Strange Multiplicity: Constitutionalism in an Age of Diversity (The Seeley Lectures)

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The Pitt Building, Trumpington Street, Cambridge, United Kingdom CAMBRIDGE

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The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge C B 2 2RU, UK 40 West 20th Street, New York, N Y 10011-4211, USA 477 Williamstown Road, Port Melbourne, vie 3207, Australia Ruiz de Alarcon 13, 28014 Madrid, Spain Dock House, The Waterfront, Cape Town 8001, South Africa © Cambridge University Press 1995 This book is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception and to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements, no reproduction of any part may take place without the written permission of Cambridge University Press. First published 1995 Fifth printing 2004 Printed in the United Kingdom at the University Press, Cambridge A catalogue recordfor this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloguing in Publication data

Tully, James, 1946— Strange multiplicity: constitutionalism in an age of diversity / James Tully. p. cm. - (The John Robert Seeley lectures) Includes bibliographical references. ISBN o 521 47117 6 (hardback) o 521 47694 1 (paperback) 1. Minorities - Politics and government. 2. Indigenous peoples — Politics and government. 3. Ethnicity - Political aspects. 4. Federal government. 5. Nationalism. 6. Multiculturalism. 7. Pluralsim (Social sciences). 1. Title. 11. Series. JP1061.T85 1995

323.i'73-dc2o ISBN ISBN

95-1378

CIP

0 521 47117 6 hardback o 521 47694 1 paperback

WD/CP

to Quentin

And yet we live in the era of progress don't we? I suppose progress is like a newly discovered land; a flourishing colonial system on the coast, the interior still wilderness, steppe, prairie. The thing about progress is that it appears much greater than it actually is. Joharvn Nestroy, Der Schiltzling 4., 10.

Contents

Preface

page

Acknowledgements Illustration: 1

'The spirit of Haida Gwaii'

D e m a n d s for c o n s t i t u t i o n a l r e c o g n i t i o n The constitutional question raised by the politics of cultural recognition: six examples and three similarities The mutual recognition of cultural diversity: three features of the common ground and three historical movements The spirit ofHaida Gwaii as a symbol of the age of cultural diversity A constitutional dialogue in The spirit ofHaida Gwaii

2

Diversity and contemporary constitutionalism Answering the constitutional question: an outline Two languages of contemporary constitutionalism and three schools of modern constitutionalism The challenge of post-modernism and cultural feminism The challenge of interculturalism

3

xi xii xvii I I 7 17 24 30 $0 34 43 53

T h e h i s t o r i c a l f o r m a t i o n of m o d e r n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m : t h e e m p i r e of u n i f o r m i t y Constitutions ancient and modern Seven features of modern constitutionalism Examples of forging the seven features: Locke and Aboriginal peoples Vattel, Kant and their followers The reform of diversity in Europe and the colonies The American revolution and the guardians of empire today ix

58 58 62 7° 79 82 91

Contents

X

4

T h e h i s t o r i c a l f o r m a t i o n of c o m m o n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m : t h e r e d i s c o v e r y of c u l t u r a l diversity, p a r t i The hidden constitutions of contemporary societies Understanding constitutionalism: Wittgenstein and Hale Examples of the three conventions: the Aboriginal and common-law system and the conventions of mutual recognition and consent The Aboriginal and common-law system and the convention of continuity The Aboriginal and common-law system of constitutional dialogue

5

99 99 103

116 124 129

T h e h i s t o r i c a l f o r m a t i o n of c o m m o n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m : t h e r e d i s c o v e r y of c u l t u r a l d i v e r s i t y , p a r t 11 Diverse federalism and the conventions of mutual recognition, continuity and consent Diverse federalism and continuity: the Quebec Act and the ancient constitution Diverse federalism, the three conventions and the American revolution The modern attack on diverse federalism: the Durham report and its followers Linguistic minorities and the three conventions: the form of reasoning appropriate to mutual recognition and accommodation Intercultural citizens, gender differences and the three conventions

6

C o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m in a n a g e of c u l t u r a l d i v e r s i t y A summary of contemporary constitutionalism Replies to four objections to contemporary constitutionalism Two public goods of contemporary constitutionalism: belonging and critical freedom Conclusion: the philosophy and practice of contemporary constitutionalism

140 140 145 152 157

165 176 183 183 187 198 209

Notes

213

Guide tofurther reading

223

Bibliography

226

Index

246

Preface

T h e s e l e c t u r e s w e r e given as t h e J o h n R o b e r t S e e l e y l e c t u r e s at t h e U n i v e r s i t y of C a m b r i d g e , from 2 M a r c h to 11 M a r c h 1994, in t h e L i t t l e H a l l , Sidgwick A v e n u e s i t e . I r e w r o t e t h e m for p u b l i c a t i o n over t h e s u m m e r of 1994. T h e t h e m e is c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m in c i r c u m s t a n c e s of c u l t u r a l diversity. It is d i s c u s s e d in t h e light of a s i n g l e w o r k of a r t , The spirit of Haida Gwaii by Bill R e i d . In t h e s e d a r k a n d d i s c o r d a n t t i m e s , I d o not e x p e c t t h e l e c t u r e s t o m o v e m o r e t h a n a few r e a d e r s . N e v e r t h e l e s s , t h e only w a y t o l e s s e n t h e d a r k n e s s a n d discord is t o t a k e u p t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y t o s p e a k in t h e d i a l o g u e i n i t i a t e d by The spirit of Haida Gwaii. T h i s is m y r e s p o n s e .

xi

Acknowledgements

I w o u l d like t o a c k n o w l e d g e t h e a s s i s t a n c e of t h e m a n y f r i e n d s of Strange multiplicity a little m o r e fully t h a n is c o n v e n t i o n a l so t h a t r e a d e r s m a y a p p r e c i a t e t h e c o n v e r s a t i o n in w h i c h t h e l e c t u r e s w e r e c o m p o s e d . F i r s t , I wish to t h a n k all t h e p e o p l e associated with t h e J o h n Robert Seeley lectureship who m a d e it s u c h a r e w a r d i n g a n d enjoyable e x p e r i e n c e . M y t w o h o s t s , Q u e n t i n S k i n n e r of t h e F a c u l t y of H i s t o r y a n d J e r e m y M y n o t t of C a m b r i d g e U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , h a v e m y d e e p e s t g r a t i t u d e for t h e i r g r a c i o u s h o s p i t a l i t y . T h e m a s t e r a n d fellows of C h r i s t ' s College were exceptional hosts, providing me with com­ m o d i o u s r o o m s , t h e m o s t b e a u t i f u l g a r d e n s to walk in a n d fellowship a t m e a l s . H e r e I m u s t m e n t i o n D a v i d S e d l e y in p a r t i c u l a r for m a k i n g m e feel a t h o m e . P e r m i t m e also to e x p r e s s m y g r a t i t u d e to all t h e s c h o l a r s a n d students who a t t e n d e d the lectures, discussed t h e m with m e over b r e a k f a s t , l u n c h , d i n n e r , a b e e r or two, o p e r a a n d w a l k s a r o u n d t h e a n c i e n t m a z e of little s t r e e t s a n d s q u a r e s w h i c h W i t t g e n s t e i n m e n t i o n s in L e c t u r e four. C a m b r i d g e is t h e b e s t u n i v e r s i t y in t h e w o r l d for t h e s t u d y of political p h i l o s o p h y a n d it is m o r e t h a n a l i t t l e d a u n t i n g t o h a v e s e a t e d in front of you s u c h g r e a t s c h o l a r s as T o m B a l d w i n , J o h n D u n n , M a r k G o l d i e , R o s s H a r r i s o n , Geoffrey H a w t h o r n , Istvan Hont, Susan J a m e s , O n o r a O'Neill, Anthony Pagden, Quentin Skinner, G a r e t h Stedman Jones, Richard Tuck and Sylvana T o m a s e l l i . H o w e v e r , t h e y t r a n s f o r m e d l e c t u r i n g i n t o t h e m o s t p l e a s u r a b l e of t a s k s by t h e c o - o p e r a t i v e spirit in w h i c h t h e y l i s t e n e d , o c c a s i o n a l l y e v e n n o d d i n g in a g r e e m e n t , a n d t h e n w e n t o n t o offer e n c o u r a g e m e n t a n d c o n s t r u c t i v e xii

Acknowledgements

xiii

c r i t i c i s m in d i s c u s s i o n s a n d c o r r e s p o n d e n c e . I a m especially i n d e b t e d to R i c h a r d T u c k for t h o u g h t f u l q u e s t i o n s after every l e c t u r e a n d his o u t s t a n d i n g s c h o l a r s h i p o n e a r l y m o d e r n constitutionalism. M y t h a n k s also go out to all t h e s t u d e n t s w h o a t t e n d e d a n d w e r e e q u a l l y f o r t h c o m i n g in t h e i r c o n s i d e r e d a n d helpful c o m m e n t s . I w i s h to m e n t i o n especially M o n i q u e D e v e a u x , David K a h a n e (now a colleague), Patrick Miller and N o r b e r t o d e S o u s a , w h o s e s u g g e s t i o n s h a v e a s s i s t e d m e in t h e p r o c e s s of revision. I a m h o n o u r e d to a c k n o w l e d g e m y g r a t i t u d e to J o h n R o b e r t Seeley. It is ironical t h a t I w a s e l e c t e d as t h e first S e e l e y l e c t u r e r . H e c a m e t o C a m b r i d g e from t h e c e n t r e of t h e B r i t i s h e m p i r e t o p r a i s e i m p e r i a l i s m in his g r e a t w o r k , The expansion of England ( 1 8 8 4 ) . O n e h u n d r e d y e a r s l a t e r , I c a m e from t h e f u r t h e s t f r o n t i e r of t h e e m p i r e , V a n c o u v e r I s l a n d , w i t h all d u e r e s p e c t , t o b u r y it. D e s p i t e t h i s c o n s p i c u o u s d i f f e r e n c e , h o w e v e r , we s h a r e a n i m p o r t a n t s i m i l a r i t y . W e b o t h believe t h a t t h e s t u d y of politics a n d political p h i l o s o p h y s h o u l d b e h i s t o r i c a l . J o h n S e e l e y is r e s p o n s i b l e for p l a c i n g t h e s t u d y of political p h i l o s o p h y in t h e F a c u l t y of H i s t o r y in t h e l a t e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y . As a c o n s e q u e n c e , C a m b r i d g e h a s d e v e l o p e d its u n i q u e a n d c e l e b r a t e d h i s t o r i c a l a p p r o a c h t o t h e s t u d y of politics today. Since I a m a g r a d u a t e of C a m b r i d g e , t h e very a p p r o a c h I u s e to q u e s t i o n t h e i m p e r i a l i s m t h a t J o h n S e e l e y d e f e n d e d d e s c e n d s from his t e a c h i n g a n d c u r r i c u l u m r e f o r m . Now, in t h e e t h i c s of b o t h S e n e c a t h e R o m a n stoic a n d t h e A b o r i g i n a l n a t i o n n a m e d a f t e r h i m , a few m i l e s from w h e r e I w r i t e , t h e h i g h e s t c o m p l i m e n t a p u p i l c a n pay h e r or his t e a c h e r is to b e c o m e a w o r t h y o p p o n e n t . T h i s is t h e spirit in w h i c h I g r a t e f u l l y offer t h e l e c t u r e s t o t h e c u s t o d i a n s of t h e J o h n R o b e r t Seeley l e c t u r e s h i p . T h e l e c t u r e s also h a v e m a n y friends w h o h a v e kindly c o m m e n t e d o n e a r l i e r s k e t c h e s of s e c t i o n s a t different p r e s e n ­ t a t i o n s . I w o u l d like to t h a n k all of t h e m a n d t o m e n t i o n t h o s e who have been most influential: S t e p h e n M u n z e r , J o h n S i m m o n s a n d J e r e m y W a l d r o n in S a n F r a n c i s c o ; Seyla Benhabib, Peter Berkowitz, P r a t a p M e h t a , Uday M e h t a and

XIV

Acknowledgements

M i c h a e l S a n d e l a t H a r v a r d ; at a c o n f e r e n c e w i t h V a c l a v H a v e l in P r a g u e , J e a n B e t h k e E l s h t a i n , J o s e f M o u r a l , J o h n Pocock a n d t h e s c h o l a r s a t t h e C e n t r e for T h e o r e t i c S t u d y , C h a r l e s University; Alan Cairns, Simone C h a m b e r s , Curtis Cook, Tim F u l l e r a n d A l a i n N o e l in C o l o r a d o S p r i n g s ; a t a c o n f e r e n c e o n t h e f u t u r e of t h e n a t i o n s t a t e in C a m b r i d g e , B h i k h u P a r e k h , Geoffrey H a w t h o r n , S u d i p t a K a v i r a j a n d especially (as always) J o h n D u n n ; in V a n c o u v e r , S t e p h e n D a v i s , Avigail E i s e n b e r g , L y s i a n e G a g n o n , J o h n R u s s e l l a n d especially P e t e r R u s s e l l ; D e n n i s P a t t e r s o n of R u t g e r s ; a n d a t M c G i l l , A r l e n e Broadhurst, G r e t t a C h a m b e r s , David Davies, Elisabeth Elbourne, M e t t e Hjort, Rod MacDonald, J i m McGilvray, David Norton, Bruce Trigger and J e r e m y W e b b e r . In the d i s c u s s i o n s in Q u e b e c , A l a i n - G . G a g n o n a n d G u y L a f o r e s t h a v e s h o w n m e w h a t is w o r t h y of r e c o g n i t i o n in d i v e r s e n a t i o n a l i s m , D a n i e l W e i n s t o c k in p l u r a l l i b e r a l i s m , P e t a T a n c r e d in f e m i n i s m a n d G e r a l d Alfred a n d D a l e T u r n e r in Aboriginal nationalism. O n e of m y d e e p e s t d e b t s is t o t h e s t u d e n t s w h o h a v e c o m e from Q u e b e c , C a n a d a , Aboriginal A m e r i c a and a r o u n d the w o r l d to m a k e political p h i l o s o p h y a t M c G i l l a n i n t e r c u l t u r a l c o m m o n g r o u n d . M y g r a t i t u d e goes t o all t h e s t u d e n t s w h o h a v e l i s t e n e d a n d r e s p o n d e d critically t o m y a t t e m p t s to e l u c i d a t e t h e t h e m e s of t h e l e c t u r e s in s e m i n a r s . A m o n g t h e s e I a m most thankful to Susan D r u m m o n d , Natalie O m a n and D a l e T u r n e r for a r e a d i n g c o u r s e o n t h e l e c t u r e s ; P e t a B o w d e n , N a t a l i e B r e n d e r a n d C r e s s i d a H e y e s for s h o w i n g m e t h a t t h e Philosophical investigations c a n b e r e a d as a d i a l o g u e in w h i c h f e m i n i n e voices c a n b e h e a r d ; a n d R a v i n d a r C h i m n i , M u r a t Dagli, Eric Darier, M a r y Foster, Glen H u g h e s , D u n c a n Ivison, Afra J a l a b i , D i m i t r i K a r m i s , R e b e c c a K i n g s t o n , G u y L a f o r e s t , J a m e s M a c l n n i s , D a r i u s Rejali, A n n e - M a r i e Sorrenti, Michael T e m e l i n i , A n o u s h Terjanian, Yasuo Tsuji a n d A r d i t h W a l k e n for fruitful discussions a n d s u g g e s t i o n s . I a m also m o s t g r a t e f u l t o t h e m a n y p e o p l e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e C a n a d i a n Royal C o m m i s s i o n o n A b o r i g i n a l P e o p l e s w h o h a v e p r o v i d e d a u n i q u e f o r u m for d i s c u s s i o n t h r o u g h o u t t h e c o m p o s i t i o n of t h e l e c t u r e s . I wish t o t h a n k all t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s

Acknowledgements

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a n d t o m e n t i o n t h e following in p a r t i c u l a r for t h e i r h e l p : Marlene Brant Castellano, Paul Chartrand, Rene Dussault, G e o r g e s E r a s m u s , L o u i e L a m o t h e , O r e n Lyons, P a t r i c i a Monture O k a n e e , Mary Ellen Turpel, Sharon Venne, Daisy W a t t s a n d B e r t h a W i l s o n . M y g r e a t e s t d e b t h e r e is t o David Hawkes and Fred Wien, who generously placed their vast e r u d i t i o n a t m y d i s p o s a l a n d c o m m e n t e d c o n s t r u c t i v e l y on t h e p a p e r s w h i c h led t o t h e l e c t u r e s . W i t h i n t h i s i n t e r c u l t u r a l d i a l o g u e in w h i c h t h e l e c t u r e s h a v e t a k e n s h a p e , two i n t e r l o c u t o r s d e s e r v e s p e c i a l r e c o g ­ n i t i o n . I h a v e b e e n d i s c u s s i n g t h e t h e m e s of t h e l e c t u r e s w i t h t h e m for s e v e n t e e n y e a r s a n d t h e i r s o l i d a r i t y a n d d i s t i n c t i v e voices h a v e m a d e a p r o f o u n d d i f f e r e n c e t o t h e w a y I t h i n k a b o u t c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m a n d c u l t u r a l diversity. M y g r a t i t u d e is beyond words. T h e y are Q u e n t i n Skinner and Charles Taylor. M y a i m is n e i t h e r to t a k e sides a m o n g t h e different a n d s i m i l a r voices I h a v e h e a r d a n d r e a d n o r to t r y t o r e c o n c i l e t h e m . R a t h e r , it is to offer a p h i l o s o p h y a n d p r a c t i c e of t h e i r c o n t i n u o u s conciliation in d i a l o g u e - a n offer w h i c h j u s t m i g h t bring peace. For this approach, I a m indebted to J e n n y , who c a m e before t h e others and t a u g h t m e the most i m p o r t a n t a b o r i g i n a l lesson: t h e p r i m a r y p r a c t i c a l ability is n o t s p e a k i n g well b u t , like L i t t l e W i n g , l i s t e n i n g well. Finally, I wish t o t h a n k Bill R e i d for h i s w o n d e r f u l work of a r t . H e h a s i n s p i r e d m e a t every s t e p in t h e m a k i n g of t h e lec­ t u r e s . M y g r e a t e s t p l e a s u r e w a s t o p l a c e a l a r g e p i c t u r e of The spirit of Haida Gwaii b e s i d e m e as I l e c t u r e d in C a m b r i d g e a n d to p o i n t a f f e c t i o n a t e l y t o t h e m y t h c r e a t u r e s from m y child­ h o o d h o m e w h o t r a v e l l e d so far w i t h m e . T h e l e c t u r e s a r e a h o p e l e s s l y i n a d e q u a t e gift t o Bill R e i d in r e t u r n for t h e m a g n i f i c e n t o n e h e h a s given u s . Bill R e i d d i e d o n 13 M a r c h 1998. As t h e l e c t u r e s go to p r e s s , it is a p l e a s u r e t o t h a n k R i c h a r d F i s h e r of C a m b r i d g e U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s as well as J e r e m y M y n o t t , w h o s e c o m p a n i o n s h i p a n d f a i t h in t h e j o u r n e y h a v e s u s t a i n e d m e from b e g i n n i n g to e n d . L a s t , b u t d e f i n i t e l y n o t l e a s t , I a m m o s t g r a t e f u l t o H i l a r y S c a n n e l l for h e r e x c e l l e n t a n d i n v a l u a b l e copy e d i t i n g .

xvi

Acknowledgemen ts

T h e p o e m o n p a g e 2 1 , from Poems of Rita Joe ( H a l i f a x : A b e r n a k i P r e s s , 1978) is r e p r i n t e d by p e r m i s s i o n of t h e a u t h o r . T h e e x c e r p t from ' O l d T i m e r s ' in Cornhuskers by C a r l S a n d b u r g , c o p y r i g h t 1 9 1 8 by H o l t , R i n e h a r t a n d W i n s t o n , I n c . a n d r e n e w e d 1 9 4 6 by C a r l S a n d b u r g , is r e p r i n t e d by p e r m i s s i o n of H a r c o u r t B r a c e & C o m p a n y .

CHAPTER I

Demands for constitutional recognition

The constitutional question raised by the politics of cultural recognition: six examples and three similarities T h e q u e s t i o n I w i s h t o a d d r e s s in this b o o k is t h e following. C a n a modern constitution recognise and accommodate c u l t u r a l diversity? T h i s is o n e of t h e m o s t difficult a n d p r e s s i n g q u e s t i o n s of t h e political e r a w e a r e e n t e r i n g a t t h e d a w n of t h e twenty-first c e n t u r y . T h e q u e s t i o n c a n e v e n b e said t o c h a r a c t e r i s e t h e c o m i n g e r a , for w h e n it is n o t d e s c r i b e d in r e l a t i o n t o t h e p r e c e d i n g p e r i o d , a s a p o s t i m p e r i a l or p o s t - m o d e r n a g e , it is often d e s c r i b e d in its o w n t e r m s , as a n a g e of c u l t u r a l diversity. T h e q u e s t i o n is n o t w h e t h e r o n e s h o u l d b e for or a g a i n s t c u l t u r a l diversity. R a t h e r , it is t h e p r i o r q u e s t i o n of w h a t is t h e c r i t i c a l a t t i t u d e or spirit in w h i c h j u s t i c e c a n b e r e n d e r e d t o t h e d e m a n d s for cultural recognition. W e c a n b e g i n t o g a i n a n i n i t i a l g r a s p of t h i s elusive q u e s t i o n by briefly s u r v e y i n g t h e r a n g e of political s t r u g g l e s w h i c h h a v e r e n d e r e d c u l t u r a l diversity p r o b l e m a t i c , c a u s i n g it t o b e c o m e a locus of political a c t i o n a n d p h i l o s o p h i c a l r e f l e c t i o n . I n c o n t e m p o r a r y political v o c a b u l a r y , t h e v a r i o u s s t r u g g l e s for r e c o g n i t i o n of c u l t u r a l diversity a r e classified as d i f f e r e n t in k i n d a n d s t u d i e d by different s p e c i a l i s t s . T h e r e is n o single t e r m w h i c h covers t h e m all. As a r e s u l t , w h a t e v e r s i m i l a r i t i e s a n d d i f f e r e n c e s in d e g r e e , r a t h e r t h a n in k i n d , m a y exist a m o n g t h e m a r e h i d d e n from view by o u r o r d i n a r y f o r m s of l a n g u a g e . A c c o r d i n g l y , I will i n t r o d u c e t h e p h r a s e ' t h e politics of c u l t u r a l r e c o g n i t i o n ' to g a t h e r t o g e t h e r t h e b r o a d a n d v a r i o u s political activities w h i c h j o i n t l y call c u l t u r a l diversity i

2

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i n t o q u e s t i o n a s a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c c o n s t i t u t i o n a l p r o b l e m of o u r time. T h e m o s t f a m i l i a r form of t h e politics of c u l t u r a l r e c o g ­ n i t i o n is t h e c l a i m s of n a t i o n a l i s t m o v e m e n t s t o b e c o n s t i ­ t u t i o n a l l y r e c o g n i s e d as e i t h e r i n d e p e n d e n t n a t i o n s t a t e s or as a u t o n o m o u s political a s s o c i a t i o n s w i t h i n v a r i o u s f o r m s of m u l t i n a t i o n a l federations and confederations. As existing n a t i o n s t a t e s a n d f o r m e r e m p i r e s a r e h a r d p r e s s e d by t h e s e c u l t u r a l d e m a n d s from w i t h i n , t h e y a r e also f a c e d w i t h pressures to recognise and accommodate larger, supra­ n a t i o n a l a s s o c i a t i o n s w i t h powerful c u l t u r a l d i m e n s i o n s , s u c h as the E u r o p e a n Union and the North A m e r i c a n Free T r a d e A g r e e m e n t . C a u g h t in t h e i n t e r s t i c e s of t h e s e l a r g e a n d volatile struggles, longstanding linguistic a n d ethnic m i n o r i t i e s a d v a n c e c l a i m s for c o n s t i t u t i o n a l r e c o g n i t i o n a n d protection. C u t t i n g across t h e c o m p l e x t e r r a i n of t h e s e t h r e e f o r m s of d e m a n d , a n d f r e q u e n t l y conflicting w i t h t h e m , t h e m u l t i ­ c u l t u r a l or ' i n t e r c u l t u r a l ' voices of h u n d r e d s of m i l l i o n s of c i t i z e n s , i m m i g r a n t s , exiles a n d r e f u g e e s of t h e t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y c o m p e t e for f o r m s of r e c o g n i t i o n a n d p r o t e c t i o n of t h e cultures they bring with t h e m to established nation states. T h e s e i n t e r c u l t u r a l d e m a n d s (as I shall call t h e m ) r a n g e any­ w h e r e from schools a n d social services in o n e ' s first l a n g u a g e , p u b l i c l y s u p p o r t e d T V , film a n d r a d i o , a f f i r m a t i v e a c t i o n , a n d c h a n g e s in t h e d o m i n a n t c u r r i c u l a a n d n a t i o n a l h i s t o r i e s , so t h a t t h e y r e s p e c t a n d affirm o t h e r c u l t u r e s , to t h e r i g h t to s p e a k a n d act in c u l t u r e - a f f i r m i n g ways in p u b l i c i n s t i t u t i o n s a n d s p h e r e s . I n r e s p o n s e , m o d e r n societies h a v e b e g u n t o b e called 'multicultural', yet with no a g r e e m e n t on w h a t d i f f e r e n c e t h i s m a k e s to t h e p r e v a i l i n g u n d e r s t a n d i n g of a c o n s t i t u t i o n a l society. C o m p l i c a t i n g f u r t h e r this b e w i l d e r i n g l a n d s c a p e , t h e d e m a n d s of f e m i n i s t m o v e m e n t s for r e c o g n i t i o n a r e r a i s e d w i t h i n a n d a c r o s s e a c h of t h e s e s t r u g g l e s for n a t i o n a l , s u p r a ­ n a t i o n a l , m i n o r i t y a n d i n t e r c u l t u r a l r e c o g n i t i o n . T h e c l a i m of c u l t u r a l f e m i n i s t s , b r o a d l y s p e a k i n g , is not only t h a t w o m e n s h o u l d h a v e a n e q u a l say w i t h i n t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i n s t i t u t i o n s

Demands for constitutional

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of c o n t e m p o r a r y societies a n d t h e i r a u t h o r i t a t i v e t r a d i t i o n s of interpretation. Because the constitutional institutions and t r a d i t i o n s of i n t e r p r e t a t i o n w e r e e s t a b l i s h e d l o n g a g o by m e n to t h e e x c l u s i o n of w o m e n , it follows t h a t t h e y s h o u l d b e a m e n d e d from t h e g r o u n d u p , so to s p e a k , in o r d e r t o recog­ nise a n d a c c o m m o d a t e w o m e n ' s c u l t u r a l l y d i s t i n c t i v e ways of s p e a k i n g a n d a c t i n g , so t h a t s u b s t a n t i v e g e n d e r e q u a l i t y will b e a s s u r e d in t h e daily political s t r u g g l e s in t h e i n s t i t u t i o n s t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n founds. M a k i n g t h i s t a s k even m o r e difficult, w o m e n ' s c u l t u r e itself is n o t h o m o g e n e o u s , b u t m u l t i c u l t u r a l and contested. T h e last e x a m p l e of t h e politics of c u l t u r a l r e c o g n i t i o n , yet t h e first in t i m e a n d h i s t o r y , is t h e d e m a n d s of t h e 2 5 0 m i l l i o n A b o r i g i n a l or I n d i g e n o u s p e o p l e s of t h e w o r l d for t h e r e c o g ­ n i t i o n a n d a c c o m m o d a t i o n of t h e i r twelve t h o u s a n d d i v e r s e cultures, governments and environmental practices. Through­ out t h e w o r l d , t h e y a r e f i g h t i n g t o b e r e c o g n i s e d as F i r s t N a t i o n s in i n t e r n a t i o n a l law a n d in t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n s of m o d e r n societies t h a t h a v e b e e n i m p o s e d over t h e m d u r i n g t h e last five h u n d r e d y e a r s of E u r o p e a n e x p a n s i o n a n d i m p e r i a l i s m . T h e i r s t r u g g l e s for c o n s t i t u t i o n a l r e c o g n i t i o n i n t e r s e c t a n d clash w i t h t h e o t h e r e x a m p l e s of c u l t u r a l r e c o g n i t i o n in m a n y different w a y s . T h e s t r u g g l e s of t h e A b o r i g i n a l p e o p l e s of t h e w o r l d , a n d especially t h o s e of t h e A m e r i c a s , for c u l t u r a l survival a n d r e c o g n i t i o n a r e a special e x a m p l e of t h e p h e n o m e n o n of t h e politics of c u l t u r a l r e c o g n i t i o n . By m y l i g h t s , t h e y a r e e x e m p l a r y of t h e ' s t r a n g e m u l t i p l i c i t y ' of c u l t u r a l voices t h a t h a v e c o m e f o r w a r d in t h e u n c e r t a i n d a w n of t h e twenty-first c e n t u r y to d e m a n d a h e a r i n g a n d a p l a c e , in t h e i r o w n c u l t u r a l f o r m s a n d ways, in t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n of m o d e r n political a s s o c i a t i o n s . By ' e x e m p l a r y ' , I d o n o t m e a n t h a t t h e i r c h a l l e n g e is a n i n s t a n c e of a g e n e r a l r u l e or a n i d e a l t y p e of t h e politics of c u l t u r a l r e c o g n i t i o n , b u t t h a t it is a p a r t i c u l a r l y enlightening example. T h e r e is a b u n d a n t s c h o l a r s h i p o n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m from t h e p e r s p e c t i v e of n a t i o n a l i s m , s u p r a n a t i o n a l i s m , l i n g u i s t i c and ethnic minorities, interculturalism and feminism. T h e r e

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is also c o n s i d e r a b l e specialised s c h o l a r s h i p o n A b o r i g i n a l p e o p l e s a n d i n t e r n a t i o n a l l a w a n d t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n a l l a w of specific c o u n t r i e s . H o w e v e r , t h e r e is l i t t l e o n t h e A b o r i g i n a l p e o p l e s a n d t h e h i s t o r i c a l f o r m a t i o n of c o n t e m p o r a r y c o n s t i ­ t u t i o n a l i s m . O n e of t h e c e n t r a l a r g u m e n t s of t h i s book is t h a t if c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m is a p p r o a c h e d from t h e p e r s p e c t i v e of t h e s t r u g g l e s of A b o r i g i n a l p e o p l e s , u n n o t i c e d a s p e c t s of its h i s t o r i c a l f o r m a t i o n a n d c u r r e n t l i m i t a t i o n s c a n b e b r o u g h t to l i g h t . I believe t h a t t h e vision of c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m t h a t t h i s u n i q u e p e r s p e c t i v e affords, in c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h t h e p e r ­ spective of t h e o t h e r , m o r e f a m i l i a r , d e m a n d s , is c a p a b l e of t r a n s f o r m i n g t h e way we t h i n k a b o u t c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m . If s h a r p b o u n d a r i e s a r e d r a w n a r o u n d e a c h of t h e s e six t y p e s of c u l t u r a l r e c o g n i t i o n o n t h e b a s i s of t h e i r d i s s i m i l a r i t i e s a n d t h e y a r e s t u d i e d s e p a r a t e l y , as is u s u a l l y t h e c a s e , t h e n t h e s i m i l a r i t i e s a m o n g t h e m a r e o v e r l o o k e d . T h e i r s e p a r a t i o n in t h e o r y is r e i n f o r c e d by t h e fact t h a t t h e y c l a s h , often violently, in p r a c t i c e . It is t h u s often a s s u m e d t h a t t h e y a r e i n c o m p a t i b l e and incommensurable. However, when they are r e a r r a n g e d a n d g r o u p e d t o g e t h e r as e x a m p l e s of t h e politics of c u l t u r a l r e c o g n i t i o n , a n d w e look a n d s e e , t h e i r d i s r e g a r d e d r e s e m ­ b l a n c e s c o m e to l i g h t a n d disclose t h e l a n d s c a p e of con­ t e m p o r a r y political conflict w h i c h r a i s e s t h e q u e s t i o n of c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m a n d c u l t u r a l diversity. A m o n g t h e m a n y s i m i l a r a s p e c t s , t h r e e a r e i m p o r t a n t for t h e p u r p o s e s of t h i s book. F i r s t , d e m a n d s for c u l t u r a l r e c o g ­ n i t i o n a r e a s p i r a t i o n s for a p p r o p r i a t e f o r m s of self g o v e r n m e n t . T h e f o r m s of self r u l e a p p r o p r i a t e t o t h e r e c o g n i t i o n of a n y c u l t u r e vary. S o m e , s u c h as n a t i o n a l i s t m o v e m e n t s a n d A b o r i g i n a l p e o p l e s , strive for t h e i r o w n political i n s t i t u t i o n s . O t h e r s , s u c h as l i n g u i s t i c m i n o r i t i e s , m u l t i c u l t u r a l g r o u p s a n d w o m e n , seek to p a r t i c i p a t e in t h e e x i s t i n g i n s t i t u t i o n s of t h e d o m i n a n t society, b u t in ways t h a t r e c o g n i s e a n d affirm, r a t h e r t h a n e x c l u d e , a s s i m i l a t e a n d d e n i g r a t e , t h e i r c u l t u r a l l y d i v e r s e ways of t h i n k i n g , s p e a k i n g a n d a c t i n g . W h a t t h e y s h a r e is a l o n g i n g for self r u l e : t o r u l e t h e m s e l v e s in a c c o r d w i t h t h e i r c u s t o m s a n d w a y s .

