TH E ENGLISH CI V IL W AR
1642-1651 AN I LLUSTRATED M ILITARY HI ST ORY
P HILIP
J H AYT H ORNT HWAITE
Colour illust...
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TH E ENGLISH CI V IL W AR
1642-1651 AN I LLUSTRATED M ILITARY HI ST ORY
P HILIP
J H AYT H ORNT HWAITE
Colour illustrations by Jeffrey B urn o Lord! Thou k"otueJthcw busy I must ~ Ihis day. If [forget thee, do not Thou forget me PRAYER OF srR JACOS AST LEY, EDGEHILL
t BRO C KHAMPTON PRESS LONDON
First published in the UK 1983 by Blandford Press This printing Arms and A rmour Press An imprint of the CasseU Group Welli ng to n House, 125 Str.lnd, Londun WC2R OBB Reprinted 1984, 19S5
Copyright © 1994 Anns and Armour All rights reserved . No pan of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, ~Iectronic or medumica1, including phOtocopying, recording or any information slo~eand relri~va1 system, withoul pennission in writing from th~ copyright h old~r and publi$h~r .
This edition publi shed 1998 by Brockhnmpton Press. an imprint o( the Caxtol1 PubllshingGorur Reprint 2002 ISBN I 860 198600 British Library CaIa!ogulng·in. Publication Oiltil
A catalogueenU'y forthis tiLle is available from the British Library
Frontispiece
The image of monarchy: King Charles t in cuirassle, annour, Portrait bv Sir Anlhony Van Oyck, c. 1637- 38. (Reprod uced bV courtesy of t he Trustees, The Nalional Gallery. London)
Primed at Orienl lll Pre!\s. Duhlli. U.A.E.
CONTENTS List of colour illustrations
6
Acknowledgements Preface
7 8
I.
The road to civil war
9
2.
The armies
3. Organization, equipment and [3clics
Foot Horse ArlilJery
Engineers TaCljcs 4. The First Civil War 1642-3 5. The First Civ il \'(far 1644 6. New Model : The First Civil War 1645
14 26 26 45 53 55 55 57 76 100
7· Between the Firsl and Second Civil Wars 1646-7
8. The Second C ivil War 1648 9. The Third C ivil War 1649-51
10. Uniform s 11 . Colours and standards Appe nd ix: Medals
Notes Glossary
Select bibliography
Index
113 11 7 124 133 146 15 0 15 1 155 15 6 158
COLOUR ILLUSTRATIONS Plate: , 1 Gentleman in everyday dress 16405 2 Pikcman 16-1.05 3 Musketeer 16405 Plate 2: " King Charles I S Sir Edward Walker, Secretary-al-War 6 C harles, Prince of Wales Plate 3
19
13
7 Oliver Cromwcll. Lieutenant-General of Horse 8 General officer, Parliamentary slajf
26
Plate" 9 Cuirassier in 'Iobster-taile-d' helmet I Q Cuirassier in dose IKlmct Pl ate 5 11 Officer, Royalist horse 12 Trooper, King's Lifeguard 1642 Plato: 6 13 Colonel Alexander Popham 14 T rooper. Popham's Horse Plate 7 15 Edward Massey, officer, Parliamentary horse 16 Nathanicl f'ienncs. officer, Parliamentary horse 17 Officer, Parliamentary horse Pl a te 8 18, 19.20 Troopers or horS(' P late 9 2 1 Trumpeter, Lord Hapton's Lifeguard 1644 22 CornCl , Royalis! horse Pla te 10 23 Dragoon . New Model Anny 1645 24 Cornet, Wa rdlawe's Dragoons 1643 2.5 Cornel, Essex's Ho rse 16,U Pla te 11 2.6 Sir Charles LUQls, offi cer, Royalist ho rse Z7 . 2.8 Officcrs, Royal ist horse Plate 12. 29 Officer, trained bands 1642 30 Muskel~r, Irai n~ bands 1642 31 Pikeman , trained bands 1642
6
27
]1
35
38 39
43
47 67
70
Plate IJ 32 Ensign with 4th Captain's colour, Red Reg!. , London trai ned bands t643 33 Sergeant, Red RegL, umdon U1Iined baods 1643 Plau~ 14 34 Ensign Wilh 151 Captain's colour, C harles Gt-....rd·s Regt. t642 35 Pikeman, C harle5 Gcrard's Regt. 1642 P late 15 36 Caplain , Gamul's Rcgl. 37.38 Officers, Royalist fOOl Plate 16 39 Pih'man, Earl of Essex's Regt. 1642. 40 Pike-man, Lord Brooke's Regt. 1642 41 Musketec-:T, Hampdeo's Regl. 1642 Pla te 11 42 Pikeman , blueco:n regt., Royalist foot 1642 43 Pikeman, whilecollt regl. , Royalist foot J64Z, 44 Musketeer, redcoat reg l., Royalis t fOOl 1642 P la le t8 45,46 l\'Iuskeleers, R o)'ali~ 1 northern foot 47 Sergeant, Royalist northern foot Plate 19 48 Pikeman, Earl of Manchester's Regt. 49 Musketeer, CoL Thomas Grantham's Regt. 50 Musketeer, Edwarcl Mo nlague's Regt . Plate 20 51 Officer, greyco:u regt ., Parliamentary foot 52 Fifer, Parliamenlary foor 53 Drummer, Parliamentary foot Plalc21 54 Musketeer . biuccoal tegl ., Royalist foot 55 Pikeman , grecncoal reg!. , Royalist fOOl 56 Pikcman, yellowcoot regt ., Royalist foot Plate :u 57 "'\crccnary French musketec-:r S8 Mercenary officer of horse Plate 23 59 Officer-of foot, New Modd Army 60 I'ikeman. New Model Arm), 6t Muskctccr, New Modd Army
71
7S 78
79
83 87
90
91
9S 115
11 8
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Plate :14 62:,63, 64 ,\>lusketeers, New Model Army Plate 25 65, 66, 6 7 Gunners, Royalist artillery Plate 26
68 Officcr, Parliamentary artillery 69 Firelock guard, New Model Army art.iJlery 70 Waggoner, Parliamentary artillery Plate 2:7 71 Engineer in siege armour 72 Miner 73 Seaman Plate 28 74 Ensign with colour, Masler of Yester's Regt. 75 Musketeer, Sconish foot Plate 29 76 Lancer, Scortish army 77 Pikcman, Scottish army Plate 30 78. 79. 80 Highlanders Plate 31 Colours Plate J2 Colours and standards
J 19
123
127
130 131
135 139
142
Sincere thanks are due to the staffs of the many libraries, museums and gaileries which rendered assistance during the preparation of this book. Among the many, the following should be mentioned in particular: the National Army Museum, London; the Trustees of lhe National Gallery, London ; lhe National Portrait Gallery, London; Ray ButlerofWallis & Wallis. Lcwes; Jonathan Cooter of Hereford Cify Museums, for his photographs of Birch's mortar, 'Roaring Meg'; Barry Gregory, for his editorial assistance; Richard Gflocn of the City of York Arl Gallery; and H.V. Radcliffe of Newark District Council Museum. Especial thanks to Jeffrey Burn, for interpreting SO superbly the mass of contemporary material and sketches with which J supplied him for the colour plates; and to H .V. Wilkinson for his help in tracing many rare, contemporary sources. Finally, J owe an especial debt to Mrs Irene Mulholland, in whose sehool and at an early age I fi rst learned the fascination of the era of the English Civil Wars. P.J.H .
t 43
7
PREFACE A purely 'mi litary' bisloT')' of I h~ English Civil Wars is scarcely possible, fo r the military manoeuvres studied in i501:lIion present a picrurc totally distorted by the omission of political, religious and social affairs which , it will be seen, had perhaps more inftuence upon mililary (:\'(:015 than in any war involving British panicipalion Ix.-fOT\' or si nce. The fo llowing text, whilst com:emrating upon the military cvents of the C ivil Wars, the armics, thcircompos iti on~ equ ipmc nt tlod life, indudes asmuch of the 'general' hislor), or lhc Civil Wars as is necessary 10 illumin:lIe the causes and influences upon the military aspec15. T he published literature concerning the wars is V;\5I, and aided by the nOlt'S and bibliography the reade r will be able to pursue in " r Clll el' dep th those to pics which are, of necessily, onl y sketched he re. Notes art provided in the conventional manner, with onc exa:pl.ion; references to Clarendon's H istory Dj the Rd)(,lIioll refer 10 book and paragraph number, as is the usual practiC(.", jnsu'ad of ro "olume and page number. I n all cases the 1888 Oxford t'dition has bttn used. In an age when any dcgrcc oflitcracy \\"lISexceptional , scventeenth-centu r)' spell ing was arbitrary; as Ben Jonson rema rked. it was a dull man who cou ld spell a word only onc wa)'. In many cases contemporary spelling ha~ been rt'tained, but in others some modernization has been necessar)', e<Spccially with pro~r names; it would only $Crve 10 cause confusion to retai n, fo r examplc, Ihe spt'lI ing 'Lashley' for Leslie or 'Worle)" fo r Wardlawe. Similarly, dL'5ign3tioDs which Strictl y arc incorrect have becn retained for the sake of convenicnce; th us, for examplt', 'Civil War' should bt' taken as referring 10 the Ihret' wars which occurred
8
between 16.42 and 1651, and the term 'Nt'w ,,"' odd' as conC(."rning nOI only the Parliamentary army which bore tha t name between 1645 and tl>47, but also to the Standing Army which replaced it. In any case, 'New Model' Wll5 ne"er a universal term, 'the Army under Sir Thomas Fairfax' being the most common OOntcmpora ry designation, Throughout the text , the con{em porary terms 'horse' and 'foOl ' have bttn usw instead of the modern 'cavalry' and 'infan{ ry', and dates are expressed in the old st)'le, except that the modern practice of beginning:l year on { January (rather Ihan 2.'5 Murch) has been followed, The terms ' Roundhead' and 'Cavalier' we re nOI at the tim~ used as frequen tly as modern practice might suggest; Clarendon slales thal the)' came to be used in 164 t , the former deriving from the shon haircuts favoured by Puritans. and tht: latl t: r dl'5cribing the King's part}', from Ihe French and lIalian wo rds signifying a horseman (or, to Parl iament , those 'without having respect 10 tht' laws of the land, or ti ny fear either of God or man . . ' ready to commit all manne r of outrage and violence , .• I), In any case, though the Roundheads o f 1642 may have had cropped hai r, 'lwO or three yea rs after, an y stranger that had s«n them, would have inquired the reason of that name' l , Whilst contemporary sources form the foundations of historical research , mllny C ivil War sources arc influenced by political or religious bias; and, as one Ro),alist l'Ommcnted , 'the next man can hardly make It true relutio n of the actions of him that is next whimj for in such a hurry and smoke as in a sel fi eld a man takes nOle of nothing but what rclates to his own safety' ,
1 THE ROAD TO CI V IL WAR On lZ August 1642 the royal standard of King Charles I ....·as r:Ji s~d in NOllingham, fonnally beginning the first
civil war in England sin~ the crown of Richard II1 was rttO\'c:red from under a bush al Boswonh Field 15 7 years before. But the war oJl('ncd by the raising of the standard, which ....llS 10 cause fundamental changes in English life, might reasonabl y be said 10 have begun in earnest in the midsummcrof 1642, when the governor of Hull at first refused his sovereig n admission and , in July, successfully witllSlood an incompetent siege. But the origi ns of the Civil Wars go back much funher; indeed , one modern historian has taken the dau~ 160) as a com 'cnic:nl embarkation on the subject I. h s rOOlS may be traced even funhcT. The English Ch·il Wars have engendered perhaps mo re misapprehensions ilian any o ther. JUSt as many bclie\'e the war to have been fought between long-haired cavaliers and crop-headed Puritans, its long-tl:rm and immediate causes have been scen in simplislic terms and occasio nally with almost as much political colourin g as some of the newS-Sheets of the t640'S. Whilst there is link space for even a cursory assessment of I.he roots of connict in the present work , when numerous volumes have been devoted exclusively to the subjcct, a brief explanat io n is necessary to PUt into pcrspeCliw the military affairs of the nine years' vioknce which afllicted the COUntr)' afler the raisi ng of the standard at Nottingham. In one sense, economic difficulties were a contributory factor to the oUlbreak ofwarj not on the part of the population o r landowners (whose improving prosperit y made those in the House of Commons conscious of a ri gh t to increased political power), but in the lack of funds of the central government itself and the King's inability to undertake the Scottish expeditions of 163940 witho ut rt"Calling Parliament (after I1 years' break) to render financial assistance. During this parliamentary hiatus revenue had been garnered by a number of increasingly unpopular taxes, levied without parliamentary 53ncl;on: tonnage and poundage (duties on im ports and exports). the re,';ving offeudal rights (such as fining all gentlemen wit h land wonh £40 per annum if they refused a knighthood!), the gra nting of 'patenu' and, above all, the infamous 'ship mo ney'. Originally a tax levied o n coastal counties to pay for t.he Royal Navy , in 1638 it was exte nded to inland counties and aroused intenSe o pposit io n. A Buckinghamshire squire, John
John Hampden (engraving bV HOl,lbraken)
Ham pden. actually brought a test case O\'er it, but the judges upheld the King's ri ght 10 collect il, and t hat he was the only authority capable of :assessi ng the necessity for such colkction. The intensity of opposit ion o\'er the imposition of taxes was matched by the animosity of the Puritans towards the leaders of the Church of England . Though the religious element in the causes of the Civil \'(' ars has been o~'er-emp hasized in the past. t.herc is no do ubt that the I>uritans played a leading role. Believing that the individual could establish direct contact wi th the Almighty without intercessio n of Church or minister. the Puritans considered preac hing more important than established prayers, tha t in some cases predestination (the belief that soh'mion was preordained , irrespective of conduct on c:arth) was fact , and thllt resemblances 10
9
