Tsunamiites - Features and Implications (Developments in Sedimentology)

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TSUNAMIITES

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TSUNAMIITES FEATURES AND IMPLICATIONS

Edited by

T. SHIKI Kohata, Uji City Kyoto, Japan

Y. TSUJI University of Tokyo Tokyo, Japan

T. YAMAZAKI Osaka Kyoiku University Osaka, Japan

K. MINOURA Tohoku University Sendai, Japan

Amsterdam • Boston • Heidelberg • London New York • Oxford • Paris • San Diego San Francisco • Singapore • Sydney • Tokyo

Elsevier Radarweg 29, PO Box 211, 1000 AE Amsterdam, The Netherlands Linacre House, Jordon Hill, Oxford OX2 8DP, UK First edition 2008 Copyright # 2008, Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise without the prior written permission of the publisher. Permissions may be sought directly from Elsevier’s Science & Technology Rights Department in Oxford, UK: phone (+44) (0) 1865 843830; fax (+44) (0) 1865 853333; email: permissions@ elsevier.com. Alternatively you can submit your request online by visiting the Elsevier web site at http://elsevier.com/locate/permissions, and selecting Obtaining permission to use Elsevier material. Notice: No responsibility is assumed by the publisher for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods, products, instructions or ideas contained in the material herein. Because of rapid advances in the medical sciences, in particular, independent verification of diagnoses and drug dosages should be made. British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress ISBN: 978-0-444-51552-0 For information on all Elsevier publications visit our website at books.elsevier.com Printed and bound in Italy 08 09 10 11 12 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

CONTENTS

Contributors

xi

1. Introduction: Why a Book on Tsunamiites

1

T. Shiki, K. Minoura, Y. Tsuji, and T. Yamazaki References

2. The Term ‘Tsunamiite’ T. Shiki and T. Yamazaki References

3. Tsunamis and Tsunami Sedimentology

4

5 7

9

D. Sugawara, K. Minoura, and F. Imamura 1. Introduction 2. Generation, Propagation and Quantification 3. Tsunami Sedimentology 4. Concluding Remarks References

4. Bedforms and Sedimentary Structures Characterizing Tsunami Deposits

10 11 20 42 45

51

O. Fujiwara 1. Introduction 2. Differences of Waveforms Between Tsunami- and Storm-Induced Waves 3. Bedforms and Sedimentary Structures Reflecting the Tsunami Waveform 4. Single-Bed Deposits 5. Multiple-Bed Deposits 6. Depositional Model in Shallow Water 7. Conclusions References

5. Sedimentary Characteristics and Depositional Processes of Onshore Tsunami Deposits: An Example of Sedimentation Associated with the 12 July 1993 Hokkaido–Nansei-oki Earthquake Tsunami

52 52 54 54 55 58 59 60

63

F. Nanayama 1. Introduction 2. General Setting

64 65

v

vi

Contents

3. Methods 4. Results 5. Discussion 6. Conclusions Acknowledgements References

6. Deposits of the 1992 Nicaragua Tsunami

69 69 74 77 78 78

81

B. Higman and J. Bourgeois 1. Introduction 2. 1992 Tsunami Deposits Along the Nicaragua Coast 3. Tsunami Deposits Near Playa de Popoyo 4. Grading of the Tsunami Deposits 5. Discussion Acknowledgements Appendix A. Field and Laboratory Protocols References

7. Distribution and Significance of the 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami Deposits: Initial Results from Thailand and Sri Lanka

82 84 88 93 99 101 101 102

105

K. Goto, F. Imamura, N. Keerthi, P. Kunthasap, T. Matsui, K. Minoura, A. Ruangrassamee, D. Sugawara, and S. Supharatid 1. Introduction 2. Localities and Methods of Study 3. Distribution and Significance of the Tsunami Deposits 4. Discussion 5. Conclusion Acknowledgements References

8. Thickness and Grain-Size Distribution of Indian Ocean Tsunami Deposits at Khao Lak and Phra Thong Island, South-western Thailand

106 106 109 119 120 120 121

123

S. Fujino, H. Naruse, A. Suphawajruksakul, T. Jarupongsakul, M. Murayama, and T. Ichihara 1. Introduction 2. Study Areas 3. Impact of the Tsunami 4. Thickness and Grain-Size Distribution 5. Discussion 6. Conclusions Acknowledgements References

124 124 124 126 129 131 131 131

Contents

9. Tsunami Depositional Processes Reflecting the Waveform in a Small Bay: Interpretation from the Grain-Size Distribution and Sedimentary Structures

vii

133

O. Fujiwara and T. Kamataki 1. Introduction 2. Regional Setting 3. Sedimentary Facies of the Tsunami Deposits 4. Grain-Size Distribution of the Tsunami Deposits 5. Discussion 6. Conclusions Acknowledgements References

10. Offshore Tractive Current Deposition: The Forgotten Tsunami Sedimentation Process

134 135 137 139 143 149 150 150

153

A. G. Dawson and I. Stewart 1. Introduction 2. Offshore Traction Linked to Tsunami-Triggered Gravity Flows 3. Discussion 4. Summary References

11. Volcanism-Induced Tsunamis and Tsunamiites

153 155 158 158 159

163

Y. Nishimura 1. Introduction 2. Volcanism-Induced Tsunamis 3. Volcanism-Induced Tsunamiites 4. Discussion and Summary Acknowledgements References

12. Deep-Sea Homogenites: Sedimentary Expression of a Prehistoric Megatsunami in the Eastern Mediterranean

164 164 169 179 181 181

185

M. B. Cita 1. Introduction 2. Deep-Sea Homogenites 3. Discussion 4. Conclusions Acknowledgements References Post Scriptum

186 187 194 199 199 199 201

viii

Contents

13. Tsunami-Related Sedimentary Properties of Mediterranean Homogenites as an Example of Deep-Sea Tsunamiite

203

T. Shiki and M. B. Cita 1. Introduction 2. Setting, Types and Distribution of Homogenites 3. Sedimentary Properties 4. Discussion of Sedimentological Problems 5. Comparison with Other Deep-Sea Tsunamiites 6. Concluding Remarks Acknowledgements Appendix: Reflections on Terminology References

14. Tsunamiites—Conceptual Descriptions and a Possible Case at the Cretaceous–Tertiary Boundary in the Pernambuco Basin, Northeastern Brazil

204 204 206 208 212 213 213 214 214

217

G. A. Albertaõ, P. P. Martins, Jr., and F. Marini 1. Introduction and Previous Studies 2. A Theoretical Approach Towards the Identification of Tsunamiites 3. Methods and Data Analyses 4. Geological Setting of the Study Area 5. Characteristics of the Poty Quarry K/T Boundary 6. The Controversy About the Position of the K/T Boundary 7. Bed D, the Possible Tsunamiite and a Tentative Model 8. Concluding Remarks Acknowledgements References

15. Deep-Sea Tsunami Deposits in the Proto-Caribbean Sea at the Cretaceous/Tertiary Boundary

218 220 225 226 227 234 239 246 246 247

251

K. Goto, R. Tada, E. Tajika, and T. Matsui 1. Introduction 2. Paleogeography of the Proto-Caribbean Sea and Geological Setting of the Study Sites 3. Sedimentary Processes of the Penãlver Formation 4. Comparison of K/T-Boundary Deep-Sea Tsunami Deposits in the Proto-Caribbean Sea 5. Implications for the Genesis and Number of Tsunami Currents at the K/T Boundary 6. Conclusions Acknowledgements References

252 254 255 262 270 272 273 273

Contents

16. The Genesis of Oceanic Impact Craters and Impact-Generated Tsunami Deposits

ix

277

K. Goto 1. 2. 3. 4.

Introduction Morphology of Oceanic Impact Craters The Generation of Tsunamis by Oceanic Impacts Impact-Generated Tsunami Deposits Inside and Outside the Oceanic Impact Craters 5. Distribution and Significance of the K/T-Boundary Tsunami Deposits Around the Chicxulub Crater 6. Significance and Distribution of the K/T-Boundary Tsunami Deposits 7. Summary Acknowledgements References

17. Tsunami Boulder Deposits

278 279 281 283 286 293 294 294 295

299

A. Scheffers 1. Introduction 2. Boulder Movement by Waves and the Storm/Tsunami Threshold for Boulder Dislocation 3. Examples of Tsunami Boulder Deposits Worldwide 4. Dating Tsunami Boulder Deposits 5. Open Questions in Coastal Boulder Transport Acknowledgements References

18. Characteristic Features of Tsunamiites

299 301 305 309 313 313 313

319

T. Shiki, T. Tachibana, O. Fujiwara, K. Goto, F. Nanayama, and T. Yamazaki 1. Introduction 2. Characteristics of Tsunamis and Tsunami Deposition 3. Sedimentary Structures in Tsunamiite Beds 4. Constituents of Tsunamiites 5. Tsunamiite Features in Various Environments 6. Conclusive Remarks Acknowledgements References

19. Sedimentology of Tsunamiites Reflecting Chaotic Events in the Geological Record—Significance and Problems

320 321 327 331 331 336 336 337

341

T. Shiki and T. Tachibana 1. Introduction 2. Tsunamiites as Records of Ancient Events

342 342

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Contents

3. Patterns of Tsunamiite Occurrence in Time 4. Preservation Potential of Tsunamiites 5. Conclusive Remarks and Future Studies Acknowledgements References

346 352 354 354 354

20. Introduction to a Tsunami-Deposits Database

359

B. H. Keating, M. Wanink, and C. E. Helsley 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

Introduction Methodology Database Description and Possible Modifications Categorization Accessibility Collaboration and Reliability The Nature of Tsunami Deposits: Preliminary Findings on Tsunami-Deposit Characteristics 8. Are Tsunami Depositional or Erosional Events? 9. Tsunami Deposits Reflect Availability of Source Material 10. Comparison of Tsunami Deposits and Storm Deposits 11. Locating Tsunami Deposits 12. Ephemeral Nature of the Deposits 13. Offshore Deposits 14. Examples of Database Queries 15. Request for Assistance 16. Conclusions Acknowledgement Appendix: Updated Tsunami-Deposit Database Form References

Bibliography of Tsunamiite

360 361 364 364 368 368 369 370 371 371 373 374 375 375 377 377 378 378 380

383

T. Yamazaki, T. Shiki, K. Minoura, and Y. Tsuji Index

405

CONTRIBUTORS

G. A. Albertaõ* PETROBRAS (UN-BC/ST/CER), Av. Elias Agostinho 665, Ponta da Imbetiba, 27.913-350 Macae´/RJ, Brazil J. Bourgeois Earth and Space Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195 M. B. Cita Dipartimento di Scienze, della Terra ‘Ardito Desio’, Universita` di Milano, Via Mangiagalli, 34, Milano 20133, Italy A. G. Dawson Aberdeen Institute for Coastal Science and Management (AICSM), University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen AB243UE, Scotland S. Fujino† Graduate School of Science, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan O. Fujiwara Active Fault Research Center, National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology (AIST), Central 7, Higashi 1-1-1, Tsukuba 305-8567, Japan K. Goto‡ Department of Earth and Planetary Science, Graduate School of Science, The University of Tokyo, 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-0033, Japan. C. E. Helsley University of Hawaii, HIGP/SOEST, HI 96822, Honolulu B. Higman Earth and Space Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195 T. Ichihara Fukken Co., Ltd., Hiroshima, Japan F. Imamura Tsunami Engineering Laboratory, Disaster Control Research Center, Graduate School of Engineering, Tohoku University, Aoba 06-6-11, Aramaki, Sendai 980-8579, Japan

*Present Address: IFP, Institut Français du Pe´trole, 1 & 4 Ave. de Bois Preau, De´partement de Se´dimentologie/ Stratigraphie (the´sard), T/212, 92500 Rueil-Malmaison, France. { Present Address: Active Fault Research Center, AIST, Tsukuba, Japan. { Present Address: Tsunami Engineering Laboratory, Disaster Control Research Center, Graduate School of Engineering, Tohoku University, Aoba 6-6-11, Aramaki, Sendai 980-8579, Japan.

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Contributors

T. Jarupongsakul Faculty of Science, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, Thailand T. Kamataki Active Fault Research Center, National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology (AIST), Central 7, Higashi 1-1-1, Tsukuba 305-8567, Japan B. H. Keating University of Hawaii, HIGP/SOEST, HI 96822, Honolulu N. Keerthi Deepwell Drilling Technologies (PVT) Ltd., 223 Nawala Road, Narahenpita, Colombo 05, Sri Lanka P. Kunthasap Department of Mineral Resources, Environmental Geology Division, Rama VI Road Ratchtawi, Bangkok 10400, Thailand F. Marini Ecole Nationale Polytechnique de Geologie–ENSG. Institut National Polytechnique de Lorraine–INPL. CNRS/CRPG Centre de Recherches Petrographyques et Geochimiques. Rue du Doyen M. Roubault, BP40. 54501 Vandoeuvre-les-Nancy Cedex, France P. P. Martins, Jr. Universidade Federal de Ouro Preto, Depto. de Geologia, Campus do Morro do Cruzeiro 35.400-000, Ouro Preto/MG, and CETEC, Av. J.C. da Silveira 2000, Horto 31170-000 Belo Horizonte, Brazil T. Matsui Department of Complexity Science and Engineering, Graduate School of Frontier Science, The University of Tokyo, 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyoku, Tokyo 113-0033, Japan K. Minoura Department of Earth Sciences, Division of Geoenvironmental Science, Tohoku University, Aramaki, Aoba, Sendai 980-8578, Japan; Institute of Geology and Paleontology, Graduate School of Science, Tohoku University, Aramaki, Aoba, Sendai 980-8578, Japan M. Murayama Center for Advanced Marine Core Research, Kochi University, Kochi, Japan F. Nanayama Institute of Geology and Geoinformation, National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology (AIST), Central 7, Higashi 1-1-1, Tsukuba 305-8567, Japan H. Naruse} Graduate School of Science, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan

}

Present Address: Department of Earth Sciences, Faculty of Science, Chiba University.

Contributors

xiii

Y. Nishimura Institute of Seismology and Volcanology, Hokkaido University, Kita-10, Nishi-8, Kita-ku, Sapporo 060-0810, Japan A. Ruangrassamee Department of Civil Engineering, Chulalongkorn University, Phayathai Road, Patumwan, Bangkok 10330, Thailand A. Scheffers Department of Geography, Duisburg-Essen-University, Universita¨tsstrasse 15, D-45117 Essen, Germany T. Shiki 15-8, Kitabatake Kohata, Uji-city, Kyoto 611-0002, Japan I. Stewart School of Earth, Ocean and Environmental Science, University of Plymouth, Plymouth PL4 8AA, England D. Sugawara Institute of Geology and Paleontology, Graduate School of Science, Tohoku University, Sendai 980-8578, Japan S. Supharatid Natural Disaster Research Center, Rangsit University, 52/347 Muang-Ake, Phaholyothin Road, Lak-Hok, Pathumtani 12000, Thailand A. Suphawajruksakul Faculty of Science, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, Thailand T. Tachibana Research Organization for Environmental Geology of Setouchi, c/o Suzuki Office, Okayama University, Okayama, Japan R. Tada Department of Earth and Planetary Science, Graduate School of Science, The University of Tokyo, 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-0033, Japan E. Tajika Department of Earth and Planetary Science, Graduate School of Science, The University of Tokyo, 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-0033, Japan Y. Tsuji Institute of Seismology, University of Tokyo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-0032, Japan M. Wanink University of Hawaii, HIGP/SOEST, HI 96822, Honolulu T. Yamazaki 2-1-16-1009, Kita-midorigaoka, Toyonaka, Osaka 560-0001, Japan


C H A P T E R

O N E

Introduction: Why a Book on Tsunamiites T. Shiki,* K. Minoura,† Y. Tsuji,‡ and T. Yamazaki}

Key Words: Tsunamiites, Tsunami deposits, Tsunami, Sediments, Sedimentology. ß 2008 Elsevier B.V.

The purpose of the present volume is to overview the state-of-the art in tsunamiite sedimentology and to point out any problems and subjects that need additional investigation, as well as to provide an insight into the direction and potential for future researches. Tsunamiite sedimentation has found its way into the area of modern coastal tsunami research so as to provide information about tsunami run-up for use in disaster prevention. In addition, the study of recent tsunami deposits has induced research in tsunami-induced or -related sediments from the geological past. This volume deals with both topics and tries to place them in the framework of the entire field of geosciences. How terrible the December 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami disaster was! Everybody now realizes the importance of the study of tsunamis and tsunami disasters. The need to study about tsunamiites and the need to publish reports of the recent progress in tsunamiite studies have also been recognized. Most pre-1990 researches on tsunami deposits were focused on the recognition of run-up height, inundation limit and particularly finding recurrent interval times of coastal on-surge tsunamis. Now, however, tsunamiite sedimentology has developed a much wider interest as is demonstrated in this volume. As stressed by Shiki et al. (2000), catastrophic events as well as various other patterns of time-series changes in nature, including gentle evolution and rhythmic change, are important subjects in the geosciences for understanding the whole truth of natural phenomena and history of the Globe (Earth). In fact, the analysis of tsunamis and their sediments, resulting from meteorite impact, has raised general interest in the past 10 years. Earthquakes and the resulting tsunamis are also remarkable examples of chaotic events that occurred in the geological past, as has been brought into light in the past several years. It seems that the study of tsunamiites is more difficult than that of other event deposits. Many people want to be informed about criteria for recognizing * {

{ }

15-8, Kitabatake Kohata, Uji-city, Kyoto 611-0002, Japan Department of Earth Sciences, Division of Geoenvironmental Science, Tohoku University, Aramaki, Aoba, Sendai 980-8578, Japan Institute of Seismology, University of Tokyo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-0032, Japan 2-1-16-1009, Kita-midorigaoka, Toyonaka, Osaka 560-0001, Japan

Tsunamiites—Features and Implications DOI: 10.1016/B978-0-444-51552-0.00001-1

#

2008 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

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tsunamiites from the remote geological past and from the prehistoric times. However, such criteria have not yet been established. This is the most important reason for publishing this book. In this volume, we intend to provide and discuss some instances of new information about how to create a systematic procedure for reading the sedimentary records of tsunamis induced by earthquakes, submarine slide, volcanic eruption and meteorite impact. For the purpose of this discussion, however, general characteristics of tsunamis must first be sufficiently understood. Some important characteristics of tsunamis that cause particular features in tsunami-induced and -reworked sediments are explained first in the chapter presented by Sugawara and others. Next, several papers follow concerning sedimentary records of onshore and/or inundated inland tsunamis also discussing their significances. Among the contributions, a few report on the sediments generated by the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami. Studies of shallow sea tsunami deposits are represented by only a few papers written with the contribution of Fujiwara and Kamataki, but the importance of these studies is emphasized in the review chapters by Shiki and Tachibana and by Keating and others. All the above contributions are primarily concerned with seismic tsunamiites. The significance of studies of bedforms and sedimentary structures in tsunamiites is discussed by Fujiwara. Tsunamis and tsunamiites induced by submarine or coastal slumps are mentioned very briefly in a few contributions. A tsunamiite directly generated by volcanic eruption is dealt with one contribution (by Nishimura) only. However, the Mediterranean homogenites that were induced by the collapse of continental-shelf sediments due to a gigantic volcanic eruption in the Minoan age are examined in two contributions. These sediments provide an interesting example of some special features of deep-sea tsunamiites. Deep-sea tsunami deposits are also dealt in another contribution which reports on the K/T boundary tsunamiite. In addition, there are two more contributions that discuss the K/T boundary meteorite impact-induced tsunamiites. Several contributions, including a few of the above, discuss and present ideas concerning the characteristic sedimentary records of tsunamis. Dawson and Stwart point out the forgotten important role of offshore current deposition for tsunamiite deposition. Scheffers supplies new information on tsunami-derived boulder deposits. The significance of studies on tsunamiites in the geological past is illustrated in one chapter (by Shiki and Tachibana). Shiki and others describe and discuss the characteristic features of various tsunamiites that are helpful in establishing criteria for distinguishing between the various genetic types of tsunamiites. Finally, the serial papers, the ‘Tsunami Deposits Data Base’ from Hawaii University is kindly presented. In addition, a bibliography with books, articles and reports on tsunamiites, is presented which can facilitate tsunamiite studies by both students and researchers. We hope that the information and discussions provided in this volume will help those who wish to answer the question of ‘what are the characteristic sedimentological features of the many kinds of tsunamiites that need to be observed and described’. We also hope that it will encourage new developments in the study of tsunamiites and other event deposits.

Introduction

3

We are aware that much more research is needed to significantly increase our understanding of the processes that lead to the formation of various types of tsunamiites in different environments. While browsing through the bibliography on tsunamiites, the readers may get the impression that tsunamiites have neither yet been studied from every possible point of view nor they have been studied in the remote areas of our planet. This holds certainly if the tsunamiite studies are compared with those of turbidites, as described and analysed by Bouma and many others (Bouma, 1962; Bouma and Brouwer, 1964). In addition, our interpretation and discussion may be challenged. The illustrations and discussions provided in this volume should, however, be considered as a stimulus and a starting point for future field and laboratory researches. This volume was first planned in 2003. Most of the manuscripts were submitted first earlier than the end of 2005. The completion of this volume, however, has caused wear and tear to the editors and some contributors. Many of the manuscripts were revised several times and some were even more times. And it took more than four years to accomplish writing, compiling and editing the manuscripts. Unexpected problems including the ‘university crisis’ in Japan were found to be considerable obstacles to our work. In addition, the terrible December 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami kept editors and some contributors dreadfully busy for a long time. On the other hand, tsunamiite sedimentology spread widely and made remarkable progress and development during these period. The Indian Ocean tsunami particularly provided a lot of research objects, subjects and new information for tsunamiite sedimentology. Thus, the resulting delay in the publication of this volume should not be seen as a negative aspect only. On the contrary, we actually had more chance and time to obtain and include a lot of new insights, knowledge, and results of discussions in our book. Nevertheless, it is clear that some of the contributors who submitted their views and research results early were victims. We owe them an apology. Each paper has been critically evaluated by at least two scientists as well as by the editors. Many valuable improvements resulted from their comments. The reviewers are listed below. K. Chinzei, J. Clague, K. Giles, C. Goldfinger, D. S. Gorsline, C. B. Jaffe, G. Jones, D. King, S. Kiyokawa, F. Kumon, W. Maejima, F. Masuda, H. Okada, G. Prasetya, J. Schnyder, K. Suzuki and R. Walker. Several other reviewers preferred to remain anonymous. In addition, some contributors of this volume were asked to review manuscripts for the volume. We, the editors, would like to thank all those reviewers of the manuscripts whole heartedly. We are thankful to Hatsuko Shiki, to our colleagues in tsunamiite sedimentology, F. Nanayama, O. Fujiwara, K. Goto, T. Tachibana and to our friends R. Doba, J. Ross, D. Mcmillian for their help and cooperation. We, the volume editors, are greatly indebted to A. J. van Loon, the series editor of Developments in Sedimentology for his ever-abounding enthusiasm in critical reading of the manuscripts and his many helpful suggestions throughout the task. We would also thank F. Wallien, J. Bakker, L. Versteeg-buschman and others of Elsevier Publication Co., for their patience and support.

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REFERENCES Bouma, A. H. (1962). Sedimentology of Some Flysch Deposits. A Graphic Approach to Facies Interpretation. pp. 164. Elsevier, Amsterdam. Bouma, A. H., and Brouwer, A. (Eds.). (1964). Turbidites. pp. 264. Elsevier, Amsterdam. Shiki, T., Cita, M. B., and Gosline, D. S. (2000). Sedimentary features of seismites, seismo-turbidites and tsunamiites—An introduction. Sedim. Geol. 135, vii–ix.

C H A P T E R

T W O

The Term ‘Tsunamiite’ T. Shiki* and T. Yamazaki†

Key Words: Tsunamiite, Tsunami, deposit, Sediment, Sedimentology, Scientific term. ß 2008 Elsevier B.V.

We are aware that the term ‘Tsunamiite’ is new to many readers who have not worked on the sediments. We want to explain here the history of proposal and definition of the term ‘tsunamiite’. According to ‘Georef f ’, the oldest reference of ‘tsunamiite’ is by a Chinese author Gong-Yiming in 1988 (Shanmugan, personal communication). We have also heard that someone used the word ‘tsunamiite’, though without a clear definition at some earlier time. The word ‘tsunamite’ was used by Yamazaki et al. (1989) to describe the Miocene tsunami-worked boulder sediments in an upper bathyal environment in central Japan. Through the kind advice of Professor Ales Smith of England, the wrong spelling of the term was revised as ‘Tsunamiite’ in Shiki and Yamazaki (1996). At that time, it was stated that the term ‘tsunamiite’ should be used not only for the sediments transported by a tsunami itself but also for the sediments transported and deposited by a tsunami-induced current. It was also pointed out that the term is defined essentially based on a threshold mechanism just like the cases of ‘tempestites’ and ‘seismites’. By contrast, the term ‘turbidites’ (deposits transported by turbidity currents) does not indicate anything about the trigger mechanism which caused the transport of these sediments. Moreover, Shiki and Yamazaki (1996) also proposed that the term ‘tsunamiite’ could be used in a slightly wider sense than the word ‘tsunami deposit’ (or ‘tsunami sediment’). ‘Tsunami-worked deposit’ (including tsunami-reworked deposits) or ‘tsunami-worked sediment’ (including tsunamireworked sediment) has almost the same meaning as ‘tsunamiite’. And because of the initiation mechanism and the following effect by tsunami during the flow downslope and the plume up of the fine-grained sediments, the so-called Mediterranean homogenite can be included in the term ‘tsunamiite’. On the contrary, a kind of homogenite [‘B-type (mega)-turbidite’] is a kind of ‘sediment gravity flow deposit’ and can be called a ‘turbidite’ in a wide sense by some researchers.

* {

15-8, Kitabatake, Kohata, Uji-city, Kyoto 611-0002, Japan 2-1-16-1009, Kita-midorigaoka, Toyonaka, Osaka 560-0001, Japan


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Some objections against the use of the term ‘tsunamiite’ may arise from two different viewpoints. 1. Some researchers are of the opinion that any interpretive names for sediments are to be avoided because interpretations may change and different people may have different interpretations. They consider the history of the interpretive term ‘turbidite’ as an example—even 50 years after the term had been invented, people are still arguing about certain examples. We believe, however, that the confusion about the interpretation is caused fundamentally by the difficulty of correct and reliable identification as a result of still insufficient investigation rather than by terminology. There have, actually, been numerous interpretive terms used in geology just like in other natural sciences and in the social sciences, for example, tsunami deposits, seismite, storm deposits, tempestite, tidal deposit, debris-flow deposits, pyroclastic sediment, welded tuff, subduction slab, back-arc basin and so on. There are, to be more precise, different types of interpretative terms even if only sedimentology is considered. They are based on the following: (1) sort of external agencies, such as tsunamiites, tempestites and current ripples; (2) state of transportation mechanism such as turbidites, debris-flow deposits, density–current deposits and (3) the settings or environments such as onshore tsunamiites, bathyal sediments, trench deposits and so on. Earth scientists who are against a terminology based on interpretation should answer the question: ‘Do you also deny the use of the terms ‘‘storm deposits’’, ‘‘subduction slab’’, etc. which are obviously based on interpretation?’ 2. Another more reasonable objection could be that some people prefer the classical term ‘tsunami deposit’ rather than ‘tsunamiite’, and that they consider the term ‘tsunamiite’ is synonymous with ‘tsunami deposit’. The present authors are, however, aware that the term ‘tsunami deposit’ has been used commonly only for coastal uprush tsunami deposit. There are, however, various tsunami-related deposits in other environments. The upper bathyal tsunami-worked sediments in Japan, the Mediterranean homogenites mentioned above and the Cretaceous/ Tertiary boundary deep-sea tsunamiites are the examples that ought to be included in the term ‘tsunamiites’. We have one more reason to propose the use of the term ‘tsunamiite’, though it is not essential. For example, the term ‘Middle Miocene upper bathyal tsunamiinduced current conglomeratic deposit’ can be used to indicate only one single deposit. Obviously, this term is far too long. The present authors think that even the contraction of only one word is more appropriate in this case. There are many more terminological aspects that might deserve discussion here. However, further philosophical discussion is out of the scope of this contribution. We intend only to state that the term ‘tsunamiite’ is appropriate and useful.

The Term ‘Tsunamiite’

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REFERENCES Shiki, T., and Yamazaki, T. (1996). Tsunami-induced conglomerates in Miocene upper bathyal deposits, Chita Peninsula, central Japan. Sediment. Geol. 104, 175–188. Yamazaki, T., Yamaoka, M., and Shiki, T. (1989). Miocene offshore tractive current-worked conglomerates—Tsubutegaura, Chita Peninsula, central Japan. In ‘‘Sedimentary Facies and the Active Plate Margin’’ (A. Taira and M. Masuda, eds.), pp. 483–494. Terra Publication, Tokyo.


