The Search for Modern China

ISBN 0-393-02708-2

l11 027082 i' .178'l0393

52995

FPT ISBN 0-393-02701!-2

$29.95

$39.95

USA

CAN.

The Search for Modern China is epic history. With unsurpassed learning, imagination. and passion. Jonathan D. Spence td Is a story of vast struggle. of cxhilar·ating dreams and cruslwd lives, and abovl! all of the sheer capacity of the human spir·it to endure. The history of China is as rich and strangt• as that of any country on earth. Yet for many, China's history remains unknown, or known only through the stylized images that genera­ tions in the West have cherished or reviled as truth. With his command of character and event-the product of thir·ty years of n�scarch and n:nection in the field-Spence dispels those myths in a powerful narrative. Over four centuries of Chinese history, from the waning days of the once-glorious Ming dy­ nasty to Dcng Xiaopings bloody suppression of the pro-democracy demonstration!> in Tiananmen Square. Spence fashions the aston­ ishing story of the effort to achieve a modern China. Through the ideas and emotions of its reformist Confucian scholars, its poets, novel­ ists, artists, and its visionary students, we see one of the worlds oldest culturt>s str-uggling to

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JONATHAN D. SPENCE i s Gcur·gc But·tun

Adam:-. Pwles::.or of History at Yale- Univct·sit \. Burn in England in 1936, he wa� L'ducall'J at WirKhc�tcr College and Cambridge University.

He \.:ommcnced graduate work at Yale in 1959.

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C H A P T E R

SociAL A N D

8

D i sLOCA T I O N

The Crisis Within

N ORTH

SouTH

The damaging defeats inflicted on China by the B ritish d uring the first half of the nineteenth century were part cause and part con­ sequence of China's own growing domestic instability. Many of the ele­ ments of that instability have been discussed above: the growing population that put new pressures on the land, the outflow of silver, the difficulty the educated elite found in gaining official employment, the mounting inci­ dences of opium addiction, the waning abilities of the regular banner armies, the demoralization in the bureaucracy caused by Heshen and his faction, the wide-scale suffering that accompanied the spread and eventual suppres­ sion of the White Lotus rebellion. Other abuses, already apparent in the late eighteenth century, became more serious in the early nineteenth century. The enormous bureaucracies that allegedly managed the Yellow River dike works and the Grand Canal grew ineffective, swelling their own ranks with sinecure appointments and using for thei r own private purposes the government money allotted to them. The consequent silting up of stretches of the Grand Canal, and the failure to regulate water levels on the Yellow and Huai rivers at the points where they were crossed by the Grand Canal, crucially weakened the sys­ tem of government rice transport from the south. That disruption, in turn, led to trouble with the workers along the canal who pulled the government barges for a living; many of these workers now banded into their own secret associations, both to protect their j obs and to tyrannize the local farm­ ing communities among whom they lived.

II

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AND REFORM

The massive government system of salt distribution also became ineffec­ tive. Salt sales were, in theory, a government monopoly in which the Qing supervised salt production, either by seashore evaporation or from inland brine wells and salt mines, and then sold the produce to a small group of licensed merchants, each of whom transported the salt for sale to certain designated areas. By the early nineteenth century, inefficiencies and corrup­ tion in this system had led to a phenomenal rise in sal t smuggl ing, which threatened to wreck the complex system. These economic and organiza­ tional problems spurred the growth of competing factions within the post­ Heshen bureaucracy, as vested interests contended for profits and sought to recruit supporters into their own ranks. Many senior officials began to form their own bureaucratic subnetworks of clients and assistants, whose salaries they paid by further exploiting their own public sources of income. During these same years of the early nineteenth century, there was also a great increase in local paramilitary or formally organized militia units led by local scholars or landlords who sought to protect their communities from marauding groups , whether of White Lotus rebels, of the jobless and the desperate, or of coastal or riverine pirates. In other areas, local leaders formed secret societies to spread esoteric religious doctrines and to defend them­ selves when the state proved incapable. In m uch of China, one can say, private interests were encroaching on formerly govern mental spheres, and the imperial system seemed incapable of reasserting its former powers . Emperor Jiaqing, who ruled China from 1 799 to 1 820, relied on rhetoric more than specific policies to cleanse his empire. His pleas for frugality on the part of his bureaucracy were poignant but did li ttle to cut costs. And even though Heshen's cronies were effec­ tively purged, other courtiers emerged and formed their own factions. Jia­ qing and his son Daoguang (reigned 1 82 1 - 1 850) both promoted senior mini sters who presented a purist view of the fundamental Confucian vir­ tues, even if those ministers had nothing substantive to say about the many problems--domestic and foreign-that plagued the dynasty. By the end of Daoguang's reign , a series of popular uprisings began that were to last for twenty-three years and were almost to bring about the fall of the Qing dynasty. But j ust as those upris ings must be seen in the context of China's foreign­ policy crises, so must they be seen as the culminating stage in a pattern of protest that began with the White Lotus and continued through less dra­ matic but still significant crises in both north and south China. One such early nineteen th-century uprising in the north was led by Lin Qing in 1 8 1 3 . L i n was born in 1 770, and h i s early life suggests a case study of the root­ lessness endemic to that portion of Qing society that hovered just above the

THE CRISIS WITHIN urban poverty line. His father was a clerk in Peking, and Lin Qing grew up in a village only a fe w miles from the capital. Lin, who had learned to read and write, took an apprentices hip in an herbal-medicine shop, but he worked at this trade for only a short period before bei ng fired and becom­ ing a night watchman. When his father died, Lin managed to get himself appoi nted clerk in his father's place ; thereupon he embezzled some Grand Canal repair funds stored in his new office and used the money to open a tea shop. Gambling away the shop's profits, he moved north to Manch uria, where he held a construction job for a time. Still restless, he traveled south across China to visit a brother-in-law in the rich Yangzi delta city of Suzhou, where he worked first as attendant to a local grain official , then on the j unior staff of a magistrate's office. He returned north, earning money as a coolie pulling grain boats up the Grand Canal. Back home near Peking, he ran a business selling songbirds. Now equipped with some knowledge of the world, Lin Qing joined a religious sect that drew its beliefs from millenarian Buddhism, and he learned a number of mystical slogans. " Every day at dawn we pay respects to the sun and recite the sacred words," he told one of his early followers, a waiter at a local inn. "By doing this we can escape the dangers of fire, flood, and war, and if there should come a time of calamity and disorder, then we can use this opportunity to plan and organize the Great U ndertaking. " 1 The spirit he invoked with eight "sacred" characters was "The Eternal Progen­ itor in Our Original Home in the World of True Emptiness." Local officials did not take such folk practices with great seriousness, and although Lin Qing was beaten in 1 808 for too vociferously teach ing his new views, in general he was left free to preach his doctrines as he chose. He slowly built a cell network of sect members and took over leaders hip of neighboring branch sects. Appearing to others as an adaptable, shrewd, well-traveled man who knew medicine and bureaucratic practice, Lin was able to inspire confidence in hundreds of local villagers and-more surpris­ ingly-in a number of poverty-stricken Chinese bannermen and bondser­ vants as well as eunuchs in Peking palace service. "He was very convincing," his nephew later told Qing officials. " He said that mak ing contributions was the same as sowing seeds for future blessings and that in the future such gifts woul d be multipl ied tenfold. So people believed and gave him money. I never saw him give any back." 2 Some of the promises were dra­ matic: 1 00 copper cash given to Lin brought a promise of 1 00 mou of land in the future, when the sect would tri umph ( 1 00 mou, around 16 acres, represented a munificent estate to any poor north China peasant). Growing more grandiose as he allied with other powerful leaders, Lin began to term himself the future B uddha, or Maitreya, sent by the Eternal

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Mother to prepare his followers to survive the catastrophes of the coming

kalpa, the new great cycle of human history . Rhymes recited by his follow­ ers seemed to suggest that an anti-Manchu element was also becoming stronger: "We wait only for the northern region to be returned to a Han emperor I Then all-that-is will again be under a si ngle li ne. "3 By 1 8 1 3 , Lin Qing had laid plans to move on Peking and kill Emperor J iaqing. At this point the plot began to unravel : officials were warned of trouble by a suspicious lower degree holder from Shandong and by two fathers worried about their sons' involvement in the illegal sect. Arrests of some sectarians, interrogations under torture, and a number of sporadic but bitter clashes followed during that summer; late in 1 8 1 3, the planned attack on the palace was launched by a handful of Lin 's disciples, but it was a disas­ trous failure. Oddly fatalistic, Lin Qing stayed at home in his village during his "upris ing," and it was there that local police officials arrested him. Lin was taken to the Min istry of Punishments in Peking, where his interroga­ tors pummeled him with moral exhortations and shocked questions : "Our emperor loves the people as if they were his own children . . . . How could you organize people and charge into the Forbidden City armed with knives ? Even brutes and beasts could not go this far ! " Lin Qing replied, "It is my fate to die. It is not my fate to be a peaceful commoner. I sought this end myself. What else is there to say ? "4 Emperor Jiaqing was so curious about this unknown man who had sought to kill him that he summoned him to a private interrogation . Lin refused to give any further explanations and was executed by slicing. His severed head was d isplayed in Henan as a warning to his followers who were still holding out in rebellion there. Lin Qing's life and rebellion are well documented because the action was so near Peking and the emperor himself was a target. But Lin's casual accumulation of followers and money, the generalized grievances, and the broad religious claims were typical of many other such groups formed in north China over subsequent decades. These groups constituted a kind of latent potential for rebellion, but one that could often stay on peaceful, semilegal tracks if not galvani zed by a particularly effective leader or a natural disaster of unusual proportions. In south China there was also a simmering discontent, but its focus was different. Here the dominant force was the Triads, also called the Heaven and Earth Society, comprising groups with their own blood oaths, religious rituals, and brotherhoods. The Triads developed in Tai wan and Fuj ian in the later eighteenth century and then gathered strength in Guangdong and Guangxi. Many early Triad members seem to have been sailors on ocean j un ks or on the myriad river craft of the interlacing southern waterways; others were poor city dwellers. They often engaged in criminal activities-

T H E C R I S I S W I T H I N

extortion, robbery, and kidnapings-all the while protecting themselves through society members in the magistrates' own yamens (offices). By the 1 830s, Triad lodges were also attracting numerous peasant recruits, perhaps because in south China, where powerful lineages often controlled entire villages, the Triads offered an alternative form of protection and an orga­ nizational focus to those living on the edge of destitution. Women were often recruited into Triad ranks, as they were into the White Lotus, giving them a prestige and function in society otherwise largely denied to them. According to some accounts, women who j oined Triad lodges in advance of their husbands might claim precedence within the household over their own spouses. Others were members without their husbands' knowledge. The Triads also claimed it as their cause to oust the Qing and restore the Ming. Their anti-Manchu stance was probably fueled by the inability of the Qing to control the foreigners in Canton, and the repeated occupations of that city by foreign troops. These pressures in turn made it hard for the court to mobilize for drastic action against potential rebels among its own people. And since the more dangerous rebel groups tended to assemble in rugged, hard-to-control border regions such as that between Guangxi and Guangdong, local officials could not easily coordinate their suppression activities. Tensions here were exacerbated by the presence in the highlands of Yao and Zhuang aboriginal peoples, who continued to resist Qing attempts at local organization. Also the former Jiangxi farmers who had slowly drifted south over the previous century and were known in Guangdong as the Hakkas, or "guest peoples," were now pushing southwest into Guangxi province, where they clashed with the local, settled populations in a struggle for land and employment. The Triad lodges, and thei r affiliates and contacts in the local bureau­ cracy, enhanced their power through in volvement in local militia organi­ zations. Lin Zexu had encouraged the formation of such groups to defend Canton against the British, j ust as gentry in the late Ming had done to protect their bases against peasant rebels or Manchus. The Canton militia groups became complicated mixtures of gentry leaders, local thugs, bona fide peasant volunteers, members of other martial-arts organizations, and groups of men from common trades. In May 1 84 1 , such a melange of forces had confronted a B ritish patrol outside Canton at the village of Sanyuanli. Armed with spears and hoes-some even with guns-they had forced the British to retreat, killing one B ritish soldier and wounding fifteen others. The Chinese made the encounter a symbol for the possibility of a united resistance to foreign pressures. For the Qing state, as for the Ming, such assemblages were a two-edged sword. Some gentry developed regular, well-organized mili tia groups that

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could effectively keep order in the countryside or patrol the city ; other groups saw militiamen melt away, perhaps with arms and some rudimen­ tary train ing, to return to their original bandit gangs or bring new skills to their Triad comrades. The groups of irregulars gradually grew after 1 842 as the Treaty of Nan j ing began to have its effect, swell ing the trade of Shanghai and d rawing resources away from the intransigent region of Can­ ton. Out-of-work boatmen and cool ies, poverty-stricken artisans, destitute peasants-all swelled the groups of disaffected who sought some kind of mooring in baffling times. Emperor Daoguang tried to think this through when respond ing to the xenophobic attacks on the British in the Canton region, which reached a pinnacle during 1 848: "The only important thing is to appease the people's emotions. If the people's loyalties are not lost, then the foreign bandits can be handled."5 The trouble was that appeasing popular violence was a dan­ gerous gamble for the Qing.

THE

TA I P I NG

I t was in a poor rural area of eastern Guangxi that one of the most dead ly and protracted rebell ions in Chinese history had its inception in the 1 840s . All the contributing social and economic developments alluded to above played their part in the uprising, but one indiv idual's personal life story and state of mind gave the movement its particular shape. Th is was Hong Xiu­ quan, one of those who in this period had such a difficult time trying to push their way onto the lowest rung of the ladder of Qing gentility. Hong was born in 1 8 1 4, the fourth of five children in a hard-working rural family of Guangdong. His parents were from the Hakka minority (the so-called "guest peoples" who had migrated southward from central China), and they sacrificed to get Hong a decent education that would win him a place in the local elite. But even though he passed the initial examinations per­ mitting him to qual ify for the licentiate's shengyuan degree, in the early 1 830s he failed at his first two attempts to obtain the degree, wh ich would have given him the right to wear the scholars' robes, to be exempt from physical punishment, and to receive a small stipend from the state. For any ambitious young Chinese, such failure was humiliating, but for Hong it seems to have been unus ually so. He took solace only in the chance to travel and study in Canton itsel f. In 1 836 Hong came in contact with a Protestant missionary, almost certainly Edwin Stevens, who had recently come to China from the United States and begun preaching in Whampoa

THE CRISIS WITHIN at the behest of the Seaman 's Friends Society . Early Protestant missionaries like Stevens, even if still inexpert at spea king Chinese and prevented from living in Canton first by Qing residence rules and after 1 842 by local hos­ tility, were beginning to ma ke some converts among the poor. With the aid of Chinese Christian converts, they also composed simple tracts in Chinese outlining the basic elements of Christian doctrine. It was a Chinese convert working with Stevens who pressed a collection of translated passages from the Bible called "Good Words for Exhorting the Age" into Hong's hands, perhaps murmuring some words of greeting or explanation. Hong Xiuquan neither stud ied the tracts nor threw them away . Instead he seems to have glanced at them quickly and then kept them at home. He initially made no connection between these tracts and a strange dream and delirium he experienced after a third examination fa ilure in 1 837. In those visions, Hong conversed with a bearded, golden-haired man who gave him a sword, and a younger man who instructed him on how to slay evil spirits and whom Hong addressed as "Elder Brother." For six years after his visions, Hong worked as a village schoolteacher, and tried once again to pass the examinations. But after he failed the shengyuan examinations for the fourth time, he opened the Christian tracts and read them fully. In a sudden shock of realization, Hong saw that the two men in his vision must have been the God and Jesus of the tracts, and that therefore he, Hong, must also be the Son of God, younger brother to Jesus Christ. Like Lin Qing in north China thirty years before, Hong was able to persuade people of his spiritual powers through a charismatic manner and a strong religious conviction. But unlike Lin, Hong did not work secretly through a network of local sectarian cells. Instead he began to preach his message publicly, baptize converts, and openly destroy Confucian and ancestral shrines. Although these activities prompted local anger, which caused Hong to flee his village temporarily for Guangxi, they did not provoke the local authorities, and he continued to teach. In 1 847 he returned to Canton and studied the Bible-most of which had now been translated into Chinese­ with lsaacher Roberts, an Ame;ican southern Baptist. Late that year Hong left Canton and joined a close friend, one of his first converts, who had formed a Society of God Worshipers in the rugged area of eastern Guangxi province called Thistle Mountain. In this isolated region-far from a county seat-Hong's movement spread, drawing con verts from Hakkas and from Zhuang and Yao mountain tribesmen. By 1 849 he had attracted around 1 0,000 followers. Perhaps influ­ enced by members of Triad organizations who joined him, Hong's ideology came to embrace both the creation of a new Christian community and the destruction of the Manchus, against whose wickedness and deceit he cried

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A N D R E F O R M

out in mov ing and powerful terms. When one recalls Lu LiuJiang's post­ humous fate after daring to attack the ruling dynasty with much milder language, Hong's courage and recklessness can be appreciated. But for Hong, the ruling dynasty represented a special challenge: to him the Manchus were demons fighting against the true God, a God whose purity and pres­ ence had existed in China until the forces of Confucian belief swayed the C hinese away from the true path of righteousness. Hong's rhetorical passion drew a devoted following. Among Hong's closest advisers were an illiterate, orphaned charcoal maker from the Thistle Mountain area named Yang Xiuqing, who proved to be an intuitively bril­ liant military tactician, and a nineteen year old named Shi Dakai, a member of a wealthy local landlord lineage. Shi persuaded most members of his lineage to throw in their lot with Hong, bringing an estimated 1 00,000 taels into Hong's treasury. Another important group of converts was the local m iners whose sk ills with explosives and tunneling, developed in the moun­ tains of eastern Guangxi, were later to be used in the demolition of city walls. With the miners came many others who contributed a variety of forms of expertise : pawnbrokers (who ran the treasury), legal clerks (who developed bureaucratic structures), ex-soldiers of the Qing forces or local militias, as well as at least two well-known women bandit leaders and sev­ eral gangs of river pirates. By 1 850 Hong's recruits and converts had passed the 20,000 mark. His movement was now sufficiently organized to drill troops, manufacture arms, and assemble military tables of organization; it could enforce rigorous instructions against corruption, sensuality, and opium smoking, conduct ceremonies of C hristian worship, pool all money and valuables in a central treasury, conv ince its men to abandon their queues and wear their flowing hair long, and segregate the women-mothers, wives, daughters-into a separate camp run by female officers. Through these actions, the God wor­ shipers finally attracted enough notice to be singled out from the scores of other bandit groups that roamed different parts of China. When Emperor Daoguang d ied in 1 850, his successor, Emperor Xianfeng (reigned 1 85 1 1 86 1 ), appointed the former anti-opium commissioner Lin Zexu, who had been recalled from h is northwestern exile in 1 845, special deputy to sup­ press the movement. But Lin d ied before he could reach Thistle Mountain. In December 1 850, Qing government forces sent to oust Hong from the Thistle Mountain area were badly defeated, and their Manchu commander killed. On January 1 1 , 1 85 1 , Hong Xiuquan assembled his God worshipers and declared himself the Heavenly King of the Taiping Tianguo ( '*!f � l!i ), "Heavenly K ingdom of Great Peace"(commonly abbreviated to Taiping). Forced out of their base by larger government armies, the Taiping cam-

THE CRISIS W I T H I N 1 1 73 paigned on the Guangxi-Guangdong border until autumn 1851, when they swung north and seized the city of Yongan along with great stores of cash, food, and new recruits, who swelled their numbers to 60,000 or more. Guiding their destinies now by a newly created Christian solar calendar with a seven-day week (although an initial error in calculation caused the Taiping "Sunday" in fact to fall on the Christian Saturday), the Taiping advanced again in the spring of 1 852. They attacked the Guangxi capital of Guilin, which they failed to capture despite the heroic exploits of their new regiments of Hakka women, who fought with exemplary courage. (Used to the life of hard farming in the mountains, the Hakka women had never bound their feet as other Chinese females did.) In the summer they crossed into Hunan, but were frustrated in their two-month attempt to take Changsha. Here the Taiping proclamations became more fiery in an attempt to win fresh recruits: "Can the Chinese still consider themselves men? Ever since the Manchus poisoned China, the flame of oppression has risen up to heaven, the poison of corruption has defiled the emperor's throne, the offensive odor has spread over the four seas, and the influence of demons has dis­ tressed the empire while the Chinese with bowed heads and dejected spirits willingly became subjects and servants."6 Yellow Sea

Etut China Sea

TAIWAN

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FRAGMENTATION AND REFORM A breakthrough came in December 1 852, when almost unopposed the Taiping army entered Yuezhou on the east side of Dongting Lake. Yuezhou was a wealthy, long-settled town, unlike the poorer areas through which the Taiping had hi therto ranged , and here they seized vast amounts of booty, 5,000 boats, and stoc kpiles of arms and gunpowder. (Some of the guns had been abandoned there by Wu Sangui after the failure of his Three Feudatories rebellion almost two centuries before, but were still serv ice­ able.) Thereafter an incred ible string of successes followed : Han kou fell in December and Wuchang in January 1 853, bringing Hong a further large fleet of boats and 1 .6 m illion taels from the provincial treasury. Anqing fell almost without opposition in February 1 853, bringing 300,000 taels more, 1 00 large cannon, and huge stores of food. In March the great center of Nanj ing, defended by only a small force, i ts walls undermined by explosive charges, its center bombarded by artillery, its streets infiltrated by Taiping soldiers disguised as Buddhist or Daoist priests, fell to the rebels. Nanjing's Manchu population of some 40,000, of whom about 5 ,000 were combat troops, retreated into the city's inner citadel, but were overwhelmed by the charges of wave after wave of Taiping troops. All Manchus who did not die in the battle-men, women, and children-were rounded up and systematically killed by burning, stabbing, or drowning. It was Hong's way of showing that the devils would be driven from the face of China. At the end of March, wearing a crown and an embroidered dragon robe, Hong was ca rried into the city in a golden palanquin on the backs of sixteen men, and took up residence in a former Ming dynasty imperial palace. The Taiping ruled their Nanj ing-based Heavenly Kingdom for eleven years ( 1 853- 1 864) under the formal authority of Hong Xiuquan as Heav­ enly King. But Hong soon yielded de facto power to his former disciple Yang Xiuqing, who apparently convinced the Taiping forces that he him­ self was the Holy Ghost, God 's own voice, and that his orders-which he received directly from God during frequent trances-had priority over Hong's dictates as the mere younger brother of Jesus. The policies of the Taiping remained, on paper and often in practice, startlingly radical. One facet of their rule was an asceticis m that required segregation of the sexes and absolute . bans on opium smoking, prostitution, dancing, and drinking of alcohol . Money was held in a common treasury, theoretically to be shared by all ; and since the Taiping had acquired more than 1 8 million taels along their route of march and within Nanj ing itself, their prosperity seemed assured. Examinations were reinstituted, based now on Chinese translations of the Bible and on the transcribed versions of Hong Xiuquan's religious revela­ tions and literary works. Women, organized into special residential and

THE CRISIS WITHIN administrative units, were allowed to hold supervisory offices in the bureau­ cracy and to sit for their own special examinations. Most remar kable was the Taiping land law, which, linked to a loca l system of military recruitment, constituted perhaps the most u topian, com­ prehensive, and authoritarian scheme for human organization ever seen in China up to that time. All land was to be divided among all families of the Taiping and their supporters according to family size, with men and women receiving equal shares. After keeping the produce they needed for their own sustenance, each family would place the rest in great common gran­ aries. Every twenty-five families were supervised by a "sergeant" who kept records of production, adjudicated squabbles, oversaw education of the young in the Bible and Taiping doctrines, and held Christian serv ices every Sab­ bath. The sergean ts selected men from the families under their care for service with local mil itary units. Men selected for service were subject to rigid drill and training, taught to use signals, weapons, and booby traps, and succored in combat by medical squads for the wounded and the sick. From their Nan jing base, huge arm ies foraged forth, either to extend the Taiping dominions to the east and north or to bring fresh supplies and recruits back to sustain the garrison armies. The results would surely be, ran a Taiping procla mation, "that nowhere will inequality exist, and no one not be well fed and clothed ."7 Yet for all their military and ideological passion, and their utopian dreams of perfect governance, the Taiping failed to overthrow the Qing and were ultimately eliminated, with terrible sla ughter. Why did the Taiping not succeed, after achieving so many triumphs with such speed in the name of such a utopian ideology ? One reason was the failure of Taiping collective leadership. From the original brotherhood, Hong Xiuquan had gone on to name some key Tai­ ping followers as "k ings," who ruled jointly under his supervision. But two of the most talented leaders were killed in the campaigns of 1 852, and the most brilliant survivors--especially Yang Xiuqing and Shi Dakai, who had been among Hong's earliest followers during the Thistle Mountain days­ ultimately lost faith in him . Yang, who had arroga �ed enormous powers to himself, was assassinated in a murderous palace coup in 1 856---on Hong's orders. Shi, who lived up to his early promise and became the Taiping's greatest general, left Nanj ing the same year, after his wife and mother were killed by feuding Taiping generals. He tried to set up an independent king­ dom in Sichuan but was trapped and killed there by Qing troops in 1 863 . Shorn of his most talented advisers, Hong faltered as a leader once he had won a measure of power. He demonstrated a dangerous inefficiency