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T h e call for f o r m s of self r u l e , t h e oldest political good in t h e world, h a s b e e n o b s c u r e d by t h e r e d e s c r i p t i o n a n d adjudi­ c a t i o n of t h e v a r i o u s c l a i m s in t e r m s of n a t i o n a l i s m , self d e t e r m i n a t i o n , t h e r i g h t s of i n d i v i d u a l s , m i n o r i t i e s a n d m a j o r i t i e s , l i b e r a l i s m v e r s u s c o m m u n i t a r i a n i s m , localism v e r s u s g l o b a l i s m , t h e politics of i d e n t i t y a n d t h e like. A l t h o u g h these dominant and exhaustively analysed categories catch a s p e c t s of t h e p h e n o m e n o n , t h e y mis-identify t h e s h a r e d a s p i r a t i o n a n d s e g m e n t it i n t o a c a c o p h o n y of h e t e r o g e n e o u s c l a i m s . T h e r e s e m b l a n c e is f u r t h e r o b s c u r e d by t h e s h e e r diversity of f o r m s of self r u l e t h e y l o n g for a n d , as w e shall s e e , by t h e r e s t r i c t e d c o n c e p t i o n of self g o v e r n m e n t a v a i l a b l e in t h e p r e v a i l i n g l a n g u a g e of c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m . T h e s e c o n d s i m i l a r i t y is t h e c o m p l e m e n t a r y c l a i m t h a t t h e basic laws a n d i n s t i t u t i o n s of m o d e r n societies, a n d t h e i r a u t h o r i t a t i v e t r a d i t i o n s of i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , a r e unjust in so far as t h e y t h w a r t t h e f o r m s of self g o v e r n m e n t a p p r o p r i a t e t o t h e r e c o g n i t i o n of c u l t u r a l diversity. T h e s o v e r e i g n t y of t h e p e o p l e is in s o m e w a y d e n i e d a n d s u p p r e s s e d , r a t h e r t h a n a f f i r m e d a n d e x p r e s s e d , in t h e e x i s t i n g c o n s t i t u t i o n a l f o r m s , t h e r e b y r e n d e r i n g u n f a i r t h e daily politics t h a t t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n e n f r a m e s . T h e c o n s t i t u t i o n , w h i c h s h o u l d b e t h e e x p r e s s i o n of p o p u l a r s o v e r e i g n t y , is a n i m p e r i a l y o k e , g a l l i n g t h e n e c k s of t h e c u l t u r a l l y d i v e r s e citizenry, c a u s i n g t h e m t o d i s s e n t a n d resist, a n d r e q u i r i n g c o n s t i t u t i o n a l a m e n d m e n t b e f o r e t h e y c a n c o n s e n t . A g a i n , t h e s i m i l a r i t y of t h e injustice c l a i m e d in e a c h of t h e six e x a m p l e s is o b s c u r e d by t h e w i d e v a r i e t y of f o r m s it t a k e s . T h e final s i m i l a r i t y I wish t o d r a w t o y o u r a t t e n t i o n is t h e g r o u n d of b o t h t h e a s p i r a t i o n to c u l t u r a l l y a p p r o p r i a t e f o r m s of self r u l e a n d t h e c l a i m of i n j u s t i c e . It is t h e a s s u m p t i o n t h a t c u l t u r e is a n i r r e d u c i b l e a n d c o n s t i t u t i v e a s p e c t of politics. T h e d i v e r s e ways in w h i c h c i t i z e n s t h i n k a b o u t , s p e a k , act a n d r e l a t e t o o t h e r s in p a r t i c i p a t i n g in a c o n s t i t u t i o n a l association (both the abilities they exercise a n d the practices in w h i c h t h e y e x e r c i s e t h e m ) , w h e t h e r t h e y a r e m a k i n g , following or g o i n g a g a i n s t t h e r u l e s a n d c o n v e n t i o n s in a n y i n s t a n c e , a r e always to s o m e e x t e n t t h e e x p r e s s i o n of t h e i r

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Strange

multiplicity

different c u l t u r e s . A c o n s t i t u t i o n c a n seek t o i m p o s e o n e c u l t u r a l p r a c t i c e , o n e w a y of r u l e following, or it c a n r e c o g n i s e a diversity of c u l t u r a l ways of b e i n g a c i t i z e n , b u t it c a n n o t e l i m i n a t e , o v e r c o m e or t r a n s c e n d this c u l t u r a l d i m e n s i o n of politics. H e n c e , t h e a r g u m e n t is t h a t if t h e c u l t u r a l ways of t h e c i t i z e n s w e r e r e c o g n i s e d a n d t a k e n i n t o a c c o u n t in r e a c h i n g a n a g r e e m e n t on a form of c o n s t i t u t i o n a l a s s o c i a t i o n , t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n a l o r d e r , a n d t h e w o r l d of e v e r y d a y politics it c o n s t i t u t e s , w o u l d b e j u s t w i t h r e s p e c t to t h i s d i m e n s i o n of politics. Since t h e d i v e r s e c u l t u r a l ways of t h e c i t i z e n s a r e e x c l u d e d or a s s i m i l a t e d , it is, to t h a t e x t e n t , u n j u s t . M o r e o v e r , a c e r t a i n p r i o r i t y is c l a i m e d for j u s t i c e w i t h r e s p e c t t o c u l t u r a l r e c o g n i t i o n in c o m p a r i s o n w i t h t h e m a n y o t h e r q u e s t i o n s of j u s t i c e t h a t a c o n s t i t u t i o n m u s t a d d r e s s . Since o t h e r q u e s t i o n s of j u s t i c e m u s t b e d i s c u s s e d a n d a g r e e m e n t s r e a c h e d by t h e c i t i z e n s , t h e first s t e p is to e s t a b l i s h a j u s t f o r m of c o n s t i ­ t u t i o n a l d i s c u s s i o n in w h i c h e a c h s p e a k e r is given h e r or his d u e , a n d t h i s is e x a c t l y t h e i n i t i a l q u e s t i o n r a i s e d by t h e politics of c u l t u r a l r e c o g n i t i o n . So, d e s p i t e t h e i r v a r i e t y a n d a p p a r e n t novelty, t h e e x a m p l e s of t h e politics of c u l t u r a l r e c o g n i t i o n , in v i r t u e of t h e i r t h r e e family r e s e m b l a n c e s , s h a r e a t r a d i t i o n a l p o l i t i c a l motif: t h e injustice of a n a l i e n form of r u l e a n d t h e a s p i r a t i o n t o self r u l e in a c c o r d w i t h o n e ' s own c u s t o m s a n d ways. S e e n in t h i s light, t h e y a r e s t r u g g l e s for ' l i b e r t y ' in t h e r e m a r k a b l y e n d u r i n g s e n s e of t h i s t e r m . F r o m t h e s t r u g g l e s of t h e I t a l i a n city s t a t e s for libertas a g a i n s t i m p e r i a l r u l e d u r i n g t h e R e n a i s s a n c e , to t h e E u r o p e a n a n d A m e r i c a n r e v o l u t i o n s for l i b e r t y in t h e e a r l y m o d e r n p e r i o d , a n d t o t h e n a t i o n a l l i b e r a t i o n m o v e m e n t s of t h e t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y , ' l i b e r t y ' h a s m e a n t f r e e d o m from d o m i n a t i o n a n d of self r u l e . W h a t is d i s t i n c t i v e of o u r a g e is a m u l t i p l i c i t y of d e m a n d s for r e c o g n i t i o n at t h e s a m e t i m e ; t h e d e m a n d s a r e for a v a r i e t y of f o r m s of self r u l e ; a n d t h e d e m a n d s conflict violently in p r a c t i c e .

Demands for constitutional

recognition

7

The mutual recognition of cultural diversity: threefeatures of the common ground and three historical movements C o n s e q u e n t l y , t h e q u e s t i o n of o u r a g e is n o t w h e t h e r o n e or o t h e r c l a i m c a n b e r e c o g n i s e d . R a t h e r , t h e q u e s t i o n is w h e t h e r a c o n s t i t u t i o n c a n give r e c o g n i t i o n t o t h e l e g i t i m a t e d e m a n d s of t h e m e m b e r s of d i v e r s e c u l t u r e s in a m a n n e r t h a t r e n d e r s everyone t h e i r d u e , so t h a t all w o u l d freely c o n s e n t t o t h i s form of c o n s t i t u t i o n a l a s s o c i a t i o n . L e t us call this first s t e p t o w a r d s a s o l u t i o n ' m u t u a l r e c o g n i t i o n ' a n d ask w h a t it entails. In t h e first i n s t a n c e , it c a n n o t b e t h e t r a d i t i o n a l n a t i o n a l i s t r e c o g n i t i o n of o n e c u l t u r e a t t h e e x p e n s e of e x c l u d i n g or a s s i m i l a t i n g all o t h e r s . T h i s w i d e s p r e a d constitutional n a t i o n a l i s m c o m e s in a v a r i e t y of t y p e s a n d h a s b e e n r e c o m ­ m e n d e d by w r i t e r s as different as t h e a u t h o r s of The federalist papers in t h e 1780s, J o h a n n G o t t l i e b F i c h t e in t h e Addresses to the German nation in 1807—8 a n d Sir J o h n Seeley, in The expansion of England in t h e 1880s. I also b e l i e v e t h e s o l u t i o n c a n n o t b e t o p r e s u m e t h a t a c o n s t i t u t i o n c a n avoid r e c o g n i s i n g a n y c u l t u r e . As we shall s e e , s u c h E s p e r a n t o c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m , r e c e n t l y d e f e n d e d by a n u m b e r of l i b e r a l t h e o r i s t s , is a n illusion w h i c h h i d e s f r o m view t h e i m p e r i a l c u l t u r e e m b o d i e d in m o s t l i b e r a l c o n s t i t u t i o n s , a s t h e classic l i b e r a l t h e o r i s t s r e a l i s e d . A r e c e n t e x a m p l e of p r e s u m e d , c u l t u r e - b l i n d l i b e r a l c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m is t h e C a n a d i a n C h a r t e r of R i g h t s a n d F r e e d o m s of 1 9 8 1 . R a t h e r t h a n u n i t i n g t h e c i t i z e n s o n a c o n s t i t u t i o n t h a t t r a n s c e n d s c u l t u r a l diversity, it h a s f o s t e r e d d i s u n i t y . T h e p r o v i n c e of Q u e b e c , t h e A b o r i g i n a l p e o p l e s , w o m e n a n d t h e p r o v i n c e s r e s i s t e d it a t v a r i o u s t i m e s as t h e i m p e r i a l i m p o s i t i o n of a p a n - C a n a d i a n c u l t u r e over t h e i r d i s t i n c t c u l t u r a l ways. M a n y o t h e r c o u n t r i e s , s u c h as t h e United Kingdom and New Zealand, have experienced s i m i l a r p u b l i c d e b a t e s over c h a r t e r s of r i g h t s a n d c u l t u r a l diversity. T h e c o n s e q u e n c e of n a t i o n a l a n d l i b e r a l c o n s t i t u t i o n s , w h i c h h a v e b e e n t h e d o m i n a n t f o r m s over t h e last t h r e e h u n d r e d y e a r s , is p r e c i s e l y t h e c o n t e m p o r a r y r e s i s t a n c e a n d d e m a n d s for r e c o g n i t i o n of t h e m e m b e r s w h o s e c u l t u r e s h a v e

8

Strange

multiplicity

b e e n e x c l u d e d , a s s i m i l a t e d or e x t e r m i n a t e d . A j u s t f o r m of c o n s t i t u t i o n m u s t b e g i n w i t h t h e full m u t u a l r e c o g n i t i o n of t h e different c u l t u r e s of its citizens. Second, m u t u a l recognition cannot be simply the recog­ n i t i o n of e a c h c u l t u r e in t h e s a m e c o n s t i t u t i o n a l f o r m . T h e r e is a t e n d e n c y to i m a g i n e this is possible b e c a u s e ' c u l t u r e s ' a r e c o n c e i v e d as a n a l o g o u s to t h e m o r e f a m i l i a r c o n s t i t u t i o n a l c o n c e p t of ' n a t i o n s ' . H e n c e , t h e a g e of ' m u l t i c u l t u r a l i s m ' is s e e n as a k i n d of e x t e n s i o n of t h e last t h r e e c e n t u r i e s of m u l t i n a t i o n a l i s m w i t h n o f u n d a m e n t a l c h a n g e in c o n s t i t u t i o n a l thinking required. W h e n t h e r e v o l u t i o n s of c e n t r a l a n d e a s t e r n E u r o p e over­ t h r e w t h e old i m p e r i a l c o n s t i t u t i o n s a f t e r 1 9 8 9 , t h e p e o p l e s w h o d e m a n d e d r e c o g n i t i o n r e d e s c r i b e d t h e i r c u l t u r e s as ' n a t i o n s ' ( t h e m o s t p r e s t i g i o u s f o r m of c u l t u r a l r e c o g n i t i o n ) . T h e y t h e n i n f e r r e d t h a t t h e only f o r m of c o n s t i t u t i o n a l r e c o g ­ n i t i o n of a n a t i o n m u s t b e a n i n d e p e n d e n t n a t i o n s t a t e . U n d e r t h e logic of t h i s i n f e r e n c e , t h e y t e n d e d t o p a s s r a p i d l y t h r o u g h m u l t i n a t i o n a l c o n s t i t u t i o n a l f e d e r a t i o n s a n d to d i s i n t e g r a t e into nationally defined states. T h e s e revolutions thus c o n t i n u e d o n e of t h e oldest c o n v e n t i o n s of m o d e r n c o n s t i ­ t u t i o n a l i s m : every c u l t u r e w o r t h y of r e c o g n i t i o n is a n a t i o n , a n d every n a t i o n s h o u l d be r e c o g n i s e d a s a n i n d e p e n d e n t n a t i o n s t a t e . A l t h o u g h t h i s h a s b e e n t h e d o m i n a n t f o r m of c o n s t i t u t i o n a l r e c o g n i t i o n since t h e s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y , it c a n n o t b e s i m p l y e x t e n d e d to t h e d e m a n d s for c u l t u r a l recognition today. A s w r i t e r s a s different as E r n e s t G e l l n e r a n d D a v i d M a y b u r y - L e w i s h a v e a r g u e d , t h e c o n s e q u e n c e is i m p r a c t i c a l . T h e r e a r e over fifteen t h o u s a n d c u l t u r e s w h o s e m e m b e r s d e m a n d r e c o g n i t i o n , yet a w o r l d s y s t e m of fifteen t h o u s a n d i n d e p e n d e n t s t a t e s on t h i s t i n y a n d i n t e r d e p e n d e n t p l a n e t w o u l d b e u n w o r k a b l e . It d o e s n o t follow t h a t t h e p r e s e n t s y s t e m of n a t i o n s t a t e s is u n a l t e r a b l e , a s c o n s e r v a t i v e s h a v e c o n c l u d e d . C h a n g e a n d i m p e r m a n e n c e h a v e b e e n f e a t u r e s of t h e s y s t e m since 1648. T h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l s y s t e m w o u l d still b e w o r k a b l e if, say, E a s t T i m o r s e p a r a t e d from I n d o n e s i a , S c o t l a n d f r o m t h e U n i t e d K i n g d o m , C a t a l o n i a from S p a i n ,

Demands for constitutional

recognition

9

Q u e b e c from C a n a d a or t h e p r e d o m i n a n t l y S p a n i s h - s p e a k i n g s t a t e s from t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s . T h e s y s t e m w o u l d be u n w o r k a b l e only if t h e n o r m t h a t every nation should be a state were applied universally as the s o l u t i o n t o d e m a n d s for c u l t u r a l r e c o g n i t i o n . T h e e s t a b l i s h e d n a t i o n s t a t e s h a v e c o n s t r a i n e d t h e p r o l i f e r a t i o n of s t a t e s in t h e p a s t by r e s t r i c t i n g t h e a p p l i c a t i o n of t h e t e r m ' n a t i o n ' in i n t e r n a t i o n a l law. T h e r e a s o n w h y c o n t i n u i n g in t h i s m a n n e r is n o w in q u e s t i o n is t h e s h e e r n u m b e r of d e m a n d s for r e c o g n i t i o n as n a t i o n s , c o u p l e d w i t h t h e e x p o s u r e of t h e m a n i p u l a t i o n of t h e c r i t e r i a of n a t i o n h o o d in t h e p a s t t o preserve the powers that be. It is c l e a r t h a t t h e d o m i n a n t c o n s t i t u t i o n a l n o r m t h a t every n a t i o n s h o u l d b e r e c o g n i s e d as a n i n d e p e n d e n t s t a t e n e e d s t o b e s u p p l e m e n t e d by t h e i d e a t h a t n a t i o n s c a n a c h i e v e j u s t r e c o g n i t i o n in m u l t i n a t i o n a l f e d e r a t i o n s of v a r i o u s k i n d s , s u c h as G e r m a n y , I s r a e l - P a l e s t i n e , I n d i a , t h e U n i t e d K i n g d o m , t h e Russian federation and the E u r o p e a n Union. However, even t h o u g h t h e practice of m u l t i n a t i o n a l a n d m u l t i r e g i o n a l f e d e r ­ a t i o n is a s old a s m o d e r n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m , t h e n o r m of i n d e p e n d e n t n a t i o n s t a t e s is so p r e d o m i n a n t t h a t t h e b a s i c c o n c e p t s of c o n t e m p o r a r y c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m a r e d e f i n e d in a g r e e m e n t w i t h it. T h e c o n c e p t s of t h e p e o p l e , p o p u l a r sovereignty, citizenship, unity, equality, recognition and d e m o c r a c y all t e n d to p r e s u p p o s e t h e u n i f o r m i t y of a n a t i o n s t a t e w i t h a c e n t r a l i s e d a n d u n i t a r y s y s t e m of legal a n d political i n s t i t u t i o n s . Accordingly, w h e n f o r m s of m u l t i ­ n a t i o n a l f e d e r a l i s m a r e a d v a n c e d as s o l u t i o n s to s o m e of t h e d e m a n d s for c u l t u r a l r e c o g n i t i o n , t h e y a p p e a r ad hoc, even as a t h r e a t t o d e m o c r a c y , e q u a l i t y a n d liberty, r a t h e r t h a n as f o r m s of r e c o g n i t i o n t h a t c a n b e e x p l a i n e d a n d j u s t i f i e d in a c c o r d ­ a n c e w i t h t h e p r i n c i p l e s of c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m . T h e m o r e i m p o r t a n t reason why the two assumptions t h a t c u l t u r e s w o r t h y of r e c o g n i t i o n s h o u l d b e n a t i o n s a n d n a t i o n s s h o u l d b e r e c o g n i s e d as s t a t e s n e e d t o b e r e v i s e d is t h a t t h e y mis-identify t h e p h e n o m e n o n of c u l t u r a l d i v e r s i t y we a r e t r y i n g t o u n d e r s t a n d . A c c o r d i n g t o t h e c o n c e p t of a c u l t u r e (or n a t i o n ) t h a t d e v e l o p e d w i t h t h e f o r m a t i o n of m o d e r n

Strange

IO

multiplicity

c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m from t h e s e v e n t e e n t h t o t h e t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y , a c u l t u r e is s e p a r a t e , b o u n d e d a n d i n t e r n a l l y u n i f o r m . O v e r t h e last forty y e a r s t h i s b i l l i a r d - b a l l c o n c e p t i o n of c u l t u r e s , n a t i o n s a n d societies h a s u n d e r g o n e a l o n g a n d difficult c r i t i c i s m in t h e discipline of a n t h r o p o l o g y . As M i c h a e l C a r r i t h e r s s u m m a r i s e s in Why humans have cultures, it h a s g r a d u a l l y b e e n r e p l a c e d by t h e view of c u l t u r e s as o v e r l a p p i n g , i n t e r a c t i v e a n d i n t e r n a l l y n e g o t i a t e d . L e t us look a t e a c h of t h e s e t h r e e f e a t u r e s of c u l t u r a l diversity, for we c a n n o t g r a s p t h e politics of c u l t u r a l r e c o g n i t i o n w i t h o u t t h e m a n d t h e w a y t h e y t r a n s f o r m o u r u n d e r s t a n d i n g of b e i n g w i t h o t h e r s in t h e world. T h e way the inherited normative vocabulary m i s r e p r e s e n t s t h e c u l t u r a l diversity of o u r t i m e w a s t r a g i c a l l y e x p o s e d in t h e e a r l y 1990s across t h e U k r a i n e , t h e B a l t i c s t a t e s , t h e C a u c a s u s , c e n t r a l Asia, R u s s i a a n d t h e f o r m e r Y u g o s l a v i a . As new nation states were formed and recognised, overlapping m i n o r i t y c u l t u r e s w i t h i n , as well as n a t i o n a l s left w i t h o u t t h e n e w b o u n d a r i e s , in t u r n i m m e d i a t e l y d e m a n d e d r e c o g n i t i o n a s n a t i o n s . C u l t u r a l m i n o r i t i e s in t h e s e m i n o r i t i e s in t u r n d e m a n d e d r e c o g n i t i o n a n d p r o t e c t i o n . T h e r e is n o e n d or e x c e p t i o n to t h i s criss-crossing a n d o v e r l a p p i n g of c u l t u r e s in t h e w o r l d . T h e t r a g e d y of B o s n i a - H e r z e g o v i n a , or of t h e H u t u , T w a a n d T u t s i of R w a n d a , B u r u n d i , Z a i r e a n d T a n z a n i a in E a s t Africa, is only a r e c e n t e x a m p l e of t h e policies a n d w a r s of r e p r e s s i o n , a s s i m i l a t i o n , exile, e x t e r m i n a t i o n a n d g e n o c i d e t h a t c o m p o s e t h e l o n g a n d a b h o r r e n t h i s t o r y of a t t e m p t s to b r i n g t h e o v e r l a p p i n g c u l t u r a l d i v e r s i t y of c o n t e m p o r a r y s o c i e t i e s in line w i t h t h e n o r m of o n e n a t i o n , o n e s t a t e . A b o r i g i n a l p e o p l e s of A m e r i c a , for e x a m p l e , h a v e suffered s i m i l a r e t h n i c c l e a n s i n g for five h u n d r e d y e a r s . F a r from s i l e n c i n g d e m a n d s for c u l t u r a l r e c o g n i t i o n , t h e s e w a r s in t h e n a m e of t h e u n i t y of t h e n a t i o n h a v e b e e n m e t w i t h u n c o n q u e r a b l e r e s i s t a n c e , as t h e s u p p r e s s e d c u l t u r e s s n a p b a c k like so m a n y b e n t yet u n b r e a k a b l e t w i g s , as Sir I s a i a h Berlin aptly puts it. C o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m in a n a g e of d i v e r s i t y is yet m o r e difficult t h a n t h i s . N o t only d o c u l t u r e s o v e r l a p g e o g r a p h i c a l l y a n d 1

Demands for constitutional

recognition

II

c o m e in a v a r i e t y of t y p e s . C u l t u r e s a r e also d e n s e l y i n t e r ­ d e p e n d e n t in t h e i r f o r m a t i o n a n d i d e n t i t y . T h e y exist in c o m p l e x h i s t o r i c a l p r o c e s s e s of i n t e r a c t i o n w i t h o t h e r c u l t u r e s . T h e m o d e r n a g e is i n t e r c u l t u r a l r a t h e r t h a n m u l t i ­ c u l t u r a l . T h e i n t e r a c t i o n a n d e n t a n g l e m e n t of c u l t u r e s h a s b e e n f u r t h e r h e i g h t e n e d by t h e m a s s i v e m i g r a t i o n s of t h i s c e n t u r y . C u l t u r a l diversity is n o t a p h e n o m e n o n of exotic a n d i n c o m m e n s u r a b l e o t h e r s in d i s t a n t l a n d s a n d a t different s t a g e s of h i s t o r i c a l d e v e l o p m e n t , as t h e old c o n c e p t of c u l t u r e m a d e it a p p e a r . N o . It is h e r e a n d n o w in every society. C i t i z e n s a r e m e m b e r s of m o r e t h a n o n e d y n a m i c c u l t u r e a n d t h e e x p e r i e n c e of ' c r o s s i n g ' c u l t u r e s is n o r m a l activity. I n Europe and the people without history ( 1 9 8 2 ) , E r i c W o l f s h o w e d t h a t t h e i n t e r a c t i o n a n d i n t e r d e p e n d e n c y of c u l t u r e s is not a r e c e n t p h e n o m e n o n ; t h e c u l t u r e s of t h e w o r l d h a v e b e e n s h a p e d a n d f o r m e d by i n t e r a c t i o n for a m i l l e n n i u m . Finally, c u l t u r e s a r e n o t i n t e r n a l l y h o m o g e n e o u s . T h e y a r e continuously contested, imagined and reimagined, trans­ formed and negotiated, both by their m e m b e r s and t h r o u g h t h e i r i n t e r a c t i o n w i t h o t h e r s . T h e i d e n t i t y , a n d so t h e m e a n i n g , of a n y c u l t u r e is t h u s a s p e c t i v a l r a t h e r t h a n e s s e n ­ tial: like m a n y c o m p l e x h u m a n p h e n o m e n a , s u c h as l a n g u a g e a n d g a m e s , c u l t u r a l i d e n t i t y c h a n g e s as it is a p p r o a c h e d from different p a t h s a n d a v a r i e t y of a s p e c t s c o m e i n t o view. C u l t u r a l d i v e r s i t y is a t a n g l e d l a b y r i n t h of i n t e r t w i n i n g c u l t u r a l differences and s i m i l a r i t i e s , not a p a n o p t i c o n of fixed, i n d e p e n d e n t a n d i n c o m m e n s u r a b l e worldviews in w h i c h we a r e e i t h e r p r i s o n e r s or c o s m o p o l i t a n s p e c t a t o r s in t h e c e n t r a l tower. Let m e i l l u s t r a t e t h e s e t h r e e f e a t u r e s of c u l t u r a l diversity w i t h a n e x a m p l e from C a n a d a . W h e n t h e f o r m e r p r i m e m i n i s t e r of C a n a d a , P i e r r e T r u d e a u , s o u g h t to r e c o g n i s e a n d affirm a n unifying C a n a d i a n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i d e n t i t y in t h e C a n a d i a n C h a r t e r of R i g h t s a n d F r e e d o m s , t h e t e n p r o v i n c e s i m m e d i a t e l y c l a i m e d t h a t it failed t o r e c o g n i s e t h e legal a n d political c u l t u r e s of t h e p r o v i n c e s a n d d e m a n d e d a c o n s t i ­ t u t i o n a l a m e n d m e n t . T h e g o v e r n m e n t of Q u e b e c f u r t h e r a r g u e d t h a t t h e C h a r t e r c o n s t i t u t e d a n i m p e r i a l yoke over

12

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Q u e b e c ' s d i s t i n c t i v e F r e n c h - l a n g u a g e a n d civil-law c u l t u r e , forged t h r o u g h c e n t u r i e s of i n t e r a c t i o n w i t h E n g l i s h - l a n g u a g e C a n a d a , a n d t h a t it n e e d e d t o be a m e n d e d t o r e c o g n i s e Q u e b e c ' s cultural distinctiveness. T h e 633 Aboriginal First N a t i o n s of C a n a d a p r o t e s t e d t h a t t h e C h a r t e r o p p r e s s e d a n d failed to r e c o g n i s e t h e i r A b o r i g i n a l c u l t u r e s : t h a t is, t h e i r f o r m s of self g o v e r n m e n t , legal s y s t e m s , l a n g u a g e s a n d so on. T h e w a y in w h i c h A b o r i g i n a l c u l t u r e s w e r e t o b e c o n s t i ­ t u t i o n a l l y r e c o g n i s e d w a s t h e n i m m e d i a t e l y c o n t e s t e d by A b o r i g i n a l p e o p l e w h o live o n r e s e r v e s as o p p o s e d t o t h o s e w h o live off t h e r e s e r v e s . T h e F r e n c h - s p e a k i n g m i n o r i t i e s in t h e English-speaking provinces protested that the provinces had failed t o r e c o g n i s e a n d p r o t e c t t h e i r d i s t i n c t i v e m i n o r i t y status, and the English-speaking minority within Quebec did the s a m e with respect to Q u e b e c ' s claim to cultural recognition. Moreover, w o m e n protested that the entire exercise was b e i n g c a r r i e d o n in a m a l e voice a n d t h a t t h e C h a r t e r w o u l d h a v e t o b e a m e n d e d to r e c o g n i s e t h e s u b s t a n t i v e e q u a l i t y of w o m e n in t h e b a s i c i n s t i t u t i o n s a n d t r a d i t i o n s of i n t e r p r e t ­ a t i o n of t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n . W o m e n in Q u e b e c a n d w o m e n in t h e r e s t of C a n a d a , a s you will b e b y n o w n o t s u r p r i s e d t o l e a r n , f o r m u l a t e d t h e i r d e m a n d s for c o n s t i t u t i o n a l r e c o g n i t i o n in s l i g h t l y d i f f e r e n t ways, c h a l l e n g i n g t h e p r e s u m e d u n i t y of t h e n a t i o n a l i s m s in Q u e b e c a n d t h e r e s t of C a n a d a o n t h e o n e h a n d , a n d of w o m e n ' s c u l t u r e s o n t h e o t h e r . A b o r i g i n a l w o m e n also p r o t e s t e d a g a i n s t t h e w a y in w h i c h A b o r i g i n a l m e n a r t i c u l a t e d t h e i d e n t i t y of A b o r i g i n a l c u l t u r e s . T h e n , A b o r i g i ­ n a l w o m e n t h e m s e l v e s divided a l o n g lines t h a t a r e f a m i l i a r a r o u n d t h e w o r l d t o d a y . S o m e s o u g h t t o h a v e t h e i r voices h e a r d w i t h i n A b o r i g i n a l g o v e r n m e n t s as t h e y w e r e i d e n t i f i e d by t r a d i t i o n a l m a l e l e a d e r s , w h i l e o t h e r s s o u g h t t o p r o t e c t t h e m s e l v e s by h a v i n g t h e C h a r t e r a p p l i e d d i r e c t l y t o A b o r i g i ­ n a l g o v e r n m e n t s . Finally, t h e m u l t i c u l t u r a l g r o u p s a n d visible m i n o r i t i e s of C a n a d a d e m a n d e d r e c o g n i t i o n of t h e i r c u l t u r a l d i s t i n c t i v e n e s s a c r o s s e a c h of t h e s e c o n s t i t u t i o n a l c l a i m s . T h i s C a n a d i a n e x a m p l e of c u l t u r a l d i v e r s i t y is n o t e x c e p t i o n a l . T h e c o n s t i t u t i o n a l n e g o t i a t i o n s from 1990 t o 1 9 9 4

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in S o u t h Africa, t h e velvet r e v o l u t i o n a n d t h e b r e a k u p of C z e c h o s l o v a k i a , t h e W a i t a n g i T r i b u n a l in A o t e a r o a - N e w Z e a l a n d , t h e p u b l i c d e b a t e s of l a n g u a g e a n d g e n d e r in t h e United States, Faustin Twagiramungu's negotiations towards m u l t i c u l t u r a l r u l e in R w a n d a , t h e n e g o t i a t i o n s t o w a r d s P a l e s t i n i a n self r u l e or t h e conflict over m i n o r i t i e s in t h e E u r o p e a n U n i o n i l l u s t r a t e t h e p o i n t s j u s t as well. O f c o u r s e , t h e way t h e politics of c u l t u r a l r e c o g n i t i o n is e x p r e s s e d v a r i e s in a c c o r d w i t h t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n a l t r a d i t i o n s of d i f f e r e n t societies. I n m a n y c a s e s , it r e m a i n s in t h e political r e a l m , b a r e l y q u e s t i o n i n g t h e b a c k g r o u n d c o n s t i t u t i o n , e s p e c i a l l y if t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n is flexible. I n m a n y o t h e r c a s e s c o n s t i t u t i o n a l n e g o t i a t i o n s a r e u n a v o i d a b l e . W h e n t h e s e fail, r e c o u r s e is m a d e t o a r m e d conflict. O f t e n a s t r u g g l e for r e c o g n i t i o n r a n g e s a c r o s s all t h r e e s t r a t e g i e s , as in t h e c a s e s of N o r t h e r n I r e l a n d , t h e C h u k c h i of R u s s i a , t h e B a s q u e s , t h e M a y a of t h e C h i a p a s r e g i o n of M e x i c o , t h e Sioux n a t i o n of t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , or c o u n t l e s s o t h e r e x a m p l e s . A t a n g l e d l a b y r i n t h of c u l t u r a l voices c o n s t i t u t e s t h e p o p u l a r s o v e r e i g n t y of c o n t e m ­ porary societies. A s a c o n s e q u e n c e of t h e o v e r l a p , i n t e r a c t i o n a n d n e g o ­ t i a t i o n of c u l t u r e s , t h e e x p e r i e n c e of c u l t u r a l d i f f e r e n c e is internal t o a c u l t u r e . T h i s is t h e m o s t difficult a s p e c t of t h e n e w c o n c e p t of c u l t u r e t o g r a s p . O n t h e o l d e r , e s s e n t i a l i s t view, t h e ' o t h e r ' a n d t h e e x p e r i e n c e of o t h e r n e s s w e r e by d e f i n i t i o n associated with a n o t h e r culture. O n e ' s own culture provided a n i d e n t i t y in t h e form of a s e a m l e s s b a c k g r o u n d or h o r i z o n a g a i n s t w h i c h o n e d e t e r m i n e d w h e r e o n e s t o o d on f u n d a ­ m e n t a l questions (whether this identity was 'British', ' m o d e r n ' , ' w o m a n ' or w h a t e v e r ) . H a v i n g a n i d e n t i t y c o n s i s t e d in b e i n g o r i e n t e d in t h i s e s s e n t i a l s p a c e , w h e r e a s t h e loss of s u c h a fixed h o r i z o n w a s e q u a t e d w i t h a n ' i d e n t i t y crisis'; w i t h t h e loss of all h o r i z o n s . O n t h e a s p e c t i v a l view, c u l t u r a l h o r i z o n s c h a n g e as o n e m o v e s a b o u t , j u s t like n a t u r a l h o r i z o n s . T h e e x p e r i e n c e of o t h e r n e s s is i n t e r n a l t o o n e ' s o w n i d e n t i t y , w h i c h consists in b e i n g o r i e n t e d in a n a s p e c t i v a l i n t e r c u l t u r a l s p a c e c o n s t i t u t e d by t h e t h r e e features m e n t i o n e d above.

i

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4

multiplicity

J a c q u e s D e r r i d a , in his b r i e f r e f l e c t i o n o n E u r o p e a n u n i t y , p u t s it this w a y : 2

