Textbook of Solid Wastes Management

Hexffibook off

SonfldWa-stes

I\Iiemegl@m@mG

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IOBAL H. KHAN Sen.or P oiesso...Ci,vr.

Ph.DlBadrod

8 Enl.ronmenrdr

Eng Jamra Nliitia slamia New DerhL -

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,]ee.,ng.

NAVED AHSAN

LeciLirer, Deparheni ot Crvrt Enoineenno Jam,a Mitlia tstamta. New d. h

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cBS gBLtSHERS ? 4596t1-A,11

cBS-_

& DtsTRtBUTORS "

Darya canj, New Dethi

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Websjie I httpr/www.cbspd.com

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Preface Ihis book has evolved out of our teaching, research aod cgggUltancv work iD the field ofsolid wastes Eraoagerlent. It is iDteDded as a t€xt book for

undi@and

students of envitonoental engineering both at Dostgt-aduate ievel. Auenpl has been Dade ro include aI relevan:6;ffiincludirr;;fr;As

and guidelines issued by the central and state gov€mmeDts il1 this regatd. Ihis book should therefore be of intetest trot only to students and teachers

but also to etrgiaeers working itr the field ofsolid wastes managemeDt. NuDe(ous solved a]ld unsolved Dumerical problems have been included for effective !99!g!94i0! ofthe issues by studeats and engineers. The varioustopics include the geDeratiotr, coDlposition, collection and treatheDt options ofsolid wastes, disposal ofwaste on laddlill including enginee ng aspech oflandfiIl disposal systems. I{azardous *"stes including hdustrial wastes ed biooedical wastes, have a high hazard poteDtial. A s€parate chapterhas tL€retore bee! alevojed to this categgll of wastes Aj!!!!4g!ishing fealure ofrhis book is tbe empbasis oo tbe use ofIT tools in rhe ir@Eient ald operations of a solid GGG-anagement system. The book should thetefoie be ofiBterestto urbaD plaDners. We hav€ also included several Case Studies l.om our consultaDcv. Mary friends andcolleagues havehelped h !be endevour. to all of'whom we wish to express out siDcere thaols. Thants are alio dGio CBS publishers for bringing out lhis rext book.

Thl6'ksiilialso due

ro rhe AII lldia Council forTechnical Educatio! for bringing out ttris book. ADy comments or suggestiotrs fot i&proveoent wilt be gratefully

tbeir suppon

i!

acknowledged.

Iqbal E. Khrn Nrved Ahsatr

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Contents

1.

iii

Contents

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I I I I I List of tigures Fig. 1,1 Fig- 1-2 Fig. 1,3 Fig. 1.4 Fig.2.1

Fig.2.2

Fr"

l.r

Fig.2.4 Fig. 2.5 Fig. 2.5

fig.

2.5

Fig. 2.6

FiE 2.7

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Fig. 2.8 Fig. 2.9 Fig.2.10

I

Fig.2.11

Fig.2.l2

I

Fig.2.13

Fig.2.l4 Fig.2.15

Fig.3.l Fig.3.l Fig.3.1 Fig- 3-2

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4.

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6.

Ilaz3rdous Wastes Management atrd Site ReEediation .......................'.............".'.... 123 ............... 123 Characteristics ofHazado[s Wastes ..................... Managementofl{azardousWastes.-.,..,.,.,..................-.,.--.,.,.,,-,..,..-.-,--.....-..........124 Chemical Oddalion.......................

128

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a Risk Assessment in Siting ofa Hazardous Waste Disposal Facility--Case Study

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Fig.3.3 Fig.3.,1

Twical LayoutPlan ola Landfll ......... various TlPes ofcell Layou6 . ... . .. .

-- -

-.........10

.. . . .........'.71 ....... ........ 74 ...-- ............ 75

Fig.3.5 TFical Cross-section oflandfill Cove Fig.3.6 Sxrface Water Drainage Charmel .... Fig.3,7 TypicalMoaitoringlnstrumentationatLandfiilSite.................-..---.-.......76

Sarnpler Fig.3.9 GromdwalerMoritoringwelt Fig.

3.8

. . .. ..

Cirab

.

"

"

77

......:rr::,.=.-?s

- "" -" ..'-.-' -': :-:: " 79 - - '79 "87 Fig. 1.1 Twical ConcentrationProfile ofleachate Consititue s............ .-."- -- ' '91 Fig. d.2 Landfill as Simulated in HELP Modei . . - " 92 Fig. 4.3 (a): Single Lin -- "" 92 Fig.4.3 (r): Single Composite Liner '... . . . ........... '- - '93 Fig.4.3 (c): Double Composite Liner......... .... . . .. "."" - "96 Fig.4.4 Methods ofThermal Seaning ofceomembraDe " ""98 Fig,4.5 Leachatecollectionsystem............ Fig.4.6 InvenedFikeraroundleachaiecollectionPiPes.........",' - .- " 98 " 99 Fig.4.7 A Tlpical Sumpwell for Leachate Ccllection ........................'. 100 "" Fig.4.8 T)pical Leak Delection System . ... "_ "'- " 101 Iig. 4,9 LeachateReckculation System ..... .... """ " "i02 Fig.,l.lo Sketch ofa Twicai Aemted Lagoon " " "" ' 103 Fig.4.1l ActivaledsludEeProcess...-....... ......... "_ "" 103 Fig. 4.12 RoraijngBiological Cortactor... .... . . ""." "" ' 103 Fig.4.13 TricklingFihe "'- " "" 104 Fig.,t.l4 Two Stage Anaerobic Tleatment Process "- -" '105 Fig.4.15 USB Reactor. Tleatmmt "" "" "" " 105 "" Fig.,t.16 Twicat Sequence ofPhysicavchemical """ "" "111 Fig.5,1 Phases in Lardfillcas Generation ...... "" 1l4 " Fig.5.2 Palh\%ys oflandfill Gas Migmtion..... ...... " 116 Fig.5.3 Components ofcas Collection Syslem . -.."-'.- " 117 Fig.5.4 Gas Eilraction well ... ............. .....-... Aii Quality Monitoring in Vado Fig.3.1l T]?icallysimerer:.,..:.......... --......-

