The Challenges of Culture-based Learning: Indian Students' Experiences

THE CHALLENGES OF CULTURE-BASED LEARNING INDIAN STUDENTS’ EXPERIENCES

Samuel Yim

The Challenges of Culture-based Learning Indian Students’ Experiences

Samuel Yim

UNIVERSITY PRESS OF AMERICA, ® INC.

Lanham • Boulder • New York • Toronto • Plymouth, UK

Copyright © 2009 by University Press of America,® Inc. 4501 Forbes Boulevard Suite 200 Lanham, Maryland 20706 UPA Acquisitions Department (301) 459-3366 Estover Road Plymouth PL6 7PY United Kingdom All rights reserved Printed in the United States of America British Library Cataloging in Publication Information Available Library of Congress Control Number: 2009922682 ISBN: 978-0-7618-4542-3 (paperback : alk. paper) eISBN: 978-0-7618-4543-0

∞ ™ The paper used in this publication meets the minimum requirements of American National Standard for Information Sciences—Permanence of Paper for Printed Library Materials, ANSI Z39.48—1984

This book is lovingly dedicated to my wife, Colleen, and our children Nathan, Jon and Christopher.

Contents

Foreword

vii

1

Theories of Learning Styles

1

2

Historical Development of Indian Education

15

3

Research Methodology

31

4

Study Results

47

5

Case Studies

59

6

Findings

81

7

Conclusion and Recommendations

v

107

Foreword

Cultural variables that affect the preferred learning styles of the young have drawn the attention of many researchers during the past generation. Ordinarily, such studies are done by those representing the particular culture in question. This makes good sense, since such researchers are most likely to understand the nuances of both culture and learning and how these interact in the learning environment. Occasionally a Western educator ventures into the labyrinth of another culture assessing the relationship of that culture’s impact on learning preferences. What the foreigner may lack in cultural acuteness, while certainly a liability, is often compensated for by the outsider’s ability to see elements of the learning context that may escape the notice of the local researcher. Taken together, such studies provide a rich tapestry that enables us to understand the unique learning environment in which others learn. The present study differs a bit from these dual sources of knowledge about human learning in comparative perspective. While Dr. Yim is indeed a foreigner in Indian society, he is not from the West. He brings the unique perspective of a Chinese citizen of Hong Kong to his perusal of Indian education. Educated in Hong Kong under an essentially British system, he couples this personal experience with doctoral studies in intercultural education gained in America. His long residence in India and mastery of the language there provides further necessary tools to engage in this intercultural study. As an Asian, it can be argued that he brings a unique perspective to the matter of culture as it affects learning. Dr. Yim has carefully bounded his study and diligently followed his research plan in order to come to sound conclusions about his assumptions. His work provides a glimpse into a functioning Indian secondary school

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Foreword

while examining the variables he has laid out for testing in his field research. We are indebted to him for his effort and add his study to our growing understanding of intercultural education. Donald E. Douglas Professor Emeritus School of Intercultural Studies Biola University

Chapter One

Theories of Learning Styles

Educators recognize that some students learn better one way than another. Some students learn better in the morning, some learn better in the afternoon. Some students are more analytical, some are more relational. Some are good at taking written tests, others excel in verbal exams. This diversity is explained by theories of learning styles, a term that reflects the truth that individuals differ significantly in the way they think, process, remember, and organize information. The necessity of the concept of learning styles is widely supported.1 Learning styles can be defined in different ways. In general, researchers put learning styles into three components: cognitive, affective, and physiological.2

COGNITIVE LEARNING STYLE Different definitions for the term learning style are found in the literature. In the earlier days of this type of research, the term cognitive style was used rather than learning style, and cognitive style was used in several different ways. Firstly, it was used to describe characteristic cognitive ways of functioning that were revealed through one’s perceptual and intellectual activities in a highly consistent and pervasive way. Secondly, it described a super-ordinate construct involved in many cognitive operations that accounted for individual differences in a variety of cognitive, perceptual, and personality variables. Thirdly, it described intrinsic information processing patterns that represented a person’s typical way of perceiving, remembering, thinking, and problem solving.3 Cognitive style is an individual’s preferred way of learning and tends to remain stable over time and across domains. Messick defined cognitive styles as the way the learner perceives the way to think and remember, and the way to solve problems.4 Rieff evaluates Messick in the following way: “Messick 1

2

Chapter One

distinguishes cognitive style from general cognitive abilities for the following reasons: style focuses on ‘how I learn,’ and abilities focus on ‘what I learn.’”5 Some researchers put David Kolb’s learning style model, field dependence and field independence, brain theory, and Gardner’s multiple intelligences under cognitive style categories.6 Learning styles can be identified and classified in various ways.

KOLB’S LEARNING STYLE INVENTORY Kolb’s learning style inventory has been developed as an instrument to measure cognitive or information processing. This is built on the work of Dewey,7 which focused on learning by experience. It also follows Lewin’s active learning theory and combines the input from Piaget,8 who describes learning through the interaction of environment. Kolb’s Learning Style Inventory measures how much the learner depends on four different learning models that compare a four-stage experiential learning cycle. Kolb’s9 four-stage cycle begins with concrete experience (CE). This focuses on full involvement in the experience. The second stage is reflective observation (RO). This is thinking about the experience from different perspectives through observation. The third stage is abstract conceptualization (AC), using logic and ideas to create generalization and theories to solve the problem. The last stage is active experimentation (AE). This requires active involvement and testing with practical means in order to change situations. The focus is on getting things done rather than observing. The four modes of learning are each distinctive: (CE) Type of person prefers learning by feeling (RO) Type of person prefers learning by watching (AC) Type of person prefers learning by thinking (AE) Type of person prefers learning by doing. Kolb10 built upon his learning cycle theory and developed four learning styles. The four types are: Diverger, Assimilator, Converger, and Accommodator. Susabda11 describes the characteristics of the four learning styles as follows: Diverger: (CE/RO) The learning style type in which sensing/feeling and watching are the dominant learning activities. Converger: (AC/AE) The learning style type in which thinking and doing are the dominant learning activities. Assimilator: (AC/RO) The learning style type in which thinking and watching are the dominant learning activities.

Theories of Learning Styles

3

Accommodator: (AE/CE) The learning style in which sensing/feeling and doing are the dominant learning activities. Convergers benefit from practicing applications of ideas and like to deal with technical problems rather than interpersonal ones. Claxton and Murrell state, “Their strengths are the opposite of the divergers and they are called convergers because, when presented with a question or task, they move quickly to find the one correct answer.”12 Divergers are the opposite of convergers. Divergers’ greatest strength is in their imaginative ability.13 Divergers are good at generating ideas and brainstorming. Divergers are more people oriented and emotional. Assimilators’ greatest strength is their ability to make theoretical models. They are not very interested in people and are more concerned about abstract concepts.14 The last group is accommodators. They are the opposite of the assimilators, as they are the risk-takers.15 They like to try new experiences and adapt well in new circumstances. Accommodators prefer using trial and error when solving problems.16 Habermas and Issler17 make some suggestions for effective teaching methods for the different learning styles that Kolb presents. The diverger is more imaginative and therefore should have more group activities and variety. Assimilators are more analytical in their learning and the teacher should focus on facts and organizational presentations. Convergers are commonsense learners, and the teacher should focus on practical activities that will be relevant to life. The accommodators are dynamic learners and students who prefer hands-on, trial-and-error activities. Kolb18 created the Learning Style Inventory. It is a self-report instrument based on his four modes of learning styles. The purpose of the inventory is to promote individual awareness of personal learning styles and alternative modes. Kolb stated that “Individual styles of learning are complex and not easily reducible into simple typologies.”19 The Learning Style Inventory is meant to describe general patterns of individuality in learning. According to Kolb, learning styles can change during growth and maturation of a student.20 In this regard he agrees with Piaget’s theory of cognitive development. Kolb also acknowledges the impact of culture on learning style: “Cultural experience plays a major role in the development and expression of cognitive functioning.”21 Therefore, when Kolb’s Learning Style Inventory Test is used overseas you must be aware of the cultural factor. Ferrel22 validated the Kolb Learning Style Inventory when he compared it with the other learning style instruments. This is important, as it shows that the Learning Style Inventory can be used both here and abroad. Recently the Kolb Learning Style Inventory was also used and validated in Asia.23

4

Chapter One

FIELD DEPENDENCE AND INDEPENDENCE Another way to define learning styles is by the categories of field dependence and field independence. Herman Witkin is called the father of field dependence/field independence.24 Witkin, Dyke, Fatterson, Goodenough, and Karp25 discovered that the individual learning styles are able to function in a differentiated or undifferentiated manner. It appears that the person who is differentiated in one area will be undifferentiated in another area. From Witkin’s perspective,26 field dependence or field independence is value neutral. Each style has its own strengths and weaknesses. Field dependence and field independence have the same intellectual capacity, but the preference of learning may be different. Susabda27 found that field independent individuals tend to be more analytical and are better at picking up and using social cues. Reiff addresses the characteristics of field dependent and field independent students. Reiff28 states that field dependent students: 1. 2. 3. 4.

Are global Have more difficulty isolating a shape from a surrounding area Benefit from cooperative learning Need strategies to help organize and comprehend material (analogies, outlines, color cues) 5. Need a teacher to model how to organize information 6. Have problems with crowded or busy worksheets Field independent students 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Are analytical Can isolate a shape from a surrounding area Are more internally motivated Have more cognitive flexibility Like internally independent projects

Saracho29 found that field independent students tend to prefer math and science, while field dependents tend to prefer studying the humanities and the social studies. This reflects that field independents are more analytical and linear in their thinking, and field dependents are more relational. Castaneda and Gray30 found that field independent students prefer to work independently, are task oriented, and like competition. However, field dependent students are opposite in that prefer teamwork and helping each other, and they are more sensitive to others and more emotional. Berry31 explained how cultural factors influence the learning styles of field dependent and field independent learners. Berry believes each culture has different characteristics of family and

Theories of Learning Styles

5

child-rearing practices that impact the socialization of cognitive style. Witkin and Berry generally support this theory. Witkin and Berry stated: The evidence from these studies together suggests that a relatively field dependent cognitive style . . . is likely to be prevalent in social settings characterized by insistence on adherence to authority both in society and in the family, but the use of strict or even harsh socialization practices to enforce this conformance, and by tight social organization. In contrast, a relatively Field Independent cognitive style . . . is likely to be prevalent in social settings which are more encouraging of autonomous functioning, which are more lenient in their child rearing practices, and which are loose in their social organization.32