What is proper to a culture is to not be identical to itself. Not to not have an identity, but not to be able to identify itself, to be able to say ' m e ' or 'we'; to be able to take the form of a subject only in the non-identity with itself or, if you prefer, only in the difference with itself[avec soi]. There is no culture or cultural identity without this difference with itself. C o n s e q u e n t l y , from t h e o u t s e t c i t i z e n s a r e to s o m e e x t e n t o n a n e g o t i a t e d , i n t e r c u l t u r a l a n d a s p e c t i v a l ' m i d d l e ' or ' c o m m o n ' g r o u n d w i t h s o m e d e g r e e of e x p e r i e n c e of crossc u l t u r a l c o n v e r s a t i o n a n d u n d e r s t a n d i n g ; of e n c o u n t e r i n g and being with diverse others who exhibit both cultural s i m i l a r i t i e s a n d d i s s i m i l a r i t i e s . T h e politics of c u l t u r a l r e c o g ­ n i t i o n t a k e s p l a c e o n t h i s i n t e r c u l t u r a l ' c o m m o n ' g r o u n d , as I shall call t h e l a b y r i n t h c o m p o s e d of t h e o v e r l a p , i n t e r a c t i o n a n d n e g o t i a t i o n of c u l t u r e s over t i m e . O f c o u r s e , m u t u a l r e c o g n i t i o n is n o t r e n d e r e d u n p r o b l e m a t i c by t h e r e c o n c e p t u a l i s a t i o n a n d clarification of t h e g r o u n d o n w h i c h w e s t a n d , for e n c o u n t e r s o n t h e c o m m o n g r o u n d a r e s h o t t h r o u g h w i t h i n e q u a l i t y , m i s r e c o g n i t i o n , d o m i n a t i o n a n d strife. H o w e v e r , t h e p r o b l e m of m u t u a l r e c o g n i t i o n is p u t in a n e w l i g h t a n d r e n d e r e d possible by t h e d i s c l o s u r e of a c o m m o n g r o u n d . A n y s e r i o u s r e f l e c t i o n on t h e p r o b l e m s of c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m in t h e a g e of c u l t u r a l diversity s h o u l d b e g i n , t h e r e f o r e , w i t h t h e t h r e e f e a t u r e s of t h e c o m m o n g r o u n d a s its i n i t i a l c o n d i t i o n s . Y e t , d e s p i t e t h i s t r a n s f o r m a t i o n in t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g of c u l t u r e s , as Clifford G e e r t z r e m a r k s , t h e o r i s t s t e n d to c o n t i n u e to u p h o l d v a r i a t i o n s of t h e old view, i n h e r i t e d f r o m t h e a g e of E u r o p e a n i m p e r i a l i s m , of h u m a n s s i t u a t e d in i n d e p e n d e n t , closed a n d h o m o g e n e o u s c u l t u r e s a n d s o c i e t i e s , a n d so to g e n e r a t e t h e f a m i l i a r d i l e m m a s of r e l a t i v i s m a n d universalism that accompanied it. 3

N o o n e r e a s o n a b l y d o u b t s t h a t t h e s e c l a i m s for c u l t u r a l r e c o g n i t i o n c o n s t i t u t e o n e of t h e m o s t d a n g e r o u s a n d p r e s s i n g p r o b l e m s of t h e p r e s e n t a g e . T h e r a c i a l , l i n g u i s t i c , n a t i o n a l , e t h n i c a n d g e n d e r t e n s i o n s of t h e s e s t r u g g l e s a r e a d i m e n s i o n

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of a l m o s t every social r e l a t i o n of m o d e r n s o c i e t i e s . It is n o t as if c u l t u r a l r e l a t i o n s could b e s e p a r a t e d f r o m o t h e r social r e l a t i o n s a n d t r e a t e d in i s o l a t i o n . C u l t u r e is a w a y of r e l a t i n g to o t h e r s in a n y i n t e r a c t i o n , a w a y of following or c h a l l e n g i n g a social r u l e , a n d so a d i m e n s i o n of a n y social r e l a t i o n , from a c u l t u r a l slur in t h e w o r k p l a c e t o t h e r e l a t i o n s a m o n g n a t i o n s . As H o b b e s p u t it at t h e b e g i n n i n g of m o d e r n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l ­ ism, t h e t h i r d c a u s e of political conflict is ' a w o r d , a s m i l e , a different o p i n i o n , a n d a n y o t h e r signe of u n d e r v a l u e , e i t h e r direct in t h e i r p e r s o n s , or by r e f l e x i o n in t h e i r K i n d r e d , t h e i r F r i e n d s , t h e i r N a t i o n , t h e i r P r o f e s s i o n , or t h e i r N a m e ' . W h a t we n e e d to u n d e r s t a n d t o d a y is t h e e x t e n t t o w h i c h t h e solutions a d v a n c e d by H o b b e s a n d t h e o t h e r m o d e r n t h e o r i s t s of c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m a r e n o w p a r t of t h e p r o b l e m 4

T h e r e is n o sign t h a t t h e s e s t r u g g l e s will d i s s i p a t e in t h e f u t u r e . Q u i t e t h e o p p o s i t e . All t h e signs i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e massive d i s l o c a t i o n , m o v e m e n t a n d i n t e r a c t i o n of p e o p l e s c a u s e d by d e c o l o n i s a t i o n a n d g l o b a l i s a t i o n will i n c r e a s e c u l t u r a l diversification a n d conflict. O n e m a y g r e e t t h e c o m i n g a g e w i t h d e s p a i r , as Sir I s a i a h B e r l i n h a s d o n e , or w i t h h o p e , as C a r l o s F u e n t e s a n d E d w a r d Said h a v e r e c o m m e n d e d . E i t h e r way, t h e q u e s t i o n of w h e t h e r a c o n s t i t u t i o n c a n r e c o g n i s e a n d a c c o m m o d a t e c u l t u r a l d i v e r s i t y will b e , so to speak, a political c e n t r e of g r a v i t y of t h e a g e , h e l d firmly a n d i r r e p r e s s i b l y in p l a c e by t h e c o n f l i c t i n g s t r u g g l e s for r e c o g ­ nition t h a t lie a r o u n d it. T h e s i t u a t i o n I believe we face c a n n o w b e b r o u g h t i n t o focus w i t h a b r o a d a n d r o u g h s k e t c h . I will fill in t h e d e t a i l s a n d n u a n c e s in l a t e r c h a p t e r s . M o d e r n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m d e v e l o p e d over t h e last four c e n t u r i e s a r o u n d two m a i n f o r m s of r e c o g n i t i o n : t h e e q u a l i t y of i n d e p e n d e n t , s e l f - g o v e r n i n g n a t i o n s t a t e s a n d t h e e q u a l i t y of i n d i v i d u a l c i t i z e n s . It also d e v e l o p e d in o p p o s i t i o n to i m p e r i a l i s m . F i r s t , in E u r o p e , c o n s t i t u t i o n a l n a t i o n s t a t e s d e f i n e d t h e m s e l v e s in o p p o s i t i o n to t h e imperium of t h e p a p a c y a n d t h e H o l y R o m a n E m p i r e w i t h o u t , a n d t o t h e feudal a n d a b s o l u t i s t society of r a n k s w i t h i n . E u r o p e a n n a t i o n s in t u r n c o n s t r u c t e d t h e i r o w n

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i m p e r i a l s y s t e m s over t h e n o n - E u r o p e a n w o r l d , t h u s a d d i n g a n imperial dimension to m o d e r n constitutionalism. Second, constitutionalism c a m e into p r o m i n e n c e through­ o u t t h e w o r l d as f o r m e r colonies freed t h e m s e l v e s from E u r o p e a n imperialism, built equal and i n d e p e n d e n t consti­ tutional nation states, and grappled with their older customs a n d t r a d i t i o n s , w h i l e c i t i z e n s s t r u g g l e d for e q u a l r e c o g n i t i o n w i t h i n a n d t h e n e w s t a t e s c r e a t e d t h e i r own e m p i r e s over I n d i g e n o u s p e o p l e s . T h e global m o v e m e n t of a n t i - i m p e r i a l i s m , modern constitutionalism and neo-imperialism began with t h e t h i r t e e n c o l o n i e s in 1 7 7 6 a n d c o n t i n u e d t h r o u g h t h e m o n u m e n t a l w a r s of l i b e r a t i o n a n d d e c o l o n i s a t i o n in t h e n i n e t e e n t h a n d t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r i e s , d o w n t o t h e over­ t h r o w of t h e Soviet i m p e r i a l s y s t e m a f t e r 1989 a n d S o u t h Africa t o d a y . N o d o u b t it will c o n t i n u e . T h e politics of c u l t u r a l r e c o g n i t i o n c o n s t i t u t e s a t h i r d m o v e m e n t of a n t i - i m p e r i a l i s m a n d c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m , t h i s t i m e by t h e p e o p l e s a n d c u l t u r e s w h o h a v e b e e n e x c l u d e d a n d s u p p r e s s e d by t h e first t w o m o v e m e n t s of d e c o l o n i s a t i o n a n d constitutional state building. Aboriginal peoples, women, linguistic a n d e t h n i c minorities, intercultural groups, suppressed nations and supranational associations experience t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n of m o d e r n n a t i o n s t a t e s as a n i m p e r i a l yoke i m p o s e d over t h e i r c u l t u r e s , in a m a n n e r a n a l o g o u s t o t h e w a y in w h i c h t h e p r o p o n e n t s of t h e first two m o v e m e n t s of c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m e x p e r i e n c e d t h e old i m p e r i a l s y s t e m s t h e y overthrew. This continuity a m o n g the three movements e x p l a i n s w h y t h e o l d e r l a n g u a g e of i m p e r i a l o p p r e s s i o n a n d l i b e r a t i o n h a s r e a p p e a r e d in t h e n e w e r s t r u g g l e s a n d w h y t h e y a r e often called s t r u g g l e s a g a i n s t c u l t u r a l i m p e r i a l i s m . T h e s e c o n d c o n t i n u i t y is, as I m e n t i o n e d a b o v e , t h a t t h e p e o p l e wish t o g o v e r n t h e m s e l v e s c o n s t i t u t i o n a l l y by t h e i r o w n c u l t u r a l ways. T h e d i f f e r e n c e f r o m t h e first two m o v e m e n t s is t h a t , for t h e m o s t p a r t , t h e y d o n o t seek t o build i n d e p e n d e n t n a t i o n s t a t e s in o r d e r t o g a i n i n d e p e n d e n c e a n d self g o v e r n ­ m e n t . R a t h e r , t h e y s e e k f o r m s of c u l t u r a l r e c o g n i t i o n a n d d e g r e e s of self r u l e o n t h e c u l t u r a l l y v a r i o u s c o m m o n g r o u n d w i t h i n a n d a c r o s s e x i s t i n g n a t i o n s t a t e s . S e e n in this light, t h e

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politics of c u l t u r a l r e c o g n i t i o n is a c o n t i n u a t i o n of t h e a n t i i m p e r i a l i s m of m o d e r n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m , a n d t h u s t h e e x p r e s s i o n of a g e n u i n e l y p o s t - i m p e r i a l a g e . It is n o t a r a d i c a l b r e a k , h e r a l d i n g t h e b e g i n n i n g of p o s t ­ m o d e r n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m . Y e t it is a c o n t i n u a t i o n t h a t c a n n o t be m e r e l y a s s i m i l a t e d i n t o t h e c o n v e n t i o n a l f o r m s of r e c o g ­ n i t i o n a v a i l a b l e in m o d e r n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m for, a s I h a v e i n d i c a t e d , it is t h e s e stultifying f o r m s of c o n s t i t u t i o n a l r e c o g n i t i o n t h a t s u p p r e s s a n d t h w a r t t h e c u l t u r a l i d e n t i t i e s of t h o s e w h o d e m a n d r e c o g n i t i o n . T h e t a s k of t h i s book is to i n v e s t i g a t e h o w m u c h of t h e i n h e r i t e d f o r m s of m o d e r n con­ s t i t u t i o n a l i s m n e e d s t o b e a m e n d e d to d o j u s t i c e to t h e s e t a n g l e d d e m a n d s for c u l t u r a l r e c o g n i t i o n . P a r a p h r a s i n g a f a m o u s C a m b r i d g e political t h e o r i s t , t h i s book m i g h t b e called Western constitutional theory in theface of a culturally diversefuture. 'The spirit ofHaida Gwaii' as a symbol of the age of cultural diversity I w o u l d n o w like to i n t r o d u c e a s y m b o l of t h e s p i r i t of a posti m p e r i a l a g e of c u l t u r a l diversity. It is t h e w o n d e r f u l s c u l p t u r e by Bill R e i d , t h e r e n o w n e d a r t i s t of H a i d a a n d S c o t t i s h a n c e s t r y from t h e H a i d a n a t i o n of Haida Gwaii ( t h e Q u e e n C h a r l o t t e I s l a n d s ) off t h e n o r t h w e s t coast of G r e a t T u r t l e I s l a n d ( N o r t h A m e r i c a ) . T h e s c u l p t u r e is a b l a c k b r o n z e c a n o e , over n i n e t e e n feet in l e n g t h , e l e v e n feet w i d e , a n d twelve feet h i g h , c o n t a i n i n g t h i r t e e n p a s s e n g e r s , sghaana (spirits or m y t h c r e a t u r e s ) f r o m H a i d a m y t h o l o g y . ( P l e a s e refer t o t h e i l l u s t r a t i o n a t t h e front of t h e book.) Xuuwaji, t h e b e a r m o t h e r , w h o is p a r t h u m a n , a n d b e a r f a t h e r sit facing e a c h o t h e r a t t h e b o w w i t h t h e i r two c u b s b e t w e e n t h e m . Ttsaang, t h e b e a v e r , is p a d d l i n g m e n a c i n g l y a m i d s h i p s , qqaaxhadajaat, t h e m y s t e r i o u s , i n t e r c u l t u r a l dogfish w o m a n , p a d d l e s j u s t b e h i n d h i m a n d Qaganjaat, t h e shy b u t b e a u t i f u l m o u s e w o m a n is t u c k e d in t h e s t e r n . Ghuuts, t h e ferociously playful wolf, sinks his fangs in t h e e a g l e ' s w i n g a n d ghuut, t h e e a g l e , s e e m s to b e a t t a c k i n g t h e b e a r ' s p a w in r e t a l i a t i o n . Hlkkyaan qqusttaan, t h e frog, w h o s y m b o l i s e s t h e ability to cross b o u n d a r i e s (xhaaidla) b e t w e e n w o r l d s , is, a p p r o p r i a t e l y e n o u g h , p a r t i a l l y in a n d o u t of t h e b o a t . F u r t h e r d o w n in t h e

i8

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c a n o e , t h e a n c i e n t r e l u c t a n t c o n s c r i p t , b r o u g h t o n b o a r d from C a r l S a n d b u r g ' s p o e m , ' O l d T i m e r s ' , p a d d l e s stoically ( u p t o a p o i n t ) . Xuuya, t h e l e g e n d a r y r a v e n — t h e m a s t e r of t r i c k s , transformations and multiple identities - steers the canoe as h e r or his w h i m d i c t a t e s . Finally, in t h e c e n t r e of t h i s m o t l e y c r e w , h o l d i n g t h e s p e a k e r ' s staff in his r i g h t h a n d , s t a n d s Kilstlaai, t h e c h i e f or e x e m p l a r , w h o s e i d e n t i t y , d u e to his k i n s h i p to t h e r a v e n (often called Nangkilstlas, t h e O n e w h o gives o r d e r s ) , is u n c e r t a i n . Bill R e i d asks of t h e chief, ' W h o is he? T h a t ' s t h e b i g q u e s t i o n . ' So t h e c h i e f h a s c o m e t o b e called ' W h o is h e ? ' or ' W h o is h e g o i n g t o b e ? ' 5

T h e n a m e of t h i s a m a z i n g w o r k of a r t is The spirit of Haida Gwaii. Since Haida Gwaii m e a n s ' t h e i s l a n d h o m e (or p l a c e ) of t h e H a i d a ' , a n d ' H a i d a ' , like m a n y A b o r i g i n a l n a t i o n a l n a m e s , m e a n s s i m p l y ' t h e p e o p l e ' , i n c l u d i n g all t h e a n i m a l a n d s p i r i t u a l p e o p l e w h o live in Haida Gwaii, t h e s c u l p t u r e is ' t h e s p i r i t of t h e h o m e of t h e p e o p l e ' . The spirit of Haida Gwaii c a m e i n t o b e i n g in Bill R e i d ' s h a n d s b e t w e e n 1 9 8 4 a n d 1 9 9 1 . T h e p a s s e n g e r s h a d to b e r e a r r a n g e d s e v e r a l t i m e s a n d w o r k h a d t o b e i n t e r r u p t e d to p r o t e s t a g a i n s t l o g g i n g o n Haida Gwaii a n d s u p p o r t t h e s t r u g g l e for r e c o g n i t i o n of H a i d a s o v e r e i g n t y . T h e s c u l p t u r e w a s t r a n s ­ p o r t e d t o W a s h i n g t o n D C a n d p l a c e d in t h e c o u r t y a r d of t h e C a n a d i a n C h a n c e r y o n 19 N o v e m b e r 1 9 9 1 . S i t t i n g d i r e c t l y a c r o s s t h e s t r e e t from t h e N a t i o n a l G a l l e r y , it is d e s t i n e d t o b e c o m e o n e of t h e m a j o r a r t i s t i c l a n d m a r k s of t h e A m e r i c a s . A s e c o n d b r o n z e c a n o e in j a d e g r e e n p a t i n a w a s c a s t in 1 9 9 4 a n d p l a c e d in t h e V a n c o u v e r M u s e u m . The spirit of Haida Gwaii t h u s n o w sits o n b o t h s h o r e s of its G r e a t T u r t l e I s l a n d h o m e a s a symbol of t h e ' s t r a n g e m u l t i p l i c i t y ' of c u l t u r a l d i v e r s i t y t h a t e x i s t e d m i l l e n n i a a g o a n d w a n t s to be a g a i n . C l a u d e L e v i - S t r a u s s h a s said t h a t , ' t h a n k s t o Bill R e i d , t h e a r t of t h e I n d i a n s of t h e Pacific coast e n t e r s i n t o t h e w o r l d s c e n e : i n t o a d i a l o g u e w i t h t h e w h o l e of m a n k i n d ' . T h e q u e s t i o n is, w h a t k i n d of d i a l o g u e d o e s Bill R e i d ' s a r t w o r k i n v i t e h u m a n k i n d t o e n g a g e in? H o w is a n o n - A b o r i g i n a l p e r s o n to a p p r o a c h The spirit of Haida Gwaii in t h e r i g h t spirit, in, so to s p e a k , t h e spirit of Haida Gwaii, in o r d e r t o t r y t o 6

1

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a n s w e r this q u e s t i o n ? H o w c a n a n o n - A b o r i g i n a l p e r s o n , a f t e r c e n t u r i e s of a p p r o p r i a t i o n a n d d e s t r u c t i o n of I n d i g e n o u s civilisations, free h i m s e l f or h e r s e l f from d e e p l y i n g r a i n e d , i m p e r i o u s h a b i t s of t h o u g h t a n d b e h a v i o u r a n d a p p r o a c h this symbol in t h e a p p r o p r i a t e way? E x p l o r i n g t h i s q u e s t i o n will i n t r o d u c e m a n y of t h e t h e m e s of c u l t u r a l r e c o g n i t i o n t h a t will c o n c e r n u s in l a t e r c h a p t e r s . W h e n J a m e s C o o k l a n d e d o n Haida Gwaii in 1778 a n d s u p e r ­ i m p o s e d t h e n a m e of a q u e e n w h o b o r e n o r e l a t i o n t o it, t h e r e were ten thousand H a i d a flourishing on the islands and main­ land. T h e y m a i n t a i n e d a d e l i c a t e b a l a n c e w i t h t h e sea a n d forest a n d s u s t a i n e d a civilisation t h a t h a d evolved over t h e previous twelve t h o u s a n d y e a r s . W i t h i n 1 3 8 y e a r s of c o n t a c t with E u r o p e a n s t h e i r p o p u l a t i o n w a s r e d u c e d over 90 p e r c e n t by t h e s p r e a d of E u r o p e a n d i s e a s e s , s u c h as m e a s l e s a n d smallpox, c u l t u r a l d i s l o c a t i o n a n d killing. O n l y 5 5 8 H a i d a r e m a i n e d alive in 1915. F o r t y v i l l a g e s w e r e r e d u c e d t o four. T h e n e a r e x t e r m i n a t i o n of t h e H a i d a by E u r o p e a n i m p e r i a l e x p a n s i o n is e n t i r e l y typical of h o w A b o r i g i n a l p e o p l e s h a v e fared t h r o u g h o u t t h e A m e r i c a s a n d w h e r e v e r E u r o p e a n s s e t t l e d . T h e p o p u l a t i o n of t h e A m e r i c a s at t h e t i m e of c o n t a c t a n d invasion is e s t i m a t e d by h i s t o r i c a l d e m o g r a p h e r s to b e 80 to 100 million p e o p l e . ( T h e p o p u l a t i o n of E u r o p e w a s 60 to 70 million p e o p l e . ) T h e y lived in a w i d e v a r i e t y of c o m p l e x a n d i n t e r r e l a t e d societies, s o m e over t h i r t y t h o u s a n d y e a r s old. N i n e t y to ninety-five p e r c e n t of t h e I n d i g e n o u s p o p u l a t i o n was d e s t r o y e d by E u r o p e a n d i s e a s e s , w a r , s t a r v a t i o n a n d c u l t u r a l d e s t r u c t i o n . F o r m a n y n a t i o n s , s u c h as t h e B e o t h u k , T a i n o a n d M a s s a c h u s e t t s , only t h e n a m e s r e m a i n . T h e A b o r i g i n a l p o p u ­ lation of w h a t is n o w c o m m o n l y called t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s a n d C a n a d a w a s r e d u c e d from 8 t o 1 2 m i l l i o n in 1600 to h a l f a million by 1900, w h e n t h e g e n o c i d e s u b s i d e d . Bill R e i d w r i t e s :

7

Sometimes they [the European invaders] found great cities, the homes of people with cultures as advanced as their own, and some­ times so beautiful they thought they had stumbled into fairyland, so they promptly destroyed them. Sometimes they found beautiful,

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gentle, generous people, so they made slaves of them and killed them. Sometimes they found people who weren't so nice, so beautiful, or gentle and generous, but were almost as avaricious and acquisitive as they were themselves. These they dealt with as allies or trading partners until they'd relieved them of the goods they coveted; then they destroyed them and their cultures.

Like m a n y o t h e r Aboriginal nations in t h e n i n e t e e n t h a n d t w e n t i e t h centuries, H a i d a g o v e r n m e n t , constitution, religion, l a n g u a g e , t r a d e , family s t r u c t u r e s a n d b u r i a l p r a c t i c e s w e r e classified a s a p r i m i t i v e s t a g e of h i s t o r i c a l d e v e l o p m e n t , o u t ­ l a w e d a n d u p r o o t e d . H a i d a l a n d a n d fishing a r e a s w e r e t a k e n and forests cut. Plant a n d a n i m a l species were reduced to a s h a d o w of t h e i r f o r m e r a b u n d a n c e a n d diversity. A m o d e r n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l r e g i m e w a s s u p e r i m p o s e d over a n c i e n t H a i d a customs a n d ways without H a i d a consent. H a i d a people were a s s i m i l a t e d t o t h i s so-called s u p e r i o r s t a t e of d e v e l o p m e n t b y b e i n g t a k e n f r o m t h e i r f a m i l i e s a t a y o u n g a g e a n d forced i n t o r e s i d e n t i a l schools w h e r e t h e y l e a r n e d E u r o p e a n l a n g u a g e s a n d w a y s , a n d suffered physical a n d s e x u a l a b u s e . W h e n t h e s e t e c h n i q u e s of a s s i m i l a t i o n failed, t h e y w e r e r e t u r n e d t o tiny a r e a s of l o g g e d o u t a n d p o l l u t e d l a n d , called r e s e r v e s , classified a s o b s t a c l e s t o p r o g r e s s a n d left t o g r a d u a l l y d i s a p p e a r b e c a u s e t h e y w e r e j u d g e d unfit for m o d e r n c o n s t i ­ t u t i o n a l society. L o o k i n g b a c k o n t h e w r e c k a g e of t h i s l o n g i n j u s t i c e i n 1 9 3 3 , t h e L a k o t a Sioux Elder, L u t h e r S t a n d i n g Bear, asked t h e q u e s t i o n t h a t is n o w p o s e d by t h e politics of c u l t u r a l r e c o g ­ nition to the constitutionalism that accompanied and legitimated it: 8

Did a kind, wise, helpful and benevolent conqueror bring this situation about? C a n a real, true, genuinely superior social order work such havoc? Did not the native American possess human qualities of worth had the Caucasian but been able to discern and accept them; and did not an overweening sense of superiority bring about this blindness?

D u r i n g e a c h p e r i o d of t h i s ' A m e r i c a n h o l o c a u s t ' , a s t h e h i s t o r i a n D a v i d S t a n n a r d a r g u e s it s h o u l d b e c a l l e d , t h e

Demands for constitutional

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Aboriginal peoples have resisted a n d refused to submit as best t h e y c o u l d , from silent f o r m s of refusal a n d t a c t i c a l c o m p l i a n c e in r e s i d e n t i a l schools a n d p r i s o n s t o a r m e d b a t t l e , confrontation, negotiation, accommodation, a g r e e m e n t and c o - o p e r a t i o n o n t h e l a n d a n d in t h e c o u r t s . T h e r e s u l t h a s b e e n , as we shall s e e , t h e c o m p l e x , h i s t o r i c a l i n t e r a c t i o n o n a vastly u n e q u a l c o m m o n g r o u n d b e t w e e n t h e r e l e n t l e s s d o m i ­ n a t i o n of a n o v e r p o w e r i n g i m p e r i a l o r d e r a n d t h e i n d o m i t a b l e liberty of a n c i e n t p e o p l e s . Since t h e e a r l y t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y , a n d especially since W o r l d W a r II, t h e H a i d a a n d o t h e r A b o r i g i n a l n a t i o n s , in t h e face of a p p a l l i n g social a n d e c o n o m i c c o n d i t i o n s , h a v e s o u g h t not only to r e s i s t a n d i n t e r a c t , b u t t o r e b u i l d a n d r e i m a g i n e t h e i r c u l t u r e s ; t o ' c e l e b r a t e t h e i r survival'. The spirit of Haida Gwaii is b o t h a s y m b o l a n d a n i n s p i r a t i o n of t h i s revival a n d 'world r e v e r s a l ' , as t h e A b o r i g i n a l p e o p l e s call it: t o refuse t o r e g a r d A b o r i g i n a l c u l t u r e s as p a s s i v e objects in a n E u r o c e n t r i c story of h i s t o r i c a l p r o g r e s s a n d t o r e g a r d t h e m f r o m A b o r i g i n a l v i e w p o i n t s , in i n t e r a c t i o n w i t h E u r o p e a n a n d o t h e r c u l t u r e s . A l t h o u g h t h i s m o n u m e n t a l w o r k of a r t c a n n o t b u t b e g r o u n d e d in, a n d a c e l e b r a t i o n of, Bill R e i d ' s own c u l t u r e s , it is as well a n e c u m e n i c a l s y m b o l for t h e m u t u a l r e c o g n i t i o n a n d a f f i r m a t i o n of all c u l t u r e s t h a t r e s p e c t o t h e r c u l t u r e s a n d t h e e a r t h . T h e difficult r e v e r s a l of w o r l d v i e w e n j o i n e d by The spirit of Haida Gwaii a n d r e q u i r e d for m u t u a l r e c o g n i t i o n is d e s c r i b e d by t h e M i ' k m a q p o e t R i t a J o e , from h e r p e r s p e c t i v e , in t h e following w a y : 9

Your buildings tall, alien, Cover the land; Unfeeling concrete smothers, windows glint Like water to the sun. No breezes blow Through standing trees; No scent of pine lightens my burden. I see your buildings rising skyward, majestic, Over the trails, where men once walked,

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Significant rulers of this land Who still hold the aboriginal title In their hearts By traditions known Through eons of time. Relearning our culture is not difficult, Because those trails I remember And their meaning I understand. While skyscrapers hide the heavens, They can fall.

The spirit of Haida Gwaii evokes a b o u n d l e s s s e n s e of w o n d e r . It is t h e m y s t i c a l . I w a n t t o walk i n silence a r o u n d i t s overflowing s p i r i t s , l e t t i n g t h e i r e n d l e s s p e r s p e c t i v e s a n d i n t e r r e l a t i o n s a w a k e n t h e p l a y of m y i m a g i n a t i o n f r o m its d o g m a t i c s l u m b e r . I k n o w its m e a n i n g is u n f a t h o m a b l e a n d m y w o r d s a r e u n w o r t h y . M i n e is a c r u d e voice over a m u l t i ­ plicity of c u l t u r a l voices w h o , if o n e could only l e a r n t o look a n d listen, s p e a k for t h e m s e l v e s . T h e s h e e r , m a n i f e s t p r e s e n c e of t h e m y t h c r e a t u r e s c o n f r o n t s a n d calls i n t o q u e s t i o n t h e o v e r w e e n i n g s e n s e of s u p e r i o r i t y w h i c h , since first c o n t a c t , h a s r e n d e r e d u s d e a f a n d b l i n d t o t h e m u l t i p l i c i t y of s p i r i t s w h o c o n s t i t u t e this p l a c e a n d i t s ways a n d l e d u s t o i m p o s e a l i e n c o n s t i t u t i o n s a n d i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s over t h e m . H e r e , A b o r i g i n a l a n d E u r o p e a n m y t h s cross, for t h e o l d e s t E u r o p e a n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l s t o r y is t h a t of O e d i p u s w h o , l e d b y h i s o w n s e n s e of s u p e r i o r i t y , t r a n s g r e s s e s t h e c u s t o m s a n d w a y s of T h e b e s a n d i m p o s e s a n a l i e n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l c u l t u r e , w h i c h t h e n b l i n d s h i m t o t h e injustice t h a t lies a t t h e foun­ d a t i o n of his r u l e . O e d i p u s a n d t h e c i t i z e n s of T h e b e s a r e so a c c u s t o m e d t o t h e i r c o n s t i t u t i o n a l o r d e r t h a t it t a k e s a n o u t s i d e r , t h e b l i n d T i r e s i a s , t o s e e t h e u n d e r l y i n g fault. T h i s t r a g e d y of m i s r e c o g n i t i o n a n d u s u r p a t i o n is finally r e v e a l e d t o h i m i n Oedipus at Colonus, b u t it is fully g r a s p e d only by A n t i g o n e , d a u g h t e r of O e d i p u s a n d J o c a s t a , t h e child of t h e c r o s s i n g of n a t i v e a n d n e w c o m e r c u l t u r e s . A n t i g o n e c o u r a g e o u s l y t r i e s t o b r i n g this m o s t f u n d a m e n t a l of political lessons t o t h e a t t e n t i o n of C r e o n , k i n g of T h e b e s , b y

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u p h o l d i n g t h e c u s t o m a r y ways of b u r i a l a g a i n s t t h e p r e v a i l i n g law. C r e o n , like O e d i p u s , is b l i n d e d by t h e i m p o s e d c o n s t i ­ t u t i o n a l o r d e r a n d its i m m a n e n t , yet s e e m i n g l y u n i v e r s a l , s t a n d a r d s of j u s t i c e . T h i s t e r r i f y i n g s t a n c e of c u l t u r a l h y b r i s a n d b l i n d n e s s h e p o r t r a y s is g r a p h i c a l l y d e p i c t e d by t h e c h o r u s in t h e ' O d e t o m a n ' . A s a r e s u l t , h e fails t o r e c o g n i s e e i t h e r t h e j u s t i c e of A n t i g o n e ' s d e m a n d or t h e m e a n s of a c c o m m o d a t i n g it offered by t h e c o n c i l i a t o r y H a e m o n , his son a n d A n t i g o n e ' s lover, a n d e x e m p l a r y c i t i z e n of t h e i n t e r c u l t u r a l c o m m o n g r o u n d . A n d so t h e t r a g e d y c o n t i n u e s . F i r s t a n d f o r e m o s t , it is s u r e l y safe to infer, t h e s p i r i t in which The spirit of Haida Gwaii s h o u l d b e a p p r o a c h e d is a willingness to l i s t e n to its c u l t u r a l l y d i v e r s e s p i r i t s . L e t us listen to t h e voice of Bill R e i d : 1 0

Here we are at last, a long way from Haida Gwaii, not too sure where we are or where we're going, still squabbling and vying for position in the boat, but somehow managing to appear to be heading in some direction. At least the paddles are together, and the m a n in the middle seems to have some vision of what's to come. Bill R e i d s e e m s to i n t e r p r e t The spirit of Haida Gwaii as if he w e r e n o t t h e c r e a t o r b u t w i t n e s s , fellow t r a v e l l e r a n d m e d i a t o r . H e is r e l u c t a n t to say a n y t h i n g definitive a b o u t its meaning. Tentatively and with respectful circumspection, he d e s c r i b e s h o w it s e e m s a n d a p p e a r s t o h i m , a s if h e t o o w e r e t r y i n g t o find or t o h e a r t h e a p p r o p r i a t e w o r d s t o r e c o g n i s e this s t r a n g e m u l t i p l i c i t y t h a t h a s c o m e i n t o b e i n g , s o m e w h a t i n a d v e r t e n t l y , b e f o r e h i m . A l t h o u g h t h i s collection of I n d i g e n o u s b e i n g s h a s b e e n h e r e for m i l l e n n i a , it is as if we a r e b e i n g a s k e d t o see a n d h e a r t h e m for t h e first t i m e , a n d so to l e a r n t h e a r t of m u t u a l r e c o g n i t i o n . A p p r o a c h i n g The spirit of Haida Gwaii in t h e r i g h t s p i r i t d o e s not consist in r e c o g n i s i n g it as s o m e t h i n g a l r e a d y f a m i l i a r t o us a n d in t e r m s d r a w n from o u r o w n t r a d i t i o n s a n d f o r m s of t h o u g h t . T h i s i m p e r i a l a t t i t u d e is t o b e a b j u r e d . R a t h e r , r e c o g n i t i o n involves a c k n o w l e d g i n g it in its o w n t e r m s a n d t r a d i t i o n s , as it w a n t s to b e a n d a s it s p e a k s t o u s . N o m a t t e r from w h i c h d i r e c t i o n you a p p r o a c h t h e c a n o e , t h e c r e w

