslikely to seethe significance onceaddressed. Compounded with the frustration of a mentor,theproblemis likely to escalateandbecomemore significantthanis necessary. Thisis why earlyremediation is soimportantandessential. USING TECHNOLOGY TO PROVIDE FEEDBACK TO STUDENT TEACHERS

The availabilityof electronic mail canallowtheuniversitysupervisor to communicate moreoftenwith the studentteacherandincreasethe amountof feedback. The universitysupervisor shouldrequirethatthe student teachercommunicate by e-mailat leastoncea week.Thiscommunication doesnotneedto be lengthy,but shouldincludea briefreflectionon whathasbeenaccomplished duringthe weekandwhatis plannedfor thenextone.Lessonplanscanalsobe sentto theuniver-

SUPERVISING THE STUDENT TEACHER

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sitysupervisor via e-mail.The supervisor cananalyzethelessonplans and returncomments and suggestions promptlywithoutvisitingthe school.If ajournalis required,sharingreflections cankeeptheuniversitysupervisor informed.Technology allowsthisformof communicationto occurandenhances theexperience.* CHAPTER SUMMARY

Effectivesupervision helpsachievethemaximumbenefitfromthe studentteaching experience. Mentorsanduniversity supervisors whomodel congruency in theirinteractions with studentteachers areusuallymore successful andinfluential.Frequentformativeconferences helppromote professional growthandexpertise andwhenappropriately used,summativeevaluation is easierandlessstressful for all involved. Supervisors needto be ableto reinforceappropriate teaching behaviorsandattitudes exhibitedby the intern.As the studentteachergains skill,clarification andbrainstorming maybe usedto facilitatemoreactive involvementand participation by the studentteacherin conferences.Remediation of inappropriate decisions andbehaviorsis most successful whenconcerns areidentifiedearlyby thesupervisor andfollowedup by positivereinforcement.

1. LawrenceLyman,AlfredP. Wilson,C. KentGarhart,Max 0.Heim,and Wynona0. Winn, Clinical Instructionand Supervisionfor Accountability (Dubuque,Iowa:KendalVHunt,1987), 100-13. 2. LawrenceLyman,MichaelA. Morehead,andHarveyC. Foyle,“Building TeacherTrustin Supervision and Evaluation,”Illinois SchoolResearch 25, no.2 (Winter1989):55-59. and Development 3. LawrenceLymanandHarveyC. Foyle,Cooperative Groupingfor InterD.C.: activeLeaning: Students,Teachers,and Administrators(Washington, NationalEducation Association, 1990),25. 4. Jacquelyn W. Jensen,“Supervision from Six TheoreticalFrameworks” (paperpresented at theannualmeetingof theAmericanEducational Research Association, SanDiego,Calif.,April 1998),1-34. 5. Dian YendolSilva, “TriadJournaling as a Tool for Reconceptualizing Supervision in theProfessional Development School”(paperpresented at the

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annualmeetingof theAmericanEducational Research Association, New Orleans,La., April 2000),1-17. 6. LawrenceLymanandHarveyC. Foyle,“CreativeSupervisory Conferences:New Winein Old Skins?”FloridaASCD Journal6 (Fall 1989):45-46. 7. LymanandFoyle,“CreativeSupervisory Conferences: New Winein Old Skins?” 4547. 8. Silva,“TriadJournaling as a Tool for Reconceptualizing Supervision,” 1-17.

CHAPTER 5

HelpingStudentsSucceedin DiverseClassrooms

Today’sstudentteacherswill work in schoolsthat are becomingincreasingly diversified. Inclusionof morespecial-needs students in regularclassrooms challenges all educators to designlessons thatareappropriatefor a wide rangeof learningabilitiesand sty1es.lStudent teachers arealsochallenged to provideequitable learningopportunities for students sothatall canbe successful, regardless of socioeconomic status, language, ethnicity,gender,or ability.2Mentorteachers anduniversitysupervisors needto provideinstructional assistance andfeedin today’seducationally backto internssothattheycanbe successful diversesettings. GElTING TO KNOW STUDENTS

If internsare to meetthe needsof all students, the first stepis becomingacquainted with the diversityin the classroom andlearning aboutstudents’ personalities, interests,andbackgrounds. One strategymightbe to conductstructured interviewswith students. Thisactivity,with individualstudents or smallgroupsof students, helpsthe intern build trust and positiverelationships with childrenearly in the experience.The mentoror universitysupervisor may want to providea list of interviewquestions to be usedin this exerciseand encourage the useof questions providedwhile conducting the interviews.Possible interviewquestions canbe foundin table2.2 (found in chapter2). The internshouldmake notesof usefulinformation abouteachstudentand will sometimes discoverinformationabout

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students that the mentoris unawareof. Sharingthe resultsof these interviewsduringformativeconferences is suggested. As discussed in chapter3, guidedobservationof the classcan help an internbecomeacquainted with the students andprovidean opportunity to checkthe accuracyof his perceptions aboutstudents. If inaccuracies or biasesare evident,the mentorcan assistthe studentteacherin developinga moreaccurateandtolerantview of students. In the first daysof the experience,the mentorand internshould discuss themake-upof theclass.Gender,religiousgroups,andethnic demographics mustbe reviewedtogether.Studentteachers todayare moreculturallysensitive andawarethantheywereten yearsago,but evenwith theemphasis on multicultural themesincreasing in teacher educationprograms,studentteachersmay not be awareof situations that are particularto the region,district,or school.Mentorsmust warninternsabout“taboos”thatexistbecauseof culturalor evenlegal decisionsthey may haveto make.For example,in science,performingexperiments with certainanimalsmay not be acceptable. In art, depictingcertainindividualsor animalsin a particularmanner may notbe appropriate in the areaor district.Eventhecelebration of theChristmas holidayin manyareasis limitedto very specificactivities. Making studentteachersawareof theseissuesearly will keep themfrom makingseriousmistakesthat would offendsomein the communityandin the class. Internswhoparticipate in thebeginningof the schoolyearhaveopportunities to observehowtheteacherusesgroup-building activitiesto createa community in theclassroom. Theseactivitiesprovideopportunitiesfor all students to developan appreciation for individualdifferencesand encourage studentsto view eachotherand the teacheras membersof theclassroom community. Suchactivitiesarenecessary at the beginningof the schoolyear andthroughout the year in orderto sustainsuccessful collaborationamong~tudents.~ An exampleof a group-building activitycanbe foundin table5.1. Whentheinternobserves students interacting duringgroup-building activities,importantinformationaboutinterpersonal skillsof students, academicstrengths andweaknesses, andcliquesthatmay try to dominateactivitiescanbe determined. Thisinformationcanbe valuableto theinternwhileplanningto meettheneedsof all students, especially if cooperative learninggroupsareused.

HELPING STUDENTS SUCCEED IN DIVERSE CLASSROOMS

Table 5.1.

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Sample Group-Building Activity

This group buildingactivitywould be suitable for studentsin a secondarysocial studies class. People Search Find someone to sign each box. You need to find a differentpersonto sign each box.

I

Signature

Signature Find someonewho can tell you what two words were added to the Pledge of Allegianceduring the 1950s.

Find someonewho can tell you the first sentence of the GettysburgAddress. I

~

_____~

Findsomeonewho can tell you the addressof the White Houseon Pennsylvania Avenue.

Find someone who can tell you the approximate populationof the world.

Find someonewho can whistleor hum a patriotic song.

Find someone who can play a musicalinstrument.

Find someonewho can tell you whose pictureis on the $5 bill.

Find someone who took picturesof a trip they took last summer.

Find someonewho likes to dance.

Find someone who played on a highschoolor college sportsteam.

Find someonewho can name the vice-presidentof the United States.

Find someone who worked on a committeein the past year where the members worked well together.

Find someonewho has writtena letter to a newspaper.

Find someonewho has kept a diary or journal.

Find someonewho can name an extinctanimal.

Find someonewho can tell you when the next full moon will occur.

I

Source:LawrenceLymanand HarveyC. Foyle,”LessonsLearnedfroma Multiculturally, Economically Diverse ClassroomSetting”(paper presentedat the 79th annual conference,NationalCouncilfor the SocialStudies,Orlando,Fla., November20, 1999).

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PROMOTING EQUITABLE TEACHING PRACTICES

Providingstudents withequitable opportunities for involvement andsuccessshouldbe a goalof everyteacher.Supervisors canprovide valuable feedback to enhance thestudent teachers’ awareness of practices theyuse thatencourage or discourage student involvement andsuccess. If students aretobeinvolvedandsuccessful whiletheinternis working withthem,theymustbeaccorded opportunities forparticipation andgiven As the studentteacher positivefeedbackabouttheir accomplishments. beginstoteachwhole-group lessons, thementorandsupervisor shouldobserveinstructional sequences andrecorddataaboutinteractions with students.Initially,thementoranduniversity supervisor will wantto observe theintern’sinteraction patterns withstudents. Datacanbegathered by usinga copyof theclassseating chart.Duringa classdiscussion, forexample,a markcanbemadeon theseating chartasstudents arecalledupon. This codingof observational datacanbe sharedwith thestudent teacher to encourage thestudent teacherto provide duringformativeconferences opportunities forinvolvement andsuccess for all students. Whilemovingabouttheclassroom, a markontheseating chartcanbe madewhentheinternstopsto helporinteractwitha student. Interactions withstudents at thebeginning of class,duringpassing periods,andat the endof classcanalsobe recorded. The goalof theseobservations is to providethe internwith informationaboutwhichstudents arereceiving attentionandwhichstudents arenot. Duringtheformativeconference, thisinformation canbe sharedto helpidentifystudents whoarenotinvolvedandbetterreflectontheintern’sinteractions with students. Students alsoneedequitable opportunities to experience success in the A seatingchartcanagainbe usedto recordinteractions beclassroom. tweentheinternandstudents. Whennotingsuccessful opportunities, the chartwhena mentoror universitysupervisor records a “+”ontheseating student answers a question correctlyor receives feedback thatis positive. If a student is unsuccessful or negativefeedback is given,the“-”symbol is initiallyunsuccessful, buta promptfromthe canbeused.If thestudent teacherresultsin a successful response fromthestudent, the“+” symbol theinternhelpedthestudent wouldfollowthe“-”symbol.This indicates This mayseema bit confusing, butafter succeed withteacherassistance. thecodingprocess will becomeeasy. a coupleof classobservations, As the studentteacherbeginstakingovermoreof theinstruction in theclassroom, thementoror supervisor canprovideadditional feedback aboutthe kindsof response opportunities beingofferedto students.

