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Cambridge Suulies iu Medirvai Ufe aud nwughr FOllrlh Series Ge"tr~1
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PNY" o< of Med;evall Jj,(O,Y. U.i", ..il~
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www,com bridged English parallel, as is the case with S. Pietro, St Peter's. The original Latin dedication of the churches and other names where relevant arc specified in the Concordance, below. T he majority of these Latin names come from the list of ecclesiastical institutions in the Life of Leo J 11, in the Liber POl1tiji(alis (LP 98: 6!)-8[). When an institution was not mentioned there, [ have followed Christian H uelsen, Le C/!iese tit Roma lie! Medio EI'O (Florence, [927), and listed the name used in the ninth century, or failing that the earliest mentioll. ROMAN CHURCHES DISCUSSED AND CONCORDA NCE 01' TIIEII{ NAMES
A10dem /lame Lateran basilica S. Abbacyri in xenodo(/!irl1u a Valeris S. Adriano S. Agara in suburra, S. Agata dei Coti
Medicl'ail1ame ecdesia Sa/l'Otoris domini l10stri qlwe appdlawr CorlSlallfirlialla S. A bba(yri in xeuod{)(/!illm a Va/eris Sarwi Hadriaui illlribusJoris (in [lia SlUm); Cllria Sel/atm mo,ulSlerio sallctae Agathe martyris super Subom
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rfrlllS alld lIIeasurelllfllts used
s. Ana . • See below. pp. 24?-12. l See below. pp. 108-r 8; urnline Goodson 'Building for bodies, T he .rchiteg>in ,"d urnl Neum.n de Veg>"r (Aldershot. 2008). j T ~O,
Paschal I and rhe history (If Rome
3. S. Cecilia in Trastevcrc, interior.
rilUllIs of S. Ceeilia by the presence of saints' bodies, the architectural
frame of hi, church had a distinctly traditional tone: a long, tall brick basilica with three aisles and a single apse. His building project was novel in many respects, as we shall see, yet it also perpetuated a traditional arehitectun: of Roman (;hur(;h buildings as old as St Peter·s. Pope Paschal's buildings, and his reign, were bold and dynamic moments in the history of Rome and of the papacy. This study of the churches from the multiple viewpoints of their architectural frame, cult uses and functions in the papal administration demonstrates the importance of the built environment in early medieval power politics. It also suggests that the reign of Paschal I was a turning point for relations between the papacy and the C arolingians. T hrough his architectural programme as well as through other diplomatic and political channels, the papal court of Paschal a!1,'lled for greater autonomy and independence than his predecessors had achieved, and the resultant retaliation by the Carolingians brought the rise of the Papal State to a halt. In rcconstructing three basilicas in R ome (S. I'rassede, S. Maria in Domnica and s. Cecilia) and twO oratories at St Peter's (SS. Processus et Martinianus and ss. Xistus et Fabianus), Paschal created new roles for urban churches. In addition to operating as liw/i, local churches housing the papal liturgy throughout the city, t\vo of his churches were )
ne Rome of Pope Paschal I
4. S. Prasscdc. intaior. built to house corporeal relics of Roman saints. The churches were the places of papal authority, an authority constructed by ceremony, material splendour and spiritual presence. Paschal's building programme refl ects his particular concerns as a patron and supreme pontiff: it also reveals techniques of power display common to early medieval building in R Ollle and beyond. T his archi tectural programme is prestigious patronage; the patron is identified and proclaimed through image and contemporary texts, The buildings \\"Cre intended to be associated with the pope and the claims fo r authority that the buildings represent depend in part on visitors recognising his role in the project. In the case of Paschal's churches, his 4
Paschal I and rhe history (If Rome
5. S. Maria in Domnica, interio r.
image IS m each of the apse mosaics, as is his insignia in the decorations and his name in the mosaic inscriptions. At S. Prassede, twO contemporary marble inscriptions record his dedication of the building, one carved into a chapel door, and another at present affixed to a pier. 6 In addition to constructing these three buildings, Paschal renovated the patriarchal basilica of S. Maria Maggiorc and constructed two oratories at St Peter's, which, though now lost, were described in detail in his biography? He carefully attached his name to the buildings for which he was responsible. 6 It< origin. ) ]"", tion w;,hin th~ church i. un lmo""n. For the ins",ip,ion •. se 5
ne Rome of Pope Paschal I News of Paschal's projects was proclaimed in several media, not only the fabric of the buildings but also in the contemporary chronicle of the papacy, the Liber POllfijicalis (hereafter LP). His biographer's diligence in recording these restorations and donations and his corroboration of the evidence from the buildings themselves allows us to reconStrUCt the architectural programme: Paschal rebuilt only three buildings and sprinkled the city with smaller renovations and donations of liturgical furnishings. 8 His attitude towards building patronage \VJS unique among his contemporaries. Paschal rebuilt few buildings entirely instead of restoring man y partially, as his predecessors had done. H e dedicated his attention and resources to these grand projects. thereby creating showpieces of his interventions. 9 As we shall sce, some consistent design choices evidently guided the building of these churc hes, for example a tendency towards regularity in plan and decoration and grandiosity in size, quality of materials and craft greater than among his predecessors. I shall discuss the church- building and renovations as a coherent ca111paign on the part of a pope and his administration. T his campaign sought to comtruct and command autonomy and authority for the office and individual of the pope. The desire of the papacy. under Paschal's leadership, to present itself in this \VJy did not arise from the particular character traits of Paschal as an individual. I argue that this movement within the papacy grew o ut of the events of the previolls decades, both in the empire and in the papal state, and most specifically very contemporary politics. T he large-scale developments of the late eighth century, battles between Franks, Lo mbards and R omans for control of the Italian peninsula and supreme authority within Christendom, paved the way for popes such as Paschal to assert their authority. T he fITS! decades of the ninth celltury witnessed the death of the Frankish empero r Charlemagne and the accessio n of his son Louis. T he transition required a renegotiation of the respective roles of emperor and pope. T hese political developments and relations between Franks, R.omans. Byzantines. Lombards and WesteTll
• P»ch, 1don>ted IitUTgic, 1v""'tn",rlt, to the following chUTch,,", in R ome: So"- Coon ... m d D.mi, no on the vi . s.cro. SS. s.,rgio .nd B.cco (,, ~or 'he u tcron). S. Ncmgdo (ad S. Ciri.c", S. :.1ichele (3t d,e u t= n). S. St~f.no l,. n . •. 7.1 ('\I9J). eopeci.lly 5' -~: B. ll. Price. ·Th e effect of p. troo' ge on the imeUectu. li""oon of medie'-.] ende.von· in n .. &""h J~r 0 PoI"'" i" rh;, Midi/it 1Ig""n;!>g l'1"ivileg ".,110,;",,; f,,,, ;ly; u Lib" en"''''''' a, Uvlis< n',"""'. ,,:I. 1',,,1 r-.bre ,nd Lo,,;, 1>],,;< ))" t ory of.1 c.1nonic,] ~on~q"·. ·/;.ai,io J (19~.\). ' 46- 5' , [),vi •. Li,~' !'i,"th-C, "",,!, I'Of''" AI,o Ihu~,. n", mlJ J" 5,,,1, R"m,m E",,",,,;,,,I./,,,: P./);lJrifiu"ltm jm Spi'S,,101,_, L>h" PMJI!ji,./i, """ G~r 01,,,, Drill," b;, ~u u ,' ""'" On-",". 1',lili, q (Wi8 (L.iden. '000) , 564. S~. I'.u l Anh"" -N'pl.>: A co.. of urn." .urv iv:ll in 'he early Middl. '''g~'' in MLI'kM 10)
X.
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ph. from ,h. I)S R '. (Ro" , •. ;:,,,,.) on N'pl~ •. ,,,d Tho"" . S_ !I",,,,n. (,,,,,,/,,,,,,, •• 01 OJji(m: '",I"n«1 .d"".'JI'.".n "nd .riJlN1O'" ",WIT;" HF,,.,in, /'"'y. AI) ~~~ - 8". (London. 1984); 'Lou;; 'he I'io u•• lId 'h < p"I',cy; A R,,"elln, p"" I'«'i,-1.0"0''''''. 11;,,, HI,,,I", ""; 1'"1",,,,.ri•. MGH SRC SRC ed. Ern" Ilen C,b, ni» (S),,,ou,,, T"""p. ' 7<J-5jj. publ;,h"d it> Engl i,,), " Son 4 Ch."I'""g"'. NY. '%') ' ThcK"n . Gm~ HI"d".",' l"'I'''''''~ri'. MGH SRG SRL LXIV. cd. Er"" Tte <ex" ."d problem, ,.",c;.""d wi,h ,h" m, ••,. Mc K ~'",i< k . Ch"rl,,"-,:~.'. 7-2>. LPY4 : '-4 . f-or (I,>e< l),v;'1 Mill
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, population, who joined in ranks according to ecclesiastical region or status. The instructions for staging these events give an impression of how many people accompanied the pope and what a large and carefully co-ordinated bureaucracy he headed. N N arrative accounts refer to the objects brought in processions as well. Fo r example, ill 752 Stephen ][ led a procession and litany to S. Maria Maggiore carrying on his shoulders a holy image of Christ. The pope and rhe populace processed barefoor with ashes on their head in peni tence; this may havl' bel']J an unusual procession. not part of the stational circuit perhaps. but the LP records it as a procession in the ' usual way'.~o In the Ilinth century, a cerhin gold cross with purple gellls, given by Charlemagne to the Lateran basilica. was carried befon' the pope in the litanies . ~' Papal processions must have been spectacular performances and participation in them - even merely observing the spectacle - was probably a frequent and meaningful parr of R oma n urban life. T he .tational liturgy provided a very public fKe to Ihe administration of the R.oman Chureh . Tom Noble has shown the importance of stational liturgies in the cn:.·ation of R o me's topography of pO\verY Martin Claussen, in his recent study of the Carolingianliturgical reforms, demonstrated the ways in which stationallirurgie. effectively transfo rmed the city into a s;!Cred and numinous area like a church, and ultimately a
J' T h;, 1Ccoun' of 'he dewlopmelll of ' he •."ion,l liturgy in Rom. co"' .... f,om John thldovin.
no, U,/>o. elt.",,,,, cf Cl";",,,.
Wo"hip: 11" ori.",,", ,/,,,,iollmm'. aM m,.,"i~~ cf ""',0""11,,,,(1.')'. ch"",.", ",.1"", ., uS (Rome. ' 987). ' 4]--66: ><e ,I", Tholl", F X . Nobl •. ·Topo ~· ~'phy. c
'O').4j--,' Leo IV. LP ,os : ,6; d . LP ' 05 ' .8
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HI.I(/wl I (lfId the history of Rome reflection of the city of God .4 ) Claussen argues that everything within this sanctified space was potentially charged with significance. In the case of Rome, [ argue, renovations to churches that were stations on the calendar and along proces:;ional routes \v(mld have been very nOticeable to the population. As we shall see, liturgical transformations and church- building were important means of political expressIon for t he papacy. T he papal performance of stational liturgy with the hiera rchy of bureaucrats of the papacy served another important function within the society of early medieval I.t..ome. As in many early medieval court societies, the rituals of the court were the means to conllllunicate v-~lues . norms and protocol, to successors. The papal court combined ecclesiastical administration and courtly and diplomatic administration and thereby e-xlJlo ited the pO\\"Cr of religio us authority :Illd practice fo r political expression, not only by the pope but also by ot her officials. By including members of the court. from the highest echelons to acolytes and other lowt'r Tanks. and the populace of RonK" tht· stational liturgy reiterated the organisation and mechanisms of papal administration . the place, of power in R ome (the churches and the places of assembly they became during the liturgy) .44 The pyramidal structure of the papal administT;uion of the city allowed for recruitment from both the populace and the nobility, and many bureaucrats were trained in the system from youth . Pope Leo II [. Paschal's penultimate predecessor, had risen through the clerical ranks; he did not. apparently, come from a noble Rom:m ba.::kground . I-le had been groomed for the office by his predecessor Pope ]-b drian . who came from a Roman aristocratic family with many members in the papal court: his uncle had been pr;micer;us under Stephen 11, and I-h drian had been named notary thell subdeacon then deacon before taking the pmpk.H Leo from a very young age had been raised ';/1 l'I'sfiar;o pafr;archii' and then was named subdeacon , titular priest and ,'cs/;(/r;/ls.46 Leo's election in 79 5 was the result of co- operation between the social and religious elites of the city. or so his biogT;lphcr proudly claimcd.rlt lo ll""".,,, .,,,ei.n ' > .",d co mmen" , }' 206-, J 0 11i , >tlicher P.I."b.." ""cl hijfi",h« Zlopil S, icK"""" " ,,,d M."h" , We.,\h off(M ,ill2. 1\>99), Ut. lO'rn : Cecili> D>v;'_Wey~r. 'Die Mo ... ih" Leo. Ill . ""cl die Anf,ngc d~r h roli" gi>chcn ~ emi""nc< in Rom ' , b'lKhrift fi" K""";?c" ..,;on'n John O,oOr1l ~ and Anu " ch Cbridge, E.,ly CI,n',ti"" ""d M,d;",,/ .1 "l;q";li", The Pa"", M u,""um of Ca.,iano ,1..1 Puzzo (London. '998), 11. no, 168, with rdevont bibl; ogr.phy, The m" ... ic, " tl derv-'~"t , ""jor ",,",,t;o n by Fr.nce> cli >tudio ~o (Srolcale and in the language of the major power figures in the early medieval world . Leo's building project was carried o ut at the same time as Ch,lrlcmagne's own p~lace building at Aachen. 6j The hall W"dS rectangular in fo rm, with a single apse at the southern t."lld and a pair of symmetri cal apses on the long sides. Visitors entered the hall by a ttight of stair> that led to a narthex with small apses on either side wall. Between the vestibule and the hall stood a pair of columns framing the entrauce into the main hall. with its lateral apses. At the Later,ln , Leo III also constructed another (riclillil/JII with eleven apses around a longitudinal hall. which we shall refer to as the Aula. to avoid confusion with the other building, commonly known as the Triciiniulll of Leo 11 1.66 The :m;hitecture of these two buildings as wdl as their ado rnment in coloured marble and mosaic images spoke the language of ancient imperial presentation halls. 6 7 In the late eighth century, these structures would have been very easily associa ted with the polylobed "1I/,le of the imperial p:lbce at Constantinoplco3 by cosmopolitan visitors like travelled bishops, abbots and missi of the different courts. • , H,n. Belting. 'Die beiden P,b",n]en Leo. 11 J. im L, te r:>n und die En' ''eh ung n>~ D~i cc Louis-M"i" Duch","c. L< Lib" Po.,iji,-.I;,; I<xlcc Phili ppe Dep,-"ux. Prv'0P"'('"I,J,i. d, 1'''''0",,".'1' d. I..,,,;, I. p;,,,_ ,, ('~ 1-84 ') (Sil9 "" i" ge " , 1'197). l46-'7 . .. LP 98 : , I: rl t, t!ut Steph~n might be "'g, rJed ... ',eco"dh"ion c. "did.,,,. f>,""1d w lIg. E.",null g>b.\ud '4 (Viell "" '9 7J ). ' 9"""' 7~
Ti,e Rome of Pope P"sell,,1 I nephew Bermrd, who had been named king of Italy by Charlemagne, remained in post ~s rlller, though snbordin ate to Lothar his cousin, Bernard rebelled, and his dissention exposed rifts in the tissue of Louis' rule. '" Bernard's blockade of the passes into Italy was suppressed by Lo uis, Those who had shown him support , many of whom, like T heodulf. had been pillars of Charlemagne 's court, were imprisoned, deposed or condemned, ") Bernard was blinded ~s a punishment and died. This left young Lothar as ruler ofltaly, and Louis' attentions focused on matters in the north, less concentrated on R ome and the papal state.
PIICTUM LUDO VI CItlNUM
In 817, upon his election to the pap:.l throne, Paschal asked Lo uis that the pact made between his predecessor Stephen and the emperor be confirmed, " · T his confirmation w~s the starting point for P ~schal's administration and governance, T he H,CIIW, Llldoliicialll llll established the pope's possession of properties and rights to taxes from those properties in Italy, including formerly Lombard territories, former Byz:.lltine Exarchate territory and various islands should they come into Frankish control ,'" In addition to these declarations of possession. the HWllm included affirmation of the pope's Jurisdiction:ll authority over refugees and criminals from the papal state, and the freedom of papal elections, to be conducted without Frankish interference, T he agreement est:.blished the pope's clear amhority over the papal state, with the proviso of imperial intervention if called upon, One clallse stipulates that upon the death of a pope, the clerics and people of Rome bury the dead pope and consecrate the successor, ~fter which the emperor is to be notified of the election, T he language of the documellt stresses the Roman elements in the papal election, including the Roman clerics and the po pulace (and, perhaps. the correlative un importance of the Fnlllks) in the evem, T hese rights and the independence of the papacy from external control provided the papacy with quasi -autono mous governance and statehood. \Ve mmt be wary of drawing too firm conclusions from the PIIC/ IIIII, for no contemporary text of the agreement exi,ts. The earliest texts purpo rting to be the HlCwm date from the canon law collections of the ' " 11 Rt', .nn o S 17 ( 147) , Se,' J i>< u»ion in l{o»monJ ~ I, Kitteri, l , 111, honki, I, J(in~.J""" ,,"d,, 11>, C.",li~gion' (LonJ on , 'Y~J), ' j4--{., '" A R E muo 8'7-S ('47-8); "" "'nOIl, mm" MGH COl' ' , J)2-S, " > 1{.)'lIlolld D." i>, n, Li,.." (L iverpool, "/9 », 'J.-J ,
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HI.I(/wl I (lfId the history of Rome eleventh century, compiled at a time when the relationship between imperial power ,md papal power was rather different /Tom the ninth ccntury,,16 Nonetheless, wc can be fairly certain that some agreement had been drawn up between Stephen and Louis and this was confirmed by Louis and signed by PaschaL The agreement probably follo\ved gro.\'SO modo earlier papal agreements with Carolingian rulers and the independence of the papacy in its own affairs and , generally, ill the aft:lirs of its territories, 117 T he motivations of the original P,lC/UIH, in whatever form it too k, were surely to st:tbilise Stephen's control of the papacy after the difficulties encountered by Leo in the last year of his reign and shore up the imperial authority of Louis after the death of Charlenlagne :md Bernard's rebellion, The coronation of the emperor and empress by Pope Stephen IV achieved these results in 816 , and the subsequent coronation of Lothar ill 823 might have been targeted to do the ,:tme, In R ome on Easter Day, 5 April 823, Paschal bestowed upon Lothar t he c rown of the kingdom on taly and the titles of Emperor and AugtJstus, 11 8 Lot har had been visiting Italy as an agent of his father, as he had been charged by Louis to concern himself with the affairs of Italy. I I~ Paschal's act of coronation reinforced the importance of papal coronation of Frankish rulers, asserting the amhority of Peter in the workings of the empin.'_ Leo II I had crowned Charlemagne at R ome, Stephen IV had crowned Louis the Pious at R eims wit h a crown perhaps brought from R ome, and Paschal's choice to crown Lothar at R ome might be seen as testimony to his interest ill stressing the authority of R ome and the papacy in making kings and emperors_ Whilst Lothar was in R ome in April of82." Ingoald, the abbot of Far fa , complained to the emperor of abuses by the R oman Church, specifically seized monastic property. "" Farfa had been granted immunity in 775 by Charlemagne and a series of OTher privileges in the following years, free ing the abbey from local due, and taxes, and placing it subject directly to the papacy. Early in PaschJl's reign Ingoald had compbined to the pope abollt his predecessor, Sterhen IV, and that pope's insistence upon Farfa's paying tributes and pensions to the papacy. Paschal had confirmed the ,,' r"Q' th< >o ure , ... < ,\j C Il C"I' I. 35" !I . Hahn. -Da, H l" d ovic ia n ul11', Arch,v.f'" Dir lo"wik ZI (IY7SI. )0. So< d M ,u.. io n ill Co,umbol'" "od 11a."",.'!'". J 18-.2, " , Wh .. t th Q.e [e",tNI", WeCe ..." d wheth ec th~ y w"'~ conc~ ded by L"ui . .. t [h" t i l11~ ",,,, .. in. ""cle". os Co,..,n b")'. d~m o n"l"l t"', g"","",I:'. J2~-j 1.1 Ast ronomer. 11" Hledo",;,; I",p.\46 (= R 'X'". .. ,h .. e eOllf"on, t1 QII, .lId th~ rd." iomhip bctwe ;1O'y of I'>..d",[', 70--]29"). f ~,,_v.
HI.I(/wl I (lfId the history of Rome evidence abo ut the interregnum and eleaion, perhaps further indication of rising Fr;mkish presence in the affairs of the papal state, Paschal was succeeded by Eugcne II (824- 7), supported, at least according to the LP, by the R oman nobles and the Franks. "5 The ROY!l1 Fr!lukish A rlll,'/.' describe the c1eaion as contested and mention t hat thl're Wcant attention to the popes md gave their nascent papal state wide berth. ' Jl The Lombards were more interested in the territo ries of the Byzantine exarchate along the Adriatic coast. str;ltegically critical for communication between their duchies and ki ngdoms (sce Figure l , p. xxi) . In the 74-OS, the papacy and the Byzantine exarchate viewed themselve, inextricably bo und together as the remaining Sllccessors to t he Roman Empire. and thus the papacy intervened on behalf of the ex~rchate. ' H When religious pressures in the name of the See of Saint Pcter failed to expel the Lombards from these territories, Stephen J1 sought the assistance of the Frankish king Pippin, perhaps with the ag reement of the Byzantine emperor, thus beginning the long and complex dance between the papacy and the Franks' jl The Lombam attempts to gain control of the papal state and the city of R ome (in 754) were thwarted by Franks and then finall y systematically quashed in 77 3. Charlemagne's attack on Pavia was decisive, though numerous
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Ti,e Rome of Pope P"sell,,1 I more below, pp. 189,265-7) . the popes. as theocrats, cultivated a rather open and diverse ecclesiastic]1 culture, with room for many divergent practices such as Greek liturgy and language, as long as they did not dullenge papal views of onhodoxy on key issues. At the beginning of the ninth century, as we shall st'e below in Chapter S, key political issues were image veneration and saints' relics.
M U SLIMS
In 740 and agai n in 753 , Muslim expeditions from North Africa and Spain set o ut for Sicily, with the appare nt aim to conquer the territory. , 54«-7" A,i, Ahm,d. A Hi""rt o/!".", ic S;(;/y, ['['!IIk S"rv. _ '" Th"ugh ,hI)·. "'" Wick h"", . E.. ..Iy
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00, S.cphm r.. " ning. ·Lo",b, n:l At i, n;,,,, , ccon>idm,d· Sp,,,,j,,m 56 . , ('98,) .