Witkin developed three kinds of tests to identify cognitive learning style differences. These tests are the Rod and Frame Test, The Body Adjustment Test, and The Embedded Figure Test. Reiff states that the Embedded Figure Test can be taken universally without geographical boundaries: “the Embedded Figure Test is nonverbal, which makes it appropriate to use across cultures.”33 This test asks students to find geometric figures, which they have seen previously, in a more complex figure. Cohen used the terms analytic and relational to describe field dependence and field independence. Cohen viewed field independent students as more analytical, capable of deep concentration, and reflective. Socially, they are more isolated. Analytical learners are more focused on parts of objects. Analytical students also view the teacher as a source of information but not necessarily as a confidante or partner. Relationships with the teacher are not sought. However, relational type students are opposite. Relational students are more holistic. They may be weak in concentration but enjoy social integration. Relational students view the teacher as a person with whom another relationship can be established.34 Cohen discovered that learning style can influence student performance. He analyzes four types of learners:35 1. High relational pupils: poor school performance; achievers or underachievers 2. High analytical pupils: good school achievers 3. Middle-range relational and analytical pupils: middle-range achievers 4. High analytic and High field dependent pupils: middle-range achievers who demonstrate conflicting responses and confusion Witkin agrees with Cohen’s view. Recent research supports their theories.36 Gupta believes that field dependent students are more global and field independent are more analytical. Researchers Huang37 and Wallace38 found that culture, age, and gender impact a student’s learning styles. For example, Wallace found that African Americans would show more field dependence

6

Chapter One

than European Americans, and females would show a cognitive style and personal interaction pattern that was more field dependent than males.39 Gray and Lingenfelter40 found that illiterate people are more field dependent or relational. Relational people need models to copy. Relational thinking is more efficient for learning most routine knowledge and tasks outside of school. For example, when it comes to domestic habits, family and group relationships determine analytical or relational styles. Therefore, cultures emphasizing tradition and continuity are more likely to be relational. Casteneda, Herold, and Ramirez41 use field sensitive styles to describe field dependent learners. Field dependent students are impacted by the socialization practices of the parents. This will happen when society focuses on respect for the family, political authority, and strong family ties. Authoritarian societies tend to produce more field dependent people. They suggested that traditional classroom arrangements with desks in rows were fine, but field sensitive learners would prefer small tables and activity centers. It appears that big classes are not beneficial to field sensitive students. Field dependent students need much more attention and space to learn. Experiential learning may meet their needs better because experiential learning focuses on learning by doing and is student centered. Kagan42 used the term reflectiveness to describe field independent learners and implusiveness to describe field dependent learners. He used the matching familiar figures test to assess individual differences in the speed of learning. Twelve pictures are shown in the test, only one of which is correct. Impulsive students seem to hurry and make decisions to select the correct picture, but the reflective tend to take a longer time to think about it, and end up producing more correct solutions than the impulsives. Gardener, Holzman, Klein, Linton, and Spence43 use the schematizing test to evaluate individual differences in memory processing. Each subject is requested to judge in inches the sizes of 150 squares successively projected on a screen. Field independent learners seem to be more sharpening and field dependent learners are more leveling. Kagan and Krathwohl44 divided learners into two areas: scanning and focusing. They gave a test to examine whether students preferred to focus on the details of a learning situation. The students who did were described as focusers. On the other hand, they determined that scanners are those who tended to piece together the larger picture. This is similar to Hoilman and Kindell,45 who put learners in categories of global and linear. Davis states, “Global learners tend to be skilled in understanding the large picture and in relating wholes to each other.”46 Scanner and global learners can see the big picture, but focusers and linears can see details. Recent researcher Huang47 found out that field dependence and field independence are related with leveling/shaping, scanning/focusing, global/linear,

Theories of Learning Styles

7

and impulsive/reflective. In the literature,48 researchers found that learning styles are often opposite of each other. However, a student can adapt to the teacher’s expectation.

OXFORD STYLE ANALYSIS SURVEY Oxford’s Style Analysis is another instrument to examine student learning style preference. The purpose of the test is to examine the student’s preferred method for learning a language.49 Oxford develops different strategies for learners to learn the new language, according to their style preference. In her Style Analysis Survey, she puts learners in four categories, as shown below: 1. Analytic and Global In her survey test, Oxford put Analytic and Global learning in a pair of learning styles. Analytical students move toward very specific details during the time of their studies. Learners emphasize regulation and structures, but are weak at interactive activities. Oxford points out that analytic learners perform well on tests. In contrast to analytical learners, global learners are weak in detail and exams but in free writing they are more creative.50 2. Auditory and Visual and Hands-on Style Preference Visual-oriented learners will process information better if a picture and objects are presented. It will be a disadvantage to these students if teachers only give oral lectures. This is in contrast with the auditory students, who are good at learning through hearing, and hands-on learners, who learn better when they work with real objects. 3. Closure and Open Style Preference Closure-style learners lack flexibility. They like to follow rules and regulations. Open-style learners do not care about rules and regulations. They are more flexible when they learn, and they enjoy discussions and activities. 4. Intuitive and Concrete-Sequential Style Intuitive learners are more creative and filled with new ideas. It is hard for them to follow procedures. Concrete-sequential learners learn better when concrete facts are given. They are good at following step-by-step patterns of learning.

8

Chapter One

BRAIN THEORY In the early 1860s, some researchers found that damage to one hemisphere of the brain would impact certain parts of specific abilities.51 Language function would be lost if the left cerebral hemisphere was damaged. Visual spatial recognition would be affected if the right cerebral hemisphere was damaged. Sperry’s52 experiments of two cerebral hemispheres on animals led to his split brain theory. Sperry discovered that the left and right hemispheres of the brain process information differently. The left and right brain theory has received much attention. Davis53 describes the different characteristics of left and right brain hemisphere.

THE CHARACTERISTICS OF LEFT AND RIGHT BRAIN HEMISPHERES54 Left Hemisphere Language Symbolism and abstraction Fine temporal order judgments Time consciousness sequencing Analysis: figuring things out step by step Right Hemisphere Spatial relations Concrete representation Grouping of parts into whole Perceiving patterns and structures Simultaneous processing Analogic: seeing likenesses between thing The left hemisphere tends to be more analytical and logical. This way of thinking is more linear and sequential, and the process is step-by-step. On the other hand, the right hemisphere is good at image processing and is more holistic. Hatcher said, “We know that the right brain cannot verbalize what it knows and the left brain is unable to create meaning or generate new ideas.”55 Reiff views student learning with the whole brain a necessity. Learners do not use only one hemisphere, even though learners may have a preference of processing strategies. Literature56 confirms that both hemispheres are equally essential to the learner. McCarthy57 used his 4MAT to test the learner’s par-

Theories of Learning Styles

9

ticular preference of which hemisphere to use. His model divides right and left hemispheric tendencies on each of the four quadrants of the brain. McCarthy followed David Kolb’s learning style inventory and developed a model of four kinds of learners. They are innovative learners, analytical learners, commonsense learners, and dynamic learners. Right-brain learners are more experiential and intuitive, and they prefer hands-on learning and group studies. Commonsense learners and dynamic learners are in this group. The left-brain learners are more systematic and analytical; they look for meaning and are more independent learners. Analytical learners and innovative learners belong to this group. Another researcher, Lewis Chambers, further developed McCarthy’s theory and identifies the relationship of these four modes of learners. Lewis summarizes McCarthy’s findings as follows: 1. More students were right mode dominant than left mode dominant. 2. Each of the four learning style quadrants had right mode, left mode, and whole-brained students. 3. These brain dominance characteristics are related to age and educational experience in some complex interaction. 4. The relationship between the concrete and the right mode and the abstract and the left mode is a strong one.58 Research59 has found that educational systems do not encourage right-brain thinkers. Right-brain thinkers or holistic thinkers are usually described as failures. Educators should recognize the differences between learning styles and motivate students to reach their full potential. As Reiff believes, each hemisphere is equally important. The theory of multiple intelligences was introduced by Howard Gardner in his book Frames of Mind.60 Gardner discovered that the educational system and society reinforce certain types of intelligence. Intelligence can be defined differently according to an individual’s culture and social values. Certain cognitive and intellectual functions can be linked to specific physical areas of the brain, but most tasks depend on more than one area of the brain. Development is shaped by environment. Therefore, culture affects skills acquired and has a dominant role in shaping intelligence. Gardner’s multiple intelligences are classified in seven areas: (1) linguistic: the intelligence of syntax and phonology; (2) musical: the intelligence of pitch, rhythm, timbre; (3) mathematical logical: the intelligence of number, abstraction; (4) spatial, the intelligence of the visual world such as pictures and images; (5) bodily kinesthetic: the intelligence of body motions control; (6) personal: the intelligence of understanding self; and (7) interpersonal: the intelligence of understanding others.

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Chapter One

Gardner holds that intelligence ought to be defined more broadly than it usually is: “We need to broaden our notion of what can be considered intelligence, in terms of both individual and cultural components.”61 Lewis believes that people do not have only one type of intelligence, but that culture and social values may condition students to pursue only one type. Also noted was the fact that some practical intelligences are hard to measure with tests and examinations.62

MIND STYLES, AFFECTIVE STYLES, AND PHYSIOLOGICAL STYLES Anthony Gregorc63 differentiated four patterns of thinking styles. This is similar to Kolb’s learning style model. He defined four kinds of learners: (1) concrete sequential learners, (2) abstract sequential learners, (3) abstract random learners, and (4) concrete random learners. All learners can demonstrate all four patterns to a certain degree, but learners tend to prefer one or two patterns. Lewis64 summarized the characteristics of the four mind styles and the support needed of learners. Concrete sequential learners are organized, efficient, and task-oriented. They do best with structure, detail, and realistic situations. Abstract sequential learners are theoretical and critical. They like independent study, ideas, and analysis. Abstract random learners are imaginative, emotional, and interpretive. They like teaching that includes communication, illustration, and peer teaching. Concrete random learners are experiential, independent, and risk-taking. They prefer open-ended activities and experimentation. The Ability Inventory65 is a self-report instrument designed by Gregorc. It consists of 40 words in 10 sets of four words. Each student selects the one that best describes them. Gregorc advocated that teachers adjust their teaching styles to match student learning styles. He believed long-term mismatching would create a lot of learning barriers for students. Habermas and Issler66 describe affective style as tending to deal more with attention, motivation, emotion, and needs. All are related to personality traits. Keefe67 classifies this into two areas: the elements of attention and the elements of incentive. The Conceptual Level Inventory was developed by Hunt and Associates.68 A low conceptual level learner needs high structure. A high conceptual level indicates a need for less structure. Reiff69 holds that high conceptual level learners tend to be more independent. Teachers should use the discovery approach, problem solving, and individual projects to challenge high conceptual level learners. For the low conceptual level learners, he comments: In the classroom, students at the low conceptual level regard the environment as more fixed and rigid: they are not able to look at alternative solutions to problems. They need more structure and direction because they are not too in-

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11

dependent or adaptive. Appropriate teaching strategies for these students would include programmed or sequenced learning, direct instruction, and computer assisted instruction.70

There are four different conceptual levels. In level one, learners have their own fixed patterns of belief. Information is rejected if it is not in their thinking pattern. In level two, learners can have a hard time seeing other viewpoints because of their own rigid rules and beliefs. Also, these learners have problems with interpersonal relations. In level three, learners begin to accept other people’s viewpoints. Interpersonal skills are better in this stage. In level four, learners can build new belief systems and are able to balance task and interpersonal skills.71 From the motivation perspective, Holliday and Smith72 believe that highly motivated students are more independent and have better performance. Low motivated students are more dependent and perceive themselves as less responsible. Low motivated students need alternative teaching approaches such as visual materials and educational activities. Dunn and Dunn73 advise teachers to use different ways to teach motivated and unmotivated students. Teachers should inform the motivated students of the requirements of assignments and how the assignments can be graded. However, unmotivated students should be treated differently. They should have short assignments and resources. This could foster their perceptual strength. There are four elements that impact physiological style. Reiff74 summarizes them as: 1. 2. 3. 4.