Roman Catholic rilUal should be eliminated from services. Church couns and tithes (in effect paring fo r the upkeep of ministers whom they did not support) were funher g rieYilnccs. which Puritan ministers aired when the opporlUnlt)' arose, crilicizing the Church heira rch), and, by impliLlItion, its head. the King. Charles I, who favoured order in all things, disliked the iconoclast l:.uritans and probably regarded them as political subwrsivcs, as did the C hurch he irarchy. and appointed William Laud as Arehbishopof Ca nlerbury in 1633 10 attempt the elimination of Puritanism. (3 )' then. howc\·er. the Puritans had too st rong a hold. and their auempts to O\'ert hrow the Church tos tablishmenl spilled owr into the political sphe re liS Ilarliamentarians opposed to gO\'ernment policy, though basically not Purit"Jn themseh'cs, took t hem as a llies. 11tt." theor), that tht: C ivil Wars were wars of class still find s fa\'our . somet imes at the expense of the rt:ligious C'a USl..OS , Broad assertions that the nobility and gl! nlry we re Royalist and the merc hants and yeomanry Parliamentarian seem to be incorrect, as support for o nc side or the ot her seems 10 ha\'e depended liS muc h, if nOl mote, upon geogruphy rather than m:l1lers of birth o r fina nce. Whilst few :I.rellS were wholly loyal to onc s ide or the Ol her. distinct territorial patterns were scen, with the gentry of the poorer a reas and pastoral shires like Lancashire and Cheshire, much of Wales ilnd the southwest being staunchly Royalist, whereas the mat'(' prosperous farming countiL"S like Kent and East Anglia we re the cornerstones of Parliamcm3ry support. Even the large tr:lding L~ nlres such as London, Bristol and Newcast le, L"Ontro lled by the merchant class and usuall)' regarded as wholl), Parliamentarian. contained numbers of L'Ommilled Ro),alisu. As in all lhings, shades of grey are more accurate than black and white. The long-term ca u~ of the Civil Wars - g rie\'3nces O\'c r Hl.xation and Church organ ization and demands for an increasing r61e for I'arliament - whilst instigating criticism of Ihe King, never e nvisaged his deposition. The ear ty Parliamentarian aims were 10 'recover the King OU t of the hands of a Popish Malignam Company, that h:1\'e sed uce\.! His Ma jesty with their wicked Counsels, and have wi t hdrawne him from his Parliame nt , . . To rescue the King OUt of his and the Kingd omes e nt·mics; and 10 mai ntaine his Ho nour and JUSt I>rcroga. Ih,C'S' l i their c ry was ' King and Parliamenl' , nOl JUSt ·I'arliament ' . T he mo re immediate causes of the wa r, howe\'cr, perhaps provided more just ice fo r criticism of the King's go\'ernmeOl . King Charles I was a serious, even solemn , character. 'Ihe most worthy of the ti tle of an honest ma n" , possessing many \'ittues but IlIcking sdf-confidence and a real sense of humou r: '.,. a n excellent understanding, bUl was no t confident enough ofil; which made him ofleot.imeschaoge his own opi nion fo r a worse,and fol low the 3d\'ice ofa man (hal did nOI Judge SO welt as himseW·, He inherited such il ma n in his father's favourite. the
'0
Archbishop laud (engf;lVing by R TaylOl')
Duke ofn uckingham" when he accccded to the throne in 1625. Buckingham 's arrogance and mishandling probably o riginated the swell o r criticism which came. 10 IX' le\'elled al his royal master. Through the hue 1620S KIng and Parliament battled over the finance needed to figh t wars agai nst Spain and France. into which the countr y had been drawn by Buckingham's foreign polic~', IInd eventually un popular taxlllion I\'IlS [evied wit hout Parliamentary authorit y. C riticism of the King increased o\'e r his religious policy. tht' Commo ns condemning a supposed 'growth of popery" and the Armi nian sect which held that 1111 men were ftc{" 10 gain sal\·3tion. Predominantly Q llvinist for o ver half a century, the Church of England '!; official accepta nce of predestin3lion \\'35 under serious challenge by the Ki ng's reissu(' in 1628 of the Thirty-Nine Article!;j which W3S regarded by the Ho use of Commo ns as a rcjC(;tion of predestinalio n and thus the first innul." nce of Rome; for were not Roman Cat holics gaining influence at court, and was not the King's Ft'('nch wi fe also of that persuasion! In M arch t629, with the Speaker forcibly held in his chair as he tried 10 adjourn, the Commons passed three resolutio ns: a condemnatio n of reJigious innovafion. of tonnage and poundage Ic \'ied withoul P.:arliamentary authority" and that any merchllnt who paid "illegal' taxes betrayed the lilX'rty of England liS much as the authority
THe. ROA .) TO C I VIL \VAR
which b'icd them. Then Ihe House of Commons broke up and did not rc(:onvene for 11 yc.-an:. During this period opposition to the K ing's policies (di rected towards the King himselfsince Buckingham's murder in t628) was expressed beSt in the local gO\'ernment of the t'Qunties, The gentry was antagonized by government m ishandling; the ycomanry and tradesmen resented the arbitrary ta:'l:es and the impressment and quartering of soldien:. Even a stau nch Royalist like Sir Ralph Hapton, who became onc of the King's most capable generals, was a Pu ritan suspicious of popery and critical of forced loons and shi p mone)'; and the h·I.P.s of Cornwall , laler Ihe mOSt Royalist of all counties, opposed the King's taxes. No organized opposition to the King's religious policy esistcd, for the Presb)'\erians (who wished to abolish bishops and replace them with a go\"t~rnment like that of the Scouish Kirk) were few in num ber; and the I'uritans formed :m integral part of the C hurch of England , seeking to change it from within,most belie\'ing that the King was altempdng with the aid of Roman Catholic ministers and wife to turn the Church towards Rome. T he King cannOt hne bc."'Cn unaware of thc rising tide of opposition, but in Ihe words of his declaration to the people after the dissolution of Parliament in 1629, he believed that 'princes arc not bound to gh'e account of lhdr actions but to God alone'; yet this same documem anempted to sho" ' I.hat he. the K ing, was the conSCf\'Ulive force in Ih~ country by quoting precedenls for the levying of taxes without Parl iamentary sanction, and by resist ing an y innovation in the C hurch. The day after Parli3ment 3d;ourncd in t629 the King arreSled nin~ members of the Commons on charges of sL-dition , consigning three to an unspecified term of imprison. mem, which only ~xace rbated the feelings of the ant iBuckingham lobby, for one of the victims was Sir John Eliot, whose spt'echcs the King considered responsible for his minister's assassi nation. Eliot 's death in Ihe T ower three years later onl y made feelings run higher. By 'illegal' taxes and the conclusion of hostilities, the King was able to make his income suffice without the help of Parliament, but few measufl.-S (though all made with the highest of motives) mollified the opposition 10 the King; indeed, they made it worse, Even Laud 's insistence that clergy should wear a surplice and that congregations should bow IOwards the altar increased the belief in a Romish takco\'er. Ne\'enheless, government ran reaso na bly smoothly unlil t638, when IWO events changed every thing. Firstl y. 35 only sc\'en out of twelve judges in the Hampden case supported the King's right 10 Icv)' ship money, most of the King's opposition became focussed upon the haled 13..'1( and the judgemenl was take n as an excuse 10 :n'oid paying it; confisca tion of propenr of those unwilling 10 p3y aroused e\'en more indignation, The second dramatic e\'enl was the King's decision to compel the Scott ish Kirk to acce pt a new prayer
book, which resulted in riots and the fo rmulat ion of 3 National Covenant protesting the Lowlanders' solidarity against religious interference from England. Charles' actions, hopelessly misguided, were ocl.."3sioned simpl}" as Gardiner wrote. by his love of order and shec:.r ignorance of mankind , C harles was lold that the imposition of the Book of Commoll Prayer upon the Cah'inist-influenccd Ki rk would rc."quirc the support of 40,000 men, but not having sufficient funds or materiel he played for time, calling a General Assembly of the Kirk, The defiance of this boch' was such that il li:vcn abolished lhe bishops forced upon them by Cha.rles' falher . The war which foll owed was not foughl over Ihe origi nal question; it promoted a Sconish nat ional mo\'ement led by the Pn'sbyrcrian ministers in general opposit ion IO the King.3nd provided itself wilh an arm), which encompassed the Lowlands, trained by professional officen: relUrncd from the Tbiny Years' War, and which W(l S far tOO good for the impoverished militiu which C harles could field , (Thl! Highland ehid s_ moslly Roman Catholics, took no part in t.he war , SU\'e for the saturnine Archibald Campbell, Marquis of Argyll, whosedan was theonl)' onc IOOppose Ihe Ki ng.) Abandoning an unsuccessful invasion of Scolland , C harles' advisors persuaded him to conclude peace by the Pacification of Bef\\'ick ( 1639), but the King remained determined to crush his rebd lious northern SUbj«t5 and sent for his Lord Dl.'puty in Ireland, Viscount Strnfford, to ad\'ise him. Though opposed to the Scottish war, St rafford (and Archbishop Laud) persuaded the King to recall Parliament to provide funds for 3 proper prosecution of the (:nmpaign. I n ret Urn for his advice, promise of trOOpS from Ireland and a presumed manipulation of the Commons, $tnlfford receh'ed an earldom and the post of Lord-Lieutenant of Ireland ; but when I~arl iam ent assemblt.-d its rl"olclion was very differenl from that anticipated by thc royal councillors, Airing t I ycars and more of gric\'anL"es, John Pym, long one of Ihe King's leading critics, demanded that the liberlks of Parliament be examined and the ship-money \'erdicl be discussed. Charles offered to abandon the laller tax - in fact it was now largely uncollectable, such was popular opposition - if the Commons would prO\'ide enough cash 10 reopen hostilities, Their refusal resuh ed in Ihl.' dissolution of this so-called 'Short Parliament' and Charles attempted to proS(1;ute the Scottish war wilhout Parliamentary aid . -me result was a fiasco ; Strafford, so ill that he h3d 10 tr3\'el by litter, was pessimislic when appointed l..'Qmmander-in-chief, nnd a brisk invQsion by the SCOItish over thl.' T yne routed the opposition, C harles was forced to accept the humiliating Treaty of Ri pon (21 October (640). by which Scottish forces were allowed 10 stay in Durh3m and Northumberland unlil a final settlement was concluded; bUI more importantly, as it transpired, lhe so-called ' Long Parli:lment' had to be convened in November.
11
John Pym (engl3vlng aftBI Houbloken )
P)'m's House of Commons lfor he was le:Jder against the King's policies) was vinually unhed in its opposition . Future Royalists and even Royal 3ppoin t ~ such as Sir Edmund Verncy, the Knight t\'larsh:1i of the Household who d ied defcnding the King's banncr at Edgehill. steadil), \'olet:1 in OPPoSition, IIn opposit ion built not only on the mismanagement of go\'ernment and the assault on Parliamentary rights. but aggrJvated by the I1 years' Parliamentary hiatus and the presence ofa Co\'cn:Jnt ing army on English soil. The strength of feeling was such that P)m ....'35 able to obtain the support of members whose opinions were so dh'crgcnt as to ultlm:udy cause civil W3r. Dcfl~ling more radical bills (such as one requiring the abolition of bishops, suppon ed br the C... mbridge M .P., Oli\'er Cromwcll), P),m's first objectives were an aCt to compel Parliament to meet on~ ever)' fi\'C' years. and the impeachment of Su·afford. who was used by bc.lIh sides as a scapegoat. Though (unf.'lirly) blaming Strafford for the disaster in the north. the King tried to sa\"(' his lo)'al servant . e\'en allempting his rescue from the T ower ofLondon , which fail ed when the LieUlemtnl of the Tower refused 10 :admit Charles' troops. Strafford himself begged the King to give royal assC'nt to the Bill of Attainder con· demning him to death as a traitor for attempting 10 di \'ide King and !'arliament , to prevenl an increase in 12
the civil unn$t already ,.:aused by the King's hesitation. O n ::!o "'\or t64 1 Strafford was beheaded. ' r he mobs which had intimid:aled the Kingnnd members of tile 1·louse of Lords into abandoning Strafford to his unjust fate seem to have bct:n orehestf3ted b}' members of the anti-Royal faCtion. Pym seems genuinely 10 have supported the existing establishment and been loyal to the monarchy, bUl hisaimswerC'nlore !han simply to remove the King from the influf.'l1cc of e"il counsd s, but appa rent ly 10 !ncrC'ase the powC'r of Parliament at the expense of the King's. Throughout the summer of t641 it lIPI:>Cllred as if th is re\,olution:lry pr(x:ess was beginning, as the King mllde concessions 10 the will of P:arIi3lTlent , including the Triennial Act which allowed P:arliament to be summoned without royal command , nnd the dedarntion that ship money was illegal. As power continued to tilt towards the hands of Parli:unem, many of the King's former critit'S began to believe Ihat reform had gone far enough; bUl an OU Ibreak of re\'olt in Ireland caused Parliament to pass propositions that the King's advisers and ministers be approved by Parliament, and that Parliament . not the King, should be responsible for the Kingdom's defence... The publication by Pym of a 'Grand Remonstrance' which l"3talogued all the grievances IIgainst the government since the reign began, coupled with further civil untCSt following Ch:arlcs' upholding of the Book 0/ C rll/IIIIOII Prayer and his appointment of new bishops , together with increasing divisions within the Commons. persuaded the King to act. On 4 January 16.-2 Chark'S alTh'ed to person at the House of Commons 10 arrt'st five M .P.s for treason, including Pym and Hampden_ All five slipPI-'d away and went into hid ing, and the King removed his coun from \X1hitehallto Hampton Coun; his next return to London was to stand trial for his life . Although both faCtions began to prepare for war (the Queen going abroad 10 pawn the crown jewels 10 buy arms), negotiations continued until Mllrch when the break W11S finlllly m.ade over the Mil itia Ordi n:ance, whereby cont rol of the militia -virtually theonl)' armed hod)' in Ihe country - was to be taken from the King and passed to Parlia· ment . By May, Charles had established his headquarters in York and in the fol\owi ng month commissioners from Westminster broughl him their terms of peace, the 'Nineteen Propositions' which in effect would have given Pa.rJiament full so\'ereignty :and left the monarch as a figurehea.d , The King and his supporters bargained for a partnership rather Ihan seeki ng :a reversio n to absolute power, but any quests for pea~ wt'rc in \'ain; in July Parliament commanded the Earl of Warwick (0 to.ke command of the n:a\')'. which was almost cntirely Parliwncntary in sympathy. and for thC' Earl of Essex to t'l'lmmand a Parliamentar), :army. Charles called upon his loyal subjects for assistance in crushing the rebellion . and raised the ro)'al standard formerly on 22 August 16.-2, officiall), opening the Ch'il War.