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m e m b e r s m a n i f e s t l y s e e m t o say t h a t , a f t e r c e n t u r i e s of s u p p r e s s i o n , t h e y a r e h e r e to stay, in t h e i r o w n c u l t u r a l f o r m s a n d ways. H e n c e , if t h e r e is t o b e a p o s t - i m p e r i a l d i a l o g u e o n t h e j u s t c o n s t i t u t i o n of c u l t u r a l l y d i v e r s e societies, t h e d i a l o g u e m u s t b e o n e in w h i c h t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s a r e r e c o g n i s e d a n d s p e a k in t h e i r own l a n g u a g e s a n d c u s t o m a r y ways. T h e y d o n o t wish e i t h e r t o b e s i l e n c e d or to b e r e c o g n i s e d a n d constrained to speak within the institutions and traditions of i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of t h e i m p e r i a l c o n s t i t u t i o n s t h a t h a v e b e e n i m p o s e d over t h e m . T h i s w o r l d r e v e r s a l , from a h a b i t u a l i m p e r i a l s t a n c e , w h e r e o n e ' s o w n c u s t o m a r y f o r m s of r e f l e c t i o n set t h e t e r m s of t h e d i s c u s s i o n , to a g e n u i n e l y i n t e r ­ c u l t u r a l p o p u l a r s o v e r e i g n t y , w h e r e e a c h l i s t e n s t o t h e voices of t h e o t h e r s in t h e i r own t e r m s , is t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t a n d difficult first s t e p in c o n t e m p o r a r y c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m . A constitutional dialogue in 'The spirit of Haida Gwaii' The spirit of Haida Gwaii, I w o u l d n o w like you t o i m a g i n e , c a n b e s e e n as j u s t s u c h a c o n s t i t u t i o n a l d i a l o g u e , or m u l t i l o g u e , of m u t u a l r e c o g n i t i o n . T h e p a s s e n g e r s a r e s q u a b b l i n g a n d vying for r e c o g n i t i o n a n d p o s i t i o n e a c h in t h e i r c u l t u r a l l y d i s t i n c t way. T h e y a r e e x c h a n g i n g t h e i r d i v e r s e s t o r i e s a n d c l a i m s as t h e chief a p p e a r s to listen attentively to each, hoping to guide t h e m to reach an agreement, without imposing a meta­ l a n g u a g e or a l l o w i n g a n y s p e a k e r t o set t h e t e r m s of t h e d i s c u s s i o n . T h e c h i e f s s u b j e c t i o n t o t h e r u l e of m u t u a l r e c o g ­ n i t i o n is s y m b o l i s e d by t h e c r e s t s of t h e c r e w ' s n a t i o n s a n d families c a r v e d in t h e s p e a k e r ' s staff. Bill R e i d h a s s p e n t d e c a d e s p r e p a r i n g t o p o r t r a y s u c h a d i a l o g u e by r e c r e a t i n g t h e c u l t u r a l d i s t i n c t i v e n e s s a n d i n t e r r e l a t i o n s of e a c h of t h e spirit c r e a t u r e s , first by m a s t e r i n g t h e g r e a t H a i d a a r t i s t i c t r a d i t i o n s of f o r m l i n e s c u l p t u r e in w h i c h t h e y a p p e a r a n d t h e n by l e a r n i n g t h e m y t h s t o r i e s t h e y a r e t e l l i n g e a c h o t h e r . T h e c o n v e r s a t i o n also s e e m s t o b e ' d i v e r s e ' in t h e t h r e e r e s p e c t s of o v e r l a p , i n t e r a c t i o n a n d n e g o t i a t i o n m e n t i o n e d a b o v e . T h e n a r r a t i v e s of t h e t h i r t e e n voyageurs tell of h o w t h e i r i d e n t i t i e s h a v e b e e n s h a p e d a n d f o r m e d t h r o u g h m i l l e n n i a of o v e r l a p p i n g i n t e r a c t i o n t o g e t h e r . T h e y exist a s t h e y a r e , in all

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t h e i r d i s t i n c t i v e n e s s , n o t in s p i t e of, b u t in v i r t u e of, t h e i r interdependency over time a n d history. T h e s e aspects a r e e m b o d i e d in t h e e n d l e s s ways i n w h i c h t h e y o v e r l a p a n d criss­ cross w i t h o u t l o s i n g t h e i r i d e n t i t i e s in t h e i r a s t o n i s h i n g a r r a n g e m e n t in t h e c a n o e . T h e i n t e r c u l t u r a l d i m e n s i o n of t h e s c u l p t u r e is f u r t h e r h e i g h t e n e d by t h e p r e s e n c e of n o n - H a i d a t r a v e l l e r s : t h e m a i n l a n d b e a v e r a n d wolf, a n d t h e a n c i e n t r e l u c t a n t c o n s c r i p t from E u r o p e a n - A m e r i c a n m y t h o l o g y . T h e q u e s t i o n i n g , c o n t e s t a t i o n a n d r e n e g o t i a t i o n of t h e i r c u l t u r a l i d e n t i t i e s s e e m p l a i n for all t o s e e . Is t h i s n o t t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n a l g a m e t h e y a r e p l a y i n g a s t h e y vie a n d s q u a b b l e for position, b o t h in t h e c a n o e a n d i n H a i d a m y t h o l o g y ? T h e chief signals t h i s D e r r i d e a n f e a t u r e b e c a u s e , a l t h o u g h a H a i d a chief is u s u a l l y a m a n , h e is c a l l e d laana augha, village m o t h e r , so h e m u s t a c t like a m o t h e r in c a r i n g for t h e c o m m o n good if s/he is t o s e c u r e r e s p e c t a n d a u t h o r i t y . All t h e p a s s e n g e r s a r e M e t i s , e x h i b i t i n g t h e n o n - i d e n t i t y of c u l t u r a l i d e n t i t i e s : t h e dogfish a n d m o u s e w o m e n , t h e b e a r m o t h e r , w h o is p a r t h u m a n , t h e wolf w i t h h i s h u m a n f o r e p a w s a n d t h e o t h e r s , for t h e y a r e o t h e r - t h a n - h u m a n p e r s o n s w h o t a k e off t h e i r furs a n d f e a t h e r s a t h o m e a n d c o n v e r s e like h u m a n p e r s o n s . T h e t h e m e is c r y s t a l l i s e d in Xuuya, t h e r a v e n s t e e r i n g t h e c a n o e , w h o is f o r e v e r c h a n g i n g h i s o r h e r i d e n t i t y a n d so i l l u s t r a t i n g t h a t t h i n g s a r e n o t always as t h e y a p p e a r - t h a t o u r h a b i t u a l f o r m s of r e c o g n i t i o n a r e often s t u l t i f y i n g f o r m s of m i s r e c o g n i t i o n w h i c h n e e d t o b e u p s e t a n d r e v e r s e d from t i m e t o t i m e . M e m b e r s of t h e b l a c k c a n o e t h u s h a v e t h e civic ability t o see t h e i r a s s o c i a t i o n f r o m m u l t i p l e v i e w p o i n t s . J a m a k e H i g h w a t e r , a Blackfoot—American philosopher, e x p l a i n s t h a t t h i s ability of r e f l e c t i v e d i s e q u i l i b r i u m , w h i c h is c o m m o n t o A b o r i g i n a l c u l t u r e s , h a s b e e n l e a r n e d by twentieth-century European artists and writers through their i n t e r a c t i o n w i t h ' p r i m i t i v e a r t ' a n d slowly i n t r o d u c e d i n t o European cultures under the n a m e 'post-modern'. Now, t h e ability t o c h a n g e p e r s p e c t i v e s - to s e e a n d u n d e r ­ s t a n d a s p e c t i v a l l y - is a c q u i r e d t h r o u g h p a r t i c i p a t i o n in t h e i n t e r c u l t u r a l d i a l o g u e itself. By l i s t e n i n g t o t h e different stories o t h e r s tell, a n d giving t h e i r o w n in e x c h a n g e , t h e

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p a r t i c i p a n t s c o m e to see t h e i r c o m m o n a n d i n t e r w o v e n h i s t o r i e s t o g e t h e r from a m u l t i p l i c i t y of p a t h s . N u r t u r i n g a reflective a w a r e n e s s of t h e d i v e r s i t y of c u l t u r a l p e r s p e c t i v e s is a m a j o r function of A b o r i g i n a l s t o r y t e l l i n g a t p u b l i c festivals a n d c o n s t i t u t i o n a l n e g o t i a t i o n s . The spirit of Haida Gwaii is d e s i g n e d to a w a k e n a n d s t i m u l a t e t h i s dialogical c a p a c i t y for d i v e r s i t y a w a r e n e s s . As you w a l k a r o u n d t h e c a n o e you soon r e a l i s e t h a t it is i m p o s s i b l e t o t a k e it in f r o m o n e c o m p r e h e n ­ sive v i e w p o i n t . It defies t h i s f o r m of r e p r e s e n t a t i o n . R a t h e r , you a r e d r a w n to see it from t h e p e r s p e c t i v e of o n e p a s s e n g e r after a n o t h e r , a n d t h e i r c o m p l i c a t e d i n t e r r e l a t i o n s g u i d e you to see t h e w h o l e now u n d e r o n e a s p e c t , n o w u n d e r a n o t h e r . S i n c e r e c o g n i t i o n is n e v e r definitive, t h e p a r t i c u l a r c o n s t i ­ t u t i o n a l a r r a n g e m e n t of t h e m e m b e r s of t h e c a n o e is p r e s u m a b l y not m e a n t t o b e fixed o n c e a n d for all. C o n s t i ­ t u t i o n a l r e c o g n i t i o n a n d a s s o c i a t i o n c h a n g e over t i m e , as t h e c a n o e p r o g r e s s e s a n d t h e m e m b e r s c h a n g e in v a r i o u s ways. A c o n s t i t u t i o n is m o r e like a n e n d l e s s s e r i e s of c o n t r a c t s a n d a g r e e m e n t s , r e a c h e d by p e r i o d i c a l i n t e r c u l t u r a l d i a l o g u e s , r a t h e r t h a n a n o r i g i n a l c o n t r a c t in t h e d i s t a n t p a s t , a n i d e a l s p e e c h - s i t u a t i o n today, or a m y t h i c u n i t y of t h e c o m m u n i t y in liberal and nationalist constitutionalism. The spirit of Haida Gwaii also d e p i c t s in a s t r i k i n g m a n n e r a specific c o n c e p t of e q u a l i t y as e q u i t y . All m e m b e r s a r e e q u a l l y r e c o g n i s e d a n d a c c o m m o d a t e d , as far a s possible, in t e r m s of t h e i r own c u l t u r a l i d e n t i t y . T h e r e s u l t is t h a t t h e c o n s t i ­ t u t i o n a l a r r a n g e m e n t of t h e c a n o e is far from u n i f o r m . T h e m e m b e r s m a k e u p a n a s s o c i a t i o n m o r e a k i n to t h e i r r e g u l a r a r r a n g e m e n t of a n a n c i e n t , c u s t o m - b a s e d c o n s t i t u t i o n t h a n to a m o d e r n , u n i f o r m c o n s t i t u t i o n a l a s s o c i a t i o n . T h e overall c u l t u r a l diversity is a t h i n g of j u s t i c e a n d b e a u t y , a n a l o g o u s t o ecological diversity a n d j u s t as i m p o r t a n t for living a n d living well o n t h i s p l a n e t . H o w e v e r , as w e shall s e e , it offends a g a i n s t a powerful n o r m of u n i f o r m i t y in m o d e r n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m a n d p r o v i d e s o n e of t h e m a j o r o b j e c t i o n s t o t h e politics of cultural recognition. H o w d o t h e citizens tell if t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n a l a r r a n g e m e n t t h e y h a v e r e a c h e d a t this p o i n t in t h e i r j o u r n e y is e q u i t a b l e

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a n d j u s t ? T h e r e is n o t r a n s c e n d e n t a l s t a n d a r d b e y o n d t h e discussion in t h e c a n o e f r o m w h i c h it c a n b e m e a s u r e d . T h i s P l a t o n i c v i e w p o i n t is, as w e h a v e s e e n , u n a v a i l a b l e . T h e answer would s e e m to be t h a t t h e y practise t h e spirit they e m b o d y . T h e y a r e always w i l l i n g t o l i s t e n t o t h e v o i c e s of d o u b t and dissent within and reconsider their present a r r a n g e m e n t , j u s t as The spirit ofHaida Gwaii a s k s us to l i s t e n t o t h e voices of c u l t u r a l d i s s e n t a r o u n d t h e w o r l d . T h i s f o u n d a t i o n of t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n a l a s s o c i a t i o n in t h e s o v e r e i g n t y of t h e p e o p l e , r a t h e r t h a n t h e s o v e r e i g n t y of t h e e x i s t i n g c o n s t i t u t i o n , is s y m b o l i s e d by t h e a n c i e n t r e l u c t a n t c o n s c r i p t , t h e u n o b t r u s i v e p a d d l e r Bill R e i d b r o u g h t f o n d l y a b o a r d from E u r o p e a n a n d European-American history: 11

I am an ancient reluctant conscript. On the soup wagons of Xerxes I was a cleaner of pans. On the march of Miltiades' phalanx I had a haft and head; I had a bristling gleaming spear-handle. Red-headed Caesar picked me for a teamster. He said, 'Go to work, you T u s c a n bastard, Rome calls for a m a n who can drive horses.' Lincoln said, 'Get into the g a m e ; your nation takes you.' And I drove a wagon and t e a m and I had my a r m shot off At Spotsylvania Court House. I am an ancient reluctant conscript. L i k e A n t i g o n e , t h i s a n c i e n t c i t i z e n r e m i n d s u s of stoical survival a n d e n d u r a n c e , b u t a l s o of t h e limit t o r e l u c t a n t c o n s c r i p t i o n a n d s u b m i s s i o n . Bill R e i d s p e a k s of t h e c o n s c r i p t in a voice p e r h a p s close to his o w n : 1 2

A culture will be r e m e m b e r e d for its warriors, philosophers, artists, heroes and heroines of all callings, but in order to survive it needs survivors. And here is our professional survivor, the Ancient Reluctant Conscript, present if seldom noticed in all the turbulent histories of men on earth. W h e n our latter day kings and captains have joined their forebears he will still be carrying on, stoically obeying orders and performing tasks allotted him. But only up to a point; it is he who finally says, 'Enough', and after the rulers have disappeared into the morass of their own excesses, it is he who builds on the rubble and once more gets the whole thing going.

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If t h e s t r a n g e c u l t u r a l m u l t i p l i c i t y of The spirit of Haida Gwaii is n o t r e c o g n i s e d a n d a c c o m m o d a t e d a f t e r all t h e o p p r e s s i o n over all t h e y e a r s , t h e n t h e m u t e i n g l o r i o u s c o n s c r i p t says ' e n o u g h ' a n d r e f u s e s t o b e a r t h e b u r d e n a n y l o n g e r . T h i s is n e i t h e r t h e r e v o l t of t h e g l o r i o u s n a t i o n n o r t h e r e v o l u t i o n to e n d t h e a g o n y of politics a n d u s h e r in t h e u n i v e r s a l c o n s t i t u t i o n of t h e k i n g d o m of e n d s . N o , t h e con­ script is m o r e h u m b l e a n d l o w e r d o w n in t h e b o a t , c a r r y i n g t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n a l a s s o c i a t i o n o n his s h o u l d e r s . S h e is you a n d m e . H i s ' e n o u g h ' is t h e i r r u p t i o n of p o p u l a r s o v e r e i g n t y , as old a n d e n d l e s s a s politics itself, a g a i n s t t h e s u p p r e s s i o n of d i f f e r e n c e . S h e is t h e t r u e laana augha, t h e m o t h e r of t h e d i s a p p e a r e d a n d t h e child of A n t i g o n e a n d H a e m o n . B e c a u s e of his d i s s e n t , politics is n o t a s e r i e s of n e c e s s a r y s t a g e s of h i s t o r i c a l devel­ o p m e n t , t h e p r o g r e s s i o n of a u n i v e r s a l r u l e or t h e e v o l u t i o n o r h o m o g e n e o u s n a t i o n s , b u t t h e u n p r e d i c t a b l e voyage we call h i s t o r y . O v e r t h e c e n t u r i e s , a n d p e r h a p s forever, s h e h a s b r e a t h e d t h e spirit of b o t h e n d u r a n c e a n d l i b e r t y i n t o politics a n d , in so d o i n g , p r e s e r v e d t h e w o n d e r f u l m u l t i p l i c i t y a g a i n s t all t h e p o w e r piled u p t o s i l e n c e it. The spirit of Haida Gwaii e v o k e s o n e final a n d i m m e n s e l y o p t i m i s t i c vision of c u l t u r a l d i v e r s i t y . F o r all t h e c e l e b r a t i o n of d i v e r s i t y a n d t h e vying for r e c o g n i t i o n , t h e p a d d l e s a r e s o m e h o w in u n i s o n a n d t h e y a p p e a r to b e h e a d i n g in s o m e d i r e c t i o n . T h e s h i p of s t a t e g l i d e s h a r m o n i o u s l y i n t o t h e d a w n of t h e twenty-first c e n t u r y . T h i s s e e m s to i m p l y t h a t t h e k i n d of c o n s t i t u t i o n a l c h a n g e r e q u i r e d t o m e e t t h e j u s t d e m a n d s for r e c o g n i t i o n c a n b e c a r r i e d o u t w i t h o u t c a p s i z i n g a society. I n s t e a d , it s e e m s t o s u g g e s t t h a t a society c a n a m e n d its c o n s t i t u t i o n in t h e c o u r s e of e n g a g i n g h a r m o n i o u s l y in its daily, s u b c o n s t i t u t i o n a l p o l i t i c s . T h i s is a difficult, Xuuya-like image to grasp because the t e n d e n c y since t h e s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y h a s b e e n t o t h i n k of a m o d e r n c o n s t i t u t i o n as a n u n s u r p a s s a b l e form e s t a b l i s h e d l o n g a g o by f o u n d i n g f a t h e r s , s t a n d i n g b e h i n d a n d p r o v i d i n g t h e f o u n d a t i o n for d e m o c r a t i c politics. T h e c o n s t i t u t i o n is t h u s o n e a r e a of m o d e r n politics t h a t h a s not b e e n d e m o c r a ­ t i s e d over t h e last t h r e e h u n d r e d y e a r s . C o n s t i t u t i o n a l c h a n g e

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c a n occur i n o n e of two w a y s : e i t h e r by a m e n d m e n t w i t h i n t h e f o r m s of r e c o g n i t i o n laid d o w n in t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n a n d its t r a d i t i o n s of i n t e r p r e t a t i o n or by o v e r t h r o w of t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n t h r o u g h w a r a n d r e v o l u t i o n . Y e t if t h e d e m a n d s for c u l t u r a l r e c o g n i t i o n a r e t a k e n u p a n d t r a n s l a t e d i n t o t h e given f o r m s of c o n s t i t u t i o n a l r e c o g n i t i o n , t h e n t h e s o v e r e i g n t y of t h e p e o p l e , w h i c h t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n is p r e s u m e d to e x p r e s s , will b e t h w a r t e d , for t h i s is t h e i n j u s t i c e of t h e p r e v a i l i n g l a n g u a g e of c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m a c c o r d i n g to t h e politics of c u l t u r a l r e c o g ­ n i t i o n . P o p u l a r s o v e r e i g n t y in c u l t u r a l l y d i v e r s e s o c i e t i e s appears to require that the people r e a c h a g r e e m e n t on a c o n s t i t u t i o n by m e a n s of a n i n t e r c u l t u r a l d i a l o g u e i n w h i c h t h e i r c u l t u r a l l y d i s t i n c t ways of s p e a k i n g a n d a c t i n g a r e mutually recognised. P e r h a p s the great constitutional struggles and failures a r o u n d t h e world t o d a y a r e groping t o w a r d s a t h i r d w a y of c o n s t i t u t i o n a l c h a n g e , s y m b o l i s e d in t h e a b i l i t y of t h e m e m ­ b e r s of t h e c a n o e to discuss a n d r e f o r m t h e i r c o n s t i t u t i o n a l a r r a n g e m e n t s in r e s p o n s e t o t h e d e m a n d s for r e c o g n i t i o n as t h e y p a d d l e . O n this Haida Gwaiinn view, a c o n s t i t u t i o n c a n b e b o t h t h e f o u n d a t i o n of d e m o c r a c y a n d , a t t h e s a m e t i m e , subject t o d e m o c r a t i c discussion a n d c h a n g e in p r a c t i c e . T h e c h a p t e r s t h a t follow a r e a n e x p l o r a t i o n of this possibility.

CHAPTER 2

Diversity and contemporary constitutionalism

Answering the constitutional question: an outline T h e first c h a p t e r laid o u t t h e difficult issues raised by t h e q u e s t i o n of t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n a l r e c o g n i t i o n of c u l t u r a l d i v e r s i t y in a p o s t - i m p e r i a l a g e . In t h e following c h a p t e r s I p r o p o s e a n answer to the question. A contemporary constitution can r e c o g n i s e c u l t u r a l d i v e r s i t y if it is r e c o n c e i v e d as w h a t m i g h t be c a l l e d a ' f o r m of a c c o m m o d a t i o n ' of c u l t u r a l diversity. A c o n s t i t u t i o n s h o u l d b e s e e n as a form of activity, a n i n t e r ­ c u l t u r a l d i a l o g u e in w h i c h t h e c u l t u r a l l y d i v e r s e s o v e r e i g n c i t i z e n s of c o n t e m p o r a r y societies n e g o t i a t e a g r e e m e n t s o n t h e i r f o r m s of a s s o c i a t i o n over t i m e in a c c o r d a n c e w i t h t h e t h r e e c o n v e n t i o n s of m u t u a l r e c o g n i t i o n , c o n s e n t a n d c u l t u r a l continuity. T o see t h e j u s t i c e of t h i s s i m p l e a n d s o m e w h a t o b v i o u s a n s w e r , h o w e v e r , it is n e c e s s a r y to q u e s t i o n a n d a m e n d a n u m b e r of a s s u m p t i o n s of c o n t e m p o r a r y c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m . I c a r r y o u t this t a s k of critical reflection in t h e following s t e p s . I n t h i s c h a p t e r I lay o u t t h e m a i n c o n v e n t i o n s of t h e l a n g u a g e of c o n t e m p o r a r y c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m a n d discuss t h e ways in w h i c h c o n t e m p o r a r y legal a n d political t h e o r i s t s h a v e e m p l o y e d t h e m to r e s p o n d t o t h e politics of c u l t u r a l r e c o g ­ n i t i o n . J u s t as Bill R e i d t u r n e d to H a i d a a r t i s t i c t r a d i t i o n s t o d o j u s t i c e t o t h e s p i r i t of Haida Gwaii, I t h e n t u r n t o t h e t r a d i t i o n s of c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m over t h e last four c e n t u r i e s t o d o j u s t i c e to t h e d e m a n d s of c u l t u r a l r e c o g n i t i o n . T h e a r g u m e n t of t h e n e x t t h r e e c h a p t e r s is t h a t , from t h e p e r s p e c t i v e of t h e p r o b l e m of c u l t u r a l r e c o g n i t i o n , t h e con30

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t e m p o r a r y E u r o p e a n a n d E u r o p e a n - A m e r i c a n l a n g u a g e of c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m (which I call t h e ' c o n t e m p o r a r y ' l a n g u a g e ) is a c o m p o s i t e of two d i s s i m i l a r l a n g u a g e s : a d o m i n a n t , ' m o d e r n ' l a n g u a g e a n d a s u b o r d i n a t e , ' c o m m o n - l a w ' or s i m p l y ' c o m m o n ' l a n g u a g e . T h e c o m m o n l a n g u a g e is in t u r n c o n n e c t e d t o o t h e r , n o n - E u r o p e a n l a n g u a g e s of c o n s t i t u t i o n ­ alism. C h a p t e r 3 is a critical s u r v e y of t h e v a r i o u s ways in which t h e m o d e r n l a n g u a g e h a s b e e n d e v e l o p e d by l e a d i n g t h e o r i s t s s i n c e t h e s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y to e x c l u d e a n d a s s i m i l a t e c u l t u r a l diversity in t h e n a m e of u n i f o r m i t y . Despite the d o m i n a n t trend to uniformity, subordinate a r e a s of c o n s t i t u t i o n a l t h e o r y a n d p r a c t i c e h a v e b e e n o p e n t o the r e c o g n i t i o n a n d a c c o m m o d a t i o n of different c u l t u r e s , for e x a m p l e w h e n E u r o p e a n s t r a i n e d in t h e c o m m o n law h a v e e n c o u n t e r e d v i b r a n t a n d powerful n o n - E u r o p e a n p e o p l e s . C h a p t e r s 4 a n d 5 a r e a c r i t i c a l s u r v e y of t h e ' c o m m o n ' l a n g u a g e of c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m e m p l o y e d in t h e c o u r s e of t h e s e c u l t u r a l e n c o u n t e r s o n t h e c o m m o n g r o u n d in o r d e r to r e c o v e r and reconstruct three constitutional conventions which evolved t o g u i d e i n t e r c u l t u r a l n e g o t i a t i o n s on j u s t f o r m s of constitutional association. T h e s i x t h c h a p t e r r e t u r n s to t h e p r e s e n t . O n t h e basis of t h e historical surveys of t h e two c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m s , m o d e r n a n d common, I argue that the composite, contemporary language of c o n s t i t u t i o n a l t h o u g h t a n d p r a c t i c e n e e d n o t b e e i t h e r blindly d e f e n d e d a g a i n s t a n y c l a i m t o c u l t u r a l r e c o g n i t i o n or blindly r e j e c t e d for its m a l e , i m p e r i a l a n d E u r o c e n t r i c b i a s . R a t h e r , it c a n b e a m e n d e d a n d r e c o n c e i v e d to d o j u s t i c e t o d e m a n d s for c u l t u r a l r e c o g n i t i o n . I seek to e x p l a i n w h a t t h e j u s t c o n s t i t u t i o n a l r e c o g n i t i o n a n d a c c o m m o d a t i o n of c u l t u r a l diversity e n t a i l s a n d to show t h a t it e n h a n c e s , r a t h e r t h a n t h r e a t e n s , t h e p r i m a r y goods of individual l i b e r t y a n d equality, which are correctly associated with m o d e r n consti­ t u t i o n a l i s m , b u t in a m a n n e r a p p r o p r i a t e t o a n a g e of c u l t u r a l diversity. In t h e p e n u l t i m a t e s e c t i o n I a r g u e t h a t t h e l a r g e r p u r p o s e of c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m so r e c o n c e i v e d , in a d d i t i o n t o t h e r e c o g n i t i o n a n d a c c o m m o d a t i o n of c u l t u r a l diversity, is t o m e d i a t e t h e two goods w h o s e a l l e g e d i r r e c o n c i l a b i l i t y is often

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s e e n a s t h e s o u r c e of c u r r e n t c o n s t i t u t i o n a l conflict: f r e e d o m and belonging. T h e c o n c i l i a t i o n of f r e e d o m a n d b e l o n g i n g s h o u l d d a w n slowly over t h e c o u r s e of t h e book. N e v e r t h e l e s s , it will b e helpful t o p r o v i d e a p r e l i m i n a r y s k e t c h a s a g u i d e . T h e conflict of t h e six e x a m p l e s of t h e politics of c u l t u r a l r e c o g n i t i o n is said by m a n y t o d e r i v e from c l a s h e s b e t w e e n t h e a s p i r a t i o n to b e free from t h e ways of o n e ' s c u l t u r e a n d p l a c e , t o free o n e s e l f from o n e s e l f (se deprendre de soi-meme, i n M i c h e l Foucault's m e m o r a b l e phrase), a n d t h e equally h u m a n a s p i r a t i o n t o b e l o n g t o a c u l t u r e a n d p l a c e , t o b e a t h o m e in t h e world. T h e t e n s i o n b e t w e e n t h e s e t w o goods c a n n o t b e resolved or t r a n s c e n d e d , a n d it c a n n o t b e o v e r c o m e b y a r o o t l e s s c o s m o p o l i t a n i s m o n o n e side o r p u r i f i e d n a t i o n a l i s m o n t h e o t h e r . T h e t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y is a g r a v e y a r d of failed a t t e m p t s . Y e t t h e r e is a f o r m of c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m a n d a s p i r i t of c i t i z e n s h i p in w h i c h t h e s e two h u m a n - a l l - t o o - h u m a n l o n g i n g s c a n be voiced a n d c o n c i l i a t e d over t i m e , a n d so h e l p to b r i n g n e g o t i a t e d p e a c e t o a t r o u b l e d world. 1

A l t h o u g h Bill R e i d is c h a r a c t e r i s t i c a l l y c i r c u m s p e c t a b o u t t h e p u r p o s e of The spirit of Haida Gwaii, I believe it is n o t far f r o m t h i s spirit of c o n c i l i a t i o n . H e a s k s : 2

So there is certainly no lack of activity in our little boat, but is there any purpose? Is the tall figure who may or may not be the spirit of Haida Gwaii, leading us, for we are all in the same boat, to a sheltered beach beyond the rim of the world as he seems to be or is he lost in a dream of his own dreamings?

W e s h o u l d n o t t a k e his refusal t o d r a w a n explicit p u r p o s e from t h e s t o r y of The spirit of Haida Gwaii a s a l i c e n c e t o i g n o r e t h e lessons t h i s m a g n i f i c e n t gift t e a c h e s . W e a r e all, a s h e r e m i n d s u s , i n t h e s a m e b o a t a n d so w e h a v e t o find o u r appropriate place a n d attitude. L i k e all g r e a t A b o r i g i n a l s t o r y t e l l e r s Bill R e i d r e f u s e s t o p r o v i d e a n s w e r s t o t h e q u e s t i o n s r a i s e d b y h i s story. T h i s w o u l d d e f e a t t h e d i d a c t i c p u r p o s e of s t o r y t e l l i n g , w h i c h is n o t to set out categorical imperatives but to develop t h e listeners' ability t o t h i n k for t h e m s e l v e s . E l d e r s tell s t o r i e s i n a m a n n e r

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t h a t e n c o u r a g e s a n d g u i d e s l i s t e n e r s t o reflect i n d e p e n d e n t l y on t h e g r e a t p r o b l e m s of life t h a t t h e s t o r y p r e s e n t s t o t h e m t h r o u g h m y t h s . T h e t e s t of u n d e r s t a n d i n g a s t o r y is n o t t h e a n s w e r l i s t e n e r s m i g h t give in a n e x a m , b u t h o w it affects t h e i r a t t i t u d e a n d h o w t h e y go o n in v a r i o u s c i r c u m s t a n c e s t o c o n d u c t t h e i r life in light of w h a t t h e y h a v e l e a r n e d f r o m reflection o n t h e story. T h e i r g r a s p of t h e w i s d o m of t h e a l l e g o r y g u i d e s t h e m in t h e i r c o n d u c t , e m p o w e r i n g t h e m to c a r r y o n w i t h t h e w i s d o m (manitou) of t h e E l d e r p r e s e n t t o m i n d . B e c a u s e t h e r e is n o t o n e r i g h t a n s w e r or o n e t r u t h t o a n allegory, it is possible t o go o n in a v a r i e t y of w a y s a n d still b e a c t i n g in a c c o r d w i t h t h e story. T h e r e a r e a m u l t i t u d e of w a y s of b e i n g g u i d e d . T o t h i s e n d , A b o r i g i n a l s t o r i e s u s u a l l y finish w i t h a n easily m e m o r i s e d e p i g r a m of t h e story's c e n t r a l d i l e m m a . T h e e p i g r a m f u n c t i o n s a s a m n e m o n i c , e n a b l i n g l i s t e n e r s always to recall a n d reflect o n t h e difficult issues t h e s t o r y b r i n g s t o their attention. T o draw an analogy with E u r o p e a n ethics, the e p i g r a m w h i c h evokes t h e p u r p o s e of t h e s t o r y b e c o m e s a n e t h i c a l t o u c h s t o n e . T r u e t o f o r m , Bill R e i d leaves us w i t h a n e p i g r a m : ' T h e b o a t goes o n forever a n c h o r e d in t h e s a m e place.' I believe t h a t t h i s w e l l - m a d e e p i g r a m distils t h e e n i g m a t i c p u r p o s e of The spirit of Haida Gwaii w i t h S o p h o c l e a n c l a r i t y . T h e goods of f r e e d o m ( ' t h e b o a t goes o n ' ) a n d b e l o n g i n g ( ' a n c h o r e d in t h e s a m e p l a c e ' ) a r e c o n c i l i a t e d in m i r a c u l o u s equipoise on the c o m m o n word they s h a r e ('forever'). This in t u r n b r i n g s t o m i n d t h e e q u i p o i s e of t h e s e t w o goods in all t h e a s p e c t s of t h e c a n o e : t h e r a v e n , for e x a m p l e , a t t h e s t e r n e x e r c i s i n g t h e f r e e d o m to be o t h e r t h a n we a r e a n d t h e b e a r a t t h e b o w l o o k i n g b a c k t o his family a n d t r a d i t i o n a l d w e l l i n g p l a c e . F r o m t h e p e r s p e c t i v e of t h e p a s s e n g e r s , t h e c h i e f a p p e a r s to b e c a u t i o u s l y l o o k i n g f o r w a r d t o see w h a t lies o n t h e c h a n g i n g h o r i z o n and carefully l o o k i n g over t h e t a n g l e d c u s t o m s a n d ways of t h e p a s s e n g e r s . T h e c a n o e , like t h e w o r d 'forever', p o i n t s in b o t h d i r e c t i o n s a t o n c e ; t h e c o m m o n p l a c e w h e r e t h e vying a n d s q u a b b l i n g e n d l e s s l y g o e s on. T h e big q u e s t i o n Bill R e i d leaves u n a n s w e r e d is, how d o 3

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t h e s e a m b a s s a d o r s from Haida Gwaii c o n c i l i a t e t h e goods w h i c h a p p e a r i r r e c o n c i l a b l e to us? T o discover t h e a n s w e r , a n d l e a r n o u r way a r o u n d o n this s t r a n g e c o m m o n g r o u n d , w e n e e d to travel t h r o u g h t h e last four c e n t u r i e s of c o n s t i t u t i o n a l h i s t o r y a n d r e t u r n to w h e r e we a r e from t h e i r d i r e c t i o n . Two languages of contemporary constitutionalism and three schools of modern constitutionalism T h e first a n d often o v e r l o o k e d s t e p in a n y e n q u i r y i n t o j u s t i c e is to i n v e s t i g a t e if t h e l a n g u a g e in w h i c h t h e e n q u i r y p r o c e e d s is itself j u s t : t h a t is, c a p a b l e of r e n d e r i n g t h e s p e a k e r s t h e i r d u e . T o r e s p o n d j u s t l y to t h e s t r a n g e m u l t i p l i c i t y of c u l t u r a l l y d i v e r s e voices t h a t h a v e c o m e f o r w a r d like so m a n y A n t i g o n e s to d e m a n d a h e a r i n g in t h e g a t h e r i n g d u s k of t h e i m p e r i a l a g e it is n e c e s s a r y to call i n t o q u e s t i o n a n d a m e n d a n u m b e r of u n e x a m i n e d c o n v e n t i o n s , i n h e r i t e d from t h e i m p e r i a l a g e , t h a t c o n t i n u e t o i n f o r m t h e l a n g u a g e of c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m in which the d e m a n d s are taken up and adjudicated. These a m e n d m e n t s a d d u p t o a fairly s u b s t a n t i a l r e n o v a t i o n of t h e p r e v a i l i n g a s s u m p t i o n s of m o d e r n legal a n d political t h e o r y . P e r h a p s it is n o t t o o m u c h to s p e a k of a ' c o n c e p t u a l r e v o l u t i o n ' ; a significant c h a n g e in t h e w a y of t h i n k i n g a b o u t constitutions. T h i s first s t e p is of p a r a m o u n t i m p o r t a n c e in t h e politics of c u l t u r a l r e c o g n i t i o n b e c a u s e o n e of t h e c e n t r a l c o n t e n t i o n s is t h a t p e r s o n s or a p e o p l e a r e not r e c o g n i s e d in t h e i r o w n c u l t u r a l l a n g u a g e or voice. T h e l a n g u a g e in which t h e y a r e c o n s t r a i n e d to p r e s e n t t h e i r c l a i m s is t h e l a n g u a g e of t h e m a s t e r : m a s c u l i n e , E u r o p e a n or i m p e r i a l . So t h e injustice of c u l t u r a l i m p e r i a l i s m o c c u r s a t t h e b e g i n n i n g , in t h e a u t h o r i ­ t a t i v e l a n g u a g e used t o discuss t h e c l a i m s in q u e s t i o n . H e n c e , t h e e t h i c a l w a t c h w o r d of t h e p o s t - i m p e r i a l a g e is always ' t o lis­ t e n to t h e voices of o t h e r s ' a n d t o a b i d e by t h e p r i n c i p l e o f ' s e l f i d e n t i f i c a t i o n ' in i n t e r n a t i o n a l law a n d e l s e w h e r e . B o t h e x p r e s s t h i s n e w a s p e c t of 'civic d i g n i t y ' , of s p e a k i n g in o n e ' s own c u l t u r a l voice, a n d t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g 'civic i n d i g n i t y ' of s p e a k i n g for o t h e r s or of b e i n g c o m p e l l e d to s p e a k in t h e d o m i n a n t l a n g u a g e a n d t r a d i t i o n s of d i s c o u r s e .