Environmental: sound, light, temperature, design Emotional: motivation, persistence, responsibility, structure Sociological: self, pair, peers, team, adult Physical: perceptual, intake, time, mobility

Dunn and Dunn75 found that individual learners have their own perceptual preference (visual, auditory, tactile); physical environment needs (light, temperature, sound); social environment preferences (alone, team); and even a preference for the time of day (morning, afternoon, evening). They identify twenty-one different learning styles. They put the cognitive, affective, and physiological all together and develop this multidimensional mode.

NOTES 1. K. Dunn and R. Dunn, Teaching Secondary Students through Their Individual Learning Styles (Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1993); D.S. Claxton and Murrell, Learning Styles: Implications for Improving Educational Practices (Washington DC: Association

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Chapter One

for Study of Higher Education, 1987); David Kolb, Experiential Learning (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 1984). 2. Judith Reiff, Learning Styles (Washington DC: NEA Professional Library, 1991). 3. Claxton and Murrell, Learning Styles. 4. S. Messick, Individuality in Learning (San Francisco: Jossey Bass, 1976). 5. Reiff, Learning Styles, 8. 6. Reiff, Learning Styles; Jim Reynolds, “Learning Style Characteristics,” Tech. Prep. Clearing House 68, no. 5 (May/June 1995): 317–319. 7. John Dewey, Experience and Education (New York: Macmillan, 1938). 8. J. Piaget, The Origins of Intelligence in Children (New York: International University Press, 1952). 9. Kolb, Experiential Learning. 10. David Kolb, The Learning Style Inventory (Boston: McBer, 1979). 11. Esther Susabda, The Relationship between Matched/Mismatched Student Learning Styles with Faculty Teaching Styles and Academic Performance among Christian Secondary Students in Southern California (Ph.D. dissertation: Biola University, 1992), 15. 12. Claxton & Murrell, Learning Styles. 13. Claxton & Murrell, Learning Styles, Susabda, Relationship. 14. Claxton & Murrell, Learning Styles. 15. Susabda, Relationship. 16. Claxton & Murrell, Learning Styles. 17. Ronald Habermas and Klass Isslar, Teaching for Reconciliation (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Books, 1992). 18. Kolb, The Learning Style Inventory. 19. Kolb, Experiential Learning, 66. 20. Kolb, Experiential Learning. 21. Kolb, Experiential Learning, 67. 22. B. G. Ferrel, “A Factor Analytic Comparison of Four Learning Style Instruments,” Journal of Educational Psychology 75, no. 1 (1983): 33–39. 23. Alan Algee, A Composition of Learning Styles between Asian and American Seminary Students (Ph.D. dissertation, Nova University, 1993); Nai Ming Tsang, Learning Styles and Associated Leraning Barriers on a Social Work Course in Hong Kong (Ph.D. dissertation, Council for National Academic Awards, Hong Kong University, 1990). 24. Reiff, Learning Styles. 25. H. Witkin, R. Dyke, H. Fatterson, D. Goodenough, S. Karp, Psychological Differentiation: Studies in Development (New York: Wiley, 1962). 26. Herman A. Witkin, “The Problem of Individuality in Development,” in Perspectives in Psychological Theory, ed. S. Wapner and B. Kaplan (New York: International University Press, 1962), 335–361. 27. Susabda, Relationship. 28. Reiff, Learning Styles, 15. 29. O. Saracho, “The Match and Mismatch of Teachers and Students Cognitive Styles,” Early Childhood Development and Care 54, no. 1 (1989): 99–109.

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30. Alfredo Castaneda and Tracy Gray, “Bicognitive Processes in Multicultural Education,” Educational Leadership 32 (1974): 203–207. 31. John Berry, Cross-Cultural Psychology: Research and Applications (New York: Cambridge, 1992). 32. John Berry and H. A. Witkin, “Psychological Differentiation in Cross-Cultural Perspectives,” Journal of Cross Cultural Psychology 3, no. 1 (1975):46. 33. Reiff, Learning Styles, 14. 34. Rosalie Cohen, “The Relation between Social Conceptual Styles and Orientation to School Requirements,” Journal of Educational Psychology 41, no. 2 (1968): 201–220. 35. Cohen, “Relation between,” 209. 36. Anand Bibart Gupta, The Effect of Field Dependent and Field Independent Cognitive Styles on the Learning Effectiveness of Post-Secondary Students within a Hypermedia Environment (Ph.D. dissertation, George State University, 1995). 37. Jianyi Huang, The Relationship of Cognitive styles, Cognitive Profiles, and Thinking Styles among Selected Chinese and North American Adult Students in Higher Education (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Wyoming, 1993). 38. Joyce Ruth Wallace, Cognitive Style Preferences among Male and Female African-American and European American Students in Specialized Middle Magnet Schools (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Missouri, 1993). 39. Wallace, Cognitive Style Preferences. 40. Clair Gray and Judith Lingenfelter, “The Importance of Learning Styles in Literacy,” Notes on Literacy 36 (1981): 11–17. 41. Alfredo Castaneda, Leslie P. Herold, and Manuel Ramirez, Field Sensitive and Field Independent Teaching Strategies (Riverside, CA: Systems and Evaluation in Education, 1974). 42. J. Kagan, “Information Processing in the Child: Significance of Analytic and Reflective Attitudes,” Psychological Monographs, 78 (1964): 1. 43. R. Gardner, P. Holzman, G. Klein, D. Linton, and D. Spencer “A Study of Individual Consistancies in Cognitive Behavior,” Psychologial Issues, monograph 4 (New York: International Press, 1959). 44. Norman Kagan and David Krathwohl, Learning Strategies Questionnaire (Washington, D.C.: HEW Bureau of Research, 1967). 45. Pamela Hollman and Gloria Kindell, Lesson Plan Using Global Teaching Strategies (Green, England: Summer Institute of Linguistics, 1992). 46. Patricia Davis, Cognition and Learning (Dallas: SIL, 1991), 54. 47. Huang, Relationship. 48. Davis, Cognition; Kagan, Information Processing; Howard Gardner, Multiple Intelligence (New York: Basic Books, 1993); Hollman and Kindell, Lesson Plan. 49. Joy Reid, Language and Learning Styles in the ESL/EFL Classroom (Boston: Heinle & Heinle, 1992). 50. Rebecca Oxford and R. Scarcella, The Tapestry of Language Learning (Boston: Heinle & Heinle, 1992). 51. B. Edwards, Drawing on the Right Side of the Brain (Los Angeles: J.P. Tarcher, 1979).

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52. R. W. Sperry, Mental Unity Following Surgical Disconnection of the Cerebral Hemispheres: Harvey Lecture Series 2 (New York: Academic Press, 1968). 53. Davis, Cognition. 54. Davis, Cognition, 50. 55. M. Hatcher, “Whole Brain Learning,” The School Administrator 40, no. 5 (1983): 8–11. 56. Jerre Levy, “Children Think with Whole Brain Myth and Reality,” in Student Learning Styles and Brain Behavior, ed. Jerre Levy (Reston, VT: National Association of Secondary School Principals, 1992); Reiff, Learning Styles. 57. Bernice McCarthy, The 4MAT System (Barrington, IL: EXCEL, 1980). 58. Anne Chambers Lewis, Learning Styles: Putting Research and Common Sense into Practice (Arlington, VA: American Association of School Administrators, 1991), 25. 59. Davis, Cognition; L. A. Hart, “The New Brain Concept of Learning,” Phi Delta Kappan 59, no. 6 (1978): 504–506; Reiff, Learning Styles. 60. Howard Gardner, Frames of Mind (New York: Basic Books, 1983). 61. Gardner 1993 (p. 236). 62. Lewis, Learning Styles. 63. Anthony Gegorc, An Adult Guide to Style (Maynard, MA: Gabriel Systems, 1979). 64. Lewis, Learning Styles. 65. Gregorc, An Adult Guide. 66. Habermas and Issler, Teaching. 67. J. Keefe, Learning Style: Theory and Practice (Reston, VA: National Association of Secondary School Principals, 1979). 68. J. Butler, D. Hunt, L. Noy, and M. Rosser, Assessing Conceptual Level by the Paragraph Completion Method: Informal Series 3 (Toronto: Ontario Institute of Studies in Education, 1977). 69. Reiff, Learning Styles. 70. Reiff, Learning Styles, 23. 71. Reiff, Learning Styles. 72. P. Holliday and L. Smith, “Learning Style and Academic Achievement in Fourth, Fifth, and Sixth Grade Students,” Focus on Learning Problems in Mathematics, report no. EJ361661 (ERIC Document Reproduction Service no. ED 272 527, 1986). 73. Dunn and Dunn, Teaching Secondary. 74. Dunn and Dunn, Teaching Secondary, 9. 75. Dunn and Dunn, Teaching Secondary.

Chapter Two

Historical Development of Indian Education

A review of the history of Indian education and the number of researchers involved in studying students’ learning styles demonstrates the importance of the topic. The beliefs of the majority culture can impact a student’s learning style. In the case of India, Hinduism is the majority religion, and the literature shows that strong Hindu values, and in particular the value of Karma in the culture, has penetrated Indian education over the centuries and up to modern times.

EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA Traditional Indian education was viewed as the instrument for self-realization and is related to early Hindu culture.1 An archaeologist discovered an early city on the river Indus in Sind. This period is called the Indus Valley Civilization. Archaeologists found some early figures of goddesses and a seated figure of a male god.2 The valley civilization did not leave any inscriptions describing their society and schooling, but scholars think the early discovery of the Hindu god and goddesses give meaning to the forms of traditional education. The Valley Civilization, or Harappa culture, lasted for a thousand years until the Aryans invaded India.