TIIH R O.... OTO CIV I L W .... 1t
Prince Rupert (engraving after portra, t by Va n Oyck)
I]
TH E ARMI E S
Before lhc C\'CntS of the Ch'il \\7arscan ~considcred, it is imporlanllo cover .some details or how bot h sides were able 10 assemble the necessary malcriclla conducl a war
- men, equipment and finance. The support for ellch fllclion. however. WJS b~' no mcanll 3S ck!lr CUI as is oftl:n presume-d. Peers supported both King and Parliament, Ihough the' nobility in general nat ul"lIlIy symp:lthized wi th the King, but the genu)' wC're divided evenly, 10 such an extent !.hat the 'civil' wa r m ight be regarded us much a 'family' war; brolher fought brother, friend opPQscd friend, thus increasing the tragedy which ae· companies any conAicl. Even al the higheST level families were split; the re publican Sir Henry Vane had a
Roralisl brother; Sir Richard Feildmg. Royalist defe nder of Reading, had a broth~r fighting for Parliam~nI; Ral ph Vcrney, brother of the K ing's Knight M arshal, was against the King and thus was told by brothe r Edmund that he was now an e n~mv ; the son of the regicide S ir Thomas Maulevcrer fought (and was imprisoned) for th~ King; Demil Ho lies, o nc of the King's mosl \'~he ment critics, had three Royalisl cousins; th~ Earls of Dcnbigh and Dov~r, serving as troopers in lhe King's Lifeguard al Edge-hill, both had sons in t he opposing arm)" Lords reilding and Roehford ; al least s ix members of the Cromw~1I fa mily bore arms for the Kin g, As twtJ clos~ friends, the Royalist leader Sit Ralph Hoplon and the PDrliDment:u y general S it W'illiam Wa iler, succinctly termed the war, it was onc 'wi tho ut an ~ n~ m}" . If factions wcr~ form~d more by geography than class, then cconomk-, also innu~nced the support fo r onc side or the other, though eVe n so the geography of support is best expressed in shades of grey. If most Royalists were to be found in th~ poorer regions and if the country could be d l\'ided into prtJ- and a nti-Royalist areas (the weSt, west J\,l idla nds. east Yorkshire and the far nOrlh fo r !he King. the Home Counties, east and south-cast fOf P:arl iament), there wcre no lasting. clear divisions; areas might be Roya list o nc year and Parliame ntary the nex ), depe ndmg u pon a number of factors, not leasl the proxlmilY of an army belonging to one side or the other. Si milarl y, the compos Llio n ofbattJ elines was influenced by o ld or famdy rivalries, an oft en-neglected fac tor in IlIter assessments of loyalties during the wars, Even the mercha nt c1as! was ambivale nt in its support, some trading centres supporting the King and o thers Parliament, ofun from personal mo ti Ve! nuher than polil-
i!;"JI o r religious eonvic(ions. Thus the City of London financiers who backed Parliamenr in 16-12 were probabl y influenced mus l by the b 'ying of customs and dUlies by the King Without Parliamcntary approval. o nly to discove[ thllt the taXes introd uced by ' Nng Pym' 10 finance Parliament 's war effort were more scve~ than a nyth ing levied by the Crown . But if the political and religio us conviction of many partiCIpants (:Quld Ilnd did give rise to the most fanaflcal aClions, il is quite incorrect to regard the Civi l \'(!ars as invol"ing c\'eryont' by re:lson of conviction. Although the most bine r fig hting som etimes occurred in arcli$ away fro m the mai n spheres of campaigning -lurgely a ne\'er-ending successio n of skirmishes aggra\'alcd by long-held feuds and rivalries - a large proporlio n of th~ gentry and probably a ma,oMty of the llnisan classes, especially in rural arCllS, wished o nl y to be left alone. The 'neutralis t' mo\'emenls and the sentLments whic h caused them probably explain why, in most :areas, the existing Slructure ofl ocaJ gove rnme nt and ad ministrJtion was able 10 keep running with remarkttbly few interruptions. save. where economy ond life were disrupted by thc passage of an army or the raising of supplies for o ne. It appc=ars that neutralist mon'.ments existed in at least 22 countles l , including a number of demili ta rization pacts between thOSe ostensibly fi ghting th~ Wllr, s uch us the Royal Commissioners of Arra r -and the Pa rliamentary Militia Commissio ne.n, both responsible for the formation of annies and pros«utio n of hostilities. E.umples Include the pact agreed in Chesh i~ In December t 642, and that between Lord Fairfax and other Yorkshire Parhamenrnrians and t heir Royalist neighbours. the latter earning 11 stiff rebuke fro m Parliament whic h C'O ns ide~d a demilitarized Yorkshire to be in the Royalist interest. Attempts to s:we their own counliCl from strife ~sultcd in some neutralist gentry endeavouring 10 forswear su pport for either side, attempting to ignore the whole business except for measures to prOtect their own properl )'; in Lincolnshire, for exampl~. some gentl~ men proposed to rdise a troop of horse 10 protect thcm~ I\'cs from whichever side sho uld try 10 molesl them ! S uch neutralist mOl'CmcntS adumbrated th~ 'dubmen' of the mid 16-1os, which will be mentio ned laler. Out amidst all thc \'chemence of political and religious doctrine which affiJe(ed both sides. sucb as the ParliAme ntary stateme nt th:u ' \,(le are nOI now to look at our
THE ..\IIMIIlS
enl.'lTues as Country.men, or Kinsmen . . , but ll5 Ihr enemies of God llnd our Religion, :md siden with Anti· christ; so our ere is not to pitie them , nor our sword 10 'pare thrm , . .' l, there were contemporar)' st:llements which iIIumimlled tht' opinions of thost' who simply wanted to mind thcirown business, who cared 'not what Go\wnment they Ih'c under so as they may plough and go to ma rke t', of counlr)' peol}!;: who loved 'their pudding at home beuer than a musket and pike abroad, and if the)' could hllve peace, care not what side had the better'). or as Or I'tumtre of Nottingham remarKt'd, 'what is the cause 10 me if my goods be lost?'''. Others, sadly, ta red tittle 'for eithe r of tile C'.Iuses but lhey would ha\'e taken any side fOr pay and plunder', The laller motives might be presumcd the esplanation for thc mllny changes of 5ide which occulTt'd throughout thc wars (though Sir John Urry's triple defectio n is esC(ptional); but whilst trur in 50me ClISt.'"5, a grt::ucr l..'3usr of changing allegi:m ec was alteration of cireumst:mee$ around an unchanginG personal belief;as Sir WiIliam Wailer wrotc, esplaining his transfer of support betwt"l,.'n the Independent and Presbyterian parties. ' the change was not in me but in othcrs " . I changed my compan)' but not my mind" . And if the officers sharcd similar social backgrounds, it WIIS probabl)' ~\'cn more true of the men. Givcn lhllt thtrt m:rr 'rukehells' in tht R O)'1I1 armiCli and religious fanatiC!! in those of Parliament (o r as one RO)'alist said, 'in our army Wt ha\'l~ thc sins of men (drinking and wcnehing) bUI in )'ours you have those of de\'ils, spiri(Ual pride and rebe l1ion'~) , the maiority of t.hl.' rank and file on both sides were ftllsonllble, ordinary pt'Oplc
OlllCers with 'teadlng slaff' and parlizan, from 171h centUfY engravings (rrom Goold·Walker's Honourable Artillery CDm/Mny)
with trndi LionalloYlllties towards monarch, Chur"h and seigneur, and with no greal vehemenCt.' of feelin g onc W3Y or another until compelled, ThrCi! factors wcre nt"Cl'"Ssaty to put an anny inlO lh~ field : finance, men. and cquipm~nI . The first could be levied in taxation. provided by patriotic gifts, or 10 :t c~rt:.lin extemdispensed with by the invidious system of 'free quarter' IInd plunder of pro\'isions and m:llcrid. which will be noted in greater detllil. The c.."ttnl to which privtue individuals ixt:amc financially committed wa$ exemplified by the Mllrquiso of NewcaSlle and \'('otct.'"Ster, who each SIX'nl nt':lrty one million pounds on the Royal cause, The less affluent sold their platc, jcowellery and other posscssions, whilst merchants Illso expended eonsidemble s ums, though many of the Io.ner who supported Parlillment c\'entually made a profit on their patriot ism! In raising the troops. ho\\'e\'cr. thcre were always difficulties, for no 'standing army' csisted; indeed, thc vcry concept of such was 10 remain aO!nhemll 10 many for a eonsidef"Jble time after the Civil Wars, 3 ,·iew no doubt strengthclleJ by the army's ~e ntu:d assumption of power (one writer began hiS Irealise by stating that 'If an)' ~oIan doubts whether a SHlOding Army is Sl3vcry, Popery. Mahomctism . Atheism . or any thing which they please . . ' .,." Annies were formed of regiments of foo t and horse, raised for a specific 13sk or campaign and disbanded at Ihc conclusion of hostilities: there was thus no ' regi. mentlll' continuity as came to be undcntood in the following three centuries, IInd forces suffered in terms of discipline and cxperience as 11 result, At least until the formation of the New M odel. reGiments in both
Ensign and sergeant. from 17th·century engra1llngs (from Goold· Walker's Honourabfe Ar"lfery COm/Mny)
15
armies were transient enulies and their personnel ever· changing. There was, however, onc body always in
'An Offleel 01 Pikemen' (engf3vlng bv N,C. Goodnight)
Arllllery Garden , existing 3S the ·Fr.lIernitie or Guyldc of St Gwrgc' in 1537 if not before. and still surviving as thc Honourabk Artillery Company. Though the Company did not servc as a unit in the Cidl War, the influence of its members, not kast \,\Tilliam Bariffc whOSt' drill book was a standard work, was considerablc. Theofficercorps ofthc London rcgimcnts seems to ha\'e rcp~nt(-d the I!.'
Lun.kJt'l ,
19SJ,' r J7
while a Fa'nth .;olonel, Ma.zercs, was apparen tly cashlercd for hIS loye of drink, gaming and women. Frequent ~ferenccs may be found 10 foreigners in positions of rt:9ponsibilit)'. often in technical roles like the engi. neer Rosworm or ",,'io nsieur de la Ruche in charge of theRO)'alist mo rtar at Cirencesler in Fcbrwry 16-43. These returned, expcnenad offictrs and foreign mercenaries. logether with thOSt rank a nd file with experience of Olmpaigmng in Ireland o r againsl Ihl' SCOIS, enabled whal might ha\'e been an untroined rabble to take the field in a cohesive body. By 1643-4 all armies had achieved lheir own e!l:perience by the melancholy busine n of fighting over their own homeland.
PLATE 2
- -===,------
4 King Charles I
5 SlrE.:pensive and difficult to mamtam , having 3 romplcs mechanism in which Ihe gun wa5 'cocked ' ready fo r firing by means of a spanner usl'd 10 turn the wheel mechanism which ignited the .;harge by producing a spark when the serrated whec! revol\'ed againsl a piece of pyritcs, The wheel lock was prone 10 jamming o r breaking if kft cocked lor 'spanned') fo r a n), length of time, 'lOO curious a nd 100 soone distempered wim an ignorant hand'l&, Mot(' popular Was the 'snaphancc' mechan ism, an early flmtlock , in which It spark was struck 10 ignite the charge when a pi~CC' of flint , held in Ihe jaws of Ihe 'cock', c ras hed down upon a 'steel'. The name S na l)han~ repUledly came from the DUlch JrlopllOQ/I or 'snapping hen', whieh thc cock resembled, but morl' common names mcluded 'dog lock' . named (rom me 'dog' o r safl'ty-catch which pre\,cnted the cock
PlATES
.-. "
Officer, Royalist horse
12 Trooper, King's Lileguard 1642
~ -
-
,-
.,£
/
.....
,
_-
~ ~
/~
,
" '-
-
"
~
'--
......
- r ._._N> ~-
~.
/i f A
c
'-,
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ORG"S'UTIOS, EQUll'MfNT "SO TACTICS
Wheel lock musket. mid
from moving accidentally , or 'English lock', named because it was SO popular in this counlry. incorporating a combined 'steer and pan co\'e,r mm'!te being aboul the avt:ragc; when advancing, th.s taCtiC was known as 'Fm: by Introduction', and when retiring, 'by Extroduction'. Other methods included formation three.deep (as ~plo}'ed b)' 'he Irish Brigade at Tippermulr, la make possible one massIVe volky ), or C\'en one \'olley fired from six- or eight , deep ronks, 10 'pour a~ much Lead in rOUt cnemil'S bosom al onc lime ... do them more mlschicf. you quail, daunt, anda~tonish Ihem .. , one long and t'O nlinUllted crack of Thunder is mOrt" terrible and dreadful to morlais then ten Intcrrupted and $c\"t'nal o m.'S .. .' lll, Tne muskcteer's equipment usually included a bufr. leather bandolier from which hung a number of wooden nr kalher tubes,each conmining a measured amount of I"()wdcr sufficient for o ne shot, which the muskcleer could pourdirtttly iorolhe muzzle of his musket . These tu~, known from Ihelr usual number as the 'Twd\'e Apostlt$', we re a constant ha7.3rd; when moving or in u slrong wind a regiment's tube.!! would mule together so much as 10 announCt' the presence: orthe t'OtpS and even drown shouted o rders; worse st ill , they could accidentally lake fire. damaging t.be Wc1ltcr and all around him and c:au$mg (m Gwyn's words) 'an incredible confusion ' ~I. On the bandolier went o ne or IWO powder flasks (onc to uscwhcn the "Twelve Apostles' ran out and one 10 . ta~c fin~I)'-gtound priming powder), a bullet bllg, pnmmg \\,re 10 clean the touchhole \)f the musket, and often a small oil bottle; 101lI1 cost of this asst:mblage in 1629wa5 set :n 25. 6d., bUllhc New Model bought man\' in t6u III half that price. More efficient mcthods of carrying ammunition were coming into use; for example, afu~r lisltng thc dc(("Ct5 of the 'Twelvc Aponles' l.ord Orrery rerommends thc use CJfprcpared cartridges
MIITChlock mechanism.. the smouldering match POiSed above powd81 in pan
o
PLAT E 6
'3 Colonel Alexander Popham 14 Trooper, Popham's Horse
PreserVed at Lutlecote House in Wlltshue is a remarkable collecTion of buff·coa/sand weaponry, Ihe eQurpment of the uoop 01 hOl'se and regiment of loot formed by Colonel Aluander Popham. who features In thiS plate. taken from a contemporary portrart Oespue the artlSlic; convenuon whICh often demanded Ihel commandets be deprcled In armour, Ihe harness iUustlated includes a number 01 SIngular lealules which suggest that il was IIctualtv worn Note the matchIng horse fulllllUre and sword bell. the laller SUpporting a broadbladed sabre or hanger, a weapon whIch probablv saw eon. siderable5ef'olrce In the Crvil War, The black. enamelled armour rncludes defences 'CH the Iowa. leg and fOOl 'nSlead of Ihe usual boots, though only the left gauntlet Is a.mOlJred Popham carries the usual bAton of ottlce, and lIisible on the ongrnal partrall is a crescent·shaped sillier plate on Ihe horse's hellCl suap The trooper wears ctassic 'ha'Quebusier' equipment, though 11 rshkely that few UoopswereacCOlJlled so well as PoPham's, asdescribiKl by MOl'ICk,'T COmpnsed' 'A Carbine, 01 a Musquelbarrel of the length 01 a Ccllblne·barrel. well S10ckt with a Snapance: lhe which f hold 10 be much bellet than a Carbrne for Sef'IJlce AJaoa ease 01 P.stols. and a good slIlf long Tuek, and a belt ", An Head -Piece WIth Ihree small Iton Bars to defend the Face, Back. and Breast; all Ihree Pistol prool' a Gauntlet lor hIS lelt hand. and a good tong Buff GIOIIe . .' 1 CIUSO'S descrrpt.on of the halqueb1.lsrer is similar, WiTh ' Ihe halquebllse of two fOOl and a half {76 cefllimelfesj long (Ihe boleol17 b1.lllet$ rn tMPOUnd (37 oerkilogl(lmmejlowtmg rn) hangrng on a belt hy a swivelt .. , His horse .. s hould be not undet 15 hand high, being swrll and welt managed" , and he nOles Ihe 'carabinle( rn Ihe same mould. salle thaT the carbIne or 'pe1l0n811' should halle 24 bullets In the pound (53 per k.loglamme) In T629 regUlated prrces stood al (310r a pall of fll1ltock PIstols and all eQurpment. £2 lor a pal! of snaphanGe PI5l015, £1 T6s. lot a lire lock harquebus, bell and eqUIpment. and Cl lor a Ill8phance carbrne' The contract books of the New Model Army glV1! olher datedc. thlH'barred English helmets 8s each, 'backs bresls and POlls' aT 20$ a "sUIte' •. pistols and I'IoISters al18 10 26s a pail, 'snaphaunce prstolls 'ull bore & (pro] ofe wr,h holsten; of Call1eskrns insIde & oUls.de well sewed & liquored al n" ii"d a pavre", cl/blOes 12s 9d. each, swords8ne! bellS 4c. Bd each, and calblne bells 'of good leather & Strong buckles"', Bd each.