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and lack of clear goals. J us t as in Wuchang he had missed a chance to strike north to Peking, so did he fa il to push the initiative after his seizure of Nanj ing. Instead he withdrew into a palace world of sensual pleasures and religious mysticism, surrounding himself with concubines and perusing the Bible for all references to himself and his "mission," which he found under­ lined everywhere from the Book of Genesis to Luke's Gospel . He failed to exploit the potentially popular issue of an anti-Manchu crusade and squan­ dered his reputation as a serious religious leader. Hong's fail ure to appeal to anti-Manchu sentiment was symptomatic of the Taiping's isolation, even when they were holding power in Nanjing. If they had maintained the city as a thriving metropolitan center, and had Hong enshrined himself there on a firm base of popular support, the Tai­ ping might have been unbeatable. But the Chinese residents of Nanjing found the Taiping occupiers-many of whom were Hakkas, with their strange dress and accen ts, and their large-footed women-as bizarre as any foreigners or Manchus. The residents resented the Taiping for their alter­ ations of economic life, their attempt to establish a common treasury and regulate markets, their segregation of the civil population by sex and occu­ pation, and their attempt to enforce a strict code of conduct. Passive resis­ tance to the Taiping was endemic, and flight, spying, and defections to the Qing common.8 Dorgon 's more flexible policies in the early Qing, by con­ trast, had been far more successful in winning general popular acceptance. Beyond Nanj ing, the Taiping failed in the countryside, where their dreams of a common treasury for all believers and an equitable system of landhold­ ing remained largely unrealized. Even though they controlled large areas of J iangsu, Anhui, and Zhej iang for years, and areas farther north and west intermittently, they lacked the commitment or personnel to push through their dra matic land reforms, and ended up as yet another tax-collection agency on the backs of a despondent peasantry. Their constant need for food and supplies to maintain their huge armies meant that Taiping for­ aging squads scoured the country for hundreds of miles. These logistical demands, when coupled with the cons tant fighting with Qing forces-who also needed food and lodging-left huge areas of what had once been Chi­ na's most prosperous region as barren wastes. The Taiping failed as well to coordinate their uprising with two other upheavals occurring at the same time : the revolt of the Nian to the north and the Red Turbans to the south. Had some kind of concerted action been arranged-as the anti-Ming rebels Li Zicheng and Zhang Xianzhong had tried to do with other bandit leaders in the 1 630s-the Qing could not have survived, especially when suffering a series of damaging blows from the Wes tern powers at the same time. But Taiping asceticism and the extreme

THE CRISIS WITHIN nature of their religious claims made constructive alliance with other rebels difficult. Nor did the Taiping manage to enlist Western sympathy in their cause. Foreigners, especially missionaries, had been initially excited by the pros­ pect of a Christian revolutionary force that promised social reforms and the defeat of the moribund and intransigent Manchus. But the eccentricities of Hong Xiuquan's Christianity eventually became apparent to the mission­ aries, and traders came to fear the Taiping' s zealous hatred of opium. Finally, the Western powers decided to back the Qing in order to prevent a Taiping seizure of Shanghai , which might threaten the West's newly won treaty gains. With members of Triad secret societies controlling the Chinese areas of the city from 1 853 to early 1 855, a Ta iping seizure seemed likely . In the closing years of the rebellion, a foreign-officered mercenary army supported by steam-driven, shallow-draft gunboats fought alongside Qing forces against the Taiping. This was the so-called "Ever-Victorious Army," led first by the American adventurer from Massachusetts, Frederick Townsend Ward, and after his death by the deeply rel igious British artillery officer, Charles "Chinese" Gordon. The Qing cause was also bolstered by the loyalty , tenacity , and cou rage of senior Chinese officials who fought on against the Taiping even though the regular Manchu-led banner armies seemed unable to defeat the enemy . These Confucian-educated scholars were ala rmed by the Taiping threat to their ancestral homes and distraught at the Taiping's use of Christianity to attack the whole structure of Chinese values. The greatest of these leaders was the Hunanese official Zeng Guofan, who had first raised local troops to defend his own estates when he was on mourning leave from the court in 1 852. Zeng went on with his brothers to raise and equip an efficient and honestly adminis tered army of tough Hunanese peasant conscripts officered by local Confucian gentry. Given the weakness of the Qing banner forces in the region and the proven ineptitude of the local bureaucrats in main­ taining militia forces, Zeng's troops formed a crucial addition to the state's defensive resources. Named the Xiang Army, after the river that cuts through Hunan, this army became one of the Taiping's deadliest enemies and played a critical part in the eventual recapture of Nanj ing. The formation of the Xiang A rmy suggests more broadly the surprising flexibility and effectiveness of local forces in resisting the Taiping. Failing to attract many gen try to their cause, the Taiping encoun tered opposition all over central and eastern China from the hundreds of local militia forces organized by the gentry to defend their homes and fields. Accepted as essential by the Qing even if they seemed to underline the ineffectiveness of the state, these militia brought new levels of power to the gen try landlords. When

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the likin tax-a supplement on the transit dues-was permitted so that these militia leaders could finance their military ventu res, it enabled them to continue their success in the long war of attrition. The Taiping found it harder and harder to obtain supplies or new recruits as whole communities solidified in resistance aga inst them. The fatal inflexibility of Hong's regime is evident in the fa ilure of a bold a ttempt by the Ta iping to alter and " Westernize" their rule. The author of this venture was Hong Ren 'gan, a younger relation of Hong Xiuquan who had also studied with missionaries in Canton and been a member of the first God worshipers. During the early years of the Taiping rebellion, Hong Ren'gan l ived and worked in Hong Kong, and became familiar with Bri t­ ain's colonial government there. Finally in 1 859 he made his way overland to Nanj ing, disguised as a physician, and was enthusiastically received by the Heavenly King, who named him prime minister. Hong Ren'gan pre­ pared an elaborate documen t entitled "A New Treatise on Aids to Ad min­ istration," which he presented to the Heavenly King in late 1 859. His program called for the development of legal and ban king systems in the Taiping domains ; the construction of highways, railways, and steam-driven freight shi ps; the introduction of a postal service ; the publication of newspapers; and the abandonment of geomancy and infanticide. Hong Xiuquan endorsed all these p roposals as "correct," except for those suggesting the spread of information through newspapers, on which he noted : " I t will not be too late to carry out this proposal after the remnant demons are annihilated ."9 But in the event, no concrete s teps were taken to initiate these reforms. And once Hong Ren 'gan's attempt to develop a new grand strategy to rega in the upper Yangzi for the Taiping failed, and a massive counterattack he ordered against Suzhou and Hangzhou was beaten back, the last elements of pop­ ular support for the Taiping were dashed. As Zeng Guofan complacently told the Qing emperor, "Now when the people hear of the rebels, pain and regret pierce their hearts, men as well as women flee, and kitchen fires no longer burn. The tillers do not have harvests of a single gra in, and one after another they abandon their occu­ pations. When the rebels travel th rough a territory without people, it is like fish trying to swim in a place without water." Yet when the end came in July 1 864, a fter Hong Xiuquan 's death--either by suicide or from illness, it was never made clear-and Qing troops stormed into Nanjing, Zeng wrote to the emperor in some awe : "Not one of the 1 00,000 rebels in Nan­ j ing surrendered themselves when the city was taken but in many cases gathered together and burned themselves and passed away without repen­ tance. Such a formidable band of re bels has been rarely known from ancient times to the p resent. " 10

THE CRISIS WITHIN FoRE I G N

PREs s u R E s

A N

o

M A R x 's

V I Ews

One of many factors that helped the Qing overthrow the Taiping was the assistance of foreigners in the early 1 860s, whether in the form of customs dues collected through the foreign-managed Shanghai Inspectorate of Cus­ toms or in the form of the Ever-Victorious Army, led in the field by West­ ern officers. The reasons for that support had mainly to do with international affairs, in which, once again, the primary actors were the B ritish. Disap­ pointed at the results of the Nanj ing treaty and frustrated by continued Qing intransigence, the British reacted with scan t sympathy when the Qing were th reatened by the spread of the Taiping rebellion. Instead the British made the highly legalistic decision to apply the most-favored-nation clause to the American treaty of 1 844, which had stipulated that that treaty be renegotiated in twelve years. By apply ing that renewal stipulation to their own Nanj ing treaty of 1 842 , British authorities forced the Chinese to rene­ gotiate in 1 854. The British foreign secretary saw the speciousness of this argument, writing to the governor of Hong Kong that "the Chinese Authorities may perhaps and with some degree of plausibil ity object that the circumstances of the time are unsuitable for the commencement of such a work ." 1 1 But he never­ theless suggested that the Qing be presented with the following formidable list of requests : access for the B ritish to the entire interior of China or, failing that, to all of coastal Zhej iang and the lower Yangzi up to Nan j ing; legalization of the opium trade ; cancellation of internal transit dues on foreign imports ; suppression of piracy ; regulation of Chinese labor em igra­ tion ; residence in Peking for a British ambassador ; and reliance on the English version rather than the Chinese in all disputed interpretations of the revised treaty. Despite some caution because of their involvement in the Crimean War against Russia, the British moved j ointly with the Americans and French to press for treaty revision, which the beleaguered Qing continued to oppose. The British finally took advantage of an allegedly illegal Qing search of a ship formerly of Hong Kong registry , the Arrow, to recommence m ilitary actions at Canton in late 1 856. After some delays in getting reinforce­ ments-the Indian m utiny was now raging, and the idea of a war in east Asia was not popular with the B ritish people-the B ri tish seized Canton in December 1 857 and exiled the consistently hostile governor-general of the region to Calcutta. Sailing north in a near repeat of the 1 840 campaign, they took the strategic Dagu forts in May 1 858 and threatened to seize Tianj in. I n June, with the way to Peking now open to the British forces,

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the Qing capitulated and agreed to sign a new treaty. By the terms of the most-favored-nation clause, all British gains would also be shared by the other major foreign powers. This "Treaty of Tianjin" of 1858 imposed extraordinarily strict terms on China. A British ambassador was henceforth to reside in Peking, accom­ panied by family and staff, and housed in a fitting residence. The open preaching of Christianity was protected. Travel anywhere inside China was permitted to those with valid passports, and within thirty miles of treaty ports without passports. Once the rebellions currently raging in China were suppressed, trade was to be allowed up the Yangzi as far as Hankou, and four new Yangzi treaty ports (Hankou, Jiujiang, Nanjing, and Zhenjiang) would be opened. An additional six treaty ports were to be opened imme­ diately: one in Manchuria, one in Shandong, two on Taiwan, one in Guangdong, and one on Hainan Island in the far south. The Tianjin treaty also stipulated that all further interior transit taxes on foreign imports be dropped upon payment of a flat fee of 2.5 percent. Standard weights and measures would be employed at all ports and cus­ tomshouses. Official communications were to be in English. The character

THE CRISIS WITHIN for barbarian ( yi, �� ) must no longer be used in Chinese documents describ­ ing the British. And British ships hunting pirates would be free to enter any Chinese port. A supplementary clause accompanying the various com­ mercial agreements stated explici tly : "Opium will henceforth pay thirty taels per picul lapprox imately 1 30 pounds] I mport Duty. The i mporter will sell it only at the port. It will be carried into the interior by Chinese only, and only as Chinese property ; the foreign trader will not be allowed to accompany it." This condition was imposed despite the prohibition in the Chinese pena l code on the sale and consumption of opium. Virtually the only British concession was to pull back from Tianjin and return the Dagu forts to Qing control. The British ev idently expected China's rulers to abandon the struggle at this point, but the Qing would not, and showed no intention of following the treaty clause that permitted foreign ambassadors to live in Peking. I n June 1 859, t o enforce the new treaty terms, the British once more attacked the Dagu forts, now strengthened and reinforced by Qing troops. Fighting was heavy and the British were beaten back, even though the American naval commodore Josiah Tattnall, despite his country 's declared neutrality, came to the aid of wounded British Admira l Hope with the ringing cry "Blood is thicker than water. " 1 2 Repulsed from the Dagu forts, the British sent a team of negotiators to Peking by a different route in 1 860, but they were arrested by the Qing and some were executed. Determined now to teach the Qing a lesson they could not ignore, Lord Elgin, Britain's chief treaty negotiator, ordered his troops to march on Peking. On October 1 8, 1 860, following Elgin 's orders, the British burnt to the ground the Yuan Ming Yuan-the exquisite summer palace in the Peking subu rbs buil t for Qianlong's pleasure using the plans of Jesuit architects. The British, how­ ever, spared the Forbidden City palaces within Peking, calculating that destruction of those hallowed buildings would be a disgrace so profound that the Qing dynasty would inevitably fall. The emperor had already fled the city for Manchuria and named his younger brother, Prince Gong, to act as negotiator. But there was nothing left to negotiate, and on the very day the summer palace burned, Prince Gong rea ffirmed the terms of the 1 858 Tian jin trea ty. In an additional "Convention of Peking," the emperor was stated to express his "deep regret" at the harassment of the British queen's representatives. He also promised a further 8 million taels in indemnity, permi tted Chinese emigration on British ships, made Tianjin itself a trea ty port, and ceded part of the main­ land Kowloon peninsula to Hong Kong. Thus did the "treaty system" reach its fruition.

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With these spectacular new gains firmly embedded in trea ty form, and confident that Prince Gong would see to their enforcement, the British now swung to strong support for the Qing. The logic seemed clear: if the Qing beat back the Taiping, the foreigners would keep their new gains ; if the Taiping defeated the Qing, even under the semi-Westernized aegis of Hong Ren'gan, then the West would have to start the tiresome process of negoti­ ation-and perhaps wage fresh wars-all over again. A sardonic observer of these international shifts was Karl Marx, who had been following the progress of the Taiping rebellion and of British foreign policy with grea t interes t. Marx, born in 1 8 1 8 in Germany, had written the Manifesto of the Communist Party in 1 848 with his friend Friedrich Engels. Expelled from both Germany and France for his radical views, he settled in London in 1 849 and thereafter made England his home. By 1 853, the revolutionary surge for which Marx had hoped in Europe had faded in the face of sus­ tained opposition from reactionary government forces, and he turned to China to find reass urance for his belief that revolutionary change might still be possible. That same year, as the Taiping seized Na nj ing, Marx wrote that he now believed all of China's various dissident forces were at last "gathered together in one formidable revolution . " Although he could not tell what "religious, dynastic, or na tional shape" the Taiping would ta ke, he was confident in ascribing the rise of the Taiping movement to the British opium trade, reinforced by British cannon. Together, these had ended China's self-imposed isolation, wrecked the my th of Manchu authority, and involved China's once venerated mandarins in a cycle of smuggling and corruption. The upshot could only be that Qing "dissol ution must follow as surely as that of any mummy carefully preserved in a hermetically sealed coffin, when­ ever it is brought into contact with the open air." 13 The result of China's collapse would be spectacular, thought Marx, since the Western powers had become so strongly committed to the balance of their Chinese trade with Indian opium production, and the taxation of that trade to ma intain their own domestic revenues , that they could not do with­ out it. Accordingly, Marx wrote, "it may safely be augured that the Chinese revol ution will throw the spark i nto the overloaded mine of the present industrial system and cause the explosion of the long-prepared general cri­ sis, which, spreading abroad, will be closely followed by political revolu­ tions on the continent. " 1 4 It was an apocalyptic version of that dragging of China into the modern world that Hegel had speculated about thirty years be fore. By the later 1 850s, however, events in China had not had this kind of direct i mpact on European society. Still, Marx found his attention drawn to

THE CRISIS WITHIN the new phase of British imperialism in China, which was represented by the "Arrow wa r" and the fighting that led first to the Trea ty of Tianj in, and finally to the ratifica tion of the Conven tion of Peking in 1 860. He compared the British actions in bombarding Canton to the filibustering activities of "General " William Wal ker in California, Mexico, and Nicara­ gua, and wondered if it were poss ible that "the civilized nations of the world will approve this mode of invading a peaceful country, without pre­ vious declaration of war, for an alleged infringement of the fa nciful code of diplomatic etiquette." Marx was intrigued when Parliament censured Lord Palmers ton in March 1 857 for initia ting the war, leading to a disso­ lution of Parl iament, a general election, and what Marx saw as the end of "Palmerston's dictatorship." 1 5 When Palmerston was vindicated in the elections and England returned to the fray in China, Marx could only reiterate his sense of the injustice of the entire enterprise and the dangers that it impl ied for constitu tional gov­ ernment. But Marx shrewdly added that the China trade was not going to expand as m uch as the ever-hopeful British merchants expected, because the Chinese could not possibly afford both large imports of opium and large imports of British manufacturers' goods. He observed too that the nation with the most to gain in the protracted Chinese negotiations was Russia. Despite setbacks in the Crimean War, Russia had now expanded its railway network into east Asia, was strengthen ing its hold over the coastline north of Korea, and had seized for itself immense areas of territory along the Amur River, where it had been excluded ever since the Treaties of Ner­ chinsk and Kiak hta, negotiated by Emperors Kangxi and Y ongzheng. Following up on ideas suggested by Hegel thirty years before, Marx divided world history into four stages of the "modes of production"-namely, "Asiatic, ancient, feudal, and modern bourgeois." One might observe that the sequence of ancient-feudal-bourgeois has both chronological and analy tical meaning in the European world. It provides, indeed, a way of summarizing the movement from Greco-Roman slave-owning empires, through the feudal epoch of medieval Europe, to the development of merchant gu ilds and municipal urban governments that spelled the start of bourgeois society. But the "Asiatic" mode is a geographical one; it lies outside the time sequence of the other three. And although Marx wrote that the four modes repre­ sented " progressive epochs in the econom ic formation of society," in real ity he followed Hegel in placing China (and India) outside the development of world history. Asiatic modes had in no way been subsumed into later devel­ opment-they had merely limped on alongs ide them. One of Marx's powerful formulations in the Critique of Political Econ ­ omy, which he wrote in 1 859, was this : " No social order ever peris hes before

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FRAGMENTATION AND REFORM all the productive forces for which there is room in it have developed ; and new, higher relations of production never appear before the material con­ d itions of their exis tence have matured in the womb of the old society itsel f." 16 Marx might have followed Adam Smith in seeing China as hav ing exhausted its "room" for fresh productive forces, but he was also suggesting that Westerners had the power to implant the seeds of "new, higher rela­ tions of production," since China had (as Marx wrote elsewhere) "a fossil form of social life."17 Thus, in a sense, the destructive march of foreign imperial ism had a constructive effect : in wea kening China's tradi tional structures, it would speed the day of successful proletarian revolution. Here Marx's speculations on China stop. By 1 862 he was growing weary and sarcastic about continuing news of Taiping horrors. Nor did he d raw solace from the rapid rise of a completely new rebellion, that of the Nian, which had begun raging in north China well before the Taiping had been suppressed. As he and Engels had written so vividly in the Communist Manifesto: although " the 'dangerous class,' the social scum, that passively rotting mass thrown off by the lowest layers of the old society,'' might be briefly swept up in revolutionary movements, it would inevitably revert to its logical role as the "bribed tool of reactionary intrigue."1 8 Yet one haunt­ ing and powerful idea continued to hang over Marx 's various writings on China. Sometime in the future, he reflected, as the reactionaries fled Europe in the face of an enraged proletariat, seeking shelter in what they regarded as a last bastion of conservative power, they might find to their astonish­ ment, written in bold letters upon the Great Wall , the words "Chinese Republic: Liberty, Equality, Fraternity ." 1 9

T H E

N I A N

R E B E L L I O N

The outbrea k of the Nian rebellion is usually dated to 1 85 1 , the same year as the formal declaration of the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom. But the origins of the Nian can be traced back to the 1 790s among roving groups of bandits who operated north of the Huai River, especially in the border-region area that comprised southwest Shandong, northwest Jiangsu, east-central Henan, and northern Anhui. The name Nian ( �) probably referred simply to the rebels' status as mobile bands, although the ambiguity of the term in Chinese is such that it can also refer to the martial disguises they sometimes adopted, or to the twis ted paper torches by whose light they robbed houses at night. Unlike the Taiping, the Nian had no clear-cut religious affiliation, polit­ ical ideology, strategic goals, or unified leadership. Yet for the first fifty

THE CRISIS WITHIN years of the nineteenth century, they steadily grew in numbers and strength. Some Nian had connections with White Lotus groups, Eight Trigrams followers, or Triad societies, while others were connected with the smug­ glers who made money by evading the government monopoly on salt sales. But most were poor peasants or ex-peasants struggling to survive in a bleak environment of worked-out soil, harsh winters, and unstable river systems subject to appalling floods. The prevalence of female infanticide in the area also meant that there was a profound imbalance in the region's sex ratios. As many as 20 percent of the men were unable to find wives and start families, making of them a rootless and volatile group capable of swinging into action with a raiding party at any time. The settled local com munities tried to guarantee some security by establishing small protective militias, walled villages, and crop-watching associations, but the Nian nevertheless launched raids to seize crops from nearby villages, to rob the transport vehicles of government sal t merchants, to kidnap wealthy landlords for ransom, or even to attack a local jail where a fellow Nian gang member was being held. After 1 85 1 , when serious floods in northern Jiangsu brought fresh hard­ ship, affilia tion with Nian groups rose dramatically, and the Qing officially took note of them as rebels. In 1 855, two years after the Taiping seized Nanjing, the Yellow River climaxed a long series of floods by breaking out of its main restraining dikes east of Kaifeng and carving a new channel into the gulf north of the Shan dong peninsula ; the ensuing misery brought ever more recruits to the Nian gangs. At the same time, Nian organization tightened : in 1 852 leaders of eighteen separate Nian groups had proclaimed as their head Zhang Luoxing, a northern Anhui landlord who had sup­ ported sheep stealers and had run the local salt smugglers' protection racket. In 1 856 Zhang was elected "Lord of the Alliance," with the honorific title "Great Han Prince with the Heavenly Mandate." The Nian forces orga ­ nized themselves into five main banners, named for different colors, each of which grouped together rebels of common surnames from neighboring communities. The veteran forces of Nian warriors may only have numbered 30,000 to 50,000 troops, but their effect was dis proportionate to their size. Many of them were cavalrymen, many had firearms, and they could cut at will across the lines of communication between the Qing ca pital of Peking and the government forces besieging Nanj ing. By developing strongly walled or moated communities, often armed with cannon, in the area north of the river Huai, they established dozens of secure bases to which their troops could retire after their forays across the countryside. Other villages and market towns also fortified themselves to keep the rebels out, so that much

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1 86 1 FRAGMENTATION

AND REFORM

of the area north of the Huai became crisscrossed with defensive commu­ nities. Sometimes "peace trea ties " were signed between defensive villages and neighboring Nian fortresses in which each agreed not to attack the other. In other ca ses, stipends in cash or opium were paid as "protection money. " The extent of rural misery in the region cannot b e assessed precisely, but it must have been great. In one proclamation, Zhang Luoxing explained that the local people made their lives worse by fleeing the Nian. "Wherever our troops go, you grab your treasures and run away in terror. Ruffians then take advantage of the si tuation to plunder freely. Left unattended, your houses are burned to the ground and nothing is left standing when you return. Although your actions are intended to protect, in reality they bring nothing but disaster." 2 0 Although the Nian leaders issued numerous proclamations banning looting and rape, these had little effect on the rank and file. For them it was common practice to scavenge for vegetables and roots in deserted farms, hunt down wild animals, kidnap members of rich families, and seize local trade convoys. Sometimes on their return to thei r home base, the Nian sold cheaply the food they had looted elsewhere, to increase their popularity locally. The Nian's fi rst effective Qing opponent was General Senggelinqin, a man from a princely Mongol family who had been made chamberlain of the imperial bodyguard in Peking. Senggel inqin had achieved fame in 1 853 by defeating a northward-probing Taiping army that had pushed to within twenty-five miles of Tianjin, and it was because of his expertise with forti­ fications that the British were repulsed from Dagu in 1 859. Penalized for allowing the British to enter Peking in 1 860, Senggelinqin later that same year was ordered to suppress the Nian. He proved a fearsome commander, leading a crack force of Manchu and Mongol cavalry in repeated attacks on the Nian forces, and finally cornering and killing Zhang Luoxing in north­ wes t Anhui. Senggelinqin struck fear in the local Chinese as well: he gave his troops free rein over the civilian population and allegedly demanded bribes from local communities before he would come to their aid. As one Qing officer of the time wrote : "Who would have ex pected that the atroc­ ities of the imperial army would be so much worse than the rebels them­ selves ? "2 1 Other able Nian leaders soon emerged to replace Zhang. They developed an intensely successful form of guerrilla strategy in which Nian forces would retreat stead ily from the Qing troops until those troops were tired and forced by terrain into smaller and smaller units. The Nian, regrouping, would then attack these scattered units with an overwhelming force of long-speared infantry and sword-bea ring cavalry. Often the Nian con-

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80

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25.1 113

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5.2

3.7

Michang, in Hebei province, collected in 1937, present a profile similar to that outlined by Mao's data. The figures collected in these surveys rarely can be collated across a long time span for the same locality. It is therefore extremely difficult to know whether the poorer Chinese farmers and hired laborers were worse off than they had been a decade before, or doing about the same, or perhaps mar-

1

433

4341

ENVISIONING

STATE

AND

SociETY

ginally more prosperous. It is equally hard to know how they stood in comparison to farmers of the mid-Qing period, or to those of the late Ming. Those analysts who contend that Chinese peasants were getting steadily poorer, and hence that some kind of revolutionary crisis was predictable, tend to rely on one of two main types of explanation. One holds that callous attitudes of the landlords combined with the pressures placed on China by foreign imperialism to worsen exploitation of the peasants. These two developments forced peasants who had formerly owned land into becoming tenants or hired laborers, and made them suffer the effects of an erratic world market. The second explanation suggests that population growth, primitive technology, and soil exhaustion-not the evils of the class structure-were responsible for the growing poverty in the Chinese countryside. Neither argument has been able to muster totally convincing evidence, giving rise to a third school, which suggests that with commercialization of agriculture and the changes in marketing and transport patterns brought about by the use of trucks, trains, and steamers, many farmers were doing better by 1920 than they had in 1900. What does seem clear is that by the early 1930s, Chinese peasants were suffering a new wave of crises that forced many of them below the subsistence level. Devastating floods on the Yangzi River in 1931 created an estimated 14 million refugees and inundated an area the size of New York State. Japan's seizure of Manchuria broke the habitual patterns of hundreds of thousands of migrant workers, and the Japanese attack on Shanghai caused renewed dislocations in that highly populated area. Changes in the world economy caused by the depression slashed China's exports of cash crops and ruined local handicrafts. Guomindang military campaigns and attempts at institutional and industrial rebuilding led to higher taxes. In the absence of accurate data, all one can do is acknowledge that the variations of suffering were endless, and that as impoverished families died out, others emerged to take over their land and struggle for survival in their turn. Nor can one tell with any precision if these poor peasant familiesany more than their urban counterparts-knew or cared much about Communist policies or the threatening clouds of war. But the more determined among them must have sensed, at some deep inner level, that there was no compelling reason why life had to be like this.