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While observinga lessonin whichthe studentteacheris usingquesthe cooperating teacheror university tioningduringa classdiscussion, askedandto whom. supervisor canmakea list of thequestions Duringformativeconferences, thementoror supervisor helpstheinternanalyzequestions askedduringthelesson.Questions thatpromote recallor lower-levelcognitiveresponses are identified.Questions that encourage higher-level cognition, problemsolving,or creativityarealso noted.Thementoror universitysupervisor thenhelpstheinternanalyze whichstudents wereaskedhigher-levelquestions. The goalfor the studentteacheris to be awarethatall students needopportunities for criticaland creative thinking.As thestudentteachermaturesprofessionally, thementormay requestthatthe interndo the samecodingof observationaldatawhile the mentorteaches.This guidedobservation will enhancedialogueand allow the mentorto observethe depthof understanding aboutteachingby theintern. As theinternbeginsto checkstudents’ work,thementorshouldreview workthathasbeencorrected. The firstconcernis to ensurethatthe studentteacherhasbeenaccurate in his assessment of studentwork.Importantin t h sprocess is consideration for varyingstudentacademicabilities, strengths, andlimitations. Thementorshouldencourage thestudent teacherto noticesomething positiveabout the workof each~ t u d e nAs t.~ thementor looks throughcorrected work,sheshouldnotewhenpositive comments havebeenmade.Thispracticeshouldbe encouraged andinternsshouldmakepositivecomments on as manypapersas possible whenassessing students’ work.This strategyenablesstudents to recognizetheirownsuccess andencourages themto usesimilarstrategies in futureassignments. Assessment strategies mustbemultiplein natureand It is no longeracceptable to utilizeonly includea varietyof techniques. paper-and-pencil formsof assessment. Most studentteachers havebeen introduced to multipleassessment techniques duringtheirpreservice program.Cooperating teachers mustgivethemtheopportunity to usea vastrategies. rietyof assessment PLANNING FOR DIVERSITY

As theinternplansfor instruction, thementorwill typicallybe involved in makingsureinstructional plansareappropriate for theneeds,interests, anddevelopmental levelsof a diversestudentpopulation. To meetthe needsof a wide rangeof learners,studentteachersneedto adaptand

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modifyinstructional outcomes. Adaptinginstructional tasksfor differing abilitiesisnecessary soall students canfeelsuccessful andchallenged by the curriculum. Whenstudents are askedto performtoo difficultor easy tasks,frustration andmanagement problemscanresuk5 Studentteachersshouldbe encouraged to appropriately assignlessonsfor theneedsof students by includingadaptations aspartof their planningand implementation. For example,students who arehighly motivatedmaybe givenmodifiedquestions andaskedto assistanother whenfinished;somemayneedmoretime,increased support,or modified instructionto be successful. Studentteachersmay alsoneedto adaptthedifficultylevelof thelearningtaskfor thestudentor varythe way in whichthe studentdemonstrates success.6 This canbe accomplishedby thewayin whichstudents areassessed. Table5.2 offersa list of assessment strategies. USING A VARIETY OF TEACHING STRATEGIES

In orderto meettheneedsof diversestudents, internsmustbe required to usea varietyof instructional practices. No oneway of teachingcan be expectedto workfor all student^.^ A commonlimitationat the secondarylevelis thelackof modelingof, andexpected useof, numerous instructional strategies. HowardGardnerhasidentifiedeightdifferentintelligence areasthat canbe identifiedin students whoarepresentin today’sschools.8 As beginnersin the classroom, however,many studentteacherslimit their teachingto one or two intelligenceareas,oftenconcentrating on the Table 5.2. ~~~~~~~

Ways to Assess Student Performance ~

~~

~

1. Teacher observations

2. Studentverbal response 3. Portfolios 4. Cooperativeactivities 5. Writtenassignments 6. Testing 7. Hands-onactivities 8. Oral analysisof topic 9. Writtenanalysisof topic 10. Art activitiesrelatedto topic 11. Musicactivitiesrelatedto topic 12. Physicalrepresentationdevelopedby student 13. Role-play

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verbal and mathematicalforms. Mentorscan assistby identifying strategies thatmeetdiversestudentneedsby usinga varietyof activities designed to appealto differentintelligence areas.For instruction to be successful with all students, it mustbe designed to link to thelearning strengths andintelligence areas of student^.^ Internsoftenutilizepaper-and-pencil tasks that requiretheuseof verbal intelligence. It is alsoimportantfor internsto provideopportunities for students to communicate with othersin theclassroom, therebyusing andimprovinglanguageskills.Sincetheprimarypurposeof acquiring languageskillsis to communicate with otherseffectively,students need opportunities tocommunicate witheachother,learnabouteachother,resolvedifferences, andsolve learning problems cooperatively.10 Theoveruseof writtenactivitiesmayplacetheLimitedEnglishProficient(LEP) students at a disadvantage in theclassroom. Internsmust be encouraged to supportthe learningof LEP students throughactivitiesthat allow themto practicelanguageskillsin nonthreatening and authenticways.Puppetshows,role-plays,andstudent-produced news showsarejust a few waysto involvestudents who are acquiringnew languageskills.Theseexamplesof nonthreatening strategies will enhancethelearningatmosphere of a classroom for all students." Logicalintelligence canbe usefulin helpingstudents becomecritical andcreativethinkers. Internsshouldplanactivities thatencourage students skillsandmetacognition ascriticalthinkers.12 Into useproblem-solving ternsalsoneedtoencourage students toapproach learningtaskscreatively. canenActivitiesthatmovebeyondbasicskillsandfactualinformation courage students to generate ideastheymightnotthinkof Mentorsshouldencourage theuseof movement activities thatcomplementthebody-kinesthetic intelligence to assistin meetingdiverselearners'needs.In all grades, butespecially in theearlyelementary experience, students havea particularneedfor learningactivitiesthat incorporate movement. Theseactivities canbeintegrated withotherintelligence areas to involvestudents in developmentally appropriate learningexperience^.'^ Mentorsshouldhelptheinternsmonitorstudents' nonverbal cuestodeterminewhena breakisneeded. At theelementary level,a shortwarm-up of thedaymayhelpstudents bemore movement activityat thebeginning alertandparticipate. At the secondary level,a teachercanusetransition timesor modifyseatingduringa classperiodto enhance activeparticipation.Studentteachers cangetadditional ideasfor incorporating appropriatebody-kinesthetic activitiesfromthephysicaleducation teacheror othersin theschoolwho usephysical learning activitiesin theircurriculum.

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Integratingmusicin lessons shouldbe encouraged andmaybe used to relax students whenenteringthe classor as background musicfor study.Someteachersmay find a rhythmicclappingpatterna useful strategyfor gainingstudentattention.HarryWongdescribes severalactivitiesthatutilizerhythmor ~atterning.’~ Both musicalandphysical activitiescanenhance thelearningopportunities for all students andincreasetheinstructional techniques availableto theintern.Usingmusic or physicalactivitiesthatarepartof otherculturesvalidatestheculture anddemonstrates a teacher’s respectfor it. Pictures,diagrams,charts,and graphicorganizers complement the visualintelligence areaof students. Thementoranduniversitysupervisorshouldobservetheuseof visualmaterialsaslessons arepresented andencourage utilizingthesemechanisms on a regularbasis.Pictures from students’ cultureswill enhancethe feelingof belongingandcreatean atmosphere wherestudents canrelateto thecontent. Internsshouldalsobe alertto the physicalappearance of the classroom.Is studentwork on display?If so,doesthe work representall instudents in theclass?To increasestudentinterestandinvolvement, ternscantakesnapshots of students astheyareengaged in learningactivitiesanddisplaythem.Art teacherscanprovideinternswith other ideasfor integrating visualactivitiesintotheirteaching. Allowingtime to visit otherclassesand notingthe thingsteachersdisplayin their roomsshould be includedaspartof theintern’sexperience. Displaying a student’s work indicatesthattheteacherrespects thediversityof the students andvaluesthemasindividuals. Culture

Interpersonal intelligencerefersto the abilityto communicate effectivelywith a varietyof cultures.Studentteachers shouldbe encouraged to incorporate cooperative learningactivitiesintolessons to promoteinskillsfor all students. Group-building volvementandbuildinterpersonal activitiescanprovideopportunities fordiversestudents to cooperate and builda classroom community.For example,the useof classmeetings canencourage groupcommunication andproblemsolvingwhendifficultiesarisein theclassroom. Whenconducting thesemeetings,theinternshouldmonitorstudentinteraction andmakesureethnicallydiverse students havean opportunity for input.Counselors canprovidestrategiesfor helpingmanagestudentconflict,teachingsocialskills,enhancing interpersonal skills,andbalancinggenderinteractions.

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Internsshouldprovideethnicallydiversestudents opportunities to develop self-awareness andconfidence. De-emphasizing the importance of externalevaluation toolsandencouraging students to reflectontheirown progress andeffortshouldalsobe a partof theexperience. Duringa time of accountability andstandardized testing,somestudents feeltheyareinThisis especially true adequate and afailurebecause of theirtestscores. for manysecondlanguage learnersandthosefromlowersocioeconomic situations. It is essential thatinternsunderstand the impactthesescores of futureexpectations andsuccanhaveonstudents andtheirperception cess.Educators shouldcommunicate thatstandardized testscoresarejust onesmallpieceof informationabouta student and arenotindicativeof overallintelligence or potentialfor success. Reflectionjournalsprovideall students with an opportunity to personalizelearningandthinkabouthowlearningis important.Portfolios maintainedby students providedocumentation of learningand allow educators to assess student performance in multipleways.Journals and portfoliosareimportantelementsin classrooms thatmeettheneedsof diverselearners.Thesematerialscanalsobe learningtoolsfor the intern.Personalreflectionis importantandcanprovidedirectionfor the intern’sprofessional growth. Language

The academicdiscipline’s languageandthe languageability of the studenthave a profoundinfluenceon the classroomenvironment. Many childrenenterthe classroom not speakingEnglishandnot understanding thecultureof theschool.Beginningteachers mustbemade awareof anddevelopinstructional strategies thatcanensurethesestudents’success in school.Languageof the learnerandacademicdisciplinesignificantly impactpotentialsuccess. Thisis truefor all students, but is evenmorecriticalfor thosewhosefirstlanguageis not English andespeciallyfor thosewhereEnglishis not spokenin thehome.Student teachers needto knowaboutthelanguage background andlevelof Englishproficiencyof theirstudents. Beginningeducators usuallyare not awarethatthe “academiclanguages” usedin the classroom may notbe familiarto all students, and Makespeciallychallenging for thosewith limitedEnglishproficiency. ingstudent teachers awarethattheymustclearlydefineacademic terms is not enough.Internsmustbe able to define,describe,model,and of theconcepts. Withoutthese makeavailablephysicalrepresentations

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skills,beginningteacherswill notbe ableto assistall students in their futureclassrooms. Secondary teachers mustbeparticularly awareof theseissues. Although “academic language” is veryfamiliarto them,it will oftenbe aliento studentsin theirclasses. Oneof thebiggestpitfallsthatcanimpacta student teacher’s success is theassumption of priorknowledge or understanding by students. Evenif thestudents werepreviously instructed abouta conceptor topic,timehaspassed or a differentcontextfor deliverywasused and,therefore, students mayseemconfused or lost.LimitedEnglishProficientstudents canespecially fall preyto the“academic language” issue andmustbenurturedin sucha way asto understand thecontextof usage. Bias

Bias takeson manyformsand occursbetweenstudents, between teacherand students,and appearsin the academicsettingthrough textbooks, standardized tests,andin classinstruction. Studentteachers todayhavebeenmadeawareof multiculturalissuesand biases thatemergein obviousandsubtleways.Mostinternstodayaremuch morecognizantof theseissuesthan were their mentorswhen they studenttaught. Assistingthe intern in identifyingbias in books,curriculum,and evenin instructionis essentialto their futuresuccess. Bias takeson manyshapesandoftengoesunnoticedby the untrainedobserver.As therelationship betweenmentorandinternmaturesandtrustis secured, thementorandinternshouldattemptto identifybiasin theirteaching. Most teachersfeel theyarefreeof biasandoftenexpressit by sayequally”or “ I do not seecolorin my classing, “I treatall students room.”Thosestatements will be a majorwarningto an internor visiting supervisor who is well versedin multiculturalthemes.Excellent teachersand truly unbiasededucators will treat childrendifferently. What they really do is respectthe child’scultureand languageand valueeachstudent’sbackground. Excellentteachersalsorealizethat students havedifferentabilitiesand meetthoseneedsby varyinginstruction, assignments, and assessment strategies. Finally,if an interntodayhearsthe cooperating teachersay,“Well, youknowhowthosepeopleare”andmakinga generalization aboutan ethnicgroup,therewill be an immediatelossof respectandtrust.If a teacherhasthistype of perception or attitudeaboutothers,he should notbe a cooperating teacher.

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Assessment

Varyingassessment techniques is partof any excellentteacher’sapproachin theclassroom. Internsmustbe awareof numerous techniques andbeableto integratethosewithin theinstructional process. In orderto meetthelearningstylesorculturalneedsof students, a teachermustvary how learningis assessed. Cooperating teachersshouldmodelhow they assess studentlearningandallowthe internto visit otherteachers who approach assessment differently.Establishing a successful classroom requirestheuseof multipleformsof assessment andallowsstudents with differentlanguage skillstheopportunity to succeed. Paper-and-pencil assessment shouldbe a partof anyplanbutmustnotbe thesolemannerin whicha teacherassesses studentlearning. Finally,like somanyotherissuesrelatedto teaching,the internand supervisors mustdiscuss at lengthcultural,language, bias,andassessmentissuesthroughout the experience. Ignoringthesewill not give an interna trueopportunity for futuresuccess. ZimpherandAshburnpoint culturalissuesand the challenges out the importanceof discussing teachersface eachday.I6Thesediscussions shouldbe ongoingand shouldbe conducted in bothwrittenandoralforms.As the internprogresses throughtheexperience, thefocuswill movefrom“Whatshould I be doing?”to “Whatdothestudents need?’Oncethistransitiontakes place,theinternhastakena majorsteptowardbecominga teacher.