C H A P T E R

T H R E E

Tsunamis and Tsunami Sedimentology D. Sugawara,* K. Minoura,* and F. Imamura† Contents 10 11 11 15 18 20 21 26 31 38 42 45

1. Introduction 2. Generation, Propagation and Quantification 2.1. Generation of tsunamis 2.2. Propagation of tsunamis 2.3. Quantification of tsunamis 3. Tsunami Sedimentology 3.1. The mechanics of sediment transport 3.2. Characteristics of tsunami deposits 3.3. A review of onshore tsunami sedimentation 3.4. The occurrences of tsunamis and tsunamiites 4. Concluding Remarks References

Abstract Tsunamis are one of the most catastrophic wave motions, which cover a large parts of the sea and behave intricately especially in coastal zones. Studies on tsunami sedimentology have revealed that tsunamis induce various types of sedimentation in marine, lacustrine and onshore environments. Tsunami deposits are sedimentological evidence of tsunami events. This contribution describes the nature of tsunamis and of tsunami sedimentation as an introduction to this volume. Hydrodynamic aspects are introduced to explain the propagation of tsunamis. The diversity of tsunami deposits is illustrated on the basis of literature data. Onshore tsunami sedimentation is discussed in particular. Tsunami sedimentation appears to depend on the hydrodynamic and hydraulic character of the tsunami. The distribution pattern, grain-size variation and many other sedimentological structures reflect the characters of the tsunami such as the height, current velocity and period. Therefore, tsunami sedimentation should be interpreted based on careful consideration of the characteristics of tsunamis. This may result in a reliable reconstruction of ancient tsunami events. Key Words: Tsunamis, Tsunami propagation, Tsunami sedimentology, Tsunami deposit, Onshore tsunami sedimentation. ß 2008 Elsevier B.V. * {

Institute of Geology and Paleontology, Graduate School of Science, Tohoku University, Aramaki, Aoba, Sendai 980-8578, Japan Tsunami Engineering Laboratory, Disaster Control Research Center, Graduate School of Engineering, Tohoku University, Aoba 06-6-11, Aramaki, Sendai 980-8579, Japan


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1. Introduction Tsunamis belong to the most catastrophic oceanic wave motions; they form due to the processes that result in shock waves, such as submarine earthquakes and slides, volcanic activity and asteroid impacts. The mechanisms of the wave excitation give tsunamis the character of long waves, which is associated with the characteristic processes of tsunami propagation. In the case of a large-scale event, tsunamis become a giant surge of several tens of metres high near the coast. Tsunamis and related phenomena have attracted much social and scientific attention, since tsunamis frequently cause devastation of coastal areas, resulting in loss of human life and property and damage to ecosystems. Geological investigations of tsunamis started in the 1960s, after the 1960 Chilean earthquake tsunami that attacked the coasts of Chile and Japan. Kon’no (1961) discovered that the tsunami deposited layers of marine sand and silt on the Pacific coast of north-east Japan. Wright and Mella (1963) found that a veneer of sand covered the alluvial plain of south-central Chile after the tsunami incursion. Both research groups reported that the coastal topography was dramatically altered due to the tsunami. Severe erosion of sandbars and sandpits was observed on both the Chilean and the Japanese coasts. Since then, tsunamis have been known as the agents of erosion and the deposition in coastal environments. Early works on tsunami sedimentology have increased the understanding of the genesis of these deposits. For example, Minoura and Nakaya (1991) have modelled tsunami sedimentation based on the observation of the 1983 Japan Sea earthquake tsunami. They suggested that traces of a tsunami invasion can be preserved as tsunami deposits in the sedimentary succession of, for example, coastal flats, marshes and lakes. They reconstructed a history of ancient tsunami events in north-east Japan based on the tsunami deposits identified within lacustrine successions. The risks of tsunamis for the coast of the North Sea have been discussed on the basis of prehistoric tsunami deposits along the coast of Scotland (Dawson et al., 1988; Long et al., 1990). The major purpose of tsunami sedimentology is to identify historic and earlier tsunami events and to reconstruct these tsunami invasions. Ancient geological events that caused tsunamis, particularly volcanic eruptions and asteroid impacts, can be better understood by interpreting the resulting tsunami deposits. Estimation of the recurrence interval and magnitude of ancient tsunamis is an important subject, particularly from the standpoint of risk assessment. Geomorphological interest may focus on the clarification of the role of tsunamis in coastal zones, such as the development of coastal topography. In this context, many tsunami deposits have been studied from various aspects. Descriptions of tsunami deposits show a wide diversity of tsunami deposits. This includes variations in the distribution pattern, grain-size composition and sedimentary facies. For example, onshore tsunami deposits are typically composed of a sheet of well or poorly sorted sand (e.g. Dawson et al., 1988). On the other hand, an accumulation of conglomerates, ranging from pebbles to boulders, is a different type of tsunami deposit (e.g. Kato et al., 1988; Moore, 2000). The intricate behaviour of tsunami run-up and backwash in various sedimentary environments may be

Tsunamis and Tsunami Sedimentology

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responsible for the various variations. The diversity frequently causes a problem in the identification of tsunami deposits and even in their recognition. There are no obvious criteria available for identification, and there are no simple procedures for the interpretation either. Only an understanding of the nature of tsunamis may provide an appropriate interpretation of tsunami sedimentation. This contribution describes the nature of tsunamis and the characteristics of tsunami deposits as an introduction to this volume. The nature of tsunamis is described from their hydrodynamic aspects. The characteristics of tsunami deposits described here are based on numerous works, in order to illustrate their diversity. Onshore tsunami sedimentation is discussed in particular.

2. Generation, Propagation and Quantification Tsunamis are a transient wave motion in oceans or enclosed basins generated by a variety of phenomena, of which atmospheric (meteorologic) phenomena are excluded. When a particular external force disturbs an oceanic or lacustrine area, a mass of water is forced to move temporarily. The displacement of the water mass propagates outwards as a wave motion. Such a wave is characterized as a large wavelength that depends on the dimensions of the wave source, which is proportional to the magnitude of the external force. The large wavelength is responsible for the characteristic behaviour of the wave. For example, the typical height of a wave in the deep sea is only several tens of centimetres. However, once the wave arrives at the shallow sea, the height grows precipitously. In some cases, a wave reaching the coast becomes a giant surge of several tens of metres in height. The giant wave finally runs up on the land and frequently has a huge impact on the coastal environment. These processes of wave generation, propagation, run-up and, in addition, backwash together define a ‘tsunami’. ‘Tsunami’ means ‘harbour wave’ in Japanese. This name originates from the observation that the tsunamis are usually not distinct in deep water, but surge deeply on the coast, especially bays and harbours, causing severe damage. ‘Seismic sea wave’ is often used instead of ‘tsunami’ because most tsunamis are associated with earthquakes. Tsunami that places emphasis on coastal behaviour is a more appropriate name than seismic sea wave, however, because tsunamis can also result from non-seismic triggers. In the following text, a summarized review is presented of the cause and effect of tsunamis, referring to several typical or famous examples. After that, we briefly discuss the hydrodynamics of tsunamis. Definitions of physical parameters that measure a tsunami are noted at the end of this chapter.

2.1. Generation of tsunamis Subaqueous earthquakes and slides are major triggers; volcanic activity and asteroid impacts are occasional factors. Tsunamis can be classified into four types, according to their cause.

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2.1.1. Earthquake-induced tsunamis The occurrence of a submarine earthquake is explained by plate tectonics, the theory that is based on an earth model characterized by numerous lithospheric plates. Viscous underlayers on which lithospheric plates float are called the ‘asthenosphere’. These plates that cover the entire surface of the earth and contain both the continents and sea floor move relative to each other at the rates of up to 10 cm per year. The region where two plates are in contact is called a ‘plate boundary’, and the way in which one plate moves relative to another determines the type of boundary: divergent, where the two plates move apart from each other; convergent, where the two plates move towards each other; and transform, where the two plates slide horizontally past each other. Convergent boundaries commonly form subduction zones with deep ocean trenches in which one plate slides underneath the other. This type of plate boundary is especially important from the viewpoint of tsunami study. Submarine earthquakes triggered 9 of 10 tsunamis over the past 200 years (Imamura, 1996), and almost all of these earthquakes occurred in subduction zones along the plate boundaries. The Pacific Rim is a critical tsunami hazard region because of the many subduction zones in the region. Recently, the worst tsunami catastrophe in human history occurred. The Indian Ocean tsunami on 26 December 2004, triggered by the M9.3 Sumatra earthquake, struck the coastal areas of the countries around the Indian Ocean. The epicentre of the earthquake was located on the Sunda Trough, where the Indian–Australian plate slides beneath the Eurasian plate. The shallow focal depth of 10 km and the total fault length of 1500 km as a tsunami source may be responsible for the significant development of—and the extensive damage caused by—the tsunami. Field investigations of the tsunami reported an average tsunami height of 10 m along the surrounding coast of the Indian Ocean, and the maximum tsunami height exceeded 30 m in the north of Sumatra Island. The total number of victims and missing people due to the earthquake and the tsunami was estimated to be around 300,000. It is reported that the tsunami was observed even in Antarctica and the western coast of the United States, still having a height of several tens of centimetres. The tsunami induced characteristic sedimentation in the coastal areas of the Indian Ocean. Some preliminary results of geological and sedimentological investigations are presented in this book, and a few specific aspects are dealt with in this chapter. Not all earthquakes generate tsunamis. To generate a tsunami, the fault plane must be near or just beneath the sea floor, and must cause vertical displacement of the sea floor up to several metres over a large area, up to 100,000 km2. Shallowfocus earthquakes, with a focal depth of less than 70 km, along subduction zones are responsible for most large-scale tsunamis. 2.1.2. Tsunamis induced by submarine sliding Earthquakes and volcanic temblors often accompany landslides and submarine slides. Even a relatively small earthquake can induce slumping of a coastal landform and liquefaction of the sea bottom, and the consequent massive movement of sediment. Submarine slides occur especially where huge piles of unstable sediment build up. The immediate trigger of a slide may be a small earthquake or new sediment


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supplied by a river. A sudden change in sea-bottom topography may also trigger a tsunami; therefore, submarine slides are considered to be one of the possible sources of several tsunami events. Recent catastrophic tsunami events on Flores Island (1992), Skagway (1994), Papua New Guinea (1994) (Keating and McGuire, 2000; Tappin et al., 1999) and Turkey (1999) have significantly increased the scientific interest in submarine slides and slide-induced tsunamis. The dimensions of the seabottom disturbance of submarine slides are usually much smaller than those of seismic sea-bottom displacement. Thus, the typical wavelength of the tsunamis generated by a submarine slide is also smaller. This may give the tsunami a particular feature, which is the peaked distribution of the tsunami height at a specific part of the coastline (Bardet et al., 2003). The breakdown of gas hydrates is another possible cause of submarine slides. Gas hydrates are ice-like solids composed of water and gas. Hydrates can exist only under certain temperatures and pressures. For example, methane hydrates are found under the temperature and pressure conditions that correspond to near and just beneath the sea floor, with a water depth of 300–500 m, and the hydrates can exist up to depths of about 3000 m below the ocean floor. Many large gas-hydrate fields have been identified worldwide in recent marine sediments. Earthquakes and drops in sea level during glacials may trigger the decomposition of gas hydrates. As the hydrates fall apart into water and gas, they are likely to disturb an enormous volume of sea-bottom sediment (megaturbidite; e.g. Rothwell et al., 1998). The Storegga slides on the continental slope off western Norway are a typical example. Three major slide events have been identified as responsible for the Storegga slide deposits (Bugge et al., 1987; Jansen et al., 1987). The total volume of sediment involved in the slides was 3880 km3 for the first slide and 1700 km3 for the second and third slides. The age of the first slide has been estimated to be more than 30,000 years, and the second and last slides occurred between 8000 and 5000 BP. Seismic activity in the neighbouring area of the slide is considered to have been the trigger of the second Storegga slide. In addition, the decomposition of gas hydrates due to seismic activity might have resulted in the liquefaction of sediment and a submarine slide. Jansen et al. (1987) suggested that a large-scale ‘hydraulic effect’ (in fact, this may mean a large-scale tsunami) could have been induced as a consequence of the massive movement of sediment. Geological evidence of a large-scale tsunami, corresponding in age to that of the second Storegga slide (7000 BP), has been found in the coastal flats of Scotland (Dawson et al., 1988; Long et al., 1989, 1990) and the coastal lakes of western Norway (Bondevik et al., 1997). 2.1.3. Volcanism-induced tsunamis Explosive eruptions of a volcanic island or submarine volcano involve the generation of tsunamis, although few historical examples exist. Human beings have experienced devastating tsunami disasters originating from such volcanic eruptions at least twice: after the eruptions of (1) Thera (Santorini) in the Aegean Sea during the late Bronze Age and (2) the Krakatau in the Sunda Sea in 1883. For example, the 26–27 August 1883 volcanic explosion of the Krakatau caused two-thirds of the island to disappear under the sea and triggered a tsunami of 37 m high. The waves raised large ships to 10 m above sea level and carried them as far as 3 km inland. The tsunami struck more

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than 250 villages in western Java and eastern Sumatra, and about 36,000 people lost their lives (Beget, 2000). Although the generation of this volcanic tsunami is complicated and still controversial, its origin has been associated with the formation of an extensive submarine caldera, the discharge of pyroclastic flows into the sea and a submarine explosion due to the interaction of magma and sea water (e.g. Nomanbhoy and Satake, 1995; Self and Rampino, 1981; Sigurdsson et al., 1991). Several mechanisms of volcanic activity are involved in the generation of tsunamis, although precise physical models and direct observations of the interactions and processes are not yet available in full detail. An explosive eruption may lead to the loss of support of a volcanic cone by the magma chambers below the cone, resulting in a sudden collapse of the cone and the formation of a submarine caldera. Large masses of sea water surrounding the volcano rush into the caldera and the sea water finally overflows as a tsunami. Pyroclastic flows and debris avalanches also generate impulse waves as they enter a sea or lake by displacing huge volumes of water. Data from recent studies revealed that volcanic debris avalanches cause tsunamis (e.g. Maramai et al., 2005a; Nishimura and Miyaji, 1995). The impact of tsunamis from volcanic debris avalanches is quite significant in some cases; the origins of several historical tsunami disasters with large numbers of casualties are associated with the discharge of volcanic debris avalanches into the sea (Beget, 2000). In addition, it is suggested that tsunamis are also generated by submarine slides of vast edifices of lavas on the weak substrate of oceanic sediment around volcanic islands (e.g. Maramai et al., 2005a,b). 2.1.4. Tsunamis induced by asteroid impact Since two-thirds of the earth is covered by oceans, asteroid impacts can be a cause of tsunamis. Although some examples are known of tsunamis generated by the impact of a meteorite, the magnitudes of these cases may surpass those of earthquake- or volcanism-induced tsunamis. It is commonly accepted that the impact of a meteorite generated the greatest tsunami in the earth’s history, around the end of the Cretaceous and the beginning of the Tertiary (the K/T) boundary, about 65 million years ago. The diameter of the meteorite is estimated to have been about 10 km, and the collision velocity was probably about 25 km/s (Alvarez et al., 1980). The meteorite hit at Chicxulub on the Yucatan Peninsula, and a giant crater of 180 km in diameter was formed (Hildebrand et al., 1991). The mean sea level during the late Cretaceous was 200 m higher than that at present (Haq et al., 1981). The impact site is considered to have been a shallow-water platform at the time of the impact. The mechanism of tsunami generation by this meteorite impact was probably fairly similar to that of a volcanic tsunami. Sea water surrounding the impact site may have rushed into and flowed out of the 180-km-diameter submarine crater. Seismic waves due to the meteorite impact caused a collapse of the margin of the Yukatan platform and consequent submarine slides. Each process involved the generation of a gigantic tsunami. According to the numerical reconstruction of the K/T tsunami (Fujimoto and Imamura, 1997; Matsui et al., 2002), the tsunami height was calculated as reaching much as 200 m at the North American coast, and the run-up distance from the palaeocoastline was more than 300 km. The tsunami propagated eastward and westward from the point of impact and the two wave fronts

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encountered each other in the Indian Ocean 27 h later. Characteristic sedimentary successions at the K/T boundary, which suggest a strong current oscillation on the deep-sea floor and massive gravity flows of sediment from the continental slope, have been found in north-western Cuba (Kiyokawa et al., 2002; Tada et al., 2002; Takayama et al., 2000), around the Gulf of Mexico (Alvarez et al., 1992; Bourgeois et al., 1988; Smit et al., 1992, 1996) and in north-eastern Brazil (Albertao and Martins, 1996; Stinnesbeck and Keller, 1996).

2.2. Propagation of tsunamis In the deep sea, tsunamis are typically around several tens of centimetres to a few metres in height, and are several tens to hundreds of kilometres in wavelength (‘long wave’). It is therefore difficult to identify the wave form of tsunamis in the open sea. Owing to the properties of long waves, the energy of tsunamis distributes from the bottom to the surface of the sea. As a tsunami approaches the shallow sea, the energy is compressed into a much shorter distance and a much more limited depth, and therefore shows a significant increase of the tsunami height. 2.2.1. Tsunamis in the deep sea Tsunamis have the characteristics of long waves. The definition of a long wave is that the wavelength is large and that the wave height is small compared with the water depth. (It is considered that the wavelength should be 20 times greater than the water depth.) For the large-scale earthquake-induced tsunamis that have significant effects, the area of the sea-bottom displacement must range from tens to hundreds of kilometres, and the vertical displacement of the sea floor must be several metres, while the water depth of the wave source must be several thousands of metres. Thus, tsunamis can be treated as long waves. According to the long-wave approximation, the vertical acceleration of fluid is much slower than the gravity acceleration. Thus, the water pressure is similar to that of still water. Because the pressure does not vary with depth, the horizontal movement does not change with depth either (Fig. 3.1). The motion of a tsunami in the deep sea can be described by linear long-wave equations:

@ @u ¼ h @t @x

ð3:1Þ

@u @ ¼ g @t @x

ð3:2Þ

where is the water elevation relative to the still-water level, h is the water depth, u is the current velocity and g is the gravity acceleration. Here, u can be eliminated by combining the two equations. 2 pffiffiffiffiffi @2 2@ ¼ C ; C ¼ gh @t 2 @x2

ð3:3Þ

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C = gh

1

3

2

5

u

6

4

h

Deep sea

Shallow sea

1

Wave length

4

Run-up distance 5

2

Wave height

Coast 3 Tsunami height

Run-up height 6 Reference sea level

Figure 3.1 Schematic model of tsunami propagation and quantities defining a tsunami.

This equation is a classical one-dimensional wave equation and water elevation, , travels in the x directions at propagation speed C. Thus, the propagation speed of a tsunami depends only on water depth. This is one of the most important characteristics of tsunamis. When a tsunami travels through a sea of 4000 m deep, the propagation speed is around 200 m/s (720 km/h), approximately the speed of a jet plane. Equation (3.3) then becomes.

1 ¼ f1 ðx CtÞ; 2 ¼ f2 ðx þ CtÞ

ð3:4Þ

where both f1 and f2 are arbitrary functions. Equation (3.4) can be substituted into Eqs. (3.1) and (3.2):

u1 ¼

C C f1 ðx CtÞ; u2 ¼ f2 ðx þ CtÞ h h

ð3:5Þ

Therefore, the current velocity, u, is described by the equation:

rffiffiffi g u ¼ h

ð3:6Þ

For instance, when a tsunami with an amplitude of 1 m and a propagation speed of 200 m/s travels through water of 4000 m deep, the current velocity is only 5 cm/s. Although the surface oscillation propagates quickly, the water particles therefore move slowly. The current velocity is uniform throughout the water column, except near the sea bottom. The direction of travelling of a tsunami is affected by the submarine topography because the propagation speed of a tsunami depends only on the water depth. The propagation speed, C, is proportional to the square root of the water depth, so the wave front travels faster in a deeper area than in a shallower area.

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Consequently, the wave front of a tsunami approaches the coast parallel to isobathymetric lines. For this reason, the energy of a tsunami is concentrated on projecting coastal features such as a cape. Tsunamis are reflected by an undulating sea bottom or where the water depth changes sharply, but if the ratio of water depth to wavelength is much larger than the rate of change in the water depth, no reflection occurs. The following inequality represents this condition:

h @h l @x

ð3:7Þ

where l is the wavelength and h is the water depth. Refraction, reflection and, in addition, diffraction of a tsunami often involve an unexpected excitation of wave height, such as around a circular island. 2.2.2. Tsunamis in shallow seas When a tsunami proceeds from a deep sea to a shallow sea, the propagation speed decreases and the current velocity increases. The intervals between wave trains become short and the wave height increases (Fig. 3.1). When the water depth changes from h0 to h, the amplification of the wave is 1=4

Hh1=4 ¼ H0 h0

ð3:8Þ

where H0 and H are the wave heights corresponding to h0 and h, respectively. Equation (3.8) suggests a constant energy transmission of tsunamis and is applicable under the assumption that the wave heights are small compared with the water depth. The energy of the tsunami is concentrated over a much shorter distance and a much shorter water column, and the tsunami will begin to interact significantly with the sea bottom. This phenomenon is referred to as ‘shallow-water deformation’. In this phase, the linear long-wave approximation [Eqs. (3.1) and (3.2)] is no longer applicable. Shallow-water long-wave theory is available for the evaluation of tsunami propagation in shallow seas:

@ @M @N þ þ ¼0 @t @x @y

ð3:9Þ

@M @ M2 @ MN @ gn2 M pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi þ þ gD þ 7=3 M 2 þ N 2 ¼ 0 þ @t @x D @y D @x D

ð3:10Þ

@N @ N2 @ MN @ gn2 N pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi þ þ gD þ 7=3 M 2 þ N 2 ¼ 0 þ @t @y D @x D @y D

ð3:11Þ

where is the water elevation relative to the still-water level, D is the total depth (¼h þ ), g is the gravity acceleration, n is Manning’s relative roughness and M (¼uD)

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and N (¼vD) are the flux of the x and y directions, respectively. Equations (3.10) and (3.11) are a variation of the Navier-Stokes equation, which describes the motion of incompressible viscous fluid. Since they are non-linear partial differential equations, a general solution to the wave height () and the current velocities (u and v) is difficult to obtain, except for particular, simplified cases. The shallow-water long-wave theory is used widely for the numerical modelling of tsunami propagation. When a tsunami enters a bay, harbour resonance is induced. Every bay has its own proper (or resonant) period, according to the geometry of the bay. For example, the resonant period in a rectangular bay with a constant depth is described by the following equation:

4l T* ¼ pffiffiffiffiffi gh

ð3:12Þ

where T* is the resonance period in a rectangular bay, l is the length of the bay, g is the gravity acceleration and h is the water depth at the mouth of the bay. Resonance periods in bays with other shapes can be calculated by Eq. (3.11) with some modification. If the period of the incoming wave is close to the resonance period, an amplification of the wave takes place (harbour resonance). The amplification factors of harbour resonance in bays with various shapes can be calculated analytically (e.g. Kajiura, 1982; Zelt, 1986). According to Kajiura (1982), the amplification factor is larger in V-shaped bays than in rectangular bays, and the factor is larger in bays with a linearly sloping bottom than in bays with a constant depth. Thus, harbour resonance is most significant in V-shaped bays with a linearly sloping depth. The wave height of a wave entering in a V-shaped bay can be amplified four to five times within the bay. This is consistent with observation data from actual events, such as tsunamis on the Pacific coast of north-east Japan, where rias are well developed. Inundation of coastal areas by tsunamis takes place in various forms, such as a gradual increase in sea level by non-breaking waves, tidal bores (like a wall of water) and a surge of breakers. The tsunami height near the coast can reach several tens of metres in the most severe cases. The duration of the water-level rise increases, and the inundation area widens in the just-mentioned order, due to the long-wave characteristics of tsunamis. On a coastal flat, the horizontal extent of inundation perpendicular to the coastline may exceed several hundred metres or even several kilometres. The transgression (run-up) and regression (backwash) of a tsunami are repeated many times with time intervals of several to several tens of minutes. As a result of strong, enduring, repeated currents, the impact on the coastal environment is significant, affecting human life and property, as well as eroding and depositing sediment.

2.3. Quantification of tsunamis Standardized physical parameters are necessary to evaluate and compare tsunami events. Defining the tsunami height, for example, is obvious, while defining tsunami magnitude may be somewhat controversial. The tsunami magnitude evaluates the

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size of a tsunami, and the tsunami intensity evaluates the consequences of the tsunami event from location to location. 2.3.1. Tsunami height The wave height of a tsunami is the amplitude of a tsunami, which is defined by the vertical difference between the wave crest and the wave trough (Fig. 3.1). The tsunami height is defined by the difference between the reference water level (e.g., mean sea level) and the crest or trough of the tsunami (Fig. 3.1). These heights are determined by the records of tidal or tsunami gauges and field investigations after a tsunami event. Note that wave height is not same as tsunami height. 2.3.2. Tsunami period The period of a tsunami is equal to the time required for two successive wave crests to pass a fixed point (Fig. 3.1). Practically, tsunami periods are identified using records from tidal or tsunami gauges installed in particular coastal areas. 2.3.3. Run-up height When a tsunami runs up on land, the height of the trace or run-up is identified by field measurement or interview with eye witnesses. The elevation of a discoloured line on a building or of drift sand on a slope is called the ‘trace height’. The run-up height is the elevation of the most landward point of the inundated area relative to the reference sea level (Fig. 3.1). Note that trace height is generally equivalent to run-up height. Since the sea level changes throughout a day or over days, measured tsunami and run-up heights are corrected according to the tidal data on the corresponding locations. 2.3.4. Tsunami magnitude Like earthquake magnitude, tsunami magnitude is an objective physical parameter that measures energy radiated by the tsunami source and does not reflect the consequences (impact or damage) of the tsunami. Several studies have proposed definitions of tsunami magnitude and the tsunami intensity scale. In case of an earthquake-induced tsunami, the magnitude of the tsunami corresponds to the dimensions of sea-bottom displacement. The dimensions are physical parameters of the fault plane and are in proportion to the magnitude of the earthquake. According to empirical data from observations of earthquake tsunamis, tsunami magnitude m can be defined in an equation as below (Iida, 1963):

m ¼ 2:61M 18:44

ð3:13Þ

where M is the magnitude of an earthquake. The magnitude of a tsunami can also be defined by the tsunami height observed on the coast or measured by a tidal or tsunami gauge. According to the results of previous studies, definitions of tsunami magnitude Mt by tsunami height have the general form:

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Mt ¼ a log H þ b log D þ D

ð3:14Þ

where H is the maximum single amplitude of a tsunami wave (in metres), D is the distance from the earthquake epicentre to the observation site along the shortest oceanic path (in kilometres) and a, b and D are constants (Papadopoulos, 2003). 2.3.5. Tsunami intensity Tsunami intensity is a rather subjective estimate of the macroscopic effects of a tsunami event. Consequently, a tsunami event can be characterized by different tsunami intensities at different locations of the affected area. If we intend to quantify the impact of tsunamis as we do with earthquakes, the intensity of a tsunami should be independent of any physical parameter, and should estimate or evaluate the degree of tsunami impact, such as loss of human life, damage to property and effects on the natural environment. However, there has been confusion between the definition of the magnitude and the intensity of a tsunami. Some tsunami intensity scales are defined according to tsunami height with possible impact, thus providing a definition of tsunami magnitude rather than an intensity scale. In order to avoid such confusion and establish a pure tsunami intensity scale, Papadopoulos and Imamura (2001) proposed an improved and detailed 12-grade tsunami intensity scale.

3. Tsunami Sedimentology A Greek archaeologist, Marinatos (1939), may have been the first person to describe tsunami deposits in his work on deposits related to a Minoan volcanic event in the late Bronze Age, 3700 years ago. He found that the floors of Minoan ruins on Crete were covered by a thick layer of marine sand, on top of which lay a layer of seaborne pumice from Thera (Santorini), and he hypothesized that a destructive tsunami caused by the Thera eruption struck the Aegean Sea coast of Crete. Geologists began to study tsunami sedimentation in the 1960s after the 1960 Chilean earthquake tsunami (Kon’no, 1961; Wright and Mella, 1963). The scientific interest in tsunami sedimentation has been increasing since the 1980s (e.g. Atwater, 1987; Bourgeois and Reinhart, 1989; Bourgeois et al., 1988; Dawson et al., 1988; Kastens, and Cita, 1981; Long et al., 1989; Minoura et al., 1987; Reinhart and Bourgeois, 1987). Substantial investigations have identified tsunami deposits mostly in coastal regions along active margins (Fig. 3.2). Considerable knowledge of tsunami sedimentation and of the characteristics of tsunami deposits has been obtained. Here, we classify tsunami events into two categories according to observation data. 1. Observed tsunamis, of which we have a great deal of data from scientific, instrumental observation. Most modern (from the 1800s to today) tsunami events are included in this category.

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330⬚ 90⬚

0⬚

30⬚

60⬚

90⬚

120⬚

150⬚

180⬚

210⬚

240⬚

270⬚

300⬚

330⬚ 90⬚

60⬚

60⬚

30⬚

30⬚

0⬚

0⬚

−30⬚

−30⬚

−60⬚

−60⬚

−90⬚ 330⬚

Figure 3.2

Earthquake

Slide

Volcano

0⬚

60⬚

90⬚

30⬚

Impact

120⬚

150⬚

180⬚

210⬚

240⬚

270⬚

300⬚

−90⬚ 330⬚

Reference map of tsunami deposits. Modified after Bourgeois and Minoura (1997).

2. Unobserved tsunamis, of which we have less reliable data on magnitude and height. In some cases, even the existence of tsunami events is ambiguous. Almost all historic and prehistoric tsunami events are included in this category. Many geologists have studied sediments deposited by unobserved tsunamis, because ancient sedimentary events are important subjects of geological study. Studies on the tsunami deposits associated with giant submarine slides, volcanic events involved in the possible disruption of ancient civilizations and the large meteorite impact in the late Cretaceous have revealed the nature and interesting consequences of these events. Although geological studies of tsunami layers preserved in stratigraphic sections are informative, tsunami sedimentation cannot be interpreted merely on the basis of the study of unobserved tsunamis. Detailed scientific investigations of sediment transport by observed tsunamis for which the causes and consequences are well known are essential for an understanding of the triggers and thresholds of sediment transport and deposition. Furthermore, sedimentological interpretations of deposits left by observed tsunamis tend to be non-controversial; thus, the results of field investigations of observed tsunamis are fundamental for studies on tsunami sedimentation. This section describes the transport process of sediment, and reviews the sedimentological characteristics of tsunami deposits in subaqueous and subaerial environments, on the basis of previous studies.