NOTES I .\Iond.. ("~""' .. I t;" ' " Duke lit A'bc"INlfI~ ' OhI.t.,"'OomJ "".,,. ,11,1••
/aryullJ p~", '\'el)' rawlie furnished. some whereoflacketh a headpiecc,somme a sworde. somme onc thingor other Ihlll is e\'ilI, unfiu, or unbesccminge about him''''). The mediOLTe slale o f such armouri('s gave grC'Jt advantuge to \\,hichc\'er side could s('cu!'c the great state armouries such as Ihat of the Tower (which gave !'arliamcnt an ~':lrly advant.1ge ) and Hull , the arsenal for the Si tchfu rk, o r a Hed ge· stake . , . practice the old Engltsh cudgd-play and quarter staff ,. :s"); thc Kin g's army in 16.0 indud~d 2 ,000 \'(Iclsh clubmen who were 10 b(! armed from thc Bris tol arsena l, Agricultural weapons like pilchfo rk.!. scythes :Ind fiail s we~ used (as later al Sedgemoor) by s uch corf)! as the Parliamentary ' M oorland D ragoons', who fonnt'd on thcir own initiative iD Ihe Led:: area and we re anned with birding gu ns. clubs and pieces of SC),thcs. Halberds were C3rritd b)' sergea nts as mnk distinctIons, and small hatchers (M onck
rct'Ommended ont' herween two men) wert: uSe:!d for wooJ cutting to pre\'ent damaging the swords. ExploSI\'(: hand grl!nades frc..'Ommendcd hy " Ionck for use on Ull: lIanks of each pi ke du·ision. 'a greal ad\'antage, if Ihcy were boldly and well thrown' .0) saw limited use and were employed mostly for clearing buildings as al Bristol in 1643 when \'.;!l"Stbury C hu rc h waS taken by grcnading out the Jcfl:'ndcrS. lThe- us!.' of the H:rm 'granad()("s' m Ihl' C ivil War c.': ra WIIS also applied 10 morlar bombs. ) The tr.lditionaJ longbow was slill used In 50me are:lS, nOI:lbly Scotl:lnd :lnd Ire-I:lnd , bUI was hardly a pranicnble ah ermllivc 10 {he:! musk!.'t dUe:! to the grell! lC"ngth of tiOl(' nceded to train an archer. In 1625 Wllham Nt'ad published 1111.' l'Jtmblt Armed MUll, proposing to Ccndcnt companies apf"'C'ars to ha\'e precluded amalgamations of under-st rengT h l'Omp:lOies: in M(lrch 164-1 tWQ of Wailer's regiments appcur three r(el (91 l'entimetres) apan and suHklent space for lhe ml."n to use their weapons wilh ease. t\ regiment could be $phl into IWO or Ihree 'divisions'. each Ct;Immanded by a fil."ld offil't'r :and each wilh rlkc~ m the centre and mllSkcts on the Hanks, with skinnishing p3rtics or 'forlorn hopt's' or musketeers ahl."ad of the main bad)', ITnd other parties or muskeleers withdrawn 10 protect the rcgimenwl baggage. Such regimen tal divisions might be arrayed in Swedish fashion, with one division withdr:awn some dist3nce 10 CO\'er the Map berwee.n thc first tWO, thus presenting a chequcrboard appt'sratK't'. For lactir.: or men required 10 drag the piece, t\'!issiles were principally iron (or evcn stone) balls, though casc shot could be uscd at dose I1mgej the ralc of fire was slow (eight shOls per hour from a cannon, 10 from Il demi-cannon, 12 from a saker,etc,),and gunnery was frequently imlccufllIe, For example, 50 unskilled
54
were the gunners III Blackburn at Christmas 1642 that although a demi-cul\'erin blasted away 'mosl of Ihe nighl and the day following" , the grealest execution it did, .. a bullet shot OUt of it entered into a house ,., and burst the bouom of a fryen pan', after which the Royalists withdrew 'thllt they might eate their Christmas p)'es at home ... .' Q. , Anillery crews consisted , for example, of three gunners and si!>: rnatrosscs (assistan t! ) for a demi-cannon and two gunners and four matrosses for a culvcri n, Different in eHicacy was Ihe mortar, which droppt.>d explosive shells from a high Irait"Clor)' into be leaguc r~-d b>arrisons J onen wilh Ihe gn:all:$t ph),siCIII and moraledamaging effects. AI Lathom liouse, fo r example, thc:se pieces 'struck most fenr with the g(lrrison, , , The monar pc~'C'C was Ihal thallroubled us all, The lillle lady('5 had slOmack to digest canon, but the SIOutesl 50uldicrs h(ld nee heart f(lr granadocs ,., The mortar peecc , ,. had fr ightened 'em from ml'at and slccpc' \os. Different again was the petard, an c:xplosh'c, bell-shaped device which hlld to be fixed manuall~' against a g3t(' or even a wall to blow a hole through it : the pet!lrdier, e\'en ifhc surviwd
the allentions of Ull:" b·lUT.l50n, risked bemg killed by the ('xploslon, or 'hOis t with his own pct:ml', Berore thc pelllrJier Gcorgt: Crllnngc blew down Iht: door of Os ..... esl r ~' Caslle with his petard, he had to be 'wcl l llned with SlIcke' v(> before he wnuld attempt it . the qUlIlities ftquired of a pelllrdier being 3k:in to those of the leader of the assault squad on Hereford, onc 6crrow, whose rew lution was 'answerable and yet his underst:lnding nOl so piereing as to affright him wilh the enterprise' DrJught animals (with collar, traces and (' \'en l-:1rters) we~ often Impressed, though Ihe New Model purcha~d thei r own; horse learn!> were ponderou ~ enough. but learns of oxen, lIsed when horses were unllvailable, were C\'en slower, An interesti ng prm::tlce was to give mdi\'idual cannon their own names; at least two were called 'Roaring Mt'g', ll.lld IWO huge deml-Clnnon were both known as 'The Queen's Pocket Pi Slol', whilst other names mcluded 'Gog" 'l\oIagog', 'Sweet Lips' (named Ilfter a rcnowned whore), and ' Kill-Cow'.
,n,
ENGINEERS ll1e man), sieges and fortifications in\'o!\'ro in the Civil \Vars were oflen organized by profesSIOnal engmeers, including a number of contincntals like Manchcster's Ros ....,orm. Allhough piol1et."rs had been reeruitro before (In 1590 theft." were supposed to bo: 20 armed pion(:er5 per tOO wldiers. and in Norfolk in 1640 Uc utt'nun tColonel Jamjle G~O\ik, "thc.generall)' most loved man
of tha t county· ' ) rallied the ~'O Unty trained bands and e\'icted thc Parliamentary forces ; but before an in\'Osion of Devon could be underlaken. new '\'olunlar!" regiments had to be organized . the trained b:lIlds being unwilling 10 lean: their own count}', In the north , the E.1r1 of Newc..:aslII." marched south and OCCUPied York, lIided b}' an able Scottish general, Jarnt's King (Ial cr Lord Eythin), against whose n.:uionality some pre judice was exercised. and as Lieutenant-General of HOrK, George Goring, ex·governor of Portsmouth, who according 10 Clarendon WIIS an uncontro[]lIble drunkard whose appointment with N(!wClIstle was engineered by the Quetn. T o finance the war, Parliament imposed a property tax or nssessment (generally fi ve per cent) oll;all countit.'5 under th eir cont rol, and I~)'m proposed an c.:l(cise lax; though unpopular, these me:uures (and the sequestrationof Royalist propc.rty) enabled r'arliumcntto pro\'ide most of the needs of its forCC'!!, Charles, howen'r, was forced to rely o n \'oluntary loans. levied cont ributions from Royullst areus. and on money the Queen had borrowed 1n Holland , Parliument 's sUJ:M!rior financial resour~5 pron:d vital in the outcome of tht.' war, which in 164] was fragmented into a numb(r of ' fron ts', Peace negotiations. which contin ued umil MarCh, broke down due 10 the stringency of th~ conditions which Parliament attempted to impose Uf'On the King, It is dcbat~blc whether Charles had un)' deliberate grand strategy in 1643; a thn.-e-pro.)nged assault e>n the eapital directed from Oxford, from the north and south · west ma y ha\'e been envisaged but the evidencc is scant , and there seems to have been lituc attempt at ('()Ordination , If anyone allempted a cohC'Sive strategy it was Parliament , which established a Committee of Safcry 10 coordinate efforts, and during 16-43 began 10 form 'ossocilllions' of co unti cs to ovcroome the ragi ng local· ism which ufte n prc\'ented the troops of one county from !Ctting a foot beyond it~ borders. M ost sut.'ttSsful of these organi1.3tions were the Eastern Association , conlbining the forces of Cambridge, Essex. Norfolk, Suffolk , Hertfordshire, Huntingdonshire and Lincoln· shire, with an army under the Earl of Manchester; and the Soulh · Eastern Association combining the forces of Hampshire. Kent . Surrey and Sussex under Sir WiIliulTI Walkr. Nevertheless. only Essex's notional army was evcr free ofl ocal bias, ilS funds and directions depending entirely upon the central go\'ernmenl and not the committees of an associat ion , Fighting in the south-wesl continued through the wi nter of t64 2-) , HoptOn's bril:'fe)(cursion into Devon drawing the loca l Parliamentary forces over the bordcr into Corn wall and 10 defeat III Braddock Down, near Liskeard.on 19 January. Parliamcnt'scampalgns in this theatre \\'ere hampered by the incompetency of tht"ir commander, the I~rl of Stamford , who left the Welsh Marches to take oonlrol of I)e\'(ln, allowing the Marquis of Hertford's Welsh regiments to pass unh indered to
59
reinforce the King al Oxford. A temporory 1000llrucc was arranged bctw«n Devon and Cornwall, rdlecting again the localized character of the combat in that area . In the nonh, Nc.'wcaslie's progress was slow rhough he was able to CUI communieutions between the Parlillmentary garrison of Hull and their adherents in the West Riding; despite the efforts of Sir Thomas Fairfax, perh:'lp5 Parliament's most able commander of the entire war, Newcastle succttded in establishing a garrison at Nev.-nrk, thus securing 11 crossing o\'cr the Trent, \-ital if the munitionsacquircd by the Queen on theeo nlincnl were to reach the King :n Oxford. Fairfax's capture of Leeds auured Parliument's hold on the West Riding, but sporadic fighting in Lancashire, Cheshire and Staffordshireonl),ocClsionally influenc('d the main Iheatres of war. The Queen with her curgo of munitions from Hollllnd evaded Purliameni's flttt and landed al Bridlington, at first joining the Earl of Newcnslle at York but later, with her own army and styling herself ' Her she-majest)', gcneralissima', joined Ihe King in July. Following a Royalist success al Nantwich l28 January 16ol3). int('rm;lIant fighting spread into the ~'1idlands, \dth local and largely untrained troops skirmishing without decisi\'e result. but with some RO),Blisr gains OflO\\'nS like Lichfield, Tamworth and Stafford, which if allowed to develop could assist the juncture of Newcastle and the King. I~arliament thus despatched Lord Brooke as commander of the forces of the associated counties of Warwick and Stafford to redress the siruation, and Ihough he secured Stafford he was killed on the morning of his planned assault on Lichfield, shot through the eye as he sat at his own window. Parliament thus lost :a staunch suppon er and all abk soldier. but only 11 days iater ( 19 Ma~h) the Royalists also lost a valued commander. The recapture of Lichfield by Parliamentled to the despa tch ofthc Earl of Nortimmpton from Old'ord : he defeated a P:lrliamentary force at Hopton Heath, two miles t ) .2 kilome tres) from Stafford, but in the course of the 3ction was dismounted and surrounded by encmil'S. Attired in cuirassier armour, he was impervious 10 their aunck until his helmet was knock.ed off, whereupon he was olTered qu:mcr. Refusing to :accept such from 'base rogues'lI h(' was k.illed b)- a halberd blow 10 the head~ and Lichficld remained Roundhead. In the west. an attempt on 7 March by Rupen 10 Clpture the vital pon of Bristol (with the con ni\-ance of Royalists within) was foiled, and some Parliamentary success was enjoyed by Sir William Wailer, who was :appoinled comm:ander of the armies of the \'I;'estern Associ:alion (Somerset , Gloucester, Shropshire, Wilt· shire, Worcester), \':taller, ..... ho had sc('n considerable campaigning in Europe, posed such a threal to \Vales that Prinee Maurice was sent from Oxford [0 threaten his rear, al which Wllller withdrew 10 Gloucester. Further Royalist succcss occurred in the north when Sir Hugh Cholmle)', Parliament's governor of Scarborough ,
60
L
, i J /
..-'" :\( , j '"
i4f1.~ ~ ' /
• /
"
~\
.
..