IV

WAR AND REVOLUTION

•

I

THE ERuPT

1

oN o

F

full-scale war with Japan in the summer of

1937 ended any chance that Chiang Kai-shek might have had of creating a strong and centralized nation-state. Within a year, the Japanese overran east China, depriving the Guomindang of all the major Chinese industrial centers and the most fertile farmland, and virtually severing China's ties to the outside world. Chiang's new wartime base, a thousand miles up the Yangzi at Chongqing, became a symbolic center for national resistance to the Japanese, but it was a poor place from which to launch any kind of counterattack. Similarly, the Communist forces were isolated in their base at Yan'an in Shaanxi province, which, lacking even the agricultural resources of the Chongqing region, was one of the poorest areas in China, with no industrial capacity. It was not clear if the Communists would be able to survive there, and certainly it seemed an unpromising location from which to spread the revolution. For the first few years of the war, the dream of national unity was kept alive by the nominal alliance of the Nationalist and Communist forces in a united front. While the Japanese ran the east of the country through an interconnected structure of puppet regimes headed by Chinese collaborators, the governments in Chongqing and Yan'an tried to find a meaningful common ground. The Communists muted their land-reform practices and tempered their rhetoric, while the Guomindang tried to undertake economic and administrative reforms that would strengthen China in the long term. But by early 1941 the two parties were once again at loggerheads, engaging in armed clashes with each other, and starting to position themselves and their forces in ways that looked more to the possibility of a future civil war than to the antiJapanese exigencies of the present. The entry of the United States into the war after the Japanese bombing of Pearl Harbor in December 1941 changed the equation. China

was now treated--on paper at least-as a "great power" by the Western Allies, and given military advice, massive loans, and such equipment and aviation fuel as could be flown over the mountains from India, which had become west China's last supply line. This assistance came to the Guomindang in Chongqing, as China's legally recognized government. The Communists in Yan'an had to survive with what crude weapons they could manufacture, or the materiel they could seize in raids on the Japanese. Making a virtue of necessity, the Communists honed their skills in guerrilla warfare and developed a maze of bases behind Japanese lines, using techniques of mass mobilization developed in the Jiangxi Soviet. They turned back to a more radical pattern of land confiscation and redistribution to strengthen their popular support in the countryside. War's end in 1945 found the Guomindang demoralized by the long years of fighting, and its government weakened by personal conflicts and the serious inflation that affected the areas under its control. The party moved swiftly but ineptly to re-establish its control over the former Japanese-held areas, lacking the trained personnel to fill vacant positions and without the money to rebuild a war-shattered society. The Communists, also without resources, moved swiftly to seize what areas they could from the defeated Japanese and to secure a firm base of support among the people of north China. The Communists looked particularly to Manchuria as a promising location to build up their military forces for a final assault on Chiang Kai-shek. Their strategy was proved correct. By 1948 Chiang's forces in Manchuria were routed, and his own power base in China proper completely eroded by a now catastrophic inflation and by the defection from his side of a majority of China's intellectuals, students, professional classes, and urban workers. During 1949 his remaining forces simply disintegrated, and late that year, as Chiang retreated with his surviving supporters to Taiwan, Mao Zedong in Peking declared the founding of the new People's Republic of China. Re-establishing order in China was not just a military matter. It demanded the complete restructuring of the bureaucracy and the governmental system, the integration of the CCP into that system, the curbing of inflation, the imposition of basic land reform, and the root-

ing out of domestic opposition. These tasks were vastly complicated by the Korean War, to which China contributed massively between 1950 and 1953, and in which it suffered enormous casualties. But the Korean War had the advantageous effect of highlighting the need for military reorganization and modernization. It also was used in domestic politics as a justification for investigating, harassing, and expelling foreigners, and for conducting a mass campaign against the Chinese themselves to ferret out all who might be secretly sympathetic toward or previously affiliated with the Guomindang or foreign powers. Other mass campaigns, conducted on a huge scale with much violence and intimidation, were directed against inefficiencies and corruption within the bureaucracy, against religious sects and other secret-society or laborracketeering organizations, and against the urban bourgeoisie with its ingrained abuses and prejudices. Once the war was over and the campaigns concluded, Chinese leaders worked to complete the first stage of their strategy for economic growth. They formulated a comprehensive five-year plan that was consciously based on the earlier experiences of the Soviet Union. The indus trial growth projected by the plan was made possible in the main by extraction of a surplus from Chinese agriculture. To heighten that agricultural production and to prevent the re-emergence of old social patterns in the countryside, the government launched a second, more radical wave of land reform. The earlier program of partial land redistribution, which had left the idea of private ownership intact, was now replaced by a complete concentration of all agricultural land into largescale cooperatives of around 200 to 300 households each. Almost all of China's peasants were enrolled in these cooperatives by the end of 1956, and Mao's vision of a truly Socialist China seemed to have been advanced a major step. Overlapping with these great shifts on the land came changes in foreign policy and military organization. In both of these areas China in the mid-1950s took a highly pragmatic, professional stance, and seemed to be openly seeking to limit its revolutionary vision. China's students and intellectuals, too, were wooed by Mao Zedong and cajoled into venting any lurking grievances they might have against the state and the party. For a few heady weeks in mid-1957 the words flew and the

party was shaken. As might have been expected, rather than responding creatively to the charges, the party struck back, the critics were labeled rightists, and hundreds of thousands were punished. Now Mao and his fellow senior CCP leaders were at a crossroads. The country was under control and the economy growing steadily, but there had not been the exciting spurt of growth in the countryside that had been hoped for. To Mao, it became clear that releasing the full forces of the human will, not the cautious pragmatism of his central planners, was the way to economic breakthrough. In a wild and stirring campaign, the new cooperatives were merged into immense communes, and the Great Leap Forward was launched with the goal of galvanizing human life and the economy alike by ending all the old distinctions of gender, age, skill, and occupation. It was a fantastic dream, and it led to catastrophe for millions of people as famine followed euphoria. Shaken to its roots, in the early 1960s the party sought to reorganize itself, reassert central control, and return the economy to a more predictable track. This had to be done with China's own resources, since the polemics with the Soviet Union, violent in the late 1950s, had resulted in an absolute break in 1960 and the return to Russia of all the Soviet advisers and technical personnel working in China. Once again, as in the First Five-Year Plan period, the careful orchestrations of comprehensive state planning came to the fore, and China's heavy industry, especially, was returned to a path of rapid and conventional growth. But the apparently routine and bureaucratic nature of these plans, coupled with party attacks on an older generation of revolutionary cadres-many of them rural-prompted Mao to attempt one more violent and radical reversal within China. Aided by the People's Liberation Army and by Defense Minister Lin Biao, who set himself up as the foremost promoter of Mao's political genius, Mao began to challenge his own entrenched party bureaucracy. Starting first in the cultural sphere, he expanded by 1966 into the political, the social, the educational, and the economic. Invoking the energy of youthful Red Guards against their elders, Mao and his close supporters launched the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution, an immense and contorted movement that for years wrought terror and disorder on China. The party

bureaucracy was challenged as it had never been before, and those who were not ousted were regrouped into "revolutionary committees" that allegedly instilled the new spirit of radicalism into every factory, commune, school, and work unit. The turbulence brought new power to the PLA, which found itself playing a bewildering variety of new roles. Yet at the same time, Mao grew suspicious of the personal ambitions of Lin Biao, and Lin Biao grew fearful for his own future. In the most bizarre twist in a convoluted story, Lin Biao allegedly tried to assassinate Mao. The result was Lin's own death; but as the news of these machinations spread across China, it was Mao's credibility that suffered. What, now, were the Chinese to believe? What was left of their revolution? Where were they meant to be heading? Only perhaps by ending their long years of isolation and opening up to the skills and technologies of Japan and the West would they infuse new energy into their economy. Yet to do that would be to question many of the fundamental premises of Maoism itself. It was a harsh choice.

World War II

CHAPTER 17

THE Loss

[lij)

OF

EAsT CHINA

During the spring of 1937 there was a period of calm, a deceptive respite before the cataclysm. While the Guomindang and the CCP sparred for the propaganda initiative in embracing the united front, the Japanese watched warily. Arguments and tensions within the Japanese cabinet and army led to a change of government in early 1937; the new premier was General Hayashi Senjurcr--previously an effective and forceful war minister-who nevertheless claimed in Tokyo during his maiden address, "I have no faith in a pugnacious foreign policy." Hayashi's newly appointed foreign minister stated publicly that to "avert a crisis at any time" with China, Japan had simply "to walk the open path straightforwardly." 1 After intense discussions within his cabinet on the need to check further Japanese expansion inside "independent" north China and to stall the movement of Manchukuo troops westward into Inner Mongolia, Hayashi sent emissaries to reaffirm this policy of status quo with the Japanese generals in Tianjin and Ltishun. The General Staff followed this in June with a warning to its field officers to avoid provoking further incidents. But the Japanese military was not thinking of giving up its existing base of economic power in east Hebei and Manchuria. On the contrary, it considered entrenching its control of resources there to provide the necessary strategic and economic base for a full-scale attack on the Soviet Union, and some Japanese officers thought that a final blow against the Nanjing regime might be essential "in order to remove this menace at our rear." 2 Ironically, during this lull, the Chinese army was growing more confident and more restive. In May 1937 the American ambassador in Nanjing worried that anti-

444 1 WAR

AND

R EVOLUT I ON

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THE

LIMITS

thirty-three years, ever since Khrushchev had shocked Mao with his "secret speech" attacking Stalin's memory. Gorbachev was enthusiastically welcomed by the Peking demonstrators, not least because his own attempts to introduce a range of new political and intellectual freedoms in the Soviet Union could be contrasted sharply with the Chinese leaders' obvious resistance to such change. But the significance of Gorbachev's visit and the benign light this might have cast on Deng Xiaoping was overshadowed as the student demonstrators introduced a new tactic-the hunger strike-to emphasize their pleas for reform. Tiananmen Square became a vast camp as close to 3,000 hunger strikers lay out in makeshift tents, surrounded by tens of thousands of their classmates, Peking citizens, and curious visitors and onlookers. Students all over Peking were kept in touch with the latest developments by a squad of volunteer motorcyclists who proudly named themselves the "Flying Tigers." Planned ceremonies for Gorbachev had to be canceled or changed by the Chinese government, and as television cameras broadcast the scene around the world, ambulances raced in and out of the square attending to those now so dangerously weakened by their fast that there was a real chance they would die. Nothing like this had been seen in China before, for although crowds as large had assembled during the Cultural Revolution, those gatherings had been orchestrated by the state and were held in homage to Mao Zedong as supreme leader of the party and the people. Now, even though Zhao Ziyang still tried to mute the conflict, and suggested that the People's Daily's condemnation of the students had been too harsh, the demonstrators began openly calling on Deng Xiaoping and Li Peng to resign. Boisterous and angry, sometimes chanting and dancing, at other times deep in political discussion or sleeping in exhaustion, the students and their supporters were at once a potent political challenge to their government and an endlessly engrossing spectacle to the rest of China and the world. Li Peng did invite the hunger-strike leaders to one meeting, but it went badly. Li found the students rude and incoherent, while they found him arrogant and aloof. On May 17 and again the following day, the number of demonstrators in and around Tiananmen Square passed the 1 million mark. Muzzled until now by government controls, journalists and editors of newspapers and television news threw off their restraints and began to cover the protests as honestly and comprehensively as they could. On May 19, appearing close to tears, Secretary-General Zhao Ziyang visited the hunger strikers and urged them to end their fasts. Li Peng also briefly talked with strikers, but made no pleas and no promises. On May 20, with no published comment by Zhao Ziyang, Premier Li Peng and the president of China, Yang Shangkun,

1741

742/

LIVING

IN

THE

WoRLD

declared martial law and ordered units of the People's Liberation Army brought into Peking to clear the square and return order to the city. But for two weeks the soldiers could not clear the square, their efforts stymied by the courage and unity of the citizens of Peking. Workers, initially sought out as allies by the students, now organized themselves into their own groups to join in the protests and to stem the soldiers' advance. With a kind of fierce yet loving solidarity, the people of Peking took to the streets and erected makeshift barricades. They surrounded the army convoys, sometimes to let the air out of tires or stall engines but more often to argue with or cajole the troops, urging them not to enforce the martial-law restrictions and not to turn their guns on their fellow Chinese. For their part the troops, seemingly embarrassed by their assignment, practiced considerable restraint while the central leadership of China, both in the party and the army, was clearly divided. Enraged by the students' intransigence and the mounting disorder in the streets, which surely reminded him of the Cultural Revolution, Deng Xiaoping lobbied for hard-line support and ordered each of the regional PLA commanders to send a certain number of their seasoned troops to the capital. Zhao Ziyang found himself without a sufficient base of support among his colleagues, and was unable to check the hard-line approach from gaining ground. The students who had emerged as leaders of the demonstrations over the previous month now found themselves in charge of a huge square crammed with their supporters but also awash with dirt and garbage that threatened the outbreak of serious disease. At May's end they began to urge their fellow students to end the hunger strikes, return to their campuses, and continue to attempt a dialogue with the government from there, and the great majority of the Peking students did so. But there were new recruits--often from other cities where major demonstrations were occurring-to take their place. Speakers espousing a tougher stance urged that retreat would mean a betrayal of their principles, and that the government would never speak to them openly unless they maintained the pressures they were currently exerting through their numbers and tenacity. A group of Peking art students provided the faltering movement with a new symbol that drew all eyes-a thirty-foot-high white plaster and Styrofoam statue of their version of Liberty, fashioned as a young woman with head held proudly aloft, clasping in both her hands the torch of freedom. Late at night on June 3, the army struck. These were not inexperienced and poorly armed soldiers like those called in up to this time, but tough, well-armed troops from the Twenty-seventh Army (whose commander was a relative of President Yang) and from other veteran units loyal to Deng. Backed by scores of heavy tanks and armored personnel carriers that smashed

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through the barricades, crushing those who fell in front of them or tried to halt their progress, the troops converged on Tiananmen Square down the wide avenues to its east and west. Armed with automatic weapons, they fired at random on crowds along the streets, at anyone who moved in nearby buildings, and at those who approached too close to their positions. In the small hours of June 4, troops blocked off all the approaches to Tiananmen Square, and turned off all the lights there. After protracted and anguished debates, the remaining students and demonstrators decided to leave. As they walked out in bedraggled but orderly formation, troops and tanks overran their encampments and crushed the liberty statue to pieces. There followed a period of macabre and terrifying chaos in Peking, as the army gunned down students and citizens both near the square and in other areas of the city. Screams echoed through the night, and flames rose from piles of debris and from army trucks or tanks hit by homemade bombs. Hospitals were overwhelmed by the numbers of dead and wounded, but in many cases were forbidden to treat the civilian casualties. PLA soldiers also died, some killed in terrible ways by enraged crowds who had just seen unarmed demonstrators mowed down. Rumors spread swiftly that the fires in Tiananmen Square were piles of corpses burned by the army to hide the evidence of their cruelty. Whether that was true or not-and no one could get past the troops to check-there were enough bodies in full view elsewhere, lying in the roads, in hospitals, or tangled up in their bicycles where they had fallen, to indicate the scale of the violence. Many hundreds were dead and thousands more wounded. The callousness and randomness of the killings evoked memories of the worst episodes of China's earlier civil wars and the Cultural Revolution. 24 Similar violence was meted out to civilian demonstrators by the armed police in Chengdu and perhaps other cities, but the thoroughness of the government's news blackout made it hard to gauge the scale. Foreign journalists were forbidden to take photographs or conduct interviews, and satellite links abroad were cut. For a few days rumors swirled that other units of the PLA, shocked by the massacre, might attack the Twenty-seventh Army and start a civil war, or that China's workers would unite in a general strike, or that sympathy riots in other major cities would bring down the government, but none of those things happened. The hard-liners had "won," if that was the right word. Zhao Ziyang was dismissed, the second of Deng's hand-picked "successors" to meet that fate. Li Peng and Deng Xiaoping, in the presence of the most influential party elders-all dressed once again in the traditional high-collared "Mao suits" that were meant to represent a revolutionary simplicity of life-style-publicly thanked the PLA officers and soldiers for clearing the square, and praised their courage. The tough, adept first party

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secretary of Shanghai, Jiang Zemin, who had maintained order there in the face of massive street demonstrations, was promoted to head the party in Zhao's stead. The party launched a concerted campaign in press, radio, and television blaming the demonstrations on counterrevolutionaries and "hooligans," and mounted an extensive hunt for the student leaders and their tnain supporters. Many of the "most wanted" students eluded the police for weeks, and several managed to leave China secretly, suggesting the range of public support for their actions and the efficiency and solidarity of their organizations. But thousands of other students were arrested and interrogated. The government also determined to avoid the formation of any autonomous unions of workers, and showed special ferocity toward workers who had joined in the protests. Many were arrested and executed, with maximum publicity. Foreign governments were stunned by these events, though uncertain how to act. Many of them expressed outrage, ordered their nationals home, imposed economic sanctions, and talked of barring China from various international associations. But they did not break diplomatic relations with China, even when trigger-happy troops sprayed the buildings where foreigners lived with fire from automatic weapons. The U.S. embassy did give sanctuary to Fang Lizhi and his wife when they requested it, an act blasted by the PRC government as unwarranted interference in Chinese internal affairs. On June 9, Deng Xiaoping himself issued a harsh attack on the demonstrators in a speech that became the mandatory text for study sessions and party discussions all over China, and clearly represented the official interpretation of events. In its idiosyncratic way, the speech summed up the long years of revolution that China had endured, while also showing the difficulty of relating those experiences to the turbulent present. What the government had suppressed, said Deng, was nothing less than a "counterrevolutionary rebellion." Moreover, it was a rebellion "determined by the international and domestic climate, it was bound to happen and was independent of man's will." Yet while offering this long-range, almost cosmic interpretation of events, Deng told the assembled party leaders and army officers that it was the "dregs of society" who had been seeking to overthrow both state and society in order to "establish a bourgeois republic entirely dependent on the West." Deng did not make clear who these dregs were, but they were to be distinguished from the "masses," the "young students," and the "onlookers." The army's courage in suppressing the rebellion had been exemplary, Deng said, and showed that even new PLA recruits aged eighteen or nineteen understood how to defend socialism and their country. Deng made no

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attempt at all to suggest why the students had been demonstrating with such protracted tenacity, nor why so many citizens supported them, but he did insist that any effort to discredit CCP leadership and the paramountcy of "Marxism, Leninism, and Mao Zedong Thought" must always be resolutely quashed, along with any move to introduce "the American system of the separation of the three powers." Yet this did not mean China should again become a "closed country," or that the government leaders should go "back to the old days of trampling the economy to death." Deng's speech concluded with a ringing affirmation of the needs of rapid national economic growth: more railways, more ships, more roads, more steel, more electric power. He called for a doubling of the gross national product in twelve years followed by fifty years of 2 percent annual growth, so that China would reach the level of a "moderately developed nation" by the year 2050. In his assessment of the "crux of the current incident," as he referred to the crackdown of June 3 and 4 in the context of the events of April and May, Deng did grope toward wider ideological themes. China was facing a great struggle, he said. It was between socialism on the one hand and the forces of "bourgeois liberalization and spiritual pollution" on the other. This was the battle that the Chinese, under the leadership of the CCP, would be fighting into the foreseeable future. Nostalgic for the austere yet exciting days of the Jiangxi Soviet, of Yan'an, and of the founding years of the PRC, Deng called for a return to simple values and standards, for "plain living" and the "enterprising spirit in hard struggle." Only so could China achieve its own vision of "reform and openness" without "importing evil influences from the West." 25 Despite these confident words, Deng must have been fully aware that the CCP itself was in crisis. Deng's sudden benediction of Jiang Zemin as party secretary-general after he had turned against both his previously anointed successors, Hu Yaobang and Zhao Ziyang, was eerily reminiscent of Mao's attempt to install Hua Guofeng after turning against both Liu Shaoqi and Lin Biao. In a longer historical context, the absence of any effective mechanism for the peaceful and enduring installation of successors to the highest leadership positions in China was one that had plagued the republic after the death of Yuan Shikai, had gravely weakened the late Qing regime, and had brought even the otherwise astute emperor Kangxi to the edge of despair. Deng's own legacy to China, it could now be seen, was not to be one in which a united nation marched confidently toward economic and political reform. By insisting to the last that economic reforms could be completely divorced from the immensely complex social and cultural effects that the

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reforms brought in their train, Deng, the party elders, and the younger politicians in their clique threatened jointly to commit the government again to the nineteenth-century fallacy that China could join the modern world entirely on its own terms, sacrificing nothing of its prevailing ideological purity. The task was even more hopeless in the late 1980s than it had been in the 1880s. What was left of Chinese Communist doctrine after the rejection of many of Mao's ideas and the emergence of the enterprise system was a thinner gruel even than the overformalized Confucianism that had guided the reformers of the late Qing. The party elders flailing out at Zhao Ziyang and his noisy supporters were reacting in an oddly similar way to the empress dowager Cixi as she struck back at Emperor Guangxu for attempting his Hundred Days' Reforms. One other aspect of Deng's legacy was fraught with unpredictable dangers. He had ordered the use of deadly force against Chinese students and citizens who had spent weeks sticking to a program of nonviolent protest in order to emphasize the moral dimensions of their quest for participation in government. The brutality of the crackdown, and the cynicism of the lies the Chinese government then told the world, could not but affect tens of thousands of China's brightest students who were currently studying abroad. These students, joined by the handful of hunted protestors who managed to escape and by thousands of immigrants of Chinese descent who had been shocked into political awareness by the June massacre, now formed a potent overseas source for disaffection. However fiercely the government opposed the Democracy movement at home, however much it claimed that democratic ideas were irrelevant to Chinese needs, these Chinese abroad would give them the lie. It was among politically aroused Chinese overseas that Sun Yat-sen had found support. It was among such Chinese, indeed, that Deng Xiaoping had first sharpened his radical consciousness as a workstudy student of sixteen in France. Despite his efforts to put the disruptions down to a handful of hooligans, Deng Xiaoping could not hide the fact that the Chinese leadership was now confronted with an emerging movement of great potential power. It was a movement with profound historical echoes, echoes carried forward by the recurrent determination of educated Chinese to insist on their obligation to criticize the shortcomings of their government, even in the face of that government's implacable insistence on preventing them from doing so. Wittingly or not, those Chinese who marched and spoke out in 1976, 1978, 1986, and 1989 shared a great deal with the anti-Guomindang nationalists of the 1930s, the May Fourth experimenters of the 1920s, the anti-Qing activists of the later nineteenth century, certain "evidential research" scholars of the eighteenth century, and both the Donglin partisans and the Ming

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loyalists of the seventeenth century. And there was not the faintest reason to believe, despite the Chinese government's intellectual and political repressions, that the protests of 1989 would be the last. The outbursts of extraordinary rage and cruelty on the part of some Chinese citizens and workers, however much they had been provoked to such acts by the very soldiers they killed, pointed back to a different kind of tradition. Again and again, ordinary Chinese people with little or no education and no particular guiding ideology had risen against those who oppressed or exploited them. Vague dreams for a better life, an inner sense of hopelessness, bitterly impoverished living conditions-these had proven potent goads to action against apparently unyielding and uncaring governments. And those with no weapons who wished to kill soldiers had to use their bare hands until they had seized their enemies' arsenals. Late Ming peasant rebels, desperate followers of Wang Lun, Lin Qing, or White Lotus sects, the Nian, the Boxers, peasants and urban workers in Hunan or Shanghai in the twentieth century, all showed that there were limits to the indignities they would endure. Whether they cared about such historical echoes or not, many of the Chinese attending the compulsory study sessions dedicated to Deng's words and the events that had triggered them must have brooded on certain central contradictions. Their leaders were insisting that dramatic economic growth and technological transformation could come without any fundamental political change, yet the need for political change was becoming overwhelming. The party that had swept to power forty years before by challenging all the existing social, political, and economic norms now seemed to have no purpose but to ensure that it faced no such challenges itself. If China was to develop as a modern nation through incentive systems, enterprise zones, long-term individual contracts, and joint ventures, those taking the chances would have to be given some role in the making of political decisions. For China's leaders in the 1980s, as for those across the previous four centuries, political protest and the desire to share in the act of ruling remained either a proof of disloyalty or a harbinger of chaos. But such attitudes would have to change in the 1990s if China were not to be trapped in a new cycle of impoverished helplessness. The gleaming yellow roofs and spacious marble courts of the Forbidden City still stood in place, but they now reverberated to a new kind of challenge from the great open space that stretched in front of them. There would be no truly modern China until the people were given back their voices.