Fig,3.10

Probe for

7e

7-'1L

Fig.5.5 Combination ofcas Erf'action Well aid Leachate CoUection Well . ........ .... ' 118 -.....""" " i19 Fig.5.6 flare Bumer. ... " "' l2O Fig.5.7 TwicalAnangementofcaswells...... .. -"-"" "\21 Fig.5.8 Schematic oflnfta-red CO? Detector ..

...... .. ....-

fig.6.1

Rootzone T€atment System .

Fig.6.2

various Routes ofExPosue

" ,' " ",' " "

""

146

""

149

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Fig,6.3 StagesinlcA .-..................153 Fig.6.4 Fiow Diagam for Production ofBar Soap ................ 153 Fig.7.1 T$ical Distributio! ofPru ................. ...................... i66 Fig.7.2 LeopoleMatri.( .................. 168 (a) (r) (c) (d) pH Fig.7.3 Typical Value Function craphs SOr; NO,: Odoi .................... 169 Fig.7.4 Parameter lmponance Units ............... ....................... 174

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Chapter

Irutrod.uction

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Management ofsolid \r,astes is

a maj or

challenge these days for the administmtors.

engineers and planners. Huge volumes ofsolid $astes are generated and need to be collecled. tnnsporred and l'inally disposed off. These operaiions have to be carried oui speedily and efJlcienrly without incurring excessive cosl ordamage to environment. Unfortunately in manv deve lopi ng couo!ries, the system for maraging wasies is primitive and cannol cope with the huge volumes ofwas!es being generated. In developing couniries, it is common to find large heaps of garbage feslering all over th€ ci!y. The problem gers further complicated due ro large populalion and 1be obsoleie techniques emp loyed for s,asre management.

lnsanitary melhods adopled ior disposal of solid rvastes is a serious health concern. Techniques and rechnologies however are avajlable and indigenous methods can be deve loped for man aging ihese wastes properl)- .

Solid Waste is defined as a material ihat is cheaper to throu au,ay than to store or use. Ir is no longer considered as unlvanted marerial to be dumped out of the sire. Solid wastes are simply 'material at wrong place, *.hich can be segregated, iransformed, recycled and reused wilh greal financial and environmenlal benefits. IMPACTS OF SOLID WASTES ON ENVIRONMENT

I n.e.. Droperl] managed..olid u.ste( l"ve polent,a'ol.erio-s impacr5 on environment, Il can lead to surface and ground water contamination. land pollution and air qualiry deierioration_ Fig. t.l sho\Ls the tikely sources of 'mpdc j on air. udter .nd land en\ tronment. Water infiltrating through the wasres generates Ieachate, which can ultimately mix with the ground water. Dust and Iifier scattered by wind are responsible for deteriorarion ofair qualit) in !he vicinity ofdisposal siles- Insanitary method of disposal of wastes also produces odor and affects ihe aesthelics ofthe area. Moreover- decomDosition of wasres

E--:-

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ATextbook ol Salid Wastes Managenent

releases noxious gases posing high risk to human health Some health hazards dlre to solid wastes are presented in Table 1'

l

ofthe environmental and

Table r.r I Some Environmenlal Haz ards Due to Solid Wastes TvPe

Air wder

EnvircMental Pollution

and lEnd

quali! deterioration, high

]evels ofnoise,

Gastroi estinal disorders, jaundice, dianhe4 respiratory infection, dermal diseases. etc. Also sometimes may cause

lnjuries to workers by sharPs, gLalses,

l"ju:r

4d

chemicaltv

aggressive substances presenl in the wasles.

world' It

Environmental impacts ofpoorly managed wasteshave been studied alloverthe diseases spread is now well known that a large number ofdisease vectors and water borne due to poor collection and disposal praclices

Mosi environmental

of solid wastes

ofsoiid wastes'

impacts can be minimized by employing aPPropriate techniques

management.

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rr7'//,

FodenrE/f es

3k" -''

V Conlam.aled Groond Wale.

Fig.1.1: Typlcalsources ol Environmental mpacis SOURCES ANDTYPES OFWASTES Solid wastes are generated from various sources e g-:

(i)

Residential and Commercial Areas

Due to Solld

=

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(ii) lnsritutions (iii) Industries (rv) Const

ucrion and Demo,itiorl Activities Municipal S€rviaes Agriculrural Acriviries Treatment Plants (vrrr) Special Category Sources.