CREATING MEANING

Mentorsanduniversitysupervisors shouldencourage studentteachers to find waysto makelearningmeaningful for all students. As we know, relatingthe contentof lessonsto the needs,interests,andculturesof students can increaseinvolvementandreducemanagement problems. Authenticlearningtasksencourage student involvement andhelpmake learningmeaningful.Studentteachersshoulddeveloplearningaround tasksthatarerelatedto real-lifeexperiences andsituations that reflect andvaluetheculturesrepresented in theclass. and Zeichnerdescribes theneedfor h g hexpectations for all students theuseof scaffolding thatrelateshomeandculturalexperiences to school. Zeichnerpointsout that schoolcustomsandexpectations mustbe addressed andthatstudents fromdiversebackgrounds needto be cogmzant of thesein orderto succeed. Therefore, partof anintern’sexperience must

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includetheopportunity to instructstudents in thecustoms of schooling. Additionally,high expectations and supportingacademicexperiences with culturalfoundations of the studentalsoenhanceopportunities for all stusuccess. Cooperating teachers mustensurethatinternsapproach dentswiththeseexpectations.17 Management

Classroom management in diversesettings is thekey to success for thestudentteacher.Supervisors needto ensuredisciplinestrategies utilized by internsare appropriate for studentdevelopmental levelsand that studentsare not embarrassed or humiliated.Understanding how students from differentculturesreactto teachersupervision is important informationfor an intern.Treatingstudentswith respect,being nonthreatening, and giving students optionswill increasean intern’s opportunityfor success with all students. It is especiallyimportantto in certaincultures.For examunderstand how respectis demonstrated ple, manyteachersexpecta studentto lookat themwhendiscussing a disciplinesituation,but in somecultures,that is a signof disrespect. Alertingan internto thistypeof culturalbehaviorwill assisttheintern wheninteracting with students. Additionally,if theinternfollowsprocedures andregulations of the mentor,the transitionwill be smootherwhenassuming full responsibility for theclassroom. If theinternattemptsto strayfromalreadyestablishedrulesandprocedures, a disconnect will occurwith students increased andthetransitionwill beverydifficult.As theinternassumes responsibility for teachingin theclassroom, thementorshouldmonitor management of the classroom to ensurethatpositivereinforcement is beinggiven toall students. Whenstudents’ behaviors areaddressed, the mentorneedsto ensurethatthisis implemented withoutfavoritismand in a nonthreatening manner.Nonthreatening behaviorsdemonstrated by the interncouldinclude,but arenot limitedto, speakingin a softer voice,slowingpaceof speech,toneof voice,awareness of nonverbal andfacialcues,andmeetingprivatelywith the student. The cooperating teacheralsoneedsto be certainthat the internis awareof situations in theclassroom in whichstudents mayfeel threatened.Sincebullyingandharassment are inappropriate behaviors,the mentorneedsto makesuretheinternactsproactively to dealwith these issues.Inappropriate useof sarcasm, put-downs, or threatsby the studentteachershouldbe notedandstoppedimmediately.Becauseof the

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diversityof the studentpopulation, thesebehaviors arenotappropriate for the classroom andmay be interpreted as offensiveto the student. Teachers whoutilizethesebehaviors havea negativeeffecton students with oftenserious,unknownconsequences. If thisbehavioris not coris in jeopardy. rectedimmediately, theentireexperience The Mentor TeacherasModel

Thementoris theprofessional modelwith whomthestudentteacher will havethe mostcontactand the mostinfluenceon their development.Mentorsmustdemonstrate equitabletreatmentof students when teachingand planningand not causeinternsto prejudgestudents by giving them negativeinformationaboutachievement, family background,or behavior.Internswill need adviceon studentsand their background, but the timing,context,andtoneof the informationcan havea dramaticimpactontheintern’sperception. It isimportantfor the cooperating teacherto allow the internto draw her own conclusions aboutstudents, but observations mustbe sharedand clarificationof perceptions discussed duringformativeconferences. CHAPTER SUMMARY

Diverseclassrooms can presentchallenges for studentteachers.Opportunitiesto acquaintthemselves with students,communities, and familieshelpinternslearnaboutthe childrenthey will teach.Monitoringinstruction andinteractions with students to ensuretheinternis usingequitableteachingpractices,adaptinginstructionappropriately soall students canbe successful, usinga varietyof teachingstrategies, andmakingmaterialmeaningfulfor students, all providethe mentor andsupervisor with datato fosterprofessional growthof theintern.By observingand monitoringeffectiveteachingbehaviorsin diverse classrooms, supervisors canensurepositiveteachingexperiences for internsin today’smulticulturalschoolsettings. Table5.3 providesobservableteachingbehaviorsthatcanassistsupervisors whenworking with studentteachers. Finally,unknownbias-verbalized, implied,or demonstrated-byaneducator isperhaps themostcriticalelementimpactingsuccess in the diverseclassrooms of today.Therefore,supervisorsmustpay significantattentionto thesebehaviorsduringthestudentteachingexperience.

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Table 5.3. Observable Teaching BehaviorsThat Are Effective in Diverse Classrooms The followingsuggestionswere gatheredby groupsof mentorteachersworkingon a grant sponsoredby the KansasDepartmentof Educationat EmporiaState University in July 2001. 1. Are studentteachersadjustinglessonsto meet the needsof students? 2. Are studentteacherschoosingmaterialsfor teachingthat are appropriateto the interestsand developmentallevelsof students? strategiesto meet the needsand 3. Are studentteachersvaryingtheir instructional developmentallevelsof students? 4. Are studentsteachersselectingvaryingassessmentsthat meet the needs and developmentallevelsof students? classroomenvironment? 5. Do studentteacherspromotea nonthreatening 6. Do studentteachersprovideopportunities for all studentsto respond? 7. Do studentteachersgive positivereinforcementequitablyto students? 8. Do cooperativelearninggroupsencourageall studentsto work together? 9. Do studentteachersadapt teachingand assessmentsto meet the needsof all students? 10. Do studentteachersask challengingquestionsof all students? 11. Do the studentteachers’lessonplansreflectpreparationto meet the needs of all students? 12. Do studentteacherscelebrateothercultures? 13. Do studentteachersnoticeappropriatestrategiesthe mentorteacherusesfor workingwith diversestudentsand use them in theirown teaching? 14. Do studentteachersvideotapethe studentswhile they are teachingto observe studentbehaviorand involvement? 15. Are the gradingproceduresusedby the studentteacherfair? 16. Does the studentteacher encouragethe ESL studentto teachhimor her a few wordsof the student’sown language? 17. Does the studentteacher incorporatedifferentmultipleintelligenceactivitiesinto lessonplanning? 18. What do studentsin the classsay aboutthe studentteacher? 19. Read the studentteachers’reflectionsto determinehow they are viewingthe students. 20. Do studentteachersmovearoundthe roomwhileteaching? 21. Does the studentteacher communicatewith parentsand have communications translatedintothe parents’languages?

NOTES 1. Tara S. Azwell, Harvey C. Foyle, LawrenceLyman, and Nancy L. Smith,ConstructingCurriculumin Context(Dubuque,Iowa: Kendall-Hunt, 1999),167-69. 2. Azwell et al., ConstructingCurriculumin Context,544. 3. LawrenceLymanandHarveyFoyle,Cooperative Groupingfor Interac(Washington, D.C.: NativeLearning:Students,Teachers,andAdministrators tionalEducation Association, 1990),16-17.

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4. Azwellet al., Constructing Curriculumin Context,544. 5. Azwellet al., Constructing Curriculumin Context,124-25. 6. CathyDeschenes, DavidEbeling,andJeffreySprague, AdaptingCurriculumandInstruction in InclusiveClassrooms: A Teacher’s DeskReference, (Bloomington, Ind.: Centerfor SchoolandCommunity Integration, Indiana University,1999),18-19. 7. FestusE. Obiakor,The Eight-StepMulticultural Approach: Teaching andLearningwitha Smile(Dubuque, Iowa:KendalVHunt,1994),46-54. 8. HowardGardner,Framesof Mind: The Theoryof Multiple Intelligences(NewYork:BasicBooks,1983),73-276. 9. Azwellet al., Constructing Curriculumin Context,129. 10. LawrenceLyman,HarveyC. Foyle,andTaraS . Azwell, Cooperative Learningin the ElementaryClassroom (Washington, D.C.: NationalEducationAssociation, 1993),98-99. 11. LisaDelpit,“Language DiversityandLearning” in BeyondHeroesand Holidays,ed.EnidLee,DeborahMenkart,andMargoOkazawa-Rey (Washington,D.C.: Networkof Educators on theAmericas,1998),156-57. 12. Lymanetal.,Cooperative Learningin theElementary Classroom, 79-88. 13. Lymanet al., Cooperative Learningin theElementary Classroom, 89-94. 14. WilliamStinson, JoellaH. Mehroff,andSandra A. Thies,QualityThematicLesson Plansfor Classroom Teachers:Movement Activities for Pre-K and Kindergarten (Dubuque, Iowa:KendalVHunt,1993);Azwell et al., ConstructingCurriculumin Context,128. 15. Harry K. Wong and RosemaryT. Wong,How to Be an EfSective TeachertheFirstDaysof School(MountainView, Calif.:HarryK. WongPublications,1998),176-77. 16. N. ZimpherandE. Ashburn,“Counteracting Parochialism in Teacher Candidates,” in Diversityin TeacherEducation,ed. M . Dilworth(SanFrancisco,Calif.:Jossey-Bass, 1992),40-62. 17. Ken Zeichner,SusanMelnick,andMary LouiseGomez,Currentsof Reformin Pre-service TeacherEducation (NewYork Teachers CollegePress, 1996),109-76.

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CHAPTER 6

The IncompetentStudentTeacher

Workingwith a studentteacherexperiencing problemsin the classroomis a concernof mostsupervisors. By identifyingthe causeof theincompetence andformulatingappropriate plansfor remediating the situation,supervisors canmaximizethepossibilities for success of studentteachers whohavedifficultymeetingthe expectations of theirassignments. WHAT IS AN INCOMPETENT STUDENTTEACHER?