1747

Notes and Permissions

CHAPTER

1 (pages 7-25)

1. Tang Xianzu, The Peony Pavilzon, trans. Cyril Birch (Bloomington, Ind.: Indiana University Press, 1980), pp. 14 and 32. 2. G. William Skinner, ed., The City in Late Imperial China (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1977), p. 351. 3. Tang Xianzu, p. 34. 4. Wang Yangming, Instructzons for Practical Living and Other Neo-Confucian Writzngs, trans. Wing-tsit Chan (New York: Columbia University Press, 1963), p. 146 (modified). 5. L. Carrington Goodrich and Fang Chao-ying, eds., Dictionary of Ming Biography (New York: Columbia University Press, 1976), p. 708. 6. This is the first period in which China's interconnectedness with an emerging global economy can be charted. For the backup data see William Atwell's "International Bullion Flows and the Chinese Economy circa 1530---1650" (Past and Present 95 [May 1982]: 68-90) and the same author's "Some Observations on the 'Seventeenth-Century Crisis' in China and Japan" (Journal of Asian Studies 45, no. 2 [February 1986]: 223-224). Also see Frederic Wakeman's "China and the Seventeenth-Century Crisis" (Late Imperial China 7, no. 1 [June 1986]: 1-26). 7. Helen Dunstan, "The Late Ming Epidemics: A Preliminary Survey," Ch'ing-shih went'i 3, no. 3 (1975): 29-30. 8. Ibzd., 39---40. The basic premises of traditional Chinese medicine are presented in Nathan Sivin, Traditional Medicine in Contemporary China (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1987).

CHAPTER

2 (pages 26-48)

1. Franz Michael, The Origin of Manchu Rule in China (New York, 1965), p. 121. 2. Gertraude Roth, "The Manchu-Chinese Relationship," 1618-1636," in Jonathan Spence and John Wills, eds., From Ming to Ch'ing (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1979), p. 9. 3. Ibid., p. 18. 4. Ibid., p. 30.

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5. Lynn Struve, The Southern Ming, 1644-1662 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1984), p. 129. 6. Frederic Wakeman, The Great Enterprise (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1985), pp. 55-58; Struve, pp. 47 and 58-61. 7. Robert Oxnam, Ruling from Horseback (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1975), pp. 52 and 56. CHAPTER

3 (pages 49-73)

1. Jonathan Spence, Emperor of China: Self-Portrait of K'ang-hsi (New York, 1974), p. 32. 2. Willard Peterson, "The Life of Ku Yen-wu, 1613-1682," Harvard Journal of Asiatzc Studies 28 (1968): 142. 3. Kong Shangren (K'ung Shang-jen), The Peach Blossom Fan, trans. Chen Shih-hsiang and Harold Acton (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1976), p. 278. 4. Richard Strassberg, The World of K'ung Shang-jen: A Man of Letters in Early Ch'ing China (New York: Columbia University Press, 1983), p. 275. 5. Ibid., p. 219. 6. Spence, p. 165. 7. Ibid., pp. 148-149. CHAPTER

4 (pages 74-89)

1. Madeleine Zelin, The Magistrate's Tael: Rationalizing Fiscal Reform zn Ezghteenth-Century Ch'ing China (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1984), p. 80. 2. This paragraph and the rest of this section are based on the material in Beatrice S. Bartlett's Monarchs and Ministers: The Rise of the Grand Council in Mid-Ch'ing China, 17231820 (Berkeley: University of California Press, forthcoming [1990]). 3. Cited (with slight modifications) from Beatrice S. Bartlett, "The Vermilion Brush: The Grand Council Communications Systems and Central Government Decision Making in Mid Ch'ing China" (Ph.D. diss., Yale University, 1980), pp. 57 and 61. 4. Antonio Sisto Rosso, Apostolic Legations to China of the Eighteenth Century (South Pasadena, 1948), p. 405. 5. Fu Lo-shu, A Documentary Chronicle of Sino-Western Relations, 1644-1820, 2 vols. (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1966), vol. 1, p. 164. CHAPTER

5 (pages 90-116)

1. These three macro region case studies are drawn from Susan Naquin and Evelyn Rawski, Chinese Society in the Eighteenth Century (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1987), ch. 5. The basic works introducing and expanding the macroregion concept are the essays by G. William Skinner in the volume he edited, The City zn Late Imperial China (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1977). 2. Figures for Hebei and Shandong are from Philip Huang, The Peasant Economy and Soczal Change in North China (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1985), p. 322. "All China" figures from Ho Ping-ti, Studies on the Population ofChzna, 1368-1953 (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1959), p. 281. 3. From James Lee and Robert Eng, "Population and Family History in Eighteenth Century Manchuria: Preliminary Results from Daoyi, 1774-1798," Ch'ing-shih wen-t'i 5, no. 1 (June 1984): 31. 4. The I-ching or Book of Changes, trans. Richard Wilhelm and Cary Baynes (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1950), pp. 213 and 670.

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5. The key study of the kaozheng movement, on whtch these paragraphs are based, is Benjamin Elman, From Philosophy to Philology (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1984). 6. Cao Xueqin, The Story of the Stone {Dream of the Red Chamber}, trans. David Hawkes, vol. 1 (New York, 1973), pp. 51 and 55 (slightly modified). 7. lb1d., vol. 3, p. 31. 8. Susan Naquin, Shantung Rebellwn: The Wang Lun Uprismg of 1774 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1981), p. 60. 9. Eminent Chinese of the Ch'ing Period, ed. Arthur Hummel, 2 vols. (Washington, D.C., 1943), vol. 1, p. 223. 10. Harold Kahn, Monarchy m the Emperor's Eyes (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1971), p. 255, and J. L. Cranmer-Byng, ed., An Embassy to China: Lord Macartney's Journal, 1793-1794 (London, 1962), p. 120. 11. Cranmer-Byng, pp. 281-283. CHAPTER

6 (pages 117-136)

1. J. L. Cranmer-Byng, ed., An Embassy to China: Lord Macartney's Journal, 1793-1794 (London, 1962), p. 340. 2. lbld., pp. 191, 212-213. 3. Derk Bodde and Clarence Morris, eds., Law in Imperial Chma (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1967), p. 390. 4. Randle Edwards, "Ch'ing Legal Jurisdiction over Foreigners," in Essays on China's Legal Tradition, ed. Jerome Cohen, Randle Edwards, and Fu-mei Chang Chen (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1980), pp. 222-269. 5. Ibid., p. 229. 6. Figures drawn from Hosea Ballou Morse, The International Relations of the Chinese Emp1re, 3 vols. (Shanghai and London, 1910-1918), vol. 1, pp. 173 and 209, and Chang Hsinpao, Commissioner Lin and the Opium War (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1964), p. 223. 7. Jonathan Spence, "Opium Smoking in Ch'ing China," in Conflict and Control in Late Imperial China, ed. Frederic Wakeman and Carolyn Grant (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1975), pp. 143-173 (slightly modified). 8. Fran, table 425 whole-plant purchases from abroad (1970s), table 642

irrigation projects, 21, 285, 578, 580, 687 Islam, 661; see also Muslims in China isolationism (in PRC), 621 Italy advisers from, 467 Chinese see as model, 246, 416, 417 ivory trade, tariff rates, 160

jade, 10, 46, 73, 98 "January [1967] power seizure," 607-8 Jao Modo, battle of (1696}, 67 japan and Britain, 285 as constitutional monarchy, 245-46, 388 economy (20th century), 389 and Germany, 285, 422, 461, 475 internal problems and tensions, 388-89, 391, 393-94, 443 military (20th century}, 388 and Russia I USSR, 239, 246, 335-36, 443, 468, 482 World War II: bombing of, 474, 476-77, 483; surrenders, 583, 484-85 Japan, Chinese in anarchists, 261 as students, 239-40, 262, 321 and Sun,240,262,297 japan and China (to 1900) and Boxer Uprising, 235 japan's territorial ambitions, 231 and Korea, 220; see also japan and Korea and Ryuku Islands, 220 Sino-japanese War (1894-95}, 222-23, 246 see also japanese in China japan and China (20th century}, 271, 282, 28586,336,388-96 (1937-45), war, see Sino-japanese hostilities (1960s}, technical assistance, 621, 641-42 (1970s}, technical assistance, 654 (1980s}, 719 boycotts of japanese goods, 286, 361, 362, 393 Chinese anti-japanese feelings and protests, 286, 293-94, 310-11,340, 361-62,364, 388,391,393,413,419,420,443-44,469 Chinese resistance to japan, 419,420-25 passim, 437, 455, 469 diplomatic recognition to Yuan, 283 economic relations, 389-90, 719 economy I growth rates, compared (and Taiwan), 669 and table investments in China, 282 and table; railroads, 283,293,328,329,381 japanese attitudes toward China, 389 loans to China, 290, 293, 311 military confrontations (1930s}, 391-96 and maps, 402, 419; see also Sino-Japanese hostilities territorial ambitions (Japanese}, 147, 273, 285-

INDEX

86, 290; Shandong issue, 293, 311, 361, 363-64,388 Treaty of Peace and Friendship (1978), 655 Twenty-one Demands (1915}, 285-86,381,388 Washington Conference (1921-22}, 379-81 see also Japanese in China Japan and Korea, 18-19 (19th century}, 220, 222-23, 231 Japan and Manchuria, 273, 285, 336 (20th century}, 381, 390-96 passim (1937-45), 434, 443, 485, 494, 495 Liadong region (1895), 223-24 see also Manchukuo Japanese Meiji Restoration and reformers (1868-1912), 220,228,230,242,248 as pirates, 18 territorial expansion (19th century), 220, 22223 Tokugawa isolationism (19th century}, 147 as traders and merchants, 19, 119 Japanese in China atrocities, 464, 469 base in northeast China, 393-96, map 395, 437 and development of natural resources, 451-52 lchigo offensive (1944), 476 and map, 477 in Inner Mongolia, 452 invade Suiyuan from Manchukuo, 421-22 puppet regimes, 452-54 railroad-building, 251 "3-all" campaign, 469, 491 during war (1937-45}, 443-56 and maps, 46677, 485 see also Japan and China; Japan and Manchuna Jardine, William, 151, 154 Jardine, Matheson, firm, 251, 329 Jehol, see Rehe Jesuits in China (17th century), 43, 44, 65, 71 (18th century), 71-72, 84, 100, 103, 118 (19th century), 206 inform West about China, 132-33 as interpreters, 66 see also Ricci, Matteo Jews in China, 475 and n. Jian (Chien} family (Canton}, 327, 367-68 Jiang Kanghu (Chiang K'ang-hu), 260, 276 Jiang Qing (Chiang Ch'ing} anti-Western position of, 628, 634, 643 and cultural politics, 598-99, 637, 640, 647 and Cultural Revolution, 603,606,610-11, 612-13 Mao and, 599, 609 at Mao's funeral, 650-51 trial and sentencing (1980}, 681 see also Gang of Four Jiangsu province administrative reforms (1980s), 700

beggars (hereditary}, 88 civil war in, 493 customs office, 57 economic conditions, 91

land reforms (1940s}, 491 Nian rebellion, 184, 185, 187 opposition to Manchus in, 48, 78 population (1980s}, 693 revolution (1911), 266 taxes and taxation, 44, 47, 72, 78 Jiang Tingxi (Chiang T'ing-hsi), 80, 83 Jiangxi province, 33 Communists in, 273 Nationalists and, 459 in Northern Expedition, 347-48 porcelain workers strike, 243 Qing overthrow, 265 tax reform, 78 see also Jingdezhen; Liangjiang Jiangxi Soviet, 372 Chiang vs., 385, 399-400, 403 criticism of, 407 decision to abandon (1934}, 403 marriage law passed by, 376 Jiang Zemin (Chiang Tse-min}, 744, 745 Jiaozhou, 381 Jiaqing (Chia-ch'ing), emperor domestic programs and policy, 166 and Hong Liangi, 144 Lin Qing plans to kill, 168 Jilin province, Manchuria, 26,210,495 Jinan, Shandong Chiang I Nationalists and, 363, 505 Japanese and, 293, 363, 388 Lao She and, 418 late phase of civil war in, 505, 506, 507 Jin I Cha I Ji region, 461; see also Chahar province; Hebei province; Shanxi province

Jincheng, Shanxi, 734 lin Empire, 26 second (under Nurhaci), 27-28 Jingdezhen, Jiangxi, 15, 92 Jinggang mountains: Mao in (1927-28), 370-71 Jinjibao region, 193 Jinsha river, 407 jinshi protests (1895), 226-27, 229; see also examination system

Jinzhou, 31 liujiang, 180, 348, 352 Joan of Arc (Jeanne d'Arc), 240 Joffe, Adolf, 335 Johnson, William, 386 joint management companies, 218-19,241-42 journals, see magazines, Chinese; press Journey to the West (novel, 1590s}, 9 judiciary, see courts and judiciary Junkers Aircraft firm, Germany, 398, 402 Jiirchen tribesmen, 3, 19, 21, 26-31; see also Manchus

I 847

8481

INDEX

Kafka, Franz: "Great Wall of China, The," 387 Kahn, Ida, 209-10 Kaifeng, 185, 328, 449, 505, 506 Kaiping mines, Tangshan, 219, 250,325 Kalgan (Zhangjiakou), 252, 328, 452, 487 Kampuchea, see Cambodia Kang Sheng (K'ang Sheng), 599 Kang Youwei (K'ang Yu-wei), 226, 230, 236, 237, 240,257-59,287 Kangxi (K'ang-hsi), emperor, 4-5, 49-73 and Chinese, 58-64 passim death (1722), 69 edict protects Christianity (1692), 71 his legacy, 69-73 as military leader, 67 "Sacred Edict" (1670), 60, 84 and successor, 69-71, 73 and War of Three Feudatories, 51-53 Kant, Immanuel, 303 Kaohsiung, Taiwan, 454, 670 kaozheng scholarship, 103-6, 119, 143, 195 Karakhan, L. M., 307 Kashgar, 67, 97, 163, 189 Keelung, Taiwan, 54, 454 Kellogg, Frank, 381 Kerulen river region, 67 Khmer Rouge military forces, 654 Khobdo, 82 Khrushchev, Nikita S. and China, 552, 584-89 passim denounces Stalin, 567-68, 584, 590 derides Chinese communes, 582, 586-87 ouster of (1964), 598 at Stalin's funeral, 552 and U.S., 587 Kiakhta, treaty of(l728), 79, map 80, 183 Kim II Sung, 552 King George (merchant vessel), 126 Kissinger, Henry, 629, 630 KMT (Kuomintang), see Guomindang Kokand, khanate of, 163, 189 Kollwitz, Kathe, 397 Kong, H. H. (H. H. K'ung), 297,327-28, 362, 385,402 Kong Shangren (K 'ung Shang-jen), 63, 64-65 Peach Blossom Fan, The, 63-64, 699 Kong family (Shanxi province), 327-28 Konoe, prince Fumimaro, 444, 446, 447 Korea anti-Chinese demonstrations, 391 Chinese relations with: {18th century), 118-19; (19th century), 220, 222; (1950s), 552, 632; see also Korean War (1950s) divided at 38th parallel, 527-28 japan and, 18-19,220,222-23,231 Manchus conquer, 24, 31 U.S. and (1970s), 632 Koreans in Manchuria, 494, 556

Korean War (1950s), 528 and maps, 529-31, 552 casualties, 530-31, 557 consequences for China, 531-33, 534, 539 consequences for U.S., 532-33 negotiations to settle, 530, 552 PRC and, 439, 529-31, 533, 557 Kowloon peninsula, 155, 181, 231 kowtow (ritual prostration), 118, 122, 145, 148, 203 Koxinga, see Zheng Chenggong Kropotkin, Pyotr Alexeevich, 260 Krupp (firm), Germany, 329, 402 Kuling, 400 Kunming, Yunnan, 457-58 Consolidated University, 453, 457 conference on comparative religion, 660-61 democracy demonstrations (1986), 724 Muslim uprisings, 189 railroads, 251, 252 Kuomintang (KMT), see Guomindang Kuril Islands, 482 Kyushu, japan, 476 labor contracts, 212, 700 labor emigration, Chinese abuses in, 212, 291-92 British seek restrictions on, 179 coolie laborers to Cuba, 162 to France (World War 1), 290-92 see also Chinese abroad; emigration from China labor force (20th century) analysis of (1980s), 689-90 women in, see women in labor force see also farm workers; peasants; workers, industrial labor organization, communist, 323, 325, 331, 332-33,350,499-500 with Guomindang, 337, 338 in PRC, 517 see also labor unions labor relations industrial disputes: (1930s), 426, table 428; (1940s), 499-500; (1980s), 735-36 Yongzheng and, 87 see also labor unions; strikes labor unions communist organization of, see labor organization, communist

communist regulation and limitation of, 509, 517,536,539-40,547 growth of (1920s), 350, 353 Guomindang and, 362, 376-77, 426, 499, 500 membership in, 371 and Second International, 259-60 in Shanghai, 353-54, 362 see also strikes Lady Hughes (merchant vessel), 127, 717

I Lake Tai, 466 land availability of (18th century), 94, 95; (1949- ), 687, 688 and table, 735 cooperatives, see cooperatives, rural I agricultural "partible inheritance" system, 95 population growth as pressure on, 110, 165, 210,430,434,687-88 private plots (in PRC), 549-50, 579, 581, 591, 592, 596, 607, 615, 622, 644, 657-58, 678, 701 surveys and registrations of, 47, 72, 73 taxes on, see land taxes as wealth, 46, 47 land confiscation and redistribution, Communists and (to 1949), 356, 438, 439, 460, 461, 462, 489, 491-93, 497 Guomindang and, 356-57, 495 in Manchuria, 497 by Manchus, 39-40 Mao and, 370, 371, 373-74 in PRC (1949- ), 515,516-17 landlords and landholders Communists tiS., 472, 480, 492-93, 515, 516, 536,548,561,592,607,613,635 confiscation of their land, see land confiscation and redistribution Guomindang and, 342, 345, 356 Manchus as, 40 mass campaigns against, 472 in Ming period, 14 peasants tiS., !5, 44, 47, 370-71, 372, 429, 493, 517 percent of land owned by, 373 as percent of population, in central China, table 480 power of (20th century), 296, 313, 368,430, 5!6, 517 tax evasion by, 44, 47, 72, 76 women as, 516 in Yan'an representative assemblies, table 463 land-reclamation projects, 114, 709; see also flood control

land reform Communists and, 273, 406, 438, 439, 489, 49193,494,497,547,548,566-67 Guomindang and, 493 intellectuals involved, 565 in Manchuria, 497 Taiping, 175, 176 in Taiwan, 630 women and, 516 see also land confiscation and redistribution; rent reduction

land sales and contracts and birth control (in PRC), 686 in Ming period, 14

N D E X

new system (1980s), 700-701, 728, 730 taxes on, 14, 257 see also tenant farming and contracts land taxes, 20-21, 72-73, 284,367 and Muslim rebellions, 189 reform of: (18th century), 76-78; (20th century), 240 revised in Tongzhi Restoration, 196 surveys, to base rates on, 47, 72,73 language, Chinese in diplomatic relations, 118, 160 efforts to reform, 315 foreigners allowed to learn, 161 PLA and, 563 Russians in China learn, 79 see also script, Chinese languages, foreign Mao encourages learning, 568 school for interpreters, 202 taught in China, 140, 197 Lanzhou, Gansu, 191, 193, 423, 450, 511 Laos, 553, 554, 587 Lao She, 418-19, 564 Cat Country, 418-19 death of, 606 Rickshaw, 431, 564 and n. Lashio, Burma, 457, 471 Latin America: Chinese emigration to, 211-12 laudanum, lSI law, international

Chinese interest in, 158,201-2,245 PRC and, 704, 708-9; training in, 706 Lawrence, D. H., 418 laws and regulations (Ming period), 7-8 (Qing period), 123-26 (I 949- ), in PRC, 623, 658, 690-91, 704-11 bankruptcy, 715 Code of Civil Procedure (I 986), 707 on family, 704, 707-9 foreigners and, 126-28, 153, !55, 161, 623, 717; see also extraterritoriality, principle of on marriage, 376, 516, 685, 707-8 on patents, 703, 707 registration systems, see registration systems and campaigns on tax system, 704, 707 see also courts and judiciary; penal system law schools, 705 lawyers, 704-6 Lay, Horatio Nelson, 200-201 Lay-Osborn Flotilla, 200-201 League for the Rupture of Economic Relations with japan, 361 League of Left-Wing Writers, 412-13 League of Nations, 379 German membership, 397 and japanese in Shandong, 364

I849

850

I INDEX League of Nations (continued) and Manchukuo, 393, 394 and Mukden Incident (1930), 391 Learning from Dazhai Conference (1975), 6434S Lebanon, 586 Le dynasty (Vietnam), Ill, 119 Lee Teng-hui, 732-33 legal system, Chinese, see courts and judiciary; laws and regulations legislative bodies, see list under assemblies, legislative

Leibnitz, Gottfried Wilhelm von, 133 Lei Feng (PLA soldier), 697, 727 "Diary," 597-98 lend-lease program and supplies, 469 and n., 478, 483 Lenin, Nikolai, 30S, 310, 319-20 and Chinese Communists, 320 death (1924), 338, 339 Imperialism, the Highest Stage of Capitalism, 330 Mao on, 582 Lhasa, Tibet, 68, 112, 117, 255, 728; see also Potala Liang Hongzhi (Liang Hung-chih), 4S3 Liang Huazhi (Liang Hua-chih), Sl2-13 Liangjiang, !57 and n., 188; see also Anhui province; Jiangsu province; Jiangxi province Liang Qichao (Liang Ch'i-ch'ao), 226, 230, 2S7, 259,304,342 heads Progressive party, 279 and Social Darwinism, 30 I Liang Shuming (Liang Shu-ming), 369 Liang Xiao (Liang Hsiao;pseud.), 643,647 Liaodong, 19,24, 28-29,31,210 Liaoning province, Manchuria, 495, 700; see also Shenyang (Mukden) Liao river region, 26, 28 Liaoyang, Manchuria, 28, 49S Liao Zhongkai (Liao Chung-k'ai), 297, 342 libraries, private, II, 46, 101, 104 Libya, 731 Li Chunzhu (Li Ch'un-chu), 734 Li Dazhao (Li Ta-chao), 306,627 his Chinese interpretation of Marxism, 308-9, 310 and Communist party, 320, 322 executed by Zhang, 3SO and Guomindang, 336, 337 "My Marxist Views," 306 his study group, 306, 307 Lifan Yuan, 117, 126, 128 and Russia, 67, 79, 117 life expectancy, 96 (20th century), 368, 684, 685, 688 Li Hongzhang (Li Hung-chang), 187-88, 194, 201, 20S, 254,642 death (1901), 235 diplomacy of, 220-23, 235