3.1. The mechanics of sediment transport Understanding the mechanical process of sediment transport is necessary for discussing tsunami sedimentation. Here, we briefly summarize some basic term and data related to sediment transport by flowing fluid.

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3.1.1. Shear stress and tractive force Due to long-wave characteristics, the horizontal movement of a tsunami is uniform throughout the water column. This means that the current velocity of the tsunami does not change with depth, and thus the current caused by the tsunami propagation may interact with the sea bottom. The current velocity immediately above the sea bottom is retarded due to the friction between the moving fluid and the constituting materials of the sea floor (Fig. 3.3). This forms a thin boundary layer of the fluid adjacent to the sea bottom. The boundary layer behaves as a laminar flow as long as the velocity gradient within the boundary layer is small. In the laminar flow, the directions of the current do not change at any point and there are no disturbances within the boundary layer. The laminar flow of a viscous fluid on the sea floor with a finite surface roughness induces a shear stress. The shear stress is a deforming or potentially deforming force that is set up within the boundary layer. The velocity gradient within the boundary layer, dU/dz, and the dynamic viscosity of fluid, , are related to the shear stress, t0.

t0 ¼

dU dz

ð3:15Þ

The shear stress can be comparable to the tractive force, t, which is a more convenient expression for quantitative evaluation. The following forms are typical expressions of the tractive force:

t ¼ ru2*

ð3:16Þ

t ¼ rCf U 2

ð3:17Þ

or

Sea surface

z

z

Boundary layer Sea floor 0 u Laminar flow

U

0

u

U

Turbulent flow

Figure 3.3 Velocity profile of a long wave. Left: The gradient of the current velocity near the sea floor is moderate and the current state of the boundary layer is laminar. Right: The velocity gradient is steep and the boundary layer becomes turbulent.


23

pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi where r is the density of water, u* t0 =r is the friction speed, t0 ¼ rghI is the shear stress of the sea floor, g is the gravity acceleration, h is the water depth, I is the energy gradient, Cf is the coefficient of frictional resistance and U is the depthaveraged current velocity. Energy gradient I is a function of the current velocity and the surface gradient of the sea. A rough estimation of the tractive force on the deepsea floor induced by tsunami propagation is possible, according to the depthaveraged current velocity provided by Eq. (3.6). Although the tractive force grows in proportion to the second power of current velocity, its effect on a typical tsunami is possibly minor in the deep sea. 3.1.2. Critical condition of sediment transport The tractive force (or shear stress) controls the transport and diffusion of sediment on the sea bottom. A major part of the sediment on the sea bottom may resist movement by the tractive force as long as it does not exceed particular thresholds of transport. The resistance to tractive force comes from the gravitational force acting on sedimentary particles, adherence by pore-water pressure and the electrostatic force of the particles (Friedman et al., 1992). Many analytical and empirical studies have revealed the relationship between current velocity of the boundary layer, particle size and initial transport of the sediment. The results were compiled into diagrams such as the Hjulstro¨m diagram (Fig. 3.4; e.g. Allen, 1986; Friedman, 1992; Sengupta, 1994; Yalin, 1977), which illustrate the threshold of particle motion. According to the Hjulstro¨m diagram, sedimentary particles of fine sand size (2f; 0.25 mm) have a minimum transport velocity (corresponding to the incipient motion of particles) of 2 cm/s and a critical erosion velocity (corresponding to mass transport) of 20 cm/s, while clay- to silt-sized particles have a much higher resistance to currents. The distribution of sediment on the sea bottom is controlled by the physical properties of the particles, the geological configuration of the source on land and the regime of the oceanic current. Due to a higher terminal falling velocity of the particles (see below), sand-sized sediment commonly covers the shallower sea bottom, such as near the coast or around the mouth of a river. On the other hand, clay- to silt-sized sediment has a lower terminal falling velocity and covers the relatively deeper sea bottom. Owing to the deeper distribution and the larger resistance to tractive forces, it is possible that mud on the deep-sea floor is hard to move even at the time of a tsunami. On the other hand, sand-sized particles are sensitive to transport by currents. They are easily entrained into the current and also settle again easily. 3.1.3. Turbulence and terminal falling velocity The linear long-wave approximation of tsunamis does no longer apply when a tsunami arrives in shallow coastal areas (approximately 3 Escarpment of submarine valley ?

?

18

45

>2

0

>150

>67

35

>1

2

Gradual

Gradual

Weakly eroded

? (grain-size gap)

Strongly eroded

No

No

Faint parallel lamination

Strongly eroded (grain-size gap) Parallel lamination

? Deeper

>6 >

>7 >

>10 >

Bidirectional crosslamination ? ?

Bidirectional crosslamination >6 Shallower

Weaker

50 m caused major erosion at the shelf break and on the shelf, and that they transported and re-deposited shelf sediments (Bourgeois et al., 1988). 5.3.2. North-eastern Mexico (the K/T-boundary sandstone complex) After the discovery of the Chicxulub crater, numerous K/T-boundary tsunami deposits have been reported from coastal areas of Mexico and United States (Smit, 1999; Smit et al., 1992, 1996). The deposits that were formed on the ocean bottom around the Gulf of Mexico are characterized by a series of unusual sandstone and siltstone beds, which are called a ‘K/T-boundary sandstone complex’ (Smit et al., 1996). A typical K/T-boundary sandstone complex is present in La Lajilla, Mexico (Fig. 16.7; Smit, 1999; Smit et al., 1996). It is usually several metres thick, and it differs distinctly from the K/T-boundary deposits around the edge of the Yucatań platform by the absence of a thick breccia (Fig. 16.7). According to Smit et al. (1996), the K/T-boundary sandstone complex that is present at neritic to upperbathyal depths around the Gulf of Mexico can be subdivided on the basis of its lithology into three to four units, which are named units 1 to 4, from bottom to top (Fig. 16.7). According to Smit (1999) and Smit et al. (1996), Unit 1 overlies latest Maastrichtian marls with an irregular erosional surface and is characterized by poorly sorted, coarse-grained pebbly sandstones, which are mainly composed of millimetresized altered spherules. Unit 2 consists of a succession of several lenticular sandstone layers made up of a mixture of foraminifers, bioclasts, plant remains and terrestrial matter. The sandstones of unit 2 are graded and show parallel or current-ripple laminae. Unit 2 usually also contains a set of well-sorted lenticular sandstones, with a wide variety of sedimentary structures indicating paleocurrent directions in two opposite directions. Unit 3 consists of strings of fine sand ripples alternating with thin silt layers, and unit 4 is a graded siltstone to mudstone. Units 3 and 4 contain anomalous Ir concentrations and Ni-rich spinels (Smit et al., 1996). Some criticisms about the origin (e.g. Keller et al., 2003) and sedimentary process (e.g. Bohor, 1996) for the K/T-boundary sandstone complex in Mexico still remain. Smit et al. (1996) and Smit (1999) argued against a turbidite origin of the K/Tboundary sandstone complex (Bohor, 1996) based on the following considerations: (1) A relatively thin and lenticular sandstone complex over an area that continues for at least 2000 km is present. Over this entire length, the thickness of the unit varies only between 1 and 3 m. (2) Reversals of currents, as indicated by the opposite orientations of ripple-cross bedding, are common. Such current reversals can hardly be explained in turbidites. (3) There are no turbidites known to occur within the succession of Cretaceous and Palaeocene marls, and the K/T-boundary sandstone complex is unique. Based on these data, Smit et al. (1996) and Smit (1999) interpreted that re-deposition by a series of large, waning tsunami waves is the most likely explanation for the properties of the K/T-boundary sandstone complex. Similar K/T-boundary sandstone complexes have been reported from north-eastern

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Mexico and from Texas and Alabama, United States (King and Petruny, 2004; Lawton et al., 2005; Smit, 1999; Smit et al., 1992, 1996).

5.4. The proto-Caribbean Sea region (DSDP sites, Haiti and Cuba) K/T-boundary tsunami deposits similar to the K/T-boundary sandstone complex in north-eastern Mexico have also been found in western Cuba (the Moncada Formation) (Fig. 16.6; Tada et al., 2002, 2003; see also Goto et al., 2008), indicating that the impact-generated tsunami also propagated to the eastern side of the crater. As discussed in Goto et al. (2008), the K/T-boundary deposits at DSDP sites 536 and 540, which are located 500 and 600 km to the north-east of the centre of the Chicxulub crater and which were formed in the deep sea (Fig. 16.6), also have a thickness and other properties that are similar to those of the K/T-boundary sandstone complex in the Gulf of Mexico (Fig. 16.7). They have been interpreted as deep-sea tsunami deposits (Alvarez et al., 1992; Goto et al., 2008). K/T-boundary tsunami deposits have also been reported from Beloc, Haiti, where the water depth was about 2000 m at the time of the impact (Fig. 16.6; Maurrasse and Sen, 1991). The thickness of the deposits varies from 40 to 70 cm and their lower part consists of impact ejecta (Fig. 16.7). The bed grades upward into fine sand and silt, with low-angle cross-bedding; thin Ir-rich layers occur at the top of the succession (Maurrasse and Sen, 1991). Maurrasse and Sen (1991) interpreted the K/T-boundary deposits in Beloc as tsunami deposits because (1) the thickness of the deposits varies in a lateral direction but its petrographical composition remains constant and (2) there is no laterally changing grain size as seen in turbidites. The Penãlver Formation in north-western Cuba is unusually thick (>180 m) compared to the other K/T-boundary deposits within the Gulf of Mexico and the proto-Caribbean Sea regions (Fig. 16.7; Goto et al., 2008; Tada et al., 2003; Takayama et al., 2000). The lower unit of the Penãlver Formation is 30 m thick and is composed of calcirudites with grains that were derived from a shallow platform of the Cuban volcanic arc. It is considered to have been formed by debris flows triggered by the impact-related seismic wave (Goto et al., 2008; Tada et al., 2003; Takayama et al., 2000). In contrast, the upper unit of >150 m is composed of calcarenites to calcilutites with grains that were derived from hemipelagic to pelagic sediments, suggesting a distinctly different source compared to the lower part. The upper part is considered as having been formed under the influence of a tsunami, based on upward fining, the regional homogeneity of the source material of pelagic to hemipelagic origin and the occurrence of allochthonous material (Goto et al., 2008; Tada et al., 2003; Takayama et al., 2000). As discussed by Goto et al. (2008), the unusual thickness of the Penãlver Formation probably reflects a unique depositional setting. Because the formation was formed on the northern frank of the Cretaceous Cuban Arc which was covered by the Cuban carbonate platform, an impact-induced seismic wave could have generated debris flows from this platform. The sand- to silt-sized particles from the upper slope were probably supplied by repeated backwash currents of the tsunami (Tada et al., 2003). These additional supplies of arc and platform sediments were probably responsible for the unusually thick K/T-boundary deposits.

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K. Goto

The occurrence of K/T-boundary tsunami deposits in the deep sea is still criticized with the main argument that impact-generated tsunamis cannot affect the deep-sea bottom, due to the diminishing power of currents with increasing water depth (e.g. Bohor, 1996). Equation (16.2) proves, however, that the influence of a tsunami does not diminish downwards. Considering that the sedimentary characteristics of the K/T-boundary deposits in Mexico, United States, and Cuba, at DSDP sites 536, and 540, and on Haiti are distinctly different from those of turbidites (Alvarez et al., 1992; Goto et al., 2008; Maurrasse and Sen, 1991; Smit, 1999; Smit et al., 1996; Takayama et al., 2000; Tada et al., 2002, 2003), these deposits likely have been formed by an impact-generated tsunami.

5.5. The Atlantic Ocean Norris and Firth (2002) summarized the sedimentary characteristics of the K/Tboundary deep-sea deposits in the Atlantic Ocean. At Ocean Drilling Program (ODP) site 1049C on the Blake Nose, east of Florida (Fig. 16.6), an 17-cmthick bed of greenish spherules and grey silty ooze with a high Ir content are present (Fig. 16.7; Klaus et al., 2000; Norris et al., 1999). The spherule layer overlies a deformed latest Maastrichtian ooze of several metres to several tens of metres thick. The deformation is interpreted as a result of mass wasting induced by the impact seismic wave (Klaus et al., 2000). The lower part of the bed is faintly laminated and dominated by green spherules of 1–3 mm, accompanied by large Cretaceous planktonic foraminifers, shocked quartz and clasts of limestone and dolomite (Klaus et al., 2000). The presence of faint lamination indicates that minor reworking occurred during and after the sedimentation of spherules (Klaus et al., 2000). The K/Tboundary deposits in this region are distinctly different from the equivalent deposits around the Gulf of Mexico and proto-Caribbean Sea by their composition: they consist mainly of distal ejecta, and there are no thick sandstone and siltstone beds indicative of reworking by the tsunami. At DSDP site 398D, on the Iberian abyssal plain on the eastern North Atlantic margin (Fig. 16.6), the thickness of the K/Tboundary deposits becomes 1 mm, and these deposits are mainly composed of greenish spherules (Fig. 16.7; Norris and Firth, 2002), implying that the influence of the tsunami was not strong enough to bring the deep-sea sediments in the Atlantic Ocean into suspension. In contrast, an 50-cm-thick K/T-boundary deposit is reported from Pernambuco, north-eastern Brazil, 7000 km away from the centre of the Chicxulub crater (Figs. 16.6 and 16.7). According to Albertaõ and Martins (1996), the K/T-boundary deposit at this site was deposited at a depth of 100–200 m (based on the benthic foraminifer assemblage). This deposit overlies a latest Maastrichtian limestone bed with a sharp and erosional contact and is composed of bioclastic and intraclastic packstone with spherules and shocked-quartz grains. Current ripples are present at the top of the deposit. Albertaõ and Martins (1996) interpreted this deposit as a tsunami deposit based on (1) its sharp, erosive base, (2) fining-upward units, (3) extensive mixing and fragmentation of fossils derived from different paleodepths and reworked from older strata, (4) interference ripples at the top of the bed and


293

(5) the lateral continuity of the deposits. The deposit is unusually thick in comparison to the deep-sea deposits in the DSDP and ODP cores from a similar distance to the crater, and rather similar to the K/T-boundary sandstone complex in the Gulf of Mexico. The difference may be attributed to the different depositional depths of the sites. Although the influence of the tsunami may not have been large enough to bring sandy to silty particles into suspension from the deep-sea bottom at this distance, its influence may still have been large at a depth of 200 m. On the other hand, the origin of the Chicxulub impact for the deposits in Pernambuco has been questioned (e.g. Koutsoukos, 1998; Morgan et al., 2006). Therefore, further careful research is required for the deposits.

5.6. The Pacific Ocean Bostwick and Kyte (1996) and Kyte et al. (1996) have investigated K/T-boundary deposits in the Pacific Ocean (Fig. 16.6). These sites are located 5,800–11,000 km west from the Chicxulub crater. Bostwick and Kyte (1996) found pyrite-rich clay layers of 3 mm thick, with minute shocked-quartz grains at these sites, and an Ir anomaly in the top part of the deposits. Neither thick sandstone or siltstone beds (Bostwick and Kyte, 1996; Kyte et al., 1996) nor evidence of intensive reworking by a tsunami were found in these deposits, implying that the influence of the tsunami was not strong enough to whirl up the deep-sea sediments in the Pacific Ocean.

6. Significance and Distribution of the K/T-Boundary Tsunami Deposits Although K/T-boundary tsunami deposits have different thicknesses and sedimentary characteristics, depending on the depositional setting and the distance from the crater, they seem to have the following common properties: (1) a homogeneous thickness, grain-size distribution and grain composition over a large area (Albertaõ and Martins, 1996; Goto et al., 2008; Maurrasse and Sen, 1991; Smit et al., 1996); (2) opposite current directions in successive units (Alvarez et al., 1992; Goto et al., 2008; Smit, 1999; Smit et al., 1996; Tada et al., 2002, 2003) or repeated compositional cycles that probably reflect the repeated passage of tsunamis (Goto et al., 2008); (3) the presence of terrestrial matter such as plant and wood fragments (Bourgeois et al., 1988; Smit et al., 1996) and (4) the absence of the Bouma sequence that is typical for turbidites (Bourgeois et al., 1988; Maurrasse and Sen, 1991; Smit et al., 1996; Tada et al., 2002, 2003). As mentioned above, the thickness of the K/T-boundary deposits tends to decrease with distance from the Chicxulub crater. Thick breccias, which were probably formed by the impact seismic wave, exist around the edge of the Yucatań platform. Most of the K/T-boundary tsunami deposits have been reported from the Gulf of Mexico and the proto-Caribbean Sea, suggesting that the influence of the tsunami was strong in these regions. At the time of the K/T-boundary impact,

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the impact site was surrounded by land in the north, south and west, and shallow carbonate platforms existed in the south and east (Tada et al., 2003). The energy of the tsunami was therefore trapped in the Gulf of Mexico and the proto-Caribbean regions (Dypvik and Jansa, 2003). In the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, only millimetre-thick to centimetre-thick distal ejecta layers have been found, whereas tsunami deposits of 50 cm thick have been found in the shallow sediments of Pernambuco, Brazil, suggesting that the influence of the tsunami in these oceans might have been restricted only in shallow waters (less than 200 m deep). The K/T-boundary tsunami deposits have thus several properties in common, and systematic variations occur that depend on both the depositional depth and the distance from the impact site. These characteristics are similar to those of impact-generated tsunami deposits in other oceanic impacts (e.g. Gersonde et al., 1997), so that they are useful for identification. Future comparative studies between the K/T-boundary tsunami deposits and other oceanic impact-generated tsunami deposits will provide useful information that will help to understand their precise genesis and to reconstruct the effects and magnitude of impact-generated tsunamis.

7. Summary 1. Impact craters on earth can be divided into terrestrial and oceanic ones. Oceanic impact events can, in turn, be subdivided into shallow and deep oceanic ones. In the case of an oceanic impact event, ocean water flows back into the crater immediately after the impact, eroding the crater rim. Consequently, oceanic impact craters usually show little or no evidence of a high crater rim. 2. Impact-generated tsunamis are one of the consequences of oceanic impact events and affect the surrounding ocean bottom and coastal areas; they form impactgenerated tsunami deposits inside and outside the crater. Resurge deposits are formed in the gullies through which the water flowed into the crater and inside the crater. 3. K/T-boundary tsunami deposits are the best-studied impact-generated tsunami deposits. The K/T-boundary tsunami deposits have several sedimentary characteristics in common, and the thickness of the deposits decreases with distance from the Chicxulub crater.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I wish to thank T. Shiki, D. King, S. Kiyokawa, R. Tada and E. Tajika for their critically reading of the manuscript and their many valuable suggestions. This research was partly supported by a Grant-inAid for Scientific Research from the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (no. 17403005).


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C H A P T E R

S E V E N T E E N

Tsunami Boulder Deposits A. Scheffers Contents 299

1. Introduction 2. Boulder Movement by Waves and the Storm/Tsunami Threshold for Boulder Dislocation 3. Examples of Tsunami Boulder Deposits Worldwide 4. Dating Tsunami Boulder Deposits 5. Open Questions in Coastal Boulder Transport Acknowledgements References

301 305 309 313 313 313

Abstract Few studies have attempted to ascertain the tsunamigenic origin of boulder deposits in coastal zones. One critical problem is related to the interpretation of the stratigraphical context and therefore the absolute dating of the event. Moreover, extreme storms and hurricanes may be capable of boulder transport, so that the identification of the processes responsible for the deposition of boulders in coastal zones contains some pitfalls. For the purpose, the boulder movement and transport capacity of extreme storm and hurricane waves are discussed here, and it is demonstrated that parameters such as the altitude of boulder accumulation, the distance to the shoreline and/or simply the weight of the boulders can unambiguously point to a tsunami as the transport mechanism. Examples are given for both tsunami and hurricane boulder transport and the tsunamigenic origin of coarse debris as well as for strong tsunami within the late Holocene with boulder dislocation worldwide. Key Words: Tsunami boulders, Wave height, Absolute dating.

ß 2008 Elsevier B.V.

1. Introduction Many coastlines, in particular the rocky and steeper ones, are decorated with boulders of different sizes. The origin of these boulders is related to processes such as transport from higher slopes by gravitation and chemical weathering (woolsacks), but they may also represent remnants of former glaciations. Therefore, the interpretation Department of Geography, Duisburg-Essen-University, Universita¨tsstrasse 15, D-45117 Essen, Germany Tsunamiites—Features and Implications DOI: 10.1016/B978-0-444-51552-0.00017-5

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of boulder deposits needs to address the geomorphology and the geologic history of the study area in great detail. In many cases, the presence of boulders is found to result from onshore transport, with the shore, a cliff or the marine environment as source area. The character of boulder accumulations may vary from elongated ridges with football-sized fragments with a weight of 2,000,000 kg) on the Bahamas (Hearty, 1997a,b), although a wave-induced deposition of the latter is still under debate. It is often argued that past extreme storm events during times of climatic instability (Hearty, 1997a) or small variations of sea level during the Holocene (Scoffin, 1993) may have left this distinctive sedimentary signature and that no analogous processes occur nowadays. Given the great difference in frequency of hurricanes and tsunamis, and the restricted occasions to witness tsunami boulder transport, numerical calculations are

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used as a tool to differentiate between the two processes. In recent years, the physics of boulder movement by waves (storms versus tsunamis) has been discussed on the basis of former studies by Nott (1997, 2003a,b, 2004) and Nott and Bryant (2003). The present contribution aims to present the state-of-the-art in tsunami boulder research by examining the theoretical approaches and inductive field observations of tsunami deposits from the geological past as well as the sedimentary evidence from the mega-tsunami of December 2004, in the Indian Ocean. Finally, open questions concerning the process of boulder translocation onshore, either horizontally or upwards, are highlighted.

2. Boulder Movement by Waves and the Storm/ Tsunami Threshold for Boulder Dislocation The movement of boulders by waves depends on a wide variety of parameters (cf. Scheffers, 2002a). The most important include the following: – size, weight and form, that is the relationship between the three boulder axes, and the density of the boulder; it is evident that a well-rounded boulder may be rolled over more easily than a cubic or platy one – position in relation to the environment, that is, as a single boulder or in a packing arrangement, long or short axis parallel to the wave train, on top of the surface or partly subsided in loose or solid ground – boulder environment; gentle or steep slope; continuous or discontinuous slope; convex, concave or straight; stable (e.g., hardground) or flexible surface (e.g., bed of clasts) and degree of surface roughness – character of waves, with height, period, velocity, density of water, approaching angle and breaking or non-breaking wave – impact on boulder with or without air cushion, degree of submergence, influence of backwash from former wave and nature of turbulence Nott (1997, 2003a,b) has developed wave-transport equations, incorporating the density of water, the density of boulder, the coefficient of drag, the coefficient of lift, the coefficient of mass, the gravitational constant, instantaneous flow acceleration, the flow velocity and the three boulder axes. Moreover, he distinguished between three pre-transport settings: submerged, subaerial and joint bounded. Tables 17.1 and 17.2 show results from natural environments. Several general conclusions can be derived from these numerical calculations. The pre-transport setting of a boulder, besides its shape, size and density, affects the capability of waves to transport boulders. Boulders in joint bound position are mainly influenced by the lift force, so that much higher waves are required for transport. Another important factor is the position of a boulder relative to the sea level. A totally submerged boulder with a density of 2.5 weighs effectively 40% less compared to a subaerially exposed boulder. Moreover, when subjected to a water depth more than one-third of its z-axis, a negative pressure on the top and backside

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Table 17.1 Boulder size and wave heights (tsunami and storm) required to transport boulders a-Axis (m)

b-Axis (m)

c-Axis (m)

Volume (m3)

Weight (tonnes)

Tsunami wave (m)

Storm wave (m)

2.75 2.9 2.9 2.7 3.4

1.78 1.9 1.6 2.67 2.3

0.55 0.6 0.8 1.1 1.65

2.7 3.3 3.7 7.9 12.9

6.75 8.25 9.25 19.75 32.25

2.3 2.4 2.4 2.2 2.9

8.9 9.4 9.4 8.8 11.1

Note: The relation of the axis length (more cubic or more platy) is more important than boulder weight. Modified after Nott (2003b, p. 351).

facilitates the transport. Considerably less force is required to move a boulder during the first wave impact due to rapid change in momentum, which is related to water depth. This initiates boulder movement, but subsequently considerable more force is required to transport the boulder inland. The capacity of tsunami waves could be increased by the amount of suspended material. Titov and Synolakis (1997) stated that the sites with the maximum of destruction or sediment dislocation are more related to flow velocity than to inundation height. These factors may locally differ in an extreme way due to coastal topography or even small changes in foreshore bathymetry. The flow velocity of storm waves is restricted to 3–5 m/s, yet tsunami waves may reach flow velocities of 8 m/s as in the case of the Indian Ocean tsunami on Phuket island (Thailand), or even up to 18 m/s as was the case in the Hokkaido-Nansei-Oki tsunami in Japan in 1993 (Titov and Synolakis, 1997). The hydrodynamic forces on boulders can be roughly calculated with these values: a flow velocity of 8 m/s—as an example for the most extreme storm waves—equals a hydrodynamic force of 3000 kg/m2. A wave with this velocity will move a cubic boulder measuring 1 m 1 m 1 m (density of 2.5 ¼ 2500 kg), if friction or a present uphill slope is not significant. The effective weight of the boulder is reduced to 1.5 tonnes, when water entirely covers the boulder, and a significant movement might take place. When doubling the length of the boulder axes (2 m 2 m 2 m), the volume equals 8 m3 with a weight of 20,000 kg (density of 2.5). The effective weight in case of total subsidence will decrease to 12,000 kg. Given the same flow velocity of 8 m/s, the hydrodynamic force on 4 m2 (boulder front) is 12,000 kg. This is exactly the weight of the totally submerged boulder. With even the slightest friction, in this scenario no boulder movement will take place. However, a flow velocity of 8 m/s is rarely induced by storms, making it safe to argue that a boulder weighing 20,000 kg is the threshold where storm-induced boulder transport stops. Field observations support these suggestions: according to Bryant (2001), boulders with diameters of 1–2 m have not been moved during a storm with wave heights of 7–10 m. On Mallorca (Mediterranean Spain), during a 500-year storm in

Table 17.2 Wave heights (m) calculated with hydrodynamic transport equations using submerged boulder (sm), subaerial boulder (sa) and joint bounded block (lift) a

b

c

Volume (m3)

Weight (tonnes)

T (sm)

S (sm)

T (sa)

S (sa)

T (lift)

S (lift)

3 2.4 2.8 2.2 2 3.15

2.1 1.8 1.8 1.5 1.2 1.22

0.7 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.7 0.23

4.4 3.0 3.0 1.7 1.7 0.9

9.24 6.3 6.3 3.57 3.57 1.89

1.4 1.0 1.2 1.0 0.5 —

6 4 5 4 2 —

1.3 1.1 1.2 0.9 0.9 2.2

5.3 4.2 4.9 3.6 3.6 8.6

4.6 3.7 4.3 3.4 3.1 —

18.5 14.8 17.3 13.6 12.4 —

Note: Boulders with weights 50 t (n = 32) 10−50 t (n = 76) 0

100

200 m

Figure 17.7 Mapping large tsunami boulders along the central east coast of Bonaire (Netherlands Antilles) at about 5 m above sea level (aerial photograph of 1961). The dark patches in the upper left part of the picture are bushes.

reach 10,000–40,000 kg close to sea level, even where the flow depth was 10–12 m (Fig. 17.11). For the Indian Ocean tsunami, boulder transport does therefore not reflect the destructive energy.

4. Dating Tsunami Boulder Deposits Tsunami boulder deposits often rest on land surfaces that are much older than the tsunami event. Lack of a stratigraphical context may complicate or even prevent a correct dating of the palaeotsunami event. There are some objective criteria, however, which may help to identify the time of the impact. Historical or

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Figure 17.8 Imbrication of small tsunami boulders and cobbles (long axes 20–30 cm) along the south coast of Bonaire, exhumed by hurricane Ivan in 2004.

Figure 17.9 Imbrication of large tsunami boulders (longest axes 3 m, 4000–8000 kg) from Mallorca, Mediterranean Spain, at 8 m above sea level.

archaeological facts may yield maximum or minimum ages of the tsunami. Relative age indicators may be – vegetation development around or on tsunami boulder deposits, or between the boulders and the shoreline including lichens on the boulders – soil development around, under or on tsunami boulders – the weathering status like tafoni and honeycombs in the case of sandstones or silicate rocks, or solution features like karren, etc. on carbonate rocks – the preservation status or destruction of minor forms attached to the boulders, like parts of notches or rock pools from the littoral and supralittoral environment

Tsunami boulder deposits Holocene Pleistocene

120⬚

60⬚

0⬚

60⬚

120⬚

180⬚

80⬚

80⬚

40⬚

40⬚

0⬚

0⬚

40⬚

40⬚

80⬚

80⬚ 120⬚

60⬚

0⬚

60⬚

120⬚

180⬚

Figure 17.10 Distribution of large tsunami boulders along the coastlines of the world.

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Figure 17.11 Coral tsunami boulder (Porites sp.) of 10,000 kg at Naiharn South Beach on Phuket Island, Thailand. This boulder has been dislocated by the 2004 SE-Asian tsunami from the foreshore about 200 m away.