Edward M ontagu. 2nd Ea,) of Manchester (pomait by Sir Peter Lely, C 1661 - 5; The Nelfona' Port,al t Galle,y. London)
declared for the King and prompted Sir John Ilot ham and his son , holding Hull, to consider the sem... course. I'arliamcm's commander in caSt Yorkshire. Lord Fer· din:ando Fairfax (Sir Thomas' f:nh er), abandoned his headquarters III Sdby and relired on Leeds. his son's co\'ering manoe uvre mttting a reve rse al Seecroft Moor m the hands ofGaring's horse. Attempting to open a route for the-Queen's munitions from the nOM to Oxford, Rupert moved northward. capturing the small I~ril:ani cal town of Birmingham and the Parliamentary stronghold of Lichfic1d (21 Apri!), but then returned to Oxford as Essex ....-as on the move, Maurice was also recalled from the .....esl. but nOl before \,(lallerhad attempted to intercept him: the Go\'e:rnor of Gloucester, Sir Edward M asse)" was able 10 deslroy Maurice's bridgeofboou~cross the Se\'ern, but Wailer was routed by ,\buricc at Ripple Field, three miles (ol .8 kilometres) north of Tewkesbury, on I) April . The Ihreal from Esse" m:uerillli7.1:d as Parliament's main Helmel. bleaSI · and backp!ales ceputooly worn by lord Brcoke when killed 81 LIChlield, 1643 (engraYing by T Hamilton)
Tilt! ENGLISH CIV IL \'(111.11;
Ferdlnando. 2nd Balon Fairfax IIlusllales use 01 11 cassock (portrait bv Edwald Bow8f; YOII!. Cilv An Gal1ervl
field army l 16,000 footond 3.000 horse) moved against the Royal st ronghold of Rcading, il ruinous fortificalion hdd by Sir Arthur ASlon with 3.000 fool and 300 horse. The King was marehing 10 its succour when. thc day afler Rupert joined him. he learned Ihat RI..'ading had cap.luhlled, Aston having b«n incapacit:ued by txing struck upon the head with a roof tile dislodged by a roundshOl , and the sUITender arrnnged by his deputy, Colonel RIchard Feilding , who narrowly escaped the King's ~ntcnce of death for his conduct, and then only by th..- interC'e'ssion of the Prince of Wales, The Royal cause prospered bell..-r in the south-west, despite on invasion from Devon under the Earl of Stamford which threatened to swamp Hopmn's outnumbered Cornishmen, Stamford took upa strong position atop a hill at Srr:ltton, but though hea\,jly outnumbered (HoplOn's field army comprised 2.400 foot and 500 horse against Stamford's 6,800) and short of ammunition and food, HoplOn .allackcd before 1,200 horse unwisei)' detached by Stamford could ~join . The battle raged from early moming unlil mid-aftt-moon. unlil Hopton's ammunition had a\1 bUI run out, bUI his Cornish foot took the hill at a charge and routed Starnford, who abandoned his artillery and munitions in the night. This astonishing victory hlld an equally unus ulIl
result; III an attempt to explain his defeat, Stamford accused his subordinate, Major-General lames Chudleigh,of lre350n. Chudlcigh, captured whilst allempting :1 vain counterattack, promptl)' changed sidc.'S and was to die fighting for the King at Danmouth later in the year. In thc nonh, Parliament made another allC'mpt 10 capture Newark, IInd though in1llcting n revcrse upon th~' Royalists, the Parlinmentar)' forces of Lord WiIloughb)' of Parham, Sir John Hotham and Oli\'Cr C romwell were too mauled to continue their attempt on the cil)'. On 20 May t6.B Sir Thomas Fairfax auacked Wakefield , defeating the Royalists aftcr confused figllling in the town: the Royal horse CSL'apcd but its leader, Goring. was captUIed, The hard-won town was Inter abandoned. As Parliam..-nt ·s lord-general. Es$Cx , began his move upon Oxford. a RoyaliSt raid was taunchc.'643
and th rough which poured the Royal horse, routing the left wmg as well. Only Sir Tbomas Fairfax,on the right . was !1ble 10 withdraw his troops in some order lmd join his fathe r in Bradford. Lord Fairfax marched 10 Leeds. followed by Sir Thomas when Bradford could no longer ~ held , but as Leeds was no more secure, the whole force fought ils wa y 10 Hull , Si r T homas being wounded :It Sclby. 'rnat Hull remained Parliamenlary was only due to Ihc discovery of a plot that the Hothams WCI"(. preparing 10 turn over the city 10 Ihe King. But by midJ ul)' all Yorkshire, save Hull , was in Royalist hands: and Ihe Fairfaxs' only consolation was that Sir Thomas" wife, captured in the flight from Bradford. had bc-i:n retu rned wilh characteristic coun«y by Newcastle. Royal fortunes continued to improve in the weSt.:as HQpton (now Lord Hopton of Stralton) was reinforced by the Marquis of Hertford and Prince A1auricc from Oxford, who joined Hopton's force3s the Uni ted Army or the West at Cha rd on 4 Ju ne 1643. Though small in size (4,000 foot, 2,000 horse and 300 dragoons) il included Hoplon's five "'olumary' Cornish regiment s which we re of the highest cal ibre, though some of the fOOl and pari of the horse were inexperienced, one regiment of the latter being exchanged for Sir Jamcs HamilIOn's corps from Dc"Qn where ils unruly behal"iour had b«n lurning the inhabitants against the King! Command oflhe United Army prescnfed a problem , as Hertford W8S the senior and in nominall'Onlrol: il was resoh'ed by Hopton receiving command in the fi.:-Id wilh Mauri~ commanding the horse. Opposing them W3S PilrliamenCs 'WiIIi3m the Conqueror', Sir William \"' aller, who received an early reverse il L Chcwton Mendi!) on 10 June. when a Cowa1ry aetiQn was turned in to a Royal "iclory by the Earl of Caernarvon, ' who always charged homl'"' 11 , rescuing the wounded Prince Ahuricc.. Shortly aflerwards, Hoplon communicated wilh his old friend , suggesting a meedng; Wailer replied in one of the most moving documenl!l of the war. . .. my affrctiolll 10 ),011 are so .",rhl1' IJ1 on
t.b~
A."",,,,
tween Newcastle and the Royal garrison of Nt'wark. A RO)'111isl expedition to recapture Gainsoorough, I('d by Newcastle's young COusm. Charles Ca\'endish, enCQuntt'rW a body of l'arliamenl1uy horse soulh of Gainsborough neat Ihe village of Lea. The Roundheads charged and routrd part of the Royal hOTSe, but Cavendish's own regiment, held in reserve, then drove off the Parliamentarians; whereupon thc Parliamentary
PLATE 11
26 SirChar(es l uces
27 28 Officers, Roye!!" horse
Till E~GI.I$H CI\' U. W"II
Ohve( CromweJl (POflralt by R Walkef, C 1649: The Nallonal POflrlllt Gallery, London)
reserve. kept back by Colonel Oliver Crom\\eJl , fell upon Cavendish's rear. 'which do so astonish him"~, broke his regiment and pursued him into a bog where Ca\'endish was killed by C romwe ll's C'oIptain-lieutenant , Though Newcastle's main army l'amc up. rccaplUred Gainsborough on 30 July and pushed on [0 Lincoln and StamforJ, CromweWs military repuwtion was founded upon his defeat of Ca\'endish, Instead of con templating a combined advance upon London . the King decided to swing thc weight of his for~ against Glou~ster, \;rtually the only Parlillmentar)'stronghold between Rrislol and Lancashire.and thl: ClPIUrt: ofwh k h would secure the routes to the Royalist su pport in \'.;Tales, Meanwhile, after 11 delll~' l:'.Iused by a dispute bcIW(OCIl Hertford and Rurcrt over the gQ\'crnorship of Gloucl:ster. the Earl of Caernarvon nnd ['rince ,\Iaurice were sent into Dcvon to extinguish Parlia· mentll1)' resisllInce. Caernarvon ga\'C generous tcrms to thou: surrendering or changing allegiance, bUI ..... hen Maunce Ignored the terms already granted, Caernal"ron stormed off in indignation tl.'l the King, whilst Maurice j(lined Sir John Ikrkelcy m the Siege of the Parliumentary st ronghold of Exeter. An attempt al its relief by sea having failed , Parliament inlended to draw a force from the garrisons of Plymouth, B:trnstaple and
68
Sideford m relieve il by land. BC!rkcley despat~hed Sir John Digby with 300 hor~ and 600 10 700 foot to mter· a:pt the Roundheads, but Digby had only 150 horse \\'ith him when he encountered the c:nemy at Torrington. Leaving these 10 hold their position until his remaining troops could come up, Digby and four or fi\'e oflicers alon(' charged the llarliamentllry advam:e guard : this. a ' forlorn hope' of 50 foot. threw down their muskets IInd fled , and were followcd b)' the entire body as pan ic spread. after which Digby's horse pursued them '1111 their swords were blunted with slaughter' I~ . This incredible charge by a half-dozen men had even more profound effects, for both Bidcford and Bllrnstaple surrendered upon receiving the new!, followed by Exeter on -4 September, With lh~e Royalist successes, Parliament was placed in adiflicult position. Already internal dissent suggested that Wailer should rep]::lI;e Esscx aso\'crull commander, but I'ym achievcd a compromise, Essex tt'main;ng as Lord·General and commanding the arm )' to atlempt the relief nf Gloucester. while the r::.:lrl of A'Ianehester's army of the Eastern Association remained virtually independen t of Essex, At the same time, Pym endea\'oured to reach an alliance with the SCOts, at the instigation of the Marquis of Argyll. a saturnine I)resbrterian who fearcd an in\'aSion of Scotland by Ro},alim fro m the nonh of England and Ireland . Pym duly dcsJXltched a deputation TO Edinburgh led by Sir Henry Vane, who nOI being a Presbyterian might have been expeeted to uphold the independence of the other English Puritans, The King arri ved before Gloucester on 10 August t643 and, being gllmely resiSled by Edward fo..tasscy, the governor I d~'Cl in cd Ru pert's plan of a storm as al Bristol beCIIUSC of its COSI in lin's. preferring a reb'lllar ill\'estmenl. Essex, meanwhile, left London wirh a reliefforcc including some of the London trained band regiments. Fending off allemptS to b3r his path , including a large attack by Ruperl al Stow-on-the-Wold . Essex brilliantly negotiated his pam 10 Gloucester and entered the city on 8 Seplember, not a moment too soon as the garrison had only thfl'c barrds of powder remai ning, Resupplyi ng the defenders, Essex now began his withdrawal baek to London, but swung nonh to Tewkesbury 10 di..'ceive the Royalists about his tflle in tention, The ruse worked , for Essex doubled baek. captured a Royal convoy Ilt Cirencesler (which replenished his falling su pplies) and was well on his way home 10 Read mg, via Swindon and Newbury, before the King could StOp him. C hasing Essex along an almosl parallel line of march , RUpen swung across l..'Oun(1)' and made 11 sharp Btlaek on Essex's left fL1n k at Aldbourne, which, though driven off, persuaded Essex to Jca\'e the main Reading road and swing slight ly south to put the River Kennel belween him and Ihe Royalists. The tired , wel and hungr)' I>arliamemarians Intc-oded to rest at Ncwbury, a sympathetic town, but arriving before it on t9 Sep-
TII~
FrIlS" CI\'Il \,(/",,, 16.41-3
t11c 'Round Hill" whieh we R o~'a1 army hod tx>cn sufficienlly lax nOI to occupy on th!'" pre\,ious day. The surroundlllg country \\'IlS Inlersected II'II.h IlInes and hedgerows, excellenl cover for the foo t but qUill.' unsui table for Ihecmployme.nl of horse. ThQugh the Royalists hod some s uccess against Esscx's ho~, Ihei r fOOl in the ~enlrc made lilt!;: progress and horse was c:allcd up" The Royalisl cuvBIr}' ll"lIdcr Sir John Oyron made s te r ling efforts to pcnCU!l(t· the hedge-covered count ry (during which Ihe Sttn:tary of State. Lord Falkland , nding as a volunteer with Byron, WlIS kilkd in what was probably a suicide bid mused by his distress 8tlhe horror of civil WBr H ). and Essex's foot wos C\'C'n pushed h3Ck; bul when Skippon commiued his trained hand reser\·e.
the exhausted Royal horse had to pull back. Hod the) been 5upporlINJ by their own fOOl, Round "!Ill might
PLATE 12
Manoeuvres of pu~uil18adll19
Esse..·s relief of GloucesuIF. and
King 's
10 lirst bailie of Newburv Numbers below
plate name! IndICate dale In September 1643 on which the each town
armIes reached
(emocr discovcred 1h:11 a rnpid march had brought Rupe.rt the re firsl. Essex was cut off from hiS road home and had 10 figh!.
Essex's ann), comprised some 4,000 horse In the conventional 1WO wings, and 10,000 fOOl In four brigades. wilh Ihl" six London lraincd band n::gimenlS III reserve (the Red. Yellow and Blue Regiments and Red , Blue and Orungc Auxilinrics); despite their inc:I;pcricncc they were Parliament's best foot and were 10 stand 'as :1 bulwark and rumpirc to defend the rcs, 'lO in the coming :laion , but due to Iht'ir 'pan -time' service wefC 3vail::ablc only for 5~cific opercuian!, 31 the conclusion ofwhrch me)' expected to go home no matter what the situation. Essex's second-in--oommnnd was SergeanH\iarorGeneral Philip SkiPl'On, a tough and vastly experienced professional soldier who had rise n from the ro nks in rhe Netherlands. ;11 ma n of orde r a nd sobriety' though 'altogether ill iteratc': L, who had been appoi n ted MllrorGencral CIf the London miliua. Against Ihis army. Charles I commanded the Royalists, wilh his LordGeneral, the Earl of Fonh. ns his depu ty and Rupen commanding the horse. The King-s army was about equal In numbers but with a greatcr preponder.ln('c of horse, abou I 6,000, genll. 1'1' J D .'.1
,1:0,,/.
:S-6
PLATE 12
.,
"'/-.
-
-..
--
"
...
.-~
--
30 Musketeer, trained bands 1642 29 Qtfic;cr, Itained bands 1642
31 Pikcman, trained blndl164Z
PLATE 13
•
--
32 En,ian. Red Reat- , lollClOfl trllned Ml'ld,1643
I'm! IiS(;I.I SII CI\' IL
\\~o\lI
PLATE 13 32 Ensign wit h 4th captain's colour. Re d Regt " London trainad bands 1643 33 Sergeant. Re d Regt .• Lond o n treined bands 1643
The ensign's costume IS tYPIcal 01 an officer of loot, a buff ·coat over 11 doublet, W.lh a melal gorgel, and Cl calSock, an ovet'coal with sleelles whICh ccx.rld be unbuttoned down therr entire length, allOWing Iha sleeves to hang loose. H,s boots nave pleon black 'bool · hostr· Inside. many prefelled mucn mow decorative hose, The halrslyle With a curled I!lnge on the lorehead enjoyed some poPularity. The colour 01 the fourth capta.n of tne Red Reg iment was plain red wITh tha usual St George'scanlon, Ihe flvewh,te flames Of piles wavy indicating Ihe regimenfs lounh Cilling to may so far from their Association. Leaving Wailer to co\'erthe King, Essex began lhe 13o-odd mile (zlokilometr~) march to Lyme. Thesiegt was lifted in the early hours or t5 Junt as the Royalists had notice of Essc:oc's approach: the PllrliamCnlal1' army must have covered
81
ritE Ei'lGLISII C I Vtl \'(IAIt
ahoUl 11 0 miles U77 kilo ml.'tres} in a week, a n excellent spct-d gl\'en the artillery and baggage which 3C1.:ompanied a lorgc otm y and the \\Tetched StlltC': of many oJ the ro.1ds, From lh:l1 point, Essex had thrtt allern:uh'es: Sla)' put, advance Inl('llhe west, Ot tl.'turn to \'(' :lIler, The first W:'I.S poi ntk'Ss, but the second had the possibihty of d L'S troyi ng Roya list support In the area, as \'(Ianvick Ihc>ught thc pf(,.'Scne~' of II Ptlrliamentary :lnnr wuuld cause widespread defec tion from the King 's ('.! use, Essex decided to leave Wailer to oon~r the King alone. LcJ.rning o f Essex 'Ji dcparture, the Kin!: determined 10 cngage Wailer as soon as rti nfo rcements arrh'cd from Q!cford, despilt' Wailer's :mempl to pre\'cnl Ihc jun clure 'rhe arnues mel nelr Ba nbury but Waile r's skill for choosing his own g round had established the Parliamenlllrians In ~I strong a positio n Ihat the KlOg ~fu5Cd 10 engage and began to march aW'IIIIC" "/ f ....~ 1",,11'1."'(1 fm m IN "1U.·I>lh a..J SMlluIt I 'ima 1.on..kill, 16.4 1",ut' no .h i«' \\"(nluIm, I' 46
51111 With thcir respective wings, and as Lord Fairfax and Manches ter we r~ compararivdy ine)(~ricnctd they must ha\'e bowed to Ltven', recommendalions. The probable absen~ ofCromwcll and 'Black Tom' Fairfax wo u ld hll\'e had no great effect o n the decision, for Fairfal< nc\'er shunned a figh t and Cromwell 's Eastern Associat ion ho r5~, the ' Ironsidcs' , were as reliable troops as existed. A bout seven in Ihec\'eni ng the entire Pa rl iamcnta ry a nd Scottish line rolled do wn the gemle slope from their posit ion towa rds the hedge and di tch in from of the Royal arm}" For the Royatis~ it mus t ha\'e been a great shock, both 10 the soldiers eating their supper IInd to the commanders; assured by Rupen that no action would occur. Newcastle was lighting his pipe in his CQach when the attack beglln, h ooincided with an immense thunderclap and 11 torrent of rain, ~xt i n· guishing muske teers' matcha; and making the sight of the rnpidl)' ud\'llncing Allied army e\'en m ore terrifying. The Allied centre rolled over the di tch IInd engaged the RO)'lllist foot behind it with somc suc:ccss. but on
PLATE1S
-.'
45 Musketeer, ROV811st l'Iorth8rn fool
--
•
--
46 Musketeer, ROV811st northem fool
47 511rge81'1\ , ROV81 ist northern fOOl
Till! ENOLISH CIVil. \'(tAil
(he right (he allack went badly. Fairfas's horse came under heavy fire from the 'commanded' musketeers with Goring, :lnd came off worst in the furious melee which followed; Sir '"omas rece.ived a CUt on the chl"ek, and his brother Charle1 was monaJly wounded. Pari of the Ca\'alier horse pursued the broken elements of Fairfas's wing. whilst Sir Charle1 Lucas, who had esecutW a similar manoeu\'~ at Edgehill, prepared [Q charge the fool on the right of the Allied centre. CromwclJ's IIttack on the left achieved mueh more
-.