Duan Qirui and, 289 and railroads, 219, 2SO reforms of, 218-20 removed from Zongli Yamen, 230 and Sun, 227 Li Lisan (Li Li-san), 332-33, 350, 372, 375 reassessment of (I 980), 682 Li Mi, SSS Lin Biao (Lin Piao) captures (1949): Changsha and Canton, 512; Tianjin, S08 commands troops in Manchuria, 485, 494, 497, S07 death (1971), 616, 634, 690 discredited (1972), 617,634,635 and intellectuals, S67, 597 and Long March, 404, 40S, 408 and Mao, 440,441, 524, S96-98, 605,616-17, 628,643 mass campaign against, 621, 635,636 and PLA, 597-98, 601, 616 political power in PRC, S23-24, 596, S98, 604, 615-16 radical rhetoric of, 627 as Whampoa cadet, 339 lineage organizations and systems (Ming period), 10, 13, 14 (17th century), 46, 90 erosion of (1940s), 491 and land ownership, 373, 430 lineage schools, I 0, 46 Mao and (1920s), 371 Ling Bing (pseud.): "For You," 666 Lin Qing (Lin Ch'ing), 166-68, 262 Linqing, Shandong, 112 Lintin Island, 132 Lin Xiangqian (Lin Hsiang-ch'ien), 333 Lin Zexu (Lin Tse-hsu), IS0-52, IS3, 154, ISS56, 158, 169, 172, 192 Li Peng (Li P'eng), 692 and democracy movement (1989), 740,741, 743 early life, 728-29 and economic reforms, 729, 730 political role in PRC, 728, 729 Li Ruzhen (Li Ju-chen): Flowers in the Mirror, 146 Li Shan: "Endland," 719-20 literacy (Ming period), 9 (20th century), 292 (1949- ), in PRC, S46, 689-90, 699, 737 literature, Chinese (Ming period), 9-10 (18th century), !OS, 106-10 (20th century): CCP and, S98-601, 640, 716 (see also Cultural Revolution); poetry, and Great Leap Forward, 581; writing style, vernacular, 313, 31S-16 classical, taught in 20th century, 637

INnEx compilations, 63, 100-101, 104, 144 see also Dream of the Red Chamber; encyclopedias literature, foreign

(1980s), 623 China and Chinese in, 387-88 intellectuals protest proscription of, 570 literature (foreign), translations of, 207, 302, 473 Liu Binyan, 572, 675, 726 "People or Monsters," 726 "Second Kind of Loyalty, A," 726 Liupan mountains, 409 Liu Shaoqi (Liu Shao-ch'i), 333 and agricultural production, 575, 591, 592 and Cultural Revolution, 604, 606 death (1969), 613, 680 early life, 520 How to Be a Good Communist, 520, 613 and intellectuals, 567 and Mao, 568, 569, 594-95, 596, 604 as Mao's successor, 575, 581, 589 ouster of (1966), 606, 617, 634 political role in PRC, 520, 521, 542, 581 tours central and south China (1964), 593 and USSR, 589 vilification campaign against, 635, 647, 649 vindication of (1980), 680, 681; see also Wang Guangmei Liuzhou, Guangxi, 471, 476 livestock, 550-51, 644, 678 living standards (in PRC), 547, 570, 657, 735 population growth and, 622 rural vs. urban, 576 see also consumer goods Li Xiannian (Li Hsien-nien), 691 n. Li-Yi-Zhe (Li-1-Chih;pseud.), 660,664,677 Li Yuanhong (Li Ylian-hung), 264 as president (1916-17), 287,290,297 Li Zicheng (Li Tzu-ch'eng), 21-22,25, 31,3234, 44, 45, 47 Li Zongren (Li Tsung-jen), 449 as Nationalist president (1949), 510 negotiates with Communists, 510-11 Lloyd George, David, 293 loans, foreign (19th century), 141,225 (20th century), 266, 281, 284, 328, 438, 467, 575, 703, 709 for currency stabilization, 50 I japanese, 290, 293, 311 for railroads, 250-53 passim, 325, 328-29 from World Bank, 709 see also debt, foreign; investment (foreign) in China London Missionary Society, 206 London Naval Conference (1930), 391 Long March (1934-35), 273, 403-10, map 406, map 410

(1st phase, Oct. 1934-june 1935), 405-8, map 406 (2nd phase, June-Oct. 1935), 408-10, map 409 forces involved, 404-5 and later events, 455 planning for, 403-4 Long Yun (Lung Yun), 457, 509,521 Lop Nur desert, Xinjiang, 586, 718 Los Angeles, Chinese in, 213-14 Louis XIV, king of France, 132-33 Luding Bridge, Datong river, 407-8 Lu Liuliang (Lli Liu-liang), 84, 85, 100 Lunacharsky, Anatoly Vasilyevich, 310 Luoyang,423, 505,506 Lushan, jiangxi: plenum (1959) of CCP leaders, 581-82, 583, 587 Llishun, Manchuria, 223,231, 239,393 dock facilities, 219 japanese and, 391 naval base, USSR and, 482, 524, 561 railroad, 251 Lu Xun (Lu Hslin; pseud. of Zhou Shuren), 239, 240,317-19,341-42,453,660,720 and communist artistic principles, 412-13 "My Old Home," 318-19 translations, 302, 473 "True Story of Ah Q," 318,414 "What Happens When Nora Leaves Home?," 317-18 Lycurgus, 259 Lytton, Edward Robert Bulwer, earl: report on Manchukuo, 393, 394

Macao, 18, 19-20 British and, 147, !54 Kangxi and, 65 Portuguese and, 18, 19, 54, 65, 66, 120,716 MacArthur, Gen. Douglas, 527, 529, 530 Macartney, George, earl Macartney, 115, 122-23 McCarthy, joseph, 532 McCarthyism (U.S.), 532, 630 macroregions of China, 91-93, map 92 magazines, Chinese CCP hardliners vs. Mao for, 569 censorship of, 414 communist I socialist, 321 and Democracy movement, 660-61 political, 298, 312 see also press, Chinese magistrates, 8, 41 in legal system, 123, 124 reformed role for, 246, 247, 296, 368, 399, 457 Ma Hualong (Ma Hua-lung), 193 Malaya, Chinese in, 554, 555 Malenkov, Georgi, 552, 584 Malraux, Andre, 387 Malthus, Thomas Robert: Essay on the Principle of Population, 684 n.

issr

8521

INDEX

Management of the Business of All Foreign Countries, Office of, see Zongli Yamen managers, industrial, see factory managers and

directors (in PRC) Manchukuo, 393-96, 450 assigned to Nationalists (1943), 474 Germany and, 402 industrial, military expansion, 452 and Inner Mongolia, 443 its Japanese army invades Suiyan, 421-22 USSR and, 468, 483, 485 Manchuria (late Ming period), 19, 20, 21,24 (17th century), 69 civil war in, (1945-47), map 487, 493-98,506, 507 Communists and, 438, 494, 495-97 currency, 495, 498 farm workers migrate to, 331 foreign in vestment in, 281 Gao Gang's power in, 523 industrial development, 495 industrial production (1926-36), table 425 and Japan, see Japan and Manchuria Koreans in, 494, 556 landholding patterns and land reform, 494, 497 Liaodong region and Japan (1895), 223-24 military forces, 494 Muslims exiled to, 193 railroads, 250, 328, 331, 336, 390, 391, 482 reunification with China (1920s), 390 Russia I USSR and, 231, 307, 485, 494-95, 616 settlement by Chinese, 94, 95 treaty port in, 180 see also Manchukuo Manchus conquest of China, 3-4, 32-38 emperors, see Daoguang; Guangxu; Jiaqing; Kangxi; Puyi; Qianlong; Shunzhi; Tongzhi; Xianfeng; Yongzheng growth of power (to 1644), 26-32, map 27 military organization, 27, 29, 30 Ming resistance to, 32-38, map 34 name initiated (I 636), 31 religious beliefs and practices, 41 see also Qing dynasty, Nurhaci, Hong Taiji, Jiirchen tribesmen Manchus and Chinese anti-Manchu nationalism, 141,168,169, 17172, 176, 227,236,258, 261 Chinese as administrators, 4, 28, 30, 40, 80-81 conflicts and differences, 38-44,48, 61-63 cooperation (19th century), 216 Kangxi and Chinese, 58-64 passim Manila, 20, 94, 120 Mao Anqing (Mao An-ch'ing), 531 Mao Anying (Mao An-ying), 531

Mao Dun (Mao Tun), 417-18 Midnight, 412 as minister of culture, 521, 565 Mao Zedong (Mao Tse-tung) and agricultural production, 575, 591, 592 and Communist party, 321, 322, 370 criticized posthumously, 656, 661,676, 678-79, 697 "cult" of, 481, 596-97, 606-7 death (1976), funeral and mourning, 622, 65051; mausoleum in Tiananmen Square,

652 early life, 276, 303, 307, 322 and Gang ofF our, 656 vs. Guomindang, 371, 376-77 illness, 639, 645, 649 and intellectuals, 566, 567, 569, 572; see also Rectification Campaign and Jiang Qing, 599, 609 in Jinggang (1927-28), 370-71 as labor organizer, 325 and Lin Biao,440,441, 524,596-98,605,61617, 628, 643 and Long March, 407, 408, 409-10 marriages, 322, 598, 599 on mass will and energy, 576, 580 military planning and leadership, 374-75, 407, 506 negotiations: with Chiang ( 1945), 486-88; with Nationalists (1949), 510-11 and Nixon, 629, 631-33 on opposition to Japan, 419 on peaceful coexistence, 586 as peasant-organizer, 355-56, 359, 370-71 social and political theories, 276, 303-5, 51617 and Stalin, 524, 584 his study of Xunwu county (I 930), 373, 374 and table, 432 and USSR, 514,524, 575, 650 and Zhou Enlai, 596, 645-46 and Zunyi Conference (1935), 407 Mao Zedong, leadership 473, 481, 512 as chairman, 512, 520, 521, 558, 568 challenges to and criticism of, 461-62, 581, 582, 596, 648 resigns as head of state (1959), 58! rise to power, 407, 481 succession to, 568-69; Liu and, 575, 591, 592 Mao Zedong thought (as orthodoxy), 481 Central Committee reaffirms (1980), 679 intellectuals and, 564 and international revolutionary movements,

628 CCP congress (8th) and, 568 Quotations ("little red book") studied, 597,605, 610,628 students and, 612

I study groups on, 613 Third Plenum (1978) on, 658 Workers' Mao-Thought Propaganda Teams, 613 Mao Zedong, writings and speeches on administrative problems and prioritie;, 508 on army and party roles, 563 on art and literature, 473, 566 on class in Chinese society, 548 "On the Correct Handling of Contradictions," 569, 572, 574, 585 on Great Leap, 582 "hundred flowers'' speech (1956), 568 ignored in 1980s, 697 on intellectuals and elites, 472 on party and nonparty members, 568 "On the People's Democratic Dictatorship," 514 , poems, 569 Quotations from Chairman Mao, 596~97, 605, 610, 628, 634 "Sixty Points on Working Methods," 577 "Study of Physical Education, A," 303 "On the Suicide of Miss Zhao," 304 "To the Glory of the Han People," 303~4 Mao Zetan (Mao Tse-t'an), 405 Marco Polo Bridge (Lugouqiao), 444, 445 and map, 446 Margary, Augustus, 220 Mariana Islands, 477 "Maring" (Comintern agent), 322~23, 324, 334, 337 maritime China (17th century), 53~58, map 55; see also Taiwan

market towns, 12 marriage(s) age of, 376, 685~86 arranged, 46, 224, 304,313, 316, 368, 376,431, 707~8

contracts, 258, 376, 708 inevitability of, for women, 96, 687 never-married men and women, 686 and table, 687 reformed by law, 376, 516, 685, 707~8 "by sale," 376, 592, 707, 708 in Shen 's Six Records from a Floating Life, 147 Marshall, Gen. George, 488, 489, 490 Martin, W. A. P., 201, 203, 709 Marx, Karl analyzes stages of history, 183 Capital, 306 cited in China, 260 Communist Maniftsto, 182, 184, 260, 305, 322 Critique of Political Economy, 183~84 death (1883), 259 German Ideology, The, 578 Hegel's view of Asia influences, 135, 182, 183

N DE X

Mao on, 582 speculations on China, 182~84, 194 Marxism, 257,259,260, 272, 305~10, 738 intellectuals and, 623, 666, 738 see also socialism mathematics

in Chinese curricula, 197, 207 Western, in China, 103, 148, 207 Matsu Island, 555~56, 560 May Fourth movement, 271~72, 294, 310~19 anniversary (70th, 1989), 738, 740 as antecedent of later events and ideas, 341, 410,473, 571,627,660, 661, 724,725, 746 as cultural movement, 312~ 19 resolutions and demonstrations (Peking, May 1919), 310~12 workers' support of, 312, 332 May Seventh Schools, 613~14 May Thirtieth Incident (Shanghai, 1925), 340, 341, 350, 352, 507 Mazzini, Giuseppe, 417 media, see magazines, Chinese; newspapers, Chinese; press, Chinese; press, freedom of; press, Western; television, Chinese

(state) "mean people," emancipation of, 84, medical research, 384 medical schools, 229, 384~85 for women, 385

88~89

medicine

missionaries and, 2~6, 208 traditional, 23~24, 208 see also doctors; health care; hospitals Meiji Restoration (Japan), 228, 230, 242, 248 memorials (communications system) Kangxi initiates, 70 open, 75 palace (secret), 70, 75, 76, 81, 82, 87, 99, 114 reform memorial (1895), 226~27 by telegraph, 224 men and women, see women and men

Mencius, 59 mercenaries, 195

"Ever- Victorious Army," 177, 179, 197 merchants, Chinese, see commerce; entrepreneurs, Chinese; private production (in

PRC); trade, internal merchants, Western, see trade, foreign; Western merchants

Mexico, 7, 20, 258 Miao peoples, 79, 82~83, 114, 190 Michong village, Hebei: economic analysis, 432, 433 and table Midway, battle of(l942), 474 migration, internal

(19th century), 210,243 (20th century), 243, 591, 688, 736

I 853

8541

INDEX

migration, internal (continued) see also relocation of populations; resettlement projects military academies and training schools, 220, 224, 2SS, SS9 in PRC, and Cultural Revolution, 611 Whampoa, 338-39 Military Finance, Office of, 81, 98; see also Grand Council military forces (Chinese), see air force, Chinese; army, Chinese; banner troops; Beiyang

army; Communist government {193649): military forces; Eighth Route Army; Green Standard troops; guerrilla forces and tactics; Huai Army; Manchus: military organization; mercenaries; militias;

National Revolutionary Army; New Army; New Fourth Army; People's Liberation Army (PLA); People's SelfDefense Army; Qing dynasty: military organization; Red Army; Xiang Army military forces (foreign) in China Amethyst (frigate) incident, Sll in "Arrow War" (18S6), 179-80, 183 in Boxer Uprising, 234, 23S French fleet (Fuzhou, 1884), 222 in Opium War, IS3-S8, map ISS in Taiping Rebellion, 177 see also borders established and defended; Sino-Japanese hostilities military leaders {17th century), 24-2S, 30 Blueshirts and, 416 Chiang as, 339, 344, 399, 407, SOS, S08 warlords, see warlords (early 20th century) women as, see women: in military ... military organization and control {17th century), 27,30-31,41 {19th century), 19S (20th century), 2S3-S6 Mao and, 374-7S Nationalist, 399, 400 and table, 401 in PRC, 439, S22-24, SS7-63 Military Planning, Office of, 83 military spending (1911), 2S7 Nationalists and, 399, table 400, 471, 49S, S01 PRC and, S26, S39, S43, table S4S, SS8, table SS9 militias {late Ming), 24 (early Qing), 4S {19th century), 166, 169-70, 199, 229 (1949- ), in PRC, S81, S97 anti-British violence by, 162 in communist military forces

(1930s-1940s), 462,479 Mao and Chiang negotiate on, 487 and Muslim uprisings, 191

and Nian, 18S and Opium War, 1S7 reform and strengthening of, 229 and Taiping Rebellion, 177-78 Triads and, 169-70 of workers, 3S3 Mill, john Stuart, 303 On Liberty, 23 9 Miluo river, 346 miners, and Taiping Rebellion, 172 Ming dynasty corruption and inefficiency, 20, 3S cultural achievements, 3, 9-12 decline of, 19, 21-2S end of dynasty (1644), 3, 2S foreign relations, 18-20, map 19, 24 history of (com piled in Qing), 61 and J urchen, 26-32 Manchus conquer, 32-8, map 36 see also Chongzhen, emperor; government (Ming period); Wanli, emperor mining coal, 91,218-19, 32S, 326 and table, 49S, 6949S copper, 82 gold, 98, 189 jade, 98 silver, 82, 189 taxes on, 77 ministries, see under government ... ; and specific

ministries, e.g. Rituals, Ministry of minority peoples in China {18th century), 117 autonomous regions, 542 and birth control, 68S CCP membership, SS7 mortality rate, 622 PRC and, 4S2, SS6, 718 poor health, 68S protests by, 114, 11S, 189,718 see also borders established and defended; Miao peoples; Muslims in China; Uighur peoples; Yao tribes; Zhuang tribes; Zunghar tribes Min river delta, Fujian, 702 missiles PRC develops, S61, S86, 6S4 PRC sells abroad, 731 Soviet, S7S U.S., in Taiwan, S76, 584 missionaries in China

{18th century), 117-18 {19th century), 204-9 American, 161, 170-71, 38S-86 Catholic, see Catholic missionaries; Jesuits in China as mathematicians, 148 opposition to and attacks on, 140, 204-5, 231, 233, 234

INoEx in PRC, 531, 534, 606 Protestant, 161, 170-71, 206 and republican government, 282 and T ai ping Rebellion, 177 women as, 208-9 Mitsui (firm), japan, 329, 453 model communities, 369 Modem Socialism (1899), 260 monarchy, constitutional, 245-49, 257, 259 effortS to form (1911), 266 rejection of, 276, 278 Mongolia, see Inner Mongolia; Mongolian People's Republic; Outer Mongolia Mongolian People's Republic, 524, 552 and n.; see also Outer Mongolia Mongols CCP and, 556 Lifan Yuan and, 117 in Manchu military service, 30, 41 raids and invasions by, 18 Montesquieu, Charles de Secondat, baron, 134, 303 The Spirit of the Laws, 239 Morning News (Chen-baa), Peking (newspaper), 309 mortality rates infant, 95-96, 368, 685, 689 among minority populations, 622 mosques, 8, 189 motion pictures, 368 Antonioni's, on China, 637 Bai Hua's Bitter Lave, 698-99 censorship of, 414 foreign, 623 as propaganda medium, 517 on Wu Xun, campaign against, 565-66 Mukden, see Shenyang, Liaoning Mukden Incident (1931), 391-94, map 392, 469 municipalities (PRC administrative units), 542 and n., 700 munitions, see arms and armaments music, Western, 623, 636-37 Muslims in China, 8 (20th century), 551, 556, 557 economic concessions to, 163 intermarriage with Chinese, 189 rebellions: (1780s), 114, 115, 189; (19th century), 189-93, map 190 in Western border region, 67, 98, 117, 189 in Xinjiang, 450 Mussolini, Benito, 416, 417 Mustard Seed Garden (1701), 105 Myanmar, Union of, see Burma

Nagasaki, japan, 483 Naito Konan, 389 Nanchang, jiangxi, 348 as Chiang's base, 348,349,399,415

insurrection led by Communists, 359 Red Army attacks (1930), 375 Nanjing (Nanking) as capital: Ming, 35; Nationalist, 366; of republic (intended), 277 Communists capture (1949), 511 demonstrations and rallies, 420, 725 as Guomindang base, 354, 361-65; see also Nationalist government (1928-49) japanese surrender (1945), 485 Japanese war (1937), 448-49 Kangxi and, 53 macroregion of, 91 Manchus seize (1645), 36 railroads, 251 refugees in, 507 revolution (1911), 266-67 Taiping Rebellion, 174, 176, 177, 178 as treaty port, 180 unemployment, 500 Yuan seizes (1913), 281 Zheng Chenggong's resistance movement (1650s), 42, 55 Nanjing, Treaty of (1842), 157, 158-60, 710 renegotiated (1854), 179 supplementary tariff treaty (1843), 160, 161-62 Nanjing (Nationalist) government (1928-37), see Nationalist government (1928-49) Nanjing University, 638 Nankai Economic Research Institute, Tianjin, 430 Nankai University, Tianjin, 383-84 Nanning, Guangxi, 37, 252 Nanyang Tobacco Company, 327, 367-68 Napier, Charles James, baron, 149 Napoleon I, emperor of the French, 228 Napoleonic Wars, 147 Nasser, Gamal Abdel, 554 National Assembly (1911-12) and constitution (1911), 277 and military budget, 257 proposed, 246, 249 superceded by National Council, 279 National Assembly (1946-48) convened by Nationalists (1946), 489 discussed (1945-46), 487, 488 re-elects Chiang president (1948), 507 National Bankers' Association, 327 National Conference on Learning from Dazhai in Agriculture (1st, Shanxi, 1975), 643-45 National Council, 278-79 nationalism, Chinese, 231 antiforeign component, see antiforeign sentiments in China anti-Manchu element, 141, 168, 169, 171-72, 176,227,236,258,261 Communist-Guomindang alliance and, 341 and concerted economic action, 238 vs. constitutional monarchy, 246

!sss

8561

INDEX

nationalism, Chinese (continued) "rights recovery movement," 252-53 Social Darwinism and, 301-2 Sun on, 295 Nationalist government (1928-49) cadre training, 366 Chiang's role and power in, 365, 459 Chongqing as base (1937-45), 437, 450, 455, 456-60, map 458 and Communists, 370, 399; see also Guomindang-Communist alliance; GuomindangCommunist conflict disaffections and factions, 369, 390 economic reforms (1948), 502-4 and tables and education, 413-14 established (Oct. 1928), 365 finances and economic policy, 366-68, table 367, 381, 399, table 400, 438, 452, 460, 467 and table, 498-504 and tables Financial and Economic Emergency Measures (1948), 502-4 isolation of, 456, 459 military forces and spending, 399, 400 and table, 401, 459, 471, 478, 483,485, 501, table 506, 507 Nanjing as base (1928-37), 365-424, 448-49 rural administration, 368-69 structure of, 365-66, 459-60 Taiwan as base, see Taiwan (20th century), as Nationalist base U.S. and, 381, 484-85; see also Taiwan (20th century), as Nationalist base: U.S. and Nationalist party, see Guomindang (Nationalist) party National People's Congress, 567, 723 (1988), 7th, 729-32 (1989), 735 National Revolutionary Army anti-union action (Shanghai), 353 vs. Japanese, at )inan, 388 lack of discipline and training, 343 and Northern Expedition, 345-54 passim, 36365 warlord troops incorporated into, 343, 344 National Salvation Movement, 422 National Science Conference (Peking, 1978), 655 national security, see internal security national societies, 226 naval academies, 220, 239 naval actions and warfare (17th century), 56, 65 (18th century), 140 (19th century), 222 see also navy, Chinese naval vessels

fleet strengths limited by Washington Conference, 379-80 submarines, 561 u.s., 557

naval vessels, Chinese

emulation of West, in building, !58, 197 fleet strength, 222, 223, 229 ofPRC, 56! steam-driven, 157-58, 177, 197, 219 see also shipbuilding navigation, study of, 199, 207 navy, Chinese, 56, 140, 222, 223, 229 fleet, see naval vessels, Chinese in PRC, 557, 560, 561, 584; Cultural Revolution and, 611 Nehru, Jawaharlal, 552, 554 Nemesis (naval vessel), !57-58 Nepal, 111-12, 255 Neptune (merchant vessel), 128 Nerchinsk, 65 treaty of (1689), 66 and map, 67, 69, 79, 183 Netherlands, see Dutch New Army, 226, 229, 253-56, 263 and Qing downfall, 263-66 and republic, 277 Sun's adherents in, 256, 262, 263 New Era (periodical), 261 New Fourth Army, 461, 462, 464-65, 481, 485 "Incident" (Jan. 1941), 465 and map, 466, 468 New Life movement (1930s), 414-16,518 newspapers, Chinese (19th century), 225 (20th century), 249, 312 CCP hardliners vs. Mao for, 569 censorship of, 286, 4!4 and democracy movement, 660-61, 724 on economic reforms and problems (1980s), 733, 735 propaganda in, 517, 537, 572 Taiping and, 178 see also press, Chinese; press, freedom of newspapers, foreign, see press, Western "New Teachings," !90, 193 "New Territories," see Xinjiang province New World Society, 261 New York, Chinese in, 214 New Youth (periodical), 306, 315, 317, 320 Nguyen family (Vietnam), Ill, 119 Nian rebellion (1851-68), 139-40, 176, 184-88, map !87, 192 Nie Yuanzi (Nieh Yiian-tzu), 604, 605 Nie (Nieh) family, 242 Nightingale, Florence, 240 Nine-Power Treaty (1922), 379 Ningbo mission school, 207-8 Opium War, 156, 157 as treaty port, 159, 162 Ningxia province, 191, 512, 598; see also Shaan I Gan I Ning region Nippon Steel corporation, 642 "Nishihara loan" (19!8), 329

INDEX

Nixon, Richard M., 621 and China, 621, 629-33 and Vietnam, 629 visits China: (1972), 631-33; (1976), 646 Ni Zhengyu (Ni Cheng-yii), 710 North China Development Company, 453 North China sea (Bohai), 654; see also petroleum: offshore oil resources North China Transportation, Telephone, and Telegraph Companies, 453 Northeastern Border Defense Army, 391 Northeast Political Council, 390 Northern Expedition (1926-28), 346-54, map 347, 361, 363-65 coastal campaign, 348-49 Communists and, 346 compromised by split in Guomindang, 362 first phase (1926-27), 346-48, map 347 and foreigners in China, 351-52 later phase (1928), 363-65, map 364 planning, 344-46 purpose, 346 North Korea, see Korea North Vietnam, see Vietnam "Not-Not Manifesto" (1986), 719 novels, see literature

nuclear industry, Chinese, 731 power generation, 671,714,717 see also nuclear research and technology, Chinese nuclear research and technology, Chinese, 561, 584,585-86,598,610,654 nuclear power plants, 714, 717 protests against atmospheric testing, 718 test site, Lop N ur desert, 586, 718 nuclear we a pons

atomic bomb, 483, 554; Chinese, 561, 584, 585, 586, 587, 598 and n. control/ banning of, 554 as diplomatic leverage, 530, 552 hydrogen bomb, Chinese, 610, 654 shelters in defense against, 581 nuclear war, prospect of, 576,581,584, 585, 58889 Nurhaci, 19, 20, 21, 24, 26-30, 496-97 death (1626), 30 early life, 26-27 Oboi, 44, 47, 49, 56,69 Oerlikon arms firm, Germany, 398 Oertai, 82-83, 99 officials, provincial, see censors; governors, provincial; magistrates; prefects