– alteration of the source places for boulders, for example, bioerosion and bioconstruction with new rock pools or notches and benches – in case of large boulders on carbonate surfaces, the height of ‘karst tables’ under the boulders, formed by the protection of the basement from solution by rain water Absolute age dating techniques include radiocarbon, Electronspin-Resonance, thorium/uranium, optical stimulated luminescence and other techniques (Radtke et al., 2002). At lower latitudes, organic material like corals, vermetids, barnacles, bryozoans, calcareous algae or boring bivalves may often be attached to the boulders or incorporated in the deposit. As these fossils were dislocated from the marine environment and killed by the tsunami, the determination of their age will reflect the time of the event accurately. Unfortunately, there are some pitfalls: even coral fragments with a fine preservation of the coralids and without signs of borings or algal coating may be much older than the last dislocation, if buried in fine sediments on the reef flat. Therefore, a very sophisticated sampling protocol from each deposit is necessary to gather a correct impression of the palaeotsunami event. Palaeotsunami research and the appliances of absolute dating techniques revealed that almost all coastlines of the world have been affected by tsunamis during the Holocene and the late Pleistocene (Bryant, 2001; Bryant and Nott, 2001; Bryant et al., 1992, 1996; Goff et al., 2001; Hearty, 1997a, b; Kato and Kimura, 1983, Kawana and Nakata, 1994; Kelletat and Scheffers, 2004b; Kelletat and Schellmann, 2002; Kelletat et al., 2005; Lander et al., 2002; Minoura and Nakata, 1994; Moore and Moore, 1984; Nakata and Kawana, 1993; Nott, 2000, 2003b, 2004; Paskoff, 1991; Radtke et al., 2002; Scheffers, 2002a,b, 2004; Scheffers and Kelletat, 2003, 2005; Scheffers and Scheffers, 2006; Scheffers et al., 2005, 2006; Young et al., 1992).


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5. Open Questions in Coastal Boulder Transport The position of boulder deposits in relation to the shoreline, the direction of boulder trains, the imbrication, as well as the source area of the boulders may contain information on the direction of tsunami waves. However, the onshore boulder distribution may not reflect the inundation and run-up values, as shown by the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami, which deposited large boulders exclusively in the surf zone and lowermost supratidal even in areas with flow depth of up to 12 m in Thailand and over 30 m in Sumatra. Future research should focus on direct observations of boulder transport by large waves of different origin (storms, hurricanes and tsunami), comparing palaeostorm and palaeotsunami deposits, modelling of the physical conditions for boulder transport over long distances and uphill on rough ground, studying the influence of suspended material in tsunami waves for boulder transport and—most important—a systematic field survey of possible tsunamigenic boulders with absolute dating of the transport events.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I thank the German Research Organization (Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft, DFG) for a grant.

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C H A P T E R

E I G H T E E N

Characteristic Features of Tsunamiites T. Shiki,* T. Tachibana,† O. Fujiwara,‡ K. Goto,} F. Nanayama,** and T. Yamazaki†† Contents 1. Introduction 2. Characteristics of Tsunamis and Tsunami Deposition 2.1. Diastrophic nature of tsunamis and tsunamiite deposition 2.2. Length of tsunami waves and sedimentary structures in tsunamiites 2.3. Shuttle movement of tsunamis and its records 2.4. Shuttle movement versus gravity flows and tsunamiite variety 2.5. Tsunamiites as marker horizons 2.6. Associated sediments 3. Sedimentary Structures in Tsunamiite Beds 3.1. Sedimentary structures in a sedimentary set 3.2. Grading in a layer and fining upward through stacked layers 3.3. Current structures 4. Constituents of Tsunamiites 5. Tsunamiite Features in Various Environments 5.1. Coastal plain 5.2. Coastal lacustrine basin 5.3. Beach 5.4. Nearshore 5.5. Bottom of bays 5.6. Shallow sea including continental shelf 5.7. Deep-sea environments 6. Conclusive Remarks Acknowledgements References

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15-8, Kitabatake, Kohata, Uji 611-0002, Kyoto, Japan Research Organization for Environmental Geology, of Setouchi c/o Suzuki Office, Okayama University, Okayama, Japan { Active Fault Research Center, National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology (AIST), Central 7, Higashi 1-1-1, Tsukuba 305-8567, Japan } Disaster Control Research Center, Tohoku University, 6-6-11, Aoba, Aramaki, Aiba, Sendai 980-8579, Japan ** Institute of Geology and Geoinformation, AIST, Central 7, Higashi 1-1-1, Tsukuba 305-8567, Japan {{ 2-1-16-1009, Kita-midorigaoka, Toyonaka, Osaka 56000, Japan * {


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Abstract Tsunamiite beds can provide excellent keys to stratigraphic correlations over great distances, as they can have a wide extent. On the other hand, they occur only sporadically because of the gigantic tsunami energy and due to a great variety in sedimentary settings. The cooperation of a few elements of water movement, that is (1) shuttle movement of water currents and (2) deceleration (of the run-up tsunami) and acceleration (of the backwash tsunami) caused by gravitation, fundamentally results in a variety of tsunamiite features that depend on the variable conditions of the surrounding sedimentary settings and environments. Successive layers showing opposite palaeocurrent directions and intercalated mud drapes are characteristics and common features of tsunamiites in some environments such as coastal lakes and shallow-sea basins. Single sand sheets also occur inland, depending on their distance from the sea. An erosion surface may be the only record of a tsunami over an extensive coastal area where step-form run-up tsunami waves go forward and break, and where backwash tsunami flows (currents) are markedly accelerated by gravitation. The eroded sediments, including organic material, are transported both offshore and landward, forming a surge with some density. Because of the nature of the tsunami-induced water movement, many kinds of current structures, including those that indicate high-energy regimes, are common structural components in tsunamiites. Hummocky and swaley structures occur in submarine tsunamiites of various environments. Rip-up mud clasts are also common in submarine tsunamiites, showing the special nature of tractive tsunami currents that lack internal shear stress except in the thin bottom boundary layer. Tsunamiites are lacking almost completely in modern deep-sea areas. The Mediterranean homogenites induced by the collapse of the Santorini caldera provide a rare example of tsunami-induced sediments in a deep-sea area. Deposits from extremely gigantic tsunami, such as some Cretaceous/Tertiary (K/T) boundary tsunamiites, can be found in deep-sea records of the geological history. There is not one single convenient key to distinguish tsunami-generated sediments from those generated by other events. Integrated studies including facies analysis of the background environmental sediments are indispensable for identifying and clarifying tsunamiites and their implications. Key Words: Tsunami, Tsunamiite, Tsunami deposit, Sedimentary feature, Sedimentary structure. ß 2008 Elsevier B.V.

1. Introduction It was at the beginning of 1960s that Kon’no and others carried out excellent geological observations of the Sanriku coastal region, just after the damage caused by the 1960 Chile earthquake tsunami (Kon’no et al., 1961). Tsunamiites, however, are still the most difficult deposits to identify among the many kinds of high-energy event deposits. What are the criteria for identifying tsunamiites? This is a major point

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of interest for all tsunamiite researchers. It must be stressed, however, that such a convenient key for identifying tsunamiites does not exist. Features of tsunamiites of various settings reflect the characteristics of tsunami waves and currents. The features can, however, fairly be different, depending on the characteristics of tsunami waves and their related currents under different hydrographic conditions and in different sedimentary environments. Furthermore, some sedimentary features of tsunamiites can also be common in other kinds of event deposits. Diastrophic occurrence and periodicity are well-known characteristics of tsunamis and have been well studied. These characteristics are, however, not unique for tsunamis. Despite these difficulties, sedimentologists can recognize tsunamiites in many cases, if careful observations are carried out. In this section, we will discuss this problem and provide some useful suggestions for finding and identifying tsunamiites in historic and older sediments. It is to be noted here that most of the following descriptions and explanations are focused on—and safely applicable to—seismic tsunamiites, but not for the case of a meteorite–impact-induced tsunamiite of exceptionally gigantic size, such as the K/T-boundary beds. Readers interested in those aspects are referred to the previous chapters (e.g. Goto, this volume).

2. Characteristics of Tsunamis and Tsunami Deposition Generation, propagation and quantification of tsunamis are dealt with in detail by Sugawara et al. (2007). Only some of the most important characteristic features of tsunamis will therefore be mentioned here. Figure 18.1 shows the features schematically. Coleman (1968) already pointed out the significance of tsunamis as a geological agent. A great number of researches have been carried out since then on the Ocean basin floor

Trench

Continental slope Slope troughs

Cloud

Tsunami wave

Continental shelf

Submarine bay ~ trough basin Step form wave

Coastal zone

Offshore Nearshore Break

fill Cut and Swash mark deposits Run-up and ponded deposits Backwash flow deposits Sheet flow deposits

sion

Ero

Tsunami current Suspension

Leaved lag deposits Backwash relict deposits Homogenite deposition

Trough ~ basin deposits Tsunami-induced current deposits

Not to scale

Figure 18.1 Schematic diagram showing tsunami water movement and sedimentary processes generated or affected by a tsunami from the oceanic floor to the coastal zone. Special attention is given to show the nature of the tsunami wave and current, the role of gravity in some tsunamiite deposition, and the suspension cloud.

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propagation, wavelength and wave height of tsunamis; coastal disasters caused by run-up of tsunamis are better known since the studies by Miyoshi (1968), Miyazaki (1971) and Miyoshi and Makino (1972) (see also Sugawara et al., 2007). On the other hand, important hydrodynamic knowledge, which is indispensable for the understanding of the sediment-transport mechanism by tsunamis, is not yet very deep. Some aspects are known, however, about the mechanisms that are of interest for sedimentological discussions about tsunamiites (see the review by Sugawara et al., 2007). Some characteristic features of the various types of tsunamiites can therefore be dealt with here in the light of this knowledge.

2.1. Diastrophic nature of tsunamis and tsunamiite deposition Tsunamis occur suddenly and are often diastrophic. They have a gigantic energy and propagate waves all over the globe. Thus, their deposits are distributed widely and sometimes even globally. They can be used as marker horizons across various facies in many sedimentary basins around the globe, as they are commonly exceptional in lithology and facies in neighbouring and isolated sedimentary basins. That is, they show features of an exceptional high-energy flow regime among the more common background sediments of a lower-energy flow regime. For instance, a peculiar occurrence of exceptionally thick- and coarse-grained clastic material can be one good indication of tsunami action. A number of tsunami-driven coastal boulder deposits are documented by Scheffers (2007). The Miocene Tsubutegaura boulder conglomerates on the Chita Peninsula, central Japan, are peculiar examples of large boulders deposited in an upper-bathyal environment (Yamazaki et al., 1989). It must be noted that a ‘wide’ extent does not necessarily imply a ‘continuous’ deposit. One could easily imagine that great continuity without any gap is a characteristic of tsunami deposits, but this is a misunderstanding. The problems of the low-preservation potential, what is called ‘ephemeral characteristics’, and of up-rush tsunamiites is discussed by Keating et al. (this volume). An important point to be noted is the effect of the powerful energy of the tsunami wave (and current) itself. The gigantic energy results in strong erosion, together with the transportation and the deposition of vast amounts of material. Erosion takes place locally, especially where the topography is inclined and/or has channels, or, occasionally, where it is relatively high, as illustrated in Fig. 18.1. In some cases, the occurrence of a tsunami is documented only by large-scale scour-and-fill structures, as in the Late Albian to Cenomanian deposits of the Grajau Basin, northern Brazil, reported by Rossetti et al. (2000). Therefore, a patchy distribution is a common characteristic of tsunamiites, though the sediments can build an extensive body in some areas. On the other hand, a tsunamiite’s distribution can also be very narrow, local and sporadic. In this context, it must be pointed out that the gigantic energy of tsunamis does not always result in thick-, coarse-grained sediments. A tsunami can transport only the material available. The grain sizes of tsunamiites depend therefore on the supplied sediments, which closely reflect the source materials.


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2.2. Length of tsunami waves and sedimentary structures in tsunamiites A well-known feature of tsunamis is the very large length of the waves. In other words, it has a ‘shallow-sea wave’ character (see Fig. 3.3 in Sugawara et al., this volume; Fig. 16.5 in Goto, this volume) when it propagates in the deep ocean. This means that the sea-water movement at the basal part of the wave is actually a current with a simple ‘shuttle’ characteristic without an up-and-down element (see Fig. 16.5 in Goto, this volume). Consequently, any kind of current-induced structure, that is parallel lamination, current ripple marks, antidunes, imbrication, sole marks and so on, can occur in tsunamiites. On the other hand, wave ripples have also been reported occasionally. Hummocky structures, which are believed to indicate wave action in combination with a current, occur rather commonly in some submarine tsunamiites (e.g. Albertaõ and Martins, 2002, this volume; Fujiwara et al., 2000). It is still a problem why these wave-generated or wave-related structures can happen in tsunamiites. This will be discussed later. The velocity and the length of a tsunami wave decrease (and its height increases) when the wave comes close to a shallow coastal area. However, the wavelength is still enough to inundate coastal plains very far inland and to distribute deposits there over a vast area. The shape of a tsunami wave also changes near the coast. It forms a single step, and it may, or may not, break, depending on the specific conditions. Bottom erosion is the most violent when the wave breaks. A widespread erosion surface and gigantic scour-and-fill structures (Rossetti et al., 2000) are the sedimentological marks left by tsunami action at that zone. It must also be noted that the velocity of water movement in long waves such as those of a tsunami is the same from top to bottom, even in very deep of sea water (Fig. 18.1; see also fig. 3–1-1-A in Sugawara et al., this volume), but the water movement changes in the coastal area and onshore. The inner structure of tsunami waves implies that shearing does not occur in tsunami waves. However, the velocity decreases very sharply towards zero in the bottom boundary layer of the tsunamiinduced bottom current just above the sea floor, and shearing is very strong there. Ripping up of the bottom material can happen very effectively because of the large lift-up effect of the vertical velocity difference in the bottom layer of a tsunami. This implies that the effect present at a much greater depth in a tsunami than in violent wind-induced deep-water waves. After lifting-up and during transportation in the main, non-sheared layer, even very fragile materials are not broken. This hydrodynamical structure of a tsunami wave is the reason for the common occurrence of many rip-up clasts of angular shape and non-wear shells in tsunamiite beds, together with the entrainment mechanism of big boulders. Soft-sediment rip-up clasts up to 1 m in diameter occur in the Holocene tsunami section on the southern Boso Peninsula in east Japan (Fujiwara and Kamataki, this volume; Fujiwara et al., 2000a). Delicate shells commonly occur in the section (Fujiwara, 2004; Fujiwara et al., 2003a). Rip-up clasts of 1-m size are observed in a cobble conglomerate tsunamiite in the Miocene upper-bathyal Tsubutegaura

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tsunamiite succession (Yamazaki et al., 1989). A broken soft-sediment block, 2 m in diameter, has been found together with the rip-up clasts at the same stratigraphic level in this succession. A few fossils of starfish, which would beyond doubt have been broken if affected by shear stress, are also found in a thin tsunamiite sand bed in this succession. It thus appears that even these weak, fragile sediment blocks and fossil remains are not broken if they are lifted up into the non-shear layer of a tsunami wave current.

2.3. Shuttle movement of tsunamis and its records

Cla y Silt fs ms cs

Shuttle movement, that is the repeated forward and backward oscillatory water movement resulting from successive run-up and backflow stages, is a marked feature of tsunamis and their related currents. A few to several pulses of a single tsunami event can deposit a series of units (layers) that show repeatedly opposite current directions, as will be mentioned later. A good example was provided by Nanayama et al. (2000) (Fig. 18.2). Palaeocurrents, with both landward and seaward direction, can be reconstructed on the basis of the dip of wedge-shaped cross-stratification, and by the imbrication of shells and gravel, as shown by Fujiwara et al. (2000) for tsunamiite layers deposited in a small Holocene bay, as will be mentioned in some more detail underneath.

Division

Interpretation

Organic mud division Poorly sorted silt bed with plant debris

After-tsunami stage Decreased water level and deposition of suspended materials

Organic mud with sand division Poorly sorted silt bed with fine-tomedium sand laminae

Maximum water level stage Sedimentation by reflected currents in the lake

Mud clast division Fine-to-medium sand with mud clasts 20 cm

Graded sand division Graded marine sand bed with shell fragments, lower part is coarse sand or fine gravel and grading up to medium sand

Tsunami inundates stage Erosion of coastal sediments and rapid deposition

Background laminated mud

Figure 18.2 Sedimentological profile of a typical tsunamiite bed deposited in a coastal lacustrine environment. The existence of units with current structures, mud clasts, sand/silt alternation and organic fragments in the uppermost fine-grained division are to be noted. A single bed consists of several divisions with different sedimentological features. The word ‘divisions’ cited here does not have the same meaning as the word ‘units’, which is used in the text. A division can involve a few units (subunits).


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Another good example of shuttle movement of a tsunami regards the K/T-boundary tsunamiites in neritic to upper-bathyal environments. Smit et al. (1996) described a variety of sedimentary features of these deposits, containing evidence for repeated up-section changes in current direction (as interpreted from cross-lamination) and strength of the tsunami. It is well known that herringbone structures indicate shuttle movement of water and are commonly found in tidal sediments. This structure can, however, also occur in tsunamiites. Actually, the structure has been reported from late Pleistocene incised valley-fill sediments in central Japan by Takashimizu and Masuda (2000). Also this structure will be mentioned again later. It should be mentioned here that some of the deposits of the repeated currents in opposite directions are not always preserved because of erosion by later pulses of the same tsunami event. It must also be noted that, because of some specific coastal and sea-bottom topography, a tsunami can run towards two or more directions with a high angle of divergence. Bays, capes and submarine canyons, and small basal topographic irregularities can create the conditions required for such differently directed currents. Shuttle movement and current action into two or more directions not always result in distinct sedimentary structures. For example, such water movements have been reconstructed for the K/T-boundary tsunamiites in Cuba by faint fluctuations in grain size and material composition only (Tada et al., 2003; Goto et al., this volume, b). Similar faint fluctuations in grain size and composition have been found in the upper, muddy division of a Mediterranean homogenite, as discussed by Shiki and Cita (this volume). Besides these sedimentary features, it is also worth noting that the shuttle movement of tsunamis is exhibited by a ‘saw-toothed’ pattern in the vertical grain-size distribution in the successive units of a tsunamiite bed. A good example has been demonstrated by Fujiwara et al. (2003b) (see also Fujiwara and Kamataki, this volume) from the tsunami deposits in a Holocene valley mentioned above.

2.4. Shuttle movement versus gravity flows and tsunamiite variety Shuttle movement is one of the most noteworthy features of tsunamis, as stressed above. However, nothing on Earth can escape from gravity. The kinetic energy of tsunami-induced water changes therefore during its movement in accordance with the surge direction, namely run-up and backwash, and in relation to the bottom’s slope direction and its steepness, and results in lateral changes in the characteristics of its deposits. A tsunami loses its energy when it runs up a coast and inundates the coastal area essentially because of the water movement in a direction that is ‘against’ gravity. Friction on the bottom and percolation of water into the ground also contribute to the energy loss of a run-up tsunami. The depth (the thickness of water column) and speed of the water flow decrease until the flow stops and starts to turn over and flow in the opposite direction, towards the sea. Consequently, the run-up part of a tsunamiite thins out inland and leaves only a very thin sedimentary layer. In some

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cases lined lagged sediments, namely swash marks, can be left at the final place on the coastal area reached by the run-up flow. The entrainment range of each pulse of a tsunami depends on the energy of the pulse. Consequently, the number of layers or depositional units within a tsunamiite, just like the thickness and grain size of the deposit, decreases as these sediments are positioned more inland. These features, due to gravity, are restricted to run-up inland tsunamiites and are not applicable to submarine tsunamiites. The backwash water of a tsunami wave also must decelerate and come to a hold after the movement away from the coast. In this case, however, the current carries eroded bottom sediments from the various environments around the coastline. If the nature of the current changes into that of some sediment gravity flow (Middleton and Hampton, 1976), water must flow downslope with these particles. This is the reason why the basal division of many submarine tsunamiite beds seems to resemble turbidites with a graded (or massive) division (see the pictures of tsunamiites in Albertaõ and Martins, this volume). This mechanism, caused by gravity, cannot act above a horizontal flat floor but works to a high degree on long inclined slopes such as a continental slope. Gravity plays a very important role not only in transporting sediments from shallow environments but also in creating unique features of deep-sea tsunamiites such as in the B-type homogenite in the Mediterranean Sea (Cita, this volume; Shiki and Cita, this volume) and in some oceanic impact tsunamiites deposited around craters (e.g. Goto, this volume; Tada et al., 2003; Takayama et al., 2000). Turbiditic features like these deposits do not happen in the run-up tsunamiites. In short, a tsunami current moves as a shuttle. However, its sediments do not always follow and exhibit the shuttle movement. Records of the repeated shuttle flows are one of the remarkable features of tsunamiites but are restricted to depositional sites that have sufficient and continuous sediment supply in combination with a high preservation potential of the deposits, which conditions are related with the sedimentary conditions in and around the depositional area.

2.5. Tsunamiites as marker horizons In spite of the only sporadic occurrences, mentioned above, a single tsunami event can occur and leave its traces in a very wide area, even worldwide. Therefore, tsunami sediments can be excellent time-markers (key beds and marker horizons). This is especially true in the case of meteorite-impact tsunamiites that are accompanied by an iridium and other impact-generated-material-bearing clay layer, or in the case of tsunamiites induced by a volcanic eruption, which commonly contain and/or are overlain by volcanic material. The significance of these features of impact tsunamiites are mentioned by Goto (this volume), and volcanic tsunamiites are mentioned by Nishimura (this volume).

2.6. Associated sediments It is needless to say that a meteorite-impact tsunamiite is characterized by several constituents of cosmic origin such as iridium, and by components that prove a highenergy impact shock, such as shocked quartz grains; a volcanism-induced tsunamiite


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is obviously associated with volcanic material. As to the characteristic features of these tsunamiites, the reader is referred to the previous chapters of this volume. As mentioned above, distinct differences in facies from background sediments characterize common tsunamiites. However, the background sediments are extremely variable, as they depend on their sedimentary conditions and the environments in which they have been deposited. Sandy tsunamiites, for example, can be intercalated between sandy background sediment layers that can closely resemble the sandy tsunamiite layers. In such cases, discrimination between the two kinds of sediments can be difficult. In spite of this problem, it must be said that the peculiarity in a sedimentary succession is generally the most useful key for finding a tsunamiite in the field. The usage of this key is different for tsunamiites formed because of different trigger mechanisms. Submarine earthquakes happen repeatedly and cyclically in some areas. Under such conditions, seismic tsunamiites commonly occur in groups, and seismites such as liquefied sediments and dykes are, as a rule, associated with seismic tsunamiites. This seems a very critical difference between seismic tsunamiites and impact-induced tsunamiites. It must be remembered, however, that everything in geology has exceptions. Tsunamis can travel across oceans. The seismic tsunami that occurred in Washington, on the western coast of North America in 1700 AD, travelled across the Pacific Ocean and attacked the Japanese coast (Atwater et al., 2005; Satake et al., 1996; Tsuji et al., 1998). In 1960, another seismic tsunami, which occurred in Chile, also attacked the Japanese coast and formed correlatable tsunami deposits. That event and its sediments were studied in detail by Kon’no (1961). On the other hand, it is also logical that proximal impact tsunamiites are accompanied by remarkable seismic sedimentary signatures, because an earthquake must have been induced by the meteorite impact.

3. Sedimentary Structures in Tsunamiite Beds Many types of sedimentary structures are known in clastic sedimentology. In this section, occurrence, or non-occurrence, of some of these structures will be referred to and a few well-known sedimentary structures will be examined from the point of view of possible indicators for tsunami-induced sediments. It must be noted here again that sometimes the passing of a tsunami wave is revealed only by a giant erosion surface without any accompanying sediments.

3.1. Sedimentary structures in a sedimentary set The Bouma sequence of the sedimentary structures in turbidites (Bouma, 1962) is generally known in sedimentary geology. Is any comparable type of stacked layers with their own primary sedimentary structures unique to tsunamiites? This is an interesting and important question that is still under discussion. For an answer to this question, we must keep in mind the pulses of a tsunami and the repeated arrival of high-density currents separated by a long stagnant stage.

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According to the contribution by Fujiwara et al. (this volume), a tsunamiite bed consists of several units (or subunits) (Fujiwara, 2004; Fujiwara and Kamataki, this volume). These units are attributed to run-up in their early stage, larger waves that deposit outsized clasts in the middle stage and relatively small waves with long stagnant intervals in the later stage, with subsequent foundering of wood and plant debris derived from the land. Each unit consists of a couplet of a coarse-grained unit and a mud unit. The period of tsunami waves is in between that of storm waves and of tide waves and is long enough for the deposition of mud layers (mud drapes) during its relatively calm, stagnant stage. Stacked units capped by muddy laminae are frequently present in some recent tsunamiites (1964, Alaska; 1703, Kanto; 1960, Chile; see Fujiwara and Kamataki, this volume). A tsunamiite stack from the Miocene upper-bathyal sediments mentioned above consists of several units of different lithofacies, including conglomerates, laminated sandstones with antidunes and inclined convolutions and so on, indicating various flow directions. The successive units in the K/T-boundary tsunamiites described in detail by Smit et al. (1996) also reveal a sequence of units in shallow-to-deep environments, as mentioned above. The couplets with a finegrained drape of the stacked units can thus be regarded as one of the most noteworthy characteristics of submarine tsunamiites. Fujiwara et al. (2003b) clarified that the vertical grain-size distribution shows a saw-toothed pattern in such stacked layers, as mentioned above. Although the above model is also applicable to tsunamiites deposited in coastal lakes (Fig. 18.2) and on coastal lowlands, there are many exceptions (Fujiwara, this volume). For example, only one (single) tsunamiite layer can indicate a deep entrance of a tsunami into an alluvial plain, as in the case of the Sendai Plain in Japan (Minoura et al., 2001). Both the stacked units and the single layer from an inland-inundating tsunamiite have recently been exhibited dramatically by the Indian Ocean tsunami deposits in many coastal areas (see other chapters of this volume). A relatively simple inner structure, which shows no sign of stacking, in the tsunami-induced sediment gravity flow sediments, a sort of ‘tsunamiite’, was described by Cita and Aoisi (2000) and Cita (this volume). This simple structure is discussed sedimentologically in fairly great detail by Shiki and Cita (this volume). In short, the faint grading of grain size (and associated carbonate contents) is the only observable internal feature in the beds. In any case, a complete inventory of the stacked layers is one of the most important ways to find and distinguish tsunamiites in the field.

3.2. Grading in a layer and fining upward through stacked layers Normal grading is very common in tsunamiites, as described in many other chapters of this book. Reverse grading also happens occasionally in some submarine and onshore tsunamiite beds. Tsunamiites in a shallow sea caused by a single event such as an earthquake or a meteorite impact usually form one characteristic stack of several units, as mentioned


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previously. The units are generally covered by muddy drape layers that are deposited during a relatively calm stage. Even when deposited in deep water, the tsunamirelated sediment may form a markedly fining upwards sequence if the tsunami is large enough. A good example of this is the K/T-boundary one. In contrast, a turbiditic Mediterranean homogenite consists of a coarse-grained graded unit and a fine-grained, distinctly homogeneous and thick unit that indicates deposition from a suspension cloud. Internal structures in thin tsunamiite beds are uncommon. The beds usually consist of only a lower sandy division and an upper muddy division, similar to a thin turbidite bed. The sandy division of thin homogenite beds is generally structureless or faintly graded and passes into a muddy division without sharp boundary. Such a tsunamiite, especially if it is a submarine tsunamiite, can hardly be distinguished from a thin turbidite when only a single bed is observed. The sedimentary mechanisms of these two types of sediments are not very different if only the hydrodynamics of the transportation and the deposition of the sediment grains at a certain point are considered. Seismic-induced turbidites, however, generally do not occur alone but happen in a thick succession over a whole area where earthquakes are common, as pointed out earlier. An overall study of the sedimentary succession should make it possible to distinguish between these two different types of deposit that are caused by different triggers. As to the deep-sea tsunamiites, they are really a kind of ‘sediment gravity flow’ deposit with some possible exceptions in the case of gigantic impact tsunamiites. It is logical that they are graded in their sandy division. However, an actual example, namely the Mediterranean homogenites, does not reveal any sign of other divisions of the Bouma sequence.