Deplovment of regImentS 01 fool In 811ern81e blocks of pikes and muskslS, with lIr1ill8fY inlfll'sp8fsed (from Sprigge's pian 01 Nasebv)
'The TriM guarded with Fifelocks'; Ihe ParHamentalY baggage camp al Naseby (from Joshua Sprigge's A ngli/J Redivili/J)
than Fairfas's, Aided by a premature countercharge by Byron's horse, and even more: by pressure from the impetuous Crowford's fOOl, Byron's first line was swept away by the lronsidcs, Rupert, who hud been eating his supper when the atlRck began, led his reser\'e in person to his right nank, where B)'lOn was laking 11 belltingj (the flight of thal part of Byron's wing commanded by the triple-turncoat Urry should nOI be rCb'llrded as sinister; it was Urry's practice to change sides bc:tween baltIC's, not in the: middle of one). Newcastle himself unempted to rally some of the neeing horse, but in vain; he then led Blakiston's brigade of hors~ against the Parliamentary centre, pushing th~m back and CIIusing considerable havoc. Newcastle mUSl ha\'c broken his sword in the fight , ror he continued to lay about him wilh his page's sword, and as the Allied front collapsed a single pikeman made a one-man stand against the entire Royalisl troOp
•
88
THI! FlltST C"' IL WAR
r 6~
PLATE 19 48 Pikem an , Eerl o f M anc hest er ' s Regt. 49 Muske t eer, Col , Thomas Gran t h am 's Regt . 50 Muske t eer, Ed ward M Ont8gu 8' s Reg t . Plate 19 iIIustratasmembers of Parliamen!'s forces , c 1643- 4. all wr th a white field SIgn m the form of a handkerchief or shp of paper The plkeman wears the green unIform, lurned up w ith led, ollhe Earl of M enchest9f's RegIment of the Eastern A ssoclalion; Ihere IS no evidence Ihat Ihe Earl's Edgehitl regI ment when he was Lord M andeville, w ore the same colou nng The pikeman iIIustrBted w ears a breastplate wilh a flange on the botc om edge, instead of lauels, and has his helmet hung from a hook on his backplale The musketeer o f Thomas Grantham'. wears Ihe regimentill russel uniform, none of l heearly Partiamentarycorps had more p'olesslonaJ officers (alle8sl nine wllh military experience, In · cluding a captain w ho had held Ihal rank as early as the Rhe expedition), butlhe regimen t d isappeared in earlv 1643, The musketeer has w rapped his musket lock In cloth to protec t I1 on the march, and carries a leather water bottle, whiC h had 10 be aCQuired bV the individ ual as no official issue was made despite the frequent scarcity of drinking wat9f, The musketeer 01 Edward Montague's RegIment wears liS red unllOlm w ith while lining, Ihe laller visible at Ihe turned back cuffs, He cames a lirelock and a bandolier incOlporatil11l a scalloped -edged. buff-leather Ilap protecling lhe lOPS 01 I he ca rtridge tubes from Ihe weal her, The somewhal archaiC shape of the muskel bun suggests thel it may be a converSIon from an earlier matchlock; many stVles of bun and stock may have been usedwilhin Ihe same regiment, at leasl Judglng from fhe collechon of muskets preserved at Odord WhiCh, WIth the collections 81 Apethorpe, Nortllamptonshlle, and Lrttlecote, the mid seventeenth represents I remarkabfe survival cen tury, The Oxfold muskets have ballel lengths ranging from 41 1049 inches (104 to 124 centrmetres): the CounCil of Wlr in 1 630 Quoted 48-inch (122-centlmetre) barrels, Ihough fhe ordnance ollicers in 1639 recommended I redUC l ion 10 42 Inches (107 cenltmetres); Turner notes that 'The longer a Musket is (so It be manageable) the beller, for she shoots the further .. and experrence dailv teacheth what advantage a long Musket hath of a short one'l The Oxford muskets have all manner of butts, fr om the ' French' (slralghl upper edge) fO the crooked Spanish-stvle, the 'club' type or the modern shape; the carving 'OX' on the butts 01 some seems 10 denote a connection ei ther Wi th the regimen t formed w ith the Univer SltV'S assistance in 1642, 'With su ch weapons as they had tra ined up and down lhe streets'2, or bv the University com · pany raised dUllng the Monmouth rebellion, III which case some 01 Ihe muskets would hive been very archaiC l
"om
NOTES I Turn~I , 1I 17'
2 QuOII:d in
FfO\,llk~,
C. £ U' OjJNfI A,,,",,,,,J A ...", .., ... ,Ilr l '" ,,'f'I'''/Y
o/Oq,mJ(Od ord , I!lll ) p PrOVISIon waggon ( engrilvrng by JacQues Callot)
U
3 ~ S ~ll«r , O r '" G ' &11>' Enclr, h M","k~ •• In I h~ To ....n Hall Oxford' J~'.,.,wl" 11ft. AT'" onJ Ar _..r S«",!
",long what had ~n the rear of the Royal posi tion to smash Goring"s command and drh'e it from the field. He lhen turned and slammed into the rear of the Royal fOOl, already under pressure fro m the Allicd foot. Not all were rouled; N ewcastle's Whitecoats and a regimen t of greencoots (Broughlon's or TilIier's regiment) fought bra\"e.ly, the Whiteroats making an incredible 'I:tst srand' In White Syke CIOSC', a di tched enclosure, refus,ng qu:tne r until, aft er an hour's futile resistana:, they were all but annihilaled, 8y t I p.m. the fires of b::lttlc we re e)(unguished and lhe Earl of Manchester, the only Allied commander to stand hi! ground, WllS louring his \'ictorious but shattered forces, His men were exhausted and famished but called that they would wait thr«' da)'s longer for $U5Iena~ if he would sla)' with them; in his own way the quiet.gentle commander of Ihe Eastern Association was something of a leader. The captive Sir Charles Luca5 passed over the field , identifying the corpses of his frie nds, saying 'Alas for King Charles, Unhappy Ki ng Charles'. It was sllid that 4 .SS0 men were buried in White Syke Close. Next morning the wife of Colonel Charles Towndey. a Lancashire Royalist, ome 10 look for his body. A Roundhead offia:r bc-gged her to leave lhe scene of such carnage, where shc could fi nd only distress, and gave her'" trooper to take her to safet)'. She later discovered Umt the officer was Oli\'er Cromwelli the hard exterior masked a heart, Scoutmaster Watso n of M anchester's anny Ihought
that the final charge al " '1 :Inlon Moor had decided the business of the kingdom, Perhaps it had, for the north was lost to the King. Rupe rt gathered what horse he could and departed, leaving the veleran governor of York, Sir Thomas GJemham, to hold out for as long as he could; he capitulated on 16 July. The. ,\larquis of Newcaslle. hl!.nngcxpended a fortune and fought nobl y for his king, quilled the war altogether, laking ship at Scarborough for Hamburg mther than 'endure ye laughter of ye Court' 10. With him gone, there was naone left capable ofraUying Royal s upport in the north. Charles t was in purs uit of Essex when he learned of the catastrophe. Given his letter stressi ng the value of York, it WBS difficult to understand why such disaster had otturred, but il probably added urgency to the King's campaign 10 deslro), Essex, With the north gone (though G lemham '5 garrison was 10 be allowed 10 march out unimpeded to Cheslcr), a \riclor), in the south was imperative to auempllo redress the balance. Additional pressure might be put upo n the Sconish all iance if M omrose could cause s ufficient trouble in Scotland 10 compel the recall of their army from England, but when he met Rupert al Richmond two days after M.anton Moor, M onl~ was able to extract nothing from the despondenl ?rinet', though he begged for 1,000 horse 10 take into Scotland. On 2] Jul y Essex reached Tavistock and wrote to the Commillee of Both Kingdoms Ihat he was intending 10 relieve the Par lia menlllr~' garrison of Plymouth , and
Heads of pole arms' pa"'zan and curved scythe· like instrument, probably
adapted from an agrlcullurallool
Head of panizan, or lelding sIlff
93
Tuc I~N(iI. I SIt Cl\·U. \'(1,\11
hoping Ihar \X/u ller was following thl' "ing . Afrer relic\'ing l' lymouth he had a choice; f:JlT the "ingor ad\'ance inlo Corn"'D1I Esscx chose Cornw:JlI, believing that lhe county would turn agulnst the King :!Od th:lIlhe !,Outhwest could thus be cleared of novalists. As Esse:.; ad\'anced. Ilith Warwick's fleet cooPerat ing offshore, he probably had t o,ooo men. deducting troops Icft In garrison. The King . including thc fof(."l.'$ of Prince ,\·.\:JuriCC' and the local Royalist leader Sir Rich:Jrd Gren\·ile. co uld muster about twice lhal number. Essex pushed on into Cornwall, Grcnvilc retiring before him, but with the King at his heds. Esse:.; hoped to l'DplUrC Truro and Falmouth (Ihe hlltcr being onc of the few contacts between thco Ro)'alisls and the continent now that NC\I'C1sIJc was unusable. and the port from which was exporled Ihe tin \\hlch helped 10 bur the n of Fairfax and (If Cromll'ell's cousin. &tward Wlmlky, F!ectwood's 1·lorst had 11 number of flln:uical I ndependents in its I'1mks. and included lit oncperiod the Fifth·Monarehist Thomas Harrison. Much of this religious f'.!dicalism emanated from Man ch~ter's old army. though the criterion for an Eastern Associa· lion recruit was an 'honest Godly' spirit without specific conrormity. l11e accusation of the ' Iow birth' of Ne ..... ,\olodel officers (espt."Cially after 1647) is probably largtly untrue. though in the Association horse. for example. only Manchester's Lifeguard WIIS composed of II'hal ...·Iercurius Aulicus termed 't he gent.ler sort of rebels' I, and Cromw.:! 1 himsel f reported difficulty in getting 'men of honour and birth' ''; Manchesler's army was officered by experienced professionals (including one French colonel and a number of New Englanders3s \\"ell as Scots), and , at least inilially. local dignitaries were commissiont:d as often as officers like Cromwell"s 'plain russc t-
For M onlfOSe's loss of aboul :I dozen men , it "'3S claiml'd that around 1.500 Campbclls were killed in Ihe pu"ui l or drowned in Loch Linne and Loch Ell, Havi ng recrujt Basmg House after siege. showmg effecl s of inves tment
7 BETWEEN THE FIRST AND SECOND CIVIL WARS The campaigning season of 1646 opened with the Rays. hsts in a totaily hopeless posit ion. In the west, the Prince of Wales appointt'd the faith ful Hopta n commandcr~i n~ chief. but it \.\'as onl y 10 ncgOli:uc a su rrender as the New Model ro lled onw3rd , storming Datl mouth on 18 Jan uary; Fairfax sent home the Cornish garriso n with 25. each, allcmpling 10 win the favour of the Cornish people. Homon was beaten at T orrington on 16 Fcbruar)' and, his ammunition dest royed in an explosion, surrtndcred 10 Fainsx on 14 "'·Iarch. The Royal western field arm ~t was disbanded six days later, th e Prince of Wales having sRiled 10 join his mother in France: III the beginning of the month . C hester had capiluhued on 3 I~cbruary . Ilnd on 2 1 M arch ASllcy's hlSl 3.000 men , en route 10 Oxford, were: bellten III Slow-on-the.Wold, ASlley and LU('llS being taken. O ld ASlley remarked 10 his caplon;, 'You hll\·e done )·ourwork and ma), go play, unless you wilt fall OUI amongst yourselves· I. The King slipped away from Oxford in disguise and g3 \·e himsclfup to the Sconish army besieging Newark, which s urrendered on the da)' after his arrival. on 6 Ma)'. Exeto!r had yielded on 9 April. SI Michael's ~'I ou n t on the 15th , On 22 June Princei Rupc rl and Maurice left Oxford and [WO days later the garrison was disbanded. The last RO)lli strongholds were Ptnde nnis Caslle. held by 8o-ytar-old John Arundel of Trerice. who was pre\'cnlcd by his own garrison from blowing il up in a last gestu re of defiance, II nd Raglan Castle, caplured three days afler I>cndennis Castle, on t9 August. Charles I was take n 10 Newcaslle-upon-Tync, where ht refused to promise Iht Scots to acce pt Presbyterianism as the official English religion, or ngree 10 t.he proposals put to him by Parliament . which eventually paid off the Scottish force s. The King was senl 10 comfortable captivity at Holmby Houst, Northamptonshire. On 16 September 1646 the t tlrl of Essex dit d, 'in a time when he might ha vt been abk 10 han,· undone much of the mischieve he had formerly wrought; to which he had grcut ind inations; and had indig nalio n enough (or Iht indignilies himsclfhad rt.'CCin'd from the ingrateful Parliament,and wonderful apprehension and deltslation oflhe ruin he saw like lO befall tht King :md kingdom , . . he might, ifht had lived, gil'en $Ome chtck to the rage and fur), that then prcvalled ' :. wrote Clarendon, h is entmy. Ptrhaps he was corrttl: how much iI v.as to be lamenred Ihal ont of Parliament"s most capa-
r646-7
ble generals, and certainl), the mosl beloved by hIS troops, should dit in shadows. T he socioeconomic consequences of the FirSI Civil \'.;!ar were probllbly limiled, excludi ng those famil1es which suffered loss o(propcrt)' or lifc. London becamc more puritanical, wnh numerous fast days decrctd during the war in an effort to guarantee d ivint support for Parliament's cause, Some IlfC::aS had suffen"eOI)ie, as the)' were nOt:l mercenary body but one c;!lIed forlh for the defence oflibertr, \,\' hilst the King was in the army's cuslody, he continued to negoti:l1e with anyone prepared to listen, From the army he accepted a dOcument drawn up by Irelon, "rhe )'Ieads of the Proposals', as a basis for negotiation, and he was approached by the SCOts (notabl~' the Duke of Ilamil ton and the Earl of Laudcrdale) who offered to support him in return for acceptance of their religious dcmonds, To thC' army he spoke oftolcrario n, and to the Scots oflhe suppression of the SttIaries, Then he escaped from Ihe army's custody at Hampton Court and fled to the Isle of \'l:fighl where, unable to escape 10 France, he agreed to the Scottish proposals, 10 thC' establishment of a Presbyterian system for three. years, to suppress the Independenls [lnd other seas, and to conSf,.'nl h) an assembly of di\'incs 10 be convened to make ':I permanent religiOUS sC'uJemenl; in rerum, by this 'Engagement', thC' Scots promised to restore him 10 his throne. Before this pact was scaled, hO\\·e"C'r, the army h:ld begun to pressurize I':lrliament; on 6 August it
Medal cetebratlng the Ea.1 01 Essex (engI8vlIlg)
116
entered London and 1I lcadersoflhe anti-army faction in the Commons fled , The arm)' then ro.'ured to Putner, where Cromwell chaired nrmy debatl'S in Ihe face of a grOWing (but :IS yet undeclared) rC'publiC'.In mo'·ernem unde r LC'\'elter influen(.-e, Cromwdl was still wilting to :lcttpt the King's reSloration if it would relurn the countr), to peace, but in Ihe Commons o n 20 October he declared dUll negotiations should onl y continue if Ch:uk'S :lcceptcd Ih.: rigorous terms presented :I. NewCIIstle. When it bc.eame know that Charles h:ld made an engagement wilh the SCOtS Commissioners, howcver, a vOle was carried to StOP negotiations :lnd to watch him moreciosely. The outbreak of the conflicl known as the Second Ch'il \'('ar was founded upon the inllbility to r~:lch :1 settlement with the King and Ihe subsequent uncertainty :lbout the (Ulure, for although the r~public.:an movement was growing and suggl'Stions of impo.'aehment of the King \\c re m th\.' air. (he majorit y stilt regarded him as the natural (if onl y symbolic) head of Ihl' nation. ScconJly, the re \~as growing rcsentmC'llt of the harsher side of l·uritllnism being enforced in some places, and the continuing dominance of the eounfy committees. originally formed during the war 10 r:lise recruits and funds, bU I which had been givcn powcrs to sequester Royalist eStates and had become, in the more extreme examples like the administration of Sir Anthon)' Wdden in Kent, \'inually local dictnlOrships, Thus the rising in Ihat county in 1648 was more of a prOtest against the commlltc\''S than primarily :In expression oflo)-dl t)" to the King, and the resulting lack or coordinat ion doomed the rising to f:lilufC:. In tht, first warit waslhe King'. central dirtttion , wayo.vard though it was allimcs, which had en:lbled the Ro)"aliSlS to fight ~ long: now, the King ....11;' powerlas and the onl), central di~clion was fro m Fairfax 10 hiS ruthlessly effi· cient New M odeL To be stricti), accurdle, by F~bru:lry 1648 the lalter had been ~pl:lecdofficiall)" bra 'Standlng Arm}'" incorporating elements Olhc.r Ihan those of the New Model , nOlab l~' from the forces of the NOrthern Associ:ttion. The new army comprised q regi ments of horse and 17 of fOOl, with 30 ' loose (:omp:lnies' unaffiliated to lIny parlicul:lr regiment,
THE S E COND CIVIL WAR
16 4 8 I'erh.ap$ the most succinct account of lhc= Second Civil War (or ~rhops of O"Y war) was that gi\"cn br Sir Winslon Churchill: 'The SlOryofthe Second Civil War IS shon and simple. King, Lords and u,mmons, land-
lords and merchants, the Cil)' and the counlrysidc , hishops ft J iJ"'1fod ,1
4 1InJ,p. loo(u.o.ea,mMfI6-4 S) ) 1/nJ, JI , 81 17 "t.arch ,f4j )
6
1 ~'-JOrI, voI
I, r 11
117
PLATE 23
--
....... o
.~
...