"officials' and merchants' joint management companies," 218-19,241-42 offshore islands, see Matsu Island; Qemoy ()inmen) Island oil, see petroleum "open door" policy (U.S.), 231, 283

opera, see dramatic arts (in PRC) opium bans and suppression of, 88, 131-32, 150, 181, 257,285,457 British use of, !51 consumption practices, 130 dealers and smugglers, 88, 131, 132, 150, 154, 257, 285, 481 medicinal properties and use, 87, 88, 131 opium addiction Communists vs., 457,518 criticism of, !45, 148 efforts to control, 139, 148-51; see also opium: bans ... flourishes, 288 remedies developed for, 384 as social problem, !53, 165, 209, 257 Yongzheng and, 84, 87-88, 131 opium growing and growers, Chinese, 88, 131, 150,257,288,457 Opium Suppression Bureau, 362 opium trade, 128-32 (19th century), 148, 149-52 American, 127, 161 British and, 121-22, 129 and table, 130, 139, 149-52, !53, !54, 179,204 edicts forbidding, 131, !50, 151-52 Hong merchants and, 162 import duties on, 181 in Indonesia, 211 Marx on, 182, 183 Ruan attacks, 148 in Shanghai, !62 Opium War (1839-42), 155-58, map 155 causes and contributing factors, 153-54 indemnities and reparations, !56, !59, 160 military significance, 157-58 Treaty of Nanjing, 157, !58-60 Osborn, Capt. Sherard, 201 outcasts, social: Yongzheng's emancipation of,

88-89 Outer Mongolia, 67, 283; see also Mongolian People's Republic overpopulation, see population control overseas Chinese, see Chinese abroad oyster gatherers, 88

pagodas, 8 painting(s) (Ming period), 9, 10, 105 (early Qing period), 46, 62-63 (18th century), 100, 105 (20th century), 313 as propaganda, 598 Pakistan, 629 palace memorials, 70, 75, 76, 81, 82, 87, 99, 114 palaces Forbidden City, 7, 16, 33, 181, 267, 287, 288

I 857

8581

INDEX

palaces (continued) imperial household and, 118 summer palaces, 100, 181, 229 Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO), 627 Palmerston, Henry john Temple, viscount, !5354, 156, !83 Panay (gunboat), 510-11 Paris Commune (1871), 605,607 Parliament bicameral, 279, 280 dissolved: (1914), 284; (1917), 297 first, 280-81 formation of(l911-12), 271,277,278 and Germany (1917), 290 Guomindang purged from, 281, 283 recalled by Li Yuanhong (1916), 287, 297 Sun and, 335 warlords control, 288 Yuan Shikai and, 281, 283-84 patent Ia w, 703, 707 peaceful co-existence, 586 peace movement, 586 Peace Preservation Corps, 506 Peach Blossom Fan, The (Kong), 63-64 pearl fishers, 88 Pearl Harbor, Hawaii: bombed by japanese (Dec. 1941), 437, 469 Pearl river delta, Guangdong, 702 peasant associations and soviets, 345, 355, 357, 377, map 378; 492 jiangxi Soviet, 372, 403, 407 peasants

attack Chinese troops (1944), 477 Communists' ranking of, 480 and table conditions of (20th century), 368, 369, 429-34 and dismantling of communes (1980s), 712-13 educational attainment (1980s), 690 Guomindang and, 357, 368, 369 income, table 433 vs.landlords, 370-71,372,429, 517;seealso land confiscation and redistribution Li Dazhao on need to liberate, 308 migration to cities, and reversal of, 591, 688, 736 in Ming period, 14, 20 and opium, 131 rebel against gentry (1640s), 47 and world market economy, 225 in Yan'an representative assemblies (1941), table 463 peasants, affluent, 430-31, 480 CCP warnings against, 592, 644 and cooperatives, 549 income, table 433, 434 and land redistribution, 516 Mao and, 371, 372, 516 and mutual-assistance teams, 547-48 as percent of population, in central China, table 480

in Yan 'an representative assemblies (1941), table 463 peasants, Communists and

army of peasants formed, 358, 359 vs. landlords, 370-71, 372, 429, 517 in Manchuria, 497 Mao and, 355-56, 359, 370-79 organizing, 344-45, 355-56, 357, 358, 377, 472 and revolution, 261,355, 356, 358, 359, 370-79 passim, 577-78 see also peasant associations and soviets

Pei ping, see Peking Peking, 366 n. ambassadors reside in, 180, 181 Boxer Uprising, 233-35 as capital: of PRC, 512; Yuan's, 277 Chinese and Manchus in, 39 Communist organization in, 321

Cultural Revolution, 611,612 foreign community interned (1940s), 474-·75 industrial experimentation (1980s), 702 Li Zicheng, seizes (1644), 25, 32 Manchus and Wu Sangui recapture (1644), 33, 38 in Northern Expedition, 349-50, 365 protests and demonstrations, 293,310-12,420, 507, 647-48, 664, 713, 718, 723-24, 725, 739-46 railways, 225, 250, 251, 252, 328,333 unemployment (1980s), 736 see also Forbidden City; Tiananmen Square Peking, Convention of (1860), 181, 183 Peking college, 202-3, 229 Peking opera, 603 Peking Union Medical College, 384 Peking University, 306, 307, 313-14 and campaign against Deng Xiaoping, 647 and democracy movement (1989), 739 female students, 311 and Hundred Flowers movement, 57! international law courses, 706, 709 "Mass Education Speech Corps," 309 and May Fourth movement, 313-17 penal system, 124-25, 285; see also courts and judiciary Peng Dehuai (P'eng Te-huai) criticizes Great Leap, 58!-82 death (1974), 645 as deputy commander of united-front forces, 462. 464. 468 and intellectuals, 567 in Korean War, 530 in last phase of civil war, 506, 511 and Long March, 404, 405 and Mao, 524, 582, 598 and modernization of army, 531, 557-58, 585 his ouster (1959), 582, 583, 590, 599 political role in PRC, 523, 558, 582, 583 Peng Pai (P'eng P'ai), 345, 355, 359

INDEX

Peng Zhen (P'eng Chen), 567, 569, 572, 604 and Group of Five, 602-3 ouster of, 604 political role in PRC, 691 n., 728 Pentagon Papers (U.S.), 630 Peony Pavilion, The (Tang), 11-12, 15-16, I 09 People's Liberation Army (PLA) absorbs Guomindang military personnel, 509 border clashes with Russians, 616 CCP members, 519, 597 conscription for, 560 and cultural affairs, 598, 603, 604; and Cultural Revolution, 609-12 in disaster relief, 649 discipline and professionalism of, 506-7, 5089,718 elitism and abuses, 561-62 and Indian troops, 598 indoctrination, 597, 598 and internal security, 601, 693 in Korean War, 530-31, 557 in Manchuria (1940s), 496, 497 military regions, 522-24, map 523, 542, 558-59 under Ministry of Defense, 542, 558, 596 modernization and reform, 531, 557-63, 584, 718 officers, 559, 561, 601; as lawyers, 705; retirement (1980s), 718 organized by CCP (1946), 489 partial demobilization (1950), 526, 558 and people's militia, 581 Public Security Forces, 559 and purges of cadres, 616 ranks: abolished, 601; reinstated, 718 and Red Guards, 610, 611 represented on Central Committee, 634 on Revolutionary Committees, 609-10, 612 role in PRC, 440,441, 522-24, 561-62, 563, 610, 616, 634, 693 self-criticisms by officers, 616 and Taiwan, 526 technical branches, 559 and Tiananmen Square demonstrations (1989), 742-43, 744 in Tibet, 525, 569 troop strength, 558 in Vietnam, 659 People's Militia, 479, 581 People's Political Consultative Conferences (1946, Nanjing), 488 (1949, Peking), 512, 515 People's Republic of China (PRC) and cities, 496, 508-9, 517-19, 533-34 and continuing revolution, 576-77, 583, 595, 603 criticism of: (1970s), 659-66; (1980s), 738-47 diplomatic recognition, 524, table 525 and foreigners in China, 531-32, 534 founded (1949), 438, 512

government structures, 438, 521-26, 542, 62223 investigates rural collectives, 591-95 isolationism, 621 mass campaigns, see campaigns, collective (20th century) military regions, 522-24, map 523, 542, 558-59 purges, 542-43; see also under individuals regional and bureaucratic conflicts and tensions, 524, 546-47, 575, 693-96 "Revolutionary Committees," 609-10, 611 see also government (1949- ), PRC People's Self-Defense Army (Manchuria), 494 People's University, Peking, 739 performing arts, see dramatic arts periodicals, see magazines, Chinese; press, Chinese; and specific titles Perofskaya, Sophia, 241 Perry, Matthew, 220 Peru, 7,20 Chinese emigration to, 211, 212 Pescadores islands, 56, 223 Peter I (the Great), tsar of Russia, 228 petroleum jurisdiction over wells and fields, 694, 731 offshore oil resources, 621, 629, 654, 694, 696, 737 peasant prospecters for, 580-81 productivity, 596 supply, Taiwan and, 668-69, 671 whole-plant purchases from abroad, table 642 see also Daqing oil fields "Petroleum Group," 628-29, 641 Petroleum Industries Ministry, 594, 694 lobbies for Western technology, 628-29 Philippine Islands, 237, 554, 555; see also Manila philosophical societies, 17-18 pigtail, see hairstyle, men's: queue Pingnan guo (Kingdom of the Pacified South), 189 "ping-pong diplomacy," 629 Pingxian coal mines, Jiangxi, 325 pirates

(Ming period), 18 (early Qing), 44, 54, 57 (19th century), 166, 172, 181 Pitt, William, see Amherst, William Pitt, earl Amherst PLA, see People's Liberation Army plague, 24, 384, 496 Poland, 228, 230, 569 police, 238, 246, 247, 368, 487 Communists and, 420, 517 Political Consultative Conferences (1946, Nanjing), 488 (1949, Peking), 512, 515 pollution, industrial, 687 Pol Pot (Tal Saut), 654,656, 659

I 859

860 I

INDEX

poor (1920s-1930s), 425,427-28, 429 and table, 431 food I diet of, table 429, 432 and opium, 130, 131 in townships (Ming period), 12-13 Wei jingsheng on, 663 women as, 431-32 see also wealth, distribution of population control (in PRC), 684-90, 736 family planning, 622, 684-86 sterilization, 686, 714 see also abortion

population of China (to 1900) (1390), 93 (1600), 7 (18th century), 73, 93-96, table 94, 110, 139, 143 (19th century), 165,210 age profiles, 95-96, table 96 density, and economic conditions, 91

Kangxi manipulates reporting system, 73 pressures on land and resources, 110, 165, 210, 430, 434, 687-88 see also demography of China population of China (20th century) (early decades), 296 (1936), 424 (1953), 545 and n. (1957), 545 (1964), 683 (1966-76), table 634 (1979), 668 (1981), 683 (1982), 622; age profiles, 684 and table, 688 (1988), 736-37 communes as solution to, 579 growth of, as social I economic problem, 579, 622,684-85 most-populous provinces (I 980s), 693 see also demography of China porcelain manufacture and trade (Ming period), 10 (I 8th century), 92, 119, 129, 130 (20th century), 286 worker's strike, 14,243 Portland, Ore., Chinese in, 212, 214 Portuguese vs. British and Dutch, 20, 120 and Macao, 18, 19, 54, 65, 66, 120,716 and Taiwan, 54 trade with China, 19-20, 120 postal service, 178, 227 Posts and Communications Ministry, 253 Potala, Lhasa (Tibet), 100 Pottinger, Sir Henry, 156-57, 160, 164 poverty, see poor PRC, see People's Republic of China prefects, 8, 41, 123-24 press, Chinese, 312, 631 and democracy demonstrations, 660-61, 724

press, freedom of, 237, 487, 515, 726; see also censorship press, Western

on China, 282-83, 381, 680 on events of 1980s, 728,730,733,740, 741,743 price controls, 500, 502, 503, 546, 704 printing press, 206, 225 prisons, see penal system private production (in PRC), 551, 622, 623, 644, 650,653,657-58,678,679-80,698,704 agricultural, 549-50, 579, 581, 591, 592, 596, 607, 615, 622, 644, 657-58, 678, 701 see also entrepreneurs, Chinese Progressive party, 279 proletariat, 331 vs. bourgeoisie, 595, 603 role of, 307-8, 323, 325, 337, 371 worldwide, 324, 514 propaganda (1930s), 415,454 propaganda ( 1949- ), of CPP I PRC, 496, 51718, 531,537, 560,691 corps of, 537, 540 criticism of, 723 intellectuals and, 565 on population control, 685 supports mass campaigns, 569, 572, 635; see also campaigns, collective prospecting for minerals, 580-81 prostitutes and prostitution CCP I PRC and, 481, 518, 685 female children sold for, 14-15,309 in jiangxi Soviet, 376 in special economic zones, 674 in Xunwu, 373 prostrations, ritual (kowtow), 118, 122, 145, 148, 203 protests, industrial, 243-44 and May Fourth movement, 312 see also riots; strikes

protests (social, political, economic) (Ming period), 15 on betrayal to japanese claims in China (1919), 293-94, 310-11 against CCP government, 621-22, 713,718, 725, 739; by democracy movements, 664, 725, 739, 739-46 December Ninthers (1935), 420 food riots, 457 jinshi (1895), 226-27,229 mass rallies, sponsored by CCP I PRC, 534, 535,538,608,636,647,652,719 May Thirtieth Incident, 340, 341, 350, 352, 507 on railway rights, 252, 253 by students, see students, Chinese: strikes and demonstrations see also antiforeign senti1nents in

China; dissi-

dents; rebellions; riots; strikes

provincial administration and government (Ming period), 8 (17th century), 40-41,72

I (18th century), 73 (20th century), 279-80, 542, 692-96 corruption and malfeasance, 20, 77, 78, 99, 114, 124, 143, 148, 166 fiscal management, 76-78 of Nationalist government, 368-69 for newly-settled areas, 114 reforms {early 20th century), 225-30, 246-49 salaries of officials, 77, 144 separatist regimes, 275, 286-87 see also censors; constitutional assemblies (provincial); governors, provincial; magistrates; prefects provincial assemblies, see constitutional assem-

blies (provincial) ' Provisional Government of the Republic of China, 452-53 Prussia, 200, 202 public security, see internal security Punishments, Ministry of, 124, 125, 128, 168 Puyi (P'u-i), emperor abdicates (Feb. 1912), 267, 275 death (1967), 565 n. deposed: (1917), 288; (1945), 485 as Manchukuo ruler, 392-96 and Qing downfall, 266-67 his regents, 248, 253, 266 "remolded" by CCP, 565 and n. Sun and, 298 Zhang declares restored (1917), 287, 298, 306 Quemoy (Jinmen) island, 526, 555-56, 560, 586 queue,28,38-39,48, 51,213,256 Muslims and, 98 qi {ch'i), 5 Qianlong (Ch'ien-lung), emperor, 90,97-102, ll0-16 "abdicates" (1796), 116, 144 n. death (1799), 143 edict of 1793, 122-23, 147 and foreign trade, 122-23 and Heshen, 114-16 Hong Liangji and, 144 later years of regime, ll0-16 military campaigns, 97, 98 and map, 110-12, map Ill rebellions against, 112-14, map 113 Voltaire and, 133 Qian Zhengying (Ch'ien Cheng-ying), 691 n. Qian Zhongshu (Ch'ien Chung-shu), 614 Fo,.tress Besieged, 413 Qiao Shi (Ch'iao Shih), 728 n. Qingdao,Shandong, 230-31,290-91 civil war, late phase, 505, 506 Japanese and, 293, 422 Qing (Ch'ing), dynasty, 4-5 begins rule (1644 ), 33 and Chinese, see Manchus and Chinese as constitutional monarchy, see monarchy, constitutional

N DE X

corruption and inefficiency, 5, 77, 78, 99, 114, 115,143,145, 165-66,216 decline of, 141, 245-68 emperors, see Daoguang; Guangxu; Jiaqing;

Kangxi; Puyi; Qianlong; Shunzhi; Tongzhi; Xianfeng; Yongzheng end of (1912), 141, 262-68, map 264 established by Hong Taiji, 31 foreign policy, see foreign relations and policy (to 1900) and foreign trade, 54-55,57, 118-23, 147-48; see also Western merchants in China imperial-household system, 44, 118, 126 loyalists to (post-1911), 275 military organization, 38, 39, 41 and military overthrow (1911), 262-68 and political opposition, 256-68 "Tongzhi restoration," 194-215 and unification of China, 49-50, 52, 93 see also government (Qing period); Manchus Qinghai, 67, 598 Qinghua University, Peking, 384,647 Qin Shihuang (Ch'in Shih- huang), emperor, 636, 648 Qishan (Ch'i-shan), 156 Qiu )in (Ch'iu Chin), 241,304,660 Qiying (Ch'i-ying), 160, 161, 162, 163-64 Qu Qiubai (Ch'ii Ch'iu-pai), 307, 309-10, 324, 412 capture and death, 405 reassessment of (1980), 682 as secretary-general of CCP, 359, 360 race, and class struggle, 337; see also Manchus, minority peoples in China railroads in China, 249-53, map 251, 328 and map, 329 in Boxer uprising, 250 British involvement, 204, 282 centralized network, 141, 227,251-52,253 corporate management considered, 731 corruption in, 731 extensions of, 2!9, 225, 250, 251-52, 325, 32829,425,543 foreign loans and investments, 250-53 passim, 282, 293, 325, 328-29 freight rates, 285 French involvement, 251, 252 German involvement, 251, 402 Japanese involvement, 381, 454 in Manchuria, 250, 328, 331, 336, 390, 391, 482 mileage of track, 250, 251, 328 reopened after World War II, 489 in revolution against Qing (1911), 265 Russian involvement, 283, 307, 336 strategic in military conflicts, 265, 390, 391, 445,449,453,458,476,487,497,505,506, 552 Sun and, 277 Taiping and, 178

I

86 I

railway workers, 329, 333, 336, 345 rallies, see protests Rao Shushi (lao Shu-shih), 518, 690 and Mao, 524 political power, east China, 523 purged (1954), 542-43, 558 Rebel Commands (Cultural Revolution), 611 rebellions (late Ming), 21-22, map 23,29 (early Qing), 44-45, 47, 68-69 (18th century), 110, 112-14, map 113, 139-40 (19th century), 139-40, 166-78 Boxer (1900), 231-35, map 233 Canton (1648), 42 against Chiang, 369 "Heaven and Earth Society," 113-14, 168-70 Kang Youwei's, 258 Lin Qing's (1813), 166-68 Muslim (1855-73), 189-93, map 190 Nanjing (1650s), 42 Nian (1851-68), 139-40, 176, 184-88, map 187, 192 Red Turbans, 176 revolution of 1911, vs. Qing, 262-68 Shaanxi province (17th century), 21-22 Sun Yat-sen's, 227-28, 262 Taiping (1850-64), 139, 170-78, map 173 White Lotus (1770s), 112-l3,map 113,114, 143, 165 against Yuan (1912), 277 rebels, see dissidents reconstruction projects, rural, 369, 580 Rectification Campaign (1942), 472-73, 518, 521, 534, 566, 570 Red Army (Chinese), 374-75, 403-10,421, 562; see also Eighth Route Army Red Flag (periodical), 587-88, 636, 647, 703 Red Guards, 440, 604-10 passim, 659 PLA and, 610, 611 Red Lantern, The, 640 Red Lanterns Shining, 232-33 Red Spears (secret society), 462 Red Turban rebellion, 176 refugees, 472, 484, 507, 509 registration systems and campaigns Communists and, 496, 518, 688, 693, 703 land surveys, 47, 72, 73, 78 in Manchuria (1940s), 496 Nurhaci's, 29-30 Wanli's (1581), 73 Rehe (Jehol) province, 42, 390, 394 summer palace, 100, 122 relief system, see disaster relief religion architecture (Ming), 8 comparative, studied, 660-61 in Dream of the Red Chamber, I 08 of Manchus vs. Chinese, 41 PRe's mass campaign against, 439

see also Buddhism; Christianity; Confucianism; Daoism; Islam; Muslims relocation of populations, 39-40, 44, 57, 591 of urban Chinese, students and intellectuals, to countryside, see rural areas, 20th century: intellectuals and urban Chinese in; students, Chinese: sent to countryside renminbi currency, 509, 518, 543 rent reduction, CCP and, 461, 462, 472, 489, 491, 515 republican government (1911-c17), 271, 276-88 established (1911 ), 267 failure of, and consequences, 300, 302 Qing court and, 245 Sun favors I supports, 227, 236, 261, 294, 295 U.S. and, 282 warlords and, 288 Republican party (China), 279 resettlement programs, 94, 1%, 227; see also relocation of populations Resist Japan University (Kangda), Yan'an, 462 reunification, national

(1930s), 342 (1949-1950s), 336, 342, 456, 532 Revenue, Ministry of, 75, 76, 99-100, 229 Revive China Society, 227 revolution (1911), 262-68 passim Social Darwinism and, 302 revolutionary activism

anarchists and, 261 CCP leadership of, 514 Lu Xun on, 318 peasants and, 261, 355, 356, 358, 359, 370-79 passim Russian Revolution (1905) and, 244 Second International and, 260 socialist I Marxist (international), 319, 320 Sun Yat-sen and, 240, 262 see also rebellions Revolutionary Alliance (Tongmeng hui), 240, 257, 261-62 becomes Guomingdang (1912), 279; see also Guomindang (Nationalist) party Chiang and, 276, 277 and Qing overthrow (1911), 263-67 and republican government, 277, 278, 279 women and, 280 Revolutionary Committees, 609-10, 612 Revolutionary party (Gemingdang), 294-95, 296 Finance Bureau, 297 and Guomindang, 296, 297 in Parliament, 297 phased out by Sun, 297, 334 Revolutionary Rebel Workers' Headquarters, 611 Ricci, Matteo, 71, 132, 189, 207 rice cultivation, 13, 56 rice trade, 144, 165 prices (1947), 500 rickshaw men, 431

I "rights-recovery movement," 252-53 riots

over food, 457 by indentured servants, 44 in Jingdezhen (1601 ), IS see also protests; rebellions, strikes

Rituals, Ministry of, 67, 118-19, 120, 126 rivers, see flood control; floods; silting of rivers; and specific rivers road-building, 368, 399, 425, 457, 587 Burma Road, 457, 458 Roberts, lsaachar, 171 Rockefeller Foundation, 384, 430 Rohmer, Sax, 387 Roland de Ia Platiere, Jeanne Manon Philipon ("Mme. Roland"), 240 Rolls-Royce firm, Gt. Britain, 642 Rongyang, Henan, 22 Roosevelt, Franklin D., 474, 482 and China, 468, 470, 478 Rousseau, Jean-Jacques, 134, 259, 303 Roy, M. N., 357, 358 Ruan Yuan (Juan Yi.ian), 148 Ruijin, Jiangxi, 371-79 passim rural administration, see provincial administration

rural areas (to 1900), 13-16, 72, 73, 224-25 rural areas (20th century) classifications of population, 480 and table, 640, 664, 688, 713 Communists and, 273, 344-45, 355-56, 357, 358,377,469,472,480-81,491-93,497; see also agriculture, socialized (in PRC); communes; land reform; peasants, Communists and

conditions in, 369, 429-34 intellectuals and urban Chinese in, 308-9, 472, 473, 516, 517, 572, 580, 591, 604, 606, 615, 637,638-39,640,664,688,713 mutual-aid teams, 472, 547-48 in PRC, 5 16-17; see also agriculture, socialized; communes, rural ...

percentage of population in, 296, 688, 689 and table work teams, 472, 516, 556-57, 562-63, 615; see also cadres, rural see also agriculture; land reform; peasants rural associations, 272 rural contract system, 699, 700, 703, 712, 734 Russell, Bertrand, 317 Russia

Bolshevik Revolution (1917), 305-6,319 and Japan, 239, 246 railways, 183 Revolution (of 1905), 244, 260 see also Soviet Union [after 1917] Russia and China border conflicts and agreements, 56, 65-67, 79, 97, 220-21, and maps 66, 80

N DE X

compared, 7 diplomatic recognition to Yuan, 283 investment(s) in China, 252, table 282 Kangxi and, 65-67 railways, 183 Russian government as model, 246 territorial expansion, 183, 231 see also Soviet Union and China (1917-49); Soviet Union and PRC (1949- ) Russians in China, 79, 251, 252 Ryuku islands, 118, 119, 220