(y) (yi) (vii)

Residential snd Corhmercial Wastesr This caregory ofwastes includes all organic and inorganic refuse from res;dentiat areas. The org"ii. oftlr.."-;;;;:;;;r;" "o.pon.n, as food wasres. paper, cardboarat, textile, prasrics, rubber, teather, :",,]:)-:l.Tij::t"l::Th I he inorganic c ompo nen r consisrs ofitems such glass botttes,in cans, as :ll:J11"_"-1..r* arumr nurn. other mera l. batteries. oil. and Daints. Commercial wasres a:.e riih in paper card boara, plastic5. glass. \iood and olher packaging marenals. Institutional Wast€s: Instjiutionat wasies ioclude wasres froin schools. colleges, govemment and piiva.e insritutions, prisons e1c. This category ofwastes is similar

,"'.*li""iiri

commercialvastes but may also contains hazardous wastes e.g. chemicals The proporrion ofpaper cardboard and packaging materials ii genera y mu.f,

".a f."*1"b";;;".

nt#rir'ifri.

lndustrial Wastes: Soiid

wastes generated from various processes in small and larg€ scale indusr.ie( are classlfied as induslrial lyasres. [hese are lighl] nature and are indus.ry specific. Both hazardous and nonharuriors

lound in industrial

wastes_

h.;*;."r; i. "";;;;;;i;;r"

Constructioh and Demolition Wrstes: Construction and demolition wastes are the con:rrirction. demolition and renovation of builJings .repairins, :-1.::i:L::T1-f].:lrhese inctude bricks. ptasrer. slones. concrere. di . $ood. prumbints ::: ano ::"::.:l,l.,r'* etectrrcat parls. cemenr bags etc. fhe demolition wasres also include glasi. plasrius and reinforcing sreet. Mo(t ofthe conslruction and demolirion *",r.4 i;.i.-"' Municipal Services WastesiThese are the wastes produced by ope.ation ";. and maintenance ofmunicipal facilities e.g. streer sweepjngs. lt atsoinctuaes roaaliae t;tte;t."; ;;;;;", )ard walles from public parl,s and play grounds, dead animals elc.

Agricultural Wastes: Wastes generated from agricultural acrivhies such as planting and har!erin€.o. trees. animal farms. poultrl farms etc. Wasres f; d"lr!;;;," rncrudrng teed Iols. animai manure are also included in agricuJtural wastes,

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Treatment Plant Wastes: The treaiment plart waste includes solids and semisolids in the form ofsludge from warer, and wastewarer ireatment facilities. The characteristics of these lypes ofwaste depend upon the type ofrrearment pi;a. "- - -'*-'"" Special C.regory wasles: Wastes having special characreristics are hospiral qastes, slausht.rhouse wastes. rrlash t,o," ,r,.,iai p";",;;;;,.';;;;;.i;;:';::;1T.. These kinds of wastes require speciat trearment and disposai t""h.iq;".. --'-" '" MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTES Municipal Solid Wasres(MSW) includewastes from residential. commercialand institutjonsl areas, construction and demolition wastes, and wastes from munic;pat

serrices.

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A Textbaok ol Sohd Wastes Managenent

is normally assumedto include all the wastes generated by acommunily excepl the industrial \\'astes. The !erm n rricipal solid \9dstes .will interchangeably be used as solid wastes

itr'''''

this book.

T

ceneration of Municipal Solid Wasles Wastes generalicn is essential due lo discarding of unlranted materials away for disposal.

It

is a continuous activity which is not very controilable. Huge quantities offiunicipal solid wastes are genemted in allthe megacilies ofthe world. The volume ofmunicipal solid waste generated varies with rhe Iifestyle ofthe people. ll has been estimated that each American generates wastes about 4000 times his bodyqeigh!; each Wesl European 1000 times; and each cit;zen ofthe developingcountries Iike lndia about 150 times. The United States alone generates more than 200 million tons ofwasles ayear-an amounl "enough to fill a convoy ofgarbage-trucks stretching eighl times around the globe"rDeihi, aboul6000ions ofMSW are generateC everY day. Theaverage per capita generarion

ofMSwinlndiancitiesis0.4-0.6k9/day.Thequanlitiesofwastesgeneratedinsomeoi the cities in India and comparison ofwastes Seneralion with other countries are sho$ n in

Table 1.2 and lable l.3respecli\ely. The population ofthe $orld is steadily increasing, but 90% ofthe yearly;ncrease of world population is confined only to seven couniries e.g. Ifldia, Pakistan, Bangladesh, lndonesia.,China. Nigeria and Brazil- India s population is currently increasing by about 15 millions per year. Table 1.2: Quanlities of

.t

Vo

w?s1es and Per Capila Generation

cnv

u aste

in Indian Cities

s Generatrcnttant dar)

\Kgldar) I,

AHMEDABAD

1683

0.585

2.

BANGALORE BHOPAL BOMBAY CALCUTTA DELHI

2000 546 5355

0.484 0.514

LI\DERABAD

5.

6. 7.

3692

0.436 0.383

5700

4.574

1566

580

0.382 0.398

E,

JAIPUR

9.

XANPUR

r200

0.640

1010

0.623

ll.

LUCKNO\} MADR{S

3124

0.657

t2-

SLIRAT

900

0 600

10.

t

So"rce CPCB (2O00d)-

Lopsided planning has contributed 10 the rapid increase ofpopulation ofmegacities in developing countries. Populatjon of megacities like Delhi is increasing by halfa million per year. By all accounts therefore the management ofMSW will be a major challenge for years to come in ail developing countries.

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Tabl. I.3: Quantities ofwastes in Different Countries Qu a n 1 i rt

t.

(

KE/c ap

i

t a/dar)

India USA

0..10-0.60

2. 3.

UK

0.95- i.00

Singapore

0.60-0.90 1.00-1.20

5.

Japan

So,/.e: CPCB (2000d).