ARYAN PERIOD The most important traditions of early Indian education began with the Aryan period. It was during this time that people were speaking Sanskrit, an 15

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Indo-Aryan language. Education in the Aryan period was exclusively for the Brahmins, known as the priestly class. Later this was extended to Kshariiyas (soldiers). One traditional Hindu ritual is the Upanayana, or thread ceremony. This ceremony is described in early Hindu literature and was required for all Aryans to learn. The local people were called Dasyas or Shudras, which means “servant,” and Aryans looked down on them. Under the Aryans, the Shudras had no right to education. The priests usually kept busy with performing ceremonies. The priests were also teachers. Usually young students had to stay with the priests to learn to recite the hymns of the gods and goddesses, which are called Vedas. The collection of hymns is known as the Rig Veda, and it was memorized and recited by one generation to the next. There were also long poems written about warriors and kings, known as the Ramayan and the Mahabharata. Because it was compulsory to recite the Vedas, Aryan students practiced and had good memories. During the Upanayana (thread ceremony) all the children, including boys and girls, began their education. The family would invite a guru (teacher) to come to their house and teach their children. The teacher system was introduced, but usually all education was related to learning the Vedas in order to praise their gods. The Aryans believed that the gods would be pleased by worshipers singing religious hymns and offering sacrifices. The children had to learn with their guru until they reached marrying age. Then some men became the priests of their family and performed all the religious duties and sacrifices. Students at that period spent a large amount of time as apprentices.3 In the Vedic period, education was available for only three classes: priests, soldiers, and craftsmen. The fourth (untitled) class was not entitled to the vedic ritual. Brahmin refers to a very pure caste, and the untouchable refers to the most polluting caste. The system forbade any social interaction among different castes. There was no mass education. The Shrudras and untouchables were denied this right, and many low caste and out caste people were illiterate. Aryans used the caste system to create a superior position. The Hindi term for caste, varia, also refers to color. It indicates the high castes were white. Aryans despised and looked down upon darker skinned natives.4 The caste system hindered the development of education. The early caste system was quite complex and rigid. Certain jobs belonged to certain castes, and a person’s name, norms, and conduct would indicate their likelihood of obtaining an education in the future. Gradually, Aryans dictated that only the high caste Brahmin had the right to practice Hindu ceremonies and sacrifice offerings. This severely limited anyone else from having a chance at education. The characteristics of the Vedic age’s education focused on the following: (a) The role of the teacher was like that of a god. The teacher was a priest

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and helped the student to fulfill the religious duties. (b) The teaching content was focused on the Vedas, religious hymns, and books. (c) Students learned from rote memorization. (d) The opportunities for learning were meant only for the upper priesthood caste. In the Vedic period, the aim of knowledge was to obtain the higher knowledge of reasoning in order to achieve self-realization. Worldly desires and enjoyments were viewed as ignorance and were discouraged. “Ignorance is the cause of human bondage which can be dispelled by wisdom alone. If all the worldly desires are given up, a mortal becomes immortal.”5 There were three clear steps to higher knowledge according to the Upanishada, or Hindu scripture. The Brihadaranyak Upanishad clearly states that education in the highest knowledge depends upon three processes, in order: (1) Sravana, (2) Manana, and (3) Nidhidhyasana. Sravana is listening to what is said by the teacher. Mancina is defined as constant contemplation of the one reality in accordance with the ways of reason aiding in its apprehension. Nidihyasana is concentrated contemplation of the truth so as to realize it.6 The purpose of education was to help students develop analytical skills that would lead to a good life.7

BUDDHISM AND JAINISM After the Vedic age, Buddhism and Jainism came into focus, changing India’s education. People felt dissatisfied with Hinduism because the Vedic religion focused on many rites and sacrifices. Worship became a big show, and people followed Buddha and Jainism or became ascetics. School at this time was centered around the monasteries. They found Buddha objected to the caste system, and when their people preached, Jain followers used the common language of the local people. This opened the door for more people to receive education. Monks became teachers and monasteries became schools. Furthermore, the monks of Buddhism and Jainism liked to travel from place to place, and wealthy merchants donated money to build monasteries. This enhanced the education of different castes in many parts of India. Jain followers insisted that their faith should be based on right faith, right knowledge, and right action.8 This led education to emphasize the student’s character development. At that time, several kings, such as Ashoka and Gupta, loved poets. They also encouraged poets, writers, scientists, and artists to contribute to society. In their view, education should not consist only of reciting rituals. Multiple intelligence development began to be promoted. The most distinctive elements of the education in this period were: (a) Monks were teachers and monasteries were schools; (b) education was more common and open for all; (c) character development was of the same importance

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as reciting and chanting hymns; and (d) students started to learn science, art, writing, and poetry.

CHOLA PERIOD After the popularity of Buddhism and Jainism, the Brahmins tried to improve and strengthen Hinduism. In that period, the Indian kingdoms were divided into the North and South, and the Chola kings were the most powerful. The kings and rich people tried to restore Hinduism and contributed a lot of money and land for building temples in every village. The temples were not only used for worship, there were also used for schools. The schools were held in the courtyard of the temple, and the students used two languages to learn their lessons. One was Sanskrit, the language of the Vedas, and the other language was Tamil, a very common language during the Chola kingdom. The famous Ramayana was adapted to Tamil, and many poems were also written in Tamil. New teachings about Hindu worship were introduced by Ramanuja. He taught that the worship of god consisting of Bhakti (loving other people and devotion to god) and loving others rather than only reciting the prayers after the priest. In his teaching, there was no high caste or low caste. During the Chola period, the character development of students emphasized Bhakti and the purpose of education still focused on their knowledge to praise and to love others. Religion and education could not be separated. At the same time, the education in the north was very similar to the south. However, only the high caste children learned from the priest during this period, and science declined because of superstition. Astronomy was mixed up with superstition and became astrology. Medical knowledge was stopped because it was said that anyone who touched a dead body would lose caste.9 Superstitious ideas penetrated into Indian education. Because the northern kings built a lot of temples, the insides and outsides were filled with images of Hindu gods and goddesses in painting or carvings. Therefore, the paintings and architecture were famous, but the student’s learning was mixed with superstition, because fear was a part of their learning. Priests as teachers could bruise the student’s soul and punish their physical body if they disobeyed the teacher’s rules.

MUGHAL PERIOD When the Arabs invaded Western India, Islam was brought to India and opened the tension between Muslims and Hindus. The impact on Indian

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education under the Mughal rulers dictated that no Muslim could attend an institution run by Hindus. According to Alexander,10 Muslim education was similar to Hindu education. The school was usually within the mosque and was called the maqtaba. The purpose of teaching children in the mosques was similar to the Hindus—to educate their children in their own religion. The boys and girls learned the Holy Quran. There was a place of higher education called the madrassalis. This was for training professionals such as priests, judges, and doctors. At the time of King Aurangzeb, Muslims were forbidden from attending a Hindu educational institution.11 At that time people used Hindi and Urdu, the new language that was understood by both Hindus and Muslims. The court used the Persian language. Alexander12 summarizes the similarities of Hindu and Muslim education as follows: (a) Education was religion centered. (b) The forests and the countryside were the centers of education. (c) Though primarily devoted to the study of religion and philosophy, it encouraged the study of many intellectual and aesthetic activities like mathematics, astronomy, grammar, and politics. (d) The system laid down certain well-defined norms of behavior and patterns of thought; it strove to build up the personality of the student and infused in him a sense of character. (e) Teachers took to teaching for the love of learning. (f) There was no set machinery of educational administration.

EDUCATION IN MODERN INDIA India entered into the modern period at the time of the British conquest. From that moment, Indian education turned a new chapter as the British brought their own educational system into India. There were some new types of schools introduced at this time. English was the medium of instruction, especially in the southern part of India such as Madras, Bengal, and Bombay. Most of these schools were run by Christian missionaries, and the old education system suffered under the new British company rule. The old system focused on training students in classical languages such as Sanskrit, Arabic, and Persian. There was tension regarding what would be the medium of instruction and a debate on the issue of whether to have mass education or education only for a certain class of people. From the Indian perspective, the coming of the British brought the decline of the goal of mass education.13 At that time, the government took over land from Indian rulers that had previously been used for education. The land being taken away was considered the reason that mass education was neglected. It was argued that the size of the population made it impossible to adopt mass education. Some people suggested the government should allow the upper

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class to receive Westernized education first, and then it would automatically trickle down to the masses. This theory was called the Downward Filtration Theory.14 In 1813, the government sanctioned one lakh (10,000) rupees per year to the development of education, but Indians still continued to debate with British administrators over the type of educational system. Some favored a traditional way, and some favored Western learning. An Indian named Rammohun Roy insisted that only learning could modernize India. In 1835 the government made the decision that English would be the main medium of instruction in a few of the best schools and colleges. The British education system became known as English education. English schools, many of them sponsored by the Christian community, began to mushroom in the major cities of India.15 The British perspective was that using an English medium could help communication and help the new government. Thomas Macaulay’s Minute on education reflects their way of thinking about education for Indians: The aim of the British Government was to create a “class of people who would be Indians in blood and skin but English in spirit.”16 To achieve this aim, the government would educate only select upper class people who had the leisure and means for thorough English education and only Western sciences and English literature would be taught in Indian schools. English alone was fit to be the medium of instruction.17 Macaulay was one of the aggressive advocates of British education for Indians. He presupposed the superiority of Western education compared with nonWestern education and said, “Having become instructed in European knowledge, (Indians) may, in some future age, demand European institutions . . . the imperishable empire of our arts and our morals, our literature and our laws.”18 The government made English education more popular, and government jobs were only offered to Indians who knew English. Many Indians postulated that the new educational system only produced government staff for the British. The majority who spoke their mother tongue were neglected. At that time, 90 percent of Indians still remained illiterate.19 Indian education in one way tried to shift to the British system. More emphasis was put on teacher training and a grading system and class structure were also introduced. However, traditional rote memorization and the role of teacher as a god still remained. The government continued to reform education. In 1854, Charles Wood advocated the grading system through introducing the examination system into India. He encouraged education for girls and established teacher training institutions. This led to systematized educational activities. Indian education was to a great extent an imitation of the British system. The British believed that an English-educated Indian would be more

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cooperative and support the British rule. English education brought Indians into modem ideas of equality, justice, democracy, and nationalism. It also led to the fall of the British rulers. In the British period, education was similar to education in other colonized countries. Education served the needs of the colonial hierarchy and was not identified with Indian culture. Critical thinking was introduced and tests were emphasized. The examination continued to be the focus at the time of de-colonization. Education was only for the elitist, and only the best could survive. Bray and Lee state, “The de-colonization of India was abrupt and chaotic, driven by urgent political expediency and with no time for long-term planning of education or any other sector.”20 Education became mixed with input from Hinduism, Islam, and the British. Illiteracy was a longtime problem of India. During British rule, four out of five villages were without a primary school, and three out of four children did not go to school. Primary education was obviously neglected even as higher education continued to develop. The leaders of the freedom movement created and set up the National Council of Education to oppose British education. In general, English education contributed to the freedom movement by being the link language that brought the different language groups of India together and connected India with the outside world. The involvement of missionaries in education opened the door for girls’ education. Many girls were taught by female missionaries or missionary wives. Also, more girls received training as teachers. English education continued to foster the values of equality and liberty. This inspired India’s independence movement. At the time of independence, Gandhi believed that the goal of education was to create a truthful and non-violent person. The foundation of education was a path to self-realization. The aim of education was to seek the truth. Gandhi criticized the educational system’s neglect of building a student’s character. Manohar considered Gandhi’s criticisms of the educational system at the time of independence: Gandhi held that the educational system alienated students from their own traditional occupation, natural surroundings and indigenous culture. He believed it developed an inferiority complex and self-alienation. Undue emphasis was put on literacy education, at the exclusion of the culture of life-sustaining human values. It ignored the culture of heart and hand. It was too materialistic and hence failed to arouse a sense of social service.21

Gandhi promoted mass education. He believed that all people should have a basic education, and he advocated using the mother tongue for the medium of instruction as a way of preserving culture and tradition. He also promoted craft education to enhance students’ abilities and to learn a skill for survival.