3.3. Current structures Many kinds of current structures can be present in tsunamiites (Figs. 18.2 and 18.3). They are internal and surface structures, such as parallel lamination, crosslamination, convolutions, current-ripple marks, dunes and antidunes, and some sole structures, such as giant scour marks, current marks and so on. A few of these current structures and their implication will be referred to here in some detail. Imbrication of gravels and shells can develop because of a tsunami in a coastal area (see the photos in Scheffers, this volume). The structure can also develop in submarine environments in some exceptional cases. For example, the imbrication of cobbles and gravel clasts evidence transportation by a tsunami current under the upper-bathyal conditions in the Miocene of central Japan, as has been reported and discussed repeatedly (Shiki and Yamazaki, 1996; Yamazaki and Shiki, 1988; Yamazaki et al., 1989). It is interesting that the cobbles in Scheffers’s photo dip seaward as in the case of storm beach sediments. On the other hand, the imbricated cobbles of the backwash tsunami bottom-current under the upper-bathyal conditions dip up-current, very similar to river sediments. As mentioned above, herringbone structures, which are considered as a common sign of tidal sediments, may be a feature of some tsunamiites because of the shuttle

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movement of a tsunami current. Unlike tidal sediments, however, herringbone structures cannot develop successively in thick layers in a tsunamiite bed. A thin muddy drape layer is generally intercalated between two sandy layers that show ripple cross-lamination into two opposite directions (Takashimizu and Masuda, 2000; see also Fujiwara, this volume). As mentioned above also, hummocky and swaley cross-stratification (HCS and SCS) are fairly common, and even wave-ripple marks have been reported by Fujiwara and his colleagues from some tsunamiite beds from Holocene deposits in the Boso Peninsula, central Japan (Fujiwara et al., 2003b; Fujiwara and Kamataki, this volume), and in the K/T-boundary impact tsunamiite in Brazil, as reported by Albertaõ and Martins (2002, this volume). These sedimentary structures often make it difficult to discriminate tsunamiites from the sediments of giant wind-driven waves. HCS has generally been considered as a combined result of wave and current action (e.g. Dott and Bourgeois, 1982; Yokokawa and Masuda, 1991). It should be noted here that the size (length) of a storm-induced wave is very small (short) compared with the length of a tsunami wave. Tsunami water moves like a current but not like a wave even just above the sea floor, as stressed above repeatedly. According to this point of view, the genetic interpretation of HCS and wave-ripple marks is still questionable in tsunami sedimentology. There are two hypothetical interpretations. 1. Some high-order (small-scale) waves can occur on the surface of a tsunami wave because of some minute irregular topography of the sea bottom and/or surrounding coast, or because of stormy weather. This interpretation seems speculative. However, it is said that any kind of wave structure in nature can consist of waves of different orders. 2. The so-called hummocky (and swaley-like) structures of tsunamiites are actually hummock-mimics (HCS mimics: Rust and Gibling, 1990) and antidunes in a hydrodynamic sense (Masuda et al., 1993). If this hypothesis is correct, indeed, there is nothing unusual in the occurrence of HCS-like and SCS-like structures in submarine tsunamiites. Hummock-mimics and antidunes are very noticeable sedimentary structures that indicate sedimentation under a very high-flow regimen. This idea, however, cannot be applied to ripple marks at all. Further investigations, including field research, are needed to solve this puzzle concerning the occurrence of storm-wave-induced structures. Are any well-known sedimentary structures lacking in tsunamiites? Epsilon cross-stratification is a typical example of such a structure. This structure is formed by the lateral accretion of sediments connected with the meandering of a continuous flow (stream) and sediment supply for a relatively long time (order from an hour to some years). Sedimentary conditions like this might occur at the time of backflow of tsunami water from deep inland, but it would be very exceptional. In some special cases, the passing of a tsunami wave is recorded only by giant erosion surfaces without any sediment deposition as stated above. The genetic processes of the giant surface and the meaning of the processes can be recognized and explained only through detailed studies of the sediment succession in the study area.


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In short, though there is no golden key for identifying tsunamiites and distinguishing them from other sediments, sedimentary structures do provide useful indications for recognizing possible tsunami-generated sediments.

4. Constituents of Tsunamiites Integrated sedimentological and palaeontological investigation of the constituents of sediments is very useful to identify tsunami deposits. The composition of tsunamiites depends on the sediment sources, even more markedly than many other kinds of sediments that reflect the process of erosion, transportation and/or deposition. This feature is especially notable in onshore, coastal and shallow-sea tsunami deposits due to the huge sediment supply from deeper, offshore areas. Different aspects of the grain-size distribution between run-up sediments and backwash sediments were clarified for the 1993 Hokkaido Nansei-oki earthquake tsunami deposits (Shigeno and Nanayama, 2002). The mixing of shallow sea and coastal continental sediments through the process of run-up was pointed out on the basis of the bimodal grain-size distribution of the Holocene tsunami deposits of the coast of Kamchatka (Minoura et al., 1996). The dominant organic remains or fossils such as bivalves, foraminifers, diatoms, fragments of corals and so on from offshore, including the shallow sea, are characteristics of run-up tsunami wave sediments. On the other hand, wood fragments, and some other material taken from land, can reveal backwash of tsunami waves. For example, strongly mixed molluscan assemblages from various habitats such as a mud bottom and a rocky shore are characteristics of tsunami deposits on the bottom of a bay in the Kanto region, Japan, mentioned above (Fujiwara et al., 2003a). In short, careful layer-by-layer investigation of the clastic grains and the organic constituents in successive layers makes it possible to distinguish between the various sedimentary sources of the layers. Shuttle water movement may thus be proven, just like other features may indicate pulses of the tsunami waves and currents that deposited the sediments under investigation. The special constituents of impact tsunamiites and volcanic tsunamiites have been dealt with in the previous chapters of this volume.

5. Tsunamiite Features in Various Environments It must be noted here that the descriptions and explanations of characteristic sedimentary features in specific environments presented in this section concern mainly seismic tsunamiites, except for an additional comment on the deep-sea sediments. The seismic tsunami deposits that can develop in the various sedimentary environments, such as onshore, in lacustrine and submarine areas, were described in the previous chapters of this present volume. Some additional comments and discussions are given here.

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5.1. Coastal plain As explained by Sugawara et al. (this volume), the intervals between tsunami wave trains become short as the wave trains propagate from the deep sea to a shallow sea. The shape of the tsunami wave changes and shows a gradual rise of the sea surface by a non-breaking wave, surge of breaker or tidal bore (like a wall of water), depending on the delicate differences in hydrodynamic conditions. Water from each individual tsunami shape, however, can inundate coastal plains very far (Nott and Bryant, 2003; Soeda et al., 2004). This inundation is essentially caused by the long wavelength of the original tsunami and by the enormous volume of water that attends the wave movement, as mentioned above. Sedimentary features of coastal plain tsunami deposits have been illustrated by numerous researchers (e.g. Minoura and Nakaya, 1991; Nanayama et al., 2000; Nanayama and Shigeno, 2004; Fujino et al., this volume; Goto et al., this volume, a). The sedimentary differences between a coastal tsunamiite and a storm deposit were discussed in detail by Nanayama et al. (2000). A single structureless sand layer may be the only record of an invasion of the most violent tsunami flow deep inland. On the other hand, along a coast (i.e., very close to the sea), a bed caused by a single tsunami event can consist of a stack of a few or more unit layers that document repeated run-up and backwash flows (Fig. 18.2). Various sedimentary structures, like cross-lamination or pebble imbrication, may be present in the units (Nanayama and Shigeno, 2004; Fujiwara, this volume). The most apparent sign of tsunami inundation and sedimentation in coastal area is the occurrence of marine material such as offshore biogenic sediments. Such signatures are, however, also common in storm-wave-induced sediments. The grain sizes of many coastal tsunamiites depend on the supplied sediments, which closely reflect the source material. The most interesting data on the grain sizes of tsunamiites in a coastal lowland were provided by Nanayama and Shigeno (2004). In some cases, giant boulders were removed and transported from a beach and were left onshore, as is documented by Keating et al. (this volume). Worldwide examples of tsunami boulder deposits are provided by Scheffers (this volume).

5.2. Coastal lacustrine basin If there is some topographic barrier that is high enough to prevent an invasion of storm-induced wave deposits, and if the tidal water cannot enter the basin either, the lacustrine basin can provide an excellent and very convenient restricted condition for recognizing and identifying tsunami records. Therefore, a lot of studies have been, and will be, carried out in such modern and prehistorical coastal lakes around the world (e.g. Atwater and Moore, 1992; Clague and Bobrowsky, 1994; Minoura et al., 1994; Smoot et al., 2000; Tsuji et al., 1998). Tsunami deposits in a lacustrine environment are commonly found as a distinct sand layer intercalated within silty to clayey sediments. Kaga and Nanayama (2001) recognized five stacked divisions in a tsunami bed, namely, in ascending order, a pebble layer, a sand layer with developed


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bedforms (sedimentary structures), a clouded rip-up clast layer, a fine alternation of silt and sand lamina and a silt layer with carbonaceous matter. These units were covered by sediments of the non-tsunami background sediments (Fig. 18.2). The Storegga tsunami deposits of around 7000 BP in western Norway, studied by Bondevik et al. (1997, 2005), are an example of special interest regarding their sedimentary facies successions in several small coastal lakes of different height (altitude) and distance from the sea. The sediments change their facies from basin to basin, and they thin and decrease in grain size as they become positioned more inland. Suspended fine material settled after the withdrawal of the tsunami wave and formed a laminated gyttja layer in the saline and anoxic water in the lakes. These facies contain, or are composed of, various organic fragments or clasts of marine origin. In general, backwash tsunamiites may rest on the run-up tsunamiites.

5.3. Beach Coastal beaches, including coastal bars, are the sites of daily erosion and deposition. A tsunami can suddenly change the topography and sedimentary bodies around these areas catastrophically, generally by heavy erosion. A large amount of beach and shore sediment can be eroded and transported by a tsunami both inland and offshore. Even giant boulders, distributed along a beach, can be removed and shifted inland. Readers are referred to the review articles of coastline sediments supplied by Dawson and Shi (2000), Scheffers and Kelletat (2003) and other contributions that exhibit the sedimentary features of the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami (e.g. Fujino et al., this volume; Goto et al., this volume, a).

5.4. Nearshore Sedimentary phenomena caused by tsunami action near the shore and offshore regions are new, just developing, topics of research. As is well known, strong storm waves and currents can cause both erosion and deposition in regions such as coastal sand dunes and barrier zones, shore face and the zone where ripple marks and dunes develop under common stormy and fair-weather conditions. Shore-face erosion and ‘ravinement surfaces’ in sedimentary records have attracted interest in submarine sedimentology and stratigraphy. These phenomena must occur much more extensively and heavily because of tsunami activity. Erosion surfaces by tsunamis can develop in extensive areas, as suggested by Rossetti et al. (2000). The surfaces extend over a much wider area than the area of common shore-face erosion (by storm waves). On the other hand, the gigantic energy of a tsunami can also cause deposition of huge amounts of material. These deposits may occur even in the shore-face environment where sediments are commonly eroded because of the prevailing high-energy conditions. In short, large amounts of sediments and/or extended erosion surfaces can be remarkable records of tsunami activity around the region that includes the beach, nearshore and offshore environments.

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5.5. Bottom of bays Tsunamiites in bay floor have been described well; they include restricted bays (Massari and D’Alessandro, 2000), incised valleys (Takashimizu and Masuda, 2000) and the bottom of small bays (e.g. Fujiwara et al., 2000). A depositional model of tsunamiites in a small bay has been described and discussed in detail by Fujiwara et al. (2003b) and by Fujiwara and Kamataki (this volume). Special attention was given to bedforms such as the vertical succession of sediment sheets, multiple-bed types that reflect the physical properties of the source sediment current, the reversal of current direction and the long period of tsunami waves. Sedimentary structures such as imbrication of clastic particles and shell fragments, grading, herringbone structures, antidunes and hummocky and swaley structures indicate the tsunami flow properties. Mud clasts are generally thought to be ripped up not only from the sea bottom but can also be supplied occasionally from side walls of drainage channels in coastal land areas. For further details, the readers are referred to Fujiwara and Kamataki (this volume).

5.6. Shallow sea including continental shelf Shallow seas, that is the offshore and continental-shelf areas, are the environment in which the most characteristics and noteworthy features of tsunamiites, including shuttle movement, can develop (Fig. 18.3). Because of this reason, and because of the higher sedimentary preservation potential in shallow seas than onshore and in coastal areas and wave-dominated nearshore regions, shallow-marine environments can house tsunami records. Tsunamiites will therefore be identified more often in these areas in future studies, though only a few examples have been studied as yet. A sedimentary layer formed under an exceptionally high-energy regimen—such as exceptionally coarse sediments, mud clasts and giant HCS and SCS structures— present among common background sediments can be recognized and may be assigned as tsunamiites there. This is exemplified for the Pliocene sediments in the Joban district, eastern Japan by Sasayama and Saito (2003), and for the Miocene Tanabe Group in central Japan (Matsumoto and Masuda, 2004). The sedimentary structures reveal a gravitation-induced inflow and rapid deposition onto the slightly sloping floor of the continental shelf. The very gentle slope or actually flat basal topography and rapid deposition from a gravity flow may in many cases be more important causes of the tsunamiite deposition on the continental shelf. On the other hand, an erosion surface may develop in some places in this environment also because of the very high-erosion energy of tsunami waves.

5.7. Deep-sea environments In general, tsunamis neither transport nor deposit sediments in the deep sea, including bathyal areas, as far as submarine earthquakes are concerned. It is deduced, based on the long-wave equation, that the common seismic-tsunami current

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Continental slope

Continental shelf Coastal zone Offshore Nearshore Coastal lagoon ~ marsh

Plain

Trough ~ basin ‘gradite’ Backflow with some density

Tsunami current deposits

Density flow Td

Erosion dominated Swash mark deposits Run-up and ponded deposits

Td Tc

Tc Tsunami-induced density flow deposits

Tb Ta

Tb

Ta

Not to scale

Figure 18.3 Schematic diagram of tsunamiite sedimentology and resulting sediments. Four typical histograms of tsunamiites are schematically illustrated to show the lateral change of the stacking pattern of sedimentary structures in accordance with various sedimentary settings. Ta, Tb and so on show divisions that may or may not include several units described in the text. As far as the sedimentography of the deep-sea homogenite is concerned, readers are referred to the figures in Shiki and Cita (this volume).

velocity does not exceed several centimetres per second there (see Sugawara et al., 2007). However, the energy and the current velocity of a meteorite-impact tsunami can be much larger than that of a common seismic tsunami. Especially in the case of a gigantic oscillation of a tsunami flow, such as that of the K/T-boundary tsunami, the current velocity is enough to erode and transport the deep-sea sediments, as shown by Takayama et al. (2000), Tada et al. (2003) and Goto et al. (this volume, b). The transportation of sediments by tsunami-triggered sediment gravity flows happens commonly in valleys and canyons on the continental slope (Fig. 18.3). The sediments transported by a gravity flow form a turbidite (in the wide sense of its meaning) on the deep-sea fan and the deep-sea floor. Fundamental similarities in the transportation mechanism of the tsunami-induced turbidite and other turbidites make it difficult to distinguish between these sediments. The former can be called ‘tsunamiite’, but the others cannot. However, the shuttle nature of a tsunami may be revealed by faint fluctuations in grain size and composition, as suggested for the Mediterranean homogenites by Shiki and Cita (this volume). Furthermore, the exceptionally structureless character of the homogenites probably reflects the deposition of the fine-grained particles from a diluted suspension cloud generated by a tsunami. Apparently, many topics and questions remain for future studies of the deep-sea tsunamis and their deposits.

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6. Conclusive Remarks Tsunamiites are generated by, or related to, tsunamis that have a gigantic energy that is exceptional for processes on Earth. Owing to this nature, a tsunamiite bed of one gigantic tsunami event can be traced almost all over the world and provide an excellent key for correlating prehistoric and older strata. On the other hand, tsunamiites only occur sporadically, and they are very variable in occurrence and appearance. The most noteworthy features that may help to identify tsunami deposits are their large wavelength with a long period, and the nature of the water movement, namely the shuttle character of the water current. Because of its large wavelength, tsunami water can propagate deep into coastal plains and leave sandy sheet-flood deposits. Various sedimentary structures and other features can also occur owing to the ‘current’ nature of the tsunami water movement in coastal lakes and, most typically, in shallow-sea sediments. These features are the vertical repetition of coarse sediment layers with mud drapes, and various current structures such as imbrication, herringbone structures and antidunes, which reflect alternating runup and backwash. Scattered rip-up mud clasts and organic and non-organic materials form a signature of the long-wave nature of a tsunami and its different sources. Hummocky and swaley structures occur in some submarine tsunamiites, though their tsunami-related mechanism is not understood well. As to the nature of tsunami water movement in the form of a current, it must be noted that exceptionally gigantic tsunami currents induced by meteorite impacts in the geological past may have affected even ocean-floor sediments. It should also be remarked that gravity also plays a great and sometimes deadly role on sloping bottoms in seas and lakes and that they erode and transport bottom sediments, thus forming a flow of density-current nature. After a tsunami has ceased its downward movement, it turns over landward because of its shuttle nature. Despite the reversal of tsunami water, however, the density current with its particles continues its downward movement over the bottom. Thus, such deep-sea tsunamiites can be regarded as a sort of turbidite in a broad sense. However, the presence of a thick, homogeneous (structureless) layer may be a special characteristic of the deep-sea tsunamiites in contrast to turbidites, which have various sedimentary structures. Dawson and Shi (2000) correctly mentioned that the study of tsunamiites is still in its infancy, with many new facts awaiting discovery. Since then, the studies have developed considerably, however, and these are going to develop even more rapidly and successfully. We hope that the information and new ideas in the present volume will help to initiate further discussions and to assist in future research.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We owe much to Professors Masuda, Minoura, Tsuji and many other colleagues in sedimentology, both in Japan and in abroad, because of their help and support during their tsunamiite studies and the


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preparation of the present contribution. Discussions and new information obtained during scientific meetings about tsunamis and tsunami deposits, including that held in Seattle in July 2005, were very helpful to improve our knowledge and ideas. We thank all the persons who gave us helpful advices and encouragements.

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Sedimentology of Tsunamiites Reflecting Chaotic Events in the Geological Record—Significance and Problems T. Shiki* and T. Tachibana† Contents 1. Introduction 2. Tsunamiites as Records of Ancient Events 2.1. Studies of impact-induced tsunamiites 2.2. Earthquake-induced tsunamiites and tectonics in geological time 2.3. Volcanic-eruption-induced tsunamiites 2.4. Submarine slides and tsunamiites 3. Patterns of Tsunamiite Occurrence in Time 3.1. Meteorite-impact frequency and tsunamiites 3.2. Earthquake-induced tsunamiite occurrences and sea-level change 3.3. Slump-induced tsunamiites and sea-level change 4. Preservation Potential of Tsunamiites 5. Conclusive Remarks and Future Studies Acknowledgements References

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Abstract Ancient tsunamiites potentially present information about cosmic, global and regional events and processes, including the dynamics of the galaxy, the solar system, the earth and regions on earth. Investigation of impact tsunamiites is particularly significant for global studies of the earth’s past; therefore, the present contribution is focused on this specific type, while ancient volcanism and slide-induced tsunamiites are not dealt with in detail. The occurrence of tsunamiites reflects the occurrence patterns in time of tsunamis, including the frequency of impact-induced tsunamis and the recurrence rate of earthquake-induced tsunamis. This may help to find out records of ancient tsunamis. For example, a high frequency of impact tsunamiites between 1.5 and 1.9 Ga is expected * {

15-8, Kitabatake, Kohata, Uji-city, Kyoto 611-0002, Japan Research Organization for Environmental Geology of Setouchi, c/o Suzuki Office, Okayama University, Okayama, Japan


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because of the meteorite-impact periodicity that has been proposed on the basis of impact craters. Earthquake-induced tsunamis reflect global and regional tectonics such as plume tectonics, plate-subduction tectonics and ridge subduction, and tend to occur with higher frequencies during sea-level rise than during sea-level fall. As far as studies of the pre-Quaternary are concerned, submarine tsunamiites are more important than the run-up tsunamiites on land, because of their preservation potential. It is suggested that the possibility is relatively high to find tsunamiites in bays and shallow seas. Tsunami-induced sediment gravity-flow deposits as those of the Mediterranean homogenite-type deposits may be found much more often in prehistorical and older sedimentary records than has previously been expected. Key Words: Tsunamis, Tsunamiites, Sedimentology, Chaotic events, Geohistory, Gaia. ß 2008 Elsevier B.V.

1. Introduction Environmental change is controlled by agents originating in three main sources: the cosmos, the earth’s interior and the living organisms. Although the goddess ‘Gaia’ (e.g. Lovelock, 1972, 1990) can live long because of the harmonious coexistence of these agents, she can also be harmed severely by a catastrophic action caused by any of these agents, including impacts of heavenly (cosmic) bodies, eruption of material from the earth’s interior, or a war among human beings. In the geological past, some tsunamis caused by the impact of giant meteorites in an aqueous environment have been extremely devastating events. Submarine earthquakes and volcanic eruptions, as well as sudden coastal or submarine mass movements, have also been causes of regionally catastrophic tsunami events. These tsunami events have actually been recorded in the geological record in the form of tsunami-induced and tsunami-affected sediments, that is tsunamiites. Thus, tsunamiites provide potentially valuable information about certain catastrophes and very episodic events that had worldwide effect, throughout the history of the Earth. In the following sections, we will discuss the significance and usefulness of ancient tsunamiites and try to shed new light on this scientific field. A review of the state-ofthe-art of tsunamiite research is, however, not intended, as this is done in a few other chapters of this volume for more precise data processing. Only pre-Quaternary tsunamiites will be dealt with; recent, historical and prehistorical tsunamiites will be mentioned only in special cases.

2. Tsunamiites as Records of Ancient Events Tsunamis can be triggered by various intense events in and around the sea. These are bolide impacts, submarine earthquakes, sudden coastal mass movements (e.g., submarine slumps) and violent submarine or subaerial volcanism in the sea.

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These events have been happening since the division of the Earth’s surface into sea and land. Since that time, tsunamiites have possibly stored a lot of significant information about events in the Earth’s past. The potential information about these events is not restricted to regional and global phenomena, but may also involve the cosmos.

2.1. Studies of impact-induced tsunamiites The investigation of impact-induced tsunamiites is, for various reasons, particularly significant in studies of tsunamiites with global dimensions: (1) the impact of a giant cosmic body can cause a catastrophic change of the biosphere and the environment all over the earth, including even the deep-sea, and the influence of such an impact does not disappear for a very long time; and (2) the record of a catastrophic event, including a tsunamiite, can be distributed over extensive areas, thus forming a marker horizon for stratigraphic correlation. This characteristic of impact tsunamiites is especially important for the correlation of pre-Phanerozoic strata in which fossil records are absent or of little help. We hope that more investigations of the Precambrian in search for tsunamiites will be carried out in the future. Bourgeois et al. (1988) reported about possible tsunami deposits at the Cretaceous/Tertiary (K/T) boundary in Texas, United States. This was the first explicit sedimentological report of an impact-induced tsunamiite. Since then, a vast number of studies have been carried out regarding possible impact-induced tsunamiites of various ages, though they are mainly focused on those related to the K/T boundary (Albertao and Martins, 1996, 2002; Alvarez et al., 1992; Martins et al., 2000; Smit, 1999; Smit et al., 1996; Takayama et al., 2000; and many others). Hassier et al. (2000) described bedforms produced 2.6 Ga ago by an impact-generated tsunami, in a deep-marine shelf in Hammerslay Basin, Western Australia. This is the oldest record of a possible tsunamiite documented up to date. There is no doubt that the study of impact-induced tsunamiites has developed into a highly interesting discipline within the geosciences, as shown by the review by Dypwik and Jansa (2003), and Goto (2007). There are some problems, however, in the study of pre-Quaternary impactinduced tsunamiites. For example, severe arguments were raised about the K/Tboundary tsunamiites, mainly about the ages of the sediments (e.g. Keller et al., 2003; Montgomery et al., 1992). It seems that the debate about the identification of the K/T boundary could arise, at least partly, because a classical fundamental biostratigraphic rule was neglected. This rule states, in short, that a geological age should be based on the disappearance of old fossils but not on the appearance of new taxa. As is well known, the flora had already changed by the late Cretaceous. Most probably, some typically Tertiary faunal elements had also already appeared during the latest Cretaceous. Thus, old (Cretaceous) and new (Tertiary) taxa must have coexisted before the K/T mass extinction, and many animal and plant species (of Tertiary type) survived in spite of the awful changes in environmental conditions after the catastrophe. We suggest that this is why the bolide impact and the related tsunami are misjudged sometimes as earliest-Tertiary events. The mass extinction of Mesozoic-type animals actually took place as a result of the meteorite impact, the tsunami

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and the catastrophic environmental changes induced by the impact. The K/T boundary should therefore be defined based on the mass extinction. In addition, it must be noted that the timescale of event sedimentation, including that caused by tsunamis, is quite different from that of the classical stratigraphy. A sedimentary layer of a few or more metres thick can be deposited in several minutes, which is less than the time that it took for the affected organisms to die. Actually, the depositional time is negligible in a geochronological sense. Some dinosaurs, for example, may have survived a few days or even several months after the meteorite impact, but, they would eventually have died because of the environmental changes, including ‘cold summer and lack of food’. Their bodies may have been carried to the sea or to some other depositional sites by water currents, and they may have been come to rest there. This explains why their bones can be found in sediment layers above the K/T-boundary tsunamiite layers. In short, the classical law of biostratigraphy cannot be applied to event sediments. All ‘K/T-boundary tsunami sediment layers’, including the Ir-bearing horizon should be regarded as a single ‘boundary zone’. Despite all this, the mass extinction at the Mesozoic/Tertiary boundary should be examined more precisely in the new light of event sedimentology.

2.2. Earthquake-induced tsunamiites and tectonics in geological time A number of earthquake-induced Holocene tsunamiites, including prehistorical and historical time, have been investigated and reported by Scheffers and Kelletat (2003). Most studies focus on the periodical occurrence of earthquake-induced tsunamiites. Some general characteristic sedimentary features of such tsunamiites will be given special attention here, based on these studies (e.g. Dawson and Shi, 2000; Fujiwara, 2004; Fujiwara and Kamataki, this volume; Nanayama et al., 2000; Shigeno and Nanayama, 2002). In some cases, such studies provide significant information about the tectonic history of the region under investigation. Interesting examples concern the uplift history of the Boso and Miura peninsulas, central Japan (Fujiwara et al., 1997) and the topographic change associated with the great earthquake, and tsunamis that occurred in coastal Washington, north-western America (Atwater, 1987, 1997). The study of ancient, geohistorical, earthquake-induced tsunamiites also provides sedimentary information about regional and local tectonics in the geological past. One example is the finding of the Miocene origin of a fault crossing an island arc. This fault is still active, as shown by the study of the Tsubutegaura tsunamiites, Chita Peninsula, Japan (Shiki and Yamazaki, 1996; Yamazaki et al., 1989). Duringer (1984) reported the possible occurrence of earthquake-induced tsunamiites from the Muschelkalk in mid-Europe. It was new and surprising information for most stratigraphers that submarine earthquakes could occur in the Muschelkalk Sea, which was believed to have been a calm sea surrounded by continents. Ueda and Miyashiro (1974) were the first to propose a surprising idea: ‘ridge subduction’. Kinoshita and Ito (1986) and Kinoshita (1994) discussed in more detail whether two magmatic belts along the south-west Japan and the East Asian margin,


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ranging in age from Mesozoic to Palaeogene, must be ascribed to the subduction of the Farallon-Izanagi and Kura-Pacific ridges. This tectonic and magmatic activity should then have caused violent earthquakes, volcanism and tsunamis. No research has been carried out, however, to find either tsunami or earthquake evidence in the sedimentary record in connection with this ridge-subduction concept. This interesting subject deserves more attention in the future. The most significant developments in the earth science since the plate-tectonics model have been the proposal of ‘plume tectonics’ (e.g. Foulger et al., 2005; Hansen and Yuen, 1989; Kellogg et al., 1999; Kumazawa and Maruyama, 1994; Maruyama et al., 1994; Maruyama, 1994) As is well known, strong seismic activity happens (in combination with related tsunamis) during rapid plate subduction at the margin of the ocean related to ‘ocean spreading’. This spreading at a gigantic scale is to be regarded essentially as caused by superplume rise from the bottom of the mantle beneath the ocean floor. For example, a lot of tsunami caused by earthquakes must have occurred along the coast of the palaeo-Pacific ocean during the Cretaceous period, when a superplume rose up. The search for seismic tsunamiites, including seismic tsunami-induced turbidites of that time, is a very interesting subject for future studies (Shiki et al., 1998).

2.3. Volcanic-eruption-induced tsunamiites Volcanic explosions along an arc/trench system generally occur in relation to the subduction of an oceanic plate. Tsunamis and related tsunamiites induced by these volcanic eruptions of common scale have been reviewed by Nishimura et al. (1999; Nishimura, this volume). Homogenites from the Bronze Age (3500 BP) in the eastern Mediterranean present a good example of volcanism-related tsunamiites, and have been examined by Cita and others (e.g. Cita and Aloisi, 2000; Cita et al., 1996), and in the present volume. The most famous gigantic volcanic tsunami in history was caused by the Krakatau eruption in the Sunda Strait in 1883. Its sediments were investigated by Carey et al. (2001) and by Van der Bergh et al. (2003). Volcanic tsunamiites that originated in the prehistory and before, however, have not yet been investigated and are left for future studies.

2.4. Submarine slides and tsunamiites Submarine and subaerial slides and slumps can be triggered by bolide impacts, earthquakes, volcanic eruptions and so on. A slide or slump into a water body can generate a tsunami. The 1958 Alaska tsunami, which was generated by the failure of a bay’s wall due to an earthquake, is the most gigantic example (Miller, 1960). Several historic tsunamis generated by sector collapse of volcanoes have been documented in Japan. For example, a gigantic tsunami was generated by the collapse of the fore-part of Mt. Unzen, in western Kyushu, in 1792 (Aida, 1975; Nishimura, this volume). The run-up height distribution of some of these tsunamis has been discussed. However, precise sedimentological studies of slump-induced tsunamiites are rather rare. Dawson et al. (1988, 1991) reported characteristics of the sand layer attributed

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to the Storegga tsunami in north-eastern Scotland. This tsunami was generated by one of the world’s largest submarine slides, the second Storegga slide, which took place on the Norwegian continental slope, 7000 BP (Bondevik et al., 1997). In 2002, a scientific meeting was held in Amsterdam to discuss submarine slides and tsunamis. At the meeting, many presentations concerned both the identification of slide-generated tsunamis recorded in historical catalogues and numerical models of tsunami generation by submarine slumps and slides. A new development in the study of submarine slide-induced tsunamis is the application of the results of the investigations into slide-generated tsunamis to the studies of both modern and ancient tsunamiites. However, the distinction between slide-generated tsunami sediments and tsunamiites caused directly by the tectonic rise or the subsidence of the sea floor is not easy, especially for areas far away from the slide mass.