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t",,,,b. \Il). 70,;--,7 "" For older vi",,~ .• ee I proM,mj Jdl~ dv, I," ,",,,U".,';" . Setti",,,,. di ""dio [ (Spol",o. 1954): Wolfg-.mg il,."u"t"lo (cd.) . K",I J" G,,,,, (Du .. ddorf, '96,) . For,,, ex''''pl. of, currem expbn,tion .«. for e),",,,,ple, \{ o"",,,ond M cK ;',",1 PJ"""",\" of U'''","'Y in F","ki,b (".. ,,/,~ Ib, /)t.,b je),""" ,b, IMd (l.ondon, '000)' CI,,,,,ooo, "Ib< 1I.000). 07'1--- T his attitude characterises even SOllle of the very recent thinking on the subject : ' R o me was a\vakened with Charlemagne's visit at Easter 774." 76 ", M'Jor cont1 pict u", of hrop d", MOllll"'~n. ' Pn:h " cOllcq>liun of ' he ""D" . "g"'.... SpM,I,,", '7 (1~42). ;~6-4'-. Edw.rd Gibbon, Tl" Hi",,'Y n £"'pi'" 2nd edn. ed . J 13. UUT)" (London. ")01: orig. pub. '776-88). V, j ' Gregori,,, [ P'P'. Ho",;/i.m", ;" £::«,,;,1,", p",pI",.~" Liber I!. HUlI1il i, VI. lJ-~4. PL LXXV I. coL ,0 ', er. 'h~ lell"' ofJ.mlne. below. n. 86.
Bw'ldi"S ill R ome marine trade , ~ The poor souls left in t he former C,PU[ Mill/dJ, a fr;tctio n of the population of antiquity, were living withont fresh water or imported olive oil. There had been a serious decrease in population and a steady decline in the maimenance of the ancient buildings. R o me's glories were gradually covered with mud, garbage and animal dung, only to be despoiled by people scavenging for building materials, which they used haphazardly in ramshackle hilts or diminutive churches, On the onc hand, Gregorovius's picture of decline into decrepitude is acCIlfJte : R ome of the e:lrly Middle Ages was very different from th:lt of the second century. The streets we re muddier, the new churches and houses built in Rome \vere smaner in scale and the cOlllmercial products more local th an in the heyday of the R o man Empire, ~ On the o ther hand, probing the material culture of early medieval R Ollle through current archaeological techniques, in the light of new research on the f:lbric of other medieval cities in the Mediterranean, generates a rather difTen.·m view of early medieval R ome ,6 What was once thought to be a moment of revival in a bleak dowmvard spiral now appears as a dynamic moment of self- referential and powerful reorganisation, Moder n urban archaeology is generating new data about pruvisioning, trade and economic structure, as well as abollt the organis,1tion of cities and thei r inhabitants, Few areas of the city survived the waves of un,tratigraphic digging in the J 8805 and the J 9}05. Archaeologists of those periods and even some more recent practi tioners \vere generally uninterested in recording phases afte r the high empire, Currem excavations have sought to remedy this lacuna in our knowledge of the medieval city_ R egrettably, even some archaeology ostensibly targeted at medieval sites has focused exclusively 011 churches r;tther than the other buildings in the c ity, or even adjacent to churc hes the msel ves. Thus so-called C hristi an Archaeology tends to focus on the form of the church itself rather than H. w. G. Libt">Chuctz. 'The u>c. and ,bu.." of the concept of ··decline·' iu ht.., Rou ... n history. 0. W... C, ibl>on 1>oli"e.lI), mw , ,",,e[" in R",", R",."I.;" '-"'"·A,,,iq'" U>b."i,,,,. « I. Luk" L.va" , J"",""I 4 R,'m." A,,1,", ,"I~'r S"ppi. m "ut1'), S",i.. 4' (1'o"""Qtl!h, ,0,), 'J J--? , ~o~ below ",d R obo" Coatc>-St fin~ doll'O"t>ccnto·. ,1,\1 ,,, (t99)). "\--IJ: H . • Archeolo~i' e . CrI!''> Ih[bi j. Hib[jol~" di Ard,.olog;' M"di~'.I < 6 (FIoren«. '990); Rom. Joll'.",;,h"';.1 m,d;",,,,,. wilh "'1< .... '" bibhugrophy citeel 'h~",i"
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Bw'ldi"S ill R ome height of the Empire. the city never consisted o f wall- to-wall blocks of bllildings. but rather ,I monument~l centre ~ t the Forum and Capito line , the Campus Martius with major public buildings and then zolles of production, commerce and residences of various ty pes. as well as green art.'as of parks, villas and military ca mps extending out towards the walls. ' 0 The city was divided into regions, fourteen ,ll1ce the time o f August us (27 HC- 14 An) and urban amenities such as public baths and fountains were distributcd throughout the city. In thc residcntial zones filled with illw/
10
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47
Ti,e Rome of Pope P"sell,,1 I of this system began to break down, however, in the late fifth century ,Hld very few attestatio ns of the office or its holder exist from the sixth century,! ) I n the centre of town, Ilear the base of the C apiroline H ill, the transformatio n of the Porticus Minucia Frumentaria, \vhich had been wht're the bread dole \VJS dispensed, demonstrates these dunges in the city on administrative and materialleve1s, The distribution of gr,\in to the po pubce of R o me c hanged from in the third century from a dole dispensed ill the Po rticus to a ,ystem overseen by a different ofFice, The primary function of the Porticus ceased, but the four I(epublican temples and the nearby Temple of the via delle Botteghe Oscure remained, T he official up keep of temples ended over the fo urth and fifth centuries. however, The T lleodosian Code, a fifth - ce ntury compilation of R oman laws, stipulated the pre~ervatio n of ancient building, that were among other things public and decorative : (IS) , , ,Just as We fo rbid sacrifices, so it is Om will that the ornamentS o f public wo rks shall be prese rved, If an y perso n sho uld attempt to dest roy such works, he shall n Ot have th~ right to Hatter himself as relying On any auth ority, if perchance lle' should produc~ any rescript Or any law as his defe ns~, (1 8) , .. N o ",an by the ben~fl1 of Our sanctions ,hall aHe'mpt to destroy temple" which are e"'pty of illicit things. For we decree that the conditio n o f the " buildings shall remai n un impa ired,
The)\' two passages were dated to the end of the fourth century and subsequently included in the Theodosian Code, as well a, the Ju~tinianic Code, At R.ome, excavation suggests that these legal codes were defending a corner, legislating for the preservation of buildings which were already in the process of degredation, Por example, excavatio n of the Temple of the via delle Bo tteghe O scure (delle Ninfe?), near the Purlicu> Millllcia , shows that it was despoiled of its marbles ill the second quarter of the fifth century. ' j This area in the centre of the ancient city was used as a tempo rary site for g:\mcs and a small worksho p and then, " T he 1;'[ of""",,, p",fect> ofRo"" is fuTl of );lP' it, the " ", . ofl""' ''' '''' (C /L VI. 840')' th"ugh ;t i, """hie th .. the fum,.., I'"p. Gr, ed. KL:w. [bndoborll. An.le,u RQ""'" [n" it ",; D.ni,i Suppl ...,f."'''g ,h."" ,nd o,her di..."",, 'h>t befell Rom •. "". Gimepp" Lugli, /'o"if< "d lopo,X'"/.Joi.,,. ,,,,,,is ","is "",,"r /> lio'" ",d ,i[ u, I. ,n tlo .
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Rot"", Fo,u", ' (u"l'"blin .p.cc" ~4-j. '7 Bry." W,rd- Perki n,. 1'",", Cl."",,) A""q"i'r 10 Ih, ,\/iJdI, A,~" U'/'," p"&I,, b"UJing m """h,," ."J """,,II.Jr. ~I!J"""'~>" (O~fotd, 19R4) . jl-ll4 and Ap]"'nd ;~ , (,)6-ofl) . See ,]", 1)",g;010 . .. d Cdithi. L> ril/';. Ij9-60. ,. ·17,,,,J",i.~ Cod, 1j . I.Zj; AkhcrI" 9 (R ome, '(7).
53
Ti,e Rome of Pope P"sell,,1 I clerical elites, whose municipal patronage could thus be expressly tied to th~t of their predecessors. J6
DOMESTIC !..IICHITECTUIIE FIIOM THE fifTH TO THE NINTH CENTUIIIES
New residential construction continucd throughout the seventh century. on a reduced scale and this mostly consisting of renovations to existing structures. Few medieval single- f:lmily dOJlII/.' arc attested arch~eo logically; many are known only through textual sources describing their constrl1ction or re{]uesting property rights to expand existing strl1ctures.J7 Archaeological evidcuce points to the rctnction of occupied areas of large dOJllIIs . Even in some of the noblest late residences of R.ome, sixthcemury inhabitants r:trely made use of the entirety of older structures and retreated to zones within houses that had once been fully occupied, leaving the rest to decay o r fill with rubbish. jS Sections of ancient houses were unused whilc neighbouring structures were restored. Likewise. sections of the city fcll into disllse while others were main uined. Current research shows that the urban occupation of R.ome within the walls had survived beyond late antiquity in pockets of density. On the question of the population of R ome in the early Middle Ages, there have becn estimates from as low as 5.000. an implausible cxtrt'lllt',lI' to 35,000. an ostensibly educated guess by Ric hard Krautheimer!O Most recen tl y, Chris Wickham 'gues~timated' a figure of 25 ,000, which seelm about right Y It was long believed that the population gradually constricted around the ancient mOlllllllental area of the Campus Martius. Krautheimer had suggested t ha t the so-called lIhil6l--;6.
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,0 Rich,rd Knu theimer. Ro"", Pmfil, 4 ~ dIll J U- IJol1 (princeton. '980). 2J • , Chri. Wicklum, 'T he R o m>n •• ccording t o their n"lig n custom ' Rome in 1... 1)" in th" b,e nin'h 'e"tl, <e"',,,; in E, "/y .\I,d""" Rcm'. I~Z (" . • 8) 164· ., K",u,h< 'm .mcl 'h o ";;' ;n So Ui, nchi . 'Ru", ,, "' ''' ",or< fortifi""c ",OOio"".,li in " pp,mu .U·"" ic. vi.bili'" di .cc~.,.o . 1l·E;q " ilino, 0 '0'" >p'--'vvi"~ " " lId ",00«1,0 " ill, pp" " o rico- '0P"K, . firl}' mOOi"", 1 Romc. 500- ' """ ' . !'BSR 64 ('9',>6). ' )9- j9: er. p"",lId ,""";0"' ;" N .pb ;" ,h. '"'< e oft; neU'.I, olll,'wi. 1.868, tr.,,". Jfrm Sh.hid ;n M;oh,tenfd.:l. (Leipzig. (867) . " M,d,d."gd" C'g"rtu d~ Az",·~du. 'A,!"',,; """",,,ic.,wdflh-cenlUry docun,,"n" cII<xl In P,am hxldc. --r. b" !." um s . fo.1>rue Nov.c'. ASKSI' ,~ ('\)0')' no, . l ' ,nd J9- 0 " N'pb. "'. V, ul Arthur ,,,d D .. vi.d W hit"ho",". -APPUllII ,,,11 .. produ"on~ i.t,,';z.i .. ,,~II ' h,lu c~n l ro_m"f i.d'Ol,..I . tr.. II VI" XII ,",colo' . AM '0 ('y8J). 1'5-)7 A II'c" " u", bcr of non her" ",o" ,,,cr; ,,, I n the development of this new type of residence in R.ome, traditional :Irchitcctural values, such as the importance placed on cut ,tone and locat ion within the ciy, imbued the rlOllllI5 sol'lr we,.,1I t.>rg",ed.t . ncient public .. On R um''UTC ou 'pdi" is and , .. ri iu Rom.n ci'i",', Lucilh de Lochcll'l. 51",10.; ,m, f
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Whi,,,hou",,, · ... pp''''t ; ,ult. produ"on< l,trg.""" Steinby. ·L 'ind",,,;., h,«izi, 0.1 , Rom. n~1 wdo in Soctcri"ic o f Vcron... S,'c L. Rocc. , "'D.r. '\ ge." .. Vnon" ss-g. " .... "hut. "'al~tJ. ~R " Rob.rto M."eghint. ' Rk. ijiblio," T he medieval transformation of the city of R ome also brought a change in the relationship between the city and its suburbs. The ancient city of Rome comprised the city within the walls as well as the activities outside it. This interdependence of life within and without the walls continued into the early Middle Ages. Understanding the historical distinction between R ome ill/er IlHlroS and CXlr,j IlJIlrOS win be important for assessing the radical nature of medieval urban constructions whidl subsume both kinds of functions. ~' T he third- century walls of the ancient city we re ringed by taverns, farms and workshop>, as well as by vast cemeteries and //ecropo/tis , often organised into f:lmily tombs. Al Early Christians were buried with the rest of the city's dead in these cemeteries, catacombs and IIIur.J Ve"diudl i (M,I, ,,. l()() ~), 601' Mt icomm SS {Vien n" '9'7) . no . ' 07 · '. ' 9 ' .
,,,i,. "
Soe t he mpg in g d rl)" nun)"' cdebration .. s. Lorr nzo (nori le m n ", , nd ' he orch it<etuT>1 hou se (o r it in Gnont io •. ~"" AIhro,,;. 'L';,,~ti'III""tQ lId ,,,h,,,b;o di fl- Olll" fr. IX e VIII '"7. '9. J I, }9, j j . 8). Not< .1", trn' dowl11 87-9 to rc,idcnti.l.ncl r",ninK propn."". Rom.". S"'>oIl" .... p,opo.ito ddle >!,utture ... i"~"zi> li occbi"" ich" ~i x9 Similarly, Leo IV med Arab captives in addition to hi> conscripted local labour as part of the building force for walling the area around the Vatican. " o As well as being a convenient source of labour. the usc of conscripted and captive labourers probably also constituted the potent political message of papal control of R oman and Italian territories. " j
g,,,
,., \'>.010 Dolo!;", ' Tho .. R eb;"h" (of R o"'~ ;" "''''.;' '' of the Leo";" . w.n. P,C< Tw o: Th~ p,,,ct, o·. I'BSR S' ('98). ' ' ' - )9. L~o III u,«l loe. 1 L.bo u",,, in R ove"",, wh ~n r""i,. Corpm Ch,,,'i, ,,,,, u,, , Cont;"u"iQ Mcd,,,,,,I,, '\19 ([",,,hom. l oo6). ,68 ()87)· S.e T ho"'" S. Bmwn . 1""1""''''' . LOll;, 'h< piou, ,,,d "l I"'''p o{ !'ud" wcll ... the ai",,"i" "fSS. S du"'t> dell. "nil ." ,'ichit> . D,,; "cheolo~ici d.>.1 depO"'Q di VII >«010 IICIl"e de Rome ,)1; (Romri. ·L u c~rn\· ovoiWli', I-l" in L> SM';' "'''''''''',. d; Rom. ,,;// ·./10 M,d;""", /~" J,j "''''''; M. ,·; """'''/'':% . ..-d_ V,,,lo De]ogu .. " d Lidi .. V.1mli, Atti del S<mi",rio ROIII. ;-) .prik [\19'. Uiblio, ,,,.. di "'rchooloKi, Mc-d;",·,1< '0 (I·lo t Cryp ... li'lbi j. H,bli o'"'''' d; "'''h« R;ch",j HodS'" ,nd D .. ,·Kj Wh"ehoo>nd [ngo H,,,,on (eds.). TI" Ll'.~ E j.~"'h C"III,}, (Lh .I- H.""wi. ,,868. ''''''', Sh.hid in McCor micx. Or'..:'''-'. 6H-j . •" 0" (,bri, ond ", c,,1 impom,ion. >l ion in ' he period, Se< th e 1'..,-""" Simmi o( 8)6. giving Italian. Byzan' ine ",d Lomb.,d mach, n" pami" ion to eto" 1>..."".-."" " bold. s••• nd ri,'. " Oil ,h.;, d~ ,I/C H V,f«d in M,d"",,1 ,[hid, in ,I" M,d"mm,"" 1V."ld. N, Robort Lopez ",d I"'ing R,}'mond (N..",' yo,k, 'QS,I. zoo,). n~. 7 . O n Greek import' in R ome , nd on G=b in Romc. "" . 1", /l.-kCor mick. o.(ci"" ch . ' • .~-j , nd ch . 8 ." l ",li~ Ilr ub" ke, ,ndJohn H.ldon (ed._) . Br~.,,'iu," io 1/" ["m",I." " '4 (c. 6~II- .i,o): Th, , ~~'''~ ' '' .""o,,,,,d '"n",y (Alde"hor. '00'). ~'-j, '" O"c r,,,ble , x"ptio" i, , 'ingle mc",io" of Ne,poli"" d"d .. Sc, J"lm Oobo'ne. 'T,x,ib ,nd ,h.i, l"imeJ im;'.>lio",·_ PBSR 60 (' 99 ». j'7. DIDo",. poi"" ou, ,h" men,ion oftex,ile, of , hi, "''' i> ' he pr""ig~ g;fl> from Byz' n' in~ .m["'fOro POP"" in I"'rticubr Pope, Hormi",b, (I '4-. J). John [ (5. J---' 7. F~· " , See below. pp. '43-6. .,0 McCormick. Or,:~ins, 6' ~ , '"'" l:kd~. H;,'~';' •••• ,,,,,, '" V,n".';);' &,d., hi",,;. ,,,In;''''''4 pend [);ibhi 6 Cro ini" (Toron to. 19 88) . 'I1-j . in Juli .. M . H . Smith. E .r"J'< "fl"
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pn".imi. '"".6 Popes carved out the R ep ublic ofSaim Peter, taking o n the role of de facto secuhr autho ri ty in its capital city in opposit io n to the Byzantine emperor, the Lombard kin gs and ultimately the Frankish ru le rs _'H Elsewhe re in Italy the Franks drew lip arT;l nge ments that maintained local
'" L P 9T lO. ))---co" ic """"nc' ;" .>':rirr' '''/'' J, "ori. m.d,,,,,·./,. O,,-,vio Ih",; (L;'.'O",o, '?'is), J 7 ' - 460: Ugo F"les;~di , U ; Sf".izi "";;I,",,i.1< "d/. Chi". (Kome. [995); K.;m"nd Hmuc., ' O;c """blll;>rger "kw o(,he ,,,bj"«. > t Q ""'" (0' i" .. 1I th . eiti« in th < k ingd o m o f Italy, w hich >rc ",red to r ~. c h )..->]", Wc do ll ot w i,h t h.. ill COll'. , ee Sible d" m"uw. Cu/r,,,,, < "rt Co1t",_S'ephen •. ·D " ..... g~ 1rc h i'<e'''''' in R o me'. p"I'''' 6~ (' 9"n) . ' 77-2>7 " Co" "",S' e p h", ,,. 'I)"k Age ",; hi'eCt u",'. , ~~-o .
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S. Stefano degli Abissini 798-816 or 847- 55
15. Plans frolll othn early medieval churchc·s in ROllle. aftn Robut C oates-Stcphcns. Ric1"rd Kralllhcimcr.
an ais1cd basilica with spolia colonnades was fitted into a late antique aula.'4 It should also be poimed out, as Coates-Stephens has do ne. that o ther churches with transepts existed at R ome, not only at S. Prassede and St Peter's. T he church of s. Eusebio, on the Esquiline, had a cominllolls transept in its early medieval phase, as recent studies have proven." ~ The monastery church of S. Stefano degli Abissini, located near the :Ipse of St Peter'" also had a transept, recognisable even in the church's presem significantly al tered state!6 The dating ofS. Stef.1no is troubled by the absence of medieval descriptions of its foundation, restoration and rebuilding, bllt it might date to e ither Leo [11 or Leo IV, which is to S-1.y either before Paschal's building of S. Prassede, or after it !7 \Vhether it came before or after. its form indicate, a currency of the T-shaped basilica form in R ome in the eighth and ninth centuries, and diffuses the significance of Krautheimer's 'revival' . Spacious and regularly proportioned basilicas, such as St Peter's, St Paul's, S. Giorgio, S. Euscbio, s. Susanna and S. Stefano degli Abissini, formed part of a trldition of " On 'he rehuilding of S. s .. hi", hl' !>ope Leo I ll. ",e K... u , heim~r" .1. . C,,'1"". ttt. IJj-j2 ., The m.mep' of'he pr....b)",,,ul ch urch ofS_ Emebio h" eeceml)" bee n ru,,,, ' 0 Pop< Z.. ch..ri" (74 1- p): Io"",dlo. ·L. ch i.,.. IIlcdi~.Il pope dcr ioo illltio" UII Ihe b"i, of . piece ofli",rgiClI fi,r ni.hi"g Ih" bore 'he i" ""'I";Q" 'TE,I /Pfj .." ..j DO.llINfi] LEONlf' ] QVr."i! Kra",h eim ",,' "I.. CO'I"". TV. 196-9.
'«Of
89
Ti,e Rome of Pope P"sell,,1 I buildings which had been in use in R Ollle consistently from the fourth century o nw'lrd. not a revival of a long--dead way of building. THE URBAN LANDSCAPE
In comextualising Paschal's :m;hitectural progT:\mme. It IS IIllportant to re-member that a significant portion of the monumental core of the ancient city of Rome was preserved after a fashion . T he material fabric of the city" ancient fom, ba,ilicas. temples and porticos. repaired md reorgan ised as it may have been, W;lS still the pn'dominant element w ithin the citysc;lpe. Major monument, stood in R o mc in Paschal's day to provide enduring exempla of ancient architecTUr.l1 splendour. eventually being dismantled to create the new buildings of the twelfth and later centuries. A:; we have ~eell, the Fora of Peace and of Cae~ar were despoiled of their lll;lrble columns ;lnd capit;lls in the middle of the eighth century. perhaps destined for use in the new porticos. churches and episcopal pa!acl's built in tht, latter half of the eighth century!3 The f'orum of Traja n was preserved to some degree: its white Luni marble pavement was cleaned and maintained, the tiuted columns of its porticoes stood with their massive Corint hian capitals until the middle of the ninth century! ? These buildings remained through the early Middle Ages as part of the fabric of the city. N ew monuments lllade use of the sanle principles of ancient architecture that had always been importam particularly with respect to fOrln and nuteriak This is very evident in Paschal"s architecturc. The attcntion to harmonious combination of materials in conventional ways, the respectwhen' possible - of homogeneity of column materials and sizes. or of capitals of the same order. these speak to the enduring qualities of R oman architecture that had not lost their importance by the ninth century. Il lSTORIC A t TOPOGRAPlIY
T he choice of site fo r the rebuilt churches \v:lS also significant for the articulation of Paschal's programme, for their n'lationship to the papal liturgy and to the cult of the saints. Each cllllrch restored by Paschal and each church into which he inscrted a chapel had already existed in some form for several decades if not sevenll centuries. Textual sOllrces attest to some of the institutions which were rebuilt by Paschal as early "
Pope Z'ch,. ... br i. Arollonj- Gh58 .