59 Otficer olfOOI , New Mod'l!l Army -
~~::>-
......-
::-
60
P; ~eman, NewM
r',b.rmy
61 Muskeleer, NewModelArmy
PLATE 24
II"' ,.. 1'1
,~
~.,
"
//
.,
62 63 64 Musketeers. New Model Armv
-""
r
-
i. """" •
Tile P.Ncusn CIVil
\VI".
PLATE 24 62, 63, 64 Musketeers. New Model Army The men iIIustlllted wear New Model unIform as described for Plate 23. but two of those armed wIth flfelock muskets have canrdge boxes suspended 'rom a wllistbel t instead of a bandohel These bolles, recommended by Orrery among others. could be worn /llther inside the coet (w hich when fastened over the top plov,ded proteclion from the ,ain) 01 outside, and aredescnbed in the New Model conlfaet books as 'boxes of Sllon;e plete covered w'~ bllICk leather 700 01 them halfe fOUnd & Ihe olher SOO double al x'»1 I, p, "
the lown g:Jrrisons and local forces had been disbanded, F!lirfoo.; despatched CromwcJl to reinforce' the Parlia· mental')' presence in \\:Iales; Newl.:ast.!e WII$ held by Sir Arthur Haselrig with (1,1,'0 regiments. a fu rther twO were already in the west under Si r Hnrdrc-ss \X/o Uer, and Gloucester and Oxford were gnrrisoned. 'lbere was :l small field army in the north under 1\olajor·General John Lambert. an experienced New Model officer rrom rne West Riding who had helped IrC'lOn frame 'The He:lds of Ihe Proposals', a capable though ambitjous sold ier whose unlikely hobbies included growing flow· crs (I~rned from Lord Fairfax), painting and needle· work. With these forCtl to stabilize the sit uation. Fairfax hoped 10 crush the unrest in the Home Counties before turning his :menlion dsewhere, In early May the Scottish Parliament wrote 10 WestminSler demanding that Englishmen take the Presbyterian Covenant. rno t negotiations with the King be roopened, and that the 'army or scctaries' be disbanded, ' Ibese demands were re)l"Cted, lne Scottish army under the Duke of Hamil· ton was weakened severel y by the opposition of Argyll and the clerb')') since the in\'asion of England would In\'ol\'e cooper,1I10n with non·Covenant Royalists; most slgnificanl l}', the ScOts' most able commander, Oavid Lcslic. declined the appoin tment of Major-General of I-Iorse, When Cromwell arri\'ed in Wales he found the rising 120
already half--crushed, \\ith onl), the reducllon of Pem· broke and C hepstow Cast..les needed to C'xtinguish Ropi resistancC' completely, In Kent , howC'ver , the situat ion was morc !Crious and induded 0 re\'ol t of the crews of ships stat ioned 10 the Downs, as wcll as the seizure or Rochl'Ster and Sandwich among other towns. Parliament reappointed the Earl of Warwick !IS Lord High Admiral (having been depri\'ed of his office by the Self· Denying Ordinance), but e\-cn he was unable to regain control or the HeeL But the Royalist risings wcre not on ly uncoordin~ted but also badly led; the Prince of Wales appointed Warwick's brother, the Earl of HolI:md, as I.:ommandcr-in-chicf in England, and he in rurn p\'e locnl comtTUnd in the Home Counties 10 George Goring, Earl ofNomich (father Qf the dissolute g('neral of horse), a pleasant counier but totally lacking in military experience, whose one aim was apparently 'to please eveI')' man, and comply with every body's humour' 1. Against this cOmmamJer and his I t ,ooo rebels (man), or whom more resembled an armed mob than an army) was matched Fairfa,x and his dficient New Model (or now Standing) Army, Feirfax arrived outside Maidstone on the evening of I June 16,,6, intending to storm uu: Ro}'alist-heJd count)' capital next day; but as his van became invoh'ed in heavy .skinnishing, the remainder of the arm)' was drawn in and a furious street fight ensued, all 4,000 of Norwich's dC'ce'nt troops resisting the Parliamentarians. By midmght the barricades were down and Fairfllx victorious, As the mopping-up of the Kem insufTttlion continued , Nom'lch withdrew towards London but WIIS unable- 10 gain much support. On 4 June the Royalists in Essex rose, their support including part of the tMlined bands oYer which Sir Charles Lucas was put in command. On 9 J une LUC'dS' force was joined by Norwich and othe rs from London, including Sir Gcorge Lisle and Lord Cape!. Their local suppon W85 limited, however, the nonhe rn county trained bands declaring for !'llrlia· ment and securing the county magazine at Brainlree. Norwich Ilnd Lucas withdrew on 12 June to Colchester, Lucas' home \\'he.~ his family populariTY miGht benefit recruiting_ lnc~ were other minor risings; Lord Byron , re· turned from France, siezed AnglcsC')' and prepared the Welsh Royalists to cooperate with the Se~)(tjsh army when it arrived, In the nonh, Langdale had surprised and cnptured Pontcfract, compelling Lambert to divide his force'S. pan to besiege the town ilnd part to inlcrcepl Langdale's main body. The revolt in the na\')' resulted in the: Downs fl«t sailing for Holland to join the i'rincc of Wales; the~' we re led by twO ex.Parliarmntarians, Lord Willoughby of Parham and Admini Batten, the latler a Presbyteria n who disliked t~ new IndC'pendent regime. Fairfax rushed his 5,000 trOOp' toward Colchester (covering 50 miles (80 kllometres) in two da)'s. a con· sidernblc fcat) and engaged Lucas' army on 13 June,
'Siege-piece- struck In ColchesllIf, 1648 (engraving)
Lucas withdrew inlo the lawn and ~sis ted all Fllir(ax's attempts 10 break in , the j'arliamentarillns suffering severely: with the SCQllish danger coming closer. a large part o( Parliament's (or..:es were to be lied down besieging Colchestcr, an advantage. however. upon which the Royalists were unable to capitalize, T he Earl o( HoUand attempted 10 siezc Reigalf: with a smull Royalist force in early July. but after a sharp fight at Kingston on 7 July with a. de tachment d(.'Splllched by Fairfa:", the Royalists were scattered and Holland ultimately (''lIPlUr
NOTES I BtlCluno". H.L. BntiJIt M"IIiI'l' F"~,,., ,6Jl>-r'Jo {t..or.~, 196I) p , 67
3 lalnll, 0 , /J",uA NIJ.oall)w"U..Qnoon, 19fiQi Po , 8
129
PLATE 27
71 Engineer
72 Miner
73 Seaman
PLATE 28
'14 En.ign, M.ster ofYester's Regl .
75 Musketeer, Scottish fool
TUB El-IOLlSIt CIVIL "'·... 11
PLATE 28 74 Ensig n with COIO\Jf. Mallar of Yastar's Rag t . 75 M\J5ka teer. S cottish foot With clothing gonetally provldad cenlrsltv, ,alher than by Indi· vidual colonel$, a degree of un,formllv probablv 8JClStod In Ihe ScotliSh army, Mosl common was clothing 01 'hOOden grey' COlour. 11 le,m describing various shades 0 1 gIOV·b,own. The use of such common 'country clolh' by the Scollish ~rmy seems la have persisted lor some years. 10' as laleas 1 684 the PrIvy Council asked merchants and manufacturers 10 supply 'suNiclon! cioalhes alleasol"l8blllrllteJand of such dye H shall be t~ughl III 10 dlSlmguish soj8I'S from other skulking and vaglanl p&fsons" . The groy would not be univ8fsal. how8Y8I'; some corps are beheved to have worn red uniforms madofrom English cloth. and one, the 'Mini518f', Regiment' was said 10 be dressed In black, second·hand cl8flcal clothing Oblique non.contemporary ulfelences 10 Ihe use of Ihe Sluart colours (red and yellow) for military dress suggost Ihat Ihey may have been worn in the mid sellenteenth contulY. but the lilSl which r.an be daled withcertaintyconcernsJames 11, who 'did his ulmost to ensu,e un,formlty In the clothing of the amlV, adopting the lamlly colours·'1. I1 has been said that tha SeOls mlhha WOfO blue. bul such ref8fenees mav POsldate Ihe Civil War, such as the ballad of BOlhwell Blldge (1679) ;.J rhe Lowdien Mllffishs /hey Clime with the" ctMfes 01 blew,
F,ve hundred men Irom London clime Clfld m a reddish hufl.
01'18 almost unlllersal ilem was the lIel. blue cloth bonnel wo,n by the Scottish army. including oll,cels. The ensign lIIus· \faled wears a gorget oiler a ,leaved bull·eo8\ and carries a Iloghtlv·eurved hun ting sword. The colour of the Master of Yesler's Regiment is based upon the nalional sallaire of SI Andrew, wllh the legend 'Couenanl/ for Rehgion / /(lng/ and Klngdomes', end a familV cres1 in the cenlre. John Hav. MaSler of Yesler. commanded Ihe lIn1rlhgow and Tweed·dale Regiment al Mi"ston Moor and the bst Lotl'lllJn Reglmenl al PlOSIon. wh8fe a numbel' of caplu,eeI colours all bore his own elOSI. 8S muSlraled NO' tES I ' ...",,.,n. ,·,,1 l, rp.j7-8 l IblJ, p. SM. qUQlinQ RI!5' ,:\, Old S",mw. If'r"I",~r,J/ C withOut decora· tions, The lie ute nanH:olonel'scolour had the St Gearge canton alom~ , and those of the major and company C:lp-tai ns a number of dedcl'"5, either her:lldic badges or 'pilei wa vy' (lOngues offlame issuing from the SI Gearge canton), Ihe number of devices depending upon the offi cer's seniorit y: the ma jor mighl havc onc device. the first oplain IWO, the second capt:lin Ihn-e, ete .. though the arrangement v:lried . G.1louring and de\·ices were usually chosen by the coloncl. oft en based upon his own arms, s uch:ls the cinqucfoil of Sir Edward Stradling, or I!vcn a pun UJXln his namc, as for T albot 's Regiment. ExamplC's are listed below: ParliamC'ntar)' fOOl LoIIJ(m trOlm:d haruh
Red Regt.: rcd colours. distinguishing fealures white piles wa\')' While Regt.: white colours. 1-5 red diamonds Yellow Regt.: yellow (;olours, black s ta rs Blue Regt.: bilK! (.'Olours, white roundds Green Regt.: green colours, while ('""lilt raps placed diago. nally O range Regt.: ornn~ colours, while trefoils Westminster Liberty Regt.: yellow colours. major's with pile wa\'y. CAptains' badges blue roundcls T ower Humlets Regt.: red colours, with m O!lo IEHOI'A I'ROIIfDE 81'1' within silve r branches, sprigs of leaves in cornen: S t Ge.arge canIC)Q for all excepl colonel's colour: major's :lnd captainS' colours dis tinsuished by white roundds in a line along the lOp edge LIIl/dOIl au:ciliarict
As for the trained band regiments. except that most used piles wa vy to indicate majors and captains, Ihe Green, White. Yellow and Blue Auxiliaries having t.hese of gold. red, blue and gold respect Lvely, 111c Red anJ Orange AuxiliariC'S used white roundcls in a diagonal row, lhe Orange hll"ing 11 pile Wll\'y for the major.