3. Patterns of Tsunamiite Occurrence in Time Patterns in time, such as linear patterns, rhythms, episodic changes, explosive developments, chaotic changes, fluctuations and fractals, thus representing various levels or orders, are found throughout in nature (e.g. Kruhl, 1994; Seydel, 1985; see Shiki, 1996). Sedimentary records of some of these phenomena have attracted much attention from geologists in the past few decades. Sequence stratigraphy and event sedimentology, including studies of meteorite-impact records, seismites and tempestites, are clear examples (e.g. Dott, 1983, 1992, 1996; Einsele et al., 1991, 1996; Haq et al., 1987; Shiki, 1996; Vail et al., 1977). The sedimentary records of submarine tsunamis should reveal similar features in their time pattern. Bolide impacts, submarine earthquakes and violent volcanism in the sea are characterized by (1) a sudden, catastrophic nature and spectacle, and (2) a temporary rise in frequency. The tsunami records of such events should reveal similar patterns in time. This could be helpful in carrying out more efficient research of tsunami records in ancient sediments. In the following, we will examine specifically the occurrence patterns of impact- and earthquake-induced tsunamiites, and we will provide our view with respect to tsunamiite occurrences in sedimentary successions.

3.1. Meteorite-impact frequency and tsunamiites It was proposed by Furumoto (1991) that the meteorite-impact frequency (and probability) is of the order of 1.9 billion years (Fig. 19.1). Another cyclicity of a few hundreds of millions of years has been suggested by Alvarez and Muller (1984). Furthermore, a few examples of ‘end-of-a-geological-period meteorite-impact tsunamiites’ have been recorded. For instance, Friedman (1998) reported on the conglomerates of the end-Cambrian impact and tsunami event in the Taconic sequence of eastern New York State, United States, and Schnyder (2005) described a possible tsunami deposit of possible impact origin at the Jurassic/Cretaceous boundary in the Purbeckian of France. It could be deduced from these data,

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E

L ?

Crater diameter (km)

1000

?

100

10

1

0

1

E:Creation of the Earth

2

3

4 5 Time (Ga) before present

L:Intense bombing on lunar ocean

Figure 19.1 Scheme of the meteorite-impact frequency on the earth–moon system inferred from the age-size distribution of craters on the earth, age of ocean genesis on the moon and age of the solar system. Solid circles: craters; open circle: possible crater; open rectangles: inferred craters; shaded area: disappeared record. AE ¼ Ga; E ¼ creation of the Earth; L ¼ intense bombing of lunar oceans. Based on Furumoto (1991) quoting Furumoto and Kumazawa (1990).

including the famous K/T boundary tsunamiites record mentioned above, that these end-of-a-geological-period meteorite impacts and tsunamis reveal a cyclicity of impact frequency of a few or several million years. These patterns, especially the 1.9 billion year cyclicity, can be explained by the movement of our solar system through the galaxy and by the movement of numerous small meteoritic bodies in our solar system as has already been suggested by Niitsuma (1973). It is said that the oceans on the moon were generated by the impact of gigantic cosmic bodies at around 3.8 Ga. According to Furumoto (1991), there are several craters on earth that show another high frequency, viz. of 1.9 Ga. The impact at the K/T boundary (65 Ma) is within or top of the latest high-frequency phase of the cyclicity. Sedimentary records of a gigantic tsunami induced by the K/-boundary impact have been found at many locations and are well documented, as mentioned above and by Goto (this volume). However, no evidence of the impact-induced tsunami for the 1.9 Ga high-frequency phase has been found as yet. We suggest that special features, such as remarkable sedimentary structures in the iron deposits of the time, should be looked for and carefully studied, including research for possible iridium enrichment or impact-related spherules.

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3.2. Earthquake-induced tsunamiite occurrences and sea-level change Earthquakes happen eventually because of a gradual accumulation of stress in the earth’s crust. Theoretically, it is impossible to predict the precise time of a failure. However, faulting and earthquakes do occur periodically. More precisely, (1) the probability of an earthquake to occur changes cyclically; (2) it is very well possible that the periods with a high earthquake frequency alternate with the intervals of low earthquake frequency. The frequency of earthquake-induced tsunamiites (and the possibly cyclical variations in this frequency) should reflect—or at least be related to—the episodic occurrence of earthquakes and to the cyclical local or the regional seismicity in the stratigraphic records during the interval concerned. It should also tell about the tectonic history of the area. Remarkable prehistorical examples of such cyclical tsunamis were shown by the studies of tsunamiites in a drowned valley on the Boso Peninsula, east Japan (e.g. Fujiwara and Kamataki, this volume; Fujiwara et al., 2000), as well as by coastal tsunamiites in western Washington, north-western America (e.g. Atwater, 1997). A lot of recent research of onshore tsunami deposits along the Pacific coast of Kamchatka was also directed to find out the periodicities of tsunamis and strong earthquakes (e.g. Pinegina and Bourgeois, 2001). As far as ancient (pre-Quaternary) tsunamis are concerned, however, only few examples of cyclical occurrences are known. One distinct example is the occurrence of tsunamiites in the Miocene upper-bathyal sediments of the Chita Peninsula, central Japan. The question now arises what is the relationship between earthquake-induced tsunamiites and sea-level changes. In fact, the occurrence of an earthquake (with, in many cases, a related tsunami) reflects essentially only tectonism in the area concerned. For example, repeated occurrences of earthquake-induced tsunamis were shown to occur by studies of tsunamiites along the active subduction zone of the western margin of the Pacific Plate, either at a lowstand stage or during highstand. These occurrences happened both before and after the Holocene maximum highstand (e.g. Fujiwara et al., 1999, 2000). From a more general point of view, however, some relationship appears between eustatic sea-level changes and seismicity, especially in subduction areas, because both phenomena are related to global geotectonics. Global geotectonics thus can be the common cause of these two phenomena. First-order eustatic changes (with a cyclicity of 400 Ma, called the ‘Chelegenic Cycle’ by Sutton (1963) and global tectonics including extensive magmatism and sea-floor spreading show a close relationship, as was discussed by Worsley et al. (1984) and by many others (see Miall, 1990). The rising sea level coincides with times of magmatic events, including granite emplacement and continental break-up (and is correlatable with worldwide warm time spans), whereas falling sea levels coincide with continental aggradation (e.g. Vail et al., 1977, 1991) (Fig. 19.2). These global tectonics result in changes of seismicity. In the context of the above, we want to mention that the continental break-up has been assigned to various causes, such as combined tidal effects caused by the

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Fluctuations (no scale)

Possible change of seismic activity and tsunami occurrence

Sea level

Magmatism Pre-C. Cam. (Ma) 600

Ord. Si. De. 400

Car.

Per. Tr. Jur. 200

Cret.

Cen. 0

Figure 19.2 Possible changes in the frequency of earthquakes and earthquake-induced tsunamis and tsunamiites (dashed line) since the latest Precambrian. The solid lines show the first-order of cyclicity of magmatism and sea-level change inferred or suggested by many authors. The frequency of earthquake-induced tsunamis roughly reflects these cyclical features because of causal relationship between such tsunamis due to subduction tectonics and uplift by a superplume.

gravitational pull of cosmic bodies in our galaxy, and the upheaval of hot plumes caused by heat accumulation beneath the supercontinent that covers the upper mantle (Vail et al., 1991). The mechanism of these possible processes is beyond the scope of this volume. However, it must be noted that the upheaval of the hot superplume induces the mechanical and thermal elevation of young oceanic crust and sea floor (e.g. Maruyama et al., 1994, see above) with a cyclicity of about 400 Ma. Furthermore, the elevation of sea floor can be the cause of a global sea-level rise that makes the first-order sedimentary sequence (see, among others, Miall, 1990). In short, the cyclic upheaval of superplume induces severe subduction tectonics, submarine earthquakes and tsunamis. On the other hand, the upheaval causes sealevel rise of the first order. Consequently, many seismic tsunamis and tsunamiites can occur during the first-order high stand sea-level time that happens with a cyclicity of about 400 Ma. For example, a lot of earthquakes and resulting tsunamis must have occurred along then the coast of the palaeo-Pacific Ocean during the Cretaceous time, when a superplume rose up and the sea level became high as mentioned above. A similar relationship may, or may not, come about in some higher orders (smaller in scale) of sedimentary sequences. For example, Vail et al. (1977) showed

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in their global diagram second-order cycles of 3060 Ma and third-order cycles of about 10 Ma. It is still being doubted whether these cycles have some connection with the frequency of seismic activity, and whether these seismic features can be detected using tsunami records. Strong tectonic activity and transgression, which implies a high sea level, during the Miocene (especially early to middle Miocene) are common concepts in Japanese geology, based on classical stratigraphy and structural geology. The high sea level seems contemporaneous with the relatively high global sea level (see Vail et al., 1977). On the other hand, thick accretionary fore-arc sediments were deposited during the Miocene along the Pacific and Philippine Sea coast of the north-eastern and south-western Japanese islands, showing active subduction (and accretion) tectonics. Consequently, a high frequency of tsunamiites is to be expected in the Miocene transgressive sediments around the Japanese islands. Many seismites, including sedimentary dikes associated with these tsunamiites, have been found in such Miocene sedimentary successions. The Tsubutegaura tsunamiites of the Chita Peninsula mentioned above, and the tsunamiites documented from the Tanabe district (Matsumoto and Masuda, 2004), both in central Japan, are good examples of some tsunamiites associated with seismites, related to the Miocene transgression. There is also the question concerning much higher-order sedimentary sequences and tsunamiite occurrences. An example of a periodical change in tsunamiite deposition frequency is evidenced by the interbedded succession of tsunamiiterich units and background sediments in the Tsubutegura succession (Fig. 19.3). The ‘periodicity’ of this tsunamiite ‘occurrence frequency’ may reflect some periodical changes of tectonic activity that occurred along the Pacific (Philippine Sea) coast of the Japanese arc and trench. Sandy and conglomeratic tsunamiite layers alternate with (or are accompanied by) non-tsunamiite layers, namely mudstone– sandstone layers and sandy seismites; they indicate periodically repeated tsunami activity (Shiki and Yamazaki, 1996). Furthermore, it has to be noted that the alternating tsunamiite and non-tsunamiite layers form relatively thin sedimentary sets that are intercalated in thick muddy background beds. The mudstones in the ‘non-tsunamiite layers’, which alternate with the tsunamiite layers, can also be regarded as ‘background’, as they are similar in their facies to the ‘thick muddy background beds’. No important facies change, indicating an environmental change related with sea-level change, has been observed among these ‘background’ beds of different stratigraphic horizons. That is to say, the tsunamiite-rich unit exhibits a high-frequency seismic activity around the area (Tachibana et al., 2000). In short, cycles or periodicities of two orders are evident in this succession. However, the relationship between the ‘tsunamiite unit occurrence periodicity’ of these orders and the sequence stratigraphy is not clear. It seems that the scale of the periodicity of the lower (bigger) order, that is the periodicity of ‘occurrence frequency’, in time and space is too small in comparison to the known various orders of sequence stratigraphy that depend on the global sea-level change. As to the fourth- and fifth-order cyclicities, there seems to be no relationship between earthquake-induced tsunamiite frequency and sedimentary sequence so that the correlation is weak or non-existent. These cycles are believed to be glacio-eustatic (Haq et al., 1987; Miall, 1990; Vail et al., 1977).


Sediments 30 28

351

Earthquake and tsunami activity

Tsunamiites–seismites (conglomerates) and interbedded background sediments

Intense tsunami activity period

Tsunamiites–seismites (sandstones with gravels) and interbedded background sediments

High-frequency period of earthquakes and tsunamis

26 24 22 20 18 Gravel 16 14 12 10

Background sediments

Stagnant period of earthquake activity

Tsunamiites–seismites (conglomerates)

Intense tsunami activity period

8 6 4 2 0m cl sl s g cl:Clay sl:Silt s:Sand g:Gravel

Irregular boundaries Dykes (surface fissure) Load casts Flame structures Convoluted lamination Trace fossils Dykes (dehydration)

Legend Mudstone (silt-clay) Sandstone with parallel lamination Sandstone with wavy lamination Conglomerate Covered section

Figure 19.3 Representative columnar section showing two orders of earthquake-induced tsunamiite and non-tsunamiite cycles. Tsunamiite–seismite layers contain fine-grained background deposits that jointly form a sedimentary unit exhibiting high-frequency seismic activity. This unit alternates with thick units of fine-grained background sediments. Any remarkable facies difference that reveals environmental change is not observed among these ‘background’ sediments of different stratigraphic horizons. Miocene upper bathyal sediments, Tsubutegaura, Chita Peninsula, central Japan. Based on Tachibana et al. (2000).

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It should be emphasized here that the arrival frequency of tsunamis at a specific coast is higher than the frequency of earthquakes near the coast, because tsunamis can come from many and remote sources. This was clear for the 1960 Chile tsunami, which attacked the Sanriku Coast of north-west Japan (Kato et al., 2002; Kon’no et al., 1961); it was also, and dramatically, exhibited by the damaged coast of Sri Lanka and India by the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami. Summarizing, though the frequency of earthquake-induced tsunamiites within a short-time range may not indicate any correlation with sea-level change or sedimentary sequences, it may reveal periods of sea-level highstand of low-order cycles. It has to be pointed out also that, though there is new interest in sequence stratigraphy in recent years (Porebski and Steel, 2003; Print and Nummedal, 2000), very little is discussed regarding the relationship between frequency change of tsunami events and the newly developed sequence stratigraphy. This relationship is a new and interesting subject in tsunamiite sedimentology, and should be investigated in the future.

3.3. Slump-induced tsunamiites and sea-level change It is commonly believed that submarine slides and slumps occur more frequently in a lowstand phase, especially in its beginning, than during highstand, because the fall of the sea level should degrade regional slope stability. Besides that, submarine slides can induce tsunamis, and tsunamis play a role in transporting and depositing materials. Therefore, we may assume that the probability of occurrence of slump-induced tsunamis tends to rise during the times of sea-level fall. It must be noted, however, that tectonic activity is a more fundamental cause of tsunami generation. The relationship between tsunamiite generation by slumping and sea-level change may be masked by the stochastic nature of seismicity over a short time span and also by the strong effect of tectonic movements of big, loworder character. It is therefore suggested that the above-mentioned relationship may be revealed only faintly, and only in some special cases of the fourth- to fifth-order cyclicity, but they may not be revealed in low-order frequency sequences. This question is also left for future study.

4. Preservation Potential of Tsunamiites Difficulties and problems in tsunamiite sedimentology are discussed in detail in other chapters of this volume. In review, they are as follows: (1) a lack of geophysical studies on tsunamis, (2) the great variability of tsunamiites and (3) the ephemeral nature of tsunamiites. Any ancient tsunamiite deposited in any environment provides valuable information about a catastrophic or very episodic event that has occurred around the globe. Recent studies of many modern run-up (onshore) tsunamiites have clarified numerous interesting facts concerning the special features of such tsunamiites, as demonstrated in the previous chapters. Now, it is possible to apply the many


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achievements of research on modern tsunamiites to the study of ancient occurrences. However, one significant problem remains, viz. that coastal sediments, including run-up tsunamiites, can disappear by erosion due to various natural agents. This means that their record is incomplete in many cases. In other words, ancient sediments rarely reveal only run-up events and then, perhaps, only partially. In contrast, submarine tsunamiites have a much higher chance of preservation. In this context, we want to stress that submarine tsunamiites can present useful sedimentological information about tsunami events, regardless of whether they were impact-, earthquake- or slide-induced, in or close to the sea. It seems that earthquake-induced tsunamiites have a higher preservation potential in a bay or offshore basin with subsiding basement than onshore deposits do. Some good examples are the prehistorical tsunamiites on the Boso Peninsula, the Miocene Tsubutegaura tsunamiites and the Miocene tsunamiites in the Tanabe district, Japan (Matsumoto and Masuda, 2004), mentioned above. Other possible tsunamiites have also been reported from the Palaeogene bay sediments in the Jyoban ‘coalseam-bearing’ deposits in eastern Japan (Kamata, 1996), and from the Purbeckian in France (Schnyder et al., 2005). There are a few examples of tsunamiites found in a shoreface environment. The tsunamiites from the Miocene Tanabe Group mentioned above and those from the Cretaceous Miyako Group (Fujino et al., 2006) are good examples. One great problem regarding the identification of tsunamiites in a shoreface environment is how to distinguish the effect of giant storm waves from that of tsunamis. In contrast with the shoreface environment, ‘shallow’ seas, which are deep enough not to be affected by storm-generated waves and currents, are therefore interesting and deserve more future research regarding possible tsunami records. Sediments that are exceptionally thick and coarse-grained compared with other layers developed commonly in these environments may be tsunami-induced deposits. Actually, Pliocene tsunami deposits have been found in the shelf sediments of the Jyoban district, north-east Japan (Sasayama and Saito, 2003), and tsunamiites of some depth were also documented from the Mio-Pliocene sediments, Miyazaki, South Kyushu, Japan (Matsumoto and Masuda, 2004). All tsunamiites referred to above in this section are earthquake-induced. It is to be pointed out that a submarine, offshore environment of sufficient depth offers possibilities for finding impact-induced tsunamiites. In fact, the depositional environment of the oldest-known impact-generated tsunamiite, from Western Australia, was assigned to a submarine environment deeper than storm wave base (Hassier et al., 2000). In addition, some K/T-boundary impact-induced tsunamiite beds also occur among the beds of similar submarine conditions, that is middle to the outer shelf or somewhat deeper environments (Albertao and Martins, 1996; Bourgeois et al., 1988). In summary, looking for in-bay and offshore basin sediments can be an efficient approach for finding a tsunamiite, as far as the present knowledge of ancient tsunamiites is concerned. In addition, we suggest that research targets may be settled on beds with some peculiar, exceptional sedimentary features in ancient molasse-type sediments (in their classical geological sense) because of their possible relatively high preservation of characteristic features of tsunamiites.

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5. Conclusive Remarks and Future Studies The study of ancient, geohistorical, tsunamiites is still in its initial development. There are many questions and problems regarding future studies in this field, but future research is potentially truly promising. The study of the sediments is very important for a better understanding of tsunami-recurrence patterns around the globe. Such research may, for instance, provide additional data on cyclical frequency changes of meteorite impacts, and could help to unravel Earth’s relative movement through our galaxy. Studies of seismic cyclicities, which have started for historical and prehistorical times, could be extended to include ancient cyclicities, and may present important information about subduction tectonics and plume tectonics, including ridge subduction on both the western and the eastern side of the pre-Pacific Oceans during the Mesozoic and Palaeozoic. Further development of tsunamiite sedimentology will result in better identification criteria for ancient tsunamiites and will provide more extensive information for the investigation of the whole history of our ‘Gaia’.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We thank Professor Fujio Masuda, Kyoto University, for his stimulating advice and encouragement. This contribution was improved by the helpful comments from Dr. K. Goto, Professor van Loon and other geologists who kindly reviewed our manuscript.

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C H A P T E R

T W E N T Y

Introduction to a Tsunami-Deposits Database B. H. Keating,* M. Wanink,* and C. E. Helsley* Contents 360 361 364 364 368 368

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

Introduction Methodology Database Description and Possible Modifications Categorization Accessibility Collaboration and Reliability The Nature of Tsunami Deposits: Preliminary Findings on Tsunami-Deposit Characteristics 8. Are Tsunami Depositional or Erosional Events? 9. Tsunami Deposits Reflect Availability of Source Material 10. Comparison of Tsunami Deposits and Storm Deposits 11. Locating Tsunami Deposits 12. Ephemeral Nature of the Deposits 13. Offshore Deposits 14. Examples of Database Queries 14.1. Geographic distribution of tsunamis 14.2. Distribution of impact-related tsunamis in time 14.3. Mega-tsunami deposits 15. Request for Assistance 16. Conclusions Acknowledgement Appendix: Updated Tsunami-Deposit Database Form References

369 370 371 371 373 374 375 375 375 376 376 377 377 378 378 380

Abstract The nature, distribution and recurrence rate of tsunamis remain rather poorly documented. To better understand the impact of tsunamis on coastal zones around the world, studies are needed to identify geological records of sedimentary event horizons generated by tsunamis and to radiometrically date the events to establish recurrence rates on a regional or even on a local level. To achieve a better understanding of the nature of tsunami deposits, we have initiated a Tsunami-Deposits Database, which currently * University of Hawaii, HIGP/SOEST, HI 96822, Honolulu Tsunamiites—Features and Implications DOI: 10.1016/B978-0-444-51552-0.00020-5

#

2008 Elsevier B.V.

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B. H. Keating et al.

consists of lithological characteristics of 278 tsunami-deposit publications (of roughly 1000 identified sources). The data compilation shows an uneven distribution of publications with only 13% describing historic tsunamis and the remainder describing palaeotsunami events. The most common type of tsunami deposit is a sand sheet. Common observations include the following: beach sediments are transported inland leaving a sand sheet in wetlands and other coastal settings; sands have been carried inland, and buried grasses and other vegetation: the bent vegetation can be used to document the current direction; drain-back deposits frequently contain sand and mud (particularly mud rip-up clasts) transported from land to the sea and carrying charcoal and organic debris; tsunami waves can overtop or ‘blow-out’ coastal sand dunes and leave a catastrophic inundation record within marshes; a ‘tsunami stratigraphy’ (of lithological couplets) remains and is associated with inundation and drain-back; tsunami run-ups leave one or more sand sheets, reflecting multiple waves; the deposits left onshore often contain marine shells/fossils transported into a nonmarine setting; tsunami deposits are ephemeral in nature and are easily removed by the subsequent erosion by normal coastal processes and modification of the environment by humans. Key Words: Tsunami, Database, Volcanogenic tsunami, Landslide generated tsunami, Co-seismic tsunami, Lithological couplets, Local tsunami, Far field tsunami deposits, Tsunami database. ß 2008 Elsevier B.V.

1. Introduction Increasingly, the global population has become concentrated within 10–100 km of the coastline. As energy resources decline, the concentration of populations is likely to become more focused. As more of the population moves into the coastal zone, many more people will be affected by natural disasters including tsunamis, typhoons (hurricanes or cyclones), storm surges, flooding and so on. Currently, it is difficult to evaluate the risk associated with these inundations. The scientific challenge will be to establish recurrence rates of various natural phenomena, particularly ‘tsunamis’ (the Japanese word meaning ‘harbour wave’). To evaluate tsunami risk, we must find records of tsunami event horizons, date these events and differentiate them from other natural phenomena (particularly storm-surge deposition). Thus, we need an accurate and comprehensive picture of the sedimentary properties of tsunami deposits. The present contribution introduces a project aimed at compiling a database of sedimentary characteristics (granulometric and lithological) unique to tsunami deposits. By inventorying and extracting the lithological characteristics of tsunami deposits, we hope to find unique characteristics that will assist in differentiating event horizons and thus develop means for determining more accurate tsunamirecurrence rates.

Introduction to a Tsunami-Deposits Database

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The 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami provides us with a grand opportunity to study the deposits of a great tsunami within the near field (proximal) and in the far field (distal). These studies will permit scientists to analyze:

the role of deposition versus erosion during the event, the variability of deposits from place to place along coastlines, the characteristics of distal versus proximal deposits, the interaction between tsunami inundation and the local geomorphology, and to identify the unique features of a tsunami deposit that can be preserved and observed in geological records.

By combining the observations from the 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami event with records of other historic tsunamis and palaeo-tsunamis, we hope to develop a framework for analyzing natural-hazard events (both tsunamis and storms) to establish recurrence rates and assess hazard risks on a local basis and thus help to assess risk on a regional and perhaps even on a global basis. The present contribution does not attempt to establish a classification system for tsunamiites. An attempt to do so would be premature, since we are reporting on only 278 publications. The subject categories we have employed at this juncture are terms used for practical convenience and should not be taken as a scientific classification of tsunamiites. That task would be best undertaken at the completion of the data compilation. We instead wish to introduce the database concept, identify the characteristics common to the publications already reviewed and point out that the bibliography that is being compiled is a separate but important part of this task.

2. Methodology Various geological units have been identified as ‘tsunami deposits’ in the literature. These vary from sand sheets to lag gravels, from marsh deposits to isolated boulders perched on reefs and from shorelines to sediments deposited in the deep sea. Trying to make sense of this very diverse assemblage of materials, all listed as tsunami deposits by one author or another is daunting. We have attempted to find common parameters that can be usefully employed in a searchable database. This is very difficult when comparing sub-aerial deposits to submarine deposits, particularly since the thickness and detail of description vary by orders of magnitude. We list the published ‘category’ as provided by the author(s) as one of the database elements. The categories of information in the database fall into several logical subsets of information:

location and general description of the unit; causative event if known; general characteristics; depositional setting of the site; topographical/geomorphical relationships; relationship(s) to surrounding units;

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sedimentological parameters; ▪ median grain size, ▪ maximum grain or clast size, ▪ sorting, ▪ nature of internal layering; lithology of particles; physical markings, if any, on coarse particles or clasts; presence of special features such as rip-up clasts or boulders; types and age(s) of fossils present; age of the unit.

The database also includes information about the authors and the nature of the publication in which it can be found, and a full bibliographical reference to the original material utilized. To better understand the nature and distribution of tsunami deposits and to properly assess their origin, our first effort has been to generate a spreadsheet or digital database of tsunami-deposit characteristics, using the information provided in the publication. Redundant computer searches have been performed utilizing several computer search engines among others Science Direct/Science Citation, Georef, Geobase, Scopus and Refworks. In addition, we plan to link to material from the Cascadia-Tsunami-Deposit Database (Pacific North-west of North America including Oregon, Washington and British Columbia: http://geopubs.wr.usgs.gov/ open-file/of03-13/). The initial science citations have been downloaded into the Endnote citation software program and redundancies have been eliminated. This process has identified 1000 references associated with the term ‘Tsunami Deposit’. In addition, the primary author maintains a large collection of reprints that were utilized in data compilation. Each reference has been examined (in preprint, published manuscript or abstract form) to extract information from the publication. The shortcoming of this approach is that much of the necessary descriptive detail is often missing in the abstract, or even from published material, thus some publications will not be accurately represented in the database. Thirty-six data parameter entries (spreadsheet columns) have been tabulated into Excel database worksheets (see notes about these parameters in Table 20.1). Of the 278 references currently in the Tsunami-Deposits Database, 13% of the publications describe tsunami deposits from known historical events and 87% of the publications describe units from palaeo-tsunami events. It must be recognized that some of these palaeo-tsunami deposits may have an origin other than a tsunami. The first journal publications related to tsunami deposits appear around 1950. Unfortunately, the older scientific publications (1950–1990) seldom appear in electronic citation databases, and consequently a plot of the number of tsunami-deposit publications by year (Fig. 20.1) indicates that the study of tsunami deposits is very young, with most of the studies published after 1990. This apparent trend, however, is an artefact resulting from the compilation methodology that reflects the youth and nature of web-based bibliographical search engines, which have become widely available during the 1990s.


Table 20.1 Overview of database entries

Environmental or Physical Settings (e.g., pond, lake, lacustrine, dune ridge, coastal) Site description and place name Location Latitude Longitude Ocean (e.g., North Sea) Sedimentology Lithology (e.g., coral clasts, basalt, sand, gravel, mud) Grain size (e.g., very course, fine grained) Roundness (e.g., well rounded, angular) Clast size (granule, pebble, cobble, boulder, mega-boulder) Depositional units (e.g., coarsens laterally, wedge shaped) Couplets (e.g., sand/mud, sand/silt, sand/soil, sand/gravel, sand/peat) Erosional Features (e.g., channels, scour pits) Sedimentary structures (e.g., dune, anti-dune, cross-bedding, lamination) Bed forms (e.g., rip-up clasts) Tsunami Parameters Event (e.g., Lisbon earthquake tsunami) Wave height Run-up Inundation Number of waves Largest wave Geomorphology Physical changes to the landscape (e.g., dunes breached, barrier removed) Relative changes to setting (shallowing, deepening) Morphological units (e.g., dunes, breached levees) Geochronology Age dates Dating techniques Dates Palaeontology Micropalaeontology (foraminifers, nannofossils, ostracods, diatoms) Mega-fossil palaeontology (shells, molluscs, gastropods, etc.) Preservation (fragmented, washed over, broken, well preserved) Palynology Pollen Other vegetation (sticks, wood fragments, nuts, seeds, grass, coconuts, etc.) Geochemistry (chemical tracers, e.g., Na, Pb, Fe, etc.) Sampling techniques (cores, transects, box samples, trenches, etc.) Publication type (preprint, abstract, publication, review) Other Observations Notes

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Tsunami deposit publications (278) Number of publication

60 50 40 30 20 10 0 1940

1950

1960

1970 1980 Year

1990

2000

2010

Figure 20.1 The number of publications describing tsunami deposits has been expanding remarkably since the 1990s. With the addition of the publications describing the 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami, the expansion will appear exponential.

3. Database Description and Possible Modifications One of the troubling aspects of this data compilation is the lack of comprehensive descriptions of granulometric and lithological characteristics within the tsunami-deposit literature. Few tsunami-deposit publications even list the study site longitude and latitude. Based on a sampling of several dozen papers and firsthand observations of known tsunami deposits in Hawaii, the primary author selected a list of characteristics that have been tabulated in the current database. Additional characteristics can be added to the database. Several studies documenting the distribution of tsunami deposits over large regions show that tsunami-induced inundation and deposition vary considerably along the length of a given shoreline. These parameters are thus highly variable (as part of a global database) but are very useful for local comparisons or site-specific studies. One of the goals of the present contribution is to encourage the scientific community to employ a more standardized approach to data reporting.