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9'
COIISIn/cri /lg Ihe papal dly
A lillllus s. p,,/>"cdi5 existed in R ome from as early as 4 89 ~0 and underwent restoratio ns p,lid for by Pope l-IadrianY The explanation for the tebuilding given by Pasdlal's biographer is that the ancient church of S. Prassede on the Esquilille wa, ill ruins.4. The significance of his choice to rebuild it lies in the s.l crcd history of the site, just as it would latt."r attract him to rebuild S. Cecilia. The intricate intersections of cult and archaeology will be discussed more fully in the follo\ving chapter, but in this discussion of the form of the buildings, it is important to recognise the medieval chmches' relatiomhips with what lay beneath them. Papal records describe the conversion of a private bath complex. the so-.called 13,1ths of Nov:Hus. to the lilll/II.' of S. Prassede by Pope Pius I (141-55).'; The section of the LP that makes this claim was composed in the sixth century, and owes much to the Vila Pr1 V ,I X .. coh . ", ,,,ini,,~,,. i o"~ ".",e.. l< ~ o'l9' ''i ', ,,,,o ~ , ,« Pet er Llewlor'. (;1",,,10 Hj"ory 4.\ (t0. S , n,;«oli VI- VII' . A SR SP ,o~ ('98 ,). '7: Let ;z;" P. ni _Erllli,,;, 'Te>timon u" ,. ",:h ~ olog;< h < di mo,,.,, ..; , Ro" .. ",,11" ..1' 0 m ed i o ~ m' , ASRSP '04 ('9 8 ,), z ~ r~d>1~d it to t h~ . ~". nth c~n' ury. P' ni_Ermini promi",d > ')"1' ic p""e,,',';oTl of 'h~ >r"h>~olog; . r.m nd th;, medi....-, ] h ~",<en fon hcomi ng: cf, Guy Fn,ichiti cr i" i" " l J (V.. 'ic,n C ity. '9$1). ~~. " I> rio, Co'tJ mb ~ •. 'Uurul ' opogr>phy . nd ' he powrgi" 01 hi. edition of the I~tt~, p"'port~d l)" fmm P, .... h,1 L I"' '/,"'>Ii."" 1'.'1'" /'1,,,,,,, Grw';'" ,/,-.;,,,, ,x'",i.. , & Po"Ji,,,,y '~,,· her. w,lI h"v~ ""M known . 'nd .hm ,, ~, , i", •• I",.~t)" lo>! by ,h~ ,uin. of ,ge. it being the c,'" thlt the t"cc> of .ntiqu ity exi"ing w~,~ going to piece>. the de",." ,"y of GM ",n<wing. in gre>le' ("onrli,ion w< h.rl it newl)' """-,,ed .• "d to ' h~ hon", of 'h~ """" pot«1I God ..."d hi",. , h. I:>od )' of th~ ,·i'gi" ...... ith he' hol)" brorl.gtOO" •. et c~",.... ) Iknio. Hi""ri. p""ionl/ . H . Thi> desc'iption de.rly conditionoo the ~xc>\.,'iom o{th e bte nin Or< fo",,tat i .<pol,i in "poc, pi,', u nb . In 4"t< the wciti"g 0" ' he (ew medie",lfi.,,,,I.. , l nown . lkmdenburg ."gg",,~d ' hlt i, d .. ,ed from the ninth century, be" .. u.., uf P" d .. r, o,),er b"ildi,,); worl"t 'h~ ,i« ; H ugu UMl d~"b"tg, U 1";"'( , hi", di Rom., /l -: 11// ",,,10 (M;bn, 'OO~), '94 The <XC'V"Ol> ;n'erp""ed ' he fo,,,I. " I"" of ' h< in;f;.l ;"" ,I);, ;on
99
Ti,e R ome of Pope P"sell,,1 I T he church complex of S. Cecilia thus comprised a church w ith furniture , a baptistery and a cemetery in the period between the hter fourth and ninth centuries. T his is probably unexceptional in early medieval R ome. Indeed as we have seen the gifl' given to the institutions in the t"arly ninth ct"ntury by Lt"o ][ 1 suggest that these \wre ratht'r It"ss than significant churches among others in the city. The sacrt'd histo ry of each of the churches w~s prob~bly the most important factor le~ding to their restoration, a point I shall develop below. T he two basilicas of S. Prassede :Illd S. Cedia replaced long-standing lilll/i, each of which was believed in the ninth century to have been founded on the private property of the s:linr. by the saint herself. T he institlltions of these rirllli had been in existence for centuries, though their materi~l form is no t known. Two of the clmrches arc described as near to ruin and suffering from inattention when PaschAl begins his renovati011)." While this kind of description is used so often t hat it more probably rd-Iects a trope of the papal biognlphers than the material condition of the churches. it llonethdess holds tha t. at least rhetorically, Paschal was taking on some of R omc's lesser churches to restore. T hese same conditions hold true for the dirlconill church ofS. Maria in Domnica. liturgic~l
S. 1>1"1de. <arli... beC". u,. H.>dr;"1l 1l"v< . ix .·d" fo r .>ch d,.,""i", "nd 'h~ .eX' .p«i/i .)w .h.", We", ,i."<eu" 'he tillle, inch"Jin& S. M..;, in Domlli.a. All ,j"«,, 1')", H,tlrj>Il', 'wo "eW oIl""'"'."r< 1,,,,«cr, Di, £ in,i,dl" InJ(hnjt, ...mml',"g ".d d" I~~~~rfi'''''' d,,,,h K,,", (C"d<x £ imidl, ..i, 3'~)' /·" ,."",i/,. U mMhrifi, U,,,,,,",",,,'g ,,"d (S"'''pr1 , [987) , in ,h~ [;!I~ far I';n=')" j , ' i~ . For ",ce,,' diKu"ion..,~ Fr>nz AI,o U,uer, ·D., lIild de, Sudt' . '9gll olo. ·T",,,h, r, ~ ofth~ LeoTlille W,I1', PBSk 47 (tyn), 5t, R ia,rdo S.",,"gdi V,lell "" " i, 'Edi~,;, re>iden,i,le e "i>, f-or disc""io" of the rr»on. fOT this );"ol«ti. ·Strut"' .... ", ,, "'rie d~gli oo,f,onry in the eighth ~ nd ninth centu ries, as seen in the exterio r walls o fS. C ecilia, S, Prassede and S. Maria in Domnica ,"5 At S, C t'cilia, part ofth t' exte rio r o frllt' apse is visible frOIll tht· street behind it. There is :l series of corbels that ri ng t he exterior of the apse below the ro o f-line, bonded to the b rick masonry of the apse itself, rim s c le~ rl y p ~rt o fP~sc h:lI's building.' ,6 The m ~ rb le corbels, visible fro m below, are all re used ancient pit'ces consistent in size, carving technique,
Evo. M''1>'''..... S'e1"!>)", 'I. ';ndu",b b ,.,;.b d, R"" ".I utdo ;'''1'.",' ;" s"""J ,,""4"4 , imp'''' '"fil.) ""'ko, 11. RO'h. : ,,,,11,;," ,,~" .1I,,1. """~"\"" "m""~_ ed . And,,,.. Gi,rdin, (Rom~_l\ .. d, '986), \19""164 ' 'L. croll ologi;o ddlo f,glin~ tardo 'n'ich~' in "'""ri"l, < !«md" d,lI'd, li~i.I',I",ai"i """" Ro"", «I, ,\ hr;' C~«hdli (Kom~, '00'), "7- jO. For J"h " VII : St! It.ve come from • , ixth- or ~!wt1ori di chi c'" do,'cv .. no ,CCon1 "i Ji lr .."""C,, ,i " ccolti q'" cl •. «bbclI di;~);\, .li pcr for"" c 1'''' -'9"" ,.w.""';",,,. Srud, • rkerche d; ",:heologi' e Sto,i, ddl',"e J (SpOldO, '00'). "7---m,di .. ,,/, (SJXll. jJ-'7~. SOlU e ,,'nCT ~X"l1Ipi of n~wll ,.. ",.-cl " ""lid ro ll ~1 ","e,ul. >rIo"'J)9 In ,'Ale"io e 5.:1,,,,, Cecil " ' . lI';m" ),I,r/i",h fi;, K""'t~"hi,h" . t.i-7 (, '1"93-4). H ,-Ij. T he m"'i ll;ng p",d ;, preX"lIlly lop;"b. • re ",nding ill ,bo p,e,o,,, ",;"", . bo,h wi,h Dori. R~gi""o l'rocur:I ' )46-8 0. cc 6JV-4r. > docume", th .. t I w:t, not permitted to ,",1 ,h" ' h< ", th~ nte"" .... "'.its:.t the centre of a fountain comtruded in 1929, t hough it may well haw been part of the atrium furniture in the early Middle Ages as others are known from contemporary churches both in !tome and elsewhere. 146 Excavations at S. Vincenzo al Volturno bmught to light fngments of a similar large ancient k,mliwfos, excavated from the destruction layers between the ninth and eleventh centuries." 7 In addition to the general liturgical need for a place to wash before entering the church, at R ome the specific nature of the stationalliturgy required areas before the church fo r the revesting ofliturgical celebrants. After processing through the city, officiants took off their dusty clothes and put on their garments before the mass, and early Ordil1cs, rubrics '" LI'9S;~ L .
hI Eu..roi u•. n, £"I"i."i,./ H",,,,y. ",,,,.. Ki,>pp L->h .ll d J. E. L. O"I,o tl . Low CI. "it,uc1 bytery, reinforcing the focu> already generated by the basilican form of the church, and also apran·nt in the design of S. Cecilia, discussed next. Later n.'nova tions to tht' f.l(j:ade make it difficult to know what of the present fa(j:ade of S. Cecilia is original. Masonry visible behind the thirteenth-century Cavallini fresco in the upstairs choir shows that the upper reaches of the wall are the original nimh-century walls. There was a central doorway into the nave and probably also two side doorw:l)'s. Tht' nave measures 36 .30 m long, from inner f.lct' of \vall to inner face of wall and 14.07 m wide. from column edge to column edge.1 j J T he aisles measure between 4.15 and J. 7.2 III wide, slightly narrower at the north- west end . The columns of the nave colonnade Jre now covered over with nineteenth-century plaster piers, though some of the original spolia colullllls arc visible in a few places. T here were probably twelve columns on each side. Two colllmns of the south colon nade are visible ~t the cast cnd .'s. T he easternmost column visible, which must have bcen the first column of the colonnade, i, of white marble, iluted helical1y. The column has a \ate antique or medieval capital of composite inspi!'.ltion. ' jl T he other visible column of S. Cecilia, a monolith of grey granite, has an allcient Corinthian capital. Opposite these colu mns " , Ciuli>II' Bllttici . " d Ciovo",u Rm... rio. 'S. I'r:,.,lucli> VII (Rome. '973). no 49J , The,.., '''' o,h« f"""h-c~II""Y
"7
Ti,e Rome of Pope P"sell,,1 I in the northern colonnade is a slllall hole in a later wall that exposes the smooth granite of ,I third column immured within. The columns were varicd in material and the capitals, reused from what wc can tell, were similarly disparate. Thou gh later covered with plaster. the upper walls of the southern colonnade prest'rvt' sections of the brick arehes spanning the columns. starting with the pier attached to the interior of the f:l,ade. These arches reached ;l heigln somewhere around ).75 m from the original pavement, which Krauthcimer put at 0 .20 m below the current leveL 1)6 The nineteenth-century excavation reports place the bases of the columns some 0.30 III below the present floor. which was installed after that excavation . ' \7 \Vhi1c S. Prassede h:ld tr:lbeated colonnades. S. Cecilia and S. Mar ia in Domnica had long illteriors subdivided by arcuated colonnades of spoliate marble and granite. From the narthex of S. Maria in Domnica, one enten the basilica through one of three doors _ The body of the nave is 30.88 III long and 11.70 m wide. bet\veen inner edges of nave colonnades, smaller tha n the other two churches. The aisles are 3.30 III wide, separated from the nave by colonnades of spo/id columns. \Ve can observe attention to the principles of imperial R oman architecture in particular at S. Maria in D omnica. though similar attention to tradition is evident in the other buildings, too. T he eighteen Mons Claudianus (grh" , ,, ,,",,J J (Wie>b.d ill Tr."C\·~'~ ~d i , .. oi .. I«,i o'i '~ '''''"" l m",c,i.>lc· (Rom " " - 22 feblm io lO(ll) = .II.d,d.Ii~e-" "'" htl I\',J,,-/,,"d, I,,,,;,,,,,, " RouIt .' H;"",;"i S,,,d;,, 60-, ('''''4). ' J-l8 LP ~ 1:
Z : LP '>7: 64. (,6 , In rrlnion '0 SI Pc'a·, . ..,,' H,d,i"n" lwc, MGH £1';",01 ... Ill. 59'- ). lOo, disc"";Oll 'he> ''''''«"I''
COIISIn/cri ,lg Ihe papal dly
S. Prassede, and there were four windows at S. Cecilia, now blocked though still visible in the external masonry of the apsc. '7 0 In all of Pasc hal's churches, the prcsbytcry \\f;IS raised above the Aoor level of the church by a Ilumber of stairs, a, was typical of papal basilicas. '7' Among his resto r.nions of tht· earlier basilica of S. Maria Maggiore. Paschal eiev;lted the presbytery and in particular the episcopal throne on a phtform reached by a set of stairs. raised the apse flo or itself by 1.78 III and erected a screen of coloured marble columns across the nave of the church. below the ,tairs. m The description ill the LP provides many details of tilt' new arrangemems. ' 7l It explains that the motivation for the renov;ltions w-~s the fact that women were crowding the wf/wdr" during papal ceremonies. TIle pope was unable to have convers.uions wid] the other clerics officiating during mass, and so raised the CIIf/lcdr" ahove the tloor of the church. S. Maria Maggio re had an ambulatory around the apse ohhe church . which was separated from the presbytery by a screen of six purple marble columns, with ,111 architr,lve of white marble adjoining the architravt· of the nave colonnade on t he ends. ". He lined the ({Ir/lcdr" and the pavement of the new presbytery with precious marble. The presbytery of each of Pasc hal's churches was revetted with ancient coloured marble, often red and purple in colour. lending t he (oIlhcdr" a regal, even imperial. presence. '7J
,,,. Knutheimer ti . There w"", no window,.t S. l\1.,i. in Dom nic •. In complrison . S. An"u,;' . S. .\1 ., .... in Coull ...-din ,nd S. Su",nn. did IIOt h , ..... w indow,;" ,h .i, '1""";" ,h. M;ddl~ "ges. "th~y all ""u,ed w;"dow,"" extont ",uctur fo, the 'p,e, and 'l"id,1 walk '" The ,""rl ie" pop,l Ord~ m,lo, ,.-feTcending ,nd d<ending the to th e ,I,,,. O,d,"" R""'''"i. 11. 67- 'o,q ; de U]"uw. C"I,,,, d with beautiful n",bl •. the p"'emen t of the , Iur " .. ' lill«i with ''''''''"'';:~'''e 'lid the "",,,,, ill froll t of'he ,I,;" " .... d. cor.>'ed with p,,'ple whi,. ",,,bl~ On> ,,;
In, cn",,, h ,,,d i" "-" of Ill< risl"rtmh-, decorated with bands of leaf ornament, and twO picces of a carved architrave which probably ran over the screen of columns. ,Ro Emerick has reconstTllcted this division between the presbytery and the nave following tht· descriptions of similar scret·ns of columns at St Peter·s. installed by Leo Ill . and S. M af ia Maggiore. by Paschal I: a row of colu mns stretching perpendicular to the length of the nave and crowned with a marble architrave.
C"",c in hi> p,l."e. Ihough ul!iom ,dy did no' "k.. ,he", ; ASK. Co ",,,,i,,io,, e peT b con,en',.i"ne delle chic>e di Kon .. (,8,0-21). b. 8. " '1" '" In ' he Ule fifi.~n , h « ,,'u ry. C,roi,,,1 A" ,oniono 1', lbviei"i ""i fi.d tlo~ height oftb. preobj~~r)' podi"",. ""d perh,p> eo",,,,,,,,cd 'h< choir> ,I"" di"idcd th .. ''''n> ,"mm. in th~ ,·.. " 1,, ofth~ choin .• ub.~'lu."tl)' r""ored in the ~ight~.mh e~ntur)' : B. nigolO .... Ioi" . 'Rebzione dell.. F.brie. dd "'''NO .... 1"'" ~h~io", ,1lIo"rGh«'i. 05".,,, rru."J,. H d""hr«l d", [ h ~ pm.b)'t...-y W>1I ,.-,i«od by th",~ 1'"lm; ("7 .• cm) by ",II"ic;',;. cribcd the .-..nr. expl .. ;,,;,,!> the cu""", of c~l~br>ti " g (,d"g ,h. peopl. h,d f,lIe" out of u>< ",d th u, the f",ut oftl,. p""bYlery Ix>d,u", .,.,.", rli>.J to ,he "''''. heoght" ' he "''', """''''t.>''ns .1,,,, rcnov;o,ion "f,h,' iro n' b>1"".-.de. He ci,,,,,l. ,mnu","ript ,h,,, w:o, no' m,de . y, ilable '0 me. CoIQn,ban,', t",,",cr;p,ion of Aloi, ;', now 10" """ mcr'pt. held;n , h • ... er;'t}' QfS. I'r.. ",.J., Colomb>ni If. ~or-v. " I Th~", m~"ur~me" l> corr~e' both Kr.m,heim er on, of coloml IImbb ",. po,phyry, K",ui«, d,r' III"bb .• "d "",b""I " " l"p'" wti/,r ; 1IIoi'i. '~d .. iolle· , f. H r.v, Thde ore chi"'" titol>", di •. P,.,,«lc,i Monti di quc" i PP. V.llom bro>.ilui;' >tato >Q , ,,,ico, ch. r im mC'o" copen o d, g=i • ,w«h i. e .i pret.nde ,he li e . i. "at. do" l"ofkru di J4 mi), >cudi , m ellt", ,i !rat" di pie'", cli oUi 11101,0 """" di 1''''»0'. (1n the , itlll" church of S. Pr.. ,••"J e. in Mo"ti. of ' he V,lIombtmi, n f.. , her>. " g"''' cornice of",'>O "' " ico ",., ,.."elllly di>coveml , h woo cO" ch ie .. di S. P,...,.,d< . ",nteoi ch< n< . bbi.:t f."o .cqui>to per pi., migli.i, di ",,,,t;, to, bc" nefizio dell> .udd . Chic",,' . (In thc titubT church of S. 1'"" ...-d., .Hn thou~ thi>;'. "onc that tod. y i> ,'cry",,,, and of v,loc,) AnonY lllou> , 'Epiood i d.lf> "0'" d; Ro,,"' ".1 ",colo XV III, H",,,; ;,, «1,'; d,,; dhpac6 dogli 'g." t; '" cch..; 1"""0" con e p.p. Io', A..-Iti"i. ,,",if" i,.Ii.no 4 > h.d "" " "."'" rrom hi, '''''OM"'''' or S. P",,,,ed< a"d I9'V~ them '0 C~"'''' IJ,ronio fO T hi; co"1<mporory ",,,,,,,,,i,,,, of SS. Ner, or "ic~ W"". ,11< Kr:lUt hcimCT " a/., COIJ!'u, I. 107 cit,"> A. Uertolotti. ' Curiosit' >toricho cd ,rti>ticho . .-:lC_ colto nogli >rchivi romani·. A"-h",,o ."",i", ""/",,/".\';'0' /",,,.rio Ji R"ff'" ~ ( [880). t t6. who;" tu'" c;'e> a doc"ment t he '''Q''.#')". which h . . fu cOl11 inci>to ~d t8 d i ~i"!plO' forl< 1.....,,0 I n all of these churches, the culmination of the nave was the presbytery where the celebr:tm stood dming the m ass and the architectural form and adornment of the building crea ted this crescendo of attentio n. T he ,., Ard ,ivio Jell, R ..,.<m,d, p,bbric_ Ji S'n Pie1ro. f. >or. 'Pc< ,,·cc ri,on e r"",,",",, [;0 ch'p <xi" ,-rl ill P""h.l'. chmeh : I'or"", 'L> chio.' . J . Cr. J'rollund. , .. h, pri" im m fo"'1.>' ''·'' . ,.., I wo uld I jk~ .o rI,.." k Emilio Sol:> for hi, help me"urill g ,h. column•. ' 9" Colu mn. did no. oft en ri .. nk 'p"" ill e>fl)' medi enl buildi ng> , nd ." .., ,,ion. colum n. in ,hi. po,i,ion ,,< "'rc. III 'h e I,.e d<w,,,h- con.1,I. me.,U1"<m",," ("' . ,lruc,u re wi,h . cmw" m" .. u 'i"~ on which would h.ve h«n «",,«1 0"" t ho c'pi"h •• op .h < columm ; UAV. vat ic;m u> ],.inu •• l l 9Oj.