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If this first s t e p of clarifying m u t u a l r e c o g n i t i o n , or audi alteram partem, h a d a l r e a d y b e e n t a k e n , this book w o u l d b e m u c h s h o r t e r . B u t it h a s n o t . It functions as a k i n d of p r o m i s s o r y n o t e or c e r e m o n i a l d i s p l a y before c o n s t i t u t i o n a l n e g o t i a t i o n s b e g i n in b o t h t h e o r y a n d p r a c t i c e . T h e l a n g u a g e e m p l o y e d in a s s e s s i n g c l a i m s to r e c o g n i t i o n c o n t i n u e s t o stifle c u l t u r a l d i f f e r e n c e s a n d i m p o s e a d o m i n a n t c u l t u r e , while m a s q u e r a d i n g as c u l t u r a l l y n e u t r a l , c o m p r e h e n s i v e or unavoidably ethnocentric. T o c a r r y out t h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n , I a d a p t t h e f o r m of h i s t o r i c a l c r i t i q u e d e v e l o p e d in C a m b r i d g e over t h e last t h r e e d e c a d e s by Q u e n t i n S k i n n e r , J o h n D u n n a n d t h e i r m a n y s t u d e n t s . It consists in t h e h i s t o r i c a l a p p l i c a t i o n of W i t t g e n s t e i n ' s m e t h o d of dissolving p h i l o s o p h i c a l p r o b l e m s , not by p r e s e n t i n g yet a n o t h e r s o l u t i o n , b u t by a survey w h i c h b r i n g s to c r i t i c a l light the u n e x a m i n e d conventions that govern the language g a m e s in w h i c h b o t h t h e p r o b l e m a n d t h e r a n g e of s o l u t i o n s a r i s e . In this c a s e , it c o n s i s t s in a survey of t h e l a n g u a g e e m p l o y e d in t h e c u r r e n t d e b a t e over r e c o g n i t i o n in o r d e r to identify t h e shared conventions (the distinctions, concepts, assumptions, i n f e r e n c e s a n d a s s e r t a b i l i t y w a r r a n t s t h a t a r e t a k e n for g r a n t e d in t h e c o u r s e of t h e d e b a t e ) w h i c h r e n d e r r e c o g n i t i o n p r o b l e m a t i c a n d give rise to t h e r a n g e of conflicting s o l u t i o n s . T o free o u r s e l v e s from t h e hold of t h e s e c o n v e n t i o n s of t h e a g e , so t h a t we d o not r e m a i n b l i n d e d by t h e m like O e d i p u s , a h i s t o r i c a l s u r v e y of t h e p h i l o s o p h i c a l d e b a t e s a n d p r a c t i c a l c o n t e x t s in w h i c h t h e y w e r e forged a n d t h e y a c q u i r e d t h e role of u n d o u b t e d c o n v e n t i o n s is t h e n c a r r i e d o u t in t h e following c h a p t e r s . T h i s Xuuya exercise, which functions like W i t t g e n s t e i n ' s 'objects of c o m p a r i s o n ' (discussed in c h a p t e r 4 ) a n d is p a r t l y i n d e b t e d to F o u c a u l t ' s l a t e r m e t h o d , t h e n p r o v i d e s t h e critical d i s t a n c e to a s c e r t a i n w h i c h c o n v e n t i o n s u n j u s t l y t h w a r t c u l t u r a l r e c o g n i t i o n a n d so r e q u i r e revision a n d , conversely, w h i c h c l a i m s to r e c o g n i t i o n c a n b e s h o w n t o be u n j u s t by t h e c o n v e n t i o n s w h i c h survive t h e c r i t i q u e . T h e l a n g u a g e in which c l a i m s to c u l t u r a l r e c o g n i t i o n a r e t a k e n u p a n d a d j u d i c a t e d is t h e l a n g u a g e of c o n t e m p o r a r y

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c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m . It is t h e t e r m s a n d t h e u s e s of t h o s e t e r m s t h a t h a v e c o m e to b e a c c e p t e d as t h e a u t h o r i t a t i v e v o c a b u l a r y for t h e d e s c r i p t i o n , reflection, c r i t i c i s m , a m e n d m e n t a n d over­ t h r o w of c o n s t i t u t i o n s a n d t h e i r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c i n s t i t u t i o n s over t h e last t h r e e h u n d r e d y e a r s of b u i l d i n g m o d e r n c o n s t i ­ t u t i o n a l s o c i e t i e s . T o a d a p t W i t t g e n s t e i n ' s m e t a p h o r , it is t h e l a n g u a g e t h a t h a s b e e n w o v e n i n t o t h e activity of a c t i n g in a c c o r d a n c e w i t h a n d g o i n g a g a i n s t m o d e r n c o n s t i t u t i o n s . It c o n s i s t s in t h e u s e s of t h e t e r m ' c o n s t i t u t i o n ' , its c o g n a t e s , a n d t h e o t h e r t e r m s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h it, s u c h as p o p u l a r s o v e r e i g n t y , p e o p l e , self g o v e r n m e n t , c i t i z e n , a g r e e m e n t , r u l e of law, r i g h t s , e q u a l i t y , r e c o g n i t i o n a n d n a t i o n . T h i s is a n e x t r e m e l y c o m p l e x l a n g u a g e . It is a v a s t n e t w o r k of c o n v e n t i o n s , of ways of e m p l o y i n g t h e s e t e r m s over t h r e e h u n d r e d y e a r s . It is far m o r e c o m p l i c a t e d t h a n a n y o n e w h o c a n u s e t h e s e t e r m s i m a g i n e s . T h e a c t u a l u s e of t h e v o c a b u l a r y in o r d i n a r y c i r c u m s t a n c e s is e x t r e m e l y f a m i l i a r t o us. Y e t , t h e v a r i o u s ways a n y o n e t e r m is e m p l o y e d , a n d t h u s its p a r t in t h e life of c o n t e m p o r a r y c o n s t i t u t i o n a l s o c i e t i e s , a r e e x t r e m e l y difficult t o d e s c r i b e on reflection, e v e n in r o u g h o u t l i n e . A p e r s o n could easily s p e n d a l i f e t i m e t r y i n g t o d e s c r i b e t h e u s e s of j u s t o n e of t h e s e t e r m s over a s m a l l s t r e t c h of t i m e — say, for example, the term 'property'. T h e c o m p l e x i t y of t h e l a n g u a g e of c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m is i m p o r t a n t t o b e a r in m i n d . W h a t h a s h a p p e n e d is t h a t a r e l a t i v e l y n a r r o w r a n g e of f a m i l i a r u s e s of t h e s e t e r m s h a s c o m e t o b e a c c e p t e d as t h e a u t h o r i t a t i v e political t r a d i t i o n s of i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of m o d e r n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l s o c i e t i e s . F o r t h e p u r p o s e s of this book, t h e t h r e e m o s t i m p o r t a n t a u t h o r i t a t i v e t r a d i t i o n s of i n t e r p r e t a t i o n a r e l i b e r a l i s m , n a t i o n a l i s m a n d c o m m u n i t a r i a n i s m . O f t e n , w h e n a d e m a n d for c o n s t i t u t i o n a l r e c o g n i t i o n is j u d g e d to c o n t r a d i c t t h e n o r m s of c o n s t i t u t i o n ­ a l i s m by t h e p r o p o n e n t s of t h e s e t h r e e schools, w h a t t h e y m e a n is t h a t it is i n c o m p a t i b l e w i t h t h e r a n g e of n o r m a l u s a g e of t h e t e r m s of c o n t e m p o r a r y c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m t h a t is c o n s t i ­ t u t i v e of t h e i r t r a d i t i o n s of i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . T h e n a r r o w r a n g e of n o r m a l u s a g e t h e s e t h r e e t r a d i t i o n s s h a r e c o m p r i s e s t h e ' m o d e r n ' l a n g u a g e of c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m .

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In t h e c a s e s w h e r e a c l a i m for c o n s t i t u t i o n a l r e c o g n i t i o n is r e j e c t e d b e c a u s e it is i n c o m p a t i b l e w i t h t h e n a r r o w r a n g e of n o r m a l u s e s t h e t h r e e t r a d i t i o n s s h a r e , t h e a p p a r e n t i n c o m p a t i b i l i t y c a n often b e dissolved s i m p l y by p o i n t i n g t o d i s t i n c t i o n s a n d u s e s in t h e l a n g u a g e of c o n t e m p o r a r y c o n s t i ­ t u t i o n a l i s m t h a t t h e f o r m s of e x p r e s s i o n in l i b e r a l i s m , n a t i o n a l i s m a n d c o m m u n i t a r i a n i s m c a u s e us to overlook, yet w h i c h a r e p e r f e c t l y j u s t i f i a b l e . T h i s is in fact o n e of m y s t r a t e g i e s in t h e l a t e r c h a p t e r s . I s h o w t h a t t h e p r e v a i l i n g l a n g u a g e of t h e t h r e e schools of m o d e r n political t h e o r y h a s elbowed a s i d e e n t i r e a r e a s of t h e b r o a d e r l a n g u a g e of c o n s t i ­ t u t i o n a l i s m - s u c h as t h e c o m m o n law, e a r l i e r v a r i e t i e s of w h i g g i s m a n d civic h u m a n i s m - w h i c h p r o v i d e t h e m e a n s of r e c o g n i s i n g a n d a c c o m m o d a t i n g c u l t u r a l diversity. (I a m s u r e t h i s t e c h n i q u e will b e f a m i l i a r to m a n y , for it is a n a p p r o a c h p i o n e e r e d by Q u e n t i n S k i n n e r , J o h n Pocock a n d Richard Tuck.) N o t only is t h e b r o a d e r l a n g u a g e of c o n t e m p o r a r y c o n s t i ­ t u t i o n a l i s m m o r e c o m p l e x t h a n t h e t h r e e d o m i n a n t schools allow, it is also n e i t h e r exclusively i m p e r i a l n o r exclusively E u r o p e a n . T h e m o d e r n f e a t u r e s of it w e r e d e v e l o p e d d u r i n g t h e a g e of E u r o p e a n i m p e r i a l i s m , a n d s e r v e d to l e g i t i m a t e it, as we shall s e e . N o t w i t h s t a n d i n g , it is also t h e l a n g u a g e i n which the anti-imperial struggles have b e e n fought, b o t h within and against Europe, during the same period. Moreover, t h e g r e a t s t r u g g l e s of w o m e n a n d o t h e r s for c o n s t i t u t i o n a l r e c o g n i t i o n h a v e b e e n w a g e d a n d j u s t i f i e d in t h e s e t e r m s . As we h a v e s e e n , t h e r e a s o n w h y t h e politics of c u l t u r a l r e c o g ­ n i t i o n t o d a y c a n b e d e s c r i b e d a s a t y p e of a n t i - i m p e r i a l m o v e m e n t is t h a t t h e p r o p o n e n t s a r e a b l e t o use t h e l a n g u a g e of c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m in a n a l o g o u s ways t o e a r l i e r a n t i - i m p e r i a l theorists and practitioners. T h e r e f o r e , it is a m i s r e p r e s e n t a t i o n t o r e g a r d t h e l a n g u a g e of c o n t e m p o r a r y c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m as a m o n o l i t h i c m a s c u l i n e , E u r o p e a n a n d i m p e r i a l s t r u c t u r e t h a t m u s t b e swept a w a y if t h e first s t e p of r e c o g n i t i o n is to b e j u s t . R a t h e r , it is m o r e a k i n t o a n a s s e m b l a g e of l a n g u a g e s , s o m e w h a t like E u r o p e a n l a n g u a g e s a r o u n d t h e world, c o m p o s e d of c o m p l e x s i t e s of

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interaction and struggle, both within E u r o p e and with nonE u r o p e a n p e o p l e s a n d c u l t u r e s . In t h e c o u r s e of t h e c o n t e s t s for r e c o g n i t i o n , t h e l a n g u a g e of c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m h a s b e e n s h a p e d a n d f o r m e d by o t h e r c u l t u r e s in ways t h a t t h e E u r o p e a n i m p e r i a l w r i t e r s w o u l d find u n r e c o g n i s a b l e . I n d e e d , t o d e c r y t h e l a n g u a g e of c o n t e m p o r a r y c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m as solely a n E u r o p e a n , i m p e r i a l m o n o l i t h , i m p o s e d from t h e c e n t r e o n to t h e p e r i p h e r y w i t h o u t a n y c h a n g e or i n t e r a c t i o n is, ironically, u n c r i t i c a l l y to a c c e p t t h e very self i m a g e t h e m o s t c h a u v i n i s t i c i m p e r i a l t h e o r i s t s of m o d e r n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l ­ i s m s o u g h t to u p h o l d , a n d w h i c h E r i c Wolf decisively e x p o s e d in Europe and the people without history. A s E d w a r d S a i d p u t s it in Culture and imperialism, it is n e c e s s a r y to a p p r o a c h t h e E u r o p e a n t e x t s of t h e m o d e r n p e r i o d w i t h ' a n a c u t e a n d e m b a r r a s s e d a w a r e n e s s of t h e allp e r v a s i v e , u n a v o i d a b l e i m p e r i a l s e t t i n g ' . N o t w i t h s t a n d i n g , it is e q u a l l y i m p o r t a n t t o see t h e political l a n g u a g e t h a t d e v e l o p e d n o t as solely t h e i n d e p e n d e n t c r e a t i o n of i m p e r i a l a p o l o g i s t s , b u t as w h a t h e calls ' c o n t r a p u n t a l e n s e m b l e s ' , f o r m e d t h r o u g h c u l t u r a l i n t e r a c t i o n a n d conflict, h o w e v e r u n e q u a l it m a y h a v e b e e n . 4

H a v i n g p o i n t e d t o t h e flexibility a n d a d a p t a b i l i t y of t h e l a n g u a g e of c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m , it is n e c e s s a r y to say s o m e t h i n g a b o u t its stability: its p o w e r to e x c l u d e a n d a s s i m i l a t e . T h e r e is a r e g u l a r or c u s t o m a r y a g r e e m e n t in j u d g e m e n t s m a n i ­ f e s t e d in t h e a c t u a l u s e of t h e t e r m s of c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m in p u b l i c discussion of t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n of c o n t e m p o r a r y s o c i e t i e s . T h a t t h e r e is s u c h a p u b l i c d i s c u s s i o n is p a r t of w h a t is m e a n t by a c o n t e m p o r a r y c o n s t i t u t i o n a l society. T h e a g r e e ­ m e n t in j u d g e m e n t s is ' c u s t o m a r y ' or ' c o n v e n t i o n a l ' in t h e s e n s e t h a t t h e d i s c u s s a n t s d o n o t explicitly a g r e e to use t h e s e t e r m s in s u c h a n d s u c h a w a y b u t , r a t h e r , t h a t t h e i r explicit a n d reflexive a g r e e m e n t s a n d d i s a g r e e m e n t s r e s t o n t h i s implicit a g r e e m e n t in u s a g e . T h i s c u s t o m a r y or c o n v e n t i o n a l a g r e e m e n t is a n e c e s s a r y c o n d i t i o n of t h e r e b e i n g a d i s c u s s i o n . As W i t t g e n s t e i n elucidates, such a c u s t o m a r y a g r e e m e n t in u s e is n o t a n a g r e e m e n t in ' o p i n i o n s ' ( t h a t is, explicit

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a g r e e m e n t s r e a c h e d by d i s c u s s i o n ) , b u t a b a c k g r o u n d a g r e e ­ m e n t in ' l a n g u a g e ' or ' f o r m s of l i f e ' . W h e n a d e m a n d for c o n s t i t u t i o n a l r e c o g n i t i o n is a d v a n c e d , t h e c u s t o m a r y u s e s of t h e t e r m s of m o d e r n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m function as a n o r m a t i v e f o u n d a t i o n for t h e d i s c u s s i o n in two ways. In t h e first s t e p , as you will recall, t h e d e m a n d is r e d e s c r i b e d as a c l a i m in t h e p r e v a i l i n g l a n g u a g e of c o n s t i ­ t u t i o n a l i s m . T h i s is a c o n d i t i o n of it b e i n g r e c o g n i s e d as a c o n s t i t u t i o n a l d e m a n d a t all. W h e n , for e x a m p l e , A b o r i g i n a l p e o p l e s strive for r e c o g n i t i o n , t h e y a r e c o n s t r a i n e d t o p r e s e n t t h e i r d e m a n d s in t h e n o r m a t i v e v o c a b u l a r y a v a i l a b l e t o t h e m . T h a t is, t h e y s e e k r e c o g n i t i o n as ' p e o p l e s ' a n d ' n a t i o n s ' , w i t h ' s o v e r e i g n t y ' or a ' r i g h t of self d e t e r m i n a t i o n ' , e v e n t h o u g h t h e s e t e r m s m a y d i s t o r t or m i s d e s c r i b e t h e c l a i m t h e y w o u l d wish to m a k e if it w e r e e x p r e s s e d in t h e i r own l a n g u a g e s . 5

S e c o n d , t h e c l a i m for r e c o g n i t i o n is t h e n critically a d j u d i c a t e d . F o r e x a m p l e , t h e c o n v e n t i o n a l c r i t e r i a for t h e a p p l i c a t i o n a n d c r i t i c i s m of t h e t e r m s ' p e o p l e ' , ' n a t i o n ' , ' r i g h t of self d e t e r m i n a t i o n ' , a n d ' s o v e r e i g n t y ' f u n c t i o n as t h e n o r m a t i v e a n d i n t e r s u b j e c t i v e g r o u n d s for t e s t i n g t h e c l a i m t o r e c o g n i t i o n . T h e ways in w h i c h t h e c l a i m is i n t e r p r e t e d a n d critically a d j u d i c a t e d a r e different in t h e l i b e r a l , n a t i o n a l i s t , a n d c o m m u n i t a r i a n t r a d i t i o n s , for e a c h h a s its own c u s t o m a r y f o r m s of critical r e f l e c t i o n , a n d e a c h is a w a r e of t h e o t h e r s . T h i s is not t o s u g g e s t t h a t t h e c r i t e r i a for a p p l y i n g a n d c r i t i c i s i n g t h e t e r m s of m o d e r n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m r e m a i n t h e fixed a n d u n q u e s t i o n e d n o r m s a r o u n d w h i c h t h e d i s c u s s i o n p r o c e e d s , a l t h o u g h , of c o u r s e , e a c h of t h e t h r e e schools s e e k s t o h o l d its set firmly in p l a c e . In a n y given c i r c u m s t a n c e s of a c l a i m for r e c o g n i t i o n s o m e , b u t n e v e r all, of t h e c u s t o m a r y u s e s a n d c r i t e r i a of t e s t i n g a r e called i n t o q u e s t i o n . W h e n A b o r i g i n a l p e o p l e a t t h e U n i t e d N a t i o n s , for e x a m p l e , d e m a n d r e c o g n i t i o n a s ' n a t i o n s ' w i t h ' t h e r i g h t of self determination', they are arguing that the prevailing criteria a n d r e f e r e n c e of t h e s e t e r m s o u g h t to b e r e v i s e d to i n c l u d e t h e m , r a t h e r t h a n to e x c l u d e t h e m , as t h e y h a v e d o n e for t h e last five h u n d r e d y e a r s . W h e n w o m e n a r g u e for a n e q u a l r i g h t s a m e n d m e n t , t h e logic of t h e c l a i m is a n a l o g o u s . D e s p i t e

4°

Strange

multiplicity

t h e efforts of t h e t h r e e schools to lay d o w n u n a l t e r a b l e r u l e s for c r i t i c a l discussion, it is safe to say t h a t we w o u l d n o t r e c o g ­ n i s e p u b l i c d i s c u s s i o n s of t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n of c o n t e m p o r a r y s o c i e t i e s as critical d i s c u s s i o n s u n l e s s t h e y h a d t h i s s e c o n d o r d e r reflective d i m e n s i o n : t h a t is, t h e n o r m s of r a t i o n a l a c c e p t a b i l i t y of c o n s t i t u t i o n a l r e c o g n i t i o n a r e t h e m s e l v e s q u e s t i o n e d , in a p i e c e m e a l fashion, in t h e c o u r s e of t h e discussion. C o n t e m p o r a r y c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m is t h u s a g a m e in w h i c h t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s a l t e r t h e c o n v e n t i o n s as t h e y go a l o n g . F o r e x a m p l e , l a n d l e s s l a b o u r e r s , slaves, c o r p o r a t i o n s , r e l i g i o u s and linguistic minorities, non-Europeans, women, prisoners a n d a h o s t of o t h e r l e g i t i m a t e c o n s t i t u t i o n a l a c t o r s w o u l d n e v e r h a v e g a i n e d c o n s t i t u t i o n a l r e c o g n i t i o n over t h e last t h r e e h u n d r e d y e a r s if t h i s w e r e n o t a f e a t u r e of c o n s t i t u t i o n ­ a l i s m . H o w e v e r , to c o m e b a c k t o t h e first p o i n t , t h e p i e c e m e a l a l t e r a t i o n of t h e r u l e s in t h e c o u r s e of t h e d i s c u s s i o n t a k e s p l a c e a g a i n s t , a n d is j u s t i f i e d w i t h r e f e r e n c e to, t h e b r o a d a n d r e l a t i v e l y s t a b l e b a c k g r o u n d of c u s t o m a r y a g r e e m e n t s in j u d g e m e n t t h a t a r e n o t q u e s t i o n e d in a n y given c r i t i c a l discussion. C o n s t i t u t i o n a l l a n g u a g e , as H a r o l d B e r m a n h a s a r g u e d , is also h e l d i n p l a c e by its u s e in t h e h a b i t u a l a n d c h a r a c t e r i s t i c a c t i v i t i e s of a m o d e r n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l society. P a r l i a m e n t , v o t i n g , t h e c o u r t s , b u r e a u c r a c y , police, d i s s e n t , p r o t e s t , i n t e r ­ n a t i o n a l w a r a n d e v e n r e v o l u t i o n s a r e all a c t i v i t i e s in w h i c h t h e t e r m s of c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m a r e u s e d in fairly c o n v e n t i o n a l w a y s . T h e r e g u l a r activities in w h i c h t h e v o c a b u l a r y is u s e d a r e , w i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n of r e v o l u t i o n s , also i n s t i t u t i o n a l i s e d in fairly d u r a b l e r e l a t i o n s of p o w e r w h i c h m a k e u p t h e legal a n d political s t r u c t u r e s of c o n s t i t u t i o n a l s t a t e s . So, a d a p t i n g t h e w o r k of F o u c a u l t , we c a n say t h a t t h e l a n g u a g e of c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m is h e l d in p l a c e in s p i t e of, a n d e v e n a s a r e s u l t of, t h e c o n t i n u a l c h a l l e n g e s to a s p e c t s of it, by c u s t o m a r y l i n g u i s t i c u s a g e , n o r m a l activity a n d i n s t i t u t i o n a l isation. A c c o r d i n g l y , t h e p u b l i c discussion of c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m is n o t a n i d e a l s p e e c h - s i t u a t i o n , b u t a critical d i s c u s s i o n firmly

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w i t h i n t h e a u t h o r i t a t i v e t r a d i t i o n s of i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of t h e i n s t i t u t i o n s of m o d e r n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l s o c i e t i e s . H e n c e , t h e d i s c u s s i o n is d i s t o r t e d n o t o n l y b y t h e i n s t r u m e n t a l u s e of p o w e r . F o r e x a m p l e , w h e n A b o r i g i n a l p e o p l e s seek r e c o g ­ n i t i o n as ' p e o p l e ' w i t h t h e ' r i g h t of self d e t e r m i n a t i o n ' , established nation states with Aboriginal peoples within their borders use their considerable i n s t r u m e n t a l power to keep the c l a i m o u t of p u b l i c d i s c u s s i o n . T h e y s e e k to d i s c r e d i t t h e i r c l a i m s or, if all else fails, to s i l e n c e t h e c l a i m a n t s . At a d e e p e r level, t h e v e r y activity of u s i n g t h e l a n g u a g e of m o d e r n c o n s t i ­ t u t i o n a l i s m in t h e n o r m a l a c t i v i t i e s a n d c e n t r a l i n s t i t u t i o n s of m o d e r n s o c i e t i e s h o l d s t h e s y s t e m of c o n v e n t i o n a l u s e s in p l a c e . It is n o t o n l y t h e force of h a b i t s of t h o u g h t b u t also t h i s i n t e r r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n t h e l a n g u a g e of c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m a n d t h e p u b l i c i n s t i t u t i o n s of m o d e r n s o c i e t i e s t h a t m a k e s it e x t r e m e l y difficult in p r a c t i c e t o c h a l l e n g e t h e p r e v a i l i n g f o r m s of c o n s t i t u t i o n a l r e c o g n i t i o n . N o w , t h e l a n g u a g e of m o d e r n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m - t h e r a n g e of c u s t o m a r y a n d w e l l - i n s t i t u t i o n a l i s e d u s e s of c o n s t i t u t i o n a l t e r m s t h a t d e f i n e s t h e t h r e e a u t h o r i t a t i v e t r a d i t i o n s of politi­ cal t h e o r y — h o l d s in p l a c e a p i c t u r e of a m o d e r n c o n s t i t u t i o n c o n s i s t i n g of s e v e n m a i n f e a t u r e s . T h e s e v e n f e a t u r e s will b e d i s c u s s e d in d e t a i l in t h e t h i r d c h a p t e r . A r o u g h s k e t c h will suffice for t h e p r e s e n t p u r p o s e of i l l u s t r a t i o n . T h e p i c t u r e is of a culturally homogeneous and sovereign people establishing a c o n s t i t u t i o n by a form of c r i t i c a l n e g o t i a t i o n . T h e s o v e r e i g n p e o p l e a r e c u l t u r a l l y h o m o g e n e o u s in o n e of t h e t h r e e ways: a s a society of u n d i f f e r e n t i a t e d i n d i v i d u a l s , a c o m m u n i t y h e l d t o g e t h e r by t h e c o m m o n good or a c u l t u r a l l y d e f i n e d n a t i o n . T h e constitution founds an i n d e p e n d e n t and self-governing n a t i o n s t a t e w i t h a set of u n i f o r m legal a n d r e p r e s e n t a t i v e political i n s t i t u t i o n s in w h i c h all c i t i z e n s a r e t r e a t e d e q u a l l y , w h e t h e r t h e i r a s s o c i a t i o n is c o n s i d e r e d to b e a society of individuals, a nation or a community. A c o n s t i t u t i o n of t h i s m o d e r n t y p e first c a m e i n t o b e i n g in t h e s e v e n t e e n t h a n d e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r i e s in E u r o p e , in opposition to t h e 'ancient constitution' based on custom,

42

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t r a d i t i o n a n d i r r e g u l a r i t y on o n e side, a n d t o p r e - c o n s t i t u t i o n a l s o c i e t i e s , a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a s t a t e of n a t u r e o r a lower s t a g e of d e v e l o p m e n t o n t h e o t h e r . It w a s given t h e o r e t i c a l e x p r e s s i o n in t h e w r i t i n g s of t h e m o d e r n E u r o p e a n political t h e o r i s t s from J o h n L o c k e to J o h n S t u a r t Mill. C o n t e m p o r a r y l i b e r a l s , n a t i o n a l i s t s a n d c o m m u n i t a r i a n s i n t e r p r e t e a c h of t h e s e c o n s t i t u t i o n a l f e a t u r e s differently, p r e s e n t c o m p e t i n g n a r r a t i v e s of t h e rise a n d m a i n t e n a n c e of m o d e r n c o n s t i ­ t u t i o n s , a n d i n t e r p r e t t h e m o d e r n t h e o r i e s of c o n s t i t u t i o n a l ­ i s m in c o m p e t i n g ways. Y e t n o o n e c a n fail t o see o n reflection the shared horizon against which their d i s a g r e e m e n t s take place. T o a r e m a r k a b l e e x t e n t , this is t h e s a m e p i c t u r e s k e t c h e d by C h a r l e s H o w a r d M c l l w a i n , t h e E a t o n P r o f e s s o r of t h e Science of G o v e r n m e n t at H a r v a r d , in his classic s t u d y , Constitutional­ ism: ancient and modern (1940). M c l l w a i n c l a i m e d t h a t T h o m a s P a i n e p r o v i d e d t h e a u t h o r i t a t i v e e x p r e s s i o n of t h i s vision of a m o d e r n c o n s t i t u t i o n . T h i s s e e m s fitting, s i n c e P a i n e ' s t h e o r y w a s v e r y m u c h a E u r o p e a n t h e o r y , yet it w a s u s e d t o j u s t i f y a w a r of colonial i n d e p e n d e n c e a g a i n s t E u r o p e a n i m p e r i a l i s m a n d to e s t a b l i s h a n i n d e p e n d e n t c o n s t i t u t i o n a l n a t i o n s t a t e in A m e r i c a w i t h s o v e r e i g n t y over t h e A b o r i g i n a l p e o p l e s ; j u s t t h e roles t h e l a n g u a g e of m o d e r n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m h a s p l a y e d e v e r s i n c e . If t h e f o u n d i n g f a t h e r s of m o d e r n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l t h e o r y a r e e x t e n d e d to i n c l u d e P a i n e ' s c o n t e m p o r a r i e s , especially J e a n - J a c q u e s Rousseau, A d a m S m i t h , I m m a n u e l Kant, Benjamin Constant and Georg Wilhelm Friedrich H e g e l , a s well as s e v e r a l of his p r e d e c e s s o r s , s u c h as J o h n Locke and T h o m a s Hobbes, then I think Mcllwain's c h a r a c t e r i s a t i o n r e m a i n s fairly a c c u r a t e . (I will n o t e m y d i s a g r e e m e n t s in t h e n e x t c h a p t e r . ) T h i s p i c t u r e r e m a i n e d u n q u e s t i o n e d as l o n g as t h e political s t r u g g l e s t h e t h e o r i s t s c h o s e t o discuss c o u l d b e s e e n t o be d r i v e n by d e m a n d s to b e i n c l u d e d in t h e s e f o r m s of c o n s t i ­ t u t i o n a l r e c o g n i t i o n : to b e c o m e i n d e p e n d e n t n a t i o n s t a t e s or t o b e c o m e c i t i z e n s w i t h e q u a l r i g h t s a n d d i g n i t y . As we h a v e s e e n , t h e c o n t e m p o r a r y d e m a n d s for c u l t u r a l r e c o g n i t i o n a r e n o t of t h i s inclusive t y p e . T h e y involve t h e c l a i m t h a t t h e