"Sacred Edict" of Kangxi (1670), 60, 84 Qianlong and, 100 Yongzheng's amplifications, 85-86 St. Petersburg, Treaty of (1881), 220-21 Sakhalin, 381, 482 salt production and trade imperial monopoly, 73, 118, 144, 166 smuggling, 166, 185, 189, 232 taxes on, 77, 284, 707 San Francisco, Chinese in, 212, 213 Sanger, Margaret, 317 Sanyuanli, Canton area, 169 satellites Chinese, 654 Soviet, 575 Satsuma, lords of (Japan), 119 Saudi Arabia, 731 savings deposits, 509, 545, 547, 607 Scarlet Red Guards, 608 scholars (Ming period), 8, 17, 33 (Qing period), 40, 44, 60-63 analyze government and society, 17, 61-62, 102, 104, 139, 143-46 on Confucius, Jee Confucianism; Confucius

exempted from corporal punishment, 125 Kangxi and, 58-64 of kaozheng tradition, 103-6, 119, 143, 195 local power of (20th century), 296 loyalty to Ming, 44, 60-61 in Manchus' employ, 4, 28, 40 as military leaders, 140, 177, 192-93 and opium, 131, ISO persecution of, 35, 44 reform memorial (1895), 226-27 research on West, 103, !58 state projects for, 61, 63 unemployed I disillusioned, 104, 146-47 Zhang Xianzhong and, 35 see also examination system; higher education

Schall von Bell, Fr. Johann Adam, 43, 44 science, Western

Chinese interest in, 148,271-72, 313 Chinese training in, 197, 655 Mao on, 566, 568 missionaries and, 206, 207

I 863

8641

INDEX

science, Western (continued) texts translated into Chinese, 207 see also medicine; technology, foreign script, Chinese influence beyond China, 118, 551 Manchu vs. Chinese, 41 Nurhaci develops, 27 revised under Hong Taiji, 30 see also calligraphy SEATO (Southeast Asia Treaty Organization), 553-54 Second International, Brussels, 259-60, 261, 319 n. secret police (20th century), 417, 487, 651; see also internal security secret societies

Communists and, 462, 481, 517, 535, 592 efforts to overthrow Qing (1890s), 227-28 Guomindang as, 295 and Guomindang, 351, 357 and labor movement, 351,377 Mao and, 371 mass campaign against, 439 among New Army officers, 256 among overseas Chinese, 211,213 Sun and, 227, 261, 263 see also Boxers United in Righteousness Seeckt, Gen. Hans von, 400-40 I, 415 Segalen, Victor: Rene Leys, 387 self-examination and self-criticism, in PRC, 520, 537-39, 564-65, 567, 572, 591, 739 in Cultural Revolution and following, 606, 613 by PLA officers, 616 see also study groups self-government, 268, 279, 280 schools for, 248 self-strengthening (ziqiang) movement, 197,216, 218,224,225,241 and the arts (20th century), 699 and "Hundred Days' Reforms," 229 and industrial development, 402, 641, 642, 702 Senggelinqin (Seng-ko-lin-ch'in), 186-87 servants

hereditary, 88 indentured, 14, 15, 44, 118 sex discrimination in employment, 689 sex ratios (I 982), 684 and table, 687

in border regions, 185 among overseas Chinese, 211, 213 Shaan I Gan I Ning region, 461, 462; see also Gansu province; Ningxia province;

Shaanxi province Shaanxi province as Communists' base., see Yan'an famine (1920-21), ?"69 land reforms ( 1940s), 491 Long March ends i·n, 409, 419 missionaries attacked, 204

Muslim rebellions, 190-91, 192 Muslims in, 189 Nationalists and, 459 opium growing, 257 rebellions, 21, 22, 114, 188,265 "singing people," 88 White Wolfs leadership, 296 see also Shaan I Gan I Ning region; Xi'an; Yan'an

Shakespeare, William, 9 Shameen island, 340 Shandong province (Ming period), 24, 30,31 Boxer uprising, 231-32 Cultural Revolution, 607-8 economic conditions, 91

japanese and, 293, 311, 361, 363-64, 388 labor emigration from, 290-91 land reforms (1940s), 491 later phase of civil war, 505, 506 Nian rebellion, 184, 185, 187, 188 population, 94 and table, 693 railroads, 251, 293 revolution (1911), 266 tobacco cultivation, 130 treaty port in, 180 Versailles settlement on, 293, 310 White Lotus rebellion, 112-13, map !!3 Shang dynasty, 145 Shanghai cadres criticize, 518 campaign against counterrevolutionaries, 535 Chiang and, 361 Communists capture (1949), 51! consumption of food and goods in, 547, table 548 conflict with japanese (1937), 446-48 cotton mills, 24 2, 326 cultural radicals (I 960s), 602, 603, 606, 608-9 demonstrations, strikes, protests, rallies, 243,

340,350-51,420,664,718,724,739 emergency economic laws (I 948), 503, 504 energy needs (I 980s), 714 foreigners in, 351-52 foreign investments, 281 industrial experimentation, 702 industrial workers and families, 426-29 japanese attack (1932), 393-94,434 jewish ghetto, 475 labor unions, 353; attacked (1927), 353-54; Guomindang- vs. Communist-backed, 362 May Thirtieth Incident, 340, 341, 350, 352, 507, on Northern Expedition, 349-54 power struggles in (20th century), 298 railways, 252 stock exchange, 298, 704 Sun in (1916, 1917), 297, 298 Three Anti campaign, 536-38, 539 and table

INDEX

as treaty port, 159, 162, 170 unemployment, 500, 736 wholesale-price and cost-of-living indexes, table 502, 504 and table young people from, sent to countryside, 638 Shanghai Chamber of Commerce, 242 and Chiang's faction of Guomindang, 351, 361' 362, 363 Shanghai communique (U.S. and China, 1972), 631-33, 667, 670 Shanghai Increase Production and Practice Economy Committee, 537 Shanghai Inspectorate of Customs, 179 Shanghai, International Settlement, 298, 351, 454, 466, 474, 475 Shanghai People's Commune, 609-10 Shanghai Power Company, 500 Shanghai Revolutionary Committee, 609-10, 612, 635 Shang Kexi (Shang K 'o-hsi), 49-50 Shang Zhixin (Shang Chih-hsin), 50, 51, 52 Shanhaiguan pass, Hebei 29,31-32, 341-42, 390, 394,450,4R8,497, 504,654 railway through, 250 Shantou (Swatow), 339, 359, 674 Shantung, see Shandong province Shanxi province, 33 Boxer Uprising, 234 coal mining, 694-95 Cultural Revolution, 607 famine (1920-21), 309 northern, incorporated in Inner Mongolia, 452 "singing people," 88 tax reforms, 77 under warlord Yan Xishan, 289 see also Jin I Cha I Ji region; Taiyuan Shen Fu: Sir Records from a Floating Life, 146-47 Sheng Jinghe (Shen Ching-ho), 492-93 Shensi, see Shaanxi province Shenyang (Mukden), Liaoning, 504 industrial experimentation, 702 late phase of civil war, 504, 505, 507 as Manchu base, 24, 28 "Mukden Incident" (1931), 391-94, map 392, 469 Shenzhen, 674, 703, 716, 724, 731 n. Shepherd, George, 386 Shi Dakai (Shih Ta-k'ai), 172, 175 Shi Lang (Shih Lang), 56 Shilka river region, 65 Shimonoseki, Treaty of (1895), 223-24, 454 scholars protest, 224, 226 shipbuilding, 56, 140, 197, 198, 227, 654; see also naval vessels shipping, Chinese, 326, 329; see also transportation of goods Shitao (Shih-t'ao), 63 Shi Zhaoji (Alfred Sze), 380 Shun tian dynasty, I 13-14

Shunzhi (Shun-chih), emperor, 33, 38, 42-43, 49, 60, 65 Sian, see Xi'an, Shaanxi Siberia, 79 Sichuan province administrative reforms (1980s), 699-700 Cultural Revolution, 611, 677-78 droughts (1936), 457 late phase of civil war, 506 Long March in (1935), 407-8 macroregion of, 91 missionaries attacked, 204 Nationalists in, see Chongqing, Sichuan: as Nationalists' wartime base opium growing, 257 population (1980s), 693 railway-rights protests, 253, 254 rebellions (18th century), 114 revolution (1911), 266 War of Three Feudatories, 50-53, map 51 Zhang Xianzhong's rebellion, 22, 34-35 see also Chengdu; Chongqing Siemens firm, Germany, 402 Sikkim, 255 silk manufacture, 10, 118,225,229, 731 silk trade, 19-20, 55, 129, 148, 162 tariff rates, 160 and world market demand, 225 silk-workers, strikes, 15, 87 silting of rivers and canals, 95, 114, 165 silver amount leaving China, 149 to copper, ratio, 20, 149 as form of wealth, 46 mining, 82, 189 and opium trade, 129, 130, 149 in trade with Japan, Portugal, 19-20 from West, impact on China's economy, 3, 20, 129, 149 Singapore, 211, 262, 470 Singer Sewing Machine Company, 329 "singing people," 88 Sino-Japanese hostilities (20th century) (1930s), 391-96 and maps (1937-45), 402,419,443-56 and maps, 46677 casualties, 447, 449, 460 and table, 464, 471, 477,478 japan bombs China, 467 Japan's goals, 451-52 Marco Polo Bridge (Lugouqiao), 444, 445 and map, 446 Sino-japanese War (1894-95), 222-23, 246 Siping, Manchuria, 497 "sisterhoods'' of women, 686-87 slave trade, 98 Smith, Adam: Wealth of Nations, The, 134-35, 184,239 smoking, see tobacco: smoking

1865

8661

INDEX

Snow, Edgar, 629 Red Star over China, 629

social dislocations and disintegration (late Ming), 15, 21 (early Qing), 39-40, 44-48 (18th century), 93 (19th century), 146, 153, 165-70,210 urban,243 see also migration, internal; relocation of populations; refugees socialism, 256,259-60,319 in japan, 260 and land taxes, 240 Revolutionary Alliance and, 261 Sun and, 261, 294,305, 335 see also Communists in China; Marxism Socialist Education Campaign (1963), 592-93, 690 Socialist party, Chinese, 260, 276 social sciences and research, 425 japanese, 432 rural studies, 373,374, 429-34 urban studies, 425-29 and tables societies and associations, see lineage organizations; national societies; peasant associa-

tions and soviets; philosophical societies; secret societies; student unions

Society for Constitutional Government, 258 Society of Comrades for Resistance Against japan, 421 Society of God Worshipers, 171-72 Society to Protect the Emperor, 258 soil erosion and exhaustion, 92, 95, 114, 208, 430, 434 soldiers, see list under military forces Song dynasty, 102-3 Song jiaoren (Sung Chiao-jen), 279 assassination of (1913), 280-81 Soong Ailing, 237, 297, 327 Soong, Charlie, 228, 237, 297 Soong Meiling, 362, 381, 386,423 Soong Qingling (Soong Ch'ing-ling), 297, 328, 339,355,358,397,521 Soong, T.V., 345,363,366-67, 381, 402, 423, 424,468,469,479,501 Soong family, 381-82 Southeast Asia, Chinese in emigration to, 94, 211 as followers of Kang You wei, 258 as investors in China, 252 from PRC (1950s), 554-55 and Sun, 262, 296 Southeast Asian trade, 92, 118 Southeast Asia Treaty Organization (SEA TO), 553-54 Southern Manchuria Railroad Company, 251, 389 South Korea, see Korea South Vietnam, see Vietnam

Soviet bloc, China and, 514; see also Albania; Hungary; Poland soviets, Chinese, see peasant associations and soviets

Soviet Union (USSR) economic conditions (early 20th century), 319 and Germany, 461, 468 government formed, 305 and japan, 335-36, 443, 468, 482 and Korea, 533 and Manchuria, 307, 485, 494-95, 616 and Vietnam, 654, 655 and Yugoslavia, 585 see also Russia [before 1917] Soviet Union and China (1917-49) Chinese perceptions of USSR, 305-7 Communist parties, 319, 323, 324 conflict (1920s), 390 diplomatic recognition of USSR, 336 and Guomindang, 334-40, 342-44, 349, 354, 357,378 Marxist agents sent to China, 272, 320, 322-23, 324, 337, 357, 377 pilots sent by Stalin, 450, 467 USSR as model for China, 307-8,309-10, 323, 336,343,416 in World War II, 467, 468 see also Russia and China [to 1917] Soviet Union and PRC (1949- ), 514,524, 531, 543, 575, 717-18 border conflicts, 616, 628, 717 Gorbachev visits China (1989), 740-41 Mao on, 514 secret agreement on defense technology (1957), 585-86 security treaty, 524 strained relationship (1950s-1980s), 440, 58390,616,628,654,710, 717 trade, 717 and U.N. voting, 710 U.S. and, 631,633 USSR as model for China, 515, 541, 543, 570, 574, 576-77 USSR leaves military materiel in Manchuria for PRC (1945), 484,485, 561 Spain and Spaniards, 20, 54, 120 special economic zones

in PRC, 673-74, 697, 702, 716, 732; corruption in, 715-16, 737;Shenzhen,674, 703,716 in Taiwan, 669-70 Spencer, Herbert, 303 Study of Sociology, The, 300-301 Spring and Autumn Annals, The, 145 Stalin, joseph and Chiang, 354, 358-59, 361, 423 and CPP, 349, 352-53, 354, 357, 358-59, 360, 423 death (1953), 552, 584

INDEX

Khrushchev denounces, 567-68, 584, 590 and Mao, 524, 584 pact with Hitler (1939), 461 and Trotsky, 352-53, 358, 359-60 at Yalta, 482 and Zhang Xueliang, 390, 423 Standard Oil Company, 329, 352 State Council (PRC), 521-22 state enterprise (industrial) in PRC, 515 Cultural Revolution and, 607 nationalization of private industry, 547 in Sichuan, 678 steam engine, 219; see also steamships steamships merchant, 224, 227 naval, 157-58,177,197,219 steel industry, 225 in Manchuria, 495 productivity, 325, table 326, table 425, 595 whole-plant purchases from abroad (1970s), table 642 sterilization, human, 686, 714 Stevens, Edwin, 170-71 Stilwell, Gen. Joseph, 470, 471, 475, 478-79 Stimson, Henry, 393 stock exchange, Shanghai, 298, 704 Stone, Mary, 209-10 Story of the Stone, The, see Dream of the Red Chamber, The

strikes (early 20th century), 243, 272, 331-33,426, table 428 (post-World War II), 499-500 (1980s), 736 by calenderers, Suzhou (1720s), 87 Communists and, 332, 509 by coolies, Shanghai (1897), 243 Guomindang and, 332, 343, 499, 502 in Hankou, 243 in Hong Kong, vs. British (1925), 340, 341 by railway workers, 333, 336 in Shanghai, 243, 340, 350, 353 by silk weavers, Suzhou (1601), 15 by students, 310-11,340,413,419,420,422, 507,571,604,609,612,623,647, 719, 723-25, 739-46 by tenants (late Ming), 15 see also dissidents; protests Stuart, Gilbert: portrait of George Washington, 203 students, Chinese ( 1922), table 383 and Cultural Revolution, 604-9 passim and early Marxist movement, 306-9 and elective offices (1980s), 723, 725 in May Fourth movement, 310-11 sent to countryside, 308-9,516,517,604,615, 637,638,640,664,688 strikes and demonstrations, 310-11,340,413,

419,420,422,507,571,604, 609,612,623, 647, 719, 723-25, 739-46 see also higher education students (Chinese) abroad, 238-41 and democracy movement (1989), 746 in Europe, 220, 239 in France, 220,239,314,321-22 in Germany, 220, 396, 397 in Japan, 239-40,262,321 for scientific and technical education, 655, table 656, 703 Sun and, 240, 262 in U.S., !98, 209, 219-20, 228, 237, 245, 283, 655, table 656 in USSR, 309-10 and Versailles negotiations (1919), 293-94 women as, 240-41 Student Union of the Republic of China, 311 study groups (in PRC) following Cultural Revolution, 613, 636 for propaganda, 537, 565-66, 570 for reform of members, 517, 518, 564, 570; see also self-examination and self-criticism, in PRC subcounty assemblies, 248 Success (merchant vessel), 121 Suez Canal, 198, 204 suffrage, 271, 280 Sufism, 190 sugar cultivation and trade, 55, 56 Suiyan province, 421-22,452,512 Sukarno, Achmed, 554 Suleiman, Sultan, see Du Wenxiu Sun Fo (Sun K'o), 355, 358, 363, 399 Sungari river region, 26, 495, 497 Sun Shiyi (Sun Shih-i), Ill, 112 Sun Yat-sen associates and colleagues, 297 and Boxer Uprising, 236 Chiang and, 414 and Chinese abroad, 240, 262, 296 Communists and, 323, 337-39 death (1925), 339 early life, 227 establishes government in Canton (1917), 297 in exile, 228, 281, 294-97 foreign banking for, 240, 262, 295-96 and Germany, 397 leadership role, 294,296, 334 and Lenin, 305, 335, 338 his military government in Canton (1923), 335 and New Army officers, 256, 262, 263 political and social views, 261-62, 294-99, 302 as "president" of Chinese People's Government (1921-22), 334 as provisional president (1911), 267, 277, 278 and rail ways, 277 and reform movement of 1890s, 227-28

1867

8681

INDEX

Sun Yat-sen (continued) and republican form of government, 227, 236, 261, 294, 295 and republican government (1911-13), 277-81 passim, 297 returns to China (1916), 297 and revolution (1911), 266-67 and Russian Revolution (1905), 244 and Social Darwinism, 302 and socialism, 261,294,305,335 his Three Principles of the People, 338; Blueshirts and, 416; CCP and, 344,460, 481; at Whampoa Academy, 339 and USSR, 334-36 and Zou's Revolutionary Army, 237 see also Guomindang (Nationalist) party; Revolutionary Alliance; Revolutionary party superintendant of foreign trade, !53; see also Elliot, Charles; Napier, Charles James Suppression of Counterrevolutionaries campaign (1950-51), 534-35 Supreme Court, 285 Su Shaozhi (Su Shao-chih), 738 Suzhou, 15, 53, 87, 178, 193 Swatow (Shantou), 339, 359, 674 Syria, 731 Sze, Alfred (Shi Zhaoji), 380

land reform, 668 population, 668 reforms (social, political, economic), 630, 732 Taiwan (20th century), economy, 525, 630, 66873 and tables family budgets (and PRC's), 671, table 673 growth rate (and PRC's and Japan's), 668, 669 and table purchasing power (and PRC's), 671, table 672 special economic zones, 669-70 trade with PRC, 703, 733 Taiwan (20th century), as Nationalist base, 510, 525 in civil war, final phase, 474,509-10 PRC and, 525-26, 529, 551, 554, 555-56, 57576, 621, 632, 667, 732-33 "two Chinas" solution, 630-31 U.S. and, 526-27, 55!, 554,555-56,586,621, 630, 632, 633, 659, 667, 668, 670-71; antiAmerican demonstrations, 670 Taiwan Relations Act (U.S., 1979), 679 Taiyuan, Shanxi, 234, 265, 450,485, 505, 512-13 Tanggu Truce (1933), 395, 420 Tang Junying (Tang Chiin-ying), 280 Tangshan region, Hebei, 326, 649 Tang Shengzhi (Tang Sheng-chih), 448 Tang Xianzu (Tang Hsien-tsu), 9 Peony Pavilion, The, ll-12, !5-!6, l 09 Tan Yankai (Tan Yen-k'ai), 249, 365

Taft, William Howard, 283 Tagore, Rabindranath, 317 Taierzhuang, Shandong, 449 Tainan (An ping), Taiwan, 54, 56 taipan (trade supervisor), 128 Taiping Rebellion (1850-64), 139, !70-78, map 173 antecedents of, !76-78 Marx on, 182 reasons for failure of, !75-78 women in, 169, 172, 173, 174-75 Taiwan (to !900) (17th century), 53-57, map 55, 58, 66, 68-69 (18th century), 79, 94 ceded to Japan (1895), 223 emigrants from mainland, 114,210 emigration to, limited, 57, 58, 79 "Heaven and Earth Society" uprising (1780s), 113-14 incorporated in Fujian province, 56-57, 66, 119 population, 56 as province (1885), 210 trade with mainland, 54, 92, 119 treaty ports, 180 Taiwan (20th century), 450 airfields, 476 Cairo Conference assigns to Nationalists, 474 dependency alliance with Japan (1930s), 454 independence movement, 670

Taoism, see Daoism

Tao river, 405 Taoyuan, Hebei, 593 tariffs, 57, 160, 199, 284 negotiations with Westerners, 122, 381 see also customs dues Tatnall, Comm. Josiah, 181 Tawney, R. H., 430 taxation of foreign trade, 57; see also customs

dues; tariffs taxes

(Ming period), 20-21 (17th century), 44 (18th century), 76-78 (20th century), 257, 284, 362, 367, 434, 457 grain, 471-72 head tax, 76-77 income, 367, 707 on land, see land taxes sales, 496, 502, 504 withheld, 253; see also tax system, internal (to 1900): delinquency see also tax system, internal; transit dues tax incentives, industrial, 701-2

tax law, 704, 707 tax system, internal (to !900) abuses of, 47, 72, 76, 77, 78, 99 delinquency, 44, 47, 72, 78 in Kangxi regime, 47, 73-74 Manchus and, 44, 47

INDEX

Qianlong regime, 99-100 reform of, 5, 47-48, 76-78, 247 silver in, 20 surveys of land, to base rates on, 47, 72, 73 tax system, internal (20th century), 281 Communists and, 461, 472, 496 evasion and delinquency, 540, 736 Nationalists and, 367, 368, 471-72 tea cultivation and trade (Ming period), 13 (18th century), 93, 122, 129, 130 (19th century), 148,225, 229 tariff rates, 160 taxes on, 284 and world market demands, 225 technical and mechanical expertise, Chinese, 252, 326, 577, 654 agricultural, see agriculture: mechanization military, 560-61 nuclear, see nuclear research ... see also Four Modernizations technology, foreign (to 1900) (17th century), 64 (18th century), 140, 207 (19th century), 157-58, 197-99,245 impeded by eviction of missionaries, 72 see also advisers, foreign; railways; shipbuilding; science, Western; telegraph technology, foreign (20th century), 245, 397-98, 441 for nuclear power production, 717 patent law and, 703 PRC and, 515,594,621,628-29,640-43, 655 plant purchases, 641-42 and table see also electric power; nuclear weapons; science, Western

technology, training in, see vocational training telegraph system, 204, 219, 224, 245 television, Chinese (state), 631, 680, 709, 730 tenant farmers

strike against landlords, 15, 44,47 see also peasants tenant farming and contracts, 40, 492; see also land sales and contracts Teng Hsiao-p'ing, see Deng Xiaoping Terranova, 127,717 terrorism, 246, 261, 267, 280-81, 296 textile industry, 241,325,326 cotton, 219, 242, 326, 495 foreign investments, 326, table 383 Thailand, 118, 555; see also Bangkok Third International of the Communist party, see Comintern Third World countries, 627-28, 710 Thistle mountain region, Guangxi, 171, 172 Three Anti campaign (1951-52), 536, 539-40, 565 Three-Family Village (pseud.}, 600, 601, 604 Three Feudatories, War of, 49-53, map 51

Three Gorges Dam, Yangzi river, 695-96 Three Selfs movement (1950s), 534 "three threes," 592 Tiananmen Square (Peking) (1919), May Fourth movement, 311 (1960s), rallies, 605, 647 (1972), Nixon visit, 631 (1976), Qingming festival, homages to Zhou, 647-48,656,660,739 (1978), democracy movement, 664 (1986), democracy movement, 725, 739 (1989), democracy movement, 624, 739-46 Tianjin, 122 administrative reforms, 247-48 Boxer Uprising, 233 campaign against counterrevolutionaries, 535 customs revenues, 391

Dagu forts, 156, 179, 181, 186, 234 democracy demonstrations (1986), 725 Five Anti campaign, 539 industrial experimentation, 702 late phase of civil war, 508 missionaries attacked, 204-5 mutinies against Yuan (1912), 277 in Northern Expedition, 364, 365 railroads, 250, 391 as treaty port, 181 see also Nankai University Tianjin, Treaty of (1858), 180 and map, 181, 183 revised (1868), 203, 204 Tianqi (steamship), 198 Tibet, 450 Britain and, 283 Chinese intervention and domination, 68, 255, 283 Chinese settlers, 210 CIA in, 587 Kangxi invades (1720), 68 PRC and, 525, 552, 569, 728 protests against Chinese presence, 569, 587, 728 Yongzheng and, 79 see also Lhasa Tibetans in China, 556, 557 Tientsin, see Tianjin Tito, Marshal (Josip Broz), 585 ti-yong concept, 225, 226, 642-43 tobacco cultivation, 91, 130 and opium, 130 smoking, 87, 130, 368 Tolstoy, Leo (Lev Nikolyevich), 261 Tongguan, 422, 424 Tongzhi (T'ung-chih), emperor, 194, 204, 216-17 Tongzhi Restoration, 194-215 Confucian reform, 195-99 Tongzhou, Shaanxi, 191 Tonkin, 221 tourism in China, 699