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He also redefined the role of the teacher, pointing out that a teacher was a guide, friend, and philosopher to the students. This view put the teacher and student closer together. Because of Gandhi’s philosophy, free education was introduced, but the illiteracy rate was still high. At that time, only 14 percent of the population was literate, and only one out of three children were enrolled in primary schools.22 State schools were usually poorly equipped in comparison to private schools. In the modern period of India, Swami Dayanand and Rabindranath Tagore contributed to the focus on Hindu culture in education in order to balance the development of Western education in India. Tagore believed education was an inner freedom that enlightened everyone: “The activities of the educational institutions should preserve the cultural heritage of the nation.”23 Swami Dayanand’s perspective was that the aims of education were to lead to moksha, or salvation. Swami Dayanand put knowledge into two categories: “knowledge helps to distinguish between the permanent and temporary, the true and the false, the pure and the impure.”24 Swami Dayanand also believed in the transmigration of the soul. He believed that because of ignorance, the human soul is in bondage and needs education to gain freedom from the bondage of the world.25 In India today, about 80 percent of the children go through an education process of inferior quality provided mostly by government schools, and about 20 percent benefit from a comparatively higher standard of education offered by private agencies. The children from the poor families in some rural and in all urban areas go to inferior schools where they are made to see themselves as less well dressed, as belonging to a lower level of education, and as ones who will not do well in exams.26 The advent of English medium schools prevented upper caste students from mingling with the poor, thus dividing the society into a hidden caste system. India has just recently celebrated the fiftieth anniversary of independence. The educational system now is more focused on the examination system. Some students vomit at the time of examination because the pressure is so great. Many students cannot eat or sleep before exams, and many students take extra tutorial classes to prepare for the examination. Manohar27 called this educational system a textbook-oriented educational system. Students have a very heavy load of textbooks, which they are told to use to memorize all the facts without understanding the text. Parents and schools place a lot of pressure on students to get good grades. Parents want their children to be competent to make money. The future social status of their children depends greatly on English medium schools. Gaining status in society is given priority over service to society. Material success is

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viewed as the most important acquisition. Manohar believed these types of schools prepare children for these types of success but do not teach them how to face a failure or disappointment.28 Research supports that culture and family expectations make the student change his style of learning even if it is not the style of learning the student follows naturally. From the Western point of view, learning styles are related with the brain system and the external factors of culture.29 To Indians, cognitive process is related with Hindu belief30 The following literature on the development of Indian education examines the Hindu cultural impact on education. Cultural Value Dilemma Jacqueline J. Goodnow has shown that cognitive development is influenced by the values of society.31 The acquisition of cognitive values is also impacted by adult preferences. In Western educational theory, whether students are field dependent or field independent will depend on genetics and the social environment.32 India also emphasizes the role of genetics and social environment, but Karma is believed to be a part of a child’s genetic inheritance. Traditional Hinduism believes that good deeds harvest a good rebirth. Indian researcher Das33 believes Karma is involved in a student’s cognitive process. Whether a student is field dependent or independent is a result of not only social environment and genetics, but also one’s Karma. The theory of Karma may be the force that explains why Indian culture places a greater value on scientific knowledge, boys’ education, placing children in school at an early age, and toleration of other religions. Science vs. Nonscience Academic Stream An underlying value of placing the science academic stream above the nonscience academic stream is related to the Hindu concept of Karma. The term Karma is a Hindu religious term from the Hindu scriptures, the Vedas. Karma is the immutable law of cause and effect. Good deeds mean good results and a good rebirth. Bad deeds mean bad results and a bad rebirth. “Besides accounting for one’s status, the concept of Karma accounts for the good or ill fortune one may suffer during the course of one’s life.”34 Traditional Hindus believe life is a cycle. They believe human beings have more than one life. “Soul is not born neither it perishes with the body. The soul migrates from life to life. It enters into a new body like a caterpillar. The new form is determined on the basis of one’s Karma.”35 In practical terms, this means that if students are in the academic stream that society deems superior, it is the result of their past

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life. It may be that good deeds from many past lives contributed to being in the preferred academic stream. “Intelligence is seen as the result of one’s own Karma and the child inherits it from his/her parents. However, the activity or passivity of this genetic endowment depends upon the child’s Karma.”36 Good Karma from parents affects a student’s natural endowment, but the student’s Karma will determine how it is used in the current life. The belief that one’s Karma determines how one acquires different intelligences is affirmed by Burnett. In a discussion on differences of temperament and intelligence he states, This argument is based on the observation that children born of the same parents and brought up in the same atmosphere have different inclinations, intelligence, and even looks. Some people are quiet and solitary, while others are outgoing and friendly. The law of Karma explains these different tendencies as due to different experiences in past lives.37

Good Karma can produce good intelligence. “An intelligent person is capable of knowing the intention of others, polite and away from self-praise, has initiative, has interest in work, persistence, motivation and reasoning.”38 The Indian view of intelligence distinguishes between higher and lower and good and bad intelligences. Higher or good intelligence leads to happiness, pleasure, and prosperity, and is constructive. The pare or higher knowledge leads to self-realization, which will in turn lead to moksha. This kind of knowledge is imperishable; it is the true knowledge; it is ritiya (permanent) knowledge. This kind of knowledge is obtained by analytical and reasoning skill.39 Apara or lower knowledge is perishable and may also be described as temporary knowledge (anitya). All apara knowledge is viewed as false knowledge.40 Knowledge related with arts and enjoyment are viewed as apara. Highly intelligent people are equated with adults, whereas people with low intelligence are equated with children. Intelligence is essential for gaining knowledge, and knowledge is essential for gaining moksha, or salvation. To gain knowledge you must practice perceptual analysis, inference, analogical reasoning, and materials learned from books and authorities.41 In contrast, egoism, passion, desire, sloth, impulsivity, orientation for action, desire for knowledge for its immediate utility, pride, and assertiveness are considered barriers to intellectual development. If one is born with such a temperament he must do all he can to make it better. “One has to rise above the influence of desire, of unfavourable temperament through right ideas, effort and reflection for gathering valid and appropriate knowledge.”42 Being liberated from the cycle of rebirth is the highest form of intelligence. This occurs when one highlights the importance of desh (space) and kala (time). The intelligent person who has been liberated responds appropriately

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to space and time but is not touched by pleasure or pain arising from them. Being liberated with the highest state of intelligence, he can be united with Brahman, the highest god in the Hindu world.43 From the discussion on Karma we learn that students, parents, and teachers will naturally be drawn to the science academic stream, not only for material gain, but for spiritual gain as well. The science academic stream focuses on all the abilities that would be considered good intelligence in Hindu philosophy. Having good Karma, according to Hindu philosophy, will ensure inherited good intelligence. Since field independent students generally have analytical skills, they are endowed mentally as well as spiritually. Those not so endowed must achieve this preferred value. Rich vs. Poor Some people are born rich and some are born poor. Whether you are born into a high-income family or a low-income family, Burnett44 argues, the Karma theory provides the answer for the discrepancies in the distribution of wealth to Hindus. For the poor students it is their dharma (duty) to work hard to redeem the mistakes in their previous life and succeed in the future life. When students fulfill their duties it impacts their next cycle of life. “The twin concepts of dharma and Karma are of basic importance in the ideology of the caste system. The concept of dharma has a wealth of connotation but a core meaning is ‘a way of life appropriate to one’s status.’”45 Students from low income families are taught to be content in their status, but also to work hard to upgrade their next rebirth. Findings from the following researchers illustrate that students from low income homes suffer in their schooling. Khaprade identified scheduled caste and urban slum groups or low-income groups as educationally disadvantaged groups.46 Sachchid found that disadvantaged individuals and groups have to struggle hard in the traditional system of education, and this could impact their cognitive performance.47 On the other hand, researcher Verma found that rural and urban residential background did not relate significantly to learning style.48 Uday Desai, in his article “Determinants of Educational Performance in India,” asserted that the role of the home and family has a big influence on the student’s education. His study found that educational supplies and the sanitary facilities at home have a remarkable relationship to the academic performance of children. Even the distance to the source of drinking water will affect education. The parent’s occupation and education also influence their academic performance. Poor academic performance definitely is related to low income.49 Showeb researched education and low caste people and found the main reason for these Indians to educate children is the lure of government service

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and to keep their children away from caste occupations. Social prestige, modernization of traditional occupations, and better material prospects were some of the reasons given by the respondents for educating their children. To the poor and low caste Hindu, education is the vehicle for them to go to the top of their caste.50 Males vs. Females Hota recognized that field independent boys scored higher on arithmetic reasoning than field independent girls.51 Venugopal found that boys and girls did not differ in their cognitive style.52 The contrast of these results led researchers to reexamine gender differences for the impact on their learning styles. The stigma of women’s education is still prevalent in India.53 It was pointed out by many that the rightful place of women is domestic work, and their profession is mainly motherhood. Equality of educational opportunities at the higher level is therefore seen as a waste of public funds. If education was given to women at all, it is said, it should prepare them for domestic careers.54 As has been pointed out, the concept of dharma (one’s moral duty) influences Indian society, and in particular Hindus, to a great extent. Each person has their own dharma. This moral law dictating one’s duty is unalterable. Every person has to perform their appointed duty, and if they do not, it will affect their Karma.55 Men have four stages of duty to perform. The first stage is to be a student, and during this stage he must gain the necessary skills to obtain a job. In the second stage a man is to marry and support his family. This includes his extended family as well as his wife and children. The third stage of a man’s life will allow him to retire and hand the householder responsibilities to his son. The fourth stage is when one prepares for death. In this stage a deeply devoted person will renounce all ties with his family and the world in order to pursue God.56 Men have the responsibility to provide for the family’s needs and to continue the household. Men receive the family home and any inheritance. “By traditional law, if a man had no sons, his estate passed to his brothers and their children—that is, to his paternal nephews. These inheritance rules ensured that land ownership remained with men of the same lineage.”57 Therefore, fathers make sure their sons receive a good education in order to fulfill their own dharma (duty) and to enable their sons to fulfill their duty. Developing analytical skills will develop more field independence. This in turn will enable a man to find a good job and to go to the second stage of manhood, thus fulfilling his duty.