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f o r m s of r e c o g n i t i o n in this p i c t u r e fail t o t a k e i n t o a c c o u n t c u l t u r a l d i v e r s i t y from t h e first s t e p : t h a t is, in t h e t h r e e initial a c c o u n t s of p o p u l a r s o v e r e i g n t y . A s a r e s u l t , t h e f o r m s of c o n s t i t u t i o n a l r e c o g n i t i o n o n w h i c h t h e s o v e r e i g n p e o p l e r e a c h a g r e e m e n t overlook a n d e x c l u d e or a s s i m i l a t e c u l t u r a l d i f f e r e n c e s . T h i s is t h e r e s i d u a l i m p e r i a l i s m of t h e m o d e r n t h e o r i s t s ' p i c t u r e . It b e g s t h e q u e s t i o n of its o w n i m p a r t i a l i t y a n d s o v e r e i g n t y as t h e a u t h o r i t a t i v e l a n g u a g e of d e s c r i p t i o n a n d a d j u d i c a t i o n of c l a i m s to r e c o g n i t i o n . E a c h of t h e six e x a m p l e s of t h e politics of c u l t u r a l r e c o g ­ n i t i o n I m e n t i o n e d in t h e first c h a p t e r pose t h i s q u e s t i o n to different f e a t u r e s of t h e s h a r e d l a n g u a g e of m o d e r n c o n s t i ­ t u t i o n a l i s m . I n t h i s s e n s e , t h e politics of c u l t u r a l r e c o g n i t i o n is as f u n d a m e n t a l a c h a l l e n g e t o m o d e r n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m as P a i n e ' s t h e o r y w a s to t h e vision of t h e a n c i e n t c o n s t i t u t i o n . It is n o t a c h a l l e n g e w i t h i n t h e p i c t u r e , as I shall n o w i l l u s t r a t e , b u t t o t h e b a s i c a s s u m p t i o n s of m o d e r n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m . The challenge of post-modernism and culturalfeminism L e t u s n o w briefly review h o w c o n t e m p o r a r y t h e o r i s t s from t h e t h r e e m o d e r n t r a d i t i o n s h a v e r e s p o n d e d to t h e c h a l l e n g e p o s e d by t h e politics of c u l t u r a l r e c o g n i t i o n . T h e s e r e s p o n s e s will b e t r e a t e d in m o r e d e t a i l in l a t e r c h a p t e r s . T h e i r responses illustrate precisely the dichotomy t h a t a m o r e h i s t o r i c a l l y i n f o r m e d r e s p o n s e c a n avoid: t h a t is, e i t h e r t h e d e m a n d s a r e a s s i m i l a t e d to t h e p r e v a i l i n g f o r m s of r e c o g ­ n i t i o n o r t h e y a r e j u d g e d to be u n w a r r a n t e d . A m o n g t h e t h r e e a u t h o r i t a t i v e schools, t h e r e s p o n s e h a s b e e n t o a r g u e t h a t if t h e d e m a n d s for r e c o g n i t i o n a r e to b e considered legitimate, t h e n they must be redescribed and a d j u d i c a t e d w i t h i n t h e p r e v a i l i n g n o r m s of c o n s t i t u t i o n a l r e c o g n i t i o n . T h i s r e s p o n s e h a s t a k e n two g e n e r a l f o r m s . F i r s t , l i b e r a l , c o m m u n i t a r i a n a n d n a t i o n a l i s t t h e o r i s t s of a c o n s e r v a t i v e b e n t h a v e a r g u e d t h a t t h e d e m a n d s for t h e r e c o g ­ n i t i o n of c u l t u r a l diversity a r e i n c o m p a t i b l e w i t h , a n d a d i r e c t t h r e a t t o , t h e r e s p e c t i v e n o r m s of t h e i r u n d e r s t a n d i n g of m o d e r n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m . T h e y fly in t h e face of c u l t u r a l n e u t r a l i t y for l i b e r a l s , t h e i n t e g r i t y of t h e n a t i o n for

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n a t i o n a l i s t s a n d t h e s h a r e d c o n c e p t i o n of a c o m m u n i t y for c o m m u n i t a r i a n s . I n e a c h c a s e , t h e d e m a n d s a r e s e e n t o b e a t h r e a t t o t h e u n i t y of a c o n s t i t u t i o n a l a s s o c i a t i o n a n d t h e s o l u t i o n is t o a s s i m i l a t e , i n t e g r a t e or t r a n s c e n d , r a t h e r t h a n r e c o g n i s e a n d affirm, c u l t u r a l diversity. If t h e s e s t r a t e g i e s a r e i m p o s s i b l e , t h e n t h e only a l t e r n a t i v e is for t h e c u l t u r a l g r o u p d e m a n d i n g r e c o g n i t i o n t o s e c e d e . S o m e of t h e b e t t e r k n o w n p r o p o n e n t s of t h i s view a r e l i b e r a l s s u c h as J o h n R a w l s , A l l e n B u c h a n a n and Jiirgen H a b e r m a s , c o m m u n i t a r i a n s such as M i c h a e l S a n d e l , a n d a h o s t of n a t i o n a l i s t w r i t e r s . A second and more tolerant response has been to argue t h a t m a n y of t h e d e m a n d s c a n b e c o m p r e h e n d e d t o s o m e e x t e n t within the prevailing norms because the recognition and p r o t e c t i o n of c u l t u r e s is a n e c e s s a r y c o n d i t i o n of s o m e of t h e p r i m a r y goods t h a t l i b e r a l s , n a t i o n a l i s t s a n d c o m m u n i t a r i a n s seek to r e a l i s e . L i b e r a l s s u c h as Will K y m l i c k a , D a n i e l W e i n s t o c k a n d Seyla B e n h a b i b , c o m m u n i t a r i a n s s u c h as C h a r l e s T a y l o r a n d M i c h a e l W a l z e r , a n d n a t i o n a l i s t s s u c h as Yael T a m i r , G u y L a f o r e s t a n d I s a i a h B e r l i n h a v e a r g u e d in different ways t h a t a fair d e g r e e of r e c o g n i t i o n a n d a c c o m m o ­ d a t i o n of c u l t u r a l diversity is j u s t i f i a b l e w i t h i n t h e r e s p e c t i v e c o n s t i t u t i o n a l t r a d i t i o n s of m o d e r n s o c i e t i e s . H o w e v e r , a n u m b e r of w r i t e r s h a v e r e p l i e d t h a t n o m a n i p u ­ l a t i o n of t h e n o r m s of t h e t h r e e a u t h o r i t a t i v e t r a d i t i o n s c a n e v e r d o j u s t i c e to t h e d i v e r s e d e m a n d s for c u l t u r a l r e c o g n i t i o n b e c a u s e , a s we h a v e s e e n , t h e d e m a n d s a r e a c h a l l e n g e t o t h e h e g e m o n y of t h e s e t h r e e t r a d i t i o n s a n d t h e i r s h a r e d l a n g u a g e of c o n s t i t u t i o n a l r e c o g n i t i o n . F o r t h e p u r p o s e s of i l l u s t r a t i o n , let m e m e n t i o n t h r e e c o u n t e r , or n o n - a u t h o r i t a t i v e , schools of i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of c o n s t i t u t i o n a l societies t h a t h a v e a r i s e n : post-modernism, cultural feminism and interculturalism. T h e s e t h r e e n e w schools a r e n o n - a u t h o r i t a t i v e in t h e s e n s e t h a t t h e y did n o t d e v e l o p a l o n g w i t h t h e f o r m a t i o n of c o n t e m ­ p o r a r y c o n s t i t u t i o n a l s o c i e t i e s a n d t h e i r l a n g u a g e of self u n d e r s t a n d i n g , as t h e o t h e r t h r e e schools did. T h e t e x t s a n d a u t h o r s t h e y r e f e r t o , t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s of t h e m o d e r n t h e o r i s t s t h e y a d v a n c e , t h e n a r r a t i v e s of c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m t h e y e m p l o y a n d t h e f o r m s of r e c o g n i t i o n t h e y c h a m p i o n

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h a v e b e e n m a r g i n a l to, if n o t s u p p r e s s e d by, t h e d o m i n a n t l a n g u a g e of m o d e r n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m s h a r e d by l i b e r a l s , nationalists and communitarians. T h e i r a r g u m e n t is t h a t t h e t h r e e a u t h o r i t a t i v e t r a d i t i o n s of i n t e r p r e t a t i o n h a v e b e e n f o r m e d by E u r o p e a n m e n in a n a g e of i m p e r i a l i s m , a n d t h u s t h e i r s h a r e d l a n g u a g e of m o d e r n constitutionalism has a European, male and imperial cultural bias. As a r e s u l t it is i m p o s s i b l e to d o i m p a r t i a l j u s t i c e t o t h e d e m a n d s for c u l t u r a l r e c o g n i t i o n w i t h i n t h e v o c a b u l a r y of these three traditions. Post-modern writers have t u r n e d especially t o t h e c o n c e p t s of i d e n t i t y , s o v e r e i g n t y a n d r e c o g ­ n i t i o n t o s h o w h o w t h e s e a r e u s e d t o co-opt, r a t h e r t h a n t o r e c o g n i s e , t h e c u l t u r a l d e m a n d s of w o m e n , n o n - E u r o p e a n s a n d o t h e r s w h o h a v e p r e v i o u s l y b e e n e x c l u d e d from t h e p u b l i c s p h e r e of m o d e r n societies. F r o m t h e i r p e r s p e c t i v e , t h e r i s e of p o s t - m o d e r n i s m is c o n n e c t e d to t h e d i s m a n t l i n g of E u r o p e a n i m p e r i a l i s m . T h e l a n g u a g e of m o d e r n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m is seen as an imperial m e t a - n a r r a t i v e which needs to be t h o r o u g h l y d e c o n s t r u c t e d . ' O n e c a n say w i t h t o t a l s e c u r i t y ' , J a c q u e s D e r r i d a w r o t e in t h e e a r l y 1960s, ' t h a t t h e r e is n o t h i n g f o r t u i t o u s a b o u t t h e fact t h a t t h e c r i t i q u e of [European] e t h n o c e n t r i s m . . . should be systematically a n d h i s t o r i c a l l y c o n t e m p o r a n e o u s w i t h t h e d e s t r u c t i o n of t h e h i s t o r y of m e t a p h y s i c s . ' 6

T h e c r i t i c i s m of t h e p r e v a i l i n g c o n c e p t of i d e n t i t y is b o t h t h e s t r e n g t h a n d w e a k n e s s of p o s t - m o d e r n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m . Post-modern writers have shown that liberal, national a n d c o m m u n i t a r i a n t h e o r i s t s c u s t o m a r i l y use a s h a r e d c o n c e p t of i d e n t i t y w h e n t h e y identify t h e i r m a i n c o n c e p t s , s u c h a s c u l t u r e , c i t i z e n , society, c o m m u n i t y , a s s o c i a t i o n , n a t i o n o r p e o p l e . T h i s c o n c e p t of i d e n t i t y , as w e s a w in t h e first c h a p t e r , is u n a b l e t o a c c o u n t for a c r u c i a l f e a t u r e of c o n t e m p o r a r y i d e n t i t y : t h a t it is always d i f f e r e n t f r o m itself, as well as f r o m others. T h e y have then shown how this compromises the theories constructed with these concepts. Unfortunately, m a n y p o s t - m o d e r n writers have gone on to d r a w t h e u n w a r r a n t e d c o n c l u s i o n t h a t a n y c o n c e p t of i d e n t i t y is self deconstructing and contingent, thereby heralding the end

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of s o v e r e i g n t y a n d c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m in a n u n i d e n t i f i a b l e fragmentation. P e r h a p s t h e b e s t overview of t h i s c o n s e q u e n c e of p o s t ­ m o d e r n legal a n d political t h e o r y is n o t in t h e w o r k s of t h e political t h e o r i s t s t h e m s e l v e s , b u t i n t h e w r i t i n g s of t h e a n t h r o p o l o g i s t J a m e s Clifford. I n The predicament of culture h e s e t s o u t t o e x p l o r e t h e c o n s e q u e n c e s of t h e n e w c o n c e p t of culture as overlapping, open a n d negotiated, with t h e a i m of f r e e i n g his r e a d e r s from t h e e a r l i e r , s e p a r a t e , closed a n d h o m o g e n e o u s c o n c e p t i o n . H o w e v e r , in t h e d e s c r i p t i o n o f ' t h e c o n d i t i o n of u n c e r t a i n t y ' from w h i c h h e w r i t e s , i n s t e a d of a t t e n d i n g a n d giving a p p r o p r i a t e r e c o g n i t i o n t o t h e different t y p e s of o v e r l a p p i n g c u l t u r a l d i f f e r e n c e s a n d s i m i l a r i t i e s t h a t c o m e i n t o view (as h e d o e s in t h e insightful c h a p t e r o n t h e M a s h p e e A b o r i g i n a l n a t i o n on C a p e C o d ) , h e r e d u c e s p o s t ­ m o d e r n societies t o a h o m o g e n e o u s c u l t u r e of c o n t i n g e n t a n d dissolving d i f f e r e n c e s . H e w r i t e s , 7

I think we are seeing signs that the privilege given to natural languages and, as it were, natural cultures, is dissolving. These objects and epistemological grounds are now appearing as constructs, achieved fictions, containing and domesticating heteroglossia. In a world with too many voices speaking all at once, a world where syncretism and parodic invention are the rule, not the exception, an urban, multinational world of institutional transience - where American clothes made in Korea are worn by young people in Russia, where everyone's 'roots' are in some degree cut — in such a world it becomes increasingly difficult to attach human identity and meaning to a coherent 'culture' or 'language'.

O f c o u r s e , it is i n c r e a s i n g l y difficult t o a t t a c h h u m a n i d e n t i t y a n d m e a n i n g t o a c o h e r e n t c u l t u r e or l a n g u a g e o n t h e c o m m o n g r o u n d , given t h e forces of g l o b a l i s a t i o n a n d m o b i l i t y m e n t i o n e d in t h e first c h a p t e r . T h i s is w h y t h e r e is a politics of c u l t u r a l r e c o g n i t i o n a t t h e e n d of t h e t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y , a n d w h y it will intensify in t h e twenty-first. H o w e v e r , dissolving this difficulty, a n d t h e d e m a n d s it h a s e n g e n d e r e d , i n t o a h o m o g e n e o u s ' p o s t - c u l t u r a l s i t u a t i o n ' is t o finesse r a t h e r t h a n face t h e p r o b l e m p o s t - m o d e r n i s m sets o u t t o a d d r e s s . T h e e n d r e s u l t is s t r i k i n g l y s i m i l a r t o t h a t p u t

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forward by c o n s e r v a t i v e critics of c u l t u r a l diversity. T h e c o n s e r v a t i v e political t h e o r i s t P e t e r E m b e r l e y , for e x a m p l e , writes, 8

It [the current pluralism] is . . . a mere multiplicity or hetero­ geneity of deracinated voices (or 'discourses'), constituted in great part through the communications media, and distanced from any reality commonly attested to, other t h a n that which is the product of subjective grievance or private fantasy. This radical heterogeneity and fragmentation is the context in which contemporary efforts to reappraise and renew constitutions is taking place, and it is placing burdens upon courts and legislators which the 'metaphysic' of modern constitutionalism cannot bear. Let us recall t h e m o r e c a u t i o u s conclusion t h a t D e r r i d a r e c e n t l y d r e w from t h e i n s i g h t t h a t a c u l t u r e is n o t i d e n t i c a l to itself. H e w r i t e s t h a t t h i s is ' n o t to n o t h a v e a n i d e n t i t y ' at all, b u t r a t h e r , ' t o b e a b l e to t a k e t h e f o r m of a subject only in t h e n o n - i d e n t i t y w i t h itself or, if you p r e f e r , only in t h e d i f f e r e n c e with itself. T h e s e c o n d school, w h i c h s t a n d s in a n a g o n i c r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h t h e t h r e e a u t h o r i t a t i v e schools, is c u l t u r a l f e m i n i s m . T h e c l a i m of its m e m b e r s is t h a t it is n o t a sufficient c o n d i t i o n of justice t h a t w o m e n participate within the public institutions a n d t r a d i t i o n s of i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of c o n t e m p o r a r y s o c i e t i e s , as w o m e n h a v e s t r u g g l e d t o d o in this c e n t u r y . Since t h e institutions and traditions have been established and s u s t a i n e d by m e n t o t h e e x c l u s i o n of w o m e n u n t i l r e c e n t l y , it is n o t u n r e a s o n a b l e t o q u e s t i o n if t h e y have a m a s c u l i n e p a r t i a l i t y w h i c h d i s c r i m i n a t e s in s o m e ways a g a i n s t f e m i n i n e ways of s p e a k i n g , t h i n k i n g a n d a c t i n g . As w o m e n h a v e g a i n e d access t o t h e political a n d c o n s t i ­ t u t i o n a l d o m a i n s of societies in t h e t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y , t h e y h a v e , for t h e m o s t p a r t , a c t e d w i t h i n t h e d o m i n a n t i n s t i t u t i o n s a n d s p o k e n w i t h i n t h e t h r e e a u t h o r i t a t i v e t r a d i t i o n s , a l b e i t in different ways in different c o u n t r i e s , as G i s e l a Bock a n d S u s a n J a m e s i l l u s t r a t e in t h e i r i n t e r n a t i o n a l collection of f e m i n i s t a r t i c l e s . M a n y w o m e n a n d m e n h a v e defined t h e m s e l v e s as liberal, nationalist and c o m m u n i t a r i a n feminists, and

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e n g a g e d in politics in t h e s e t e r m s . T h e g e n e r a l t r e n d I m e n t i o n e d above h a s a p p e a r e d in this specific c a s e : c o n s e r v a ­ tive m e m b e r s of t h e t h r e e schools a r g u e t h a t t h e a d m i s s i o n of w o m e n r e q u i r e s n o c h a n g e in t h e i n s t i t u t i o n s a n d t r a d i t i o n s , while the progressive m e m b e r s submit that changes are n e c e s s a r y to c o m p r e h e n d t h e d e m a n d s of f e m i n i s t s , b u t t h a t the changes a m e n d r a t h e r t h a n challenge the prevailing traditions. C u l t u r a l f e m i n i s t s w e l c o m e t h e e n s u i n g p l u r a l i t y of f e m i n i s t a p p r o a c h e s , especially in daily political s t r u g g l e s w h e r e i n t e r e s t s a n d a l l i a n c e s shift a n d i n t e r s e c t a m o n g d i f f e r e n t g r o u p s in society. N e v e r t h e l e s s , t h e y q u e s t i o n if w h a t I a m c a l l i n g t h e 'first s t e p ' h a s n o t b e e n b y p a s s e d a t t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n a l level in this u n d e r s t a n d a b l e r u s h t o p a r t i c i p a t e in politics w i t h i n t h e h o r i z o n s of t h e d o m i n a n t m o d e r n l a n g u a g e of c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m . Allow m e t o i l l u s t r a t e t h e r e s i d u a l q u e s t i o n t h a t c u l t u r a l f e m i n i s t s c o n t i n u e t o r a i s e to t h e i r s i s t e r s a n d b r o t h e r s in t h e t h r e e l e a d i n g schools w i t h a N o r t h A m e r i c a n e x a m p l e ; t h e d e b a t e over c a r e a n d j u s t i c e i n i t i a t e d by t h e p u b l i c a t i o n of C a r o l G i l l i g a n ' s a p t l y t i t l e d In a different voice in 1 9 8 2 . I n t h e d e b a t e , w h i c h shows n o signs of a b a t i n g , o n e r e s p o n s e h a s b e e n t o r e j e c t c a r e as a political i s s u e b e c a u s e it is i n c o m p a t i b l e w i t h t h e d o m a i n of p u b l i c j u s t i c e in m o d e r n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m . T h e p r o g r e s s i v e r e s p o n s e h a s b e e n to a r g u e t h a t it is a political i s s u e , b u t w h a t e v e r a s p e c t s of political a s s o c i a t i o n it b r i n g s to light ( s u c h as r e l a t e d n e s s ) c a n b e a d e q u a t e l y a r t i c u l a t e d a n d c o m p r e h e n d e d w i t h i n t h e con­ c e p t u a l r e s o u r c e s of t h e t h r e e r e i g n i n g t r a d i t i o n s . S e v e r a l f e m i n i s t s , s u c h as S u s a n M o l l e r O k i n , Seyla B e n h a b i b a n d J e a n B e t h k e Elshtain, have brilliantly reworked t h e a u t h o r i t a t ­ ive t r a d i t i o n s to this e n d . Still, c u l t u r a l f e m i n i s t s a s k if t h i s is n o t a s u b t l e yet f a m i l i a r f o r m of c u l t u r a l i m p e r i a l i s m in w h i c h f e m i n i n e voices a r e given a d i s t o r t e d h e a r i n g w i t h i n t r a d i t i o n s t h a t r e m a i n m a s c u l i n e in s e v e r a l r e s p e c t s . L i k e A n t i g o n e , C a r o l G i l l i g a n c o n t i n u e s t o insist t h a t t h e ways in w h i c h h u m a n s a r e s e e n by m a n y w o m e n t o b e in c o n s t i t u t i v e r e l a t i o n s of c a r e w i t h e a c h o t h e r a r e c o v e r e d over a n d

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d i s r e g a r d e d by t h e d i f f e r e n t i n i t i a l c o n d i t i o n s laid d o w n in t h e c o n v e n t i o n s of t h e t h r e e t r a d i t i o n s . T h i s p r e c l u d e s , P e t a B o w d e n p e r s u a s i v e l y a r g u e s , t h e k i n d of d i a l o g u e of m u t u a l r e c o g n i t i o n in w h i c h different a r t i c u l a t i o n s of c a r e , e a c h in t h e i r own l a n g u a g e of a r t i c u l a t i o n , could b e fairly c o m p a r e d a n d contrasted to d e t e r m i n e , r a t h e r t h a n presuppose, their similarities and differences. A s i m i l a r k i n d of q u e s t i o n b e g g i n g o c c u r s w h e n c u l t u r a l f e m i n i s t s seek to p r e s e n t a d i v e r s i t y - s e n s i t i v e c o n c e p t i o n of gender-related cultural differences, and to work out how r i g h t s a n d o t h e r c o n s t i t u t i o n a l devices could be i n t e r p r e t e d a n d a p p l i e d in a m a n n e r s e n s i t i v e to f o r m s of c u l t u r a l differ­ e n c e s . A g a i n t h e r e s p o n s e h a s b e e n to t u r n to t h e r e s o u r c e s of t h e m a i n s t r e a m traditions and a r g u e that culture differences c a n b e e i t h e r t r a n s c e n d e d or, in so far as t h e y a r e i n e l i m i n a b l e , a r t i c u l a t e d w i t h t h e t h e o r i e s of difference a v a i l a b l e in t h e d o m i n a n t t r a d i t i o n s or, as f e m i n i s t s s u c h as J u l i a K r i s t e v a s u g g e s t , a c c o u n t e d for in t h e t e r m s given in p o s t ­ m o d e r n t h e o r i e s of d i f f e r e n c e . D e s p i t e t h e c o m p r e h e n s i v e a n d p l u r a l c o n c e p t i o n s of i d e n t i t y a n d difference t h a t t h e d e f e n d e r s of t h e t h r e e t r a d i t i o n s a r e a b l e t o find by r e r e a d i n g their canonical European, male authors, cultural feminists r e m a i n s c e p t i c a l . M a r i a L u g o n e s a n d E l i z a b e t h S p e l m a n , for e x a m p l e , p l e a d t h a t t h e g e n e r a l c o n c e p t i o n s of d i f f e r e n c e in t h e s e t r a d i t i o n s , e v e n a f t e r t h e y h a v e b e e n a m e n d e d by feminist m e m b e r s , can scarcely do justice to the criss-crossing and overlapping cultural differences they are trying to a r t i c u l a t e within t h e f e m i n i s t m o v e m e n t , s u c h as t h e m u l t i p l e identifications w o m e n have with their nation, communities, class, r a c e , l i n g u i s t i c g r o u p , family, a g e g r o u p a n d r i g h t s , as well as g e n d e r . T h i s d i f f e r e n t i a t e d c o n c e p t of c u l t u r a l d i f f e r e n c e s , L i n d a Alcoff f u r t h e r s u b m i t s , is n o t i d e n t i c a l t o t h e d i s i n t e g r a t i v e c o n c e p t of d i f f e r e n c e a d v a n c e d by p o s t ­ m o d e r n t h e o r i s t s . M o r e o v e r , if t h e s e i n s i g h t s i n t o c u l t u r a l differences in d i v e r s e s o c i e t i e s a r e to b e i n t e g r a t e d i n t o constitutional theory and practice, then, M a r t h a Minow's w o r k i l l u s t r a t e s , o n e h a s to r e a c h b e y o n d t h e n a r r o w l a n g u a g e of m o d e r n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m t o t h e b r o a d e r or ' c o m m o n '

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l a n g u a g e of c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m to d o so (as we shall see in chapter 5). C o n s e q u e n t l y , c u l t u r a l f e m i n i s t s c l a i m t h a t t h e first s t e p of c u l t u r a l r e c o g n i t i o n h a s not b e e n , a n d c a n n o t b e , a d d r e s s e d w i t h i n t h e t e r m s a n d t r a d i t i o n s of t h e t h r e e schools. T o d o so in t h e o r y w o u l d b e t o i n v e s t i g a t e if t h e r e is a n u n e x a m i n e d m a s c u l i n e bias in t h e l a n g u a g e t h e y s h a r e w h i c h o c c l u d e s w h a t r e m a i n s to be said in w o m e n ' s o t h e r voices a n d t r a d i t i o n s . T h e r e a s o n w h y c u l t u r a l f e m i n i s t s believe t h a t t h e r e m a y b e s u c h a bias is n o t s i m p l y b e c a u s e t h e l a n g u a g e h a s b e e n forged by m e n . R a t h e r , t h e c e n t r a l c o n c e p t s of t h e l a n g u a g e of m o d e r n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m a r e d e f i n e d a u t h o r i t a t ­ ively by t h e classic m o d e r n t h e o r i s t s in explicit c o n t r a s t to w h a t t h e t h e o r i s t s took to be c h a r a c t e r i s t i c a l l y f e m i n i n e c o n c e p t s . G e n e v i e v e Lloyd a n d m a n y o t h e r s h a v e s h o w n t h a t , in t h e c a n o n i c a l t e x t s , t h e a l l e g e d l y u n i v e r s a l m a n of p u b l i c politics, w i t h h i s f o r m s of r e a s o n i n g , r i g h t s , v i r t u e s , i n t e r e s t s a n d c o n s t i t u t i o n a l a s s o c i a t i o n s , is d e f i n e d in c o n t r a s t to t h e p r i v a t e w o m a n , w i t h h e r c o n t r a s t i n g q u a l i t i e s a n d associ­ a t i o n s . T h e s e n o w c o n v e n t i o n a l u s e s of t h e c e n t r a l t e r m s of m o d e r n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m w e r e a d v a n c e d by t h e m a j o r i t y of classic m a l e t h e o r i s t s from t h e s e v e n t e e n t h to n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r i e s to justify t h e e x c l u s i o n of w o m e n from politics. W h e n w o m e n a n d m e n n o w w r i t e , s p e a k a n d act in t h e c o n v e n t i o n s of this l a n g u a g e , m e r e l y c h a n g i n g ' m a n ' to ' m a n a n d w o m a n ' , t h e y c a n n o t h e l p b u t d o so in w h a t t h e classic t h e o r i s t s took to b e a m a s c u l i n e way. T o a s c e r t a i n if t h e l a n g u a g e of m o d e r n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m is itself a j u s t l a n g u a g e for e n q u i r i n g i n t o c o n s t i t u t i o n a l j u s t i c e , t h e r e f o r e , it is n e c e s s a r y t o c a r r y o u t t h e s a m e sort of c r i t i q u e of its p o t e n t i a l m a s c u l i n e bias as I laid o u t above for o t h e r a s p e c t s of c o n s t i t u t i o n a l l a n g u a g e . F i r s t , as A d r i e n n e R i c h p u t s t h e g e n e r a l p o i n t , it involves a c o n s t a n t c r i t i q u e of language: 9

It is not easy to think like a woman in a man's world. To think like a woman in a man's world means thinking critically, refusing to accept the givens, making connections between facts and ideas which men leave unmentioned. It means remembering that every mind resides

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in a body; remaining accountable to the female bodies in which we live; constantly testing given hypotheses against lived experience. It means a constant critique of language, for as Wittgenstein - no feminist - observed, the limits of my language are the limits of my world. M u c h of t h i s w o r k h a s b e e n d o n e , s o m e of it by self-critical w r i t e r s in t h e t h r e e c o n d i t i o n s . H o w e v e r , it is insufficient for, like O e d i p u s , it r e m a i n s w i t h i n t h e c o n v e n t i o n s of t h e prevailing constitutional order. T o b r i n g A n t i g o n e ' s p e r s p e c t i v e to b e a r , as R i c h also r e c o m m e n d s , t h e c r i t i q u e involves t h e r e c o v e r y of c o u n t e r t r a d i t i o n s of i n t e r p r e t a t i o n by w o m e n w h o h a v e w r i t t e n a n d a c t e d b o t h w i t h i n a n d o u t s i d e t h e a u t h o r i t a t i v e t r a d i t i o n s of modern constitutionalism: 10

What does a woman need to know? Does she not, as a self-conscious, self-defining human being need a knowledge of her history, her much politicised biology, an awareness of the creative work of women in the past, the skills and crafts and techniques and powers exercised by women in different times and cultures, a knowledge of women's rebellions and organised movements against our oppression and how they have been routed or diminished? Without such knowledge women live and have lived without context, vulnerable to the projections of male fantasy, male prescriptions for us, estranged from our own experience because our education has not reflected or echoed it. I would suggest that not biology, but ignorance of ourselves, has been the key to our powerlessness. T h e q u e s t i o n n o t t o ask is if, say, M a r y W o l l s t o n e c r a f t a n d M a r y Shelley a r e l i b e r a l a n d r o m a n t i c , r a t i o n a l i s t a n d e x p r e s s i v i s t . Before t h e i r voices a r e d r o w n e d out in this c o n v e n t i o n a l way, o n e s h o u l d ask w h a t is it in w h a t t h e y a r e s a y i n g , a n d in t h e w a y t h e y say it, t h a t is n o t said, a n d p e r h a p s c a n n o t b e said, in t h e s e m a l e - d o m i n a t e d t r a d i t i o n s . W h a t a r e t h e d i f f e r e n c e s left over a f t e r all t h e s i m i l a r i t i e s a r e e n u m e r ­ a t e d ? T h e m e n t a l a s y l u m in w h i c h M a r i a is confined is not a f o o t n o t e t o B e n t h a m ' s p a n o p t i c o n . It is a w o m a n ' s different i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of t h e i n s t i t u t i o n s of m o d e r n s o c i e t i e s . Frankenstein is n o t a r o m a n t i c or c o m m u n i t a r i a n c r i t i c i s m of

52

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a t o m i s m , b u t a w o m a n ' s c r i t i c i s m of t h e i n h u m a n i t y of r o m a n t i c i s m . If t h e c o m p l e x g e n e a l o g y of c o n t e m p o r a r y c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m is t o b e u n d e r s t o o d , t h e s e c o u r a g e o u s t e x t s s h o u l d b e r e a d n o t as s u p p l e m e n t s to t h e d e a f e n i n g c o n s t i ­ t u t i o n a l t r a d i t i o n s f o u n d e d by L o c k e , R o u s s e a u , P a i n e a n d H e r d e r , b u t in r e a l h i s t o r i c a l c o n f r o n t a t i o n a n d e n t a n g l e m e n t with them. E n o u g h h i s t o r i c a l s c h o l a r s h i p h a s b e e n d o n e by c u l t u r a l f e m i n i s t s t o s u g g e s t t h a t p a t r i a r c h y , d e s p i t e L o c k e , h a s yet to b e ' u n m o n a r c h e d ' in m o d e r n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m , a n d so t o s u p p o r t t h e i r c l a i m to a fair h e a r i n g for r e c o g n i t i o n . T h e q u e s t i o n r e m a i n s of h o w c u l t u r a l f e m i n i s t s c a n e n g a g e in critical d i a l o g u e s in w h i c h t h e i r t r a d i t i o n s a r e r e c o g n i s e d o n equal footing with the authoritative traditions, the aim being to discover a n d constitutionally protect w h a t cultural s i m i l a r i t i e s a n d differences r e m a i n a f t e r a fair e x c h a n g e . T h e n , w h e n t h e m o u s e w o m a n a n d t h e dogfish w o m a n e n g a g e in politics a n d s h a r e i n s t i t u t i o n s w i t h t h e b e a r a n d t h e wolf, t h e y will not h a v e t o s p e a k a n d act e x a c t l y like t h e m b u t , r a t h e r , t h e i r c u l t u r a l l y d i s s i m i l a r ways of b e i n g c i t i z e n s will b e respected. H o w e v e r , w h e n t h e topic of s u c h a d i a l o g u e is r a i s e d , t h e p r o g r e s s i v e f e m i n i s t m e m b e r s of t h e t h r e e t r a d i t i o n s t a k e it u p in t h e i r c o n v e n t i o n a l w a y s , p r o p o s i n g t h a t it t a k e t h e s u i t a b l y a m e n d e d f o r m of t h e o r i g i n a l p o s i t i o n in c o n t r a c t a r i a n i s m , d i s c o u r s e e t h i c s in critical t h e o r y , t h e o v e r l a p p i n g c o n s e n s u s of t h e t h r e e a u t h o r i t a t i v e t r a d i t i o n s in p r a g m a t i c l i b e r a l i s m , t h e d i a l o g u e of v i r t u o u s c i t i z e n s on t h e c o m m o n good in c o m m u n i t a r i a n i s m a n d t h e s o v e r e i g n n a t i o n in c o n v e r s a t i o n w i t h itself in n a t i o n a l i s m . C u l t u r a l f e m i n i s t s s u c h as Iris Y o u n g r e p l y as t h e y h a v e d o n e in all t h e e a r l i e r e x a m p l e s : n o n e of t h e s e c a n d o full j u s t i c e to w o m e n ' s c u l t u r a l l y different ways of e n g a g i n g in a d i a l o g u e . M o r e g e n e r a l l y , n o o n e of t h e s e f o r m s of d i a l o g u e c a n d o j u s t i c e t o all t h e s p e a k e r s , for e a c h fails to r e c o g n i s e t h e t h r e e f e a t u r e s of t h e c u l t u r a l l y d i v e r s e c o m m o n g r o u n d o n w h i c h t h e dialogue takes place. T h e p r e s u m p t i o n that t h e r e must be one c o m p r e h e n s i v e f o r m of d i a l o g u e , w h i c h u n d e r l i e s t h e c u r r e n t