. 'Old ,,_,8 '" high: G. I:blrlr:>cco, '[., crip d '"ndi« .... ~"i· (frow whirh ono d""~nd, 'o ....'.nl, 'he ,,"cri"), by, t li~ht of eleven ,,,,,,,): BAV. v .. ,ic;mu, btin", 1 ' 9"5. f. 4 ' 2V '?' The u,coph'gu, fr.gm~n t W:ll uncovered during building worb to r""Of. the ,ncient en",nce> to th, ,r},p' i" tb< ,""ul,,,c.. d, !ton,..' in R""'d ' I ',,;, ,"~,/j"".i>. Ani ddb giorn .., di >ludio (Rome. t976), ,89-0,09: Mdlucu- V,cc .. ro (re bor i.d. little more th, n ,i.~ p, lmi (J.j4 m) w ide and nine p,l",i ('_.0 m) high). ,", Th~ d.,..,ri p'io" , in ,h. LP m.ke cI~'r 'h" ,h. 'r," ." "und ' he "'.if"';o W:" d«o", .. d wi,h . ilver. gold ,,,d ,ex, il_ Th< ""'Y' in which th~ "in" wizio" e li,ucgiC'.. ",
Ti,e Rome of Pope P"sell,,1 I Conversely. Franz Alto Bauer has argued that with the rise in the vcneration of saints in the early Middle Ab't'S. more and more space for pilgrims was needed around the bodies of saims, pointing to enlargements and the insertion of stairs at shrines in the catacombs. ">7 The flow of traffic might have been controlled in somt." W:ly. t."i th t."r by gates. curt:lins o r conspicuously p],.ced der ics altho ugh little indication of ally regulation of this type has come down to us. 'o~ Of the two arrangements that Gregory built, the one at St Peter's was by far the more imitated, perhaps for the simple reason of its efficiency: the crypt simply followed the walls of the :lpse. a form that was rela tively e:lsy to build :lnd facilitated entrance and exit ofAowing traffic. T his StJ ,lch.1in ,h~ LP. who", ,h~ biol:r>pher mcn,ion> ' he Pf< ,h< <m"'''"e'o !he erw .. Thi< dcriptio" ,u)U;"", >omo ~ind of g""~" ' he ",in ,hol (,,,,, ,,, ",,,,,io,," litu'gic •. d.i"K "pp"lIo'~·Gh"ui, 'I.. Co"(.,.,i",,i ,,,,,,i,,,uh ,i' LP '00: L 1. '" Ullon io deribro .uch, cO llfillnrn1ion ill 1h< pooi,"u of5. P",x-J< ,,~, r>iS . .., A, , 11 'hrec ch"", h", 'h< "p' < onO",;", ,k pi« I' p~ p. ",h, r. p lay :md where the celebr.mt stood during mass, was fenced off from the rest of the church by low \\~Ills. The chancel barriers of R.ome 's churche~ were for the most part dismantled long ago and their marbles wt're reused as paving stones or stairs."· Some of thl' plutei. or marbll' pands forming the low walls of thl' duncd barriers, in Paschal's churches have subsequently been recuperated and are on display within the churches; in S. Prassede they are located in the right arm of the transept, in the so- called M u>eo del Media Evo."S These stone pieces littering this and many R oman churches today are usually fragments of diJOT;'I, IHllboItF$, and presbyterial barriers. Panels for the tops of diJori---7: S. I'r:" ,,,,,< : Jdl. 5",/,,,,•.1 i,"""di, ,,,I,, VII. 1, no>. H--'i j . '" " MO" ;O M",1 0'. 'S,,,d; ~ """' "" ".lIe ~h,,,,'" di R o"" . S. "io,~io.1 Ve),!)",. S. P,...>
n""h_«"tu. cro"olog'" dell. ",c;" . ;o,, ; li, u11 d GT pope, o ne the alb, the othn thl> cinc ture. the other thl>
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d. li", • .." .Ii'1> d".~"I"m, "li'l> '''".l'''loi","" id 'e";lIIeu,o .1 , rOIll '''; 1"'",;(,rlllell t> of ,h~ p'p.1 liturgy. b", wh kh cOlll posed Ul Ft\l"c;, ,",1 ;, j In front of the presbytery of S. Maria in DOlllnica stood a wooden beam (tmbs) with two sets of veils in groups of three and five. T here were al,o four small silk veil, for the presbytery and three at the illgrcsSll pfcsbitcrii '"
On histori,teJ t~xtil ", in ch urch ...... ~ L E. Vhilli!". ' A note o n the g ilt. o( Leo III to the churlln ,nd M,nh'" Wemh off(~ds.) . 79>1; Kw"" ,,"J K"lt", J" K","Ii"~.zrit. {M,i",. 1999).656-00. fIg IX.jB.,b. See '],0 Carlo C~ cch dli . ·T"",ut i . Ric.",i· in Ir.,. J i Ro,"" nrl ,\I,a," EN 1.6 (Ro,"e. 195 11
'47
Ti,e Rome of Pope P"sell,,1 I (entrance to the presbytery), presumably parallel to the £l sheen. we do not know their weight or their translucency, both of which would have profoundly altered a visitor's view to the altar or across the colonnade of a church. Paschal's donations of li Ul rgical fmnishings to S. Maria in Donlllica parallel those he later gave to S. Maria Maggiore.'l# T he silver columlls and silver arches he gifted to S. Maria M:lggiore formed a low chancel barrier, perhaps projecting o ut into the nave, fen cing ofT the area in front of the altar, referred to as the lifsli/"'/lIm ,,/I1< (>CJ"il..ble inform .. ';o" for .. recom""ction of ,,,,,,,1..." d I~""j i, ill Lidi. l'atOli, ' La 0'" i. S... ,;, A,Ji/i.-i;,. ';)---3. tlv . .1' ----2 . S"" .1", 'he dr""';"g> ill W i"dso' Ro)',] Lib"",y. 9ZZ', 9" S, S94 " 0'"""",,' .nd Cbr idg~, E.rly Ch""i," ,od M,di,,·. I, no •. 4---' ", !!AEe: 0 0 .111'5 AMPU M/CAT I;1JWS EitJR!CA 'I?I AlE"I?l LLlS OUM QI;1E I' FEIUrr CUNFRACIIt SFiJ T"MPORE PI;,LI 5 SJW them., the former: S" izzer S/'LENDE"I" CEV PHOEIWS IN ORBE I {if jQV/ POST FVRI,,- FVCANS TETRAE VEU .IIINI1 NOCTlS VIRCO M.1RH TIBI P.1SCHALlS PR.1ESIIL HO,'\'ESTIIS CONDIDIT (if/HANC Al'utM L-lETVS PER oVtECut MA.'VENDI1M. Sec ,l77 The mosaic decorations of the apses present the heavenly hierarchy of the churches: God and Christ or the Virgin Mary and Christ, the Princes of the Apostles, the saints, and their representative on earth, Pope Paschal. In each case, Paschal is depicted among the heavenly figure), presenting a model of his church to Christ, embraced by the titular saint of the church , or kneeling at the feet of the Virgin Mary and Christ Child, On the one hand the iconography of the m05.1ics express eschatological theological themes describing the path to redemption through these intercessory figures of saints and the pope, providing a vision of the world to come ..,A They form part of the tradi tional repertoire of church decor;ttions in R.OtllC, very good quality examples of conventional decorative prognmmes, On the other h;md, some ofthesc mosaics have very specific resonance within the context of Pasc hal's larger programme of church rebuilding and cuit renewal: s;lCfed presence, This second aspect of the mOs,llCS IS most dearly discernable at S. Prassede. There, the configuration of the transept allO\vs for a series of mosaics on the triulllphal arch in addition to those in the apse and apsidal arch {see Figure 4, p. ,0. This shows another apocalyptic vision , intcndcd to be vicwed in conjunction with the apsidal arch. III the spandreh of the arch, a chorus of youths with palms and crowns flanks the central horizontal depiction of a procession into the walls of the
M.,i. in Rom ', A",II,nff K,m"bI.",,6 L ( L 99~""'7) . )8> ll . 9 ' ['.-no", J'.PO:"?fLJpJ", ",;t u dio ~ , (Spole'o. "" H ). 11. 8Jy-8~: Spi""". 'The ",p",,",,, .. 'io,,'. ". s,~ ,...e"" ,li>s>«ie; A ht"1);k.1 in,orp,,,,,,iolt·. SI'«ul"",
Ti,e Rome of Pope P"sell,,1 I
29_ AxollOlllctric
rccoll~tructioll
ofS_ rra~dc> '- 830-
decorations are fund~nleJJt~lly related to the devotional and celebratory activities houscd in the church. T he decorations of the church work to convey the grand scale of the pope's patronage, the offerings on behalf of the pope's soul, and the presence of Roman ~aint~' bodie~ in the church. In the ,enS(" tha t Eric Palazzo has described, tilt' images in the church were not merely decorations to be seen but they were fundamental parts of the revelation of the liturgical roles of the church, convening the prescnce of God through the Eucharist and the saints through the agency of Pope Paschal. ! ~O
COlIstruai,t!! the PdPill cit),
30. M osaics
ofth~
r ig ht Triumphal arch, S, i'rassede.
T he physical structure of the church and its content of sacred bodies were united with im,lges and liturgy. The correbtion between S. Prasscdc, the city of R ome, and the Heavenly City was established through the metaphors of iconography and hymn, in the mos.aic described above and by contemporary antiphons. or resporlsorial prayers, which might even have been chanted;lt the dedication of this church. Marchita M:luck suggested a particular early medieval antiphon, ' hr /JiI",disrwr'. as the hymn which may have provided tlle imagery of the mosaic!A I It was used in fUllerary contex!>, which ,truck Joseph D yer as an unlikely context for relic depositions. I-Ie proposed a different and more relevant collection of antiphons used specifically in relic depositions (and clearly Roman in origin) for the source of the iconography of the mosaics. T he following well- known antiphon coincides with the imagery of S. Prassede very neatly: (3) From Jerm..,lem may the relic, come down and ,alvation from Mount Zion; [thr';"'" ill ~'rl )" r".d,~"'1 bu,l din g>' , PBSR 70 ('00'). l 7S--0.
The Rome of Pope {J D.vi,-Weyer. ·Di e alt""'''' D.r>tellun~l der H.des-f.hrl Chri"i. d.ls Ev;mgeliulII N ikodemi uod ein Mos>ik de. Zeno K.pelle· in Rc"'•• ,""'lingi•. "'tti delt. giom."" cl; «udio (Rome. '976). ,83""94' N.toti. Th, ..... i>!nikov. 'Pri,·.. e ",)v.tio" progr.lI\m.. . nd ' hrir eff«1 on BYl>ntine church d«or,J.tion ·. A ,u Medieval,. n . •. 7.1 (1993). 54.
1"".
,68
BeY(llId rill: basilica the other saint to whom an oratory at the church . now destroyed, was dedicated. 1 j T he eastern niche is now obscured by all altar constructed in the early modern period to house a small tabernacle of the Virgin and Child, which itself is dated to the thirteenth century. '0 Behind the tabernacle in the niche is a roundel of Christ with twO saints next to him, and two below, outside the golden ring of the roundel, probably a scene of the Transfiguration (Matth. [T 1-8; Mark 9: 2-8; Luke 9: 28). In the wall zone stand the Virgin and Saint John, identified with lituli, gesturing towards the window that pierces the wall. On the walls of the southern niche, where the late nineteenth-century creation of the chapel of the Column of the Flagellation obliterated parts of the medieval wall of the chapel, there is an image of Christ wid1 two tonsured saints (peter and Paul?). ' 7 Above these, Saints John, Andrew and Jacob processed to\vards the eastern \vall, mirroring the fem ale saints on the northern wall, all facing the window in the eastern wall. On the west wall, the counterfa\ade of the entrance to the chapel has an image of Saints Peter and Paul, identified by lifllli, gesturing to an empty throne, the Elimllsill. Above these, in the centre of the vault is an image of a youthful Christ with right hand raised in ble!".Sing. He faces west, greeting the viewer entering the chapeL This Christ has been interpreted variously as a post- N icean Man-Christ, Plllllokmlo f, or Christ as Philosopher in the western and R avennate traditions. 's Iconographic analysis of the mosaics in the chapel has shown that they reAect contemporary debates on image veneration, specifically discu!".Sed at the Second Nicean council of 787 and sustained by Pope Paschal in his correspondence on iconoclasm.19 T he theme uniting these images is the intercession of Christ in the lives of men after his death. The ornaments of the mosaics, echoing the motif of the sock~ bases of the columns, arc flowing vines and scrolls of acanthus peopled with figures and animals, motifs which speak to
I) Stt bStion of the wg«oI Oln' lflem of ' hr mO.ics . ...., M.d,i •. ·Ab",. ct .nd "'grlil d.. ign ·. " Giov.mn i lI>tti>t:l De R O>Si .~gges'ed t!ut th e ins
1624) .
O n ",lies in epi«op.l f. mi1l' 'otnbs. "'"" C:uoline Goodson . 'U~i1ding for bodj",: The aTth i,,,ct~re of s:li nt "'n"""ion in ".dl' "'odi",-.l R ome· in Ft/Ix Rom. : 170> prod,"' i"n, txp ,\liMit Agn • ..J lilt Billy Rm"'''.,II"t. Villi Sprlm.m Colloqui. I. 00. W illi. m Tronzo (Bologn •. ,989).6,-80.
'70
Beyolld rhe b... oh,1 1'. S_ I>",,:«d~ (8']- '9)" in A,,""''''o,\,), in A",hi,,,,,,,,, 5,,,,1,,, 0',,10,,"", of CHiI L 5";1"" ed. Jud;o" E",,,,iel ."d I)d:X)r.. h M _ Deliy,,,n;, (M,i"" l005). 4)---hdu"". , R",,,. d, Si,,_ 1/ U ",-". I, ".11"... (Rollle. 1993), ~H----6J ' C.rero, •. LA B",il;,,,. 88. n. H . We unfort u!I .. dy know ,-~'}' little of'h< ch'pd they '001: o,-er. I ,uggI ,h .. , it w" the d"rd ofS, Joh". >;n
K,"",
N_""" .
'7'
ne Rome of Pope Paschal I of Saint Agncs locatcd in the monastcry, though its location and form are not known. The ninth-century Inscription refers to it specifically,)' and some medieval property documents refer to S. Prassede with ajoint dedication to S. Agnese. P
CA PPEL LA DE L BAGNO
The basilica of 5, Cecilia also has a chapel on its side aisle though it is not m entioned explicitly in the LP description of chun:h. Now known as the Cappella del Bagno. the chapel is located off the right aisle of Paschal's basilica, ofT a narrow corridor which nllls perpendicular to the aisle.)l T he chapel underwent major fCnovations in the late sixteenth-century, obscuring the medieval phases of the building, Beneath the medieval levels of the basilica is a baptistery which dates much earlier than Paschal's renovations. It is possible to reconstruCt a ninth-century phase of the chapd and the baptistcry, too, by piccing togethcr archacological remains, evidence for early medieval use of the chapel site and by examining tile context of Paschal's Other interventions to the basilica ofS. Cecilia. T he Cappella del Bagno sits on a level less than half a metre below the floor level of Paschal's basilica. joined to it by a corridor that \vas part of the ancient irmila on thc site. Other remains of the illm/a lic underneath the Aoor level of the basilica suggesting that this Aoor level, of the corridor and the bath, lay on an upper story of the R oman buildin~,''). The Cappella \vas restored in the late sixtcenth century by Paolo Camillo Sfondrato, (ardif/ale f/ipote of Pope Gregory XIV ( 15 '. south",,, corn ..... howe"", there i."o tr. ditioll or "med,l hdJ b)' ,h~ >I"~ or d",wh~r~. T h< bbel "f'he ",b,t ,h~ A"';qu,ri,,," ",nd",.. p hy 1',,,1 1:\,,1'. B"rli~.~/,," M"~~;"< 1)0 (I~SH), ) '-4
's ..r,,,,,
,,,.I
,0
". 'S Two of lh. reu •• d n",hle el.ment> .. ..., pi« •• ofbl< m«li"".1 ""rhl" furni,u",. >0 ' h" replying or ,loo U"", 111"" p",, -d"e ' he < ;01, or the 0p'" ",,;1< 1'''''01>, ""I it ;, mO" proh.hl< ,10" the 'ep.vi,,); lOok pf.>lj EST HOC A LTA RE I D IE III MEIVSIS lVNll PER D01V1NV(m) I GREGOR IV(m) PI' VI I A NN{oj D{omijNI AHLL{cj LXXX I INDfjaionej f{/. 4J Other altars in the church we re dedicated to the Saviour (1060), Virgin Mary (1071), John the Bapti>t (1072), and Saint Andrew (1073). Afier the altar dedication of 1080, however, there is no record of another altar dedication until 1098, suggesting that Desiderius was very active in promoting bishops from o ther Italian dioct·scs to contribute to the renovations of the church. much more than his immediate predecessors and succe~>ors . A cycle narrating Cecilia's martyrdom was painted in the atrium of the church .·· The impartial preservation of t hese paintings makes it impossible to due them, though they arc conventionally dated to the twelfth century or thirteenth celltmy. T hese renovations may be seen as part of an eITort to renovate the church and invigorate the
. , I'ete, CorndiU! Ciou""",,, 0;, Kirch,n r dcdicotion un, il 1",,8. '''AA''''in~ th>t D",id", It,l"" d ioc .."" to co"'''b",. ' 0 ,h. renoylt;Q". of ,h. ch .."h. m"ch mor< th." h i, i",medi>t< prcd('("otto I> b"ilin di S. C,·di. in Tr:"t at the Lneran \v:lS easily recognised by latt."r visitors and this resemblanet." may have bt,t."n part of the patron's original intention . The recent excavations brought to light fragments of an inscription that join with other pieces preserved at the site. T he inscription, though incomplete, clearly refers to the sacrament of baptisnt: "It [I-Ie] washes all the sin; fro11l the [man]. [in w:tter] he begins to be new.") The palaeography of the inscription suggests a da te in the ninth century,j4 though the lllodern excavators wanted to date it to an earlier phase of the building. H Whether or not the inscription dates to the ninth or fift h century, it makes cleJr the structure's role in the sacr:tment of baptism, which WJS remembered :tnd continued, in ~ome fashion . in the ninth century. We have evidenct." of the preservatioll of another early b,lptismal fOllt in a !att'r church : the baptistery at S. Clementt'. That church dates from the fourth century. It was subsequently rebuilt on a level several metres higher in the twelfth century. Excavations have demonstrated the >equence of occupation of the site from the R oman stTllctures to the present- day basilica . These excavations were reopened in the 19905. and h,lve brought to light a baptiste ry built in the sixth century 0 11 the so uth side of the fourth - century church .56 W ithin the baptistery. onc pier is painted with a panel of the Virgin enthroned, flanked by Saint Clemellt, with a small patroness paimed to the Vi rgin's left side. Its subject matter and style allow us to date the painting to the eleventh or twelfth century. 51 The presence of this painting provides evidence that the baptistery was a sacred space even after the basilica was rebuilt. In concentrating Oil the basilicas thcmselves, prcvious schobrship has tended to neglect the,e secondary spaces. These auxiliary ,pan'S, chapels
d",,,
,,,,d,,,,mi,.
,. Sible de Ill:»uw. CI,I, ...< " li",[I.';' , "",h'''''''1ll .,11. Reo". < ",,,1,,,·.1,, &..borne for f,cihl.Uing" "i,it to .he b"pti""I\·. !7 We ",·.it fuU p"b1io>r;orr of 'h~ ex,""·"i..,,,. " Symmachus ~d the R OlUndl of St Andr<w . t Old St PNn"',', C.I""~( HillOrirol R rvitw 8' .1 (j,n. 1995). 1- 40; C..oodson . . Uuil ding for bo
(The . hrine 'p.rkl .. more brigh~y .domed with f.ith tru.u with the g1eolll of potished ,tone .nd the building ;hin ... construct""! by 'he bw of 'he ,hunde,e,. Th"", like-m;nd"d who fo",,,,, hold the he" "nly reJ.llIls. , single house of fo.i,h h:... joint"! .. woO on ".,.,h .• hou,"" which in .ny c..e the biiliop. • confessor ofholy honor. Ius .Iso wi.hed to ennoble "id! ",count:< of their Ill"';ts. For which re»on. 0 SYllln""chu•. end~ring renow n ." h.nced by piou, inscrip,ion. "'ill recou'" ' heir ",cri.. for ill time.) Tran,. A1chtrmO'S. 'PNrinc Politico". 2'. Other inscriplion, ..... reported .nd discu .. ed in ibid .• 22- de R o<si ICUR. 11 . 20~ .
"3
Ti,e Rome of Pope P"sell,,1 I metals, are part of a tradition of chapel decoration which began with Constantine's marble aedicule at the tomb ofS,lim Peter and continued all through the early middle ages down to Paschal's later chapds, T he dupel ofS. Andrea was designed ill part to create a new pole of episcopal power in Rome, in opposition to antipope Laurence's seat at the Lateran basilica . The new chapel was dedicated to the Apostle Andrew. one of the patron saints of Constantinople, perhaps as a way of displacing the veneration of Constantinople's saint to R ome. Onc of the other altars in the rotunda i, dedicated to Saint T homas, whose relics were housed in the Apo,toleion at Constantinople with those of the Apostle Andrea. The Apostoleion, shrine of the Apostles, \\f;lS built by Constantine in 336 as a CTllciform church with a central rotunda, fi11ed with cenotaphs of the Apostles and a tomb for the emperor himsdf. w T he rdics oftlle Apostles Thoma, and Andrea were tramlated in 356 or 357 by COllSuntiu, 11, md the tomb of Constantine \\f;lS rdocated dS('where,7u The chllTch was rebuilt by J ustinian in 536 and replaced by a mosque in 1469, though it was a f.1mous building, and despite tht, presenct' of many other churches in Byza ntium and elsewhere which base their form on it, such as Dishop Ambrose's church ofS. Lorenzo, Milan. dated to 387 .7 1 By insta11ing relics of the Apostles in the mausoleum adjacent to St Peter's, then, the chapel of S. Andrca became a sort of R oman Apostoleion at the basilica of the Apostle Peter. T here are also re lics of R oman saints, and saints from other episcopal dioceses in Italy from whom Symmachus sought political allegiance." In Paschal's day the political specificities of the chapel's dedications might have been forgotten, but the resonance of material splendour and the transferT;\1 of Constaminopolitan cult may still have resonated in papal circles. T he other c hapel, S. Petronilla, was the closest thing to a Frankish imperial Ch:1pd in R ome. As will be discussed in detail below, pp. 21415, it housed the body of Saint Petronilla which had been brought to the chapd by Pope Paul I (757-67). The chapel was important both for rranks and Romans as a Fnnkish site of venention at St Peter"s. T he .. E",.bi"., V;,. Con"""';";, w. I . A. H.ihl, ",,, ..Mu, IIhkf I (L~ip.ig. '9-0')' IV, S8---{,o. publ;,h"d ill ElIgli.h" LI« o(COnJ,,,"h'",, W. A"eril C'lIIcron. S'UJrt Hall (Oxford . "m), ' 76; Rich."d K"""h cim cr, E.rly Cl"",;,," ""d tlr ~ ,,"'i", A..-hit«I" .... , ,ev. by Slubod.ill Curric. (Ne,," H'WII, '9~lIg". 'C"mu",ille. M.u",,,leum .nd the ",".u,io", of relic. lIyumj",S(hr 7.,;,,,hrifi SJ ( 19'}O), ~ ,----6z 4H . " Cb .. rb M"Clclldoll. "{/O. Ori~'" o(.IId'r .. "'1"'tI"J ill 'he LP. 0" ' he po"ibili,y of o,her '-1ill" being ,·elle,."w " 'he rotullm. illcluding S,intl L,uren«. Vi,uo ,nd X ;""s ., r..ported ;" ,h .. eigh,h-c""",ry E",hi"·di. ,, d. ",,/li, .1 .b",,~u, ""'ili.... •"fi'.".... ,,,~ ihid .. '9-l 0
,,,d
A"""«Iu . .