Composition oI MSW The composilion.'f ftunicipal solld *astes is .ire term that describes ihe distribution of each component of wastes by its percent weight of the total. The information is required for the selection of suitable treatment and disposal methods. For instance, MSW conlaining high percentage of biodegradable wastes e.g. food wastes and yard wastes are suitable for cofirposting. Similarly, ifrecyclable materials like paper, plaslic, cardboards, glass are presented in solid wastes, these materials should be recovered and rec) c led. The composition of MSW has been studied extensively. The precise composition depends upon the Iocalily, season ollhe year, standard ofliving, Ianduse etc. Important conslituents of MSW generated in Indian cities are food wastes, paper, cardboard. plastics, rubber, textile, leather, yard wastes, wood, glass, tis, aluminium and olher metals, and silt/di.1and construction and demolition wastes. Typical composition ofMSW geneiated in Delhi is give, in Table 1.4. Trble

S

1.4: Composition

ofMunicipal Solid

Wastes

in Delhi

No.

20-30 3-5

Card Board

Te*ile

3-4 4-6 0.2-0.5

)-2 0.2-0.5 20-30

t-2 Class

Metals

0

-2-a -7

0.2-0.5 30-40

SDz/.? ISEM (2000). Seasonal variations are often large in municipal solid wastes. L{anv fruit and vegetable wastes including bagus from sugarcane! mango peelings, and melon peelings are all seasonal- Huge volumes ofthese seasonal wastes alter the composition ofMSW significantly. Composition of wastes also differs from locaiity to locality. People in a particular locality often have similar background in terms of incomes. lastes, and expenditure.

I I A TexlDook of Salicl Wastas Management Wastes from high income goup localities is usually heavy in pape.and packaging, while in low income group areas, the predominant constituen! is usually food wastes. Construction a.d demoliti;n wastes consti te a significanrjroponion ofwasres tn areas where these activities are in progress.

Composition ofwastes from commercial ateas depends upon the nature ofactivities. Around offices and institutions usually paper and packaging are the major components while close to vegetable and fruits markets, food wastes are predominanl. Similarly, wastes near daiD, farms will be high in animal feed and manure while in rhe wastes from slaughter houses bones, blood and animal body parts will be commonly found. Efiicient managemenr of wastes requires an integrated wastes management pian. Techniques -na r. lhno logier itr_: ;i;----.. "nd the choice depends largely on lhe compoaitions ofwastes. INTEGRATED SOLIO WASTES MANAGEMENT The cardinal principle in wastes management is 3R,s e.g. requction, reuse and recycling. An inlegrated solid wastes managemeDt system is based on this principle. It requires a comprehensive approach for each stage of solid wastes management e,g. generation, collection, processing and final disposal. Impo(ant components of s-uci a sysrem include the following:

L

\\asies Minimization at Source Materiai Recovery and Recycling Uasres lranstormal.on \blume Reducrion before Disposa. \!astes Disposal

2. 3. 4. 5.

O

Darabase Vanagemenr

Wastes

Minimization:

Wastes should be ideally minimized at rhe sorrrce of irs generarion. Reducticn can be affected in many ways but the following lechniques are iommonly

employed-

(i) (ii) (iii)

Minimizing the amount ofthe material used in the manufacture of a product Increasing rhe useful life ofthe producr Reducing the amount ofmaterialused for packaging and marketing ofconsumer goods.

Materi3l balance studies and environmental audits ofindustries can effectively help in devising straregies for reducing wastes generation. Wastesreduction can also beachieved in household and commercial unitsihrough increased

public awareness ofimproved buying paftem and through reuse ofproducts. For example, the same carry bag can be used repetitively instead oftaking a new bag forshopping every time.

Material Recovery and Recycling: Municipal solid wastes consist ofvarious materials

e-g. papet cardboard, plastics. metals, glass, rubber Many ofthese components are suitable for recycling and reuse. The process involves separation and collection ofthese materials, preparation ofmaterjals for reuse and remanufacture. Significant amount ofmoney can be

earned through selling out ofthese recovered materials. h efficienrly reduces the quantiry ofq'astes and thus reduces the load on the disposal facilities which in turn reducesthe cosl ofhandling and disposal. For ,nstance. fusing ofgiass particles to clay for making ceramic

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:i.-'".TI"Tir':il;:T:1: ::fl:;i:h?':r''"' ftj makins Porlester nber ror manuracturins .."r r,o," *"pr.a.,"1,-;-';;;il;i;",'.:j,l;:X::,".[ 1T;,lXi,i::;fi ::i:l;H#, J; o: these metals from ores \lastes Translormation: Wasres rransform?tion is the physicai. chemicai or biological .onversion of sasies for an) beneficial Du

",.r u,.o,,po.,;ng.,nu.;dr-;:;.,;r;"'r:3;ji,:f"iffilii",::?;.1l,.T,1il"rp,9::i; are erFployed lor tl i( purDore. Se\ eral o\ Drodu.r. orii.."e process., in rt energ) erc can be recoverea. seJecrion oiaiuitaul" ,."r,"1'qr"

ofwaste translormation

as

well

as on the composlrlon

lblume Reduction, Volume reduction of\.\astes incrudes size redLrcrion rhrorsh .hreddins,

rcduc rion rhrough com pacrion. Volume '-"'_ reduc

,".i"rrnanr,-a;.po.'ri. "'

.

;";;

;;rr:,

i"p"rar'roii'ffiili*,".

ot wastec

is carried our before irs final disDosat.

s,ze;";;;i;;;;;;;",;;il;[;:r,.;

It

,,,.