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d e b a t e o n t h e j u s t f o r m of c o n s t i t u t i o n a l d i a l o g u e a m o n g t h e c o m p e t i n g schools, is a n u n e x a m i n e d c o n v e n t i o n left over from t h e i m p e r i a l a g e . A m o m e n t ' s r e f l e c t i o n on or p a r t i c i ­ p a t i o n in a n y r e c e n t c o n s t i t u t i o n a l n e g o t i a t i o n s will m a k e one realise that there are m a n y m o r e legitimate, culturally d i f f e r e n t ways of giving r e a s o n s a n d d e f e n d i n g a c l a i m t h a n a r e d r e a m e d of in t h e c u r r e n t t h e o r i e s of a j u s t d i a l o g u e . O n l y a d i a l o g u e in w h i c h d i f f e r e n t ways of p a r t i c i p a t i n g in t h e d i a l o g u e a r e m u t u a l l y r e c o g n i s e d w o u l d b e j u s t ( e v e n if t h e first p i e c e of b u s i n e s s is t o a g r e e o n w h i c h f o r m s of d i a l o g u e a r e a d m i s s i b l e ) . C o n s e q u e n t l y , t h e q u e s t i o n of h o w w o m e n can e n t e r into a dialogue on equal footing with m e m b e r s from t h e a u t h o r i t a t i v e t r a d i t i o n s w i t h o u t b e i n g m a r g i n a l i s e d or a s s i m i l a t e d r e m a i n s u n a n s w e r e d . The challenge of interculturalism T h e t h i r d c h a l l e n g e h a s c o m e from i n t e r c u l t u r a l c i t i z e n s : A b o r i g i n a l p e o p l e s , m e m b e r s of s u p p r e s s e d a n d d i v i d e d n a t i o n a l i t i e s , l i n g u i s t i c a n d visible m i n o r i t i e s , a n d c i t i z e n s w h o seek c o n s t i t u t i o n a l r e c o g n i t i o n of i n t e r n a t i o n a l c u l t u r a l r e l a t i o n s a m o n g p e o p l e s . F r o m t h e i r p e r s p e c t i v e s , as R i t a J o e i l l u m i n a t e d in c h a p t e r i, t h e c u l t u r a l i m p e r i a l i s m of m o d e r n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m is obvious a n d g l a r i n g . T h e y seek l i b e r a t i o n by m e a n s of t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n a l r e c o g n i t i o n of s u p p r e s s e d I n d i g e n o u s a n d n o n - E u r o p e a n t r a d i t i o n s of i n t e r p r e t a t i o n a n d c o r r e s p o n d i n g d e g r e e s of self r u l e . T h e i r r e s p o n s e t o p r o g r e s s i v e a t t e m p t s to s t r e t c h t h e d o m i n a n t t r a d i t i o n s a n d institutions to c o m p r e h e n d their d e m a n d s , such as the i m p r e s s i v e w o r k of Will K y m l i c k a in l i b e r a l i s m , M i c h a e l W a l z e r in c o m m u n i t a r i a n i s m and Philip Resnick in n a t i o n a l i s m , is, as I a m s u r e you will a n t i c i p a t e , s c e p t i c a l . W h i l e this is a w e l c o m e m o v e m e n t in t h e o r y a n d p r a c t i c e , it skips over t h e first s t e p of q u e s t i o n i n g t h e s o v e r e i g n t y of t h e a u t h o r i t a t i v e t r a d i t i o n s a n d i n s t i t u t i o n s t h e y serve to legitimate. F o r e x a m p l e , t h e c l a i m s of t h e A b o r i g i n a l p e o p l e s of t h e w o r l d for r e c o g n i t i o n of t h e e q u a l i t y of t h e i r c o n s t i t u t i o n s a n d t r a d i t i o n s , m a n y of w h i c h p r e c e d e m o d e r n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m

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by t h o u s a n d s of y e a r s , a r e t a k e n u p , w h e n t h e y a r e n o t i c e d , w i t h i n , a n d s u b o r d i n a t e to, t h e E u r o p e a n - d e r i v e d t r a d i t i o n s a n d i n s t i t u t i o n s . Y e t it is p r e c i s e l y t h e p r i o r q u e s t i o n of t h e i r p r e s u m e d sovereignty and impartiality that Aboriginal people c l a i m , w i t h good r e a s o n , d e s e r v e s a fair h e a r i n g . E v e n in t h e m a n y cases where interculturalists advance their claims within the prevailing institutions, the available language c a n n o t h e l p b u t d i s t o r t t h e i r voices. As we n o t e d in t h e first c h a p t e r , t h e c u s t o m a r y ways of s p e a k i n g a n d a c t i n g in t h e p u b l i c i n s t i t u t i o n s of m o d e r n societies h a v e for c e n t u r i e s s u s t a i n e d d o m i n a n t c u l t u r e s w h i c h s e r v e d to e n s l a v e , e x c l u d e , d e n i g r a t e , d i s p o s s e s s a n d a s s i m i l a t e p e o p l e s of n o n E u r o p e a n c u l t u r e s or of o p p r e s s e d E u r o p e a n c u l t u r e s . C r i t i c a l w o r k s of i n t e r c u l t u r a l h i s t o r i c a l s c h o l a r s h i p , s u c h as R o n a l d T a k a k i ' s A different mirror: a history of multicultural America, e x p o s e t h e b i a s of t h e d o m i n a n t t r a d i t i o n s of i n t e r p r e t a t i o n a n d t h e u n l i k e l i h o o d of a fair h e a r i n g w i t h i n t h e i r c o n v e n ­ tions. I n t e r c u l t u r a l i s m c h a l l e n g e s m o d e r n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m by s t a r t i n g from t h e t h r e e f e a t u r e s of c u l t u r a l diversity: c i t i z e n s a r e in c u l t u r a l r e l a t i o n s t h a t o v e r l a p , i n t e r a c t a n d a r e n e g o ­ t i a t e d a n d r e i m a g i n e d . T h e e x p e r i e n c e s of c r o s s i n g a n d living in m o r e t h a n o n e c u l t u r e , s u c h as A r a b — W e s t e r n , I n d i a n British, Scottish-UK, Hispanic—American, AboriginalCanadian, M a o r i - N e w Zealand and Asian-Canadian, have b e e n c e n t r a l to t h e i r c l a i m s t o r e c o g n i t i o n . A l t h o u g h i n t e r ­ c u l t u r a l i s t s a r e u n d e r s t a n d a b l y critical of t h e h o m o g e n e o u s c o n c e p t s of i d e n t i t y a n d a s s o c i a t i o n c o n s t i t u t i v e of l i b e r a l i s m , c o m m u n i t a r i a n i s m a n d n a t i o n a l i s m , t h e y n o n e t h e less r e j e c t t h e d e c o n s t r u c t i v e c o n c l u s i o n s of p o s t - m o d e r n i s m . I n t e r ­ c u l t u r a l w r i t e r s s u c h as P a u l a G u n n A l l e n , C a r l o s F u e n t e s , bell h o o k s , B h i k h u P a r e k h , E d w a r d Said, M a r y E l l e n T u r p e l a n d I r i s M a r i o n Y o u n g , as well as t h e t h o u s a n d s w h o a r e j u s t b e g i n n i n g to b e h e a r d in t h e d i a l o g u e of h u m a n k i n d , h a v e given a c e r t a i n , o b s t i n a t e s t a b i l i t y to c u l t u r a l i d e n t i t i e s w i t h t h e i r d i s t i n c t i v e v o c a b u l a r y of voice, n a r r a t i v e , r e c o v e r y a n d struggle. I n t e r c u l t u r a l i s m p r e s e n t s a f u r t h e r c h a l l e n g e to m o d e r n

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c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m t h a n t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n a l r i g h t to s p e a k a n d act politically in i n t e r c u l t u r a l w a y s in t h e p r e v a i l i n g insti­ t u t i o n s (as ' m u l t i c u l t u r a l i s m ' is often t a k e n to m e a n ) . M a n y i n t e r c u l t u r a l i s t s also c o m e t o c o n s t i t u t i o n a l d i a l o g u e s w i t h t h e c l a i m t h a t t h e y s h o u l d b e r e c o g n i s e d as a l r e a d y c o n s t i t u t e d not only by t h e i r c u l t u r e s , b u t also by t h w a r t e d or u s u r p e d c o n s t i t u t i o n a l a s s o c i a t i o n s of v a r i o u s k i n d s : n a t i o n s , c o m ­ m u n i t i e s a n d m i n o r i t i e s . T w o c o n v e n t i o n s of m o d e r n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m block a fair r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of t h i s c l a i m , as quebecois-canadiens A l a i n G a g n o n a n d G u y L a f o r e s t disclose. T h e p r e m i s e of t h e a u t h o r i t a t i v e t r a d i t i o n s is t h a t t h e p e o p l e w h o c o m e t o g e t h e r to d e l i b e r a t e o n a c o n s t i t u t i o n a r e in a p r e c o n s t i t u t i o n a l s i t u a t i o n of s o m e k i n d , s u c h as t h e t h r e e t y p e s of o r i g i n a l p o s i t i o n s m e n t i o n e d e a r l i e r . T h e i n c r e a s i n g l y c o m m o n s i t u a t i o n of a c o n s t i t u t i o n a l d i a l o g u e of p e o p l e w h o a r e a l r e a d y c o n s t i t u t e d in v a r i o u s ways ( s u c h as I s r a e l P a l e s t i n e , t h e four n a t i o n s of t h e U n i t e d K i n g d o m , B o s n i a Herzegovina, the European Union, Canada, New Zealand, I n d i a , S p a i n , t h e c i r c u m p o l a r I n u i t a n d M e x i c o ) c a n n o t be e n t e r t a i n e d . I n d e e d , as we shall see in t h e n e x t c h a p t e r , m o d e r n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m w a s d e s i g n e d to efface s u c h ' a n c i e n t ' c o n s t i t u t i o n a l s i t u a t i o n s . T h e p r e m i s e s of t h e a u t h o r i t a t i v e t r a d i t i o n s , like t h e c e r t i t u d e s t a k e n for g r a n t e d b y C r e o n in s i l e n c i n g A n t i g o n e , s e r v e to dispossess t h e c i t i z e n s of t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i d e n t i t i e s t h e y seek to discuss. S e c o n d , t h e a i m of s u c h c o n s t i t u t i o n a l d i s c u s s i o n s is a 'diverse' federation which recognises and accommodates a p p r o p r i a t e f o r m s a n d d e g r e e s of self r u l e for t h e c l a i m s t h a t survive a fair h e a r i n g . Y e t a firm c o n v e n t i o n of m o d e r n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m is t h a t t h e a i m of c o n s t i t u t i o n a l d i a l o g u e is a u n i f o r m a n d c o m p r e h e n s i v e legal a n d political a s s o c i a t i o n . T h e q u e s t i o n of a f e d e r a t i o n c a p a b l e of a c c o m m o d a t i n g t h e d i v e r s e ways c i t i z e n s a r e a l r e a d y c u l t u r a l l y c o n s t i t u t e d by m e a n s of a v a r i e t y of legal a n d political i n s t i t u t i o n s is e i t h e r b e y o n d t h e p a l e of R a w l s ' ' r e a s o n a b l e p l u r a l i s m ' , which m u s t c o n v e r g e o n a u n i f o r m legal a n d political o r d e r , or a n u n f o r t u n a t e d e v i a t i o n from t h e n o r m of u n i f o r m i t y . I n e i t h e r c a s e , t h e n o r m of u n i f o r m i t y r e m a i n s u n e x a m i n e d , w h e r e a s its 11

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p r e s u m e d i m p a r t i a l i t y is e x a c t l y w h a t i n t e r c u l t u r a l i s t s a t t e m p t i n g to call i n t o q u e s t i o n .

are

I n c o n c l u s i o n , t h e c o n f r o n t a t i o n b e t w e e n t h e politics of r e c o g ­ n i t i o n a n d m o d e r n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m faces a n i m p a s s e . H o w c a n t h e p r o p o n e n t s of r e c o g n i t i o n b r i n g f o r t h t h e i r c l a i m s in a p u b l i c f o r u m in w h i c h t h e i r c u l t u r e s h a v e b e e n e x c l u d e d or d e m e a n e d for c e n t u r i e s ? T h e y c a n a c c e p t t h e a u t h o r i t a t i v e l a n g u a g e a n d i n s t i t u t i o n s , in w h i c h c a s e t h e i r c l a i m s a r e r e j e c t e d by c o n s e r v a t i v e s or c o m p r e h e n d e d by p r o g r e s s i v e s within the very languages and institutions whose sovereignty a n d i m p a r t i a l i t y t h e y q u e s t i o n . O r t h e y c a n refuse to play t h e g a m e , in w h i c h case t h e y b e c o m e m a r g i n a l a n d r e l u c t a n t c o n s c r i p t s or t h e y t a k e u p a r m s . N o o n e w a n t s t h i s t r a g i c i m p a s s e t h a t covers t h e c o m m o n g r o u n d of so m a n y c o n t e m ­ p o r a r y societies w i t h t h e s c a r s of b a t t l e . O f c o u r s e t h e r e a r e m a n y r e a s o n s for t h e i m p a s s e . T h e o n e w h i c h c o n c e r n s m e in t h i s book is t h e w a y a j u s t d i a l o g u e is p r e c l u d e d by t h e c o n v e n t i o n s of m o d e r n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m . T h e u n e x a m i n e d i m p e r i a l c o n v e n t i o n I h o p e this c h a p t e r h a s b r o u g h t t o y o u r a t t e n t i o n is t h e c o n s t a n t c o n j u n c t i o n of t w o s e n s e s of t h e v e r b 'to c o m p r e h e n d ' : ' t o u n d e r s t a n d ' a n d ' t o i n c l u d e w i t h i n ' . W h e n t h e d e f e n d e r s of m o d e r n c o n s t i t u t i o n ­ a l i s m t a k e u p c l a i m s for r e c o g n i t i o n , t h e y a s s u m e t h a t t o comprehend (understand) what the claimants are saying consists in c o m p r e h e n d i n g it w i t h i n a n inclusive l a n g u a g e or c o n c e p t u a l f r a m e w o r k in w h i c h it c a n t h e n b e a d j u d i c a t e d . T h e conservatives exclude the claims, because they are incompatible with the conventions, and the progressives a m e n d t h e c o n v e n t i o n s to t r y to i n c l u d e t h e c l a i m s . T h i s p r a c t i c e of r u n n i n g t o g e t h e r t h e two s e n s e s o f ' t o c o m p r e h e n d ' is o n e of t h e m o s t d e e p - s e a t e d c o n v e n t i o n s of m o d e r n c o n s t i ­ tutionalism. As t h e black c a n o e i l l u s t r a t e s , o n e of t h e i m p o r t a n t discoveries of t h e t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y is t h a t s u c h a c o m p r e ­ h e n s i v e l a n g u a g e or p o i n t of view is a n illusion. T h e r e is n o view from n o w h e r e . N o m a t t e r h o w c o m p r e h e n s i v e s u c h a l a n g u a g e m a y a p p e a r t o b e , a n d s o m e r e c e n t c a n d i d a t e s in t h e

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p h i l o s o p h y of c r o s s - c u l t u r a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g h a v e a v e r y c o m ­ p r e h e n s i v e a p p e a r a n c e , it will always b r i n g to l i g h t s o m e a s p e c t s of t h e p h e n o m e n o n it is e m p l o y e d t o c o m p r e h e n d a t t h e e x p e n s e of d i s r e g a r d i n g o t h e r s , as a r e s u l t of t h e a s p e c t i v a l c h a r a c t e r of m o s t social p h e n o m e n a . It will n o t b e a m e t a - l a n g u a g e of r e c o g n i t i o n a n d a d j u d i c a t i o n b u t , r a t h e r , one language among others. If o n e s u c h l a n g u a g e or t r a d i t i o n g a i n e d a s c e n d a n c y in a c o n s t i t u t i o n a l n e g o t i a t i o n , it w o u l d c e a s e to b e a d i a l o g u e a t all. It w o u l d b e a ( l i b e r a l , n a t i o n a l i s t or c o m m u n i t a r i a n ) m o n o l o g u e . T h e r e f o r e , t h e p o s t - i m p e r i a l i n j u n c t i o n to l i s t e n t o t h e voices of o t h e r s m u s t involve l i s t e n i n g n o t o n l y to w h a t t h e y say, b u t a l s o t o t h e way or l a n g u a g e in w h i c h it is said, if t h e i m p e r i a l h a b i t of i m p o s i n g o u r t r a d i t i o n s a n d i n s t i t u t i o n s o n o t h e r s in b o t h t h e o r y a n d p r a c t i c e is t o b e a b j u r e d . T h e w a y t o b r e a k w i t h c o n v e n t i o n is t o d i s c o v e r a p o s t - i m p e r i a l d i a l o g u e , like t h e b l a c k c a n o e , in w h i c h t h e i n t e r l o c u t o r s p a r t i c i p a t e in t h e i r d i v e r s e c u l t u r a l f o r m s , a n d a f o r m of intercultural understanding which does not presuppose a comprehensive language. By t r a c i n g t h e h i s t o r i c a l f o r m a t i o n of t h e l a n g u a g e of m o d e r n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m in t h e following t h r e e c h a p t e r s , I s e e k to show t h a t t h e c u r r e n t i m p a s s e is a n illusion w h i c h is c a u s e d by t h e r e s t r i c t e d vision h e l d in p l a c e by t h e c o n v e n t i o n s s h a r e d by t h e a u t h o r i t a t i v e s c h o o l s . A b r o a d e r s u r v e y of t h e h i s t o r y of c o n t e m p o r a r y c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m r e v e a l s t h a t in m a n y i n t e r a c t i o n s w i t h o t h e r c u l t u r e s w h i c h , like t h e killing of L a i u s , a r e f o r g o t t e n , i g n o r e d o r m i s i n t e r p r e t e d by t h e m e m b e r s of t h e a u t h o r i t a t i v e t r a d i t i o n s , a ' c o m m o n ' i n t e r ­ c u l t u r a l l a n g u a g e of c o n v e n t i o n s evolved t o f a c i l i t a t e t h e m u t u a l r e c o g n i t i o n of c u l t u r a l l y d i v e r s e c o n s t i t u t i o n a l negotiators. This hidden constitutional l a n g u a g e can be r e c o n s t r u c t e d t o c h a n g e o u r vision of a c o n s t i t u t i o n a n d dissolve t h e i m p a s s e .

CHAPTER 3

The historicalformation of modern constitutionalism: the empire of uniformity

Constitutions ancient and modern T h i s c h a p t e r is a s u r v e y of t h e t e n d e n c y t o c u l t u r a l u n i f o r m i t y in t h e f o r m a t i o n of t h e l a n g u a g e of m o d e r n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m . It a n s w e r s t h e q u e s t i o n of w h y it is so difficult to r e c o g n i s e a n d affirm c u l t u r a l d i v e r s i t y in t h e schools of m o d e r n c o n s t i ­ t u t i o n a l i s m d i s c u s s e d in t h e last c h a p t e r . O r , p u t differently, w h y d o e s t h e black c a n o e a p p e a r t o us as a ' s t r a n g e m u l t i ­ plicity', r a t h e r t h a n as a n o r m a l n e g o t i a t i o n a m o n g m e m b e r s of a c u l t u r a l l y d i v e r s e society over h o w t h e y a r e g o i n g t o recognise and a c c o m m o d a t e their differences and similarities over t i m e as t h e y p a d d l e t h e s h i p of s t a t e ? T h e a n s w e r is t h a t t h e l a n g u a g e of m o d e r n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m w h i c h h a s c o m e t o b e a u t h o r i t a t i v e w a s d e s i g n e d to e x c l u d e or a s s i m i l a t e c u l t u r a l diversity a n d justify uniformity. T h e d e s i g n is difficult t o see b e c a u s e t h i s ' m o d e r n ' l a n g u a g e h a s b e c o m e t h e c u s t o m a r y w a y of t h i n k i n g a b o u t , r e f l e c t i n g o n a n d e n v i s i o n i n g a j u s t c o n s t i t u t i o n a l o r d e r . Since all t h r e e schools s h a r e it, d i s a g r e e i n g only over t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n a n d a p p l i c a t i o n of s o m e of its t e r m s , f o r m s of critical reflection a n d n a r r a t i v e s , t h e d e b a t e s over t h e l e g i t i m a c y of c u l t u r a l d i v e r s i t y r e i n f o r c e t h e s h a r e d vision. A s W i t t g e n s t e i n d e s c r i b e d t h i s sort of p h i l o s o p h i c a l p r o b l e m : 'A picture h e l d us c a p t i v e . A n d we could n o t g e t o u t s i d e it, for it lay in o u r l a n g u a g e a n d l a n g u a g e s e e m e d to r e p e a t it t o us i n e x o r a b l y . ' H e n c e , t h e t e n d e n c y is n o t to n o t i c e t h e p h i l o s o p h i c a l a n d ideological d e b a t e s over t h e last t h r e e h u n d r e d y e a r s b e t w e e n t h e successful m o d e r n t h e o r i s t s a n d t h e d e f e n d e r s of diversity w h o s t r u g g l e d a g a i n s t t h e m in t h e o r y a n d p r a c t i c e . O n l y t h e r e s u l t of t h e s e d e b a t e s is s e e n - t h e v i c t o r i o u s m o d e r n 1

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l a n g u a g e of c o n s t i t u t i o n a l u n i f o r m i t y - a n d c l a i m s for r e c o g ­ n i t i o n a r e v i e w e d t h r o u g h its f r a m e w o r k as if it w e r e i m p a r t i a l a n d u n i v e r s a l . H e n c e , to o v e r c o m e t h e p a r t i a l i t y of t h e i n h e r i t e d l a n g u a g e of m o d e r n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m we n e e d to retrace our steps, recover the a r g u m e n t s the m o d e r n theorists u s e d to set t h i s i m p o s i n g edifice in p l a c e a n d r e - e x a m i n e t h e j u s t i f i c a t i o n s t h e y a d v a n c e d for s i l e n c i n g t h e c u l t u r e s w h i c h h a v e r e t u r n e d to d e m a n d a h e a r i n g . T h e m a i n f e a t u r e s of t h e vision of a m o d e r n c o n s t i t u t i o n w h i c h a r e s h a r e d by t h e a u t h o r i t a t i v e t r a d i t i o n s of c o n s t i ­ t u t i o n a l i s m c a n b e found in t h e w r i t i n g s of c o n t e m p o r a r y political a n d c o n s t i t u t i o n a l t h e o r i s t s . F o r a n initial synopsis, let us s t a r t from t h e f o r m u l a t i o n by M c l l w a i n in Constitutional­ ism: ancient and modern, m e n t i o n e d in c h a p t e r 2, w h i c h r e c e n t w o r k o n t h e h i s t o r y of c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m c o n t i n u e s to e n d o r s e . Mcllwain argues that T h o m a s Paine articulated a distinctively m o d e r n p i c t u r e of a c o n s t i t u t i o n in t h e e r a of t h e A m e r i c a n a n d F r e n c h R e v o l u t i o n s . At t h e c e n t r e of t h e p i c t u r e a r e t h e s o v e r e i g n p e o p l e w h o exist p r i o r t o t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n of a political a s s o c i a t i o n . By a self-conscious act of reflective r e a s o n a n d a g r e e m e n t , t h e p e o p l e give rise to a c o n s t i t u t i o n w h i c h ' c o n s t i t u t e s ' t h e political a s s o c i a t i o n . T h e c o n s t i t u t i o n lays d o w n t h e f u n d a m e n t a l laws w h i c h e s t a b l i s h t h e f o r m of g o v e r n m e n t , t h e r i g h t s a n d d u t i e s of c i t i z e n s , t h e r e p r e s e n ­ tative and institutional relation b e t w e e n g o v e r n m e n t a n d governed, and an a m e n d i n g formula. T h i s m o d e r n c o n s t i t u t i o n , w h i c h h a s its r o o t s in t h e c o n t r a c t a r i a n t r a d i t i o n , a n d especially in t h e d e v e l o p m e n t from H o b b e s to P a i n e , is d e f i n e d by its p r o p o n e n t s in c o n t r a s t to a n ' a n c i e n t ' c o n s t i t u t i o n . A n a n c i e n t c o n s t i t u t i o n , M c l l w a i n w r i t e s , 'was p r o b a b l y n e v e r b e t t e r i n d i c a t e d t h a n by B o l i n g b r o k e , w h e n h e said in 1 7 3 3 ' : 2

By 'constitution' w e m e a n , w h e n e v e r w e speak w i t h propriety and e x a c t n e s s , that a s s e m b l a g e of laws, i n s t i t u t i o n s and c u s t o m s , derived from c e r t a i n fixed principles of r e a s o n , d i r e c t e d to c e r t a i n fixed objects of t h e public good, that c o m p o s e the g e n e r a l s y s t e m , according to w h i c h t h e c o m m u n i t y h a t h a g r e e d to be g o v e r n e d .

6o

Strange

multiplicity

T h e d e f i n i n g c o n t r a s t could scarcely b e s h a r p e r . A m o d e r n c o n s t i t u t i o n is a n act w h e r e b y a p e o p l e frees itself (or t h e m ­ selves) f r o m c u s t o m a n d i m p o s e s a n e w f o r m of a s s o c i a t i o n o n i t s e l f by a n act of will, r e a s o n a n d a g r e e m e n t . A n a n c i e n t c o n s t i t u t i o n , in c o n t r a s t , is t h e r e c o g n i t i o n of h o w t h e p e o p l e a r e a l r e a d y c o n s t i t u t e d by t h e i r a s s e m b l a g e of f u n d a m e n t a l laws, i n s t i t u t i o n s a n d c u s t o m s . Recent historical scholarship has confirmed t h a t some such c o n t r a s t b e t w e e n i m p o s i t i o n a n d r e c o g n i t i o n is o n e d e f i n i n g a s p e c t of m o d e r n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m in E u r o p e a n and E u r o p e a n - A m e r i c a n political t h o u g h t . T h e p e o p l e a r e said t o b e s o v e r e i g n a n d free in so far as t h e y a r e n o t t i e d t o c u s t o m , b u t a r e c o n s t i t u t i o n a l l y self d e t e r m i n i n g , w h e t h e r t h e ' p e o p l e ' a r e t h o u g h t of as i n d i v i d u a l s , in t h e t h e o r i e s of H o b b e s , P u f e n d o r f , L o c k e a n d K a n t , a c o m m u n i t y , in R o u s s e a u ' s Social contract, or as a n a t i o n , in The declaration of the rights of man and citizen a n d in t h e w r i t i n g s ofJ o h a n n H e r d e r a n d j o h a n n F i c h t e . H o w e v e r , t h e c o n t r a s t is only o n e a s p e c t a n d it is n o t u n i q u e to m o d e r n constitutionalism. T h e contrasting aspects u n d e r w h i c h a c o n s t i t u t i o n c a n b e s e e n — as a f o r m of a s s o c i a t i o n b r o u g h t i n t o b e i n g by i m p o s i t i o n or as a n e x i s t i n g f o r m of a s s o c i a t i o n b r o u g h t to a w a r e n e s s by r e c o g n i t i o n - h a v e b e e n p r e s e n t t h r o u g h o u t t h e h i s t o r y of c o n s t i t u t i o n a l t h o u g h t . T h e G r e e k t e r m for c o n s t i t u t i o n a l law, nomos, m e a n s b o t h w h a t is a g r e e d t o by t h e p e o p l e a n d w h a t is c u s t o m a r y . W h e n C i c e r o t r a n s l a t e d p o l i t e i a as constitutio h e u s e d it t o m e a n b o t h t h e f u n d a m e n t a l laws t h a t a r e e s t a b l i s h e d or laid d o w n by t h e m y t h i c a l l a w g i v e r a n d t h e fitting or a p p r o p r i a t e a r r a n g e m e n t in a c c o r d w i t h t h e p r e c e d i n g c u s t o m a r y ways of t h e p e o p l e . As I s u g g e s t e d in t h e first c h a p t e r , S o p h o c l e s ' Antigone is a t r a g i c d r a m a t i s a t i o n of t h e a m b i g u i t y of t h e t e r m ' c o n s t i t u t i o n ' . C r e o n d e f e n d s t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n a l laws of T h e b e s a s t h e y h a v e b e e n d e l i b e r a t e l y i m p o s e d by m e n , w h e r e a s A n t i g o n e p r o t e s t s t h a t t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n fails t o r e c o g n i s e t h e u n d e r l y i n g a s s e m b l a g e of c u s t o m s of family, h e a r t h a n d b u r i a l , t o w h i c h t h e p e o p l e a r e subject, a n d H a e m o n t r i e s unsuccessfully t o p e r s u a d e C r e o n t h a t b o t h a s p e c t s of a c o n s t i t u t i o n m u s t b e c o n c i l i a t e d if j u s t i c e is to b e s e r v e d . T h e c o n c e p t of a 3

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c o n s t i t u t i o n a n d its a s s o c i a t e d t e r m i n o l o g y h a v e r e m a i n e d J a n u s faced e v e r s i n c e : l o o k i n g b a c k t o a n a l r e a d y c o n s t i t u t e d order u n d e r one aspect and looking forward to an imposed order under the other. T h e a m b i g u i t y of ' c o n s t i t u t i o n ' a p p e a r s t o b e r e s o l v e d in favour of t h e i m p o s i t i o n c o n c e p t i o n in m o d e r n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l ­ i s m by t h e t e n d e n c y , n o t i c e a b l e in t h e t h e o r i e s of P a i n e a n d his followers, t o a s s u m e t h a t a m o d e r n c o n s t i t u t i o n is b a s e d o n ' a g r e e m e n t ' , w h i l e a n a n c i e n t c o n s t i t u t i o n is b a s e d o n de facto h a b i t or c u s t o m . T h i s is a false c o n t r a s t b e c a u s e , as t h e quotation from Bolingbroke s u m m a r i s e s , the reason why t h e c u s t o m a r y ways of t h e p e o p l e h a v e t h e a u t h o r i t y of c o n s t i t u t i o n a l law, a n d so a r e w o r t h y of r e c o g n i t i o n by t h e r u l e r , is t h a t t h e y a r e t h e e x p r e s s i o n of t h e ' a g r e e m e n t of t h e p e o p l e ' . T h i s is n o t t h e s a m e s e n s e of ' a g r e e m e n t ' as t h e m o d e r n c o n c e p t of a n 'explicit a g r e e m e n t ' o n a w r i t t e n c o n s t i t u t i o n w h i c h a p e o p l e r e a c h by d e l i b e r a t i o n , as in P a i n e ' s d e f i n i t i o n , b u t it is n o t r e d u c i b l e t o defacto h a b i t e i t h e r . R a t h e r , t h e ' l o n g u s e a n d p r a c t i c e ' of a c u s t o m reflects a n d m a n i f e s t s t h e d e l i b e r a t e j u d g e m e n t of r e a s o n , a n d so t h e c o n s e n t , of a free p e o p l e . T h e c o n s e n t of a free p e o p l e e x p r e s s e d by t h e i r ' a g r e e m e n t i n ' t h e i r c u s t o m a r y ways c o u n t s m o r e t h a n t h e a u t h o r i t y of t h e r u l e r . ( T h i s s e n s e of a g r e e m e n t is s i m i l a r t o ' a g r e e m e n t in j u d g e m e n t s ' d i s c u s s e d in c h a p t e r 2.) H e n c e , i n T h o m a s A q u i n a s ' i n f l u e n t i a l f o r m u l a t i o n , t h e c u s t o m a r y w a y s of a p e o p l e h a v e t h e a u t h o r i t y of law b e c a u s e t h e y m a n i f e s t t h e a g r e e m e n t of a free p e o p l e a n d t h e y c a n n o t b e c h a n g e d b y t h e r u l e r w i t h o u t t h e i r explicit a g r e e m e n t . O n e of t h e m a j o r t h e m e s of M c l l w a i n ' s s t u d y , a m p l i f i e d r e c e n t l y by D o n a l d Kelley, is t h e i m m e n s e i m p o r t a n c e of t h i s c o n c e p t i o n of a u t h o r i t a t i v e c u s t o m a r y a g r e e m e n t in t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of a n c i e n t c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m u p to B o l i n g b r o k e . T h e r e f o r e , p a r a d o x i c a l l y , t h e a n c i e n t c o n s t i t u t i o n , by r e c o g ­ n i s i n g c u s t o m , a n d t h e m o d e r n c o n s t i t u t i o n , by o v e r r i d i n g c u s t o m , b o t h c l a i m t o r e s t o n t h e a g r e e m e n t of t h e p e o p l e . If t h e e n t i r e scope of m o d e r n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m could b e d e f i n e d in t e r m s of a n u n a m b i g u o u s c o n t r a s t b e t w e e n selfd e t e r m i n i n g i m p o s i t i o n a n d c u s t o m - b a s e d r e c o g n i t i o n , as it 4