'"
Beyolld rhe b decorated with mos:tk and silver and gold. which are described by Alfarano.7~ A panel or silver at the altar, supported bet\vcen marble panels, depicted scenes rron] the lire orChrisc. 7) Both in the Middle Ages and early Renaissance. it was particularly holy among Petrine oratories, and it \Vas the site or several pontifical bur i:t[,.76 The other oratory Paschal erected at St Peter's was placed in ano ther important location : near the entrance to the crypt or that basilica. It was dedicated to early popes and martyrs Saint Xistus 11 (257-8) and Fabianus (236--S0) and held their bodies, which were translated by Paschal to the chapel: 77 [ll his [Saint l'e{~r"'J wnnabl~ basilica in front of th~ ~ntr.tnc~ I~ading to his bod y, at tI,]] 0, D, fu,;Ii,."",;" nM, 6'- J, '57, 17 J; l ugo H ~r~lo,", ' S'1"''''''' ',\Ion" "'y both .. inu· ".m.. in .n imc rip'ion from the l>1er ninth century. 'CUR. 11. 2'3- 4_ .. AIf.rano. Dt B",i'",,,, 1101",""",. J 3- 4: M BI.:J.uw. Cull"," Dtrpr. 57', n. jH. 11 ' P!"'''' 111.:11 Ihi. oraJory mighlluve .., ....'Cined withi" Ihem. with the >ewer .nd the gre>1e, . nd 1...", "eps:os for .. Ih~ pu .... co.lll'd Cortin>." Ciwion ,nd "'."'_ D.vi •• Li"" ".flllt Mnlh, ~'"ry I'op". 19. n. 53, citing rel,,,.nl bib~og .... phy. ... LP , 00: 17_
g"'"
BeY(llId rill: basilica hostd and its farms, estates and tenants. 8 ) T he properties were located in different parts of the city and countryside, and their rental income, and perhaps their produce, went to support the monks and the church. It is important to note that this kind of attention to the economic StruCtures of the c hurches refurbish ed by Paschal had been unusual among his predecessors - at least accordin g to the record presented in the LP. If wc look at the re- foundations of Leo 111 as an example, S. Susanna was provided with complete sets of liturgical textiles and precious metal implements. There is, however, no mention of who was designated to officiate the church. nor of a monastery attached to it, nor mention of the financial means by which the c hurch was intended to support itself. These same silences characterise the description Ofllis construction of SS. Nereo I'd Achilleo. In the case of most of the early m edieval monasteries of Rome, it i~ impossible to know with certainty how the communities supported themselves and their churches. Interestingly, the arrangement created by Paschal at S. C ecilia survived less than a generation. The hostel ofS. l'dlegrino a Naumachia became attached to S. Stefano Maggiorc, a dependency of St Peter's, under Leo IV. It is notable that the lands went to S. Stefano, as Paschal himself had risen through the ranks of rh at monastery, and had thus perhaps established some affiliation between the institutions nOt otherwise evident in the souTCes. 84 Links between institutions and patterns of patronage reflecting a donor's history and allegiances were certainly common among medieval monasteries. G IIE E K MONKS AN!) R O MAN C HANT
Paschal's project at S. Prassede included the foundation of a monastery, 'a holy community of Greeks, which he placed therein to carry out carefully by day and night praises to almighty God and his saints resting therein, chanting the psalms in the Greek manner'.8j The text of this passage of the LP recalls directl y the biography of Paul I, the only other
"''f",
" U ' l OO: , 8: ' 15' P'" ,ub,idio .. h,mh"'n'on""
Ti,e Rome of Pope P"sell,,1 I early medieval pope to have tr;tnslated a quantity of saints' bodies into the city, in a P,lS5ing not only the communities of T hrace, M:Kedonia, and Asia, bllt also from Or/cns, and lIIyri". that is both Hellenic and nOI1Ht'llenic peoples, who distinguished themselves from Romans by their appearance, tongut', and in the decades nlrremly under examination, theology."" The discussion of Greeks in R ome and how such different groups might have been distinct yet integr;tled within the community of the early medieval city is a complex onc that takes us far away from OUT
"
.. Cf. LP 9S ; S ; · U.i
",""jpee Ik.lt tl rcnk, 'Z"m Bild pTogr:;mun': fo, the btte,. "ntoll Michd, ' Di< g' i~' On the Icone"'Slic conum·e"y••e'" Venomce Grume1. ·leo rel,oon. polirico-retigieu ... ."ne Byunce
'Byz>ntine ch . n" .• nd Rich.rd Crocker. 'Ch,,,,,, oflne R om. n Office" in 11Ir N"" Oxfo,d Hisl.,y of M,,;~. vo1. Jl: TIu! E,lfly Mjddlr Aty"" >1 Ag.. une· in Mo"b ""d N"n~ Sa;,,1$ and O,dlal": EM,,)"' in """", if um-, K. u"rr/r. od. Sh:tron F>rmer ,nd B,rt>;,,,, Rosen",-ein (Cornetl. woo). 37416. '"J Se>..... l me en hngue gr I~, Ii'm gi", h ' in .... 5""';,
,",d;,; ,
('9~8) . 99 .
"" Paolo Ddn.1 1t~1}" ill gell.,.,1. "'. Pi .rre To ubert . L: Fer",ri, E.my R om"" Mo" ../";.., '7 4- S. See .00 J- M. Philh!", 'A " udy of mon,;,;c I"troruge in R ome from the fifth 'hruugh the de",,,,h centuries' (unpublilhed Ph.D. dj ......... tion , Uniwrsity of washington, 19H),l8t, n. zo. 'I. LP ~7: 7t , For " briefintrodll ctiOll '0 the ",o""'teries of R ome in the e"rly Middle Ages, ,ee Fe"".. i, E_rly Rom_" Mo".,ren't~"!fi. t "mo"i"i,. de/la n'uJ J./ V ./IX "({.I,, (R ome, 20(4), 1 6~ -~. ". Ugo b\esiem, I~ Ji(J{o"ie: i ,ervi"-; ..,isle">:;.I; ,,,,no ,.hi" ••"rU. (R ome, '99 S), '0'; Fernri, F.my Rom .., Mo."",,';. J56 . ' 17 I C MONARI'} ET BIBI'} El VS I'REl1VM DANS DIE EVS / DEM LOCVM I'ROI'TEREA I!I}IC SIC FIERI AQQVE / CONSTIT VERE DESl1NAVET. For .. rlier imcriptiom on thi' " on e, ."" An,on io Ferru., ' N uove ;«:,izioni di S. Puden":.n. , S. p" .... ede, e S. M.ri. in DonmiCl', RAC 44 (1.'t . ntique residences were .b.ndone Colleociated with the legend of S:lint Cecilia together in the church th:lt had been founded by her. according to traditions circulating in Rome ,It this time. T he following analysis of these specific churches with a focus on the mechanisms of saints' cults which \vere set into motion in Paschal's buildings will demonstrate the importance of the cult to Paschal's programme and highlight the innovation of his :tCtions. VENERATING SAINTS AT ROME
It will first be necessary to examine R oman patterns of saim vene[".\tion. At Romc, saints wcre venerated outside the city, outside the w;\lIs, in catacomb chapels. oratories or basilicas constructed over cemeteries.' These sites were administered by suburban monasteries and enjoyed a 0" s. Mor;.;" Do,,,,, ;,,,, .. id Mot ;, ,, d.vo';o". S<e Rom", W ;',!:i rch"n. ·S,,,,, Mor ;.;" 1)0 '''· ni"" . Obc.ieg"ngen .or tiiihe"e 'I"idi.ien ])"",dl ong da ,hronend"n M •• ;' in R o",·. 11 ....1"",, I"'li,,. 'Ron"" H,giogr>phy ,,,d R om." LegenJ:o.ri'" ill R"",. S«ti""n .. di ""dio 48 (51"'1 pmpos"" .giognf,CI dei "Oi>loghi" di G,ego,io M,gno'. S,udi m,Jirvali 2' (,?So). 623-64: Conr>d leykr. 'The !olzburg'" hi'" of M,,.,;.,. w ho were no' . Fern». ' Ddl> F",,'. 2;4. n. ~ . " Rompol ],. ' Dd lllogo dd m.nirio·. q - l j ,uggo'" ,h., th o «"he> Iud mo,·..-d '0 Consun'inople undor J",'in;'n. ,hough hi, O'o·;d.nco lor ,hi, i> no' cl,""r. " · P" .,~'" ""'''' ,,,,,"vii 1"1'" ",.r", ,.?~"" SJ""."'m "",a,,,, ih i H ",h ••• ,.""" . . Ror>.Y.l.'''. 1-10"_ ' indh. Ro",. 'x ,,10.;. "/;,,,.. ruJ • ..-d . .... !] toino C h .... »o. Corp'" C hri>ti,no,,"m Sorio> L"im I lS" CI'umhou,. 1973). j'7- P. On ' h< ,i/"I", B"J",,;",. ,s. ·Pi«ro ill Vineuli,·. LTUH IV. 8' - 1. My ,h,nx, g ' 0 Kr;>l ;n. s ........ for ,I,.ring h« ,hought> .nd hibli"gr'p],ic ,.f"rene"" on th ... erm"" IN · HIS · SEPTEM · LOC Vf'"! CONDrt;1 . SI',,""/" · OS SA · ET · ClNERES · SI""fC/IJORI'''"J SEPTEM · FR.1TRHI · MA CHABEOR{,m,] . ET· AMBOR{"'''i Po! RENT V/m] . EOR("",]· AC . 'N(NiV
,.ut.
"
ne Rome of Pope Paschal I Giovanni Battista De R ossi \vas unclear whether the lead authentics are presently still in the altar; the sarcophagus is.>s Antonio Ferrua pointed OUt the parallels between the identifYing authentics and the descriptions of the relics given by John Chrysostom (of Antioch) in his homilies on the Maccabees.:iof purity and intangibility as Ihe corporeal relics \vert,.J6 Early medieval popes not only avoided tT;\nsLning bodies of R oman saints, they also refused to fT;\gmem and separale saints' bodies. Pope Gregory's architectural projects for R ome's greatest relics. the bodies of Saims Peter and Paul, demonstrate his attitude lowards preserving R oman relics_ Around their bodies, the locations of their burial by the second century, Gregory constructed crypts below the pavemems of their respective basilicas. W hile the two Apostles may have been buried elsewhere prior to their burial at the sites of the basilicas, Gregory's attention to excavating the area, around their bodies and their earliesl shrines suggests that he at lcast believed that the tombs were the primary burials. J7 H is interventions opened the space around the s.lints' bodies, and " s ..... G"'go")" of Tout>. 0. .~'o,;"' "'"'''y",m, l ~. PI. LXXI I. col. 7 '9 for pi~c"d. Rl ion . • ee Glen Bower>ocl. '/-'eter .nd Go", ... mine Hum"." S.p" . E",J" J',"'iq"i';
'IIJ,"
..,J" ~ '!!fo"".i ull'. Chi«" R',»-"~i. "d . J~',,-Mi Lizz; Tem . d. f '[['iqu i'< ".- During the time of Grego ry, a number of vials of oil were sent to t he pious Lornbard queen Theodolinda, of which the pill,ldrlv w ee for th e ",e of Seb" .. i:m to w"d of!' I>e>lil
co L of cui" . " L"c;' S'8',i, ·R om •. i repone.:! in the LP 91' 2~ .' The life of S)"nun.d"" (4~8-5 ' 4) ",fer> '0 th. pr i",,, of .h< ch"rd, " f S. Pi«", ",I ' ';''''''', ,), o,,);h " i, 1' 0< ' bodies ""ere burierl imerpouled from , "",i''''1 num"",ip'. which might wte to .ever.. l dead .. UtI."(. , •• D»·iki. ' Le don d·.mitie d.n. b societe Clro1ingienne ed.. ·"Tr.>mbliones .. nCloru"'···. in 1/",;rogr"l'lo;r. ",k",,. tI socii/I;, IV, - XlII' ;;iri"hrs J.!!,rbtuh 100 (1980). )7-63: ROS>...,ond McKiu,,.kk. Hi,,",ya.zJ ,\f..... "'Y in Ih. Clrolittgio" World (C.mbridge. 2004). 147-'l ,," !>"""'led 10 }?"rlolph I H"kcu ... , 00 . D.vid I'''''er. How,nl Hibb.rd md M . J Lewine (London. 1\167). ~4. n. ~6. My tlunks go to M.rgoret Meser~ for this reference. •• Pope P.ul .nd the 1"1'.1 court .•, well .. Ch .. les Mortel . nd the C:lroIingi.n court. would no doubt h • ..., b ..... n f.mili.r wi,h ,h. of th~ Life ofSyh..... 'o't in LP H . For di""",;on of,h~ don.tion, . ..,... Davi •. Th Book if Pt,,~iJft . X){i.x-."s d"""ying in this cramped . " d gloomy ploce. which Pope Loo III de .... loped from ifS fout!dation •. bringing there the body ofth. ble<sed nu,tyr 1:.licil>.. building i, .Ieg,mtly. decor,ned .nd dedicuedj .799. K""'I,,,,d K,,/w, tkr K ...U"g Co>ty, F"rl~ Sal"" ... p. 28-43' P,ul Four,c",. 'The origin< of ,h~ c..ro~ngi.n ,uemp' '0 "'gul;"e 'he cuI! of .. inl>· in n." C"k 4 SainlS in LA. Anriqui'y .1Ui Ihtc Middl. AJ."'" F.Jsap. on ,It_'~nlribo,ri." of arc""'. ed . pm.. H<m.rd-.fohn,(on ' od I'>.ul "'",ony H,,),"'.rd (o.~ford. ['I')<j). 1 4l- ch' io .. ppi>' (.nd if there ,re reliC!.t pre.ent of these or orhers. ,he,.. i. no Tecmd '0 my know ledge) . Bo,h Ugonio .nd Bru.io . ug_ gested ,h., bec.u,e p"",1uJ w» so in,,,,,,,,ed in ,..lics. there ,hould 1i...,ly h".. been ",me. though neither of them knew of . ny in the chu",h: Druzio. BAV. .... tica1!U, btinu, [[8~5. f
'96v.
,," 'Corpu, s'nc",,, B.lbino": Giu"'l'Pe Ili.;mchini. DmlOmlro',o His/on"" fult,i",,".' q,,,,dnp"""o' (o"'PC"""." "'''''''''''''i, pmim;IIIi/Ju, od I,,,,,,,m'" fI gt:<w",. (Rome. 17P). 11. Ov. 1Il. 701 -~. '" ASV. Sac ... Congregnione delli visiu 'J>OStolica. [48, MisceU,ne. ,815. b. 184. zlj Giugno 1814. A nineteenth-century ;nuge of S. M"i. in Domnica', interior by G. Fonun. f""tures .n inscription ovcr ,ho (O~f01d. r 87 ,). 111 . 580_ h i. difficul! 10 !:>eh,,",," th,1 Ihe p.>!"cy con,id.,,-cd ilself 'U~Kt to .uch ltgi,lItion. how""..... Avoril Cameroo. 'The ... rly cul! of the virgin' in ,110/1", of Gn/: Rtp""f.u4lio", if ,I" Vol),'in in 11F""h-"' on. cd_M..ri.1 Vassihki (Mibn. 21)00), 3- 16; o.oorne, '1""'8'" of the Moth.,,- of God' _ On vene ... lion of the Virgin in R ome .• ee Thuno. I m.g< ""d Rd;" ~9-Jl Il..oughly one_thin! of Rome', diaro"i... were dedinled to the Vi,-gin; 7 of the 23 dioiOni", named in Lw 111", ~st.re M ari.n. Sible de BI•• ~w h•• thoroughly reported the evidence for r ... h. I', inter,..,.,tion •• t S. M .. i. M.>ggio", . nd published Ih. 1ch.J" I'¥. (Right) "li,,,," Ch",,,i""'"/"'"
'""m
Pwh.Je", Po/",,,,: (Left) &"".11 0"",;", V<J("'" mvi Ill; ru."h./" P.:p..-; (llick) Im",de W part in another way. Pope Fabianus, according to the LP as it was read in the ninth century, had collected the body of his predecessor Pope Pontianus from Sardinia, where 1le had been martyred in 235, brought it back to R ome and buried it in the catacombs of Callixtus on the via Appia with the bodies of other early bishops. On the one hand Pope Fabianus was bringing home the body of the bishop in order to give it proper burial. At the same time, Pope Pontianus was also a martyr and Pope Fabianus was apparently in the process of organising the administrative structure of the catacombs in order to facilitate the veneration of the martyrs. It is possible that the translation of these corporeal relics was a move to stimulate attention to the venerable acts of his predecessor popes. When Fabianus was martyred in 250, his body was buried in the Crypt of the Popes in the catacombs of Callixtus. In the light of Ihis biographical note on Fabianus, Paschal's translation of this pope's body might have been an attem pt to link himself to the noble deeds (that is translations) of his predecessor popes, as well as to affirm episcopal tradition and succession. The record of this translation in the LP neatly linked the pious activities of Paschal with those of Fabianus. T he other sllrine, dedicated to Saints Processus and Martinianlls, encapsulates concerns for the cult of saints which we shall explore in greater detail in the translations to S. Prassede and S. Cecilia. The twO saints venerated at the new shrine within St Peter's were understood in the ninth century to have been the jailers of Peter and Paul in the M amertine prison and they had been converted by the Aposdes during their ordeals and baptised by Peter. 'H T he Passion of the two saints, most likely composed in the sixth century, unites the narratives of twO saints by this name, already recorded in the ..lvfartyrologium Hieronymimmm, !43 and venerated in a basilica on the via Aurelia, behind the Vatican H ill, with the Marlyrirmr Prtri, a Latin text circulated from the early sixth century as the work of Pope Linus, Peter's successor as bishop of R ome in the first century.149 In bringing these bodies to the basilica of St Peter, " , BHL noo. 694;-!l: Piero Fr.mchi de" C . .... ~eri. ' DeU. '"cum> P(ml!fo" m. "ibu, "",didil "''P'''" '"'Ill""'''' "';~'""", Prnxrdi> rl Po,de,ai."", till' 11( p.,ns 'Omm P"d",li< n,m aiii> d,,,,bus millibus ,,,,,,,,i, , ..."omm mOflyn,m (o'1"n·/oI,,' (l'>Kh,l. • hove-menti on ed ponti ft", brought with hi, hand, Ihe hodi .. of hol)" virgin Pr ..xeJis . nd Pudent.. n •. her si"",.. with ""olher 2,jOO bodi ... of holy ",.. rtyrs. [.nd puced Ihe"'1 1I nd",. the high .o.lllr): M>ri.no 0 .. Firm..". l'i~"m'lIm Urlois R",,,,,,. Smdi di . nrichici c,i,ri , ,,,, 2. ed. E. Hulle ... (R ome. '9J , . Orig. pub. 's 17). '79· '.06 I 'id.. ·u,.d«;m ,um",; p""'ifi", i""n,,,, .. omi"" '''''' "1"'n·· (th",-."re eleven POP"" wh"", """,,,,,re not reported). ',1 I. 0'''';0 M'rtI"hi. Epi,O!'~fi" Cn";.",, (M il..", 1(,10), " 0_ 490rodof ici d>tod it to I>lx>'nc. ' Rom.n C'>,.co mb;'. ~9) 11. 6.1. S~c II-obcn I';,vrr." . Cri""'l",ir ",iJii".i,. L' Atdi~, cl" Mi« H;l'pol )'~ /)olil.inld",m/u>rl Sd,";lml",lm "lid Bibiiolhrllm j" d" K«roU"JIling Sludy oflhe origirul rhotognph •. They,re,n import:mt 'ewU"'e, ,nd,n: cert:linly d"",er th.n thei, printed coun.e'P"" in J"",r Wilpert, I);, R iimiuhtn M.s.ik ... u"J Mal,m'" , JeT kill.I""'" o..ul It:Jve b~n Jiltle .",died .• nd no ,tudy h.. con.idered the e,;Jence pr"",n-eJ in .he phorog"'phs. e_g. CLmdi. Z,cClgnini. 'N~"", ""......-",.ioni .ugii .ff"""hi . Itomedi"".li delb chie .. So. Pr.... ed •.• ~. esp. 174 . nd ,8 }. '" For cornp . ...bJ. p.intings .eo Lsde PauL T he next two registers show tile lives and martyrdoms of two groups of saints. Both storics center around love stories between Christians who married yet remained chaste: Julianus and Basilissa, and Chrysantius and Daria. 181 Both couples opened their homes as Christian hospices and converted countless pagans, one couple in Egypt and the other in Romc. T he scenes of Julianus, Basilissa, and Cclsus (the governor's SOil whom they converted) are highly abraded, but the group of saints portrayed ,', IIHt. n o , 4P9. IIHI. no. '787. r"'pectively.
On
Chry.:m'h~. ,nd [)~ri~>."" ,1so Klom Her_
ben. 'Mobili,;;, ~nd Komnmnibtion in der K,rotinger"Zeit: die Reliq~ienTei'etl der heilige Chry.''''''th~. und D.ria" in U,erowr - Gnthilhr, - U''''41'''Xm hi(/,''. <Xl , Nine Mi edml> ""d R~dolfS~ntrup (F'-'mH~rt. ~ooJ). 647-6,
ne Rome of Pope Paschal I
.. .
...
-' '
.
... .. .....
.. . ...
r>a'ntlng' on the north wa ll
42 (mu[iuued)
can be securely identified through their liruli, which give names and particulars of their passions: [Basili&Sa?] is burit'd; Holy Julianus is sent to prison; Where Marci anus orders the martyrs who do not _. _to be burned by fire; Where H oly Julianus succumbs
,)8
BlIi/di/IS the hOllle of the SIIillt5
43 . Hand-culuured phutugraph ufthe painting:,; as they Were prcsawd in the lar ... ninreemh c ... nrury (C. Tahandli). to blows; When: tl1l' buy Cdsus is cunvatcd by Holy Julianus; WI1l' ....- Cdsus ha. trust in rh ... Lord H l >
T he next register up from the ground depicts S~ints Chrys.1t1tius ~nd Daria. who ,ubmitted to various tortures. Their sreadfa>r f:lith so '" [BASIUSSA .'j SEPFL1:i ES1; S{""/Cf'"jS WLlANO IN CARCERE .IIISSVS EST; I'm MARCIAN I'S IVssrr AlAKIYRES QI 'I NON {.. . IICA VERVN1' ICIVE CRE.IIARI{ .. . I: VBI S{,,"jC{,,,/S IVLI.1!\' I'S FVSTlBVS CEDITFR: VB/ PI'ER CELSWS st_"ICf'/O WLlANO (CON VE RS VS E'ls1'; I'll! CELS/VS CREDIDIT DOtAl/NO'j
ne Rome of Pope Paschal I impressed til e Roman prefect Claudius that he and his wife llaria and their children Jason and Maurus weTe converted: Where Emperor Numcranius threw Claudius headfirst into the sea; Holy llaria buried her sons Jaso n and Marus; Wh ere Holy Ilar;a was seized; Wh ere Holy Chrys-Gi",.. nn. Cod., D,,,,,,,i/ITff' '''" (e",; di .. ~rti,; (Rome, 2004),7--"78. relying predomin.ndy on . copy of Aloi';·, m.n«:rip'- Aloi,;', origin,] mamau;pt ..... , hou ..-d . t the Ab""zi. V.Uombroli.n:o.. but Went ",;!Siug . fteT 1:.... being;e"" by Ursul> Nilgen around J~71. Fortun:o.teJ\4 N ilgen had utlde a photo't>t;c copy of much of the m.:tnuocript, a~d the copy i, now housed in the Bibliotheca H eTtli.na, Rome (Ram Dt (27-J20,00). The.., i, also . n ;nrompl~" Ill:lnu'0> Aloi';. ·Reb,ioDe'. f. Ill.
"1'''''
'43
ne Rome of Pope Paschal I the wlifessio. 'OJ Paschal provided the front of this (mifessio with a propiriatoriulII, or gold and silver facing for the window.>o>j de B1I>uw. CllhllS rf DMJ,. SJ7-). de Bl.. lIw. 'P>pto di>co,"crN 0 copy of 'hc ktter from P.>ch.1 I omong 'he 1''"1'"'' lelt to him by hi, und~ Niccoh> Sfo"d,.. to (G'''gNY XIV). ihM . rH· Th" ",u",~ • .re the NlOUR .nd DL~M. bOl h of which '1'1"''' to h ..w been co"'po"oo in th" ,""oncl qu.rter of the >eV~nth c~n ' ur)" .nd . " > 0 .. 'he 'NI'< uf rei;< r~r!td in [CUR",) .n .... >re due to Luc. Gmlin who eX1l11ined the inscription, , uggnn. Kum Herben.. D. Ihuer. Il~it"'g~ wr H,g iogr.. phie 1 (St u"g." , 20(1). " ~-H . .., G ri'j~ H'''''''lln. ·1'>."h"l;' I. ,,,,,I die heilis< C~ci~ • . Ein Tr"",b,iouwerid,( iHl Liber Po",ifie,li'. Q",II, " ,,",I F.",~"".,~" .,,' A ... h;,,," ,,",I Ribii",/"k," 87 ('007). j (o--.).