An incompetent student teacherlacksskillsandattitudes essential for success in the classroom. Most studentteachers displaysomeminor difficulties in oneor two areasduringtheexperience. Theseproblems areusuallyeasilyremediated withnormalsupervision andmostinterns Carusooutlines are ableto completetheir assignments with success. is sixstages of development for student teachers. Phase2 of thestages identifiedasconfusiodclarity. In ourexperience, theexcellent student teachermovesthroughall six stages veryquickly,whereastheincompetentinternneverpasses the“confusion” of phase2.’ However,a smallpercentage of student teachers dohaveproblems so seriousanddetrimental thatthey are,in fact,incompetent. Because of poorplanning,ineffectiveinterpersonal skills,and poor management skills,studentlearningis negativelyimpacted by thistypeof educator. Whendealingwithanineffective student teacher, supervisors needto assistthe internin solvingtheproblems. However,it is importantto reteachers canor shouldbe “saved,”andthat memberthatnotall student teacherwhohasreceivedappropriate remediation thefailureof a student 73

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is not thefaultof thementoror theuniversitysupervisor. Ultimateresponsibility for success restswith thestudentteacher. Thisstatement is very importantto remember, sincemostcooperating teachers feel the failureof aninternis theirfault.In caseswhereanintern’slackof abilhoursworkingto ity is thissevere,mostmentorshavespentcountless improveanintern’sperformance. Unfortunately, someinternsareunable to internalize andeffectivelyputintopractice recommendations madeby supervisors. It is difficultfor a cooperating teacherto informan internwhohas investedconsiderable time, effort,andexpenseto becomea teacher thatshemaynot succeed in student teaching. Supervisors needto rememberthattheirprimaryconcern needsto be thelearningandwelfareof theintern’sfuturestudents. With seriousteachershortages in theUnitedStates,it is possible thatdistricts will be forcedto hireless thanidealcandidates to fill emptyclassrooms. The ongoingsupervisionduringstudentteachingandrecommendations of the supervisor arecrucialin makingsurethatincompetent teachers donotbecomelicensedteachers withoutfirst demonstrating the necessary skillsand attitudes for succcss. A goodquestion to askwhendetermining competenceis, “WouldI wantthisindividualteachingmy childor grandchildnextyear?’ Threegeneralcauses canbe identifiedfor student teacherincompetence.First, studentteachersmay be unskilled.Second,a student teachermaybeunaware.Lastly,if effortsto remediate student teachers whoareunskilled orunawareareunsuccessful, thestudent teacher may with students in theclassbe unableor unwillingto workproductively roomasa teacher. The UnskilledStudentTeacher

It is commonat thebeginning of thestudent teaching experience for an internto demonstrate lessthanproficientskillsandabilities.After all, studentteachers arein thementor’sclassroom to acquireandenhancetheskillsneeded for successful teaching. Thedifference between anunskilledandanincompetent student teacherinvolvesa willingness to acceptandimplement recommendations for improvement. Usually, animprovement plancanbe developed thatassists thestudent teacher in acquiring thenecessary skillsto be successful. Whenworkingwith an unskilledintern,supervisors shouldprovide examples fromtheintern’sworkthatdemonstrate a needfor improve-

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mentandprofessional growth.If an internis not dealingwith student off-taskbehaviorappropriately, specificexamplesof thesebehaviors shouldbeidentified.To maketheinternawarethatsupervisors areconcerned,examplesshouldbe discussed andspecificdescriptions of the students’ activitiesshouldbe shared. Whenworkingwith an unskilledstudentteacher,it is usuallyhelpful to address oneareaof concernat a time.By focusingon a single, specificareaof concern,an interncan concentrate on effortsof improvement. It is easierfor supervisors to give specificfeedbackwhen focusingon onlyoneareaof improvement. Also,if thestudentteacher experiences success in dealingwith one areaof concern,it becomes easierto targetotherareasbecause hisconfidence hasbeenelevated. Mostunskilledstudentteachers areawareof theirownshortcomings butdonotknowhowto solvetheproblems. A helpfulstrategyin identifyingsolutions is to allow the internto observethe mentorandlook for specificwaysin whichshedealswith similarclassroom situations. Requiringtakingnoteswhile observingensures thatthe internis correctlyidentifyingworkablestrategies thatthementoris using. It mayalsobe helpfulfor theinternto observeanotherteacherin the schoolwho is very successful in workingwith problematicareasthat havebeenidentified.A conference with the teacherto be observedis notonlycourteous, professional practicebut alsoallowsthecolleague to makesurestrategies are demonstrated thatwouldbe helpfulto the studentteacher. Anotherpossibilityis for theinternto observetheuniversitysupervisoror principalas he teachesa demonstration lessonwith the studentsin the classroom. Many differentapproaches to teachingexist, and it will usuallybe helpfulfor the studentteacherto becomeacquaintedwith a numberof strategies to addressspecificproblemsor concerns. Afterthestudentteacherhashadtheopportunity to watchotherprofessionals, a planfor improvement shouldbe developed. Together,supervisors shouldconference andasktheinternto identifythosestrategiesobservedduringotherclassroom visits.The supervisors should alsoidentifystrategies that theybelievewouldworkwell for theintern. After thesesteps,the supervisors shouldhelp the studentteacherincorporate the strategies intoplanningandimplementation. Whenworkingwithanunskilledstudent teacher, thenumberof formativeconferences will increase. Althoughit is usuallyappropriate tohave a brief formativeconference at leastoncea week,a daily conference

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shouldbe heldwhilethestudentteacheris workingon an improvement plan.Feedback shouldbespecificanddirectedto theareaof concernpreviouslyidentified.Both supervisors needto notespecificexamplesof progress andencourage theintern tocontinueutilizingstrategies thatare working well. Unskilledstudentteachers needreassurance thatall teachers struggle fromtime totime.Supervisors needto emphasize thatteachers will encounterproblemsthatneedto be addressed throughreflectivepractice to throughout theircareers. Studentteachers shouldalsobe encouraged seekassistance fromcolleagues throughout theircareer.Unfortunately, thetrulyincompetent studentteacherusuallyis notawareof any shortcomingsand often blamesothers.One commonstatementused is thatat theuniversity.”Theblame “Theydid not tell usor demonstrate may alsobe directedtowardthe attitudesof the childrenin the classroomor the cooperating teacher.Life situations suchasfamily,work, As theexperience evolves,it or illnessmay alsobe offeredasexcuses. will becomeapparentto bothsupervisors thattheincompetent internis playingthe“blamegame.” The UnawareStudentTeacher

Studentteachersmay displayincompetence withoutbeing aware to clarificationquestions, for exthatthereis a problem.In response ample,aninternmayindicatethata lessonwentwell when,in fact,the mentorhad severalconcernsaboutit. The studentteachermay be in denialor reallynotknowthatsomething is wrong.Lackof awareness oftenmanifestsitselfearlyin theexperience andshouldbe a red flag to supervisors. Thistypeof internshouldreceiveremediation earlyin on students shouldbe thefocus theexperience anda strongemphasis of supervision. Like theunskilledstudentteacher,thosewhoareunawareneedto be of areasof concern.Awareness thata problem givenspecificexamples existsis increasedwhen both supervisors refer to the standards reflectedin procedures or evaluations. The mentoranduniversitysupervisorshouldcomparetheperformance of andexpectations for student is needed. teachersandmakesureit is understood why improvement The unawareinternmaybecomedefensive, suggesting thattheareas of concernarenotproblems.For example,sometimes individualswill statethattheteachingstrategies theyusedare similarto the onesthey experienced in elementaryschool.To counterthis argument,supervi-

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sorsshoulddiscuss the manychanges in students, curriculum,andexpectations for schooling thatmakedifferentstrategies necessary. Most interns,onceawarethatthereareconcerns aboutperformance, areusually eagerto improve.At thispoint,aninternusuallyexhibitsthecharacteristics andattitudes of an unskilledstudentteacherandprocedures for assisting themaresimilarto thoseof theunskilledstudentteacher. Thosetechniques are observingothers,addressing one concernat a time,offeringspecificfeedback,andformulating animprovement plan. Studentteacherswhoareunawaretheyhaveproblemsmaybecome areidentified undulyconcerned abouttheirprogress whenweaknesses anddiscussed. Mentorsanduniversitysupervisors shouldbe positive andsupportive duringthisinitial phase.Noticingandcommenting on specificimprovements usuallyreassures and encourages the student teacher.Continuedfeedback,findingpositivetraits,andreflectingon oneor two areasthatstill needimprovement arekey components when workingwith internsfacingchallenges. The Unableor UnwillingStudentTeacher

Althoughmostproblemsexperienced by studentteachers canbe remediatedsuccessfully usingtheprocesses described, a few will notbe able to demonstrate the improvement required.In mostcases,either theyareunableto developthe appropriate skillsneededor areunwillingto makenecessary changes. It maybepossible to helptheunableor unwillingstudentteacher,buta greatdealof effortis requiredto doso. Whenremediation effortshavebeenunsuccessful, thementorsneedto communicate concerns to the universitysupervisor. If the supervisor hasnot alreadybeeninvolvedin theimprovement process, he mustbe includedimmediately.The earliera universityrepresentative becomes a participant,the morelikely all dueprocessand appropriate proceduresare followed.The mentorandsupervisor needto work together to assisttheintern.It maybecomenecessary to eventuallyconsiderremovingthe studentteacherfromthe assignment. If thisoccurs,proceduresoutlinedby theuniversityshouldtakeplace.Treatingthisserious decisionin the mostprofessional mannerensuresthat all partiesare treatedfairly. Discussingunsatisfactory performancewith a challengingstudent teachercanbe an unpleasant andstressful experience for boththecooperatingteacherand universitysupervisor. Usingpositiveconfrontation strategies, however,canhelpmakethetaskeasier.Positiveconfrontation

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may seemto be a contradiction in terms,but effectivesupervisors can an unwillingor unablestudent teacher providethenecessary information needsto improvewithoutcreatingunnecessary conflict.Althoughaseducatorswe areconcerned aboutanindividual’s self-esteem or “damaged eye,”sometimes it is absolutelynecessary to confrontineffectiveperformers.It is an educator’s professional obligationto do so;not confrontingineffectiveperformance couldbe construed asmalpractice. Therearesix principlessupervisors shouldfollowwhenconducting conferences with an unwillingor unablestudentteacher.The mentor are may find it difficult to apply theseprincipleswhen conferences conducted alone.The universitysupervisor shouldbe availableto participatein theseconferences to minimizethe stressfor thementorand ensurethatall principlesareappropriately applied.2 Conferences shouldhavea positivetone.

Despitethe unpleasant topicsof discussion, supervisors needto reflecttheirconcernandinterestin theintern’ssuccess. Communicating throughout the conference thatan intern’ssuccess is the primarygoal of the triadenhances theopportunity for futureimplementation of a supervisor’srecommendation. Supervisors needto leadthe conference anddirectitsoutcome.

Unable and unwillingstudentteachersoften try to avoid the unpleasantmessages by distracting the supervisor or offeringexcuses. Thesupervisor needsto ensurethe conferences focusonkey issues.

Key issuesarethe problemspreventingthe internfrombeingsucbehavior,or uncessfulandmay includea lackof skill, inappropriate acceptable attitudes.Again,the internmay try to directthe conferenceto lessimportanttopics,sothesupervisor needsto makesurethe focusof the conference remainson the important.Remembering to key in on two or threeissueswill focusandassistall involvedin the conference. Eachconference shouldincludeappropriate andpositivecomments.

The studentteacherneedsto realizethatthe mentoranduniversity supervisor arecontinuing to noticeimprovedandappropriate teaching

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decisions, behaviors, andattitudes. An internalsoneedsto be encouragedwhenprogress is madeon an areaof concern. A plan of actionfor improvement mustbe developed duringthe conference.

Theplanshouldidentifyspecificareasof concern anddetailhowthe student teacheris goingto improveduringthenextteachingcycle.An appropriate planmightinitiallyincludea oneweekor sotimeframeso an interncandemonstrate growthin oneor two identifiedareasof improvement. At theendof thepredetennined time,thementor,theuniversitysupervisor, andthestudent teacher will meetagaintodetermine what progress, if any,hasbeenmadeanddecidethenextstep. The conference needsto concludewitha summaryof whathas beendiscussed.