4. Categorization Throughout the initial phase of the project, it was found that the many tsunamis being studied naturally fell into several subject categories. As well as containing a general list of publications, the database has also been subdivided into subject categories for ease in searching and studying the distribution of parameters within the database (Table 20.2). A large number of tsunami deposits fall into a category related to co-seismic events, indicated by the label ‘Uplift/Subsidence’. This terminology is used because these are deposits that are known to have been associated with earthquakes that

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Table 20.2 Summary of database entries Category (origin)

Number of entries

Co-seismic (uplift/subsidence) Impacts [Cretaceous/Tertiary (K/T) boundary] Landslide related Volcanogenic Continental margins (source or deposit) Submarine tsunami deposits Uncertain (tsunami or storm origin) Unknown origin

53 19 26 16 7 33 29 95

deformed the crust. The initial earthquake activity can produce a subsidence of the crust, followed with a slow and sustained uplift, or vice versa, depending on the location of the site relative to the earthquake rupture location. The preservation of tsunami deposits in this setting is likely to be different from settings where uplift and/or subsidence are absent. Volcanogenic tsunami deposits have a global distribution, but are largely restricted to local, that is near field, tsunami. Landslide-related tsunamis are another important category. This category includes a wide range of examples. Unfortunately, the existing data, though abundant, are not very comprehensive at this stage. Latter (1982) published a review of volcanogenic tsunami in which he reported 90 events before 1981: sixteen additional publications (covering the years 1991–2003) describe additional tsunami events. One of the most recent volcanogenic tsunami events occurred in December of 2002 when an eruptive fracture near the summit crater at Sciara del Fuoco on the Stromboli volcano (Fig. 20.2) produced an edifice failure that triggered a near field tsunami. The landslide-triggered tsunamis constitute an important category, even though they may only be locally significant. Keating and McGuire (2000) compiled examples of known landslide-generated tsunami. Subsequently, they compiled a summary of tsunami and landslide studies in scientific journals (Table 5 in Keating and McGuire, 2004), dating back to the 1950s. This compilation cites 130 publications on this topic. Landslide-triggered tsunami deposits are also associated with the offshore submarine region of the continental margins, and these have been assigned to another category. Some of these marine landslides are believed to be triggered by a combination of methane migration and/or destabilization of gas hydrates (clathrates) that are likely to have been associated in time with local earthquake activity and/or with sea-level change and thus may reflect indirectly climate change. Currently, we have grouped deposits in the literature identified as tsunamiites, homogenites and tsunami deposits recovered from submarine coring or ocean drilling into the category ‘Submarine Tsunami Deposits’. Technically the term tsunamiite refers to any sedimentary deposit generated by tsunami activity. Shiki et al. (2000) point out that submarine tsunamiites have been brought to light only recently. At this time, we have chosen not to re-classify previously published work.

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Figure 20.2 During a summit eruption of the Stromboli volcano, the flank of the volcano failed, producing a locally significant tsunami. This aerial photograph shows the landslide scar on the flank of the volcano (photograph of the landslide scar was kindly provided by A. Tibaldi).

In the present volume, the term ‘tsunamiite’ is used to describe both submarine and sub-aerial tsunami deposits. Within this category, the depositional environments include one lake deposit, three sub-tidal deposits, eight shallow-marine deposits and eleven deep-sea deposits. Ten of the publications using the term ‘tsunamiite’ are associated with the Cretaceous/Tertiary (K/T) boundary. The term ‘homogenite’ was coined to describe an unusual stratigraphic unit that fills topographical lows of the sea floor of the Mediterranean Sea. The homogenite unit is interpreted as a sediment gravity flow on the abyssal floor that resulted from the collapse of the Santorini caldera. Cita et al. (1996) used the word ‘homogenite’ as a geological expression of a unique turbidite event, with a definite stratigraphy. We have included the term seismite in our summary of tsunamiites. Seismites are highly deformed sediments resulting from fault movements associated with seismic events. The examples included in the database are associated with hypothesized tsunami activity. However, the seismic activity that triggers a sediment failure could result from volcanic activity, an atomic bomb, an earthquake, or a simple slumping event of a continental margin, etc., and consequently not all seismites are necessarily associated with a tsunami or with tsunamigenic events.


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Mega-boulders are an interesting subject of debate. Their origin is variously assigned to tsunamis and storms (hurricanes, cyclones and typhoons). In Hawaii, boulder deposits are associated with winter storms that bring large swells. Throughout the islands of the Pacific, the large isolated blocks of coral on top of the reefs have long been reported to be of typhoon (hurricane) origin (verbally recounted to the first author by eyewitnesses during a period of 25 years of geological field studies on the origins of seamounts, islands and atolls in the Pacific by Keating and Helsley, see www.higp.hawaii.edu/’keating/). Mega-tsunami deposits are another major topic of controversy. Some deposits at moderate-to-high elevations (10–200 m a. s. l.) have been assigned a tsunami origin. Yet strong arguments can be made that some of the deposits in Hawaii are littoral and shallow-submarine slope deposits (Fig. 20.3) that have been uplifted by lithospheric deformation associated with the volcanic hot spot (Felton et al., 2000; Keating and Helsley, 2002). Similar arguments are evolving in regard to deposits

Figure 20.3 (A) Photograph of coral-bearing sediments between 100 and 190 m on the Hawaiian Island of Lanai. (B) When mapped, these deposits (circles on the topographical map with site labels attached) are correlated from gully to gully in a bathtub ring-like distribution. No corals are found on the interfluves or between the stratigraphic event horizons. This horizontal distribution is likely to reflect prior sea levels, not tsunami inundation. The map shown in Fig. 20.3B is situated inland of Apoopoo on the south coast of Lanai.

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within the Canary Islands (Meco, Departamento de Biologia, Campus de Tafira, Las Palmas, Spain and Felton, University of Hawaii, personal communication, 2004). A separate category has been employed for publications describing impactrelated tsunami. There are a large number of publications related to the K/T boundary. These publications often report evidence of the transportation of shallow-marine faunas, associated with debris flows, into deep-sea environments, rather than sediment movement in a coastal zone or from offshore environments to onshore environments. ‘Historic tsunamis’ refer to the tsunami deposits left by an observed tsunami, and they constitute a prominent category. Since these are modern events, they often have many more observations associated with them than other categories. Therefore, this subset provides an important data set particularly with regard to run-up and inundation ranges, and to the regional distribution of tsunami deposits. The current database contains a general category that includes miscellaneous publications. The advantage of an electronic database is that the user of the database can categorize the information in a multitude of ways. For example, one of our preliminary enquiries asked about the occurrence of tsunami deposits on the Atlantic Ocean margins to test the hypothesis that the Canary Islands can generate a megatsunami that would inundate eastern North America. Another colleague requested that we examine the distribution of mega-boulder deposits. Yet another query involved the distribution of run-up heights from historic tsunamis. Obviously, the database can serve a very useful function. For example, a user could compare parameters of historic storm deposits with those of historic tsunami deposits.

5. Accessibility Currently the Tsunami-Deposits Database (TDDB) is being compiled on PC platforms. The intention is to make the database web accessible. The current plan is to contribute the material to the National Geophysical Data Center [NGDC, a component of the USA Department of Commerce and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA)]. There is also a tsunami database being compiled by the Super Computer Center Group at the University of California at San Diego, and this site could also be used as a depository for the data.

6. Collaboration and Reliability It is an arduous and tedious task to compile a database. In large part, the difficulty with the creation of a database is the effort that it takes to retain adequate attention to detail, including details that sometimes do not seem pertinent until more data are examined and included. To assure accuracy, the entries must be repeatedly checked. This process is best accomplished through the efforts of a group, rather than one or two individuals. Tsunami scientists are asked to contribute directly to the database by submitting information on the database entry forms included as an

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Appendix at the end of this chapter and by checking individual entries in the database for accuracy and notifying the compilers of changes or modifications that are necessary. Colleagues have volunteered to collaborate on mega-tsunami, boulder deposits and Atlantic-rim tsunami deposits. Additional collaborations are solicited, and volunteers are asked to contact the first author.

7. The Nature of Tsunami Deposits: Preliminary Findings on Tsunami-Deposit Characteristics An analysis of the data within the initial database allows us to distinguish important characteristics typical of tsunami deposits. These are summarized in Fig. 20.4. Most of the data are from coastal land sites. Tsunami deposits associated with archaeological sites make up 3% of the database, while those associated with fjords make up 2% of the database. Our review of the database suggests that there are some properties that are typical of many deposits:

beach sediments that are transported and dispersed as a sand sheet (Fig. 20.5); the drain-back deposits frequently contain charcoal and organic debris; the tsunami waves can overtop or deeply incise sand dunes;

Types of tsunami deposits (Total 278) 140

Number of occurrences

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Figure 20.4 ments.

Plot of the frequency of occurrences of tsunami deposits within various environ-

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Figure 20.5 Landward entrance to a two-story concrete resort property on the south-west side of Sri Lanka. The property had been destroyed by the 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami and was not reopened. The overly optimistic sign on the fence says ‘we’re upgrading and will serve you better’. Several centimetres of tsunami sand covered the property even on the leeward, protected side of the building. Sand sheets are typical of most tsunami deposits left after tsunami flooding.

a ‘tsunami stratigraphy’ (lithological couplets) results from inundation and drainback; often, tsunami run-up leaves one or more sand sheets, reflecting multiple waves; the deposits left onshore often contain marine fossils.

8. Are Tsunami Depositional or Erosional Events? Tsunamis are both depositional and erosional. The current review of the published literature shows, however, that only 2% of the publications address erosion. Bryant (2001) has been one of the few scientists to address the question of erosion resulting from tsunamis. He searched for evidence of effects on the seabed and on the land, and found landforms that he associated with tsunamis and recognized evidence of mega-tsunamis. Whereas his interpretation of features as products of tsunamis (and mega-tsunamis) versus the product of normal coastal processes over long-term periods is debated, Bryant has raised important questions of how tsunamis can erode and carve landforms. Few other scientific studies have examined what a ‘tsunami erosion surface’ might look like, and much more effort is needed to adequately study erosional tsunami features. Some erosional features appear to be common to all or at least most tsunamis:

the basal contacts of most tsunami deposits are erosional and disconformable; tsunamis leave pronounced scour pits; tsunamis erode coastal deposits and disperse them onshore or offshore; tsunamis frequently erode or overtop coastal sand dunes; when large tsunami waves flood coastal zones to appreciable depths, the deposits can appear to ignore the coastal geomorphology (and/or topography);


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during drain-back flow, the tsunami floodwaters follow pre-existing drainages and can scour and deepen drainage channels, and cut new gullies, as the tsunami waters transport sub-aerial and coastal debris offshore; tsunami erosion results in transport of fluvial and coastal sediments and debris both inshore and offshore; aerial photographs taken along the coastline after a tsunami often shows that the coastal zone has been stripped of vegetation, buildings and debris; after the 1946 Aleutian Tsunami struck the Hawaiian Islands, scientists reported that terraces on the north shore of the island of Molokai were swept so clean that they could be used as airplane landing strips. Likewise, aerial photographs of the Sissano lagoon spit shows that the 1998 Papua New Guinea (PNG) Tsunami swept the land clean with only a few coconut trees remaining in place. There is a conspicuous absence of boulders in photographs taken immediately after these events (on display at the Hilo Tsunami Museum and in several publications), possibly because there were no boulders in the sediment source region. When tsunami floodwaters drain from a land surface, they frequently carry charcoal and organic debris (and cigarettes, beach glass and other detritus from modern civilization). When tsunami waters drain from the land surface they are highly erosive and commonly topple seawalls and piers via erosion from the landward side of the structure.

9. Tsunami Deposits Reflect Availability of Source Material Obviously, a large tsunami, like the 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami, can have great carrying capability. Video images of the tsunami flooding on Sumatra and other parts of Asia demonstrated that even the most substantial concrete building structures were damaged or destroyed by the tsunami. When it comes to transporting large pieces of geologically significant material, such as large boulders, a tsunami can, however, transport only the material available. If there are no large boulders at a site, it does not matter how big the tsunami is, there will be no record of the maximum carrying capacity of the tsunami. Since beach and dune sand derived from erosion and reworking at the shoreline is indicative of the most-common rock type available, it is logical that the most-common depositional record associated with tsunamis is sand mobilized by the tsunami flooding and carried inland to form a sand sheet.

10. Comparison of Tsunami Deposits and Storm Deposits Tsunami scientists obviously face a challenge in differentiating palaeo-tsunami deposits from storm deposits. Often the two events generate sedimentary event horizons of similar nature. Studies have been carried out to compare tsunami

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deposits with storm deposits, for example in Japan (Nanayama et al., 2000), New Zealand (Goff et al., 2004) and elsewhere. In the current review, several publications reviewing storm deposits versus tsunami deposits were discovered, and a few examples are described below.

Several mega-boulders are seen on the reef on the northern shore of Oahu. Studies on these boulders have been reported by Noormets et al. (2002) and Whelan and Keating (2004). Debate continues whether these boulders were emplaced by storm or by tsunami. Aerial photographs taken of the coastline at a roughly decadal frequency show the boulders periodically move on the reef flat, unfortunately these photographs were not taken immediately before or after the 1946 Aleutian tsunami, so the question of the nature of emplacement remains to be resolved. (B. Keating has been swimming along this coast in 5þ m seas associated with winter swells and observed rounded coral boulders, 45-cm diameter, entrained in the same breaking wave.) Comparisons of tsunami deposits and storm deposits have been made at Queen’s Beach on the south-east side of Oahu. Four different tsunami events have inundated this beach in the last century, inundating the coastal zone with wave heights of 3–4 m. In 2003, a winter storm, with a coastal wave height near that of the prior tsunami, impacted the beach. Subsequent to the winter swell event, sediment-box samples were collected along the same transect, and measured. While the storm had similar wave heights, it did not transport deposits above the storm berm near the back of the beach (Fig. 20.6), whereas, the tsunami inundated the entire coastal zone. At the toe of Makapu’u Ridge in south-east Oahu (locally called ‘Pele’s throne’) there is a collection of large basalt boulders (1þ m in diameter). During the 2003 winter swell, the boulders at the base of Pele’s throne were moved a few metres and the sediments surrounding the inlet were eroded by the storm. In this case, the storm waves had the lifting traction capacity to move large boulders and to erode sediments in a fashion similar to the historic tsunami, but with much more limited inundation. Sand, shell, gravel and mud in lagoon deposits have been used to examine the recurrence rates of hurricanes in Florida, New England and South Carolina (Davis et al., 1989). The storms leave overwash deposits within marshes and sand layers up to 15-cm thick. But they also report that the post-storm biological processes are obscuring the distinct storm-generated layers (see excerpted sections in Tedesco et al., 1996). In Alabama, on the south coast of the United States, multiple sand layers have been found in the nearshore sediments of Lake Shelby by Liu and Fearn (1993), who interpreted these sediments as hurricane deposits, based on the sedimentary record, they found a recurrence rate for category 4 or 5 hurricanes to be approximately every 600 years. After the 2004 and 2005 hurricane seasons, however, this number may have to be revised. Several large hurricanes can occur during a single season and the dating of these deposits (in the geological record) is not likely to be able to establish that these were individual events.

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Legend GPS sample points Run-up (measured) Run-up (derived) GPS points for storm run-up march 2004

0 25 50

100

150

200

250 metres

Figure 20.6 Queen’s Beach coastal zone with global positioning system (GPS) tracks overlain on an aerial photograph. The dark line shows the distribution pattern of the storm deposits. The black dots mark sampling profiles associated with the tsunami deposits (from Keating et al., in prep.).

Studies of marine benthonic and planktonic microfossil breakage have been carried out in the Pacific north-west (NW) (Hemphill-Haley, 1995, 1996). The studies rule out alternative origins—such as climatically induced sea-level rise or temporary subsidence caused by storms—for the origin of sand deposits within modern-day marsh environments. Hemphill-Haley concludes that the deposits are associated with an earthquake-generated tsunami that occurred roughly 300 years ago.

11. Locating Tsunami Deposits The study of tsunami deposits is often fraught with difficulties. A prime problem in studying tsunami deposits is to find them in situ. Several approaches can be taken, as listed below: Start with the historic record. Examine photographs and records, particularly newspapers, to locate zones of known tsunami inundation and investigate these areas. Look for depositional basins, for example, marshes, crater lakes, lagoons and bays that trap sediments.

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Core marshes, such as done, for instance, at the Kawainui swamp (near Kapaa Quarry, East Oahu, Hawaii), where the first substantial sand sheet was found at 2-m depth, using a Dutch corer. Core lagoons and ponds, such as done, for instance, at the Kealia pond (Kihei, Maui), where there is a broad, shallow pond adjacent to the coastline. The pond was sampled using a Dutch corer and the first substantial sand deposits that could represent a tsunami deposit were found at a depth of 2 m. Examine bays, such as Hilo Bay, Hawaii, where focusing effects may provide larger inundation and thus separate tsunami deposits from storm and coastal deposits. Within historic times, Hilo has been inundated by a number of devastating tsunamis, and it would be very interesting to attempt to sample the offshore record of these events. Examine offshore deposits. Tsunami deposits are present in shallow offshore submarine deposits (e.g., distal deposits around Krakatoa volcano).

12. Ephemeral Nature of the Deposits Hawaii, where both far field and near field tsunamis have occurred, is a prime location to study tsunamis and tsunami deposits. We have been able to employ both written accounts and photographic archives to focus on sites that were inundated by prior tsunamis. We find that the tsunami deposits are nevertheless often elusive: some of our observations include the following aspects: Anthropogenic modifications are one of the primary modes of the destruction of geological features and this includes evidence of tsunami inundation. Also, subsequent to any natural disaster, it is human nature to repair the natural environment as quickly as possible, to re-establish lives and communities. Where urban or resort coastal development takes place, the geological record is most often destroyed and therefore much of the tsunami evidence is quickly removed. As a result, nature preserves and parks may provide some of the only venues remaining for palaeo-tsunami study. Coastal processes including storms, erosion by rains and river floods, and coastal erosion routinely destroy or obfuscate tsunami deposits. Most of these processes fall into the category of normal coastal processes, but it must be emphasized that they remove most traces of tsunamis. A recent report (Galappatti et al., 2005) reviews the extent of the 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami deposition was quickly erased by the subsequent coastal processes, over a matter of a few months. In Hawaii, (black-brown) vertisols, rich in montmorillonite and highly expansive, are found within the lower elevations of the coastal zones. Higher on the slopes of the volcanic islands, red-orange oxisols are found. Soil scientists attribute the vertisols to marine inundation. This is a very important feature because its expansive nature is responsible for fracturing, and toppling foundations and rock walls throughout the islands. In the field, on the island of Lanai, we have dug through the vertisols (within the proposed mega-tsunami inundation zone) and found 0.5–1.5 m of vertisol that is free of rock clasts. When the vertisol is wet by rain,


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it expands (up to 30%) and then contracts during drying. With repeated wetting and drying the soil mixes the surficial sediment layers and works rocks to the surface and thus leaves what appears to be a lag deposit on the surface. Lag deposits, interpreted as mega-tsunami deposits on Lanai, are not tsunami deposits but instead a characteristic of vertisols.

13. Offshore Deposits Although much effort has been expended on studying sub-aerial deposits, it is very likely that the study of offshore deposits will prove rewarding. Tsunami deposits left onshore are subject to erosion, man-made alterations, etc. However, tsunamideposits offshore can quickly be buried, and thus it is likely that there will be good records of tsunami both in shallow waters and in the deep sea. Van den Bergh et al. (2003) described the lithological record of tsunami deposits sampled from shallow waters off an island near the Krakatoa volcano. Other than an area affected by stream discharge, they found a good correlation in the submarine stratigraphic records. It is likely that we should expect a shift in sampling from on shore to offshore, as scientists struggle to determine tsunami-recurrence rates.

14. Examples of Database Queries 14.1. Geographic distribution of tsunamis The map (in Fig. 20.7) illustrates the distribution of tsunami deposits from historic tsunami reports that are currently part of the database. While the map gives the general distribution of tsunami records, it is biased by the current set of data. It is also biased by the uneven distribution of scientific expertise in tsunami-deposits research. New Zealand, for example, has few modern occurrences of historical tsunami but has a concentration of experts publishing on geological and historical tsunamis. The largest numbers of tsunami reports are concentrated in Indonesia, Japan and Italy. Bryant (2001) has published two similar distribution maps of tsunamis in the Pacific Ocean region [Fig. 1.2.A and Fig. 1.2.B based on compilations by IOC, 1999; Lockridge, 1985, 1988a,b, 1990; Lockridge and Smith, 1984]. While Fig. 20.7 illustrates a larger geographical area, it shows a similar distribution of tsunami around the Pacific, with small differences: less of a concentration of tsunamis around Hawaii, more tsunamis throughout the south-west Pacific and few tsunamis in the Philippines. These differences are readily explained. Until very recently few tsunami-deposit studies had been carried out in the Hawaiian Islands. Although there have been many historic tsunami, few of the associated deposits have been reported. There are tsunami deposits within the Philippine Islands and efforts will be made to include this region into the tsunami-deposit database. Also, there are locations such as Newfoundland, where tsunami deposits have been reported, that have yet to be entered into the tsunami database.

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Figure 20.7 World map (modified from Google Internet map images) showing the locations and numbers of historical tsunami deposits reported in the literature. The general locations are marked by solid dots. The size of the dots reflects the number of tsunami-deposits reports that are present in the Tsunami-Deposits database. With the occurrence of the 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami, many additional studies (indicated by grey dots) are under way.

The 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami has raised our awareness of tsunami deposits, both historical and pre-historical, that are dispersed around the Indian Ocean. Most of the studies of the deposits are contemporary with the production of this chapter or are yet to be published. The locations of known tsunami deposits and impacts that resulted from the 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami have been added to the map (Fig. 20.7).

14.2. Distribution of impact-related tsunamis in time Of 38 impact-related tsunami deposits currently tabulated, 31 of them are associated with the K/T boundary event. Seven other impact-related tsunami deposits are listed of various geological ages. Reviews of the K/T-boundary impact and the geological evidence have been published (Dypvik and Jansa, 2003; Keller et al., 2003). Readers interested in this topic are referred to these publications for additional information.

14.3. Mega-tsunami deposits Marine conglomerates are present throughout the Hawaiian Islands. These deposits contain corals and other fossils; at elevations over 50 m above sea level; many of the marine species preserved as fossils are no longer present (living) within the Hawaiian Island chain. Traditionally, these deposits have been assigned to high stands of the sea within the last few hundred thousands of years (Stearns, 1985). However, in the 1980s, these deposits were re-interpreted as deposits thrown up on the islands


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by mega-tsunamis. Subsequently, these deposits have been re-examined by several scientists and are now interpreted by many scientists to be the littoral and shallowmarine deposits exposed as the islands have been uplifted by the lithospheric flexure around the Hawaiian hot spot volcanism. This interpretation is consistent with the observation of increasing age of fossils with elevation, and with the increasing number of extinct species of marine fossils with elevation (corals and molluscs, no longer present in Hawaiian waters). Because of the conflicting interpretation regarding the origin of these deposits, it is important that deposits of potential megatsunami origin be studied elsewhere in the world. An analysis of the sub-aerial (i.e., non-marine) tsunami deposits described in the literature indicated that tsunami deposits typically consist of sand sheets. Thus, it is expected that mega-tsunami deposits also consist of sand sheets.

15. Request for Assistance We have endeavoured in this publication to review the current ( July 2005) tsunami deposits database with 278 data entries. A framework of lithological and granulometric parameters describing the deposits has been constructed, and roughly 25% of the known publications have been abstracted from the publications and entered into the database. Currently, we are expanding this initial effort (as Phase 2). Ideally, each scientist working on tsunami deposits will review the entries in the database to ensure the reliability of the input. We request that all tsunami scientists collaborate on the compilation and assure the accuracy of the data. The Appendix is a copy of the Tsunami-Deposit Database Entry Form. Readers are encouraged to copy this form and submit data entries directly to the compilers. Likewise, recommendations for improvements to the database are encouraged and can be made to the authors.

16. Conclusions Following the 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami, there has been renewed interest in tsunami and tsunami deposits. Clearly, scientists need to evaluate tsunami deposits to derive reliable recurrence rates for tsunamis around the world. It is particularly important that the scientific community be able to separate tsunami event horizons from storm event horizons, in order to produce reliable tsunami-recurrence rates. A majority of the literature on tsunami deposits is based on palaeo-tsunamis. The studies of palaeo-tsunamis are likely to include a mix of tsunamis, major storm events, and other events such as slumps and landslides that may or may not have been related to a tsunami. Thus, an accurate knowledge of sedimentary characteristics that differentiate storm (and other event) horizons from tsunami event horizons is critical. As part of the database development, we have initiated an effort to compile the sedimentary (granulometric and lithological) characteristics unique to tsunami deposits around the world.

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We review the initial phase of the tsunami-deposit database compilation for the tsunami science community and ask for collaboration. While, it is premature to discuss a classification of tsunami deposits at the present time, it is likely that the future analysis of the database will provide an opportunity for the scientific community to collaborate. We encourage a more standardized reporting of tsunami-deposit characteristics and request that the tsunami community report results to the compilers using the Database Entry Form provided in the Appendix. The entries currently in the database are listed in Table 20.1. Furthermore, we encourage scientific efforts that will allow us to establish tsunami-recurrence rates globally. Several publications are already available that establish recurrence rates in local areas. The initial results suggest that the rates vary according to region. As a result of recent field surveys on the Maldive Islands and Sri Lanka, scientists from the region have asked for information on locating tsunami deposits for the purpose of developing a record of the recurrence. We here outline in the body of this publication some simple approaches that might be employed to locate tsunami deposits. The 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami provided an opportunity to document tsunami deposits both in the far field and in the near field and to better understand the nature and characteristics of tsunami deposition and erosion. The event also focused attention on the need for reliable determinations of the tsunami-recurrence rate to better assess tsunami risk.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT The project is funded through a grant from the University of Hawaii Sea Grant Program.

Appendix: Updated Tsunami-Deposit Database Form (Wherever possible circle the appropriate term) Database I. D. Number TDDB# (to be entered by compiler)__________________ Environmental Setting Site description: Rocky coast, sandy beach, rocky cliff, canyon, lake, basin, submarine landslide, marsh _______________________________________________ Location__________________________________________________________ Latitude: ___________ degrees N or S, use format xx,xxx degrees or xx degrees xx. x minutes Longitude: ___________ degrees E or W use format xxx,xxx degrees or xxx degrees xx.x minutes Archaeology site: Yes, No Ocean or region: Pacific, Atlantic, Gulf of Mexico, etc. _____________________ Sedimentology Lithology: Coral, basalt, quartz, peat or organics ___________________________ Grain size: Silt, sand, cobble, pebble, boulder, mega-boulder__________________


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Sorting: Grading up, normal, poorly, well, mixed __________________________ Roundness: Well-rounded, angular_____________________________________ Coarsest clast size: Cobble, pebble, boulder, rock slabs, eroded boulders, megaboulders, rock slabs, eroded boulders, blocks____________________________ Sand size: Fine-grain, coarse-grain, granular, heterolithic_____________________ Finest fraction: Mud, kaolinitic, shale, ash, marl/lm, dolomite, hemipelagic _____ Conglomerate type: Breccia, marine conglomerate, intra-formational conglomerate, pumice sheet, pebble conglomerate, organic conglomerate, debris flow _______________________________________________________________ Unusual strata: Soil, peat, pumice, alluvium, clay, shells, _____________________ Depositional units: Sand sheet, pumice sheet, sheet 1clast-thick, thins seaward, thins landward _______________________________________________________ Couplets: Sand/soil, sand/silt, sand/mud, sand/peat, sand/gravel, sand/ash, pumice, sand/carbonate ___________________________________________________ Erosional features Upper boundary: Conformable, unconformable, hiatus, erosional ______________ Lower boundary: Erosional, unconformable, prograding, folded _______________ Sedimentary structures: Stratified, laminated, cross-bedding, sloping, contorted, deformed, imbricate, diapiric structures, sand volcanoes, chaotic _____________ Sediment disruption Rip-up clasts, mud plugs, mud clasts, liquefaction, slumping, gyttya, pockmarks, contorted, distorted, faulted, folded ___________________________________ Bed forms: Dune, anti-dune, overturned _________________________________ Sedimentary analyses: Grain size analyses, setting tube _______________________ Matrix or fill: Submarine channel fill, river deposit/levee, debris flow, slump, sand, silt, peat ________________________________________________________ Facies: ___________________________________________________________ Tsunami parameters Event: e.g. 1909 San Francisco Earthquake _______________________________ Wave height: ___________m, ___________ ft Run-up: (Vertical) ___________m, ___________ft Inundation: (Horizontal) ___________m, ___________ft, ___________km, ___________miles Nature: Historic, observed, palaeo-tsunami, ancient ________________________ Origin: Landslide, volcanic, earthquake, methane venting, unknown ___________ Geomorphology Deposits drape topography, deposits ignore topography, lacustrine to marine, slope, ridge ___________________________________________________________ Relative changes to setting: Shallowing, deepening, mixed, transitional _______________________________________________________________ Morphologic units: Dune ridge, breached levees, lake to marsh, shallow marine to deep marine_____________________________________________________ Geochronology Age dates: _________________________________________________________

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Dating techniques: Carbon, Lead, Uranium Series, ESR _____________________ Dates: ____________________________________________________________ Palaeontology Micropalaeontology: Foraminifera, nannofossils____________________________ Ostracod, diatoms, __________________________________________________ Mega-fossil palaeontology: Shells, mollusks, gastropod ______________________ Preservation: Fragmented, washed over, broken, well-preserved _______________ Palynology Pollen: ___________________________________________________________ Other vegetation: Sticks, wood fragments, nuts, seeds, grass, coconuts, sea weed _______________________________________________________________ Geochemistry Chemical tracers: Na, Pb, Cl, Fe, C, _____________________________________ Sampling techniques: Cores, transects, box samples, trenches, etc. ______________ Publication type: Preprint, Abstract, Publication, Review, Citation ____________ Author(s): _________________________________________________________ Year: ____________________________________________________________ Other observations or notes: ___________________________________________

REFERENCES Bryant, E. (2001). Tsunami; The Underrated Hazard pp. 1–320. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK. Cita, M. B., Camerlenghi, A., and Rimoldi, B. (1996). Deep-sea tsunami deposits in the eastern Mediterranean: New evidence and depositional models. Sediment. Geol. 104(1), 155–179. Davis, R. A., Andronaco, M., and Gibeaut, J. (1989). Formation and development of a tidal inlet from a washover fan, West-Central Florida Coast, USA. Sediment. Geol. 65, 87–94. Dypvik, H., and Jansa, L. (2003). Sedimentary signatures and processes during marine bolide impacts: A review. Sediment. Geol. 161, 309–337. Felton, E. A., Crook, K. A. W., and Keating, B. H. (2000). The Hulopoe Gravel, Lanai, Hawaii: New sedimentological data and the bearing on the ‘‘Giant Wave’’ (mega-tsunami) evidence hypothesis. Pure Appl. Geophys. 157, 1257–1284. Galappatti, J., Epitawatta, S., and Samarakoon, R. J. I. (Eds.) (2005). Damage to coastal ecosystems and associated terrestrial environments of Sri Lanka by the tsunami of 26th December 2004. Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources and UN Environment Program, Colombo, Sri Lanka, pp. 1–57 Final Report. Goff, J., McFadgen, B. G., and Chague-Goff, C. (2004). Sedimentary differences between the 2002 Easter storm and the 15th-century Okoropunga tsunami, southeastern North Island, New Zealand. Mar. Geol. 204, 235–250. Hemphill-Haley, E. (1995). Diatom evidence for earthquake-induced subsidence and tsunami 300 yr ago in southern coastal Washington. GSA Bull. 107, 367–378. Hemphill-Haley, E. (1996). Diatoms as an aid in identifying late-Holocene tsunami deposits. Holocene 6, 439–448. Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission (IOC) (1999). Historical Tsunami Database for the Pacific, 47 B.C.—1998 A.D. Tsunami Laboratory, Institute of Computational Mathematics and Mathematical Geophysics. Siberian Division Russian Academy of Sciences, Novosibirsk, Russia, pp. 1–208 [Available on IOC Web site http://tsun.sscc.ru/HTDBPac/].