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The duties of women are very different. Women are expected to be under a man’s authority her entire life. “As a girl she is under the direction of her father, as a wife it is her husband, and as a widow her sons.”58 The main duty of a woman is to serve and obey her father, husband, and son. Education for daughters is necessary in order to arrange a good marriage for her. Leigh Minturn also states that an educated girl will also know how to better please her in-laws. It is the girl’s duty to perform her household tasks well in order to serve her family. Educated daughters will also have better Karma for the next life.59 Khaprade identified female students as a disadvantaged group in Indian education.60 However, Showeb noted that Indian parents do educate their daughters, just not at the same level as their sons.61 Religious Belief India’s population passed one billion in April of 2000. Three percent of the population is Christian as a result of the missionary movement in India in the nineteenth century, mainly in the South of India. In India the most literate state is Kerala—a fact which some attribute to the early efforts of Christian schools. Most Christian schools are English medium schools. Manohar believes that Christian educational institutions have always had the idea of spreading the Christian view of life.62 From the Hindu perspective, tolerance is an important aspect of belief arising from the theory of Karma. The theory of Karma not only encourages people to perform good actions, it also encourages giving respect to all life. “If all animals and insects have that spiritual entity that we may call soul, then one must treat all life forms with ultimate respect.”63 Mahatma Gandhi promoted this theory in every area of life and promoted tolerance for everyone in society. “Non-violence, service to humanity and fearlessness were Gandhi’s goals and education became the means to these goals.”64 Gandhi, who had a voice in modern Indian education, wanted the concept of toleration extended to Indian education. Many Hindus attend Christian private schools, but the concept of tolerance that is found in Hinduism and the dogmatic beliefs of Christians are in opposition to each other. In the debate of having all religions taught in school it is written: Today, our educationists have tended to take a hostile attitude towards this suggestion but surely it is now becoming clear that under the present dispensation religious instruction will ultimately fall in to the fundamentalist and even fanatic hands. This whole area (religious education) has not received adequate attention in the last forty-four years, as a result of which tensions and conflicts

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have grown, to frightening proportions. Therefore it is the responsibility of our educationists to provide at least some exposure to the students with regard of our religious heritage. . . . Religion alone can give a clear vision of the ultimate good and proved sufficient incentive to strive towards it.65

In Bourai’s perspective, all schools should teach people of different faiths their own religion. As an educator who is Hindu, he would prefer tolerance for all religions, but religion should be taught. Younger vs. Older Students Getting a head start is an issue regarding entering kindergarten in India. The slogan of “catch ’em young” may sound good, but an Indian newspaper reports that the rigorous demands of formal education can be detrimental to young children in later life.66 However, most Indian parents prefer their children to start as early as possible. From a Hindu point of view, it is the father’s duty to make sure his son starts and finishes school well in order to enable his son to enter the householder stage and take care of a family. This includes the care of aging parents.67 The aging parent can be released from the duty of householder and enter into retirement if his son does well. Ultimately, aging parents who have retired will have more time to prepare for the last stage of life and the next cycle of life. Therefore, the children who start school earlier will enter into the householder stage earlier, thus allowing the retired parent to focus on preparing for the next cycle of life. The trend of starting school early does not seem to make a change in students’ learning styles. Verma found that there was no significant difference in learning styles between younger aged and older aged students.68 NOTES 1. George P. Alexander, Higher Education in India: Cricial Issues and Trends (Gardena, CA: P & P Publishers, 1998). 2. Romila Thapar, Ancient India (New Delhi: NCERT, 1998). 3. Alexander, Higher Education. 4. Ranbir Vohra, The Making of India, A Historical Survey (London: M.E. Sharp, 1997). 5. H. H. A. Bourai, Indian Theory of Education (New Delhi: B. R. Publishing, 1993), 15. 6. Bourai, Indian Theory, 21. 7. Bourai, Indian Theory. 8. Thapar, Ancient India.

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9. Thapar, Ancient India. 10. Alexander, Higher Education. 11. Vohra, The Making. 12. Alexander, Higher Education. 13. (Arjun 1998) 14. Alexander, Higher Education. 15. (Manohar 1998). 16. Alexander, Higher Education, 31. 17. Alexander, Higher Education. 18. Vohra, The Making, 53. 19. Dev Arjun, Modern India (New Delhi: NCERT, 1998). 20. Mark Bray and W. O. Lee, “Edcuation, Democracy and Colonial Transition: The Case of Hong Kong,” International Review of Education 38, no. 6 (1993): 5411–5601. 21. Moses P. Manohar, Education in Free India: A Theological Review (New Delhi: Cambridge Press, 1998). 22. Alexander, Higher Education. 23. Bourai, Indian Theory, 106. 24. Bourai, Indian Theory, 108. 25. Bourai, Indian Theory. 26. Manohar, Education. 27. Manohar, Education. 28. Manohar, Education. 29. Sperry, Mental Unity. 30. J. P. Das, Assessment of Cognitive Process: The Pass Theory of Intelligence (New York: Allen and Bacon, 1994). 31. Jacqueline Goodnow, “The Socialization of Cognition: What’s Involved?” in Cultural Psychology: Essays on Comparative Human Development, ed. James R. Stigler (Cambridge: Cambridge Press, 1990), 259–286. 32. Sperry, Education. 33. Das, Assessment. 34. Leigh Minturn, Sita’s Daughters: Coming out of Purdah (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993),19. 35. Bourai, Indian Theory, 15. 36. A. Srivastava and A. Tripathi, “Western and Indian Perspectives on Intelligence: Some Reflections,” Indian Educational Review 30, no. 2 (1995): 30–45. 37. David Burnett, The Spirit of Hinduism, A Christian Perspective on Hindu Thought (London: Moncarch Publishing, 1992), 80. 38. Srivastava and Tripathi, “Western and Indian,” 39. 39. Srivastava and Tripathi, “Western and Indian.” 40. Bourai, Indian Theory. 41. Das, Assessment. 42. Srivastava and Tripathi, “Western and Indian,” 39. 43. Srivastava and Tripathi, “Western and Indian,” 41. 44. Burnett, The Spirit.

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45. Minturn, Sita’s Daughters, 19. 46. M. S. Khaparde, “Education of the Disadvantaged in the Twenty-first Century with Special Reference to Education of the Scheduled Castes,” Journal of Indian Education 22, no. 1 (1996): 24–35. 47. Anand Sachchid, “Research in Education of the Disadvantaged: A Trend Report,” in Fourth Survey of Education Research 2 (1991): 1414–1426. 48. B. P. Verma, “Hemosphericity and Learning Styles among Students of Distance and Ecuation,” Indian Journal of Psychometry and Education 25, no. 1 & 2 (1994): 53–68. 49. Desai Uday, “Determinates of Educational Performance in India: Role of Home and Family,” International Review of Education 27, no. 2 (1991): 245–265. 50. M. Showeb, Education and Mobility among Harijans (Allahabad, India: Vohra Publishers, 1986). 51. Hota, “Sex Differences.” 52. Venugopal, “Cognitive Style.” 53. S. Ram Sharma, Women’s Education: A Conceptual Framework (New Delhi: Discovery Publishing House, 1996). 54. Sharma, Women’s Education. 55. Burnett, The Spirit. 56. Burnett, The Spirit. 57. Minturn, Sita’s Daughters, 112. 58. Burnett, The Spirit, 97. 59. Minturn, Sita’s Daughters. 60. Khaparde, Education of the Disadvantaged. 61. Showeb, Education and Mobility. 62. Manohar, Education in Free India. 63. Burnett, The Spirit, 83. 64. William Cenkner, The Hindu Personality in Education Primary (New Delhi: South Asia Books, 1976), 101. 65. Bourai, Indian Theory, 174. 66. Sujata Sahai, “School Fright and Other Student Phobias,” Pioneer (February 10, 1994). 67. Burnett, The Spirit. 68. Verma, “Hemisphericity.”

Chapter Three

Research Methodology

This chapter focuses on the nature of the research—the questions studied, hypotheses, definition of terms, site selection, delimitations, and research procedure.

RESEARCH QUESTIONS 1. Will there be a significant relationship between academic streams and student learning style preferences? 2. Will there be a significant relationship between gender and the types of student learning style preferences? 3. Will there be a significant relationship between student learning style and their family income, either taxable or nontaxable? 4. Will there be a significant relationship between a student’s age and their learning style? 5. Will there be a significant relationship between religion and learning style?

HYPOTHESES 1. Science academic stream male students score higher than science academic stream female students in field independence. 2. Students belonging to the science academic stream will score higher in field independence than those in the nonscience academic stream. 3. Male students will score higher than female students in field independent learning styles. 31

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4. Students from taxable income families will score higher than nontaxable income families in field independence. 5. Students from ages 14 and 15 will score higher than students ages 16 and 17 in field independent learning style. 6. Christian students will score higher than non-Christians in field independence.

DEFINITION OF TERMS 1. Learning styles: Researchers defined learning styles as the way in which learners perceive, organize, and recall information in their environment.1 A learning style is an individual’s own orientation toward learning. Some researchers defined learning style as the cognitive, affective, and physiological factors that become the indicator of how students perceive and interact with the learning environment.2 2. Academic Stream: In the Indian school system, board exams are given in the 10th and 12th standard. (Standard is the equivalent of a grade.) In the 10th standard the results on the test will determine your next course of study. A high score will enable you to enroll in the science academic stream. Any score below the requirements for science and math will place a student into the nonscience academic stream. 3. Family income: Family income and status are reflected by housing. Different types of housing, such as government, private, or encroached shanties, will provide different basic amenities. Water and electricity are more plentiful in some neighborhoods than others. These factors are all included in the term residential area. The government uses a simple test to determine whether you can pay taxes. If you have a phone, if you have been overseas, or if you have a car are a few examples of questions that determine taxable status based on approximate income. Since income is a very sensitive subject, students in this study wrote down whether their family incomes were taxable or nontaxable. 4. Field independence/dependence: These are kinds of learning styles. Field independent learners are analytical, focused, and have a high level of concentration. Field dependent learners are relational, global, impulsive, and spatial in their learning. 5. Caste System: The social system of Hindu society consists of four distinct groups: Priests, government personnel and professionals, merchants and farmers, and laborers and servants. Outcastes are groups outside these castes. The caste system in Indian society has been the subject of ongoing debate. Nowadays the government has abolished the caste system but has

Research Methodology

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

11.

33

divided people into two groups: the scheduled and non-scheduled castes. Simply put, the nonscheduled castes are the upper castes and the scheduled castes are the low and outcastes. The government’s reason for this new terminology is to try to empower the poor and lower castes. Some government jobs and university seats are also reserved for scheduled caste people. Group Embedded Figures Test (GEFT): This is an instrument to test a student’s ability to analyze. The student tries to find a simple pattern that is embedded in a complex pattern. The result will predict the student’s preferred learning style—field dependence or field independence. Style Analysis Survey (SAS): This is a survey to assess a student’s learning style preference among all these style preferences: visual, auditory, hands-on, extroverted, introverted, intuitive, concrete-sequential, closure oriented, open-global, and analytical styles. The purpose of using this survey is to correlate with the Group Embedded Figures Test and trace the characteristics and similarities of field dependent and field- independent styles. Karma: In the Hindu religion, Karma refers to the law of cause and effect, or how the actions of your past life have affected your present life, and how the actions of your present life will affect your next life. Karma influences all areas of life: desires, duties, and rebirth status. Dharma: Dharma refers to religious and moral duties. Performing the duties for your status in life is necessary for obtaining good Karma. If you do not perform your dharma well, you will have bad Karma. Samsara: Reincarnation, the cycle of birth, death, and rebirth is samsara. The human soul has more than one life that continues on this cycle until they reach moksha (salvation). Moksha: To a Hindu, salvation means being released from the cycle of birth, life, death, and rebirth. When this occurs you are reconnected with Brahman, the highest deity, and become one with him. Four paths lead to moksha. The first is the path of knowledge. This leads you to enlightenment. Through the second path of good deeds, you can obtain good Karma. The third path is the way of devotion to obtain good Karma. And lastly the path of yoga, physical and spiritual exercise, helps one to meditate and connect with the gods.