Supervisors shouldbrieflysummarize theconcerns, theplanof action,andthetimeframe.Lopez-Real, Stimpson, andBuntonalsoidentify six characteristics of a conference: identifythe problem,understandthe situation,providesupport,discuss concrete incidents, trust therelationship, andbe sensitive to theintern.3 DEALING WITH RESISTANCE FROM INCOMPETENT STUDENTTEACHERS

Sinceit is important for thesupervisor to remainin controlanddirect the outcomeof the conference, counterattempts by studentteachers mustbe resisted.Studentteachers may try to resistby usingthe followingstrategies. refusingto acknowledge thereis a problem minimizingtheseriousness of theproblem questioning theobjectivityor skillof thesupervisor comparing themselves to otherswho“doit thatway” becoming defensive becoming angry blamingotherpeopleor circumstances Whenthe studentteacherrefusesto acknowledge thata problem or concern exists,thesupervisor shouldrestatetheissueandprovide

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appropriate examples.Remindingstudentteachersof expectations presented in universityor evaluationdocuments may be helpful. It is commonfor an unableor unwillinginternto recognizethat a problemexists,but minimizethe seriousness of it. The supervisor can counterthisresistance by reiteratingtheconcernandthetriad’sagreement.A supervisor can thenidentifywhy the problemis serious.For example,injurymay occurif students are not managedappropriately. Identifyingthatstudents nottreatedin a fair andreasonable mannerby an intern will affect the students’attitudestowardthe subjectand schoolandnegativelyimpactlearning. Whenconfronted, someinternsreactby questioning the skillor objecimportantthattheuniversitysupervitivityof thementor.It is especially sorbepresentat theseconferences to clarifythatsuchcriticismof a mentor is not appropriate. The intern shouldbe refocusedto deal with improvingherownskills.If thestudentteachercontinues to question the skill or objectivityof a supervisor, not responding to the intern’scommentsis essential. The cooperating teachermustremainfocusedon the concerns andredirecttheconference in orderto maintaina focusonissues relatedto theintern’sperformance. The supervisor canmakea notethat theinternraisedconcerns andpossiblydiscuss themat a latermeeting. Someindividualsrespondto negativeinformationby comparing themselvesto others.Again, it may be helpfulto reminda student teacherof performance expectations. It is seldomusefulto compare one’sperformance with thatof anotherteacher,andit is doubtfulthat anunableor unwillingstudentteachercanmakesuchcomparisons acaway curately.Therefore,it is usuallybestto redirectthe conference fromcomparisons. Unfortunately, somestudentteachersrespondto negativeinformationby becomingdefensive, hostile,or angry.It is sometimes effective to respondby describing the studentteacher’sbehavior,for example, It “You seemto be upset”or “You seemuneasyaboutourdiscussion.” is importantthatthementoror universitysupervisor avoidescalating a negativesituationby responding with defensiveness, hostility,or anger. If necessary, adjourningthe conference until a time whenthe student teacheris morein controlandlessemotionalmaybe best. Anothercommonreactionwhenreceivingnegativeinformation is to blameotherpeopleor circumstances for the problems.If appropriate, thecooperating teacheror universitysupervisor canacknowledge challengesthatthestudent teacheris facing.However,it is essential to redirecttheconference andinsistthattheinternunderstand andassume re-

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sponsibilityfor problemsand continueto meetthe expectations outlinedby the supervisors. Therewill be a few timeswhenit is clearto the universitysupervisorthattheplacement in whichthestudent teacheris workingis notappropriate.It is theobligationof theuniversitysupervisor to ensurethat the studentteacheris givenan opportunity for success andsometimes an assignment changecandothis.Therearetimeswhenthedecisionto makea newplacement for a studentteacheris necessary. Whena new placement occurs,the conditions for it mustbe clearly identified.Expectations for the studentteachershouldalsobe clear to all concerned partiesbeforetheplacement begins.It is alsousefulto have an agreementor “contract”signedby the studentteacher.The agreementshouldspecifythe conditionsfor and specifythe requirementsof the new placementthat mustbe completed.The agreement may alsoidentifyconsequences if the new placementis unsuccessful. For example,theinternmaybe requiredto wait a yearbeforereapplyingto studentteachand,at thattime,furnishevidenceof successful experiences with students asa tutoror paraprofessional. Finally,someinterns“giveup” whenthe problemsbeingidentified seemoverwhelming. Supervisors shouldaffirm theirbelief in the studentteacherandtheirabilityto correcttheproblem.In somesituations, thisaffirmingprocessmaybe difficultto express.If so,an honestand directapproach will betterserveall parties.A realizationby theintern thatproblemsencountered in thecurrentassignment aresosubstantive andpossibilities for success areminimalmustoccur.At thistime,a discussion aboutthepossibility of removingtheinternfromthecurrentassignment is necessary. It is importantthatuniversitypoliciesforremovingunsuccessful studentteachersarepublicizedandknownin advanceby interns,cooperatingteachers,and universitysupervisors. The universitysupervisor hasa primaryresponsibility of protecting thedueprocess rightsof the studentteacherandensuringthatpoliciesarefollowed. From the mentor’spointof view, the primaryresponsibility must be to the studentsin his classroom.The desireto help a student teacherhavingdifficultycannotandshouldnot be a detrimentto the learningof students. As mentionedearlier,the mentorusuallyfeels guiltywhena studentteacherdoesnot experience success andis oftenwillingto giveaninternmanysecondchances. Unfortunately, this canbe at the expenseof studentlearning.This mustnot andcannot be allowedto happen.

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Mentorsneedto remember thatit is theintern’sprimaryresponsibility to acquireskillsnecessary to be successful. By agreeingto work with an intern,a mentorprovidesonlyan opportunity for a successful, professional experience.Supervisors cannotguarantee the success of everystudentteacher. FOLLOWING THROUGH WITH THE EVALUATION PROCESS

Whenplansfor theimprovement of a student teacheraremade,thementor teacherandsupervisor needto followup to determine if appropriate progress is occurring.Observational datafrom visitsto the classroom, records of formativeconferences, anddocumentation of theeffortsmade to assistthestudent teachershouldbe recordedandavailableif needed. If all of theconferences, feedback,reflectiveguidance, andspecificexamplesof performance havenot improvedthe intern’steaching,then bothsupervisors mustbe willingandableto informthe studentteacher thatshewill notpasstheinternship. CHAPTER SUMMARY

It is notunusualfor aninternto experience a temporarylackof success in studentteaching.Unskilledandunawarestudentteacherscanusually improvewhenremediation andpositiveconfrontation areusedappropriatelyby supervisors. Studentteachers who areunableto master neededskillsor unwillingto changeunproductive behaviorsandattitudesprovidea moredifficultchallenge.When workingwith an incompetent studentteacher,the cooperating teachershouldcall on the universitysupervisor for assistance in conferencing with the student teacher.Together,supervisors shouldformulateappropriate improvementplans,monitorprogress, andcollectappropriate datato document theeffortsmadeto assistin studentteachersuccess. NOTES 1. JosephJ. Caruso, “What CooperatingTeacher Case StudiesReveal aboutTheir Phasesof Development as Supervisors of StudentTeachers,”EuropeanJournalof TeacherEducation21, no. 1 (1998): 119-30.

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2. HarveyC. Foyle,LawrenceLyman,andMichaelA. Morehead,The ZncompetentStudentTeacher(New York:InsightMedia, 1992),videotape. 3. FrancisLopez-Real,PhilipStimpsonandDavid Bunton,“Supervisory Conferences: An Exploration of SomeDifficultTopics,”Journalof Education for Teaching27, no.2 (2001): 172.

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CHAPTER 7

The ExcellentStudentTeacher

Whatcharacteristics identifytheexcellentstudent teacher? Somecharacteristics exhibited includetheabilityto learnquickly,goodorganizationalskills,ambition,enthusiasm, effectiveuseof variedinstructional strategies, classroom “with-it-ness,” relatingwell to others,andshowingempathy for students. Othercharacteristics of theexcellent student teachercanbe foundin table7.1. Thistypeof beginning educator, althoughperceived by othersasa “highperformer,” will stillneedguidanceandassistance. This chapteroutlinesa few examplesof how a mentormightstrategize whileworkingwiththis“highperformer.” This chapteralsoprovidesexamples of theprofessional conference, thereflectiveconference, and the motivationalconference, and discusses Table 7.1.

Characteristics of an Excellent Student Teacher

This listis a compositeof factorsidentifiedas contributing to an idealstudentteacher from teachersattendingthe CooperatingTeacher Academyat EmporiaState University from 1989 to 2000. They are clearlynot in any order of importance.The mentorteacher may find it usefulto highlightthosequalitieshe thinksare of particularimportanceand sharethisinformation withthe studentteacher. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11.

Conscientious Prompt,punctual Flexible Cooperative Acceptsand acts on constructive criticism Knowledgeable Honest Classroommanagementskills Enthusiastic Positiveattitude Risktaker

12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22.

Caring Goodplanningskills Motivational Problemsolver Self starter Sense of humor Wants to be there Creative Responsible Able to buildrapport Commonsense

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techniques in conferencing thata cooperating teachercanutilizewhile workingwith theexcellentstudentintern.’ Workingwith excellentstudentteachers,althoughvery rewarding, may be as difficult as workingwith ineffectiveones.Cooperating teachers mayoccasionally feelfrustrated because theydonotfeel comfortablerecommending ideasto superior performers. Nevertheless, outstandinginternsneedguidanceandnurturing,similarto othersuccessful professionals. While workingwith excellentinterns,mentorsoftenencounter the problemof notofferingenoughspecificfeedback. Talvitie,Peltokallio, andMannistoindicatethatinternswantmorefeedbackthanis typically givenby mentors,especially earlyin theassignment.2 A commonstatementoftenexpressed by excellentstudentteachers is, “My cooperating teacherwasgreat,butsheneverreallyofferedanyspecificsuggestions for improvement.” Sinceoutstanding internsare sotalented,cooperating teachers oftenfind it difficultto identifyareasfor improvement. In practice,however,supervisors mustofferguidancethatwill enableinternsto becomewell-roundedand completeprofessionals. Additionally, mostoutstanding studentteachersdesireto constantlyimprove; they want to be the bestpossibleteacher.With updatedmethodsof teachingandsubjectcontentchanges, mostclassroom professionals are alwayslearningandimproving.It is necessary to includepositive,constructivesuggestions coupledwith praisewhenworkingwith thistype of professional. It is importantto rememberthateventhemostcapable beginningteachercancontinueto improveandgrowprofessionally. If an internis doinga sufficientjob with the generalday-to-day classroom instruction, a mentorshouldidentifyalternative areasfor reflectionandgrowth.Areasof growthmay include,but arenot limited to, newmethodsof instruction (e.g.,cooperative learning),integrating technology (e.g.,Webquests),andacademic content(e.g.,updatingthe textbook). Whenworkingwith thistypeof intern,a cooperating teacher canutilizetheconferencing techniques mentioned earlierin thisbook, (2) brainstorming, ( 3 ) clarification, and(4) resuchas( 1 ) questioning, inforcement. THE PROFESSIONAL CONFERENCE

Professionalism is demonstrated by maturity,self-direction, positiveinterpersonal relationships, a positiveattitudetowardothereducators,

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anda concernfor theteachingprofession. Theprofessional conference betweenthecooperating teacherandtheinterndealswith interpersonal behaviors. Forexample,whenanexcellentstudentteacherdoesnotexhibit appropriate professional relationships, he may demonstrate intolerancetowardstudents or colleagues. Early in theircareers,outstanding performerssometimes arenot tolerantor understanding of others’ life situations or professional circumstances. An excellentstudentteacherwhois outstanding in theclassroom and hashighexpectations may not alwaysexhibitappropriate understanding andpatiencein relationships with students or colleagues. One exto thelife circumstances of ampleis theinternwhois not sympathetic students. Often,thisbehavioris exhibitedby impatience with the studentwho doesnot put forth enougheffort.Studentteacherswho are highachievers may notrelateeffectivelyto thosestudents whocannot meetexpectations. Most excellentinternsare responsive to feedback, so a discussion aboutstudentswith difficult life circumstances will mostlikely modifythisbehavior. Additionally,early in someprofessionals’ careers,rushingto judgment aboutothereducators withoutunderstanding or knowingbackgroundinformationis common.In thesesituations, thereare specific questions thecooperating teachershouldreflectuponpriorto meeting with the studentteacherexhibitingthesebehaviors.The following questions canassistthe mentorin preparingfor the professional conof patience, tolerance, and understanding exferenceto discuss thelack hibited. How do teachersexhibitbehaviorsthat are perceivedas unprofessionalor uncaring? What typesof circumstances causeoutstanding professionals to becomeimpatientwith students andotherprofessionals? What wouldone say to a studentteacherwho exhibitsimpatience with students or otherteachers? In addition,the cooperating teachermay reflectuponhow the conferenceshouldbe carriedout.The followingapproaches aresuggested. Reflectupondifferentwaysto begintheconference; shouldit begin with a question,statement, or a description of the situation? Together,decidewaysin whichan interncandealdirectlywith the situationandbecomemoreunderstanding.