'qurtro.. ol $aslesalso redL'es rhe land drea requrJemenl

Wastes Disposal: Wastes thatcan not be recJcled or lransformed need to be disposed off. Residues from va.ious u,asres transformarion pro...r.,

oprion)olu.asresdispos..a-e.dilDo..,nlard.dispo.ardeepbit"",i"'.i"'l,r:f"r,.?."ra "ir;;;";;;;t d;ip"*;,il;;,... disposal ar rhe ocean botrom

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Disposalon land is one ofihe oldest and l methods' Disposal on scienlificallv a"signea enginee.eJ tand;;ri;. ;;;::"'"t'""mmon sar) to prevent groundwater contamination and for the protection ofenvironmenl. Database Managemenl: q.\ailaoil -\nfnreciseand,eliabledataisolutmosr,mporrance in Ihe planning and de5ign or

,1."..

ff.,. aai.iorii ;;1, ;':r";;,r",. ";, rrermpon pr"rr* o'easlacces,,biJir,.annorbeoreremohasi,"";;j.;;;,;"1::^'::lrB5 "-;;" i.'' ' "P''sized' Manv ofthe ""a'j"J;#i"ffi;:""" data are constantlv c'hanging -a ,."a. ," i.."girt".i'

"nt.en,i,onnenr, In records but shoutd be instantaneoustv a.cessible

to,t,"

Darabase manaeement shourd be an integrai paft ofthe sorid wastes managemen! sysrem. relevant and reljable data are necessary for selection ofvarjousireatment and Ir atso hetps in devetopjng .disposatrechniques.

^Precise,

indi!**.

"gi*.iii;;; ;#;"il*". irf"rn.",l;;r;;;;;."i"r.*"1 iiiI.",.

lype of uaste comDosirion. I he tarar.ase.loutoi*rra".on,1foii,;on ""t ""-f chemica. and biotogrcaJ p.openie. ofq asres and rnd facilil.ei a! ailable Ior co,leciion. rranspofiaron and drspo.a I

";i;;:;i'._"

of \r a\les. with rhe use oF Remole Sensjng. Ceographic lnfo*r,io" Sl.i.r.,C fS , lna t"T purupl.|nrt," _ nos commer(ial) d\aitab,e. i i, no$ D"s.ibte ro cojtecr

atirhi.

to the users instanlaneously.

"";;.; ;;i.t;i.:;li,

"

CHARACTERISTICS OF SOLID WASTES Physicai, g-eotechnical, chemicaland biological properties ofmunicipal solid wastes are rmponant for the design ot an inteerated wz

below

_

rstes management system. These are described

Physical and Geotechnical properties of MSW Physical and geotechnjcal properries ofmunicipal

(i)

Specific \}tighl

solid lyastes inciude:

a

A fetrboo^ al Salid wastes Management

(ii) Moisture Content (iii) Particle Size and size distribution (i') Irield Capacity and ()) Permeabilily. Specific Weight Speci{ic weighl oi.runicipal solid waste is defined as the weight ofwastes per unit volume . .- tons/m3. Il ia usualltlpeci;:l as Ioose, uncompacted, or compacted. Specific weights are requlred rc assess lhe total volume oi was13. tb3t rt!st be managr ' It has both spatial and temporal \ aflanons. Specific weighl of the municipai solid wastes is required iD the design ofvarious equipment

e.g. fo. processing units, for lransporration and for estimating the required capacity

of

disposalsites.

. ..

Specific weight ofthe solid wastes is determined by means ofacubical container, usually o0 c'n r0 cnr ' o0 crn 'n si7e. The conlainer is filled to o\erflow whh the \ asie taking . _ ;-!t particulaie material should compaction. Loss Loss or ofthe Ine rlne fine Danlcura soecral rare lo avol0 avoid sEde-dation seaesarlon or comDaclron, special care to thricdb! Iiftine it 6 cm above lhe eround and dropping 2 be a\oioed. The coni;iner is-tamped do$n squarel]. After th* consolidalion, lhe top ofthe contaider is Ievelled with the tielp ofa +-.--r-,'__ ..,"i)lr-_. -_:trathr edge FinallriKe-cbnrainer is weighed and the speciJic weight is calculated as foll.,ws: ( 1.1) Specific Weight = (i/*. - Iri)/,/. where ,/.. is weight ofcontainer {illed with the wastes (kg); Ir', is weight ofenpty container (kg); and

t' is volume ofcontainer (mr) Specific weights ofvarious components ofmunicipal solid$aste are presented in Table 1.5. Table 1.5: Specific weight ofVarious Components ofMSW

Specifc Weiqht narae(ionYml)

Csrdboard

Typical ltonslm3 )

0.2-0-4 0.05-0.10 0.04-0.06 0.05-0.07 0.05-0.70

o.29 0.09

0.1-0.15 0.1"0.2

0.13

0.05-0.15

0.r0

0.05 0.06

0.06 0.16

0.15-0-3

0.23

class

0.l-0.2

0.15

0.1-0.2 0.6-l -5

o.l5

silr/AshIDirr

120

So!/cer ISEM (2000).

Moisturc Content The moisture conteil ofsolid wastes is the weight ofwater in it expressed as a percentage ofits wet or dry weighl. Usually il is lhe wet qeight which is commonly used.