SITE SELECTION Mount Carmel is a private Christian school that is owned by the principal and founded by his wife. The school does not receive any funding from the

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Chapter Three

government and is an English medium school. As was described in chapter 2, the modern education system in India is patterned after the British school system, and Mount Carmel fits that model. However, it is not an international school and there are no non-Indian teachers there. Mount Carmel School is located in the southeast section of New Delhi. It is a Christian school that is accessible to me as my three children were students there and the principal had given permission to do my research there. There is a kindergarten, primary, secondary, and high school. It is open for boys and girls, rich and poor, and for all different religions. The school began in 1972 with 12 students and one teacher. It has grown to a student body of 2,500 with a staff of 132 teachers. There are two school buildings, one for junior school grades, which houses nursery to third standard, and a senior school that accommodates fourth through twelfth standard. Students come from all over south Delhi. Some ride the buses that are provided by the school, some come by private car or scooter, and some walk or are brought on a parent’s bicycle. Many graduates from Mount Carmel get admission into prestigious universities. In 1998, some of the students from Mount Carmel were admitted into the India Institute of Technology and the Delhi College of Engineering. The school yearbook displays the results of public examinations. In 1997 there were 123 students in year 10 and they needed to take a public examination to get into class eleven. Fifty out of 123 students scored above 75% and 81 students scored between 60% and 75%. Seventeen students received a passing rate of 45% to 60%. Because of Mount Carmel students’ high academic performance, many parents want their children to get into this school. Mount Carmel also provides scholarships for low-income families and has an education project where many students are involved in literacy projects with children who reside in the slums. Low income would be defined as a family whose income could not be taxed. In general, the Indian government schools provide free education. However, all government schools are Hindi medium (Hindi is the medium of instruction) and the facilities and equipment are not as good as those of private schools. Any high-paying job requires the fluent use of English. Therefore, most parents are willing to send their children to private schools because their children can learn English and better compete with others. Mount Carmel is a strict English medium school, and there are signs posted to remind students to speak in English. Even though Hindi is the official language in Delhi, the school prohibits the students from speaking any language but English during class time and break time. Students are punished if they are found speaking any other language at school. Mount Carmel uses this strict method to make sure students are using and learning English. Usually a low-income family

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35

cannot attend an English medium school, as they are too expensive. But since Mount Carmel gives scholarships and has a certain percentage of seats given on a lottery system, some low-income students can attend. Another reason why this school is significant for my research is that it is a coeducational school. India still has many single-sex schools for religious and cultural reasons. However, many private schools are co-educational. My research required a school with all income levels that is also co-educational in order to test for gender and economic impact on students’ learning styles. Mount Carmel meets these needs and is a significant school as it represents many economic and family backgrounds. This school is representative of Delhi private schools and therefore suitable for research. The physical make-up of the school is similar to all middle class English medium schools. The school is painted white and is square in shape. The middle of the square is a courtyard used for assembly, break time activities, and to allow sunlight into classrooms for times when they may lose electricity. The building is divided into four parts. The front and back are made up of three, three-story, flat-topped buildings. The left and right wings are made up of four flat-topped buildings. On the left wing side, there is an extra building for a girls’ hostel. Most of the residents are from the Northeast of India. The school only has hostels for girls. Behind the girls’ hostel is another independent house, which belongs to the principal. The principal’s house is on campus but has a separate entrance in the front. To the right wing of the building is a parking place for the school’s buses. The bus parking area is also used for a playground, and there are two basketball courts on it. There are two gates for entering the school, but only the front gate is used for the students. The other is for buses only. There is a six-foot-tall white wall surrounding the school, and once inside, students cannot see onto the street. There is also a security booth at the front gate. Anyone who wishes to enter or exit must sign in and out. There are always at least one security guard and two students helping people to sign in and out. Inside the school on the ground floor is the reception area. From here one can go up to the second floor where the principal’s office and the counselor’s office are located. The counselor’s room is in the left wing. The counselor’s job is to give academic and job counseling. On the second floor of the back building is the library. There is one chapel to the right on the second floor. There is also a room used for table tennis and a music class. There are two labs on the left wing of the second floor. On the third floor there are only classrooms. Senior students use the third floor, and the lower grades use the lower floors. My research was conducted among the students in the eleventh standard and included students of different genders, religions, and family incomes.

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In terms of external validity, Mount Carmel School is not indicative of all private schools in India. However, it does generally reflect how private Christian schools in New Delhi are operated. They implement the recommended government curriculum and recommended days in school, use board exams as a measurement of achievement and advancement, and administer entrance exams for admission. These schools value field independent learning styles because they can produce a high score on the national board exams. This is important for the ranking of a school as well as helping students compete in the exams. It is very different from government schools, as government schools have far fewer resources and facilities. Therefore, the selection of this school will enable not only internal validity for what Mount Carmel may need, but knowledge about cultural influences on students’ learning styles that can be applied to other private schools in New Delhi.

DELIMITATIONS 1. Learning styles are defined in different ways. This research was limited to Herman Witkin’s Field Dependent/Field Independent definition and Style Analysis Survey. The instrumentation was limited to Herman Witkin’s Embedded Figure Test and Style Analysis Survey. 2. The time period for collecting the data in this study was limited to one year. 3. The sample of subjects was from one school: Mount Carmel School, New Delhi, India. 4. Only students listed in the eleventh grade were used as subjects. 5. The sample of subjects was only from private Christian schools with English medium as instruction. 6. The sample of subjects was limited to the metropolitan city of New Delhi. 7. The researcher used a Christian and Hindu perspective for this study. 8. The written and oral responses were limited to English only as the school is an English medium school, even though English was not the native language of the students. English is the common language in this school, even though there are 16 official languages in the country. The limitation of using English for the participant could affect this study. Students may be limited in their ability to express their thoughts freely. 9. The variables examined were limited to academic stream, gender, age, religion, and taxable or nontaxable family income. 10. Cultural Bias: Not being an Indian, I was limited from an outsider’s perspective when analyzing their cultural values. The outsider’s perspective is that of a Chinese foreigner. 11. Limitations of Research Design: Using only one school allowed for fifty nonscience and science stream male and female students, but the other variables were not equally distributed in the samples.

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37

RESEARCH PROCEDURE The data collection began with receiving permission from the principal to conduct the study in his school. I met with the principal twice to give him my proposal and to discuss any questions he had. The details of the research methodology were given to him, and he was informed that the proposal had been approved by the research committee. He was also informed that all data would remain confidential, and informants unidentified. After this, he agreed to let me conduct the inventory tests and conduct interviews with the students. He gave me a permission slip and referred me to the counselor to set up dates to visit the classes and administer the tests. The counselor set the dates to give the test and questionnaires. I explained to the teachers, students, and staff that I had received permission from the principal to conduct my research in the school. When I talked with the counselor I explained the research would include giving tests and questionnaires and conducting interviews. The counselor offered to set me up to interview individual students in her office or suggested that I interview students during their break or lunch hour. I received permission from the supervising faculty and ordered Herman Witkin’s Gift Embedded Figures Test, which I was given permission to use. On May 4th, 1999, I administered the test to the eleventh-grade students along with the questionnaires. Before giving the test, the purpose of the test and questionnaire was explained. An assurance of confidentiality was also given to the students. Before the test, a sample question, sharpened pencils, and instructions were given. Questions were also taken at this time. The Style Analysis Survey (SAS) by Rebecca L. Oxford (1990) was given to the students on a previous visit to the school. The qualitative section of this research began following that test. Twenty-six interviews were conducted during the students’ break and lunch times. One interview was conducted in the girls’ hostel in the presence of the resident advisor. Two interviews were conducted in a student’s home. A total of 100 eleventh-standard students constituted the sample of this study. Herman Witkin’s Group Embedded Figures Test (GEFT) has been validated by recent Indian researchers: G. Venugopal (1994); Sheikh (1995); and Hota (1995). The procedure of the test is described in detail in the manual. The goal of the GEFT is to find whether the student is field dependent or field independent by way of finding simple figures embedded in more complex ones. The simple figures are put on the back side of the test booklet, and the student may look back at the simple forms as often as necessary. The student finds the simple form of the same size, proportions, and orientation as it appears on the back of the booklet within the complex form. When the student locates the simple figure, he or she is to trace it with a pencil. The GEFT may be administered in a single 20-minute testing session and includes three parts, all of which are timed. The first part includes seven simple

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items that need to be located within more complex figures in two minutes. This section ensures that the student understands the examination process and is not included in their score. The second part includes nine more complex questions and is timed at five minutes. The third part also contains nine more difficult items, and the student is again required to find the simple shapes embedded in the more difficult ones. The total score reflects the student’s field dependence and field independence tendencies. Upon finishing the GEFT test, 100 questionnaires and 26 interviews were used to help interpret the data. The questionnaires helped me know what deeper questions to ask in the interviews. They were also useful when I examined the relationship between the student’s perception of field dependent and independent learning styles with the scores of the GEFT. Some of these questions were adopted from Dr. George Alexander’s “Asian Indian Research Questionnaires”.3 The student questionnaire was circulated among two streams of eleventh-class students. One class belonged to the science academic stream and the other class belonged to the nonscience academic stream. A total of 100 students completed the questionnaire. The students selected to complete the questionnaires were purposefully selected. The research required 100 students, of which 50 had to be from the science academic stream and 50 from the nonscience academic stream. The counselor of the school was notified of the needs of the research, and she selected the appropriate classes. The counselor’s selection criteria was based on which science and nonscience classes were meeting at the time of my research and according to how many students were in the classes. It was not possible to control all the variables. Religion, age, and family were controlled as far as possible considering the number of eleventh-standard students in the school. Phase 1 There were three phases of data collection. The first phase was collecting all the GEFT and SAS surveys. The purpose of the GEFT was explained to the student. From the GEFT we learned how the student scored on his field independent or field dependent learning style. The students who obtained the highest score represented those with a higher ability to analyze and to be more field independent. Likewise, the students with the lower score tended to be less field independent. The purpose of the Style Analysis Survey was explained to the students when it was given to them. The SAS reflects a student’s style preference. The survey reflects whether someone has a global, analytical, auditory, hands-on, relational, or non-relational learning style preference. The SAS was correlated with the GEFT, which helped identify the characteristics of the students’

Research Methodology

39

field dependent and field independent learning styles. The tests are quantitative in nature and provided necessary information from formal testing as to the students’ preferred learning styles. Phase two was followed by structured and non-structured interviews. The structured interview was based on the questionnaire . The purpose of the structured interview was to find the reasons why students chose one answer instead of another, along with other comments they may have had. The desire was to collect additional data to learn why students indicated preference for one or the other. There were two types of interviews: the scheduled, structured interview and an unscheduled, informal interview. The purpose of the scheduled interview was to target students I knew could provide the information needed for this study. The non-scheduled interviews occurred when untargeted students provided information in unstructured and unscheduled times. All interviews were by consent of the students and the principal of the school. The structured interviews helped to follow up on the missing information from the interviews and also provided in-depth answers to the questions related to the hypothesis. The purpose of the interviews was to confirm the results from the GEFT and SAS. Furthermore, when interviews with female students were conducted, my wife was present to ensure a comfortable environment and not break any cultural codes in the Indian context. I conducted class observations six times and out-of-class observations four times during a six-month period. The purpose of classroom observations was to collect field notes and evidence through observing patterns in a student’s learning style in the classroom and in the teacher’s way of teaching. Four home observations were conducted during the same period for the purpose of observing the social environment. Field notes were synthesized and summarized after the observation. The collection of data from the observations and interviews contributed to producing evidence to test the hypothesis and the findings of the GEFT and SAS. Phase 2 The purpose of phase two was to collect qualitative data. In this phase, frequency research techniques were used. I visited the home of one student on three occasions to investigate the learning atmosphere and its effect on the student’s learning style. Phase 3 In phase three, I analyzed and interpreted the data. Follow-up phone calls with students to clarify missing information were included in this phase.