Lord Sa)'~ & S~k's R~gl. ( Inter Mddrum's).; blue /"'Olours, gold r.ampant lions as distinctive badges Lord Brooke's Regt. : purple colours, while slars Hampdcn's Rc:gl.: g reen oolours, colonel's with mono .\'ulhJ I'tsli/lia RttrONllII1 Charles Falr(ax 's Regt ,: blue colours, colonel's \\'ilh monQ F,dthur F(lc/i(lfcr 10 a circle: major's with white pile wa,'y, caPlams' wllh while stars Royalisl foot Life Guard of Foor: St Gcorge's cross occupying two· fiflhs of colour nearest pole; remainder red bearing Royal badges as company dcvic ...-s, c,g, crown over gold leopard (coloncJ), c rown over gold rampant griffin t1ieulcnanl..rolonc!'s), crowned portnJll is (major), ClIptains' with gold roses Gerord's Regt ,: colours dividcd diagonally into trianglcs, top and bottom blue, olhcrsydlow ( lSt captain); others with triangles subdivided in nhern3te colours Talbol's RegL : while colours, distincLLvc badges black {albolS (dogs), one for major, ,WCI ror 1st captain, etc_ L))'\'e's Regt. : yellow colours, red rou ndels Pennyman's Regt. : g reen colours, gold piles wavy Stradling's Regl.: blue colours, while dnqutfoils umplugh's Regt.: rello\\' colours, black crosses Lord HoplOn'~ Regt.: red colours, while slars Sir Bernnrd Astle)"s Regt , (ex-Marquis of I krtfo rd's): gr«n colours, hawk-lures as di5tinCli\'c badges Apsky's Regt ,: as Gerard's. but black and while Duke of York', Regt.: as Gerard's. but blaek and red Scollish fOOl Most colours wen: based upon the St Andrcw's sallal re. Oflhose captured al Pr" to n and Dunbnr and recorded In A /Wrlul rtglStry (11 oil Ihe col/ours lake,! Iro m Ill,
Alternallve system of inc!ICilllng rank upon colours by means of alternatlvely,eoloulad segments, as for example Challes Gel81d's Regt ,lIustrated In Plale 14 lelito right: 1 SI captain, 2nd captain, 3rd captain
~r the saltaire, many In the national colouring of white o n blue, o r as tin upper (;3nlo n; IS h:l\'e while on bluek whils t olhers have ted, green and rellow fields , In the 1639 war it was reported thllt all colours bore the mOllO 'Fo r Christ's Croun and Covenant', and in t650 the Scottish Parliamem o rdered that upon 'haill eulloris and stnndards there be "Co\'enanl for Religion King and Kingdo mC'S"', which occurs often o n the Preston and Dunoor COIClUrs, either Il1 the triangles o r the field or o n a plain-colo ured flag with Ihe SI Andre:w's saltaire in the upper amon nearest the pole. M,ost L"('ll()ur~ bore the nrmorial devices o r !.heir colonc.1 or owner, wilh n greater use or numerals to
Scots., .7, 150 out or 197
Rank,mar k,ng on colours, as e)Comphf,ed bv regimenl of fOOl (Blue Regt, of London trained bands) , Left to ,;Ohl ~ (tOp) colonel, lieutentlnl-coro net, (m,ddle ) 1st capta in, matel, 2nd caplain, (bo ttom ) 31d captRln. 4th caplain
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indicate the CompaJI)' Ihan in English regiments. Some bore the saltaire on 11 pani-coloured lidd, such as SII:war1 of Garscube's colour carried at Worcester which had a field of quartered blue and pink, Others bore pol itical symbols. such as the black colours of Montrose's foOl beuing a reprelentlltion of the severed head of Charles I with the motto Deo tl l/ jetridbtt$ Arml4S, Charles 11 '5 'L)fe G uard ofFoote' which fought at Dunbar had blue colou rs, the colonel's b(aring the Scottish Roy:lI Anns and the others a Scot lish device on one side and 'Covenant fo r Religion, King and Kingdomes' on the other. STA..~DARDS
Standards of horse were much smalkrj an extant pair prcscf\'ed at Bromsberrow Church are onl), two feet (0.6 metres) square, The stanci.1rds of regimrnlrd troops u sua ll~' had some related design or colouri ng, but the earlier independent trOOps carried standards with the widcst possible arra), of designs, based upon the anns of the caplain, or politicl, religious or e\'cn risque symbols and c-.lTtoons: unl ike foot colours. mOst were fringed. Many examples arc rccorded, though a number of the known designs are unidentified, Random examples arc noted below: Guldon5 01 feglmenl of dragoons which 'did betong 10 Wailer', September 1643 (irtustration trom contemporary manuscript; Nal10nal Armv Museum, London)
•
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Pa.rliamenlar}, horse Sergeant-Major Horatio Care),: armoured arms issuing from a .:loud (a common design), holding 1i bow and arrow, tht' arrowhl~dd LOuching a winged hcart; scroll abm'e bore 'CHARLES T HVS PEACE FLYES TO THE' Capt, Nathaniel Fienncs: warrior in amique costumc holding a lance; scroll above read JlTRAQ JlE PALLrIDE Cap!. West of Cambridgt': red standard bearing a skull crowned with laurel Twistleton's Regt ,: an example of a regime nt with similarl y-coloured standards for each troop, but each bearing the captain 's own device". All standards white with black-and-white fringe; de\·ices were: Col. Twistleton, plain whilc; Major l ames !krr}" gold scroll bearing SI DEI'S NOBI SICVM QVIS/CON TRA NOS; Capt , Pcartc, gold diagonal scroll readi ng PRO Pri CE PUGNO; Capl. Cambridgt' , the popular arm-andcloud motif as in Phl(t' 32; Capt. Ncllhorp, a black w:trhorse with full furn iture:Capl. Haint's, a scroll bearing AD ARMAWOL/INS Ro yalist horse Often used more ovt'rtiy political and insult ing designs than the P:Jrliamt'ntarians, including for t'xampJc: Earl of Caernarvon: two standards; ( I) six dogs baiting a lion , one larger dog with a scroll issuing from his mouth, inscribed ' KIMBOLTON', and scrolls from the others bearing ' PYM , PYM'; from lion 's mouth, TANDEM
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ANGI,IAE Lt. Col. Caryll Molyneux: repeats the scurri lous slor)' of Essex being a cuckold, showing a reindeer's head (Essex's badge) supponed by five hands (the 'Five Members') with motto AD QUID EXAI.TA TlS CORNU ('To whot dost thou exalt thine home') Others: some Royalist troop commanders ~m 10 have borne their entire arms upon their standards, but amongst the recorded but unidentified eXMTIples are some or lhe mosl bhmtanlly propagandist, bearing monossuch as TERRIBILlS UT ACIESORDINATA (black standard with yellow frin~. sword issuing from a cloud, 'Terrible as a battleli ne drawn up'); AUT MORS, AUT VITA DECORA and a skull ('Death or an honourable life'); PRO REGE ET REGNO and white cross on red ('For King and Kingdom'); A'IALEM MOR J QUAAI TARDARE ('J will die rather than turn 3sidc') On fed standard; VJVE L/j' RO}' on white standard (, Long lin: the King'); L1. Col. Sir Henry Constable. bart' a cross with IN HOC S IGNO VINCES (the mOrlo of ConslantinC' the Great); the Marquis on,(/inc.hestcr bort' DONEe PAX REDEIfT TERRIS ('Until peace returns 10 the eanh'); Sir Edward WiddringlOn. DEO ET CAESAR I, The srandards of thc Queen's Hone reflected the French origin oflhe Queen and some of ilS personnel : dark blue fields scattered with fleurs-de-lys, all troop standards bearing a crown in addition .
Seonish horse Standards of similar charncler, but mort' sober ~md with greater useofhcrnldic de\'i~; Scon's Horse lit Dunbar crried a banner five: fcetthree inches ( 1,6 metres) long by fourft-oct (our inches ( I ,3 metres)deep, with thcwhitc ~altaire on blu!!; others bore versions of the Covenant mOIlO, whilst Montrosc's Horsecamed bl3ck standards bearing three pairs of clll5ped hands holding swords, wilh the motlo QUOS PIETAS VJRTUS £l'HONOR
FECIT AM/COS, OTHER FLAGS In addition \0 unit colours and standards,scnior Qfficers possessed personal standards often different (rom those borne by lhc.ir own troop. The King's royal standard (or Banner Royal), so nearly captured at Edgehill, bort' the rull Royal Arms (first and fourth quane.rs, quartered afms of England and Fnl.Occ, second quaner Scotland,
third Jrt'land), lhc Scottish version hanng the Scottish lion in the firsl and founh quancrs and quanered England and France in the second; and at Edgehill, the King had 'a s~'3rkt cornet larger than the ordinary caITyd ~fofe him" , At ''''orcester ChariC$ II used the fed rampant lion on gold as befitted Ihe 'King of Scotland', Prince Rupcrt's slandard captured at Manton M oor borc 'Ihe Ensigncs of the Palatine, ncere five yards long and broad, with a rcd eros~e in the middle'''. which due to ils size mUSt have marked thc Prince's headquartcrs 3S it cannot ha\'e m-en borne berore him. Levcn ', arms included 'supporters' bearing standards which may han" been hi~ own , red with the St Andrew's canton: Essex's red Slandard bore the mOllo I'IRTUTlSJ COMESIJ,VIIJOJA , Sir'lnomas Falrfa.'('s was o f plain gr«n damask with grccn 'figurin.g' interwovcn (as a colonel of horse's); Lord Fairfax's white standard borc 11 crown supported on 3 \'en;cal sword , impaling a Papl!l mitre, with the mOttO VIVA El. REYn' MUERRA IL MALjGOVIfJRNO r Long live the K ing and dc.llh tu bad gm'crnment'), MBjor-Gcncral l' hilip Skippon had a red standard bearing an ann and a sword issuing from a cloud over 0 Bible, with the mOIlO ORA ET PUG,VA IUIIET ET /UVALET IEHOIIA; the Blrl of Man~ chesters was of green figured damask. bearing the powerful motto 'Truth and Peace' d Iagonally, Colours were cxpcnsil'e tu buy; in D(du IJn.ootflr... A...,.,." .:mD" (l'I\'nlOlllh , 1900 : ~i.>l 3J, J'P 93- ' 05 Tilt Krng1 ,1/".1:It"'. 1119'1voI X 11 , pp ""6-0). I « \'Ouna.lM."...,6~-4 rKLlI"o" , 1970! p ~S ' S ,r '!'horn," Nillh"nll~]C ' quolod ,n i1 Dlmn , p. '70 QUOIcd ,6,,1., p. ' 10 Aub~)', J B.,,/ I.IW' od. O"k, 0.1_ rumltm, unll) p 265 Stthiio....lI KC(Iunl '" Yales. G C. 'CoIond R~""()rmand the. S~gt"
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Quoled Young, E41tJII/I, p. 1111 1X'~rtl , ,,",,(jMe,vol I,p 150 IlIv •..s.E,:suCroor.V\)1 11 ,1'1) 1:6-1 Mood:., I'P. :5-ft Tu.rntr, p, 1-5 5·nl!«. M &: Young, »nll, P Cl'lIfrlJy H,iJp, 16U , ... inrlon. 1<j1O) P lit Quoted Young , Una P .. & funber1un. W . TIu C..md_ ""/ JillItiI. 11 ru
CI~rke. T .. S 11.."nOOn. , 8IiS); ' " YounN. f.·I-I70I) \'.218, '1\1010:fW'{)I Ill!' ... ,~ HuwroclJl RtsI'iI1lli . LlX ( I981 ) '51 II SirTho"",. I'ainu; qUI.IIN ibid. 1) l.c1ICTIO I"~ M ayor ~nd Corpon.lion ofS.ndw,~h, No\OCnlMI 1641. qllOled in ,\\ el1rns. H. K£NI ",,01 tilt CI/·,/ lf '", (MaldsIOM. 1960l P· l1 U Rrprinled in UN"" CII"",,,I~,)o Dm:m~r 1715 15 Quo!C"d m)tJ.."".r 01 dw So>otl)' I ... Ar"!.\' f l u/lW"Q/ RntrlWI, LlX ' 1981) 149 ~6 &lIlc. E. II....-, .,j "" P.tL.uuu wod Ow/ry f'/ 1...lIC 1........, III r..., 1~ (i.onOOn. I~ S): '1 .....10:1~d Shr .....vod. r I II~. """" l'ibblll!. I I C . '1lM: Ull~'b.!OIu or Sir S~"lI.d Luke ' BcJI/1f"JJ/I,,~ lIiJwr..:.lI R«orlb S",,,I)' .u (1 90)) '1 S.lI/ld.m OJtt(hU>rtt. p. l.I
8. The Second Civil War t648 I Chu...:"iU. Sir W }fuW? 01 tlrt 1{",lulI Sf'(J/,,"t l'tophJ 19S6) M . II , I'll. J I 8- 111 J C1:umdon. X I. j , } Cla.~n, X I, 107
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9. The Third Civil War 16"9-5t , &.. HUliup, p Jj6 1 CrlJmW~U 10 lillor:lng, ~ ~trn~ 1650; 011(.,... 00_1/', U'1#r1 S1'«Joa . rP. 3n-8 3 Clannr.lQn. X III , n 4 don.X III . 6: S Cromwtlt LO wm",m llnth.aIl , Sr.ukeror l'arhanltm.~ Stpltmbn 16S I; Ol,t.... C ...""',,//'. 1.11/..., amI S""UM... p. 459
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31 Crwo. p 17 )J Quuttd Carman.i". :S
154
11 . Colours and Standards Ibrm . R rift" J'Iuow.n. Maj T S",,,Ji,,,b.(;~~,,,,,,,,,J('.I"I",," ~/ dv C""'_INOIiIlt ~m ,i\lcknhof. 19SJ p. ~ W.rd. A... .....at·"""""~/ tr/JN.;Stt F.d"'IT,h. p 101 lb'I)·. G A DUl:ourIt" ~! Ah!!",,",, Due,,./,,,. (RN.wIJ, 16},1 ); If" Ed"'lItJ •• p. 99 Wanl, "'"lrruJt'l'n lol'" l>/lf'aru; KC Ed" .. NI. rP IJ 41 ~ S« GtoK, vol 11. pp. I ",o-~ I V(nn. T '\/,IIIJI)' 0"","""",,,, Dr 'r~lufIJ /lu/ INtO Pr"'"U fLondon. 161Z): Stt Younj/. 6%(1,,11. " . 3S S« '\\~.\lI ltan . W. & Sl~-:.n , J./I Swry ol lh. Str1"uh FIIJ,t
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(GIJ.l,.,..,. I lllj) pp. H-4S
g J........ fl. qUllIcarrER, R. & EMB LETON, GA 77re E,.glish Cif/il Irl ur 1642-5 1 (London , 1973) ROGERS, Co\. H.C. B. Ballles alldGem!rall of Ihl' CitJi/ !Vars 164Z-51 (London, 11)68) ROOTS . I. TIlt Great Rrbellioll (London, '966) (in· cludes important bibliography, with comme.nts)
RUSHWOR'11-I, 1- His/Drial Collu/1fI11S 16/6-49 (London , 1659- J 70 1) SHERWOOD, R.E. Cif)il Slrijl III 'he Midlcmds (Chichesl~ r ,
SPRI GGE,
1974)
J. Anglia
Rediviw: E"gloml's RccO'Vt-ry
( J647)
TOYNBEE, M . & YOUNG, Brig. P. Crop redy Bridge, 1644 (Kineton , 1970) TURNER. J. Pol/as A rmalO: Military Essays .'. (London, 1683) (re prinll.~d New York, 1968) TUCKER, J. & WINSTOCK. L.S. (cd.) Tile EIIglislt Civil lYlo r: A M,/ltary Handbook (London , 1972) WAGNER, E. E,lroptan Ir/MPOIIS a"d \I1or/art' 16'848 (Prague, 1979) (English lranslation . London, 1979)
WAUGH, N . Th~ e lll of M t ll's CIDlha, 1600-- 1900 (London, 11)64) WEDGWOOD, C.V. Tltl! Killg's Prace (London, 1955) WEDGWOOD. C. V. The King's U7ar (London , J958) WEDGWOOD, C. V. Thl' Tria/ of Char/cs I (London. 1964)
WENHAM, P. Tht Grtal arid Clost Sirge of )~or•• 1644 (KinetOn , 1970) W INSTOCK, L. Songs und Marchn 0/ the ROllOldheOlb and Cot.'Oliers (London. 197 r) WOOLRYCH, A. BUllIes o/the Ellglull Cif.'ll War (London, 1961 ) ·W.T.' Tlte Comp/tot G lllmu (London, 1672) (re. prin led Wakefield, 197 1: nOI so contemporary as Eldrcd's G'tlmer', Glass" bUT more acct"ssiblc due 10 the modern reprint) YOUNG, Brig. P. Cif);1 IVar [;"lwlall(l ( London, 198 1) YOUNG, Brig. P. Edgtltill, 1642 (Kinelon, 1967) YOUNG, Brig. P. MurS1/I1I A'loo, 1644 (Kineton, 1970) r OUNG, Brig, Jl. Tit/! E'IK/1S1t Citli/ War Armia (London, 1973) YOUNG, Brig, P. & EMBERTON , W. Sil'gCJ o/Ihe Gnal Cif)ifl\7ar (London , 1978) YOUNG. Brig. P. & EMBERTON, W. The Caw/in Arrrty (London, 1974)
157
IND EX
References In //,II,( refer IQ black-and-"'hite itlUSlnalions IInd those
JJ!led below under 'he name CIf their cumrrwndcr Abcrdun99, 106.
1~
Adwailon ,\ 1001'. Bank o f 62. 7-1 AIJnch's Reg-c . 102. 149
Alrard. B:mlcoi \ 1 ' Alum, Banlc oC 17. 74 Anmm. Earl of97, 99 Apslcy, Sir Allln 1)6. 147 i\lX'hu)' 44 . 1)8 Argyll, Archib:dd Cllnlpbos S,. 104-j FIJ"~~' 94 Gage. Col. Henry 144-' Galnsborough 66, 6S, 76 Gamul. Sit I:ranril 77 Ga5C(!igoe. Sir Ikmard III GcmlelTlC'n Pensioners 49. SS. 66 Ql:r,mi, Sir Charlo 52, 74. IOj-1. 1)6.147.147. 1-1 GJrmhlm. Sir 1110rtW ) 7.9) GIO\IC'nler )7.60,66. 6S. 7l, So, 1l0.
,,'
GamlTY. IkrmmJ dr 66
Goodrlch Caslle)J GoodwlO. Col. Arlhut 149 (;orlOg. CilkJ lh) 99. I 10 Mllcd onnc:lI , Jaml'~ 99 M \lnchcsler ll, 76, 128 M:ln ehes ler, Ed ....ard M onl agu. ElI rl ,)f 44· 46, 5 I, 59. 68, 74, 80. ill, 85-6, 119.92-].96-7.100-2.1)2. 1)6-7. 14 1. 149,60. 19 M:mde\'ille, V,scounl sft Mml( htJ/,·r. /!JJrl (If M anlon ,\\001. B!lule of 40.42,44,5 I. S5, 8S~, 88, 92-). Q(o--, 1)2. 1)11, 144-5. 149 ;\\~,«y. Col. Edw.rd )7. 60. 68.106.
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