I I I I I I

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

To dete.mine the moisture content, weigh the entire sample to obtain the wet weight tr;). tt is then dried in an oven at I 05oC till its mass becomes constant. ln case combustible material is presentthe temperature shall not exceed 70 to ?5"C. Afterdryingthe dry weight (lt'd) is measured. Moistute conteni ofmunicipal solid wastes is then obrained as follows. (

M.C.=(fi/"-Ya)/W" (1.2) Moisture content is an important pammeter affecting various processing opemtions e.g. composting. Usual values of moisture content in the differeot compooents ofmunicipal solid wastes are given in Table L6. T?ble 1.6: Moisrure Contenr ofVadous Componenls ofMSW

Moisturc Cartenl

Paper

50-80 4-10

& Cardboard

Plastics Textiles

60

t-4

6 2

5- 15

t0

l-4

Glass

Metals

SilrAsh./Dirt

2

5-10 30-80 10-30

60 20

l-3 l-3

2 2

t0-30

t5

8

Sorr.e, iSEM (2000).

Parlicle Size and Size Disttibution Particle size distribution ofmunicipal solid wastes is an imponani parameterto be considered for maierial recovery, composting, incineration, landfilling etc. Since the particle size of waste materials varies widely its size may be expressed by any ofthe relation given below.

L*= I L"=(l+tt)12 L*= (1+ \t + h\13

(1.3) (1.4) (1.5) (1.6)

L,=(t\\N)tD L-= (t, w, h)ts where, rr, is representative size and waste paaticles.

r,

,

and,

are respectively iength,

(i.7) width and height of

Largerparticles may be measured bythe use of a millimeter scale and for smaller particles sieve anaiysis may be carried out. Se.pamtion ofparticles can be cafiied out by use oftstandard set olsieves. Size distributioD ofvrasaes affects the pglosity and permeabiliry ofwastes in the a

landfill. A typical size d;stribution curve ofmunicipal solid wastes

is shown in Fig. I.2_

Field Cepacity The field capacity ofsolid wastes is defined as the total amoBnt ofmoisrure thai can be held ;n a wastes sample under the gravitational force. It is an importanr parameter, which

t

10

A Textbook ot Sotid

Wastes

Management

affects the quantity_ofieachate generation in landfills. Moisrure available in solid wastes ln excess ofirs field capacity is released laleras leachare

'zt'--St

roo 90

-lI

m

lzo

E5U z

E50 g

f.o

10

i0

3o Mesh siz€

(cm)

--__--|

Fig. 1.2: Typicat particle Size Distributjon of MSW

Field capacity ofsolid wastes vades wirh the degiee ofcompaction. Typically the field percenl A co, umn u. .".,i.i

capaciry ofuncompacted municiDal solid v

j,,",

"

Permeability

"",

il;#fi :;

;.:iil::x,HT:iJH:,1?,.,,

The p€rm€abilit) or hydraulic conducriviry ofwastes is defined as the ease with which a uurd,can flo$ rtuough rhe asreliiliiilironanr pu."r.r". thur gou..n. " lrqulds and gases in the landfill. permeabi "r shape and sLe or wast;;

ii. ,""...r,

;;;;;;;;,: ;;::g,;'#li::il:llf"}:."fi ::l*HlflJi:

the wastes, Compacted wastes have lower permeaoltrry.

Sahpling ol MSW for physical Composition Collecrion of samples is rhe first sren in esrimariDg

rhe composition ofmunicipal soiid wasles Frequency and timing ofsamires colection should be carefirrl decided io ensure rrutj.represenlarive sampres. sampre c;Iectionshourd ll rs rmpofianl to note thal the larqer the n umber extent or er a tuilri; ril;.il**", ol samples.

the

resu)r(

the more representative are

Locarion ofsampring starion is also imporunr in physicaranarysis of [,rsw. rdea ocarions lor ". sampling are rhe transfer sration localed ali orer the ciry. Samples should b€ collecled differenr rocarions as possibre and shoutd be :::L-*_T"P enure area. Samples may also be collected frc Colecrion of samptes a, ;;.;; ;i;;;;;;:T.Iasle Processins uniB or ar disposal facilities.

u"];;;;;;r;i#J;l;;;.

,reco,.ct.df,o;;;;,ffi;i;fi;ilI:ill-Jf,,lii.l*,liJi,ill,lil?ll;[;]^T,l'ii

r I I I I

!rastes is not accumle iftrucks collect \yastes from different areas in on€ trip. In gefleral, one sample each should b€ collected randomly ftom each identified truck (ASTM D 52j t). Ifmore than one sample are needed these should be collected from ditferenr parts oflhe load in the.truck. Sample size ofabout 200 to 300 Ib (i.e. abour 100 ro 150 kg) is considered optimum as recommended in ASIM (D 5231). Following are some ofrhe common procedures ofsamDle collecrion. Often combinarion ofthese procedures is also used.

. .

. .

Oblaining

a composire sample from material raken from predetermined Doints in rhe load e.g. each corner and meddle ofeach sidel; Coning and quartering;

Collecting a grab sample from a randomly selected point using a fronlend loader; Manuaily collecting a columE ofwaste from a ranqgqlly selected location.