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Havethestudentteacherwritea briefdescription of herperception aboutthestudent(s) or otherprofessional^.^ Determinesuggestions neededthatwouldassistin identifyingand changing behavior. Decideononlyoneor twospecificclassroom eventsor behaviors to discuss duringtheconference. Shareprevious personal experiences thatrelateto thesituation when appropriate. The professional conference shouldidentifytypesof behaviors that arenotconsidered appropriate by theeducation professional. It isnotuncommon forbeginning professionals to sometimes exhibitimpatience for otherprofessionals or students. Whenthisoccurs,it is thesupervisor’s responsibility to identify,discuss, andassistwithcorrective action. THE REFLECTIVE CONFERENCE

Thereflectiveconference dealswith an internwhois alwayscharging aheadandcannotwait for the next“new”opportunity. Becoming reflectiveis demonstrated by identifyingpersonalstrengths andweaknesses astheyrelateto teaching.Beginning teachers mustpracticethe process of self-evaluation andself-improvement. Thereflectiveconferenceis usefulwhenmeetingwith this“thoroughbred” student teacher. Thisinternusuallycannotwaitfor thenextopportunity toteachandtry new teachingstrategies. Their mindswork quicklyand they exude tremendous energyandconfidence. However,sometimes an outstandingbeginning professional triestoomanydifferentandinnovative approacheswithoutrefininginstruction and reflectinguponpast successes. Priorto a reflectiveconference, thecooperating teachermight consider thesequestions. Whatshouldtheteachersayto aninternwhois excellent in instructionalmethodology andalwayschargingaheadwith innovative ideasandtechniques? How doesthe cooperating teacherhelpan internbecomemorereflectiveabouttheeducation profession and/orteaching? Withoutdampening spirits,thementorshouldassist in modifyingthese practicesandemphasize ongoingreflectionandinstructional refine-

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ment.Somesuggestions to considerpriorto the reflectiveconference areofferedhere.

.

Providethe excellentstudentteacherwith specificexamplesfor improvinginstruction. Theseexamplescouldcomefrom the cooperatingteacher’sexperiences or observations of otherteachers in the schoolbuilding.For example,theseexperiences mightincludethe latestinstructional methodsbasedon researchandused in otherclassrooms. Thecooperating teachercanprovidespecificexamples of howshe approaches improving,modifying,andimplementing instruction. For example,this mightincludemethodsin whichaccreditation standardsand state assessment practicesare incorporated into daily classroomlesson^.^ Helpingthe studentteacherreflectuponhis experience is essential.5Providingpersonalapproaches to conserving energyandelicitingreflectionaboutteachingexperiences areimportantsupervisory responsibilities. In otherwords,thecooperating teachermight sharehow enthusiasm is moderated whenpreparingfor theclassinstruction canoccur. roomsothatclearcomprehensive

THE MOTIVATIONAL CONFERENCE

The motivatingconference dealswith theexcellentstudent teacher who is hesitantto try new ideasandtechniques. This particularstudent,althoughteachingeffectivelyandperceivedasexcellentby others,is uneasyaboutexploringnew strategies. Therefore,thecooperating teacher mayneedto usea moreassertive approach. Becauseoutstanding educatorsarealwaysattempting to increase theirproficiency, themotivational conference shouldguideaninterntowardreachingherfull potential. Thementorhasseveralissuesto discuss with anexcellentinternwho is reluctant.The cooperating teachercanconsiderthe followingquestionswhiledeveloping a motivational conference. How canoneassisttheinternin recognizing abilitiesnotperceived? How canoneencourage theexcellentstudentteacherto explorenew areas? How canvideotaping or audiotaping instruction assistin theprocess of helpingexplorenew teachingapproaches?

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Conferences witha hesitantstudent teachershouldassist in recognizinggoodperformance. Theinternmustbechallenged toreachbeyondhis comfortzone.Duringthemotivational conference, consider otherquestionsthatmighthelpguidethecooperating teacher’s discussion. is the cooperating teacherable to recognizewhen feedbackis sought? Doesthecooperating teacherfocusononeor twoskillsthatencouragerisktaking?Whatarethey? How doesoneencourage anotherto embrace newchallenges? How doesthestudent teacherexhibitreluctance to embrace newinstructional practices? How doesthecooperating teacher copewith thisresistance? in additionto theabove-mentioned ideas,severalotherconferencing strategies canbe usedwhenmeetingwith outstanding student teachers. questions, (2) brainstorming, Thesetechniques include(1) developing (3) clarification of statements, and(4) reinforcement of performance. Althoughconferences withanexcellent student teacherarenotasdifficult asconferences with anincompetent student teacher, theyrequiresimilar expertise in instructional andprofessional skills.Thegoalin everycase professional. Reflectis to havetheinterndevelopintothebestpossible ing uponthe teachingprocess, expanding a personal knowledgebase, andhavinga visionfor theclassroom areimportantareasof growthfor all professionals andespecially theexcellent student teacher. CHAPTER SUMMARY

Whenconferencing with an excellentstudent teacher,basicprinciples canimproveprofessionally, (2) focuson to consider are:(1) everyone self-evaluation, (4) recognizeprofessional key skills,(3) encourage ethics,and(5) dealdirectlywith the issueat hand.Theseprinciples work especially well with excellentstudentteachers sincethey learn quickly,arewell organized, areself-starting, demonstrate enthusiasm, varyinstructional strategies, haveclassroom “with-it-ness,” relatewell with others,andshowempathyfor theirstudents. Successful conferenceswill assisttheinternin becoming moreprofessional andreflective.Additionally, effectiveconferencing will assistin enhancing the professional development of theintern.

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Cooperating teachersshouldnot be intimidatedby the abilitiesof outstanding studentteachers.Mentorspossess many skills,qualities, andexpertise thatcanassisttheexcellentstudent teacher’s professional growth.If an uncomfortable studentteachingsituationis encountered, the universitysupervisor canprovideassistance, but workingwith an outstanding studentteachershouldbe a very rewardingexperience for all parties.Skillsthe cooperating teachersshouldassistthe excellent studentteacherin achievingandrecognizing are: Becoming reflective-demonstrated by identifying personal strengths andweaknesses as theyrelateto teaching. Beginningteachers muststartpracticing theprocess for self-evaluation, self-improvement, teacher. andreflectionsotheycanbecomethebestpossible Expandingthe knowledgebase-demonstrated by initiative,which leadsto self-directed observation, questioning, andoutsidereading.The outstanding educator is alwaysattempting to increase understanding of theteaching-learning process. Creatinga visionof theirclassroom-demonstrated by verballydescribingandgivingspecificexamplesof the classroom environment, styleof instruction, anddesiredstudentteacherinteraction.Successful professionals are ableto clearlyverbalizea visionof their goalsand professional environment. The ultimategoalwhile workingwith the excellentstudentteacher is to developa peerrelationship-one thatindicates to bothpartiesthat theyview eachotherasequalsin theprofession. JustenandMcJunkin discussthe nondirective approach to supervision andindicatethe importanceof trustandmutualrespect.The nondirective approach in supervisingwill allow theexcellentstudentteacherthenecessary reflectiontimeto developthispeerrelationship.6

NOTES 1. HarveyC. Foyle,Lawrence Lyman,andMichaelA. Morehead,The ExcellentStudentTeacher(NewYork: InsightMedia,1992),videotape. 2. Ulla Talvitie,LiisaPeltokallio, andPaiviMannisto,“Student Teachers’ Views aboutTheir Relationshps with UniversitySupervisors, Cooperating Teachers, andPeerStudentTeachers,” ScandinavianJournal of Educational Research44, no. 1 (2000):83. 3. Dian YendolSilva,“TriadJournaling as a Tool for Reconceptualizing Supervision in theProfessional Development School”(paperpresented at the

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annualmeetingof theAmericanEducational Research Association, New Orleans,La., April ZOOO), 1-17. 4. CarmanGiebelhausand ConnieBowman,“TeachingMentors:Is It Worth theEffort?”(paperpresented at the annualmeetingof theAssociation of TeacherEducators, Orlando,Fla., February2000), 1-24. 5. D. Cruickshank, ReflectiveTeaching:The Preparationof Studentsof Teuching(Reston,Va.: Association of TeacherEducators, 1987). 6. Joseph E. Justen 111andMark McJunkin,“Supervisory Beliefsof CooperatingTeachers,” TeacherEducator34, no. 3 (Winter1999):179.

CHAPTER 8

The Principal'sRole

As theprimaryinstructional leaderof the school,the principalshould takean activerole in workingwith studentteachers.It is difficultfor manyprincipalsto find time to play this role becauseof their many otherdemands.'In orderto ensurethatstudentteachersare a positive additionto the school,the principalneedsto be involvedin decision makingaboutresources, selection,supervision, andevaluationof student teachersin the school.Suggested informationfor principalsto sharewith studentteachersduringtheir experiencecan be foundin table8.1. Table 8.1.

SuggestedInformationfor Principalst o Share with StudentTeachers

1. What grade levels are found in the school?What specialprograms,if any, are foundin the school? 2. How many studentsare enrolledin the school?How many studentsride a bus to school?Do any studentswho are primarilyschooledat home attend the schoolon a part-timebasis? 3. What is the socioeconomicstatusof studentsattendingthis school?Does the schoolqualifyfor Title I assistance?What specialgrantsdoes the schoolhave for this schoolyear? 4. What ethnicgroupsare representedin the studentsattendingthis school? 5. What is the approximatemobilityrate of studentsattendingthis school? 6. What accreditationprocessis used in this school?Identifyfacultywho chair SchoolImprovementTeams and schoolgoals for improvement. 7. Provideinformationaboutthe schoolfacility.What year was the originalbuildingbuilt? When were additionsadded?What additionalconstructionis planned?(If not obvious) If the schoolis namedfor an individual,what was that individualfamousfor? 8. Discussany importantpoliciesthat affectstudentteachers,such as discipline policy,suppliesand budgetpolicies,studentconductpolicies,studentand teacher dresscodes,curriculumand teachingmaterialspolicies,testingpolicies,child abuse reporting,emergencydrills,and crisisplan. 9. Discussany specialor uniquefeaturesof this school. 10. Identifyany pet peeves or concernsyou have about teachers. 93

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BENEFITS OF STUDENTTEACHERS

Internscanprovidemanybenefitsto a school.Effectivestudentteacherscanbe valuableadditionsto inclusiveclassrooms with diversestudentswhosevaryingneedsrequiremore time than the classroom teachercanprovide.In effect,a competent studentteacherhelpslower thepupil-teacher ratioin a givenclassroom. Studentteachers alsobring enthusiasm andidealismto the schoolandthe new perspective of the studentteacheris oftenrefreshing.In somecases,an interncanbring innovativemethodsof workingwith studentsinto the school.When preparedwell by theuniversity,internsmayintroduce new techniques andstrategies to theschool. Havingan internin theclassroom usuallyencourages thementorto be moreconscious of teaching.Additionally,questions by the intern maycausea mentorto be morereflectiveaboutwhy certainstrategies areusedandhowthosestrategies impactstudent learningandtheclassroomenvironment. Gansersuggests thatcooperating teachers perceive thathavingstudentteachersmakesthembetterteachers.* With interns comeuniversitysupervisors who are usuallywilling to provideassistanceto teachers. Universityprofessors maybe willingto practiceand refinetheirownteachingskillsby workingin classrooms thern~elves.~ The evolutionof professional development schoolshas encouraged moresharingandmodelteachingby bothuniversityand schoolperbetweenthe sonnel.Evenso,aspointedout by Slick,therelationship supervisor andschoolpersonnel is a sensitive oneandis oftenfragile.4 ALLOCATING RESOURCES

Althoughtherearemanypotentialbenefitsof havingstudentteachers work in the school,the additionof extra peoplerequiresmore resources, whichareoftenin shortsupplyin schools today.For example, studentteachersuse parking spacesthat may limited. In addition, schoolstaff may find the restroomsand the faculty loungemore to the school.Telephones crowdedwhenseveralinternsareassigned andcomputerresources maybe overused. Useof additionalsuppliesby internsmay causeproblemswith limusedarefor instruction, a genitedbudgets. While mostof thesupplies an internto duplicate filesfor erouscooperating teachermayencourage her ownuse.Resources in the schoolmediacentermay alsobe dupli-

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catedduringthistime.Principalsmay needto determinewhetherthis duplication is a benefitbecause of whatinternscontribute to theschool. In somecases,studentteachersmightbe expectedto pay for someof thesecosts. If the studentteachersareusingconsumable suppliessuchaslaminationfilm, computerdisks,construction paper,file folders,andother supplies to preparematerialsfor usewhileteaching,it wouldnotbe expectedthat they pay for thesesuppliesor to leavethe completedinstructional materialsat the schoolwhentheydepart.The costof such areassigned materials,however,mayaddupif severalstudent teachers to oneschool.Because resources at mostschools arelimited,principals needto determinehowmanystudentteachers canbe accommodated in theirbuildings.Policiesregardingthe useof suppliesneedto be consideredto ensurethatappropriate useis madeof them. More importantly,the numberof internsacceptedshouldbe determinedbasedon educationalfactors.First, and most important,the principalmustdetermineif thereareenoughqualifiedmentorteachers availableat the school.Second,the numberof internswhohavebeen assigned to giventeachers in previoussemesters or yearsmustbe considered.Third, the principalneedsto decideif childrenin the school canor shouldhave aninterneverysemester or year.Principalsmustseriouslyconsidertheimpacton studentlearningwhenassigning interns throughout the building.Finally,the principalanduniversitymustbe cautiousof “burningout”excellentcooperating teachers by assigning internstoo often.Evenenthusiastic mentorscantire of havingthe responsibilities thatgo alongwith supervising internsseveralsemesters in a row. Placinginternscontinuously with the sameexcellentmentor mightnotbe in thebestinterestof theteacher,school,or students.