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Chapter Three

Each test and interview was given a code in order to organize and compare the data. Using the GEFT and SAS not only identified the student’s learning style preference, it also allowed for comparison with the questionnaires to find evidence to test the hypotheses. The comparison of the relationship between the GEFT, SAS, and questionnaires helped in the analysis and to synthesize information from phase two data collection. The field notes, observations, interviews, and case studies cross-examined and validated the GEFT, SAS, and questionnaires to determine if a hypothesis was to be accepted or rejected. Based on phase two data collection, a summary and synthesis of the data took place. The field notes were classified and organized in order to facilitate finding evidence for this study. Coding the data helped categorize the items related to the study. Any data and information not related was deleted.

PARTICIPANTS The total number of the sample was 100. This included 25 male students and 25 female students from the science academic stream. In the science academic stream, students can choose medical or computer studies. Only students with 85% or higher can enter this stream. Another 25 male and 25 female students were selected from the nonscience academic stream. They can choose Arts, Commerce, or Humanities. After tenth-grade exams they choose their stream in accordance with their board results. The sample of the student population was from the 1999–2000 school year. They were purposefully selected with the guidance of the school counselor, as mentioned earlier.

RESEARCH DESIGN The quantitative research design was used to help find answers to the research questions. The one hundred eleventh-grade students were purposefully selected from the science academic stream and the nonscience academic stream, with 50 students being in each group. There were also an equal number of male and female students in each group. As mentioned previously, it was not possible in this school to completely control the variables of age, religion, and family income due the total number of students in the eleventh-standard class. The five independent variables were academic stream, gender, age, family income, and religion. The students were designed to be in groups so that equal numbers were formed and maintained. The dependent

41

Research Methodology Table 3.1. Division of Academic Stream Students Science

Medical Computer

Nonscience Male

Female

9 16

6 19

Arts Commerce Humanities

Male

Female

11 11 3

9 10 6

variable was field independence. From the qualitative research, the static group comparison design was used. The two static groups were two streams of eleventh-grade students. One was a nonscience academic stream class and the other was a science stream class. Bernard said, “The static group comparison design is the best one for evaluating natural experiments where you have no control over the assignment of participants anyway.”4 The static group design was used to compare boy and girl, nonscience and science streams, high family income and low family income, and how these factors related to the student’s learning style. Instrumentation Instrumentation combined quantitative and qualitative methods. This combination showed the equal importance of both methods. Regarding the quantitative method, the GEFT, SAS, and a self-constructed questionnaire were used. From the GEFT we learned the student’s ability for field independent learning. The score was used to determine who was higher or lower in field independence. These results were used not only to determine which students were field independent, but also to discover the relationship between the GEFT results, the SAS results, and the qualitative questionnaires and interviews. The first part of the test provided the basic information needed about the students. Their name, gender, birth date, religion, academic stream, and whether or not their family income is taxable or nontaxable was gathered from simply filling in the information portion of the test. The SAS was used to find out the characteristics of style preferences related with field independent styles in higher scores or lower scores. The questionnaires were used to collect the students’ background information and their own perspectives on their learning style and the learning styles of others. This study also used a qualitative approach. James Spradley’s participant observation method5 was used to formulate questions for interviews concerning these questions. Through my observation in the school, a detailed ethnographic notebook was made to supplement the GEFT. This helped to confirm or disconfirm the findings of the test. A domain analysis and taxonomic

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analysis were made to validate the data from the GEFT and the hypothesis. A style analysis survey was used for correlation with the GEFT, and to trace the characteristics of field dependent and field independent style. The Group Embedded Figures Test The Group Embedded Figures Test was developed by Herman A. Witkin in 1962. The procedure of the test is described in detail in the manual. The goal of this test is to find whether the student is Field Dependent or Field Independent by way of finding simple figures that are embedded in more complex ones. The simple figures are put on the back side of the test booklet and the student may look back at the simple forms as often as necessary. The student is to find the simple form of the same size, proportions, and orientation as the sample on the back of the booklet within the complex form. When the student locates the simple figure, he is to trace it with a pencil. The GEFT may be administered in a single 20-minute testing session and includes three parts, as described above. The test was administered with a stopwatch, and students were required to stop even if they hadn’t finished all the items. During the test time students were not allowed to talk, exchange ideas, or sharpen pencils, as they were provided. Clear verbal instructions were given to the students before taking the test. After the distribution of the test booklets, students were required to wait until the instructor allowed them to begin. The test was in a 31–page booklet. On the front page students needed to write down their name, sex, and birthday. Added to this, I asked the students to write down their academic stream, major, religion, and family income. Family income only included whether their family had taxable or nontaxable income. On the front page of the test there were written instructions and an example. On the third page there were also guidelines asking students to do the problems in order and not to skip a problem unless they were absolutely stuck on it. These guidelines helped the students to really understand the method. There were seven figures for the student to practice before the real examination began. This test required high concentration and analytical skill from the student. This test is a common test for schools in the United States to use but it has also been used in India. The validity of the test has been established. All 18 items were computed by the Spearman-Brown prophecy formula. The final proof of validity is an estimate of .82 for each male (N=80) and female (N=97). Questionnaires Upon finishing the GEFT, students received a questionnaire. Some of the questions were adapted from Dr. George Alexander’s “Asian Indian Research

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Questionnaire”.6 The questionnaire had twenty-one statements . Among these, items 1-4 related to student’s gender, age, class, and academic stream. The purpose of these items was to make sure the questionnaire was identified with the same student who took the GEFT. Items 5, 6, and 10 were related to their parents’ income. Students needed to write down their parents’ employment and whether their parents owned a home. Determining whether they were from a high-income family in India was based on whether they owned a home and car. Items 13 to 16 were scored on a 5–point Likert scale, with 1 indicating low, 3 indicating medium, and 5 indicating extreme. These items tested the student’s style preference in order to rate their perception of their learning style and their perception of their schoolmates’ learning styles. It also examined whether students felt they were more creative or analytical.7 Items 9, 11, 12, 17, and 18 were about students’ perspectives on learning style preference related with academic streams, gender, family, and income. The questionnaire was scored on a 5–point Likert scale, with A indicating strongly agree, B indicating agree, C indicating undecided, D indicating disagree, and E indicating strongly disagree. Nineteen through twenty-one were multiple choice questions related to students’ perspectives on the advantages of the science academic stream and nonscience academic stream. The Style Analysis Survey The SAS was created by Rebecca Oxford in 1990. This test was designed to examine the student’s learning style preference. It was used to compare with the results of the GEFT in order to identify a student’s field dependent and field independent style characteristics. Dr. Oxford gave permission to use this tool. The timing of this test was limited to 30 minutes. Students were required to immediately respond to each item. This instrument had five activities. The first activity had 30 statements. Activities two to five had 20 statements. Each statement had a four-point scale, 0 indicating never and 4 indicating always. Students were requested to complete all 110 statements. The five major activities indicated the student’s learning style preference. The first activity was about students using their physical sense to study. From this activity, we traced whether a student was more visual, auditory, or hands-on. The second activity was about the student’s way of relating to people in order to determine if they are more relational or non-relational. The ability to study alone or need to study in a group is indicative of field independence or field dependence. Activity three tested the student’s ability to handle the possibilities of their being intuitive or concrete-sequential.

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Activity four tested the way students approached tasks, and whether they were closure-oriented or open-oriented was revealed. Lastly, activity five explained how students dealt with these ideals. All of these activities contributed to assessing if a student has a tendency to be field dependent or field independent. Interviews There were two kinds of interviews used in this research. This first one was systematic and structured. The questions were modeled by the questionnaires . The second interview was open-ended and informal. This interview depended on the student’s willingness to elaborate on their answers. The informal interview was in a group setting. The purpose of the interviews was to provide information for case studies. A total of 26 interviews were conducted, and the location of the interviews varied. Inside the school, the interviews were more formal and structured. Outside the school, the students were more willing to speak. All the students interviewed were grade 11 students. When the interviewer needed to record, the informants were informed and permission to record was given. The method for data collection was described in the data collection procedure. Case Studies There were ten case studies conducted in this research, and seven of those are represented in this study. The purpose for compiling different case studies was to collect more evidence to confirm or reject the hypotheses. The case studies were compared and contrasted in order to identify cultural values. All the names were changed in the case studies. The data collection techniques for the case studies were observations and interviews with different students, teachers, and parents. The collection locations varied. Some were in school, while others were in a student’s home, the school hostel, and the church where many students attend. Data Collection and Analysis The data collection technique consisted of the qualitative and quantitative approach. As previously discussed, the qualitative approach was completed through interviews with individual students and their parents and participa-

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tion observation in the classroom. James P. Spradley’s Participation Observation8 theory was used to collect data and for interpretation of data through the documentation of evidence. The coding system for field notes enhanced the analysis of data. There were two kinds of interviews. The first interview was more systematic to discover why, what, and how students chose their answers. The second interview was informal. It was focused on informal conversation to verify and clarify previous information. These investigative interviews were used to help interpret and analyze the data. For the data analysis, the quantitative approach was analyzed by the Excel computer program with descriptive statistical method as well as the questionnaire. Computer analysis was helpful for cross-checking qualitative and quantitative research in my analysis. The descriptive statistical analysis provided means and standard deviations, 35 allowing comparisons of central tendency and variance in the degree of field dependence and field independence for all four groups of the five independent variables. The purpose of computing mean scores was to get an idea of how each of these groups scored on average for field independence. The independent variables were academic stream, gender, income, age, and religion. Independent t-tests (two-sample assuming unequal variances) were used to calculate mean scores and standard deviations (units by which the scores deviate from the mean), and most importantly, to determine the significant effects of the independent variables on the GEFT scores. The significance of the independent t-test was determined by alpha =.05. If significant results occurred, the probability of the significance occurring by error alone was .05. Thus, p.05. According to these results, religion did not seem to make a difference in preference for field independent learning. If the sample size were more even, the addition of more Christians would provide a more valid test, resulting in a more significant and valid measure.

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Among students who demonstrated a high or low preference for field independence, it was found that those with a taxable income (M=53.04, SD=26.52) appeared to have a slightly higher mean score than those with a nontaxable income (M=48.22, SD=25.38), although the difference detected in the independent t-test was not significant between the two groups, t (98)=-.816, p>.O5. From these results, it can be determined based on the evidence of this study that the students with a taxable income have similar preference for field independent learning as those with a nontaxable income. In other words, income level does not make a difference in preference for field independent learning styles. If the sample size were consistent over the groups, the result would have been more significant. Among students who demonstrated a high or low score for field independent learning styles, it was found that 14-15 year olds (M=53.18.SD=25.78. 16-17 year olds M 37.26, SD=21.47) had a significant difference resulting between two groups, t (98)=2.94, p