ln coning and quanering. d large quanlil) ofwasre is rnixed ro make h uniform. the mixed waste is tben arraDged in a round pile in the form ofa cone (coning), and one quarter is randomly picked up (quartering). ASTM recommends coning and quartering, beginning with approximarely 1000 lb of waste, to obrain a sample of200 to 300 lb. This method is tir.e consuming and requires large space. It may also reduce accuracy as mixing may cause various waste components totrash and stick together. A more common method is to coilect grab samples using a front-end Ioader. This is a relatively quick method. Sampling through the fronlend loade. alsoreduces the chances of

bglassociated \ th manualcollection. Howeveriarge objects e.g. emptv cardboard carons may faildown while the loader bucket is lifted. Special care needs to betaken to avoid such conditions. Chemical Properties oMSW Chemical properties ofmunicipalsolid wastes arerequired in the design ofvatious processes sxch as energy recovery or composting. The choice ofcombustion piocesses depends upon the chemical composition ofsolid wastes. For €nergy recovery considemtions, the follo;ing are some ofthe important analyses to be caraied out. Proximate Analysis Proximate analysis ofmunjcipal soiid wastes is canied outto dejermine itsmoisture contenr, voiatile combustible matter, fixed ca.bon, and ash coitteot. Volatile combustibie matter is the loss ofweight on ignition ofthe dded waste sample at 95ooc in a covered crucible. Fixed carbon is the combustible residue that is left afler the volatile matter is removed from the waste. Ash content is determined as the weight of residue ofwaste aftercombustion in an open crucible. Fusing Point ol Ash The fusing point ofash is the temperature at which the ash resulting fr6m the burning of wastes forms a solid clinker by fusion or agglomeration. Typical fus;ng temperaturtfor formation of clinker from solid wastes range from l l00 to l20O'C. Ultimate Analysis ot MSW The ultimate analysis ofa componeirt ofwaste consists ofdeaermination ofpercentage of its various chemical constituents e.g. Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen, Sulfur, Ash

12

A Textbook of Solid Wastes Managenent

and Halogens. Uhimate analysis is an importaft parameter in the selection ofvarious wastes processes, C N rario I carbon ro nilroBen ratio) is an imporlaDt factor for comDostins as it

controls biological conversion activity ofthe wasres. Chemicaj composirion ofva-rrous components of municipal so lid wastes is presented in Table 1 .7 and i g respectiv€ Iy. .

Table 1.7: T)pical Chemical Conposition

ofVSw

Petcentage b! seight Carbon Hydrogen

50.0-60.0 6.0-8.0

Oxyge,

30.040.0

Nitrogen

50.0 6.5 32.0 2.5

2-0-4.0

Sdfrr

0.3-0_4 5_0-10.0

0.3

50

So,/rc€, ISEM (2000).

I

Tabl€ 1.8: Chemical Compositiofl ofVr,rious Componenr! ofMSW MSW

Componeht Percentape 6 dn *ei?ht { otba4 Hydtogen Orygen | rogen 6-12

Paper & Cardboad Plaslics Textiles

45-75 30-60 50-E0 40-50

Rubber

60-74

8-10

50-60 45-50

6'8

Glars

Metals Si]rAsh/Dirt So,rrcer

Li!

45-50 0.5-0.6 4-5 20-30

5-10 E-10 5-8

4-6 5-6 0.1-0.2 0.4-0.6 3-5

20-40 30-40 15-20 30-40 10-12 30-40

SuAu;

Ash

1-2

0.2-0.4

0.-0.3

0.i,0.2

5-10

5 miks noin mrmicip3l weUs

Bordering cdtural 3re?s, < 0.5 miles

fiom potable wells,

< I mile do!\rstre3ln ofintakes ;n

flowingsatels

8. Biologicol

E.lo$/ saEe:

Petts and Eduljee

Low ecological \€lue, low speci€s

dive$ig (

Habilal for rare or endangered

and uriqueness

1994).

Design ol a Landlill for Hazardous Waste Hazaralous wastes landfilis are designed for the disposal ofwastes so as to cause minimum impactto human health and environmeDt. There are seven main components ofa hazardous wasle landfills. which needto be properly designed lhe base and siaies to prevent migralion ofleachate ofgas lo the sunoundings' Hazardous waste landfitls may be provided with a double liner system' . Leachate Coll€ction and Treatm€nt Facility-to collect leachale fiom within lhe base

. Liner System-at

ofthe landfill for treatment to stipulated standards' . Gas Collection and Tr€atment Fscility-to collect 8as emanaring from the Iandfill and lo lreal or store il for energy reco\ery' . Final Cover-at the top oflandfill to p,event inflltratiofl ofwater into the landfill and to suppon vegetation.

. 6rrtace orainage Syslem-to collect and divert all surface runofffron the landfill' . Environmental Moniloring Plan-for periodic monitoring ofenvironmental quality ofair, surface water, groundwater, vadoze zone. . Closure and Post-closure Plan-i e. details of activilies to be undertaken to close a Iandfill site oncethe filling operationhas beencompleted and for m onilori'g and maintenance of the completed tandfi ll. the These components have already been discussed in delail in previous chapters, for design ofmunicipa, solid wastes 1andfil1.

Critetia for Wastes Acceptance at Landfill il is not suitahle Characteristics of hazard ous wastes may be h igh ly variable General ly a lafldfi monitor the wasle therefore to for disposal ofall types ofhazardous wastes. lt is necessary

132

ATextbook of Solid Wastes Managenent

being transported to the landfill site. CPCB has laid down guidelines for acceptance wasies at hazardous waste

. .

landril sites, These

aae as

of

iollows:

Alt wastes shall be acceptedonly ifthe truck carries aulhorized documenls indicating the source and type ofwaste. Such wasle shall be routinely inspected visually at the tipping area in the landfill site. Bulk or non-contaminated liquid ha"ardous waste or shrry-q?€ hazardous waste conlaining free liquid or sludge, which has no!been dewatered, shall not be placed in landfi11s. Suchwastes shall be placed inhazardous waste impoundments designed specificall! for liquid hazardous wasle.