;,./i,",,,","
'49
Ti,e R ome of Pope P"sell,,1 / saint's relics and his biographer contrived to resolve the issue. Paschal's choice to restore this particular basilica, however, was clearly motivated by a number offactors, including the relationship between the Passion of the saint and the site. (DCA S,o,NCTA C,o,ECIU,o,E
The visi tor's programme of venet";1tion also included visiting those sites sacred to the saint which Paschal had incOrpOr;lted into the church. T he P.lSsioll reports that the saint insisted that her hushand be purified by Pope Urb;m before she allowed him to see the angel, her companion , and Urban likewise baptised Valerianus\ brother T iburtius and then later M axinlUS !· ~ After Cecilia's trial, she preached to the poor and invited them to her house. where Urban baptised groups off.lithful. 206 Paschal's constructiOIl of his chu rch atop the ancient baptistery and the corridor that might have served as a means of entry from the basilica above to the baptistery below thus acquires a hagiographic meaning: it claimed for Paschal's church a historic. even sacred space. These may be the 'famous found:ltions' of the basilica mentioned in the apse inscription!"' Paschal's bas.ilica incorporated this auxiliary sp:ICe into the body of the church, probably believed to be the place where Pope Urban had baptised the lllultitudes. As we have seen the Cappella del Bagno likewise occu pies ancient structures which neatly mapped into the places of the PE. q""d ' $I in & 1.", 'j~1 . (In ,h~ ,1", of S. Ce.:ih•. wh ich ,. i1\ her U.. h) ,,,d ,bo", ' he church iMlf: . S....."m <j'" {C,,,,li •• / ' 0'1'''' 5. U,j"m" 1"1'" ""..... i",,, ",11""., '''"' 1'.1';''''1''''. & AI.")',,, "p"I". ~,· "...d,,·;,: (j"'q'" de", """, <s "I,imo l/i~"i, wl""",,;n 1'.«/,,;.," ,,,"'''r,,·iI. "bi ••• i"" i. ho,/i,,""," "'~'" di,m "I.b,.m", mr"'ri•. · (l'op~ Urb"n "n:lered th" 'he holy bod~' of C~gnio che dic",~no di 5." .. C~cili. in U1l> . Epi«Oop1 : '1"'" h", .. /g",'am/ ",,,limbus ,,"Irl o'''' ,,,,,,..lIiolO;juir ""'1'' ' ""bi,um p","trri", ••",I~ribnkin. "lh. Wi,.,h"," "I;.,pn (London . .lOO7). g""9: Susan Boymon. SIoapi"lI a Mo"",,;" Id""jl}': U"''KY ."d his'orr arrh. /'"1""".1 AMq of r..ifa. ''''''''''''''5 (hhaca .•006). 18 5"""7 . ... ' l.P95: 4; 96:2 4: 97 : 68: .", Rosenw";n. ·I'.....,nnial p,"ye, .! "g;rune· in Monk< and NIIIl>, s..;"" ",Id QuUas": DJay' j" ho"or of K. Utile. ed Sh.ron F.:rrm" . nd Bar"'-," R"""nwein (CorneD. lOOO). 37-86 . ... , Pete, Brown ..n.. Cui, of s..;",,, /" ris••"d jullffi." in UJlin Christi."il}' (ChiC>g<J. T ~81). 80.
LL""
,h.
'54
Buildi"S Ihe home of tile slIi"I.1 The transbtions of saints' relics were organisations of saintly authority as much ~s they were means of commlllli«)tion. The vener~tion of saints creatcs social cohesion , a community of faithful. As Hedwig R ocke1ein has recently shown, the translation of ,aint,' relibul>ry of cOJmrucbOJ' p"'!i~c!< in the LP. see R obe,t Coo.tes-Stephen •. 'D"k >ge .rchilectu,e in R ome'. I'BSR 65 (]I,'II7). 226-7 .
ne Rome of Pope Paschal I Hadrian survives), and an y conclusions about Hadrian and Leo's restora tion philosophies arc drawn from limited evidence. This approach is very different from Paschal's construction plan. When his churches used earlier wall, as structural foundations , it was only for parts of one or two wallsJnd thus the shape and size of the new structure were not conditioned by tile older onc. The ratio of aisle width to total church width is almost constant among Paschal's cht1rches.~ In each of these three basilicas, the central nave is expansive, measuring roughly three times the width of each of the side ai~l es. 6 It is useful to think of the changes in architecture in Italy from late antiquity to the Middle Ages, away from large-scale public building toward smaller-sized churches with lavishly decorated interiors, as a change in rhetorical tone. This analogy reminds us that meaning can be conveyed not only through actual words but also through the more subtle tones of expression and construction of those words. Rhetoric, the construction of language to articulate an argument, refers to the many ways in which words - and buildings - can be orchestrated and coloured.? In early medieval R.ome, the patterns of expression shifted; the scale and nature of the buildings CJme to be different from those of late antiquity. Within that new conception of building, however. individual patrons displayed different attitudes towards their projects. Among the building campaigns of early medieval popes. Paschal's programme of sllOwpiece reconstruction is unique. These buildings were presentation ensembles rathe r than simply restorations of decrepit structures or the donation of tokens of papal beneficence. The reasons for this showmanship will be discussed below. T he functional change of incorporating sain ts' bodies and their ve neration into the churches is a truly innovative aspect of Paschal's architectural programme. Other popes had used relic veneration as a vehicle for expressing power, but none on this scale. None had brought about such a radical change in the sacred topography of Rome, none had so succinctly co-opted popular saints' Passions into papal domains. Paschal translated over 2,000 bodies into the city walls to both S. Prassede and S. Cecilia. as well as to the oratories he constructed at St Peter's. The , Guglielmo Iv\.;mhi ••. S. """,;. ill Domni.rio< COy" Po...,. .IId P,,''''''''gt in Ea,1y M,dti..J /raly: LMl ,{>{jtly, itaJj"" po~"i" and the Abbty , ide S,nt, I'r»>ede" in .~!n' dd C.II"/,,," 1",,,"":;-,"".1, '/I LiN' PO"'iji,,,ji, , la ,,",i. ","lm.I, ' (Rom •. 'I-U c,' .) =
ft".,••••
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,\ '"I,d.",!} '"sr,""" " R""" . Hi".,'" i S,,,,;.., LX-LX I (,""').
t '9-~8.
Tramfim/la 1;0115 city'.,j Dut he did far more than this. Emerick's arguments, alt hough convincing, neverrheless do not encompass the sheer extent of Paschal's campaign. Above all, I wish to Stress the crucial interdependence of architeCture, urbanism and sacred cult in the early nimh century. In studies of the process of colonialisation in the modern period, the importance of 'the cultural sphere', including literature, visual and musical arts and the built environment, for the process of cmpire building has become a commonplace. 16 As the author of a recent book on architecture and colonialism in Algiers has written: Architec tu re and urbanilm have an obvious advantage over other cu ltural forma tion s in sheddin g li ght on social relations and power structures: thc y constitute an esse ntial part of th e human experience an d th ei r expe rie ntia l qualiti es make them accessible to everybody. They express c ultural values. but they are also firml y grounded in material and daily life. Th eir connection to th e eve ryday wo rld is so substantial that th ey CJn never transce nd or be divorced from worldly associations - a phenomenon often obse rved in other cu ltura l and artistic form a tion ~. '7
If we leave behind the discourse of colonialisation and consider 'empire-
building' within the historical context of the late eighth and early ninth centuries, \=eylik's observations echo my own understanding of the importance of Paschal's churches. In the early Middle Ages, rebuilding of churches and chapels in major buildings intervened direCtly in the public system of worship, and manipulated the movement of people. R omans, pilgrims and noble visitors alike, through the city and through its mOSt sacred spaces. Paschal's rebuilt churches were designed to have multiple and specific meanings: to stress Paschal's rule over the city of R ome and the Sce of Saint Peter, to encourage the piety of his floc k, to affirm his own exceptional piety and to save his soul. His relic translations and the great architectural shrines constructed to house them created new spaces for cult in the city, under his watchful orthodox protection. In a similar way, Paschal renovated the church of S. Maria in DOlllnica, a diacollia, onc of the places where the poor of Rome and visitors to the city could receive food and services, thereby stressing his role as intercessor in a different capacity. Paschal's architecture positioned the pope between " )uJmn Emeriok 'Ai!:,,', per=nif,e /\,u .... of Cui", ...: Old rrg;"" E"",,,, ,6&---lJB9 (O.dord, ~()()~), " uynep ig. '929); R om., /"d,) r"roh"gia. Alii dell .. giorwte di studio, 3-8 nuggio. 11)76 (Rome. !9%); Rich.m Kr.oUlheimer. R.",,, ProjiJr 4. rily. 31.!-1)08 (PrincelOn . !980). !! )- !7 .Dd !4! . .. A caU 10 differeno>!e be'we ..... 'he p>tron.ge of Chlflenu&l,e .nd Loui. Ihe Piou. f,rs( come from Llw"'n ce Ne ... 'Tht plm of SI Gill .nd 'he ,J>oory of lht prog"""mt of Drolingi>n Art'. G,a l~.! ( ' 9116). ,- 8.
Tramfim/la 1;0115 with a character wholly different from that of his father. 2' Heretofore, the discussion of imperial- papal relations has centered on issues of administration and adjudication, yet Charlemagne's and Louis's interests included transformation of social and religious practice as well as political Strategy, and these were of key interest to a papacy angling for autonomy.
lOUIS TIlE PIO US
Charlemagne was interested in episcopal and presbyterial consistency, while Louis the Pious appears to have been interested in particular in monastic practice.22 The subject of the first twO councils of Louis' reign was unity among monastic orders!l This attention to monastic practice extended even to architectural projects. His private place of repose and prayer was a monaste ry for no more than thirty monks at [nden. near Aachen (later Korndimii nster).2 4 T his \ v;J.S a prototype for a new type of miniature monastery designed almost exclusively for monastic observance and private imperial retreat, as opposed to large abbey churches that made room for significant lay presence in the liturgy. The foun dation is recorded as a conversation between Louis and Benedict of Aniane, during which the emperor expressed his reasons for creating the monastery. He wanted a place of repose from the burdens of empire, Benedict sought to be less concerned with the affairs of the palace and more focused on his monastic dedication and the emperor wanted a pious monastery near to Aachen. 2j Rather than encouraging huge new buildings like the monastery of St-R.iquier (Centula) (799) or St-Denis (768) . Louis reduced and trimmed many building projects. [n the " For r""en' view, On l.oui, ,h. Piou,', r";gn "", )ob '" die broUngi",h" "''''1>is",nco'" in dor ll,uku nst". L.n'Slhriji fliT K"'''fll'"hifflu 51.3 ('988). 313- 37; 'Die Rerui".;mc~ der friihchri,t1ichen Architektur in d"" K,rulinger>eit', in 799: KII",f ,,,,d KuhllT d" Kamli"g"z{jf. IXI. Ch,istoph Stiegenl>nn ,ncl M,tthi"" Wemhof (!>binz. 'WII) ,nd fo, Michelsudt, Ju)j, M. H. Smith. 'Old ",in". nI."W cuI,, : !tor".,n relic< in Grulingim I:"no, ' in Early M.di"",/ Rom' ""d flue Chrisfj." W"" &ay' in ""no",
Tramfim/la 1;0115 devised a new building type during his reign, using his abbey at Inden, near Aachen, as its prototype.'7 T hat abbey church was a much reduced Structure of a single nave and twO shorter side aisles divided from the centre by walls and each featuring a small absidiole. The church barely resembled the regular basilicas of the previous decades. Louis intervened at the abbey of Fulda where the monks had COlll plained about the laborious and un!l('cessary work of erecting immense structures.,g While numerous factors may have contributed to Louis's actions at Fulda, and we cannot be certain of the degree of his invol vement in this or other building projects. there is some indication that his administration of architectural projects reAects an emphatically s.calcddown , rese rved tone, at least in tll e first years of his reign. R ather than using the traditional Roman architectural language favoured by the architects working for his father Charlemagne (i.e. large basilicas and centrally planned chapels), Louis the Pious appears to have advocated ascetic, modest religious architecture. Given the well-establislled patterns of interaction between the papacy and Frankish courts, at least during the first years after Charlemagne's death in 8 J 6, it is not difficult to imagine missi communicating across the Alps and reporting on building programmes as well as ecclesiastical councils and legislation.'9 As tensions grew between the pope and emperor because of Paschal's challenge to imperial authority in his involv(~ment in notorious murders in Rome, the pope's desire to asse rt his control and authority became more and more pointed. Paschal's buildings were necessarily showpieces of papal, R oman potency. Yet these buildings were desib'lled for impact within the city as well. As wc have seen, Paschal's architectural interventions were located in the major basilicas of Ru oolf Hi,.. ... nd. d al. (Sigmlringen. 19')8). 99-' U (m " ........ vJlion •• Ixm, , uch • cOlllpr!,,»,lio Ia/i,stIII",." (The building> being immense.• nd rh. works no' being nee .... ry. whi82 (H. >33-8). cf. loui. , nd Log< thirty_four hi.h0p' ,nd f,ve pri.... " .nd d",com: Tnegon. en,. HI"do";'; Impr. see How,ud Adehon :md Roberl B.ker. ·The Nlh of purgation of Pope Leo III in 800'. Tl'IJdi,i. 8 ('Yjl). Jj-80; Fr.",o;' Bougard. LA j",,;'t d.... I, "'1''''''''' d·/la/i, d, 14 fin du VIII. ,;Id, "" dlbur d" XI. ,;lrk. Ilibli{)(he~u" cl", .np.i"" d· ArMn'" tr de Rome 29 J (Rome. !ll'H). 251. '7 S.... bove. p. 26.
",,d",,;,; ''''pt1''Nri,. 37 (416-20): ThdI,IS d. imptri"l"IO"lalf in IIrlot Rom•. 00. G; u,eppe Zucch.,ti . f",nt; per 10 "ori. d·lt, l;. SS (Rome. '920), ' 97-41. J' .\feU Ltgo,m 11. C.".. '. n , ,6] (J2J- J4). Sc~ ilio d,t discussion in D,"' •. Li,,,, rflht Ninllo· Qnn,'Y /'oprations of R Ol1lan relic veneratio n in Francla up to the 820S. w ith the exceptio n of those associated with Po pe Paul I's relic translations of the 760s.6 > Duri ng Eugene's reign and in the years and decades th at follow, R o man relics began to be fragmented and ho used in new shrines, many of them in Carolingian centres. ~J "
r"«l«ico M.", .. i. 'L< " cini nuov114). l j ' ....77 60 I'id .• z64- S. • ' LP '04' 7; .05: 8. It .houlJ be notod. how..-vcc.• h .. pl. u.ib[,· exw> 1).",i,. of rh, .' VI"'h_Cm',,,y 1'"". "0.... '3 . n. 6. n . 8 ' 0Jul;, M. H . Smi'h. 'Old ... it"'·' C aroli". Goodson . 'Uuilding tor !>odi"" The . ",hi'ecture of ;all" ,"cue ..,ion iIl .,rl y mCc A/CH SSRL , I J (J p): OIlJ Ei"h ,,..!"' "",or
Tramfim/la 1;0115 Among the places where Saint Cecilia's body was venerated after 824, one in particular warrants further attention. Around 850, relics of Saint C ecilia were given as a gift from Pope Leo IV to Lothar's wife Irmingard. They were given to her for a monastery of canonesses that she founded at Erstcin. which was also givcn a papal privilege of850. 74 T he monastery was built on her dower lands, and she was eventually buried in the church. W hen the monastery was actually formed, or whether this was a vague and lengthy proce~ beginning after her marriage in 821 and which \vas eventually recorded in charters or a sudden decisive action in the late 840S. we do not know. Lothar had given a donation of further lands to what appears to have been an existing monastic institution in 849, and it is conventionally considered to have been founded in the late 8405, though I should like to suggest that the foundation might have ta ken place earlier.7s It is worth remarking that the monaster y was named in honour of Saints Cecilia and Agatha. This combination of R oman saints is unusual among monastery dedications. and the parallel between t11is dedication and the monastery Paschal founded at S. Cecilia in Trastevere is noteworthy. T he R oman monastery is dedicated to these two saints as well, the only example among R oman institutions to use this dedication. Perhaps Irmingard dedicated this monastery in honour of Paschal's monaStery at R ome which had been founded at the time of her marriage in 82! and first visit to R ome with her husband Lothar in 823.76 Indeed there is a long forged version of the papal bull, approximating on a Tra/lSliltic narrative, which replicates the language of the LPs account of the foundation of the R oman monastery, the 'hymns and praises sung in honour of the saints and God', 'day and night·. n Presumably the dedication ceremonies likewise stressed the correlation " R",g,,'a Pomifru'" rumanon,,,, . Gn",.,';a p'''''ifoia Ill. ed. A1ben Ilr>chm,n n (Borlin. '935) . 1 (J-l). " [)j, U,k,,,,Jrn Lerh"" 1 ""d L>rio"" 11. od. Theodo. Schie(fer. MGH DiplcmOla Karolinon'm 111 (lI,"[~n. '966) . ,06 (ljt ). For Ihe ~ ... ge ofl:md< from Loui< 10 l OIh..r. ..,. MGH Fa"'''''.... ...:I. K. Z~UIIl", (H.no",r, , 8S '). '0 (1.94) . M y t1,.nb go 10 Elin . Screen alld Simon M.cle:tn for their though .. on Ihe docume,,". For dis<us>ion of the ",onas'ery. oee Simon M.cl..e.n. 'Qu.ch.".. Dit R'II"I'" des K" ''''ltj(h" Ilm" d", Karo/i"!/,,,n. 7jl-u1 Scheffer_ lloichon'. 'Zur C;""chichle d.". Rei ch,..h,ei Emein·. ZLl·,,.hTiji flT di< C~hit:h" d QI"",hrinr. nf 4 (, 889). 29 1-~; Kl.m. H ..... ben. ' R om im r"T>nx.nreich - R om!>"ziehungen dUKh Heilige in d", Mi lte d"" 9. J"hrhunderl' in M',~h"'''' - K j,,/te - /-lemikaion de 1'&'''' F""I(.ist dt Rom< 12. M~l;mge< G. B. M R ossi 1892. 7l-9S: Pmk~ G"",y. FUrl. s.r..: Thifi' of 'dia in I~ ",,,,.1 ,\filM" Agtion of the relics within !he ch urch; !heir Inn.J..tion inlo the Cily i. "nre<md.d. bUlllUy h,ve been in.tllled lhe,.., ... ,lier in G'egrn-y·' ,eign when he cre:lIed, lllon.Jtery >I the bo\s;lico .nd furnished the church wi!h olh .... cult otrlect •. On !he church,..., D.le Kinney. 'Sont> Mar;. in Tr:lJ!evere (unpublished I'h .D. dissertltion. New Yor" UniverlilY. In,titule of Fine ArtS. li)7 5) . " S. Mutino: LP 104' 17-!l. 33"'9: Kaulhci"'~r tI 01 .. CQ'1''''' Ill. 93-124: SS Qu.tro Coron>!;: lJ' 105' 41 - 42; Kautheimer et.J .. U>'V.... IV. JJ.
wo,
ne Rome of Pope Paschal I the creation of new altars and the deposition of new relics. Gregory IV, for example, constructed an oratory of S. Gregorio in St Peter's, which included the body of Saint Gregory, and the heads of Saints Sebastian, Gorgonius and T iburtius placed in silver altars decorated with mosaics Jnd new liturgical furnishings. T he monks ofSt Peter's were also given instructions to chant psalms at the new oratory every day.ss CONCLUSIONS
Paschal used architecture and cult in conjunction with morc conventional forms of politics to express the independence and importance of the papacy. His buildings aimed to articulate a new place fo r it as the head of the See of Saint Peter and in relation to the Frankish Empire. While this new role of the papal state and the pope as its leader was not deflllitive, this attempt to redcfi ne the papacy had lasting effects, most prominentl y visible in the ways in which new churches were built in R ome and the practices of R oman saint veneration in R ome and elsewhere. The immediate impact of this struggle for authority is discernible also in the Frankish attitude towards papal elections and thus towards the governance ofthe city of R ome. I have provided a view of how R ome's history unfolded over a fe w years in the ninth century and suggested a new understanding of this brief period. I ho pe to have taken the study of church architecture o ut of a formalist discourst' of R enaissance or decline, and to demonstrate that church-building was an important means of political expression in the early Middle Ages. The form of the buildings was of course important, but so too was the function of churches, their locations, the networks that they created within the city and the sacred topography which they created. By ft'cognising the use of tllese buildings and the roles they played in the city where they \vere built and used, we can register the significance they had and the very reasons for which tht:y were constructed. This programme of church rebuilding, relic translation and urban renovation helps us to sce the built environment as the dynamic and forceful tool for communicating power that it was in early medieval R ome and the Carolingian Empire. 'j
LP 103 : 7.
'7 8
TABLE S
Table
I.
Lifurgical dOlla fiOrJS given fO Romau chu rches ((xcepfiug fhe pafriarclJi/1 basilicas) befllifen fhe papacy of Gregory I1 (715- 31) (/1/(1 Ellgeue 11 (824- 7) Silver lb oz
Donations, listed by pope
o
S. Abbacy,; ;"
LEO Ill:
x .""d",I,;"m " Val.ris eans;trum ex ar;;en(o. pens. hh 11
scmi~
silver can ister.
l
III
lb
l'i·]
o
OmlOno De; g«Jflnris ;"
LEO Ill:
, ..."d",I,;" Firm;,
D
S. Angclo in l'elChcria
,,,stem de 'taurae; pulcherrima ]98: 4l)
cloth of cr",,- adorned ,ilk.
cani>!rum ex argcmo, pens. lib. [[ et unc;"s VII [98: 70)
silver canister. 2 Ib 7 oz
LEO Ill: "'"'te< I11 (una de 'touraci cum peTid;,in de blati. et alias 11 de tyrco eum per;disin de f..lIldato, cum storia de elefantos) [98: 4S]
'''T)' beautiful
1 cloth
doth ofbyzantin .. purple. having in the middle a gold_'llldded cross and a gold---1lmdded fring..
silver c:>.ndlcstid , .. r 2 Ib 2 laudimae (lighting fr xlllre-s?) of silver. S lb. over the presbitery railings where the silver arch is; 2 crms-adorned 'il ks. I at S_Adri.no altar. 1 .t S_Martin.
,-es!es duas de stauT1lcim un.m super altare beacj Adci,ni. et alia ,uper .hare Sane!.. Martine [91' sr i vda de palle;, q".drapoli, mun ..", XV [97: 51]
2
I S .... il,.
fourfold~wovetl
re'taurav;t diaconias constilllil. in quib", et muha bona fecit
renev,ed
:IS
argento caniSmI XII
12 si lver cani,ters
cross-.dorned silk.!. [ at S. Martin a.
I
"
at S. Adriano altar,
,ilk
diaro"in
«0111.)
Table Name
1
(CCIll.)
DO!lltions, listed by pope anl:l. un.