1869

870 I

INDEX

Tournon, Maillard de, 71 towns, 12-13; see also cities trade, foreign (to 1900) (late Ming), 19-20 (17th century), 54-55, 57 (18th century, 118-23 (19th century), 147-48 "Canton system," 120, 122, !59 caravan traders, 117 Chinese attitudes toward, 119-20, 122-23, 145 halted (1839) to force end of opium trade, !52 in opium, see opium trade "tribute missions," 118, 120 see also tariffs; Western merchants in China; and under specific commodities and c?untries trade, foreign (20th century), 329, table 330, 641 and table balance of, 329, table 331,621, table 641,642, 674, 697, 698, 737; see also debt, foreign

japanese suppress (1930s), 453, 454 see also special economic zones; and under specific commodities and countries

trade, internal between Taiwan and mainland, 54, 92, 119 in western border region, 98 see also commerce; transit dues; transportation of goods trade unions, see labor unions transit dues, 73, 77, 118, 148, 161, 179, 180,257, 284,367 likin tax supplement, 178 transportation by air, see air transportation

buses, 454 trains, see railroads see also road-building transportation of goods Chinese recover rights to, 252-53 of coal, 219, 250,695 of grain, 144,218 by water, 13, 144, 165, 219, 326, 368; see also canals; shipping see also canals; railroads; transit dues travel for foreigners, 179, 180 regulation and control of, 496, 515, 535, 547, 688 treaties

Four-Power (1922), 379 French, 161 Kiakhta (1728), 79, map 80, 183 Nanjing (1842), !57, 158-60,710 Nerchinsk (1689), 66 and map, 67, 69, 79, 183 Nine-Power (1922), 379 Peace and Friendship (with Japan, 1978), 655 St. Petersburg (1881), 220-21 security, with USSR, 524 Shimonoseki (1895), 223-24, 454

tariff, 381 Tianjin (1858), 180 and map, 181, 183,203, 204 with U.S., on immigration, 214,215 Wanghia (1844), 160-61 treaty ports Convention of Peking supplements, 180 and map

established by Treaty of Nanjing, !59 and map, 160, 162 Imperial Maritime Customs in, 203 Li supplements, 220, 223 Treaty ofTianjin supplements, 180 and map Triads, see Heaven and Earth Society "tribute missions," 118, 120 Trotsky, Leon, 305, 352-53, 357, 588 Truman, Harry S and China, 488, 490, 501 and Korea, 528, 529 and Taiwan, 527, 630 Tsien, H. S., 561 Turfan, 67 Turkey, 228 Tyler, john, 160 Tz 'u-hsi, see Cixi, empress dowager

Uighur peoples, 452, 556, 718 unemployment and the unemployed (1930s), 426, table 427 (post- World War II), 498, 500 (1960s), 59! (1980s), 719, 735, 736 Unification party, 279 unions, see labor organization, communist; labor untons

Unit 8341 (military force), 651 United Nations China's representation in, 528, 551, 628, 630, 631 and Korean War, 528, 529 PRC's voting patterns, 710 and Tibet, 525 United Nations Fund for Population Activities, 717 United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration, 489 United States Chinese interest in, 203 immigration policy, see Chinese in U.S.: immigration policy and legislation and Japan (World War II), 466-67, 469, 474 and Korean War, 528-31, 532-33 and Lebanon, 586 and Taiwan, see Taiwan (20th century), as Nationalist base: U.S. and in World War II, 437-38, 469, 474, 483 U.S. and China (to 1949) (1920s-1930s), 379-88 ambassadors, 215

INDEX

American chambers of commerce, 282 anti-American sentiments in China, 231, 238, 242, 381, 489-90 and Chiang and Guomindang, 379-88, 46668,484-85,489,505,527 and CCP, see U.S. and Chinese Communists; U.S. and PRC (1949- ) Chinese in U.S., see Chinese in U.S. constitutional government of U.S. as model, 245, 246 investments and loans, 252, 253, 273, 282 and table, 283, 382, tables 382-83, 467, 501 and Manchukuo, 393 treaties and agreements, 160-61, 237, 238, 379, 381 in World War I, 290 in World War II, 466-67, 469; at end of war, 483, 484-85; U.S. pilots "volunteer" for China, 468; U.S. sells airplanes to China, 467,468 and Yuan Shikai's regime, 282-83 see also Americans in China; Chinese in U.S. U.S. and Chinese Communists anti-Communism and, 479, 532 in PRC, see U.S. and PRC (1949Roosevelt considers alliance with Communists (1944), 478-79 U.S. and PRC (1949- ) (post-World War II), efforts of assistance, 484-91 (1950s), conflict, fear, criticism, 529, 531, 532, 551, 554, 555-56, 586 (1970s), 628-33, 654, 655, 659 (1980s), 717 anti-American sentiments, 529, 575-76 democracy promoted by U.S., 486, 488, 490 Nixon visit (1972), 629-30, 631-33 normalization of relations, 633, 654, 655, 659; anniversary of (1989), 738; Taiwan and, 667, 670-71 and Taiwan, see Taiwan (20th century), as Nationalist base technical assistance, 621, 632 U.S. trade with China (19th century), 154-55 (1970s), 630, 632-33, 654 American corporations doing business in

China, 329, 658, 659 boycott of American goods (1905), 231, 238, 242 military hardware, 198 "open door" policy, 231, 283 opium, 127, 161 tariff treaty, 381 tea, 122 Treaty of Wanghia (1844), 160-61 universities, see higher education University of Science and Technology, Hefei, Anhui, 722

Unofficial History of the Scholars (Rulin waishi;

1768), 105 U Nu, 553 uprisings, see protests; rebellions; strikes uranium, 580, 586 Urumchi, 82, 97, 718 USSR, see Soviet Union Ussuri river region, 221, 616 Vance, Cyrus, 654 Versailles treaty (1919) and negotiations, 293-94 Chinese responses to, 293-94,300, 310-11,396 Sun and, 298 Victoria, queen ofGt. Brit. and Ireland, 151, 154, !58 Vietminh, 553 Vietnam (Annam) and Cambodia, 655-56, 659, 717 Chinese relations with: (18th century), 118-19; (20th century), 377, 552-53, 654, 655, 659, 665 Chinese settlement in, 210 vs. French, 221-22,377-78, 552-53 Japan and, 458, 466-67 Qianlong and, Ill and map USSR and, 654, 655 Zhang Xianzhong and, 35 Vietnam War China and, 598 U.S. and, 629,630,632 violence, domestic, 125, 708; see also infanticide Vladivostok, USSR, 251 vocational training, 229 agricultural, 227 Voitinsky, Grigori, 320-21,322, 3'\;7 Voltaire (Fran~ois Marie Arouet), 133-34 voting (20th century) intellectuals call sham, 570 see also elections; suffrage wage controls, 500, 502, 543, 640 Walker, "Gen." William, 183 Wallace, Henry, 478 Wang Dongxing (Wang Tung-hsing), 651 Wang Fuzhi (Wang Fu-chih), 61, 301 Wang Guangmei (Wang Kuang-mei), 593, 680 Wanghia, Treaty of (1844), 160-61 Wang Hongwen (Wang Hung-wen), 610, 63334, 650 trial and sentencing (1980), 681 Wang Jingwei (Wang Ching-wei), 334, 336-37, 339, 353, 572 attempts to oust Chiang (1930), 390 in Canton (1927), 360 heads central China puppet regime, 464 and military attack on peasants and leftists, 357-58 role in Guomindang, 353, 354, 356, 358, 399 Wang Kemin (Wang K'o-min), 452

1871

8721

INDEX

Wang Lun, 112-13 Wang Ming, 461-62, 472-73 Wang Shouxin (Wang Shou-hsin), 675, 726 Wang Yangming (Wang Yang-ming), 17, 61 Wang Zhen (Wang Chen), 730 Wanli (Wan-li), emperor, 16 death (1620), 18, 20 Wanping, 445 War, Ministry of, 254, 256-57 Ward, Frederick Townsend, 177 warlords (early 20th century), 271, 272, 288-90, 297, 298, 313 and banking, 327 Communists vs., 325, 355, 407 Guomindang and, 288, 339, 355, 362, 363, 456-57 Northern Expedition against, 346-54 and railways, 329 War of the Three Feudatories (1673-81), 49-53, map 51 Warring States period, 451 war with japan, see Sino-japanese hostilities (20th century); Sino-japanese War (189495) Washington, George, 203, 228, 259 Washington Conference (1921-22), 379-81,386 wealth, distribution of (18th century), 139 (19th century), 145-46 (late 20th century), 624 Gong Zizhen on, 145-46 Guomindang and, 336-37 see also land confiscation and redistribution; poor; wealthy wealthy (Ming period), 10, 12 (Qing period), 45-46, 47 Nationalists favor, 502 resentment against, 47 in PRC, 623, 624 see also landlords and landholders; peasants, affluent weapons, see arms and armaments Wedemeyer, Gen. Albert, 479, 483, 484, 501 weights and measures, standardized, 180 Weihaiwei, 223, 231, 290 Wei jingsheng (Wei Ching-sheng), 662-64, 665 amnesty sought for, 738 Wei river area, 191 Weixian, Shandong, 475 Wei Zongxian (Wei Chung-hsien), 17, 18,61 Wenxiang (Wen-hsiang), 200, 202, 204 death (1876), 218 Wen Yiduo, (Wen I-to), 489 Western attitudes toward China (18th century), 5, 132-36 anti-Chinese, see anti-Chinese sentiments fascination and chinoiserie, 133-34

jesuits and, 132-33 in press (20th century), 282-83, 381 Western diplomats, see diplomats (foreign) in China Western ideas and scholarship, 119 attitudes toward (20th century), 313,441, 503, 563, 621,623,636-37, 640, 642, 697, 698, 726 Chinese adapt, 197,216,218,224, 225; "ti-yong" conceptand,225,226,642-43 constitutional government, 141,245 Mao on, 568 mathematics, 103, 148, 197, 207 missionaries disseminate, I 03, 206-7, 382-86 scholars investigate, 103, !58 translations of influential works, 207, 239, 240 see also science, Western; technology, foreign Western merchants in China Chinese efforts to manage, 5, 119-23, 139, 147-48 "country traders," 130 extraterritoriality principle and, 161, 162, 285, 380, 381,474 kill or are killed by Chinese, 126, 127, 128, !55 and legal system, 126-28; see also extraterritoriality as residents, 121, 159, 162,228-29 see also trade, foreign; and under specific countries Western technology, see technology, foreign Whampoa Academy, 338-39

cadets: as anti-communist, 343; as political force, 339 graduates: as Blueshirts, 416, 417; in Northern Expedition, 345; support Chiang vs. Zhang Xueliang, 423 Wheaton, Henry: Elements of International LAw, 201-2 White, Theodore, 477-78 White-haired Girl, The, 640 White Lotus rebellion (1770s), 112-13, map 113, 114, 143, 165 "White Wolf," 296 Wilkes, john, 134 Wilson, Woodrow, 282, 283, 293, 379 Wolff (Otto) firm, Germany, 402 women

abused: by cadres, 376, 472; by husband, 708; by PLA, 562, 663 age at childbearing, 96 and table as bandits, 53, 172 bonding and mutual support, 432, 686-87 cultural achievements, II, 105 as doctors, 210 emancipation (20th century), 317-18 fertility rate (20th century), 685 foot-binding, 39, 145, 146, 173,209,224, 240, 317,368

INDEx\ 873 as landholders (in PRC), 516, 708 Mao on status, needs and rights of, 304, 374, 375-76 and marriage, 96, 687; see also marriage married, rights of, 285, 685, 707-8 in military capacity, 45, 232-33, 280, 462; Taiping Rebellion, 169, 172, 173, 174-75 New Life movement and, 415-16 as nurses, 280 and opium, 131 in PRC, role of, 515, 522, 687, 691 and n. political role, 259, 261 poor, 431-32 in Revolutionary Alliance, 261 rights of, 237, 280, 515 role in CCP, 324, 522, 691 and n. status of, 139, 146,206,208-10,224,261,304, 473 suffrage, 280 Xiang Jingyu and rights of, 322 women, education of, 9, 61, 105, 224, 246, 311, 382, table 383 literacy, 9 medical, 385 scholars' world barred to, 11, 105 women and men equality between, 280 and examination system, 11, 24 7 Kang Youwei's proposals to end gender discrimination, 258 in labor force (1982), 689 life expectancy of, compared, 688 never-married, 686 and table, 687 roles reversed, in Flowers in the Min·or, 146 sex ratios: (1980s), 684 and table, 687; in border regions, 185; among overseas Chinese, 211,213 women in labor force (20th century) CCP and, 324, 578 sex bias in hiring and promotion, 689 working conditions, 332 woolens trade, tariffs, 160 workers, agricultural, see farm workers; peasants

workers, industrial (1920s), 331-32 Communists and, 325 and Cultural Revolution, 608 and democracy movement (1989), 740, 741, 742 and employers, relationship, 536, 537-39 Nationalists and Communists and, 272 number of (1890s), 243 urban, 332 wages, 426, 500; see also wage controls women and girls as, 332, 426 working conditions, 332, 426 see also labor unions; proletariat; strikes; unemployment workers' guilds, see guilds

World Bank, 671, 709 World War I (1914-18) China and, 271, 285, 290-93 Japanese territorial ambitions in China, 147, 273,285-86,290,293 Versailles treaty and negotiations, 293-94 World War II (1939-45), 437-38,466 Chinese enter, 445 German surrender (1945), 483 Japan surrenders (1945), 483, 484-85 U.S. in, 437-38, 469, 474, 483 writers, see intellectuals in China; literature; and individual writers

writers' union, 566, 716 written language, see Script, Chinese Wuchang, 33, 174, 250 n. in Northern Expedition, 347-48 and Qing overthrow, 263, 266 see also Wuhan WuHan, 599-601 campaign against, 601, 602, 603, 604, 636 death (1969), 604 n. Dismissal of Hai Rui fi'om Office, The, 600, 601, 660 Wuhan tricity complex, 250 n. Communists capture (1949), 511 Cultural revolution, 611 demonstrations and rallies, 420, 473 as Guomindang social reforms in, 352 in Northern Expedition, 346-47, 348 and Qing downfall, 262, 263-64, 265 railroads, 250, 251, 252, 253, 328, 333, 346 Red Army attacks (1930), 375 refugees in, 507 see also Hankou; Hanyang; Han-Ye-Ping company, Hubei; Wuchang Wu Jingzi (Wu Ching-tzu): Scholars, The, 413 Wu Peifu (Wu P'ei-fu), 333,336, 341,346-47, 349,363,653 Wu Sangui (Wu San-kuei), 32-33, 38, 42, 49, 110, 174 as Manchus' administrator, 42, 50 and War of Three Feudatories, 50-52, map 51 Wusong, 158 Wuxi, Jiangsu, 18, 448 Wu Xingzuo (Wu Hsing-tso), 57 Wu Xun (Wu Hsiin), 565-66 Wylie, Alexander, 207 Wyoming, Chinese in, 214 Xiamen (Amoy), 36 banking, 93 Communists capture (1949), 512 Koxinga and, 54-55 Opium War, 157, 158 as special economic zone, 674 trade, 120 as treaty port, 159, 162,674

874 I

INDEX

Xi' an, Shaanxi last phase of civil war, 505, 506, 511 as macroregion, 91 as Ming resistance stronghold, 33 Muslim uprisings, 191, 192 Nian rebellion, 188 Qing overthrow, 265 Zhang Xueliang defies Chiang in, 420~24 Xianfeng (Hsien-feng), emperor, 172, 217 Xiang Army, 177, 187, 195, 196 Xiang Jingyu (Hsiang Ching-yu), 322, 324 Xiang river, 405, 476 Xiangya medical college, Changsha, 384~85 Xikang province, 255, 407 Xinjiang province ("New Territories"), 97~98, 110,450 becomes province (1884 ), 210, 221 border clashes with Russians, 616 Communists capture (1949), 512 Xuehai Tang [academy], Canton, 148, !50 Xu Jiyu (Hsu Chi-yu), 202~3, 207, 245 Xunwu county, Jiangxi: Mao's study of (1930), 373, 374 and table, 432 Xu Shiyou (Hsu Shih-yu), 653, 665 Xuzhou,362,449,505,508 Yalta Conference (1945), 482 Yalu river region, 30, 223 "yamen runners," 124 Yan'an, Shaanxi, 188 as CCP base (1936~45), 424, 437, 438, 450, 455, 460~64

CCP congress in (7th, 194 5), 481 ~82 citizens join CCP regime in, 453, 472 reconquered by Communists (1948), 506 reconquered by Nationalists (1947), 493 Tibetans in, 556, 557 Yan Fu (Yen Fu), 239,302,303, 313~14 On Evolution, 301 Yang Jiang (Yang Chiang), 614 Yang Kaihui (Yang K'ai-hui), 322,405,531 Yang Mingzhai (Yang Ming-chai), 320~21 Yang Shangkun (Yang Shang-k'un), 729, 741~42 Yang Xiuqing (Yang Hsiu-ch'ing), 172, 174, 175 Yangzhou,35~36, 104,204 Yangzi river region, 13, 34 delta, as development triangle, 702 economic conditions, 91 ~92 floods, 434, 695; see also floods international trade, 180 Japanese close to foreigners, 454, 458, 466 railroads, 250, 251 settlement of, 94 tax reform, 78 Three Gorges Dam, 695~96 Zhang Zuolin vs. Guomindang, 341 see also Jiangsu province Yanjing (Yenching) University, Peking, 383,385 Yan Ruoju (Yen Jo-chu), 103

Yan Xishan (Yen Hsi-shan), 289, 363, 365, 369, 452, 485 attempts to oust Chiang (1930), 390 controls Shanxi, 450 late civil war period, 505, 512~13 Zhang Xueliang and, 421 Yao tribes, 169, 171 Yao Wenyuan (Yao Wen-yuan), 601,609,634, 651 trial and sentencing (1980), 681 Yao Yilin (Yao !-lin), 728 n. Yarkand, 97, 163, 189 Ye Jianying (Yeh Chien-ying), 691 n. Yellow river, 13, 409 dikes blown up (1937), 449 flooding, 91, 185, 449,491 mismanagement of, 165 rechanneled (1940s), 489 Yen, James, 292, 369 Yichang, Hubei, 459 Yiguan Dao ("Way of Basic Unity") Society, 535 Yijing (1-ching) or Book of Changes, 59, 101~2,

133 Yinchang (Yin-ch'ang), 255, 265 Yinreng (Yin-jeng), heir apparent, 69~71, 74 Yinxiang (Yin-hsiang), prince, 74, 80, 83 Yinzhen (Yin-chen), see Yongzheng Yi Xueqing (I Hsueh-ch'ing), 249 YMCA and YWCA, 382,385,415 Yongan, 173 Yongding river, 444~46, map 445 Yongzheng (Yung-cheng), emperor, 70~71, 74~ 89, 90 administrative initiatives, 75, 80~81, 83~84 character and personality, 75 as Confucian monarch, 84, 85, 89 financial crisis and reforms, 75~78 moral convictions and issues, 84~89 his succession to power, 74, 85 and successor, choice of, 97 western campaigns, 82, map 83, 97 Youth party, 488 Yuan Chonghuan (Yuan Ch'ung-huan), 24~25, 30 Yuan dynasty, 45 Yuan Ming Yuan summer palace, 100 burned by British (1860), 181 Yuan Shikai (Yuan Shih-k'ai), 247~48, 254,255, 265, 281 ~87 passim and Chen Qimei's assassination, 366 death (1916), 287, 297 dissolves Guomindang (1913), 281 and Duan Qirui, 289 early life, 278 as "emperor," 286 power and domination of, 279, 284 as premier, 265~66, 267, 277 as president (1913~16), 281~87 as provisional president, 271, 277, 278

INDEX

reforms of, 284-85 resistance to, 286 and Song's assassination, 281 Sun and, 267 Yue Fei, 82 Yue Zhongqi (Yueh Chung-ch'i), 81, 82, 85 Yuezhou, 174 Yugoslavia, 585, 588 Yui, David, 362, 385 Yung Wing, 197-98,208,209, 212, 219 Yunnan province

(1920s-1930s), 457-58 corruption, 115 declares independence (I 915), 286 French in, 231 macroregion of, 91 Ming holdouts in, 38 Muslim uprisings, 189-90 opium growing, 257 Qing overthrow, 265 settlement of, 82 War of Three Feudatories, 50-53, young people sent to, 638, 664

map

51

see also K unming

Yu Qiuli (Yii Ch'iu-li), 641 Yuxian (Yu-hsien), 234, 235 Zeelandia, Taiwan, 54, 55 Zeng Guofan (Tseng Kuo-fan), 177, 178, 187-88, 201, 205, 219,254 death (I 872), 218 and Tongzhi Restoration, 194, 195-98 Zou's criticism of, 236 Zeng )ing (Tseng Ching), 85, 100 Zhang Chunqiao (Chang Ch'un-ch'iao), 608-9, 610,633,634,650 trial and sentencing (I 980), 681 Zhang Guotao (Chang Kuo-t'ao), 307, 377, 409 and Mao, 408, 461 Zhangjiakou (Kalgan), 252, 328, 452, 487 Zhang Luoxing (Chang Lo-hsing), 185-86 Zhang Tiesheng (Chang T'ieh-sheng), 637-38 Zhang Tingyu (Chang T'ing-yu), 80, 83, 99 Zhang Xianzhong (Chang Hsien-chung), 22, 31, 34-35,37,44,47 Zhang Xueliang (Chang Hsiieh-liang), 365, 39092 and Communists, 421 Zhang Xun (Chang Hsun), 281, 306 military coup (1917), 287-88 Zhang Zhidong (Chang Chih-tung), 225-26, 235, 241, 252-53,254, 325, 642 Zhang Zuolin (Chang Tso-lin), 341,349-50,363, 364 assassination of, 364-65, 388, 390 Zhao Erxun (Chao Er-hsiin), 246-47 Zhaohui (Chao-hui), 97 Zhaoqing, 37 Zhao Ziyang (Chao Tzu-yang), 608

and democracy movement (1989), 740, 741, 742, 743 early life, 677 and economic and administrative reform, 699,

728, 729, 730 ouster of (1989), 743, 745 political role in PRC, 676, 677-78, 692, 726, 728 Zhejiang province constitutional assembly, 249 customs office, 57 epidemic (1640s), 22-23 "fallen people" and "hut dweller>," 88-89 industrial initiatives, 702, 731 nuclear generating plant, 714 opium growing, 257 tax delinquency and reform, 72, 78 Zheng Chenggong (Cheng Ch'eng-kung) or Koxinga, 42, 54-56 Zheng family (Taiwan), 54-56, 65 Zhenzhou,349, 506 Zhenjiang, 104, 157, 180 Zhongshan (gunboat), 344 Zhou, duke of, 661 and n. Zhou dynasty, 51, 60, 145 "Zhou dynasty" (of Wu Sangui), 50, 51, 52 Zhou Enlai (Chou En-lai) on British, 470 and Dulles, 553 early life, 321,322 and economic planning, 575, 591, 592, 645 as foreign minister, 551-56, 568, 589-90 homages to (Apr. 1976), 647-48, 656, 660, 661 n., 728, 739 illness, death and funeral, 639, 645 and intellectuals, 567 and Korean War, 529, 530 as labor organizer, 350 and Lin Biao, 616, 617, 635 and Long March, 403, 404, 407 and Mao, 596, 645-46 political role in PRC, 520, 521, 522, 542, 552, 610, 616 and population control, 685 and post-World War 11 negotiations, 488,490 and U.S., 629, 631 and Western ideas and technology, 637, 640, 642 at Whampoa Academy, 338 and Zhang Xueliang, 421,423-24 Zhoushan (Chusan) island, 36, 120 Opium War, 156, 157, 160 Zhou Shuren (Chou Shu-jen), see Lu Xun Zhou Zuoren (Chou Tso-jen), 455 and n. Zhuang tribes, 169, 171 Zhu De (Chu Teh), 375-76, 378, 403, 485 commands united-front forces, 462 death (1976), 649 and intellectuals, 567

1875

8761

INDEX

Zhu De (Chu Teh) (continued) in late phase of civil war, 508 and Long March, 408, 409 political role in PRC, 512, 520, 521 retires, 639 at Soviet CP congress (20th), 568, 585 wives, 404-5 Zhuhai, 674 Zhu Xi (Chu Hsi), 102 Zhu Yigui (Chu 1-kuei), 68-69, 79 Zinoviev, Grigory Yevseyevich, 324 Zongli Yamen (Tsungli Yamen), 199-204 passim, 220, 709

and attacks on missionaries, 205

as Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 235 and overseas Chinese, 212, 214 Zou Rong (Tsou )ung), 236, 237, 252, 660 Revolutionary Army, The, 231, 236-37, 303-4,

720 Zunghar tribes, 79, 82, 97, 117 campaigns against, 67, 68 and map, 82, map 83 Zunyi, Guizhou, 406-7 Zuo Zongtang (Tso Tsung-t'ang), 192-93, 194, 198, 218 Zweig, Arnold, 397