.lncinemble/compostablewastesoranyothertypeof\rrastefromwhichenergy/material recovery is feasible, shall noi be placed in hazardous wastes landfills. Iflcompatible wastes i.e. any two types ofwastes, which could result in aggressive chemical changes after coming in contact, shall nol be placed in the same Iandfill unit. Compatible wastes will be grouped together and placed in the same landfiil unit (each such unit shall hale its own phase, cells etc.). Incompatible wastes group shall be accommodated in separate landfill units. waste that can cause damage to the linermater;al shall eitherbe containerized before disposal in landfillor be placed in a separate landfill unitmade ofaltemate compalible liner material. E*remely hazardous wastes e.g. ndioactive wastes shall not be disposed off in hazlrdous wastes landfills but in specially designed wastes disposal units.

.

. .

. .

Non-hazardous wastes e.g. municipal solid wastes shall not be deposited in hazardous wasles landfills. Residues system should bedesigned specifically for each landfill. Howeveraminimum oftreated biomedicalwastes e.g. inciDerator ash caD be deposited in hazardous wastes landfi lls.

Non-compatibility ol Halardoug Wastes Wastes to wastes compatibility is ao irDporiant aspect ofhazardous wastes minagement. Some wastes should not be m;xed, stored, transported ordisposed oflogether Ifnoncompatible waste are commingled they can pose increased risk to environment or human health e.g. generation oftoxic fumes, fire or explosion hazards, violent reactions. These consequences should belaken irto account in planning for common disposal facil ities

or effluent treatment plants. A waste-to-\{aste noncompatibility matrix (Table 6.6) should to be formulated before plannjng ofcommon facililies. These matrices are also useful in the eslimation

ofrisk involved in disposal ofhazardous

wastes.

HOSPITAL/BIOMEOICAL WASTES An important category ofwastes, rapidly increasing in volume, is biomedical waste. These should be properly treated and disposed off to avoid risk 1o the public health. Apart from commoD ailments l;ke eye irritation, asthma aod other health disorders it may also lead to deadly diseases such as AIDS, tuberculosis, and skin diseases. In Delhi, on an average a hospilal generates 3 Kg ofwastes per bed/day including bottles, cotton, plasters, syringes, needles, bandages, human organs, as well as wastes from X-ray and radiological departments

Hazadouswactes Managiernent and Site Remediation 133

l.

€ 3? 2

9c

f h!

-.=';:

d

g .9 pE+ o0: F-o"i3

,'na E.e;::o 9a=q tzie.9,2v.

.18

;>i

b3 -" "912 x--

z

=-=:'+Yt 3- 5 &=

= !

ea!gc;i"iE, :iE!zb;E5a

63Dx

v.9Zs:.93iai .!;i

uaAa

; P"9 ;309 E7i 672 ;iy!iu. !eie- P.vi2

;3b E7

z= iE3 rE i9!

i:

"

It 6 h Hs

.{E*

3!:! 3s:!

,

{; : i :

z:.-d

-: -a ?

==j,cn-i. a!ir*!e

:;^.

i i;=> a|ii

pa

s_:_

, so.e :633

;.4 ;.i i' iVa.j &iiE= e-.i C!

::Ce 5E:E l!f:

t y

! ai

;.1

iE ii P

I

I

1g

::

ATextbook ol Solid Wastes Managenent

(Table 6,7).

lt

rs necessary

lhat segregation packaging transponatio'l or slorage otlhese

constituenlsiscarriedoutaccordingtolheguidelineslaiddownbyiheleg}latoryaurhonne(, Trble 6.7:

Typ ica,

Composition ofHospital wastes

35-40

Cloth & Badage lnfectious wastes lNe€dle & Srdnge etc )

1-2 20-30

Biodegndable Paper

9-t2 8-12

& Hardb@rd

t-2

Metals

E-r0 5-10

Bio€sistani

2-5

s,,//cej NEERI {1996).

Trealment and Disposal

ol Hospital Wastes

oflhese wastes dePend upon the wa(te-charalrerislics' biomedrcal ;iE;t t;";nrent an; Foresls. Government of lnd id has cla5sified in separate be collected .""g"ries (Table 6.8) These wastes (Table 6 9)' and proper disposal coding for easy identification 'hould

'I he rrealmenr and disposal slralegies

i ;"

;;l;

*"r,.. i"*'ro

oug.

*;iii

lif**,

"""f"r

Trble 6.8: Caregories ofBiomedical

Wastes

heament and DisPosol

Colegory Human Anltomical Wastes Human tissues, organs, bod! Pans

lncineratio deepburial

Incinet"iio deepburiai Animal tissues, organs, body patt! ca.casses' bleeninspans. fluid, bloodandexp€rime al animals used in resellch, wasle genemted bv vet€rinar-v hospitals mlleges, discharge fi om hospitals, mimal hols€s Mi$obiolog/ and Biotechrolog/ Wastes

Adoclaving/misowavine/

Waslesfiom laboratory cultures, stocks or specim€ns of micro-orgarisms liveorattenuatedvaccin6, human and animal cell culture used in r€s.nch infectious aEents ftom esear.h and industrial

taloraonei *asres iiom production of brologicals. d ishes and de! ice, used foI Fansfer ofcultu e

lorrns.

Dsinfection {chemi€al Needles. syringes. scalpeh, blades, glass etc. ihat nay cause pundxle and cuts. This include both used and

Discarded Medicines ard Cytotoxic Drugs Wa$es comprising ofoutdaied coniaminated and

micro*aving) and mulilation /shreddi.g Incinmrion/destruction and drugs disposal in secu!€d

Hazatdouswastes Management an