THE SELECTION PROCEDURE

Selectionof Mentor Teachers

Many universities askfor the inputof the principalin determining whichteachers aregoodcandidates for mentorship. Principalsshould determinewhichoneswantto work with internsandwhichteachers arequalifiedto do so.In general,mentorsshouldhavea minimumof threeyears’teachingexperience andshoulddemonstrate theabilityto teacheffectivelyandrelatewell with colleagues. The mentorshould

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be knowledgeable aboutthe contenttaughtandcurrentstrategies for skills, and have the teaching,possess goodclassroommanagement ability to relate positivelywith students.Finally, supervisingand modelingappropriate professional behaviorfor anotheradultis necessary.To assisttheprincipalin identifyinga cooperating teacher,table 8.2 outlinesseveralquestions that shouldbe considered beforefinalizing a selection. Becauseof the benefitsof havingstudentteachersin the school, principalswill occasionally agreeto acceptaninternwithoutchecking with thepotentialmentor.Thecooperating teachermayhavelegitimate reasonsfor not wantingto work with an internduringa specificsemesteror year,andshouldalwaysbe consulted beforetheprincipalapprovesa placement. Principalsmay alsohaverequests for internsfromteacherswhom theprincipalbelievesarenotwell suitedto be a mentor.Thistypeof requestplacesa principalin an awkwardpositionbecauseof the day-to-dayworkingrelationsbetweenthe two. Consultingwith the universityaboutthistypeof situationwill be mosthelpfulto an administratorandwill ultimatelybetterservethe intern.It is possible for a teacherto be a highly effectiveone and work well with stuexceldentsbut not be equippedto be a goodmentor.Occasionally, lent teachersare not goodmentorsfor futureteachers. Therecanbe numerous reasons,but typically,it is becausetheseteachersdo one of the following.First, they have the “sink or swim”outlookand turntheclassoverto the interntoo soon whileofferinglimitedguidance.Second,a teachermightnot be willing to allow the internan adequateamountof teachingtime becausethe mentorcannotgive up the class.Third, someexcellentteachersare not ableto verbalTable 8.2.

Checklist for Determining Qualifications of CooperatingTeachers

1. Do they modelappropriateteachingbehaviorsand strategies? 2. Do they explainthe reasonsfor teachingdecisionsmade? 3. Do they have a positive,professionalattitudein dealingwith students,colleagues, and parents? 4. Do they demonstrateeffectivecommunicationskills? 5. Do they make expectationsclear to the studentteacher? 6. Can they buildstudentteacher trust? 7. Can they demonstratepositiveregardfor the studentteacher? 8. Are they willingto share their classroomand studentswith anotherprofessional? 9. Are they willingto investthe time and effortit takes to developpositiverelationships with a studentteacher?

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ize, articulateabout,or guidea beginningprofessional. Theseeducatorsapproachteachingwith an intuitivetechniquethat worksfor them,buttheycannotdescribehow or why theydo certainthingsin theclassroom. Whena principalhasobserved anyof thesebehaviors previously, it is hisprofessional obligationto not approvefuturestudentteacherplacements. Professionally, it is mostbeneficialfor all partiesif a mentoris selectedbecauseof her qualityteachingand mentoringskills. Somestudentteachershavebeenplacedin classrooms becausea principalfeelsthata teacherneedshelp.For example,thementormay be completing a graduatedegreeandneedextratime to completeassignments, or a mentormaybeill andneedextrasupport to managethe rigorsof the classroom. Studentteachers needto workwith a professionalwhohasthe timeandenergyto supervise themeffectively.Selectinga cooperating teacherbecause a teacherneedshelpin theclassroom sincehe or she has extensiveafter-school responsibilities, or considering he or sheis a weakteacher,setsan internup for possible failure.Additionally,if a principalselectsa cooperating teacherfor thesereasons,sheis demonstrating poorprofessional judgmentand limitingtheopportunities for theintern.Principals shouldnotmakeinternship placements in a classroom wherethementorisreluctant or unableto supervise thestudentteacherappropriately. Principals needto meetwith mentorsbeforestudentteachers arrive to ensureawareness of districtandbuildingpolicies.Someof theissues to be clarifiedarelistedbelow. to leavetheinternalonewith students? Whenis it appropriate What is the policyfor studentteachersreportingsuspected child abuse? How andwhendo studentteachers turnin lessonplans? How is the studentteacherto be involvedin staffmeetingsandinservices? How arestudentteachers to be involvedin supervision of students outsidetheclassroom? How arestudentteachers to be involvedin stafffunctions? If a social fee is collectedfrom staff,is it reasonable to expectstudent teachers to pay all or partof thisfee? How arestudent teachers to beinvolvedin theaccreditation processes for theschool? Cana student teacherbe usedto substitute teach?

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Selectionof StudentTeachers

To ensurea qualityplacementand that the partiesare compatible, mentorsshouldinterviewpotentialinternsprior to placement.It is a goodideafor theprincipalto participate in theseinterviewsif timepermits.With manyprofessional demands on time,it may notbe possible to participatein everyinterview,but the principalshouldmakean effort to meeta potentialinternbeforethe placementis finalized.The principalcanoffer a lot in thistypeof interviewandcanlearna great dealabouta potentialintern.Mostadministrators aremoreskilledat interviewingtechniques andcan utilizetheseskillsto clarify responses from the intern.Becauseadministrators usuallyinterviewa varietyof professionals, theyareoftenbettersuitedto determineif theinternis a good“fit” with the school.Additionally,meetingtheprincipalpriorto enteringthe schoolgivesan interna senseof securitybecause he will haveinteractedwith thebuildingadministrator. MAKING STUDENT TEACHERS A PART OF THE SCHOOL

The principalmusthelpinternsfeel welcomein the school.Thisis an importantresponsibilitythat establishes a tone modeledby others. Principalswhomanageschools thathavenumerous internseveryyear mustresistcomplacency. It is importantto rememberthateventhough teachersare accustomed to interns,thiswill be the firstexperience for mostof thestudentteachersassigned at thisparticularschool.Making internsfeel welcomeis the first steptowarda successful experience. Severalsimplestrategies canbe usedto welcomeinterns.First,the arrival of studentteachersshouldbe announced in the schoolbulletin. Second,studentteachersshouldbe introduced to the staffat a faculty meeting.Finally,a tourof thebuildingshouldbe arrangedwith introductionsoccurringalongtheway.Additionalactivitiescouldincludea breakfastmeetingwith schoolstaff,a tourof the attendance area,and meetingregularlywith theprincipal. Parentsandguardians alsoneedto be informedthata newindividual will be workingin theirchildren’sclassroom. Thisis a morecommon practicein elementaryschools butis alsohelpfulin secondary schools. A notein the schoolnewslettercan introduceinternsto parentsand guardians. The principalwill alsowant to encourage the cooperating teacherto inform parentsand guardiansaboutthe studentteacher’s background andtheresponsibilities he will assume in theclassroom.

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Principalsshouldhaveanorientation meetingwith internsearlyeach semester. Duringthismeeting,the principalcan sharebasicinformationabouttheschoolalongwith districtandbuildingpolicies.Someof the informationfor this meetingcan be foundin table 8.1. Demographicsof the communityand studentpopulationwill greatlyassist the internin preparing for theteachingexperience. Sharinginformation about the percentage of single-parent homes,socioeconomic status,and studentmobility will allow the intern to betterunderstandstudent needs.Languageissuesanddiversityalsoare importantpiecesof informationthatshouldbe shared.High studentmobilityratesarea phenomenonthatmanystudentteachershavenotpreviouslyencountered. If thisis an issuefor a school,it is essentialthat studentteachersbe awareof it. Discussionof this demographic and how it affectsthe schoolshouldbe ongoingthroughout theintern’sexperience. If the schoolhasa particular“cultural”belief or activity,this also mustbe sharedwith interns.For example,a belief that “we havethe brighteststudents”is one internsshouldhear.Also, expectations for participationin staff functionsshouldbe discussed. For example,if teachersmeetdaily for lunchto discussschoolissues,internsneedto knowif theyareexpected to attendsuchan activity.

SUPERVISION OF STUDENTTEACHERS

Althoughthe primary responsibility for supervision of the student teacheris thatof thecooperating teacheranduniversitysupervisor, the principalshouldlookoverconference notesandlessonplansto evaluate the experience.Personal,positivereinforcement lets the intern know that the principalis interestedin her performance and professionaldevelopment. The principalshouldplan a formalclassroom observation for each studentteacherat leastonceduringtheassignment. As an experienced supervisor, theprincipalcanprovidevaluablefeedbackto mentorsand internsaboutthestrengths andweaknesses of thestudentteacher.Prior sowhenthe obto thisvisit,a principalshoulddropby the classroom servationoccurs,theinternandstudents arefamiliarwith a principal’s presence.Discussionwith both intern and mentorshouldalso take placebeforetheobservation sothe principalis awareof therecentactivitiesin theclassroom. Also,thementormaywanta principalto look for certainbehaviors exhibitedby the studentteacher.

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Someprincipalsarewillingto taketimeto performmockinterviews with student teachers. Thisis a benefitto interns,whoareusuallynervousabouttheemployment interviewprocess. By providingfeedbackto the studentteacheraboutstrongandweakpointsof the interview,the principalprovidesvaluableassistance. Theseinterviewsshouldinclude thesameactivitiesandexpectations an administrator useswhenselecting an employee. Addedbenefitsfor the principalmay be the discoveryof a futureteacherfor his school. CHAPTER SUMMARY

The principalof the schoolhasa directimpacton andis partiallyresponsible for thesuccess of thestudent teacher.Principals needto make sureresourcesat the schoolare adequatefor the numberof interns placedat theschoolandthatmentorsarewillingandqualifiedto work with a studentteacher.By meetingwith mentorsandinterns,theprincipal ensuresthat expectations are clear. Finally, by giving student teachers feedback onteachingskills,a principalbecomes anactiveparticipantin professional development.

1. Lawrence Lyman,AlfredP. Wilson,C. KentGarhart,Max 0.Heim,and Wynona0. Winn, Clinical Instructionand Supervisionfor Accountability (Dubuque, Iowa:KendalUHunt, 1987),4. 2. Tom Ganser,“The Cooperating TeacherRole,”The TeacherEducator 31, no.4 (Spring1996):283-91. 3. LawrenceLyman,“A Professor Returnsto the Classroom in a ProfessionalDevelopment School,”ERIC Resourcesin Education(paperpresented at thenationalconference of theKansasUniversityProfessional Development Schools Alliance,KansasCity,Mo., February2000). 4. SusanK. Slick,“A UniversitySupervisor Negotiates TemtoryandStatus,” Journalof TeacherEducation49, no.4 (September-October 1998):306-15.