[ ama
",yphum I
I scyphu,
patenam I
J
paten
cilice .. ncto I
J
sacred ch alice
• mul. otTertori. I pens. inibi lib LXVII
[ offulory .mu l•. (>'lIb Lw.
p>1~'Tl"m
paten .nd chalice of ~:old,
et c.licem simul XI [97: 96]
Cl
",Is, n.w.
Gold Ib oz
pOlena
M
D
S. Agata in Suburr"
S. Ag. u in Suburr:t (1) (or S. Agat:l dei Goti. or in Tr.. tevcre, or ill C~p'H I1fn·",..)
d~
argenlo desup"r de.ur:tt. [99' 3)
.il\"er pOlen, n.w.
crucem de .uro cum gemmis 199: 31
gold cross with j~w,."l .. n.W.
LEO 111: "",tem rubeam a~tinam, habentam ;n medio ubu!.m de chrisod.bo cum p"r;dis;n de chr;sodabo [98: 561
red crimson doth wilh a gold -studd~d panel in the centre. with a gold-studded fringe
coronam ex argento. pens. hb V [il1
,ilver crown, 5 lb
tecta restaur:tvlt [98: 9r)
restored the
roor
GREGORY 11, [bter ;nterpo!.t;ons to the text of the LP giv"n in italics1
construxit; ciwrium DCCXX [9!: 101
e~-
ora,. o')l,fIIlros VI, pm'
0W'"lo qui pms. lib
' ;"g. lib X V 191:
10]
restored; sil"", cioo,;u",.
10 lo"i'lers, rod, '5 Ib
"Ii~ do"" mullo 1,,'Xilus
"lid mOllY ellter gift'
LEO 111: "",tem de naur:tc; cum perid;,;n de bla!; 198: 461 coron.m ex argento. pens. lib V ["iI)
lbs
6 sil,.. , ",,/,.s, " ../, 15 Ibs
lo"ima X, pens. l •• (g . lib. XII [9r: ro ]
esr 19 [: 10]
7~0
cross-adorned ,ilk clo!h with a purple fringe silver crown. 5 Ih
(co,,1.)
Table [ (Will.)
Name
Silver lb oz
Donations, listed by pope "'"tem albam ol"'iricam. habentem in girum de tyreo et in medio srori.m R.esufrectionjs 198: [o~ 1
o
S. Ag.to. ",pm Airica,
LEom c.nislrum ex .rgento. pcn•. lib. !ll
o
mQ"""""Q
S. Agata '"
cloth aU of silk with a tyrian fringe round it and in the centre the scene of the Ih-surrection
ri']
3
.ilver cani,tcr, 3 Ib
LEO Ill:
li:mpli
C.,,;slrum ex .rgcnlo. pens. lib. 11
M
T
o
S. AgnNi
rcm ex lammini •• rgcnteis ct columni< dwbu., arcum [ ~{ gammadi .. 11, pe"'.•i", nlli b. C semi, [lOO: [91
cornice of ,ilver. with 1 columns. [ .rch.
J 54
Ibl50Z
.l
chl"Vrons, t.W. 100
1/2
Jb (,,,m.)
Ta ble
N.me
I
((Ol/f.) Silver lb oz
Don.tio"" listed by pope im.gin .... ex .rgento de.ur>t:" ttt , pens. lib. XLVIII sem;1
3 image, of gilded silver, 48 [/llb
c.lic .. m.io"" ex argcnto XXVI. pens. simullib. CVllll ... mis [lOO: .w [
l6 silver chalices. weighing t. w. [09 [h Ib
c.nistr> exafori argentea tt pcns. lib. [t. unc. Vttt[
2 ,ilvcr c.ni'l ers wilh 6 wicks. 2 lb 9 oz
gabatam ex auro purissimo, pem. lib. [[[ [lOO: .w[
gold bowl. 3 lb
c.nisl... ex argento enafoli 11, pem, lib X
2
gabata' ex argenlo Ill, pens, lib V
3 silver bowl"~ 5 lb silver thuriblc, I lb
(ut)hu lum
~ .~
argcmo deautalun) pens. lib.
silver canister< with
9
wicks,
[0
lb
"e.tcm de bhtin bizantca. haben!.::m in medio tabubm de chri.ocl.bo cum stori. qu,[iler '''ge[us beal"m Cocci[i,,,, S de (und,to p,rv;;a cum peridi'in de blot i. numem Jl [100: H[
2
vda I)-Te, cum periclisin de fundato Jl
[iCQ'H]
ryrian veil. for arch"" with a gold_interwoven fring
white all_.ilk do!h with a fringe round i! with inte,."...oven gold , nd in the centre a representation ofthc R",urrcction
in circuitu .Itoris tetr.lvi!a .:Iba. habentcs peridisin de tyreo [98: 108]
round the , har" white vei[ to cow"ll four ,ides, with frillg'" of tyrian
PASCHALlS: vd" de fundato habe"ti , peridi,i" de funcialo. numero V[[[ [100: 28]
S gold_in terWQven veils. with a gold_interwoven fringe
Gold lb oz
M
S. Donatus q"; p.""lIrgent'" pem. lib 1111 el une. It I'i']
silver crown, 4 lb 2 OZ
Z ACHARIAS: "'p,rav;t [93: 271
restored roof
HADRIANUS: ",sto",vi! [97: 74J
r~'Stored
LEO !1l: vestem de (undato [98: 37]
cloth of interwoven gold
corona", de S. Emtachio
~rgemo,
pens lib VI
LEO 1Il: """letn de funruto [98: 38]
I'i']
,
,ilver crown, 6 lb
doth interwoven gold
", (rum .)
Tnb1c
Name
J
((oH I.) Silver Ib oZ
DOIl:ltions. Ii>ted by pope coromnl ex argento. pens. lib. VI. unci;>!;
cTo"'n , 6 Ib 5 oz
V 1'i'1 S. Felici, poS;ldm in Pi,,ro
HA DR IANUS: (aclo tecto renovavit [91; 50] ,,-'Stem s"pcr altan:
S. Giorgio in Vel.bro
S. G iovanni a Poria
d~ '-Iu~dr.rolo (97= 50J
LEO !l1: Ve.tem de- fl1"d.to cl1m stori:t elef.ntos seu diversi, storii. cum pcridisin de bloti
re-stored roof fourfold~wown
sil k cloth over the .Itar
198: 45J
cloth with ;men·voV'!lister, l lb
HADRIANUS: re'taur.v;! (97: 701
restored
,. ,
LEO 111: ..... Iem de quadr:apulo [98: 17J
fourfold wove" cloth
'..,.\cm de fundato [98: 40)
doth of interwoven ,ilk
"",,;Strum ex argento. pem, lib. ]I une VII
silv.... canister. 2 Ib 7 oz
i!}8: 731
S. Lorenzo in Darn.so
HA DR.1ANUS: "'''OV;! tectum [97: 50) ""'Stem ,uper ... , lure de ,tauroe;", (97:
,.."",wed roof cl"OSI_adorncd ,il k doth over the ahar
,01 aliam veS{cm de po,t altne [97: so]
.nother cloth for behind the "Itn (rom ,)
Table
I
((Cm.) Silver lb oz
Donatio"" listed by pope
LEO Ill: =tem de sr.:lUraci cum I"'ridi,in
5. , doth of cross_adorned silk with a frinS"
CoTUn'm ex argent. pem . lih. V semis 1'i'J silver CTUWn, 5 J / 2 Ih r,-'Stor~,Tavit 197; 7lJ
LEO Ill: vestem de ,t:;}uraci cum I"'ricii,;n de blati 198; 45J comna", ex argenro. pe'lS. lib. IlI l , "ncias
restored 4, 10
cloth of cros,_adorned ,ilk with fringe of purple ,ilver cmwn, 4 1h, 10 OX
X ['i'1 S. Lorenzo in
r\JlI~ci"i:i
HADIl.JANUS, fCpperie.1S [97: 70)
LEO Jll: comna", ex .rg,-"Oro, pens. lib Jl et "n".
"nriched 2, 7
siker cmwn , 2 Ib 7 oz
VII r'i'1 S. Lorcnzo ".pt. S. Clem","" or in Tn"",/I",,,?
STEI'HAN US 11: m,ncb,\ [4: 14J
restored
Gold lb oz
HADR[ANUS, omne< e;us trabes nova.re ma;orem. eX gennnis preli osis ornarum. pens. lib. 11 [98: 62]
CTOWn offine gold to h :m g over Ihe high .ll:>.r. weighing 2 Ib
comn.", ex argento. pem.lib. VIIlII 'i'J
crown. 9lb
vesle alho olosirica . habetHem in medio tabul. de tyreo ~Ulll storia Crncifix.i. ne
cloth of crms .dorned silk , with peacocks and in the middle a crms of purple
Gold lb oz
''\.'St~-S
II de qu.drapulo. h.bentcs in ",cdio cruces de bl.tin [100: I lJ vestCm ex auro bJ.tin [[00: III
tt:,. h~bcntem in medio tabulam de chriwdabum cum 'toria Adp"'ena(!,iam
PASCHAUS: vestem de qu~d"'pulo cum peridisi de biotin biz>ntea 1100: l6]
fourfold wov"n doth with fringe of byzantine purple
LEO Ill: c~ni,trum
j. ,
ex argento, pens. lib. V et nnc. I
sil""r conister, 5 Ib , oz
]"i']
HA D RII\NUS : in integro r~"Tl",,,vit 197: 78)
restored
LEO III vestem de 'taurac; cum pc'ridi,in de bJ.thin 198: 17]
cloth of cross-adorned silk with purpl" fringe
coronam ex argenlo, pe,.. , lib VillI
[i'J
sil""r crown, 9 Ib
PASCHALlS: in meliort'm "rexit [100: 8]
restored
ciburium ex Jrgcnto. pens. lib. DCCCCX
,ilver canopy of 910 lb
[100: 101
propitiatoriurn Slcri altaris ex ,regcntds lammi,,;, mirif,,,,, [lOO: 10]
1'r(Jl'iliaMrimn with silver sheets
confe~ionem
gilded ro'ifessio. grins. cK 300 lb
deauravit. pens. lib. CCC
[100: 10]
(,.",1.)
Table! (COIII.)
Name
Silwr lb 02
Donalions. li.led by pope spanodislUm ex .uro ful,u seu divers;' bpidibus exorn.lum. pens lib. une. 11 ",mis ]100: 101
lpanocli,t diadem of gold and 2 ,12 OZ
\'eslem de chrisod. bo cum diversi. sloriis ]100: 101
gold_Sludded doth with v,riou, Slorie,
",slem chrilod.bam ex 'Ul'b'lh.s intcr",silcs VIlli, pem. lib. Xl.
9
ch ased bowls we ighing
II
Ib
['i'] '..,stc tyre. [98: .l91
tyri.n clolh
vestem de f"nduo cum peridi'in de bl.thin, in medio erucem de chri",d"bo [98: 40]
cloth of interwoven ,ilk wilh , purple fringe, in the middle. gold-studded elm'
te{!":",il. de ,uu,",c; cum peridi,; de bbti [98: 42J
cross_adorned ,ilk veil for all fOllr sides. with purple fringe
coronam ex arge1l1o, pen,. lib. Vlll
['i'J
,iker crown. 8 lb
Gold Ib oZ
dUl'licarr? COfOn:lln e" argento puris,imo. pen •. lib VIII ['i'1
d"l'iicaJr? ,ilver crown, 8 lb
cortinam maiorem olmiricam de quadrapu lo N fundaro pulcherrima [98 :
curtain .ll_.ilk fonrfold_wow", with interwoven gold. ""ry beautiful
SOl
M
S. Sergio. SS. Scrgio e Bacco neu forma
,u per all'''' maiore vesre " Ih> ol""iric. ro ..la, habentem in medio t.bul. d.. st.uraci Cllm 'tori. dominic.e Resurrectionis. et in circuitu lijtJ. de chri.odavo [98: [03]
over the high altar. a white all _.ilk cloth with roses, with a cross-adorned ,ilk p.nel in th .. cent ... representing the Resurrection oflhe Lord. and all round gold_studded edging
EUGEN IU S 11:
gr ills of bronze in.cribed 'Eugenilt'l Seeundn. Papa Romanlls {Ugonio. H;,roria dclk "",;"',; (Rom ... ISS~). 10).
cyhuriu", ex argcnto purissimo, P"'H. lib. l[oJ: 31
sil"... "beri,,,,, o(nnknown weight
LEO ]]1:
inIeR"'$is canistrum e" argento, pem. Lib I II [98: 78J M
S. Sil"eslfO
.ilwr canister, 3 Ib
PAUL I: [later interpolation. to the te,,1 of the LP giw" in itllicsl constTll xil • fundamenti. [95:
si
11)20
(lOO) comt,ncled
({,mr.)
Table ! (COIlI.)
Name
Silve r Ib oz
Donalions. listed by pope
ryb""",,, ibid,m ex a'gm/o lib,a,,,,n DCCXX ,I,a .... inve>!;v;1 arg"nlO pur;ssimo. qui pe"s. lib. CCC (9S: si LEO UI: veSICS ll. un,;n bosilic, Ill.liorc biz.o.nl"a "urn chrisoclabo. et ,I;" fundll~ in oratorio (9S: 3S]
comn"n Cl
vc\;
41b 7 oz
an:oTa
]I
cruce, argenteas V ct gaootha, X V, pens, ,imullibru; CL [98, 9] cruce diacopton I, pem lib X IllI 198: 91
larches
S crosses and I S bowls. t. w. I SO Ib
j
,ectioned cross weighing 14 Ib
caniSlrum c: ornatam et calicem de ugcllto pens. lib - /98; 41 T
S. Vitale
LEO !tl, wstem de .t.uraei cum c.mce de chrisodabu 198: 17J coronam ex argento, pem, lib, Vltlt. unc 1lI j'i'J
gold cross dt"corated with jewels and silver chalice. -
9.3 cloth of cf()';s-.dorned silk with" gold-studded crOSS ,iker crown, 9 lb J oz
Gold lb oz
D
S. ViI'"
"",Iem ~lb~ ", ol",iric~ ",. habemem periclisin de funruto et in medio storiam Resurenioni, [98: !OS]
while all_,ilk clotb wilh an ime",uven gold frinS" and in the centre a representation of the Resurrection
LEO Ill: "",Iem de staurnci fundalO [98: 45]
cross_adorned silk cloth wilh interwoven gold
~um
pericli'in de
,omn>", ex "rgentC>, pen s. lib. VI ['i"]
o
S. Vilus j" "'OII~,r~,jo q"j nppel/ar", de Sardas
Apmloli in via Lala
of
siker crown, 6 Ib
LEO !J1: c~ nistrum ex .rgento. pens. lib. 111
ss.
fring~
J
['i'1
,ilwr canister, 3 lb
HADRIANUS: poni" in circuitu renovavit, tenum restaurnvil. abisdem renov,vit [97: 50]
renewed portico. roof. apse (with iron buttressei)
"",Iem super ,I"re ""iot"
cross_adorned ,ilk over the high altar
[97= 50]
",la de pallei. sirici. numero XX et linea XX [97: 60J
wils.
20
of silk and
20
of linen
LEO 111: coronam ex ~rgelllo, pem. lib. X!J1 ['i"]
,ilwr cmwn. '3 lb
qu.driporticu[mJ Cl tcet. rest>T.v;t [9 8:9']
restored the squ.re colonn.de .nd restored the roofing (rom .)
Table
I
(cem.) Silver lb oZ
Don.tio"" lisled by pope super alr::>re m~iore veste .Iba olosirica TO.aU , h,bentem in medio labu!> de ,t,u.,cim cum ,Ior;, cominicoe Resurrenionis et in "ireuilu vesle de criwclabo, necnon cl orbiclos de Chrisocl.bo. "um pericl;,i de !ir~.., \98: [02\
over the high al!:lr, a whitc ,U-:silk cloth wilh rose;;. with a pand in the centre of cro«-.:tdorned silk rcpre<enling the Lord', Resurrection •• nd .11 round. gold_,mdded clOlh, and gold _sludded disks wilh • tyr ian frillge
lelr.wil. modica rubea orna!a in circuim de fundalo (unum cum chrisodabo) \98 : 102\
,mall red veil 10 co'... r all four sides, adorned all round with inte",,'Owll gold, gold-studded
vda modic. rube. alexandrin. 11. om.l. in circuitu de 'tauraei \98: 102\
2 ,mall red Alexandrian veils, adorned .11 round with eross-adorned silk
in gremio basilic.e ubi supn fecit cortina m.iore de fundaw mirifice derelis 198: 291
cloth ofbyzantine purple with gold and pearls
corom", ex argento, pem lib. Vet unci", V[][ ~ ]
,ih"er crown, S Ib 8
I'ASCHALIS: ve.tem de tyre, habentem ;n medio (.abular" de chrisocbbo cum vultu domini nosui k'Su Christi, atqu" beatorum martyrum Cosme e Dami.ni, cum a]ii. trib", fullribu., ,m" cruce de auro texla et peridi.in de o lovero pulcherrime comp~.l11l .tque decorat:!m [[00: 25 ]
;," the roof
02
tyri.n cloth, gold studded p.nel in the centre with the (ace of)c.o. ChriSt and the martyrs Cosn", and Damiano, with] other brothers, with a gold_",orked cross and an .U-.ilk tYinge. beautifuUy embellished . nd .dorned ({olll.)
Table
N 'Jn~
o
SS. Cmrn, c D3mi,no ,.. xmodod,i,m, Ji,ci,,,n
Do",ti""s,
by
(Wilt.) Silver Ib "t
pop~
supra all:lre, cooper!or"", de tyreo rn;rifice doxo",!um 11(>0' 2SJ
on ahar, tyrian doth wondrously adorned
ante vt'Stibulu!)1 oltaris vel> tyrea cum peridisin de bb{; biz:lntca, numcm III lIDO: 251
1 ryri,n vcils with fringc ofbyzanrinc
purple
'"stem olooirie.m 1100: 381
dOlh of ,U -,ilk
LEO Ill:
canistrum VIII
SS. Eufcmi, c Archangeli
Iis.t~d
I
c.~
argento, pens. lib. 11 et une.
,i1ver cani,ter.
~
Ib 8 oZ
rill
LEO Ill:
qui ponilur iuxta lilulum Pudenti. vestcm de st:lUraci 198: 471
cross-adorned ,ilk
canistrum c x argento, pcns. lib. V ct sem is l~'l
T
Ss. Giov.mni e I'aolo
HADRIANUS:
(Tit"/m I"'''''''''''/';') tecta rcnov:.vil[n : 8zJ
restored roofing
Gold
Ib
,,~
LEO Ill : eoronam el< argcllto, pel", lib. X ..,mi,
10, 8 ,ih"r
CroWIl 10
Il2lb
ri ']
ss, Goroianm e
while all -silk cloth, adorned around with interwovt'n gold, representing tbe Lord', R~'Surrect;on and ascension, also 1'~'IltccOSt
veotem albam o[ooiricam, ornatam i" giro de f""dato, habentem 'toriam CrucifIXi, Ascensionis ~'1l'cnt
cloths, I of ctoM-adorned silk with a gold-smdded fringe, tbe other cloth of
JO]
yn1]Z]llU]ll
2
HADRIAN US:
Epimachu,
D
SS, Nereo e Achilleo
1I0viter restaunvit [97: 78]
restored
LEO Ill: veste de ,raunci [98: 29]
cros in circuit" de cru-isocl.bo et .li. de tyreo) (98: I I I I
2 clths (, wh;le ,ilk with stories of the Birth of the Lord and his R ,;surre argentea. pens. lib - [99:
31
.-ela olosirk. cum peridi sin de (undalo. nurnero - [99: ,J
liker crown. 9 Ib
silver censer. gilded o,""r, weighing . ilver bowls. weighing all -silk veils with a fi-inge o( interwoven b,ld ((om.)
Table! (Will.)
N.me
Don>1ions.
list~oJ
Si lver lb o~
by pope
vcsum de (hrisod.vo (um ge",mi, hab...ntem hisloriam beali Pe1ri apoSloli [99; 3[
gold_Sludded dOlh wilh jewels. represeming Saim P~ler
vdo de (undolo, numero - [99' 3)
gold interwoven ",ils
in monasterium: calicem de auro cum genuni. omalUm. pem.lib, - [99: 3[
in monasl~ry' gold chalice wilh jewels. weighing -
palena de ~rgcnlo desuper de.ur:ib. pens. lib - [99: 3)
sil~er
crucem de ouro
~.um
gemmis, pens. lib. -
Gold lb oz
p.len. gi lded over. weighing -
gold cross wilh jew..!s, weighing-
[99: 3] p"lcnam el calicem de orgento d... uper deauralum pem. lih. - [99' 4) (oronam de argcmo Cum sui •. pens. hb - [99: 41
p~ndcnlibus
,iker palen .nd chalice, gilded o,'er, weighing silwr crown with its hangings. weighing. -
~ denotes that the gin was listed in the Donation lisl in the Lift of Leo III (LP 98; 69-8 I). This list of gilts provid"" information about the
stalU, and nalUre of th~ gift>. gronping some institutions tog,·ther wirh headings and listing gift. of difl"'rent quamiti"" to import,nt in stitutions_ 0 = omlory; D = Jid«mid ; M = . VRBA NI STEPHANI At,r nIER! MEL'J"IADIS I'/lVIANI tvUI PON TIA NI SIRIClI LVCII XYSTI FEUClS ANASTASII ET CAELESl1N .. ITEM NO.\1INA EPISCOPORVM· STRATONICI LEVCII ET OPTATIl>. QVAMQVA M PRESBlTERORVM ET LEVITARV(",r N ICOMEDIS ARCH/PR(t<jB[yltjRI IVSTIANI ET CYRlNI· CYRlACI DIA CONI N EM ESII ATQVE /ACHEJ l>. ETIAA! ET MARn' IW M N0.IIINI1IS·Ii! SVNT ZOTICI HERB'lE! /ACHI!\'
into th is holy
~nd
venerable basilic.
of the Virgin of Christ. Prax...:!is. whom the above_mention"':! pope, be"ring those resting in ruin, c.~tracted from cemeteries Or crypts ,nd under thi s saacd ,Iur. with th e g",atest care. with his own hands he placed (theml. in Ihe month ofJuly. the 20th day, in the loth indiction.' The names ofrhe pop es, truly. are Urb,n. l Stephanus.' AlItheriu s.' Mdti.de.: favi,nus.? luliu ,.' Ponti:mus,' Siricius, ' 0 Lucius," Xislus." Fdix.') AnlStasiusl< and C . elesrinus ,l , Also the ' .. Illes of the Bishops: Str.1tonicllS,'· Leucius 1? ~nd OptlIUS" And of the priesl:$ and Le~i[(,s.
Nico",edi< the Archpriest, " l ustianm.'o and Cyrinu• .'J Cyri.cus the Deacon," N e",esius." and I""heu,." And .Iso these arc the name< of the nlOnyrs : Zoticus." Hcrencus.>6 lachinthus." ("",1.)
3'7
'fa bles Table
20
2
(COII/.)