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BIBLIOGRAPHY OF TSUNAMIITE T. Yamazaki, T. Shiki, K. Minoura, and Y. Tsuji

The present list containing over 430 items does not include papers on tsunami wave itself. Papers and reports describing tsunamiites and related sediments published before the end of 2005 are listed. The authors request that omission and additions will be brought to their notice, preferably by sending reprints, for inclusion in a later supplement. Aalto, K. R., Aalto, R., Garrison-Laney, C. E., and Abramson, H. F. (1999). Tsunami (?) sculpturing of the pebble beach wave-cut platform, Crescent City area, California. J. Geol. 107, 607–622. Abbott, D. H., Matzen, A., Bryant, E. A., and Pekar, S. F. (2003). Did a bolide impact cause catastrophic tsunamis in Australia and New Zealand? Geol. Soc. Am. Abst. Programs 35, 168. Abe, K., Tsuji, Y., Imamura, F., Katao, H., Yoshihisa, I., Satake, K., Bourgeois, J., Noguera, E., and Estrada, F. (1993). Field survey of the Nicaragua earthquake and tsunami of September 2, 1992. Bull. Earthq. Res. Inst. Univ. Tokyo 68, 23–70. Abe, K., Uchida, J., Hasegawa, S., Fujiwara, O., and Kamataki, T. (2004). Foraminiferal occurrence in tsunami deposits—an example of the Holocene sequence at Tateyama, southern part of the Boso Peninsula, central Japan. Mem. Geol. Soc. Japan 58, 63–76 (in Japanese with English abstract). Abramson, H. F., Garrison-Laney, C. E., and Carver, G. A. (1998). Evidence for earthquakes and tsunamis during the last 3500 years from Lagoon Creek, a coastal freshwater marsh, northern California. Geol. Soc. Am. Abst. Programs 30, 2. Aida, I. (1984). An estimation of tsunamis generated by volcanic eruptions—the 1741 eruption of Oshima-Ohshima, Hokkaido. Bull. Earthq. Res. Inst. Univ. Tokyo 59, 519–531 (in Japanese with English abstract). Albertao, G. A. (1994). A possible tsunami deposit at the Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary in Pernambuco, northeastern Brazil. Int. Sedimentological Congr. 14, S3.1–S3.2. Albertao, G. A., and Martins, P. P., Jr. (1996). A possible tsunami deposit at the Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary in Pernambuco, northeastern Brazil. Sediment. Geol. 104, 189–201. Albertao, G. A., and Martins, P. P., Jr. (2002). Petrographic and geochemical studies in the Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary, Pernambuco-Paraiba basin, Brazil. In ‘‘Geological and Biological Effects of Impact Events’’ (E. Buffetaut and C. Koeberl, eds.), pp. 167–196. Springer-Verlag. Alvarez, W., Grajales, N., Martinez, S. R., Romero, M. P. R., Ruiz, L. E., Guzman, R. M. J., Zambrano, A. M., Smit, J., Swinburne, N. H. M., and Margolis, S. V. (1992a). The CretaceousTertiary boundary impact-tsunami deposit in NE Mexico. Geol. Soc. Am. Abst. Programs 24, 331. Alvarez, W., Smit, J., Lowrie, W., Asaro, F., Margolis, S. V., Claeys, P., Kastner, M., and Hildebrand, A. R. (1992b). Proximal impact deposits at the Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary in the Gulf of Mexico: A restudy of DSDP, leg 77 sites 536 and 540. Geology 20, 697–700. Alvarez, W., Claeys, P., and Kieffer, S. W. (1995). Emplacement of Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary shocked quartz from Chicxulub Crater. Science 269, 930–935. Andrade, C., Miranda, J. M., Freitas, M. C., Baptista, M. A., Cachao, M., Munha, J. M., and Silva, P. (1998). Use of magnetic susceptibility methods for the identification of tsunami deposits in the Tagus Estuary. Ann. Geophys. 16, C1073. Asai, D., Imamura, F., Shuto, N., and Takahashi, T. (1998). The wave height of the 1854 Ansei-Tokai Earthquake Tsunami and sediment transportation in Iruma, Izu Peninsula, Japan. Proceedings of Coastal Engineering, JSCE 45, 371–375. Atwater, B. F. (1987). Evidence for great Holocene earthquakes along the outer coast of Washington State. Science 236, 942–944.

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Index

A Absolute dating techniques, palaeotsunami research, 312 Alaska tsunami, 345 Anthropogenic materials, 84 Asthenosphere, 12 Augias turbidite, 208 B Bahamas carbonate platform, 254 Bailey and Weir’s hypothesis of boulder beds, 158 Bedforms, characterizing tsunami deposits, 54–55, 57, 59 Beloc, K/T-boundary tsunami deposits, 291 Bioclast. See also Intraclast characteristics, 239 sedimentary structures, 244 semi-quantitative modeling, 242–245 graded skeletal sheet, 239 grain-size distribution, 242 microspherules, 239, 242 shear velocity, 245 shocked quartz grains, 239, 242 turbidity currents, 244 Bioturbation, 220 Boso Peninsula, storm waves and tides around, 137 Boulders, 299 clusters and rampart, 307 coral tsunami, 312 dislocation of, 301, 305, 308 distribution of large tsunami, 311 floating, 305–306 hydrodynamic forces on, 302 imbrication of, 310 in joint bound position, 301 large tsunami, 308 mapping, 309 movement, 301–302, 304 size, 302, 304 tsunamigenic, 313 weight of, 304, 308 Bouma sequence, 206, 327, 329 C Cacarajıćara formation deposited in Yucatań Platform, 254 grain and mineral compositions, 269 sedimentary log of, 264 thickness of, 263 in western Cuba, 253, 263

Calcareous nannofossils, 208 Casares, site survey for tsunami, 87 Cascadia Subduction Zone (CSZ), 65 Cascadia-Tsunami-Deposit Database, 362 Chaotic sediments, 155 Chelegenic Cycle, 348 Chicxulub crater genesis of tsunamis, 252–254, 270 K/T-boundary tsunami deposits around, 286–293 Atlantic Ocean, 292–293 Gulf of Mexico region, 287–291 K/T-boundary impact event, 286–287 Pacific Ocean, 293 proto-Caribbean Sea region, 291–292 on Yucatań platform, 287 Chile earthquake tsunami, 10, 20, 30, 35, 37, 320, 352 Cidra calcirudites in, 259 distribution of Penãlver formation, 255 Coastal beach role, in tsunami records, 333 Coastal boulder transport, 313 Coastal lacustrine basin role tsunamiite bed deposition, 324 in tsunami records, 332–333 Compressed high intensity radar pulse (CHIRP), 193 Crater-generated tsunamis, 281–282. See also Oceanic impacts Cretaceous Cuban arc, 254–255 Cretaceous/Tertiary (K/T) boundary composition of, 227 deep-sea tsunamiites, 6 instrumental neutronic activation analysis, 225 iridium (Ir) anomaly, 231–232 micropaleontological analysis, 229 petrographic analysis, 225, 228–229 sedimentary layers, 227–232 stratigraphic succession, 225 tsunami deposits, 279 Cuban carbonate platform, 254, 259 Cuban volcanic arc, 291 Current velocity (Umax), 16–17, 262, 268–269 D Debris avalanche, 14, 165 Debris flow, 14, 167 Deep Sea Drilling Project (DSDP), 253–254, 263, 287, 292 sites 536 and 540 cretaceous/tertiary (K/T) boundary layers, sedimentary logs, 267 stratigraphical setting, 266

405

406

Index

Deep Sea Drilling Project (DSDP) (cont.) units 3 and 4, lithology of, 266–267 units 3 and 4, sedimentary mechanism of, 267–268 Deep-sea tsunamis, 2 erosion by, 208 erosion caused by, 208 homogenites of, 187–194 role in tsunami records, 334–335 Deep-towed echo sounder, acoustic properties of Type A homogenites, 190 Deformation, shallow water, 17 Density-flow materials, 209 Distal turbidites, 192 Dosinella penicillata, 137 E Earthquake magnitude of, 19–20 tsunamis induced by, 12 sea-level change and, 348–352 tectonics and, 344–345 Edge waves, formation of, 147 Electron probe micro-analysis, 235 Eltanin impact, 279. See also Oceanic impact craters El Transito, site survey for tsunami, 87 Encrustation, salt, 115–116 EPMA. See Electron probe micro-analysis Erosion, 113–116, 126 surfaces, 126 Erosional sorting, 99 Eruption, volcanic, 13 characteristics, 167 pumiceous sand layers, 173 pyroclastic flows, 169 tsunami wave heights, 166–167 Eustatic sea-level fluctuations, exclusive action of, 244 F Farallon-Izanagi ridges, 345 First-order high stand sea-level, tsunamiites occurrence, 349 Flores (Indonesia) earthquake tsunami, 30 Flow velocity, of storm waves, 302 Foraminifers, 229 Force, tractive, 22–23 Fulvia mutica, 137 G Gas hydrates, 13 Global positioning system (GPS), 373 H Haiti, K/T-boundary tsunami deposits, 291 Hammerslay Basin, impact-induced tsunami, 343 Harbour resonance, 18, 31 Harbour wave, 11 Havana-Matanzas anticlinorium, 255

Hawaii mega-tsunami deposits, 376–377 tsunamis and tsunami deposits study, 374–375 HCS. See Hummocky cross-stratification Hemipelagic surficial sediments liquefaction, 199 Herringbone structures, in tidal sediments, 325, 329–330 Historic tsunamis, definition of, 368 Hokkaido-Nansei-oki earthquake tsunami, 65. See also Onshore tsunami deposits damages, 67 location maps, 66 samples analyses, 69 sedimentary characteristics and depositional processes, 72, 74, 77 sedimentary structures, 70–71 topographic profiles and, 68 Hokkaido-Nansei-Oki tsunami, Japan, 302 Holocene coral boulders, 300 Holocene tsunamiites, 344 Homogenites Mediterranean, 206, 208 sedimentary properties of constituents of, 208 grain-size distribution, 207–208 petrographic characteristics of, 207 structures, 207–208 traction currents on, 212–213 tsunami-induced suspension, 210 type A characteristics, 189–190, 205 grain-size distribution, 191 pelagic turbidites, 189 vs. type B, 197–198 type B, 191–194, 205, 209–211 compressed high intensity random pulse, 193 deposition model of, 193 megaturbidities, 191 strategic correlation of, 192, 196–197 vs. type A, 197–198 Huehuete, site survey for tsunami, 87 Hummocky cross-stratification, 57, 60, 145, 330, 334. See also Tsunami deposits, subaqueous Hummocky structures, in submarine tsunamiites, 323 Hurricanes recurrence rates, determination, 372 Hydrates, gas, 13 Hydraulic energy, 37 I Impact-generated deposits, 284, 286 Impact-induced tsunamiite, sedimentological report of, 343–344 Indian Ocean tsunami, 352, 361 awareness of tsunami deposits, 376 deposit, Khao Lak and Phra Thong Island, 124–129 and study areas, 107 Instrumental neutronic activation analysis, for sedimentological investigations, 225 Intraclast characteristics, 249

407

Index sedimentary structures, 244 semi-quantitative modeling, 242–245 graded skeletal sheet, 239 grain-size distribution, 242 microspherules, 239, 242 shear velocity, 245 shocked quartz grains, 239, 242 turbidity currents, 244 Iridium (Ir) anomaly geochemical analysis, 229 K/T boundary, 231–232 J Japan Sea earthquake tsunami, 10, 28, 30 Jiquilillo, site survey for tsunami, 86 K Kamchatka earthquake tsunami, 31, 33–34 Kanto tsunami, feature of, 145 Kinematic viscosity, of fluid, 24 Krakatau eruption, in the Sunda Strait, 345 Krakatoa volcano, 375 K/T boundary. See also Cretaceous/Tertiary (K/T) boundary composition of, 227 instrumental neutronic activation analysis, 225 iridium (Ir) anomaly, 231–232 micropaleontological analysis, 229 petrographic analysis, 225, 228–229 sandstone complex, 290–291, 293 (see also Chicxulub crater) sedimentary layers, 227–232 stratigraphic succession, 225 tsunami deposits, 252–253, 268 in Proto-Caribbean Sea, 291–292 Cacarajıćara formation, 263–264 compositional variations, 269–270 DSDP sites 536 and 540, 266–268 Moncada formation, 264–265 thickness and sedimentary structures, 268–269 sedimentary logs of, 289 significance and distribution of, 293–294 tsunamiite, 2 tsunami sediment layers, 344 Kura-Pacific ridges, 345 L Lacustrine tsunami deposits, 28–30 Landslide-generated tsunamis, 282. See also Oceanic impacts Landslide-triggered tsunamis and deposits, 365 Las Salinas, site survey for tsunami, 88 Linear long-wave approximation theory, 15–17 Los Alamos National Laboratory, 225 M Maastrichtian limestone bed, 292 Masachapa, site survey for tsunami, 87

Maximum orbital velocity (Umax), 284–285. See also Oceanic impact craters Mediterranean homogenites, 2, 5–6 sedimentation area, submarine topography of, 205 Megatsunami deposits, 367 formed in deep-water accretionary prisms, 199 submarine earthquakes as cause of, 186 triggered by collapse of suprasubduction volcanic edifice, 199 Megaturbidites, 191 Mesozoic-type animals, extinction of, 343 Meteorite-impact frequency and tsunamiites, 346–347 Microspherules, 232–234 impact-derived material, 232 scanning electron photomicrographs of, 233 Minoan volcanic event, 20 Miocene Tsubutegaura boulder, 322 Moncada formation paleocurrents direction, 265, 270 by repeated Tsunami currents, 265 sedimentary log of, 265 between Yucatań platform and Cretaceous Cuban arc, 254 Muddy layers, 56, 59 N National Geophysical Data Center, 368 National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, 368 Navier-Stokes equation, 18 Nearshore tsunamiites, 187 NGDC. See National Geophysical Data Center Nicaragua tsunami, 82, 94 sand sheet, 93 NOAA. See National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Northernmost Costa Rica, site survey for tsunami, 88 O Ocean Drilling Program (ODP), 292–293 Ocean floor, physiography of, 191 Oceanic impact craters, 278–279 impact-generated Tsunami deposits formed by water flowing, 283–284 outside, 284–286 impact-generated tsunami deposits morphology of, 279–281 resurge process of ocean water into, 280 Oceanic impacts. See also Oceanic impact craters characteristics, 294 generation of Tsunamis by, 281–282 geological consequences of, 279 point of explosion, 280 Okushiri Island, 65, 76 One-dimensional wave equation, 16 Onshore tsunami deposits, 30–31 characteristics, 69–70 composition of, 75 high-density turbidity current, 76

408

Index

Onshore tsunami deposits (cont.) sedimentary characteristics, 72–74 deposition methods for, 69, 76–77 facies, 71–74, 77 particles, 70 structures, 70–71, 77 units, 71–78 Onshore tsunami sedimentation, 31–38. See also Onshore tsunami deposits P Paleocene Apolo Formation, 255. See also Penãlver formation Palynomorphs, 229 Particles Hjulstro¨m diagram, 23–24, 35 motion, mode of, 25 properties and geological configuration, 23 (see also Sediment transport) pumice, 180 quantity in tsunami-induced current, 25–26 sedimentary, 70, 120 size of tsunami layer, 33 Patinopecten yessoensis, 73, 75 PDR. See Precision depth recorder Pelagic foraminifers, 208 Pelagic turbidites, 189, 197 Penãlver formation in north-western Cuba, 291 paleogeotectonic setting, 253 sections of, 256 sedimentary processes of lateral and vertical variations, 259 lithology and petrography, Havana, 256–258 origin and mechanism, 261–262 stratigraphic setting and studied localities, 255 thickness of, 253, 258–259 thin sections of, 258 in Victoria quarry, 257 Planktonic foraminifers, 234 Planorbulina mediterranea, 192 Playa de Popoyo, site survey for tsunami, 88 Playa Hermosa, site survey for tsunami, 86 Pliocene tsunami deposits, 353 Plume tectonics, 345 Pochomil, site survey for tsunami, 87 Poneloya, site survey for tsunami, 86 Precambrian, earthquake-induced tsunami frequency changes, 349 Precision depth recorder, 190 Pre-Quaternary impact-induced tsunamiites, problems, 343 Proto-Caribbean basin, 254–255, 269 Protothaca jedoensis, 137 Pumiceous sand layers composition of, 173 pyroclastic flows, 174 Pumice particles, 180 Punta Teonoste, site survey for tsunami, 87 Pyroclastic flows, 14, 167, 169, 171–174

Q Queen’s Beach coastal zone, 373 R Reynolds number, 22 Rim wave, 281. See also Oceanic impact S Salt encrustation, 115–116 Sand layers particle size, 33 pumiceous, 173 sedimentary units, 177 Sandy tsunamiites, 327 Santa Isabel areas calcirudites in, 259 distribution of Penãlver formation, 255 Subunit B and Subunit A, 259 Sapropel S-1, 190 SCS. See Swaley cross-stratification Sea floor sedimentary structures, 155 Sedimentary facies gravel, 71–74, 77 sheet-sand, 71–74, 77 types of, 71 Sedimentary particles, 70 mechanical process, 24 numerical modeling, 26 suspension of, 28 Sedimentary process, 286–287, 290 Sedimentary records of an impact-induced tsunamiite, 343 bones identification by, 344 earthquake-induced tsunamiites, 344 gigantic tsunami, 347 Palaeogene bay tsunamiites, 353 slump-induced tsunamiites study by, 345–346 submarine tsunamis, 346 volcanic tsunamiites and, 345 Sedimentary structures, 70–71 tsunami deposits, 117 Sedimentary surfaces, 54 Sedimentary units inflow deposits, 71, 73, 76–78 interpretation of, 74 outflow deposits, 72, 74, 76–78 Sedimentation, 1, 3 tsunami, ideal model, 76–77 tsunamiite, 1, 3 Sediment current, 194 Sediment gravity-flow, tsunami-triggered, 155–157 Sediments chaotic, 155 deep-sea, 208–209 fore-arc deposition, 350 gravity flow, 210 particles, 120 tsubutegura succession, 350 Sediment transport mechanics of, 21–26

409

Index sedimentary particles, 24–25 tsunami-induced, 25 Seismic sea wave, 11, 14, 282, 284, 286 Seismites, definition of, 366 Shallow sea role, in tsunami records, 334 Shallow water deformation, 17 depositional model in, 59–60 wave, 284–285 Shallow-water long-wave theory, 17. See also Tsunami, propagation Shear stress, 22–23. See also Sediment transport Shear velocity, 245 Shocked quartz grains, 236–239 impact-derived material, 232 photomicrographs of, 236 Shocked-quartz grains, 284, 287, 292–293. See also Impact-generated deposits Shock-metamorphic processes, 234 Single-bed deposits, 54–55, 60. See also Tsunami deposits Slump-induced tsunamiites and sea-level change, 352 Small-amplitude water waves, 284 South-west Hokkaido earthquake tsunami, 30, 35, 37, 41 Spherules, 225 micro, 242 impact-derived material, 232 scanning electron photomicrographs of, 233 Sri Lanka, Garanduwa, transect C (natural beach), 117–119 Storegga tsunami, 346 deposits of, 333 Storm deposit composition of, 120 vs. tsunami deposits, 39–41 Storm surge waveform, 143 Storm waves, 137 Stratigraphy, 98, 100 Stromboli volcano, summit eruption, 365–366 Submarine and subaerial slides and tsunamiites, 345–346 Submarine tsunami deposits, 26–28, 365 Submarine tsunamiites, sedimentological information, 353 Sumatra-Andaman Islands earthquake, 106 Surfaces erosion, 126 sedimentary, 54 Surficial layer, transparent, 192 Suspension accumulation rate of, 211 tsunami-induced, 210 Swaley cross-stratification, 330, 334 T Tempestites, 39, 41 Tephra layer, 194 Terminal falling velocity, 23, 25. See also Sediment transport Thailand

Bang Sak beach, 111–117 distribution and significance, deposits, 109–110 reef blocks near Pakarang Cape, 109 Theora fragilis, 137 Tide-gauge, 82, 84 Total organic carbon (TOC), 219, 232 geochemical analysis, 229 Traction currents induced structures, 211–213 tsunami-induced, 156 Tractive force, 22–23. See also Sediment transport Tsubutegaura tsunamiites, 344, 350 succession, 323–324 Tsunami causes of, 342 currents, 212–213 hydrodynamic conditions of, 54 at K/T Boundary, 270–272 deep sea current velocity, 16 linear long-wave approximation method, 15 propagation, 15–17 definition of, 11 depositional model and waveform of, 59 discrimination from storm deposits, 146 elevations in Nicaragua and northernmost Costa Rica, 83 event categories, 20–21 generation of, 11–15 geological characteristics of, 154 grain-size distribution of, 139 hydraulic energy of, 37 hydrodynamic characteristics of, 44 incursion, evidence of, 31–33 induced by asteroid impact, 14–15 submarine sliding, 12–13 volcanic activity, 164 inundation of coastal areas, forms, 18 long-wave properties, 40 magnitudes, 19–20 movement from deep water to shallow water, 158 occurrences of, 38–42 physical parameters intensity, 20 magnitudes, 19–20 propagation in deep sea, 15–17 model of in shallow sea, 17–18 quantification evaluation of ancient tsunamis, 41–42 intensity, 20 magnitude, 19–20 period and height, 19 reef blocks near Pakarang Cape, Thailand, 109 sea floor sedimentation, 153 sedimentary deposits from high-density currents, 145 unit Tna, 137–138 unit Tnb, 139, 145

410 Tsunami (cont.) unit Tnc, 139, 146 unit Tnd, 139 sedimentation, 76–77 sedimentology backwash, features, 36–37 bedload and suspension load, 25 charactersistics of, 26–31 classification, 21 free falling, 25, 28–29 (see also terminal falling velocity) onshore deposits, 30–31 repetition and waning of waves, features, 37–38 submarine deposits, 26–28 transporting of sediments, 21–23 tsunami events, 29–30 tsunami incursions, 29 sediment transport, 154 high-energy, 156 vs. submarine canyons, 155 shallow sea linear long-wave approximation method, 17 Navier-Strokes equation, 18 propagation, 17–18 signatures, observation of, 245 stage of stagnance, 145 submarine, 26–28 transported reef blocks, 107, 109, 119 water level and current–velocity changes in, 144 wave form hummocky cross-stratified (HCS) sand unit, 145 sedimentary units, 144–146 vs. grain-size distribution, 144–146 vs. storm-induced wave forms, 52–53 vs. storm surge waveform, 143 wave period, 144 wave heights, 15, 19, 107–108, 144, 157, 166–167 wave hydrodynamics, 154 wave motion, 11 waves, 124–130 Tsunami deposits, 305–309, 362. See also Boulders along Nicaragua coast, 84–88 awareness of, 376 backwash sediments, 36–37 bedforms, 54 characteristics of lacustrine, 28–30 onshore, 30–31 submarine, 26–28 coastal terrain, site survey for, 86–87 composition of, 120, 126, 138 criteria for depositional process, 55 databases, 360–361 availability of, 368 characteristics of tsunami deposits, 369–370 collaboration and reliability, 368–369 comparison of tsunami and storm deposits, 371–373 coral-bearing sediment and mega-boulders deposits, 367 database description, 364

Index depositional and erosional features, 370–371 distribution of tsunamis, 375–376 impact-related tsunami deposits, 376 mega-tsunami deposits, 376–377 methods used, 361–364 nature of deposits, 374–375 offshore deposits, 375 source availability, 371 study of tsunami deposits, 373–374 subject categories, 364–368 summit eruption of stromboli volcano, 365–366 volcanogenic tsunami deposits, 365 dating, 309–312 definition of, 361 distribution of, 375 grading of, 93–99 (see also Nicaragua tsunami) landward, 94–96 Las Salinas, 99 Playa de Popoyo, 97–99 vertical, 96–97 grain-size cumulative submerged weight vs. time data, 102 distribution, 92, 126–129, 139–142 at Phra Thong Island and Khao Lak, 126–128 saw-toothed, 148–149 hydrodynamic characteristics of, 44 from Indian Ocean, 106 landward fining of, 34 locations and numbers of historical, 376 mega, 367 multiple-bed deposits composition of, 56 fining and thinning properties, 57–58 properties of, 55–58 repeated reversal conditions, 57 succession of sand sheets, 55–58 near Playa de Popoyo, 88–93 palaeontological analysis, 40 proximal to distal sampling, 101 and salt encrustation, 116 sand layers, 29 sedimentary facies, 137–139 sedimentary structures of, 54, 117 sedimentological section of, 38 in shallow water, 58–59 sheet-like sand, 119 sites, Garanduwa, Sri Lanka, 117–118 source and particle composition, 33–36 sources availability, 371 study of, 373–374 subaqueous, 56–57 T3 grain-size distribution of, 140 sedimentary structures, 140 sedimentary units, 142 thickness of, 126–129 transects A, B, C, 111–118 types and nature of, 369 vertical sampling, 102 volcanogenic, 365 vs. storm deposits, 39–40, 146–147

411

Index Tsunami-Deposits Database (TDDB), 360–361 Tsunamigenic sediment gravity flows, 154 12-grade Tsunami intensity scale, 20 Tsunamiites, 5–6 ancient events, 342–343 earthquake-induced tsunamiites and tectonics, 344–345 investigation of impact-induced tsunamiites, 343–344 submarine and subaerial slides and tsunamiites, 345–346 volcanic-eruption-induced tsunamiites, 345 beds, sedimentary structures grading, 328–329 internal and surface current structures, 329–331 sedimentary structures, 327–328 characteristics of, 331 beach, 333 bottom of bays, 334 coastal lacustrine basin, 332–333 coastal plain, 332 deep-sea environments, 334–335 nearshore, 333 shallow sea, 334 component of, 331 deep sea, 2, 212–213 definition of, 365–366 informational value, 352–353 K/T boundary, 213 meteorite-impact, 326–327 occurrences of, 38–42 patterns in time and occurrence earthquake-induced tsunamiites and sea-level change, 348–352 meteorite-impact frequency and tsunamiites, 346–347 slump-induced tsunamiites and sea-level change, 352 preservation processes of, 170 sand layers, 171–172 theoretical characteristics, 220 impact-derived tsunamiites, 220–222 non-impact processes, 223–225 volcanism-induced, 164–169 Tsunamis and Tsunami deposition characteristics, 321–322 diastrophic nature, 322 features of tsunamis, 323–324 gravity flows versus shuttle movement, 325–326 shuttle movement, 324–325 time markers, 326

Turbidites distal, 192 isolated, 205 pelagic, 189, 197 Turbidity current, 156–158, 244 high-density, 76 Turbulence, 23–25, 32–33. See also Onshore tsunami sedimentation; Sediment transport U Usubetsu river, 65, 68–69, 74, 76 V Velocity profile, of long wave, 22 Vıá Blanca formation, 255–256, 261–262. See also Penãlver formation Viscosity, kinematic, 24 Volcanic debris avalanche, 14 Volcanic eruption, 13, 165–169 characteristics, 167 induced tsunamiites, 345 pumiceous sand layers, 173 pyroclastic flows, 169 tsunami wave heights, 166–167 Volcanic materials, 172 Volcanism-induced tsunamis, 13–14 Volcanogenic tsunami deposits, 365 W Water elevation, 15–17 Waveforms, tsunami and storm-induced waves, 52–53 Wavefront, 16–17 Wavelength, 11, 13, 15, 17 Waves amplification of, 17 heights, 302, 305 storm, 137 tsunami, 107–108, 144, 166–167 hydrodynamics, tsunami, 154 motion, transient, 11 seismic, 14 tsunami, 124, 130 Y YAX-1 core, 272 sedimentary logs of Cretaceous/Tertiary (K/T) boundary layer in, 271 Yucatań Peninsula, 252, 270 Yucatań Platform, 254, 263, 269–270, 287

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