APPENDIX

ObservableInstructionalBehaviorsto Reinforce

ANALYZING BEHAVIORS

1 . Thestudentteacherdetermines appropriate objectives for student learning. Observable behaviors: The studentteachercommunicates theobjectiveof thelessonto students. The studentteacherpreparescourseguidesand materialsthat indicateappropriate objectives for studentlearning. The studentteachercommunicates objectives for learningto the mentorteacherandto theuniversitysupervisor. 2. The studentteacher’s instruction providesevidenceof appropriate diagnosis of studentlearningneeds. Observable behaviors: Students areworkingat activitiesat theappropriate levelsof difficulty. Students areanswering questions correctly. Students areexpending effortto learnandaresuccessful. 3. The studentteacher’sinstructionshowsevidenceof appropriate analysisof thelearningtask. Observable behaviors: Learningtasksaresequenced appropriately to facilitatestudent understanding. The studentteacherreteachesor movesaheadin the learning sequence asneeded. Transitions betweenlearningactivitiesaresmoothandlogical. 101

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APPENDIX

PRESCRIBING BEHAVIORS

I . The teachergroupsstudents to facilitatestudentlearning. Observable behaviors: A varietyof instructional groupings areused. Studentgroupschangeaslearningtaskschange. Cooperative learninggroupsareusedappropriately. Thestudent teachermonitorsgroupswhilestudents worktogether. Students areon taskduringgroupactivities. 2. The teacherfacilitatescriticalthinking,creativethinking,and problemsolving. Observable behaviors: Students arechallenged to apply what is learnedto theirownlives. Students arerequiredto compare,contrast, andcategorize when appropriate. Studentcreativityis encouraged. Students areencouraged to supporttheirideaswith evidence fromtheirlearning. 3. The studentteacherrelateslearningactivitiesto theobjective. Observable behaviors: Connections betweenlearningactivitiesandobjectives areclear. Appropriatereviewhelpsstudents understand howprevious learningrelatesto a particularobjective. The teacherpacesinstruction effectively.

DETERMINING STRATEGIES

1. The studentteacher’slessonsare structured to promotestudent understanding andremembering. Observable behaviors: The studentteacherpresents information,givesdirections, and responds to studentquestions clearly. The studentteacheruseseffectiveexamples. The studentteacherasksquestions thatpromotestudentthought. Appropriate wait timeandpromptsareusedto encourage student involvement.

OBSERVABLE INSTRUCTIONAL BEHAVIORS TO REINFORCE

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2. The studentteachermotivatesstudentinvolvement andinterest.

Observable behaviors: All students havetheopportunity to experience success. Students areactivelyengagedin learning. The studentteacheris positiveandenthusiastic aboutstudents andwhatis beingtaught. The studentteacheremphasizes positiveoutcomes of learning. The studentteacherprovidesappropriate feedbackto students abouttheirlearning. 3 . The studentteacherusesdifferentmultiple intelligenceareas whenteaching. Thestudent teacher usesvariedinstructional activities andstrategies. Observablebehaviors: Learningactivitiesuseorallanguage. Criticalthinkingandproblemsolvingareencouraged. Musicis appropriately integratedintoinstruction. Picturesandothervisualstimuliareappropriately used. Movementopportunities areprovidedfor students. Students havetheopportunity to workwith others. Students areencouraged to thinkabouttheirownfeelingsand opinionsaboutwhatis beinglearned. 4. Thestudent teacherdemonstrates effectiveclassroom management. Observablebehaviors: Expectations for behaviorareclearto students. Positivereinforcement encourages appropriate behavior andattitudes. Thestudentteacherresponds appropriately to minormisbehavior. The studentteacheris awareof what students are doingduring instruction andworkperiods. LESSON DESIGN 1. The studentteacherfocuses students appropriately for instruction.

Observablebehaviors: The studentteacherchecksfor student understanding of previously learnedmaterial. Smoothtransitions aremadefromoneactivityto another. Studentinterestandattentionareengaged.

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2. Thestudent teacherprovides appropriate instruction to students. Observable behaviors: The student teacherprovides appropriate inputto students. Learningis modeledfor students. Instruction proceeds at an appropriate pace. Appropriate closure isusedto summarize thelesson beforeending. 3. Thestudent teacherchecksfor student understanding. Observable behaviors: Thestudent teacherusesgroupresponses fromthestudents to checkunderstanding. Appropriate signals, slates, orotherstrategies areusedtomeasure theunderstanding of all students. Individualstudents areaskedto respond to appropriate questions. Thestudent teacheradjusts instruction basedonstudent feedback. 4. The studentteacherprovidesappropriate opportunities for studentsto practicenewlearning. Observable behaviors: Thestudent teachermovesaroundtheroomchecking student workandproviding helpasneeded. Theteacherprovides answerkeyssostudents canchecktheir ownprogress whenappropriate. Cooperative learninggroupsareappropriately usedandmonitored. Independent practiceis assigned onlyafterstudents havebeen successful in guidedpractice. ASSESSMENT

1. The student teacherutilizesa varietyof assessment strategies. Observable behavior: Students areprovidedwithopportunities to createproducts that demonstrate theirlearning. Observation duringin-classdiscussion andactivities. Writtenfeedback fromstudents. Portfolios of student work. Pre-assessment compared to assessment afterlearningactivities. Adaptedwith permission fromClinicalInstructionand Supervision for Accountability, 2nded., by LawrenceLyman,Alfred P. Wilson,C. Kent Garhart,Max 0. Heim, andWynona0. Winn (Dubuque,Iowa:KendalVHunt,1987).

Bibliography

Abdal-Haqq, Ismat.“Voicesof caution: Equityissues.’’ Professional development schools: Weighing theevidence. Thousand Oaks,Calif.:ConvinPress,1998. Acheson, Keith,andMeredithGall. Techniques in the clinicalsupervision OJ teachers:Preserviceand inserviceapplications. 3rd ed. New York: Longman,1997. AmericanAssociation of Collegesfor TeacherEducation(AACTE). “Survey of TeacherEducation Enrollments by RaceEthnicity andGender,”American Association of Colleges for TeacherEducation1989, 1991, 1995, at www.aacte.org/h.lulticultural/enrollment~ethnicity~yr89-91-95.htm (accessed14 September 2001). Association of TeacherEducators. Restructuring the educationof teachers: Reportof the Commission on theEducationof Teachers intothe21st Century.Reston,Va.: Association of TeacherEducators, 1991.ERIC Document Reproduction ServiceED330649. Caruso, Joseph J. “Cooperating TeacherandStudentTeacherPhasesof Development.” YoungChildren5 5 , no. 1 (January2000):75-8 1. Cooper,Lloyd,andKathleenForrer.“Thoseforgottenmotivators.” Clearing House(March1986):297. Costa,ArthurL., andRobertJ. Garmston.Cognitivecoaching:A foundation for Renaissance Schools. Norwood,Mass.:Christopher-Gordon, 1996. Covey,Stephen. R. Thesevenhabitsof highlyeffective people.New York:Simon andSchuster, 1989. Foyle,HarveyC. Clinicalsupervision: A cooperative learningapproach.Emporia,Kans.:EmporiaStateUniversityPrintingService,1992. Freshour, Frank.“Listening effectively.” Streamlined Seminal;NationalAssociationof Elementary SchoolPrincipals (November1987). Ganser,Tom.Thecontribution of serviceasa cooperating teacherandmentor teacherto theprofessional development of teachers. Paperpresented at the annualmeetingof theAmericanEducational Research Association, March 1997,at Chicago,Ill. 105

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Index

15, 35, 42-6, 61, 75-6; forms, 44-5; initial,27; motivational, 89-90; parent-teacher, 6, 36-7; planningfor improvement, 82 Abdal-Haqq, Ismat,6 professional, 86-8; redirecting, affirmation,14 79-80; reflective,88-9; Ashburn,E., 67 remediation, 5 3 4 ; summative, attitudes, 11;positive,professional, 34, 37, 42-6; techniques, 86, 90; 12-13 with theincompetent student Association of TeacherEducators, 4 teacher,78-9 Covey,Stephen R., 13 Bowman,Connie,3 brainstorming, 51-3, 86, 90; demographics, 4, 5 convergent questions, 53 diverseclassrooms, 2, 57-71 divergent questions, 53 diversity,57-7 1; assessment, 67, hitchhiking, 53 104;bias,66; culture,64-5; buildingpositiverelationships, 1, language, 65-6; mentorasmodel, 9-21; clarification, 50, 86 69; multipleintelligences, 62-4 Seedemographics; teaching Caruso,Joseph J., 3 behaviors, 70 characteristics of theincompetent student teacher,7 3 4 ;unaware, 2, 85-92 76-7; unskilled,74-6; unwilling, excellent, expectations, 18, 27-8, 34, 67-8 77-9 equity,60 classroom management, 33, 68-9; gettingto knowstudents, 57-8; Foyle,HarveyC., 26 groupbuildingactivities, 59 concluding theexperience, 36-9 Gamer,Tom,94 conferences: beginning, 27; daily, Gardner,Howard,62 30-1; feedback,15-6, 18, 33, Giebelhaus, Carman,3 40, 75-6; final, 39; formative, Italic numbersindicatepageswith tables.

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CHAPTER #

interviewing: questions, 10; students, 29-30; student teacher,10 Justen, Joseph E., 111, 91 knowingstudents, 57-9 Kouzes,JamesM., 11 Lyman,Lawrence,16,26 Mannisto,Paivi,86 materials thatmaybe helpfulto the student teacher, 3 McJunkin,Mark, 91 Morehead, MichaelA., 26, 36 multipleintelligences, 62-4 observation skills,29 Peltokallio,Liisa,86 planning: instructional, 2 5 4 , 31 planningandsequencing, 2, 23-40 positiveregard,18-20 Posner, BarryZ., 11 principal:allocating resources, 94-5; benefitsof student teachers, 94; selecting mentorteachers, 95-7; selection of student teachers, 98; sharinginformation, 93; supervising, 99-100 principal’s role,2, 93-100 professional development schools, 6

91;clarification, 49-51, 86, 90; communication, 13-1 4, 18-1 9; effectivefeedback,14, 15,7 5 4 ; mentorasmodel,9, 11, 13,69; mentorteacherskills,9; modeling, 24, 69; positive confrontation, 77-8; positive relationships, 20;qualifications, 96; reinforcing, 46-9, 86, 90; remediation, 53476 Slick,SusanK., 94 student learning,46-8, 50; assessment, 104;multiple assessment strategies, 61 supervisory activities: beginning conferences, 27;beginning the experience, 26-31; classroom observation guide,29;midpoint assessment, 33-5; models,41-2

Talvitie,Ulla, 86 timemanagement, 23-5 transition to teacher,34-5; assessing student learning,61, 62;focusing onthestudent, 36,47-8; student learning,47-8

university supervisor: changing theplacement, 81;clarification, 49-5 1; communicating with thesupervisor, 32,77; expectations, 28; firstmeeting, 28; formativeconference, 454; references, 37-8; writingfor interns, providing information to, 33; 38 reinforcing behavior, 48; reflective, 24-5, 36, 51, 54-5, 70, summative conference, 34,454; 76,88-9,94 usingtechnology, 54-5; visitations, 17 sequencing theexperience, 26-33 useof videotape, 36 skillsfor thecooperating teacher: brainstorming, 51-3, 86, 90; Zeichner,Ken,67 buildingtrust,14, 16-17, 34, 52, Zimpher,N., 67

Aboutthe Authors

MichaelA. Moreheadis a professor andassociate deanof theCollege of Education at New MexicoStateUniversity.He is a formersecondary teacher andschooladministrator. Dr. Moreheadcoordinated student teachingprograms for overfourteenyearsfor NorthernArizonaUniversityandEmporiaStateUniversity.Duringthistime,hecoordinated theassignment of over4,000student teachers. LawrenceLyman is a professor andchairof theDepartment of Early Childhood/Elementary TeacherEducation at EmporiaStateUniversity. He is a formerelementary schoolteacherandprincipal.In 1998,hereturnedto the schoolroom in a thirdfourthgradeclassroom in theEmporiaPublicSchools,wherehe servedas a mentorto threestudent teachers. Harvey C. Foyleis a professor in theDepartment of Instructional DesignandTechnology at EmporiaStateUniversity.He is a formerhigh schoolsocialstudies teacheranddepartment chairperson. Hisuniversity experience includescurriculum and instruction, socialstudieseducation,computers andtechnology, aswell asstudent teachersupervision. Specialthanksto Candace J. Sitzer,whoassisted in editing,researchMs. Sitzerhasa ing,andguidingthedevelopment of thismanuscript. master’s degreefromNew MexicoStateUniversityandis employed by theCollegeof Education. Specialthanksalsoto TatianaPachkova, researchassistant in the graduateschoolat EmporiaStateUniversity, 2000-2001.

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