THI A M ANTII MARI AVD/E4X A BBACV AC Sf~"jCfljORVM OCTINCEl'.rJDRVM QVORVM NO,\1INI1 scrf O.If{"ijP{o/el1jSCASTVLI FELlClS MILlTIS COR DIANI EPIMACH/ SERVI
Am.antius," Maru.," Audif~x .'" Abb:.cucP .nd of the ""cred eight hundred. the n.mes of whom the Omn ipotent onC kno-vs. C.stulu • ." Felix." M ile,," Gordi , nu.,I' Epinl.lchus." Servi~.nus.)7
30
35
U ANI SVLPI CII DKXENIS BASTI ET A LII L XII · M ARCEL U ANI MARCI FESTI ET ALII DVO · TER1'VLI_INI FI1 VS'/1 BO NOSI MAVRI CALVM N I OSI 10HANNIS EXSVPERANTI/ CAST! CYRILLI E"f SEPTEM CERMA NOS· HONORAT! THEODOSIlIJASILII CRESCli N'J'1I UlRC I SM A RAC DI CR ESCENTIONIS IA SONIS MAVRI YPPOLrI1 PONTlANI CHRYSAiVTI ET ALII LXVI· SIMVL Q VE ET A LII M/LiE CEJ\'TVM V/C/,\ F/'I QVATIV O R Q VORVM NOMINA SVNT IN LlBRO VITAE· MAVR I ARTHEMII POLlONIS ET ALII SEXACINTI1 DVO MA R ·IYRliS ... NOMINA QVOQVf" VIRCINVM SCILICET ET V/DVARVM· PRAXEDIS PVDEgnA NAE I VLlANAE SIMFEROSAE I'ELlCVUlE MARiNAI'. CANDIDAI'. PAVUNAE OARIAE HAS/LUlE PAV UNAE MEAIMIAE MARTHAE EMERENTIANAE ZOE ET nBVRTIADlS ... QVOClRCA ET IN IPSO INGRESS V BA SI LICAI'. M A NV DEXTRA VBI VHQVE BENlGN/SS/MAE SVAE C ENETRI ClS SCILICET DOJ1 N A E T HEODORAE EPISCOPAl'. CORPVS QVIEscrr CON
1'8
Sulp ieius," Diogenes." Blm us'" and another 6l. M arccllianu •• " M. fCU'Y Festus," and .nother 2. Tertullinu,,., F.uSlll.'l." 130005u .... Maurus." C.lumnio5us.'· loh.nni,:'" E",uper:llltius, '" c.,tus,I' CyriU"., " and s..·vt"n Broth ers". OfHonoraru,." Thcodosiu •. " Uosilius. ,o Cresccntius." Largo,," Snl.ltlgdus,'9 CfCscentionis,"" hson.~' M anr us,~' Yppolim'.~'
Pontianus ," Chry"",tiu,'" ~nd .nother 66. Similarly the other Tt24. the n,,,ne. of whom a.... in the Book of Life. Of Maurus," Arthemiu,."' Polioni>" and anoth"r 62 m.rtyrs _ The namCS also of the virgins. indced. .nd the WhlOWS: ofProxedis." Pudentian •. 70 luli ana, " Simferosa," Fdicub," Marina." Candid • ." Paulin a.'" D,.i.,77 Ihli ll.,7' P.ulina.79 M~mn,ia ," M arth• ." Eme"''''i.". .... Zoe" and Tiburti.di. ... Th..",fofC. at the entrance of the basilica. Oil the right hand side where truly the hody of his benign mother, Mi, tfClS T heodora Epi>copa , rests. tlie . hove mentioned
Tablrs Table 40
45
50
2
(COIII.)
DID/T IAMDICTVS PRAESVL CORPORA VENERABlLI I'M HAEC ZENONIS I'RESBlTERI ET ALlOIWM DVORVA-I" PARITERQVE ET IN ORATORIO BEATI IO HA NNIS BAPHS1ilE MANV LEVA PRAENOJlINA '//IE BASILlCA£ QVI £'1' SECRETARIVM ESSE DINOSCI TVR CONDIDITCORI'ORA SCILICE T· MAWI ET ALl ORVM QIl.4DRAGINTA MAK/YRVM " SIMILI MODO ET IN ORATORIO BEA"filE XP!>I}I VIRC/MS AGNET/S Q VOD SVRSIIM IN M ONASTERIO SITVM EST IPSE PASTDR EXIMIVS POSVITCORPORA PIORVM AMR'/YRVM VIDELlCJT AtEXANDRIPAPAE ATQVE EVENTIJ ET T HEODIIU PRESBlTERIS" HOS OMNES DI'J' ELECTOS FREQVEI'lrnVS DEPRE CA NS QI'llTENVS PER EORVM VALMT P/UiC£S S VAE POST FVNERA CARNIS AD
CAEU CONSCEN 55
DERE C VL\1EN AMEN" FlVNT ET/AM INSIM IlL OMNES S(4nlCftjl DVO MILIA CCC
pontiff placed th ... e booi ... of Ihe wIH,,,,blc Zeno Ihe Pri""t." and oflhe other "\l().
A, wdl. in the or:llory of Blessed John th .. Bapti,t .• t the Idt hand of the above_menlioned basilic •. which is .lso rcco~:Tliscd ... sacri,ty. he placed Ihe hooi es, IN it be known. of M auru," and of other forty martyrs, the ,.me way . nd in th.. oratory of the b[essed Virgin of Christ Agn.... which high up in Ihe mona,lery is ,i lualed. tm. exceptio".[ p:lStor placed th .. booi ... of the piou, martyrs namely Pope Alexander." [n
.nd flhe priests Eventius ,nd Theodulus ." interceding very oflen on hehalf of these el..ct of Coo in order that through his pra~'ers 10 them he "I>y be worthy 10 :lSCend .fler the funeral aremonie, of his flesh 10 the summit of Heaven. Amen Let Ihem be all logether 2300.
This inscription h .. been studied by Unu!. Nilgen. 'Die groBe Rdiquicninschrift "on Santa Prossede· . R"",isd" Q,,,,.,.,ISlhrift 69 (1974). 7-29 _N ote my corrcClions hdow a"d in C oodson. 'Trans forming city and cult: The relic translations of Paschal I (817- 824)'. in ROInan Bodi,,, MeMmorpllOsr" ""j/ilarioll, a"d nl4rty,d,,,,,, ed. Andrew Hopkin. ~nd M aria Wyke (London, 2005), [36--7. upon which this discussion i. based. The .ou",... for the pbc .., of ",ne ration of the saints are hagiographic ",xts•• ll e.rlier th.n th,· mid-eighth cen tury: U>; DE (dated to 354); D M (0.1'0 354); MH from the mid-fif1h century ",waded in the sevemh: PM of Ihe e~rly ,evemh antury (Codi{~ rOp Loli", is an error for Stephen the protomartyT'•• hrine. See diMeu"ion in C"di« lopogmfico, 11, 11 Z, n _ 3J J.nu,ry. Catacombs ofCalIi"tll', LP 20; I. IOJ. nllary, Callcombs ofDllixtll', LP 33: 3, vindo ilt 387. 20J.nuary. Dt:>combs ofDlIixm., DM, NEUR. valic.n", latin", 5465. Some of his ",main, were.lso t",n,bted to the Oratory of SS. Xixtll. et Favian"' .t SI Peter'. by Paschal. 12 April. Cemetery ofC.lepodiu. (vi. Aurelia), DE. NE, DLSM (reads v;. Portuen",). Mamova, v;ndo lat 387 _ IJ August, Catacomb, ofCalli:1U' vcnemed on Z7 Nowmbcr. tran,bted by Pope Paul I at S. Silvestro. " the inocription thel'chimhus, MH. n 10 February, 4th mile of the vi. Labic,",. with Zoticus, Amantius and HeJ\'lleus. MH. " 10 February. loth mile of the vi. Lahica",. with Zoticus, !-Iereneus and lachinrhus, MH_ ,., 19 January, 12th mile of the via Cornelia, with Marth •. Audifax .nd Abb.cuc, MH. DLSAI. '" 19January. 12th mile of the via Corneli •. with Manila, Marm and Abbacuc. MH. DLSM .' 19 Janu"y, IZth mile of the via Corn eli,. with Martha, 1\udifa.~ and M"u s, A'fH. DLSM. p 12 March (or 26th of M arch). Cemetery ofOoSlulus (via Labican. ), MI-I, DLSM Jl Unknown. mtle ... this i•• duplicate of one of the seven son. ofFdiciti (see below, n. 5 J).
" C"met97; 7 8_ '" JO M . y, on the vi. Latina, with Gordi,nus, DLSM, \.,tic.nm btinu. 5465, MH. !-Iadrian restored the basilica < m.rtyred with Diogencs. imerred near him, ., r 8 June. Ccmctcry of Balhin. (via Ardc.tin. ). NEUR, DLSM. v>tieanus latillu! 5465 · MarceUianu! W2S vener:tted .Iong with Marcus. .. [8 june, Cemetery of Balbin. (vi. Ardeatina). NEUR, DLSM. v3ticarrus latinu! 5465. Marcus was vener:lted with MarceUianu •. ., l4 June. aJ &j,lt'" 'utu","', (via Sal.ri. Vctcre). A/H. .. 4 AUb",St. Cemetery of Tertullinius (via Latin.),,uH. Hadri.n r~'Stored the ba$ilic. dedicated to him . LP 97: 78 . • j These do not .ppear in thc texts prior to the ninth century. Saints Faustus. Ihnosu! and Maurus are named in the Pass;" S, SUp/ran; P"pot. Aaa Sanaon"". Aug. I. 139-44, and thus might have been venerated on possibly [ August. via Latin" .. If ",ad as Bo"u,. [ August, via latin •. with Faustu'. ,ee above. 11. 45 . ., Possibly r Augmt, via Latina, see , bove. n . 45. .. Unknown . .., The..., .'" numerous possibile lolllnnes that thi, could ",fer to. including Ihe one recorded as being venerated on 2 I De.j, PM. Arthemius was mutyred with Candida and P::tulina, who ',;ere buried near S, Panc",';o . .. 24 April. Cemetery ofPonti.nu, (vial'ortuellsej. NE. DLSM, 60 2r July. Catacomb, ofPri5 archive. Th e original ,va, incompletely transcribed in T88 I : AAY; Fondo S. PrasseJe, ell . 12 (Memorie di don Diego Cohlll,bani, '7281732). The latwr has been edited by Caterina-Giov:mn. Cow. Duellliimr Apostolica, 35. 'Acla S. C. Visit. Ap. ab allnO 1824', n.f. ASV. S.cra Congregazione dell. Vi,itl Apostolic ... '34. 'Miscellanea ,825" f. 24.
JJ5
Bibliography ASR, Corpornioni Religiose Maschili, Benedettini Vallombrosiani: S. Pl':)ssede. rcgg. 3. f>sc. I (I 8.l-r- [ 874). I nventorio = 2S/V. n.70. ColloGl = tOTTe B. piano I, file XI b3 [on the sUp1"cssion of the order[. ASV, s..Cr.l CongregJ.zione dclla Visita Apostolica, ]6. 'Act:! Cl Decrct:! S'Cr.lC Visitationis' (1829-3]). n.f. ASV, SaCI':) Congregazione ddla visita apostolica. 37. 'Aco et Decreta Sacl':)e Visitationis extr:ioroinariae a lllCOse ianuario' (7 guigno 1837), f. 362r-36 sr. ASV, SacI':) Congreg.66-73)(mid-CI7). ASV, Sacra Congregazione dell. visit> .postolic:t. 6. ACIa S.crae Visitationi, Apos-toliC)e. Se.:unda Pars (1662-7) . f. J66. BAV, vatieanns latinus. G. A. Bruzio, 'ThcatTlnll Urbi, (1668-77), f. [94. ASV. Sacra Congreg. Episcoporum el Regulariul1l. 19. Visit. ([671)-8}). ASV. Sacra Congrcgazionc dclla visita 3poslOlica. 12. ACla SaCtac Congrcgalionis Visitationis (,678-9J), If. 14r-20V. BAY, valic.mus latinus. looJO. 'Index qllorumdam lnSlrUm elltOrum ad Laca Pia Urbis Spectan. ex Archivio Capilolino de Sumpt' (C[7). ASR, Corporazioni Religiosc Femminili / Benedeltine in S. C ecili. in Trastevere (CI7), b. 40]2.
JJ7
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Fmming rl .. Early Middle Ages: Europe "",I the Meditermnean, 400-800 (Oxford. 2005)· Wickham. Chri, and In ge Hansen (cds.), 'l1re Long Eightl, Century (Lcidcn, :woo). Wilp ert, Josef. LA (f'ipM dei papi e la wppella di 5anra Cui/i" ne! timiura di Callisro (Rome, [SiC)]). _ Die Riimisc/'eu MOi",l~n und M"lereietl der I.!irclolid,eu B"'roli ngi.n courti .. ,8 letter to A" g;U>ert 2,8 letter to "'mo 16 lel' .... 10 Clwlem>gne j 1- ' ~ "'le",ndor. pope (10,- , 5) 319 Alf.,,1O". T iberio 18 2. 18, Algiers. Algerh 163 Aloi,i . Benigno 229.24' Ambrose. bi.h"p of M illn 17" An",wiu •. rop. (JII9-401) J27 An genendl. Arnold '~1 Ani:,"" . • bbey church 266 A""o/O' Rrgni Fr.",~not" se. R opl F"mltish AtlJ1 . I, Annill.of Fuldl ' 2 oflhe Fr.rnkioh cour! ,2 "' '' Iheriu •. pope (236-7) 327 Anlioch ~03 "'polk.,.,j-Gh etti. Bm no 92 "'po>r1eo. depicted", limbo 85. 152 rrUC! Ul) "'",bo. in",..io", by 72 . 78 in !lo m e 47 A",.diu •. emperor (J95- 401j) 6, A""'him 11. duh ofBeneven !O 754--87 ~'J Arl of' he Cm·"".n, 14 1. ' 4>. no, 244_ 245- 52. 262 Amo, bishop of S.1zburg 24.16.70, 76 Arnolf'Hli Cl1nbio 119 A",d bin . 1-Fu"'I J8. W At.ly 10. ~6? Bethlehem 201l l11""';C in» ges of I 51 . I 5' Bi:mchini. Giu"'!'p 24.25 e",rch1le 3". 3 I. H p. p.l ",lItio", ~. 11. 21 J. ~'5. 240. 256.
".
reconque9 I" ne •. M:athew 1('4 I"", •. empress 24. 2j. )7 ITming>rd. wife of Loth .. 27j
el""tion '7 gift. ~4. '44- 5 letteB 18 0>.6. 2, 2 rd"tio!lS with B)'Unlines J4 relics 2' 2 'ieg of Rome H. 1'3. 2,6. 246 ,..,.ri,ories 3'" 31.2)6 Lo=h •• !:>bey 2(>4 Loth". king of l"ly 29-30. J' . 33 COroruotiotl 3[ - 2 m.rri.ge 275 Loui. ,he Gef1ll:m 29 Louis lite Pim" 9. 12. 28. JO. J I. P. 121. 265.
,,0
,noirl!ing 28, 168 ,rchitebey 266 M illn. S. to"",,,, 184 Milti,des. pope (3 [0-14) J27 IJS M an, BL:andin (G he",) .• bbey 274 Monte G.rgano 208 M uffel. NikoL:au, 229 M urroy. S'''1'h 73.79 re",,, 6. um,n L:andsc.pe 6, N. poleon I, en'pem, (, 804-1 5) , l j Nice •. Second Council of 1j. )7. 160).201.
'"
Nidedorn_Bruck. Mel> 100 N ilge!l. Unu1> 1JO Noble. Thom,. E X. ,6, 33 . 66 Nori.ia E«/~Ianlm 11' Notker ofSt G>U 185. [\10 6NB, 1>, 79S 2) Opem C"",1i RfgiJ C,,""a Synod"'" (Lbri c;,,,,5m, 119-20
"P"" Ajtit.'"I'" 62
q"ad,,,,,,,,,
57. ,06 Ordin.'i" ;mpmi 29 Ontj"" R.m.,,; ..... Ii'u rgy. '''--XIS Osborne.John 166
"P"'-
M. cc.bees. reli", 202- 4 M".... zzi. F.derioo 27J M,rimo o:b Firen .. 229
gift_e~ch.nge
J77
Index A>:1"", I"d.vid.n"", Jo-I. H. J j. ~8. 26lnlo, Eric 1 ~6 P.tl'lVicini. Anroniotlo..... rdin.:tl of S, Pro.sseJ~ I~S I'>p'cy.• dminnt""ion of Rome 7'. 77. 7S inugeof ~I inMpendence ~. p. 43. 77-8 mint J6 I"l"'i buri.!. JO. Jl .eIf- presem.tion 7~. 78 P.. pal cour! Anglo-S,,-,on vi-rd to iconod.s", 151, 16s. 221- )
providing refuge 11. J7 rebrions with umis th e l'iou. 29, 264 rehc transLorions 1- ). 4. 7. 8. 18, '70, .60-1, )17
reliquary '47.~!. 262 Pase),.11 1. pope (">99- ",8) 226 l'aJ,jo A""'{ruii 1/:::l'fJiqJlj",' 20S. nJ-8 po~tic.l l"""" of 106, 12,-1 , .. niliciOll ~ VeIlero.tiOll 2,7.202-4 R &kelein. H edwig 2H Rom. inm6tier 1)8 R om, n nobility 6. 18. Jl R ome
37 8
'bjla{o' j4.9 '
Abric's .. ck 49
IlIdex """0"" 47. 48.70.72.76. n. 78 'quodu"" 6'], , 0J, 104. ,110). '9~ Aqu, Cl>udi, (r..."". LIt"""",.;.) ''''I, ,89. '94: Aqu. Tr:li:m, 127 Arch ofG.llienus 101 Argil
CH." .. 0
..... "'",.;. JP:.d &PI"" polll",b", H': of Bilbim H'; of
C . "ulu, JJr ; ofCyri.cu. 3JI.HJ;of lonhni JP; of l'onti.mu JJ '. JJJ ; of Priscilli HO. HJ: ofS, fe~citl 116; of Tenultiniuo H2: on the vi. App;, ",. 2, J: on the ,io Comeli. JJ I : On the vi. Lobi",,,,,,, H': on the vi. N omen,."" JJ ': On 'he vi. O< 5 '; CUM'" ,se"ot'" 49-H, 76: (,ee.1.OI,.t' '9'. ' 95 peruten,i. 1 pro<e .. ion. H pnx....ion. ,6, ,8
''Plifo"," /.e'''n;. '36---7 ,rali••",/ jj",rgy !J6-7 nurkets 6/j Milvi." bridge 19 mint 36 neighbourhoods IS. H. 92 nin eten. 6,; reuse M. 107-8; roon S8: lOf. bloch 60. ,06--] T"'"ple of,l\" vi>. d"lle Bouh Annat. '2, 26. 32. JJ. ~ '7:
coron.tion
~8
S. Adri.no '70,7 ., 76. '0 ' , '4', ' p-j. , 89, '9J. 2Jj . 28 ,
S. S. S. S. S. S. S.
S. S. S.
Ag-.>pito in S, Pi.,ro in Vincoli 2g1 A);'I'" dei Go,i 206. ~8} Ag-.>ti in Cap''' .-ipa, 18}. 284 Ag.ta in mo".,rrn'o umph' 284 Ag-.>u in Subur r. !DI.18J Ag-.>'" in Tr.
S. Anr cryp' 12?-H
J80
IlIdex S. S. S. S. S.
'P'" YI. loS. In ill«:ription J51 m"",ics lZI. Ip-3.ISj-4.Z47 .psid:>l .rch 121.152 • "ium 110.1 11 - 12. Ilj b.pus' .... y 91!-ed .nlabL.,,,,. ,110 w.np.iminll' 179 B. roque po'lal I I [ bell 'owe. , 11 Ilh,lm.mp"ilm 249 C. ppell.:t dei Pon,i.ni 179 C.ppelL. del B.gno '72--1.250 .11a. 176 in«:riplion, 171.19'-5 mM i"v-.1 Hoor ' 75 paintillll' 17S. 19" ribcri"", l2y. [37 wlonn.des 116-17 "'mfts,ic 129, 246 •• rlier building! 172 .. rly hillOry \10-1.94-6.98. lOO ' .• Clv>tion. 111. 11 6-17.177 f.,. de ,,6 im'g'" of Saint Cecili . '4Z . 246 inse,ip'ions 95-6 ka,uh."" '1 S Kr.mth"';mer·, "udy 98. ,,6. 118 liturgiClI (urni,me rn, 137. IJ8 implem en!5 14', 14 l--j liturgy 136 m.rbl .. 126.127. 119 nusonry 108 ",usur"",,,,,,. 117-IS mon""ery in ,.I/a i ...."'~ of SS. Cecili •• Agat:> . 86-7. 2H. 275
Er3Smo 18.291 E",.bio 89. ID2. lOO. 1 9) EUSl.dtio Z9J Felids 19J Giorgio in V"L.bro 87"'9. Il2, "7. 162, J. 119, IU). 121. 122 S. C ..."'O 190 S. Cir. ico '1)0 S. Clomente I [2. I 19. 14 1- 2. 148. 290 b'pti,(ery ,80 S. Corndi •. d"",,," (Illlo. , 13S-4' pre.lbtu< 216. 27/ C,lmni",u. )28 C.ndid. pS CondidUl , 18 C,.stu, Jl~ COOli. I, 2-18. 94, I I I, I p. '~). '44-52 p....ion.;rt "wiv:i CaM/iaf relics 1. 2. '7Y. >74. 27/ Celou. 113. 21j.'37- 4' . 256 ChtYl;]nliu< lJ :T-41. p8 Ct.udiu. 213. 21j. 240. ~5(' C",m•• 53 C"""urence 10'.184.190.205 Leuciu. P7 M,rcdlim", 214. 328 M>rcdlinu. 276. 27/ Morcu. ~H. p8 M>rin. ]18 M>nlu lJ4.]18 M.rlini:I1lu, 21j.217 M>ru, 2H. p8 Ilil:mtu. p8. P9 M,,-~imus
'«- 11 Meml11i. p8 Miclud .rchlngd lOll Miles p8 Nen, ..i", 117 N icomcdiu. ,h ...chpries, J17 No":"u, 237 OptllU' 327 P>ul jJ. IJI. 149. 152. 16 241.247 Siriciu •. pope (384--99) ]27 Si .. in"i",. pope (708""9) &/
h,,,,,_,,
si"..,.
'70
'2
Smilh.Juli. M. H. 2'3,217,253.176
J8,
IlIdex SojWlll'.
Notre~D~me
1)' spoh'. see Rome. '''''hniqu ... of construction, ,~"
legot coo", 48 Sq".r~ h. to , 66 s, Gill Pbn 171. 174 SI_Deni •• mon.stery '75. l?O. 114, 265 S,- V""" Ar .... 144 S"'tion>.lli'urgy '5- 16. 17, 87. , ' 5. , ]6 Stephen I. pope (154--?) 327 Steph ..... 11. pope (751--?) I ), ,6. '7, ,8. 34. H, ,8~. 1lhtdr:>.l I l j Ugonio, I'ietro '55 Um.yl"'o:k 38 Urlxln, pope (H~-]O) 94, '[ " 144. 14l - P.
'"
IxIp[;;;ng ,h. f.i,hful 2lo
30.3'.168.26