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a p p e a r s in t h e c o n t r a s t b e t w e e n P a i n e a n d B o l i n g b r o k e , t h e n t h e t a s k of c u l t u r a l r e c o g n i t i o n w o u l d n o t b e too difficult. O n e could p o i n t o u t t h a t t h e d e m a n d s for t h e r e c o g n i t i o n of c u l t u r e s a r e d e m a n d s t h a t p e o p l e ' s a g r e e m e n t in c u s t o m a r y ways of s p e a k i n g a n d a c t i n g b e r e c o g n i s e d a n d a c c o m m o d a t e d t o s o m e e x t e n t . Since t h e i r r e d u c i b l e role of c u l t u r e is n o w w i d e l y a c k n o w l e d g e d , t h e e r r o r in m o d e r n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m in d i s r e g a r d i n g it c a n b e e x p o s e d , as t h e p r o g r e s s i v e l i b e r a l s , nationalists and c o m m u n i t a r i a n s have b e g u n to do. H o w e v e r , t h e t a s k is m o r e difficult b e c a u s e , as we h a v e seen, the contrast between ancient recognition and modern i m p o s i t i o n is d r a w n w i t h i n t h e c o m p r e h e n s i v e l a n g u a g e of m o d e r n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m . D e s p i t e t h e w i d e a c c e p t a n c e of M c l l w a i n ' s a c c o u n t , t h e t h e o r i s t s of m o d e r n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m d i d n o t d i s r e g a r d t h e role of c u s t o m a l t o g e t h e r . R a t h e r , t h e y d e v e l o p e d s o p h i s t i c a t e d a c c o u n t s of c u s t o m s , c u l t u r e s a n d h i s t o r y a s p a r t of t h e i r t h e o r i e s of a m o d e r n c o n s t i t u t i o n . T o g r a s p t h e full vision of m o d e r n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m , it is n e c e s s a r y to u n d e r s t a n d h o w t h e ' a n c i e n t ' r e c o g n i t i o n of c u s t o m w a s i n c o r p o r a t e d a n d t r a n s f o r m e d in t h e classic t h e o r i e s of m o d e r n c o n s t i t u t i o n s , for t h e c u r r e n t a t t e m p t s t o r e c o g n i s e c u l t u r a l diversity r e m a i n e n t a n g l e d in t h e s e sophis­ t i c a t e d m o d e r n c o n c e p t i o n s of c u s t o m s , c u l t u r e s a n d history. Seven features of modern constitutionalism S e v e n f e a t u r e s of t h e l a n g u a g e of m o d e r n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m s e r v e t o e x c l u d e or t o a s s i m i l a t e c u l t u r a l diversity. T h i s l a n g u a g e is p r o p e r l y c a l l e d ' m o d e r n ' b e c a u s e m o s t of t h e t h e o r i s t s w h o forged it c l a i m e d to p r e s e n t t h e o r i e s of a ' m o d e r n ' c o n s t i t u t i o n , w h i c h t h e y d e f i n e d in o p p o s i t i o n t o w h a t t h e y called t h e ' a n c i e n t ' c o n s t i t u t i o n of t h e i r critics. By t h i s l i n g u i s t i c sleight of h a n d , t h e y m a d e it a p p e a r t h a t t h e only l e g i t i m a t e c o n s t i t u t i o n in t h e m o d e r n a g e is a ' m o d e r n ' o n e . T h e i r o p p o n e n t s , in u p h o l d i n g a n ' a n c i e n t ' c o n s t i t u t i o n , a p p e a r anachronistic and nostalgic, inappropriate to m o d e r n t i m e s . The liberty of the ancients compared with that of the modems ( 1 8 1 9 ) by B e n j a m i n C o n s t a n t is p e r h a p s t h e m o s t successful e x e m p l a r of t h i s g e n r e . As we saw in t h e p r e v i o u s c h a p t e r , t h i s

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3

s t r a t e g y of c o m p r e h e n s i o n h a s b e e n so successful t h a t even r e c e n t critics h a v e b e e n t a k e n in by it. P o s t - m o d e r n w r i t e r s criticise t h e c o n v e n t i o n s of m o d e r n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m as if t h e y w e r e t h e c o n t o u r s of t h e m o d e r n i t y itself. T h e first f e a t u r e of m o d e r n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m c o m p r i s e s t h r e e c o n c e p t s of p o p u l a r s o v e r e i g n t y w h i c h e l i m i n a t e c u l t u r a l d i v e r s i t y as a c o n s t i t u t i v e a s p e c t of politics. T h e p e o p l e a r e s o v e r e i g n a n d c u l t u r a l l y h o m o g e n e o u s in t h e s e n s e t h a t c u l t u r e is i r r e l e v a n t , c a p a b l e of b e i n g t r a n s c e n d e d , or u n i ­ f o r m . T h e y r e a c h a g r e e m e n t o n a f o r m of c o n s t i t u t i o n a l asso­ c i a t i o n by a h y p o t h e t i c a l or h i s t o r i c a l p r o c e s s of d e l i b e r a t i o n in o n e of t h r e e w a y s . F i r s t , t h e p e o p l e a r e t a k e n t o b e a society of e q u a l i n d i ­ v i d u a l s in a s t a t e of n a t u r e , b e h i n d a veil of i g n o r a n c e or in a quasi-transcendental speech-situation prior to the consti­ t u t i o n , a n d w i t h t h e a i m of c o n s t i t u t i n g o n e u n i f o r m political a s s o c i a t i o n . T h i s is t h e w a y of t h i n k i n g a b o u t c o n s t i t u t i o n a l ­ i s m m o s t closely a s s o c i a t e d w i t h P a i n e a n d r e c e n t l i b e r a l i s m . T h e s e c o n d c o n c e p t of p o p u l a r s o v e r e i g n t y is t h a t t h e p e o p l e a r e t a k e n t o b e a society of e q u a l i n d i v i d u a l s w h o exist at a ' m o d e r n ' level of h i s t o r i c a l d e v e l o p m e n t a n d r e c o g n i s e as a u t h o r i t a t i v e a set of t h r e s h o l d , E u r o p e a n i n s t i t u t i o n s , m a n n e r s a n d t r a d i t i o n s of i n t e r p r e t a t i o n w i t h i n w h i c h t h e y d e l i b e r a t e a n d r e a c h a g r e e m e n t on a c o n s t i t u t i o n . T h e institutions a n d traditions are authoritative, not authori­ t a r i a n : t h e y a r e o p e n t o r e f l e c t i o n a n d a m e n d m e n t in t h e c o u r s e of d e l i b e r a t i o n t o w a r d s a g r e e m e n t on t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n , as t h e d e l i b e r a t o r s seek to a r t i c u l a t e t h e p r i n c i p l e s t h a t underlie their overlapping consensus on these institutions and t r a d i t i o n s . T h i s h i s t o r i c a l w a y of c o n c e p t u a l i s i n g p o p u l a r s o v e r e i g n t y , w h i c h h a s b e e n b r o u g h t back i n t o p r o m i n e n c e by J o h n Rawls a n d R i c h a r d R o r t y , looks a t first b l u s h like a r e t u r n t o t h e a n c i e n t c o n s t i t u t i o n of B o l i n g b r o k e . H o w e v e r , it is c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of m a n y of t h e classic t h e o r i s t s of m o d e r n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m , s u c h as D a v i d H u m e , S m i t h , Sieves, P a i n e , K a n t a n d C o n s t a n t . As r e c e n t s c h o l a r s such as B i a n c a m a r i a F o n t a n a a n d K n u d H a a k o n s s e n h a v e h i g h l i g h t e d , t h e y took as their starting point the premise that a modern constitution

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m u s t r e c o g n i s e t h e i n s t i t u t i o n a l a n d sociological c o n d i t i o n s of a m o d e r n society a n d t h e t y p e of l i b e r t y a n d e q u a l i t y t h a t corresponds to t h e m . T h e t h i r d f o r m of p o p u l a r s o v e r e i g n t y is t h e c o m m u n i t a r i a n v e r s i o n of t h e h i s t o r i c a l c o n c e p t i o n . T h e p e o p l e a r e s e e n a s a c o m m u n i t y b o u n d t o g e t h e r by a n implicit a n d s u b s t a n t i v e c o m m o n good a n d a s h a r e d set of a u t h o r i t a t i v e E u r o p e a n i n s t i t u t i o n s , m a n n e r s a n d t r a d i t i o n s of i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . W i t h i n t h e h o r i z o n s of t h e s e i n s t i t u t i o n s a n d t r a d i t i o n s , t h e y i n t e r p r e t a n d a r t i c u l a t e t h e c o m m o n good t h r o u g h p u b l i c d e l i b e r a t i o n a n d give it e x p r e s s i o n in a c o n s t i t u t i o n . T h e s e c o n d f e a t u r e of a m o d e r n c o n s t i t u t i o n is t h a t it is d e f i n e d in c o n t r a s t to a n a n c i e n t or h i s t o r i c a l l y e a r l i e r constitution. An 'ancient constitution' refers to p r e - m o d e r n E u r o p e a n c o n s t i t u t i o n s , as M c l l w a i n n o t e s , a n d , secondly, to t h e c u s t o m s of n o n - E u r o p e a n societies a t ' e a r l i e r ' a n d ' l o w e r ' s t a g e s of h i s t o r i c a l d e v e l o p m e n t . T h e s e two c o n t r a s t s g r o u n d t h e i m p e r i a l c h a r a c t e r of m o d e r n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m . T h e c o n t r a s t is m a d e in r e f e r e n c e t o two a s p e c t s of p r e - m o d e r n E u r o p e a n a n d n o n - E u r o p e a n c o n s t i t u t i o n s : t h e i r s t a g e of development and their irregularity. F i r s t , t h e a n c i e n t c o n s t i t u t i o n of p r e - m o d e r n a n d n o n E u r o p e a n societies is closely t i e d , or e v e n i d e n t i c a l , t o t h e c u s t o m s of t h o s e societies, w h i c h a r e d e f i n e d as ' t r a d i t i o n a l ' . T h e c o n t r a s t is n o t t h a t a m o d e r n c o n s t i t u t i o n is c o m p l e t e l y i n d e p e n d e n t of c u s t o m , b u t t h a t it is a p p r o p r i a t e to, a n d t h e r e s u l t of a self-conscious c r i t i c a l r e f l e c t i o n on, t h e c u s t o m s , m a n n e r s a n d civilisation of m o d e r n societies (as in t h e s e c o n d a n d t h i r d c o n c e p t s of p o p u l a r s o v e r e i g n t y ) . T h i s a s p e c t of m o d e r n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m r e s t s o n t h e ' s t a g e s ' or ' p r o g r e s s i v e ' view of h u m a n h i s t o r y w h i c h t h e classic t h e o r i s t s p r o d u c e d in order to m a p , rank and thereby c o m p r e h e n d t h e great cultural d i v e r s i t y e n c o u n t e r e d by E u r o p e a n s in t h e i m p e r i a l a g e . I n t h e s t a g e s view of h u m a n h i s t o r y , all c u l t u r e s a n d p e o p l e s a r e m a p p e d h i e r a r c h i c a l l y in a c c o r d a n c e w i t h t h e i r l o c a t i o n o n a h i s t o r i c a l p r o c e s s of p r o g r e s s i v e d e v e l o p m e n t . E u r o p e a n constitutional nation states, with their distinctive institutions a n d c u l t u r e s of m a n n e r s a n d civility, a r e a t t h e h i g h e s t a n d

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m o s t d e v e l o p e d or i m p r o v e d s t a g e . M o d e r n c o n s t i t u t i o n s only c o m e i n t o b e i n g as a r e s u l t of t h i s d e v e l o p m e n t , ' a m o n g s t ' , as L o c k e p u t s it, ' t h o s e w h o a r e c o u n t e d t h e Civiliz'd p a r t of M a n k i n d ' . As t h e p r o c e s s e s of c o l o n i s a t i o n a n d m o d e r n i s a t i o n s p r e a d a r o u n d t h e world from E u r o p e , t h e colonies a n d lower p e o p l e s will b e c o m e o b j e c t s of t h e c a u s a l p r o c e s s of i m p r o v e ­ m e n t , g r a d u a l l y s h e d d i n g t h e i r p r i m i t i v e c u s t o m s a n d ways, a p p r o p r i a t e t o t h e i r l o w e r level of d e v e l o p m e n t . T h e y will b e assimilated into modern nations within a European imperial s t r u c t u r e or into i n d e p e n d e n t m o d e r n constitutional nation s t a t e s , as E u r o p e a n s t a t e s h a v e d o n e , or t h e y will b e p u s h e d to t h e w a y s i d e by t h e m a r c h of p r o g r e s s . 5

T h i s f e a t u r e of m o d e r n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m c o n t a i n s t h e c o n c e p t of c u l t u r e s t h a t a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s a n d h i s t o r i a n s h a v e c h a l l e n g e d in o u r e r a . C u l t u r e s a r e s e e n as s e p a r a t e , closed, i n t e r n a l l y u n i f o r m a n d r e l a t i v e to a s t a g e of s o c i o - e c o n o m i c d e v e l o p m e n t . H u m a n s r e a s o n w i t h i n t h e b o u n d s of t h e c u l t u r e s of w h i c h t h e y a r e m e m b e r s , from t h e p r i m i t i v e a n d ' c h i l d - l i k e ' A b o r i g i n a l to t h e u n i v e r s a l E u r o p e a n . L o c k e i l l u s t r a t e s t h i s t h e s i s of c u l t u r a l r e l a t i v i t y in a c o n v e n t i o n a l manner: 6

H a d you or I b e e n born at t h e Bay o f Soldania, possibly our T h o u g h t s , and N o t i o n s , h a d not e x c e e d e d those brutish o n e s of the Hotentots that inhabit there: and h a d t h e Virginia K i n g Apochancana, b e e n e d u c a t e d in England, h e had, p e r h a p s , b e e n as knowing a Divine, and as good a M a t h e m a t i c i a n , as a n y in it. T h e difference b e t w e e n h i m , and a more improved English-Ma.n, lying barely in this, T h a t t h e exercise of his faculties w a s b o u n d e d within t h e Ways, M o d e s , and N o t i o n s of his own Country, and never directed to any other, or farther Enquiries. C o n s e q u e n t l y , t h e m o d e r n c o n s t i t u t i o n a n d its a s s o c i a t e d c o n c e p t s a r e d e f i n e d in c o n t r a s t t o w h a t M i c h e l - R o l p h T r o u i l l o t calls ' t h e s a v a g e slot', w h i c h is filled by t h e n o n E u r o p e a n ' o t h e r ' w h o is d e f i n e d as l o w e r in d e v e l o p m e n t a n d e a r l i e r in t i m e : in a s t a t e of n a t u r e , p r i m i t i v e , r u d e , s a v a g e , traditional or underdeveloped, d e p e n d i n g on the theorist. T h e v a r i o u s t h e o r i e s of p r o g r e s s , from L o c k e t o t h e l a t e s t t h e o r i e s a b o u t t h e t r i u m p h of t h e W e s t o r t h e e n d of h i s t o r y , m a k e u p

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a c o m p r e h e n s i v e m a p of m a n k i n d , d r a w n , like a M e r c a t o r p r o j e c t i o n , e n t i r e l y from a E u r o p e a n a n d m a s c u l i n e p o i n t of view, b u t w i t h t h e p r e t e n s i o n of u n i v e r s a l i t y . As E d m u n d B u r k e w r o t e to W i l l i a m R o b e r t s o n , t h e A b o r i g i n a l - h a t i n g a u t h o r of t h e History of America in 1 7 7 7 : 7

I have always t h o u g h t w i t h you that w e p o s s e s s at this t i m e very g r e a t a d v a n t a g e s towards the k n o w l e d g e of h u m a n N a t u r e . . . But now the G r e a t M a p o f M a n k i n d is unrolld at o n c e ; and t h e r e is no s t a t e or G r a d a t i o n o f b a r b a r i s m , and no m o d e of r e f i n e m e n t w h i c h w e have not at the s a m e i n s t a n c e u n d e r our V i e w .

T h e t h i r d f e a t u r e of m o d e r n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m is t h e c o n t r a s t w i t h t h e i r r e g u l a r i t y of a n a n c i e n t c o n s t i t u t i o n . A n a n c i e n t c o n s t i t u t i o n is m u l t i f o r m , a n ' a s s e m b l a g e ' as B o l i n g b r o k e p u t s it, w h e r e a s a m o d e r n c o n s t i t u t i o n is u n i f o r m . B e c a u s e it is t h e i n c o r p o r a t i o n of v a r i e d local c u s t o m s , a n a n c i e n t c o n s t i t u t i o n is a m o t l e y of o v e r l a p p i n g legal a n d political j u r i s d i c t i o n s , a k i n d ofjus gentium ' c o m m o n ' to m a n y c u s t o m a r y j u r i s d i c t i o n s , as in t h e R o m a n r e p u b l i c or t h e c o m m o n law of E n g l a n d . T h e a s s e m b l a g e s of laws, c u s t o m s a n d i n s t i t u t i o n s of E u r o p e p r i o r t o t h e P e a c e of W e s t p h a l i a in 1 6 4 8 w e r e s e e n as t h e p a r a d i g m of a n c i e n t c o n s t i t u t i o n s by t h e m o d e r n t h e o r i s t s . T h e s o v e r e i g n p e o p l e in m o d e r n s o c i e t i e s , in c o n t r a s t , e s t a b l i s h a c o n s t i t u t i o n t h a t is legally a n d politically u n i f o r m : a c o n s t i t u t i o n of e q u a l c i t i z e n s w h o a r e t r e a t e d i d e n t i c a l l y r a t h e r t h a n e q u i t a b l y , of o n e n a t i o n a l s y s t e m of i n s t i t u t i o n ­ a l i s e d legal a n d political a u t h o r i t y r a t h e r t h a n m a n y , a n d a c o n s t i t u t i o n a l n a t i o n e q u a l in s t a t u s t o all t h e o t h e r s . T h i s f e a t u r e of legal a n d political m o n i s m is p e r f e c t l y u n d e r s t a n d ­ a b l e . It e m e r g e d o u t of t h e o n e h u n d r e d y e a r s of w a r s in E u r o p e w h i c h e n d e d w i t h t h e T h i r t y Y e a r s ' W a r of 1 6 1 8 - 4 8 . T h e s e w a r s w e r e s e e n by t h e m o d e r n t h e o r i s t s as conflicts over t h e locus of s o v e r e i g n t y . As L o c k e p u t i t : 8

t h e great Q u e s t i o n w h i c h in all A g e s has d i s t u r b e d M a n k i n d , and b r o u g h t o n t h e m the g r e a t e s t part o f those M i s c h i e f s which have r u i n e d cities, d e p o p u l a t e d c o u n t r i e s , and disordered the P e a c e o f the World, has b e e n , N o t w h e t h e r there be P o w e r in the World, nor w h e n c e it c a m e , but w h o should have it.

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T h e d i a g n o s i s of t h e m o d e r n t h e o r i s t s w a s t h a t t h e conflicting j u r i s d i c t i o n s a n d a u t h o r i t i e s of t h e a n c i e n t c o n s t i ­ t u t i o n s w e r e t h e c a u s e of w a r s . Accordingly, t h e i r r e s p o n s e w a s t h a t a u t h o r i t y h a d to b e o r g a n i s e d a n d c e n t r a l i s e d by t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n in s o m e s o v e r e i g n body: in a single p e r s o n or a s s e m b l y , a s y s t e m of m i x e d or b a l a n c e d i n s t i t u t i o n s , or in t h e u n d i f f e r e n t i a t e d p e o p l e . S u c h a n a u t h o r i t y could r e c o g n i s e c u s t o m from t i m e to t i m e , as even H o b b e s c o n c e d e s , b u t c u s t o m h a s its a u t h o r i t y only in v i r t u e of its r e c o g n i t i o n by t h e s o v e r e i g n , n o t vice v e r s a . In t h e m o d e r n t h e o r i e s of t h e s o v e r e i g n t y of t h e p e o p l e , t h e p l u r a l i t y of e x i s t i n g a n c i e n t a u t h o r i t i e s is e l i m i n a t e d by c o n s t r u i n g t h e p e o p l e as t h e single locus of a u t h o r i t y a n d t h e i r a i m as t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n of a u n i f o r m s y s t e m of g o v e r n m e n t . T h e f o u r t h f e a t u r e is t h e r e c o g n i t i o n of c u s t o m w i t h i n t h e t h e o r y of p r o g r e s s . T h e r e a s o n w h y t h e p e o p l e e s t a b l i s h a u n i f o r m c o n s t i t u t i o n a l s y s t e m of g o v e r n m e n t is n o t t h a t t h e y d i s r e g a r d t h e p l u r a l i t y of a n c i e n t c u s t o m s in t h e p r o c e s s of c o n s o l i d a t i o n a n d c e n t r a l i s a t i o n of m o d e r n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l s t a t e s , as t h e c r u d e c o n t r a s t b e t w e e n r e c o g n i t i o n a n d i m p o s i t i o n s u g g e s t s . R a t h e r , as S m i t h , Sieyes a n d C o n s t a n t a r g u e , t h e u n i n t e n d e d h i s t o r i c a l p r o g r e s s of e c o n o m i c a n d social c o n d i t i o n s g r a d u a l l y u n d e r m i n e s t h e a n c i e n t c o n s t i ­ t u t i o n of c u s t o m s a n d r a n k s a n d c r e a t e s a society of o n e ' e s t a t e ' or ' s t a t e ' of e q u a l a n d legally u n d i f f e r e n t i a t e d i n d i ­ v i d u a l s w i t h s i m i l a r ' m a n n e r s ' . T h i s is w h a t Sieyes m e a n t w h e n h e f a m o u s l y w r o t e , ' W h a t is t h e t h i r d e s t a t e ? Every­ thing.' A modern constitution thus merely recognises the t r a n s f o r m e d c h a r a c t e r of m o d e r n societies. M o d e r n c o n s t i ­ t u t i o n a l g o v e r n m e n t s h e l p this p r o c e s s a l o n g , b u t t h e i r policies of discipline a n d r a t i o n a l i s a t i o n a r e u n d e r s t o o d w i t h i n t h e b a c k g r o u n d vision of t h e h i s t o r i c a l p r o g r e s s i o n t h r o u g h various stages towards uniform m a n n e r s and institutions. Fifth, a m o d e r n c o n s t i t u t i o n is i d e n t i f i e d w i t h a specific set of E u r o p e a n i n s t i t u t i o n s ; w h a t K a n t calls a ' r e p u b l i c a n c o n s t i ­ t u t i o n ' . Since t h e social a n d e c o n o m i c c o n d i t i o n s of m o d e r n E u r o p e a n societies a r e c o n v e r g i n g , m o d e r n c o n s t i t u t i o n s will e s t a b l i s h a u n i f o r m type of legal a n d political i n s t i t u t i o n 9

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a p p r o p r i a t e t o t h e s e c o n d i t i o n s to r e p r e s e n t t h e s o v e r e i g n t y of t h e p e o p l e . T h e p e o p l e a l i e n a t e or d e l e g a t e political p o w e r to g o v e r n m e n t s in t h e s e i n s t i t u t i o n a l f o r m s . I n s t i t u t i o n s of r e p r e s e n t a t i v e g o v e r n m e n t , s e p a r a t i o n of p o w e r s , t h e r u l e of law, i n d i v i d u a l liberty, s t a n d i n g a r m i e s a n d a p u b l i c s p h e r e a r e definitive of a m o d e r n or r e p u b l i c a n c o n s t i t u t i o n , for it is only a t t h e m o d e r n level of h i s t o r i c a l d e v e l o p m e n t t h a t t h e y a r e n e c e s s a r y . T h e s e definitive c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i n s t i t u t i o n s in t u r n compose a m o d e r n sovereign state, as Q u e n t i n Skinner h a s s h o w n , m a r k i n g it off f r o m lower, s t a t e l e s s , i r r e g u l a r a n d ancient societies. 10

Since the French and A m e r i c a n revolutions, the sixth convention has been that a constitutional state possesses a n individual identity as a 'nation', an imaginary c o m m u n i t y to w h i c h all n a t i o n a l s b e l o n g a n d in w h i c h t h e y enjoy e q u a l d i g n i t y as c i t i z e n s . A l t h o u g h t h e n a t i o n is i n t e r p r e t e d d i f f e r e n t l y in e a c h society, as A n t h o n y S m i t h a n d B e n e d i c t A n d e r s o n h a v e s h o w n , it e n g e n d e r s a s e n s e of b e l o n g i n g a n d a l l e g i a n c e by m e a n s of t h e n a t i o n ' s i n d i v i d u a l n a m e , n a t i o n a l h i s t o r i c a l n a r r a t i v e a n d p u b l i c symbols. By n a m i n g t h e c o n s t i ­ t u t i o n a l a s s o c i a t i o n a n d giving it a h i s t o r i c a l n a r r a t i v e , t h e n a t i o n a n d its c i t i z e n s , w h o t a k e on its n a m e w h e n t h e y b e c o m e m e m b e r s , p o s s e s s a c o r p o r a t e i d e n t i t y or p e r s o n a l i t y . F r o m P u f e n d o r f o n w a r d , t h i s c o r p o r a t e i d e n t i t y of n a t i o n a n d n a t i o n a l s in a s t a t e is s e e n as n e c e s s a r y t o t h e u n i t y of a m o d e r n constitutional association. T h e constitutional nation contains two c o m p l e m e n t a r y c o n c e p t s of e q u a l i t y . T h e c i t i z e n s a r e f o r m a l l y e q u a l u n d e r t h e l a w a n d t h u s t h e d i f f e r e n t i a l t r e a t m e n t of t h e a n c i e n t c o n s t i t u t i o n is e x p e r i e n c e d as a n i n t o l e r a b l e i n d i g n i t y . S e c o n d , e a c h c o n s t i t u t i o n a l n a t i o n is e q u a l in a u t h o r i t y t o a n y o t h e r , a n d t h u s t h e i n e q u a l i t y of i m p e r i a l i s m is s e e n as a n i n t o l e r a b l e i n d i g n i t y . T h i s f e a t u r e j u s t i f i e d t h e b u i l d i n g of i n d e p e n d e n t n a t i o n s t a t e s in E u r o p e a g a i n s t t h e c l a i m s of p a p a l a n d R o m a n i m p e r i a l i s m . As a r e s u l t of t h e s t a g e s v i e w of h i s t o r i c a l d e v e l o p m e n t , only E u r o p e a n p o l i t i c a l a s s o c i a t i o n s were initially considered to be m o d e r n constitutional nation s t a t e s w o r t h y of b e i n g r e c o g n i s e d as i n d e p e n d e n t a n d e q u a l .

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9

C o l o n i e s w e r e c o n s i d e r e d t o b e a t a n e a r l i e r s t a g e of d e v e l o p m e n t a n d so n o t yet m e e t i n g t h e c r i t e r i a of n a t i o n ­ h o o d . F r o m t h e A m e r i c a n r e v o l u t i o n on, t h e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of n a t i o n h o o d w i t h a n i n d e p e n d e n t a n d e q u a l s t a t e s e r v e d to justify a n t i - i m p e r i a l w a r s of i n d e p e n d e n c e a g a i n s t E u r o p e a n d to s t i g m a t i s e a n y o t h e r f o r m of c o n s t i t u t i o n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p as d e g r a d i n g a n d i n t o l e r a b l e . Since t h e ' p r i m i t i v e ' p e o p l e s w e r e m u c h lower d o w n t h e d e v e l o p m e n t a l l a d d e r , it w o u l d of c o u r s e b e a c a t e g o r y m i s t a k e t o identify t h e m as e q u a l n a t i o n s . I n m o s t c a s e s , as w e shall s e e , t h e y w e r e s e e n to b e in a s t a t e of nature without a constitution. Finally, a m o d e r n c o n s t i t u t i o n c o m e s i n t o b e i n g at s o m e founding m o m e n t a n d stands b e h i n d - and provides the rules for - d e m o c r a t i c politics. T h i s f e a t u r e is r e i n f o r c e d by t h e p o p u l a r i m a g e s of t h e A m e r i c a n a n d F r e n c h r e v o l u t i o n s as g r e a t f o u n d i n g a c t s p e r f o r m e d by f o u n d i n g f a t h e r s at t h e t h r e s h o l d of m o d e r n i t y . It is f u r t h e r e n t r e n c h e d by t h e a s s u m p t i o n t h a t a m o d e r n c o n s t i t u t i o n is u n i v e r s a l , s o m e ­ t h i n g t h a t t h e p e o p l e a g r e e d o n a t s o m e t i m e , b u t for all t i m e . T h i s i m a g e is e n h a n c e d by t h e m y t h s of t h e single lawgiver in t h e r e p u b l i c a n t r a d i t i o n , t h e o r i g i n a l c o n s e n s u s of t h e c o m ­ m u n i t y or n a t i o n in t h e n a t i o n a l i s t t r a d i t i o n a n d t h e o r i g i n a l or h y p o t h e t i c a l c o n t r a c t , t o w h i c h all c i t i z e n s t o d a y w o u l d c o n s e n t if t h e y w e r e r a t i o n a l , in t h e l i b e r a l t r a d i t i o n . A m o d e r n c o n s t i t u t i o n t h u s a p p e a r s as t h e p r e c o n d i t i o n of d e m o c r a c y , r a t h e r t h a n a p a r t of d e m o c r a c y . T h i s a n t i ­ d e m o c r a t i c f e a t u r e is m i t i g a t e d by t h e a s s u m p t i o n t h a t t h e p e o p l e g a v e rise to it a t s o m e t i m e , a n d by t h e e l a b o r a t e t h e o r i e s of m o d e r n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m from H o b b e s to t h e p r e s e n t w h i c h serve to p e r s u a d e u s t h a t we w o u l d c o n s e n t t o d a y if we w e r e r e a s o n a b l e . I n t h i s r e s p e c t , t h e a n c i e n t c o n s t i t u t i o n a p p e a r s m o r e d e m o c r a t i c . It w a s c h a n g e d a n d a d j u s t e d by t h e g o v e r n m e n t , as t h e c u s t o m s a n d c i r c u m ­ s t a n c e s c h a n g e d , in a c c o r d a n c e w i t h n o t h i n g m o r e , or less, t h a n t h e c o n v e n t i o n s of t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n : t h a t is, t h e p r e s e n t i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of c u s t o m a r y w a y s of c h a n g i n g t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n in t h e p a s t . B u t , as P a i n e acidly n o t e s , t h i s c h a n g i n g a n d i m p e r m a n e n t c o n s t i t u t i o n , f o u n d e d in n o t h i n g b u t c u s t o m

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a n d c o n v e n t i o n , is n o c o n s t i t u t i o n at all from a m o d e r n p o i n t of v i e w : 11

the continual use of the word 'constitution' in the English parlia­ ment shows there is none; and that the whole is merely a form of government without a constitution, and constituting itself with what power it pleases. The act by which the English Parliament empowered itself to sit for seven years, shews there is no constitution in England. It might, by the same authority have sat any n u m b e r of years, or for life. Examples of forging the seven features: Locke and Aboriginal peoples T h e s e s e v e n f e a t u r e s h a v e b e e n w o v e n i n t o t h e fabric of c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m over t h e last t h r e e c e n t u r i e s , p r o v i d i n g t h e d o m i n a n t c o n v e n t i o n s in w h i c h t h e c u l t u r a l diversity of t h e w o r l d h a s b e e n m i s r e c o g n i s e d a n d s u p p r e s s e d . N o t all m o d e r n t h e o r i s t s a d o p t e d t h e seven f e a t u r e s . I n s o m e c a s e s , o n e p a r t of a ' m o d e r n ' t e x t , s u c h as L o c k e ' s c h a p t e r ' O n c o n q u e s t ' in t h e Two treatises, c o n t a i n s a p a s s a g e w h i c h serves t o r e c o g n i s e c u l t u r a l diversity. C o n v e r s e l y , s e v e r a l of t h e d e f e n d e r s of c u l t u r a l diversity, s u c h as G o t t f r i e d L e i b n i z , Charles-Louis de Secondat M o n t e s q u i e u , Baron de L a h o n t a n , W o l l s t o n e c r a f t or J o h n M a r s h a l l , s h a r e s o m e of t h e s e conventions. For example, H e r d e r broke with the second c o n v e n t i o n of r a n k i n g c u l t u r e s r e l a t i v e t o a E u r o p e a n n o r m , u n d e r m i n i n g the prevailing justification of E u r o p e a n imperialism, but he retained, and gave an expressive i n t e r p r e t a t i o n to, t h e c o n v e n t i o n a l view of c u l t u r e s as separate and homogeneous, thereby deepening the sixth f e a t u r e of a c o n s t i t u t i o n a l n a t i o n . L e t us n o w s u r v e y a few e x a m p l e s of h o w t h e s e seven ways of t h i n k i n g a b o u t c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m w e r e forged a n d u s e d t o j u s t i f y t h e e x t i n c t i o n or a s s i m i l a t i o n of different c u l t u r e s . T h e first e x a m p l e i l l u s t r a t e s o n e w a y t h e f e a t u r e s w e r e e m p l o y e d , and continue to be employed, to dispossess the Aboriginal n a t i o n s of t h e i r s o v e r e i g n t y a n d t e r r i t o r y a n d to subject t h e m to E u r o p e a n constitutional nation states and their traditions of i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . As R i c h a r d T u c k a n d A n t h o n y P a g d e n h a v e s h o w n , t h e 'discovery' a n d ' s e t t l e m e n t ' of t h e ' A m e r i c a s ' w a s

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r e g a r d e d as a d e f i n i n g e v e n t of t h e m o d e r n a g e . Its justifi­ c a t i o n , a g a i n s t t h e r e s i s t a n c e of A b o r i g i n a l p e o p l e s a n d t h e i r d e f e n d e r s from B a r t o l o m e d e L a s C a s a s to J o h n M a r s h a l l , was a c c o r d i n g l y s e e n as a l e a d i n g t a s k of E u r o p e a n political p h i l o s o p h y . A c e n t r a l figure w a s J o h n L o c k e , w h o a d m i n i s ­ t e r e d a n d i n v e s t e d in t h e i m p e r i a l s y s t e m in p r a c t i c e a n d j u s t i f i e d it in t h e o r y . A l t h o u g h his j u s t i f i c a t i o n in t h e Two treatises of 1690 is only o n e of m a n y , it is e x e m p l a r y b e c a u s e it g a t h e r s t o g e t h e r m a n y of t h e a r g u m e n t s of e a r l i e r t h e o r i s t s and sets out m a n y conventions that later theorists accepted, e v e n t h o u g h t h e y d i s a g r e e d w i t h h i m in o t h e r r e s p e c t s . T h e p r o b l e m facing L o c k e a n d his l i k e - m i n d e d c o n t e m ­ poraries was that the Aboriginal peoples recognised t h e m ­ selves as o r g a n i s e d i n t o s o v e r e i g n n a t i o n s w i t h j u r i s d i c t i o n over t h e i r t e r r i t o r i e s w h e n t h e E u r o p e a n s a r r i v e d . I n t h e n e x t c h a p t e r w e shall see t h a t m a n y E u r o p e a n s c a m e to a c c e p t this f o r m of r e c o g n i t i o n b e c a u s e it r e s t e d o n t h r e e of t h e oldest c o n v e n t i o n s of c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m . T h e y c o n c l u d e d t h a t t h e only l e g i t i m a t e w a y for E u r o p e a n s t o s e t t l e in A m e r i c a w a s to g a i n t h e c o n s e n t of t h e A b o r i g i n a l n a t i o n s by m e a n s of n a t i o n to n a t i o n n e g o t i a t i o n s , as a R o y a l C o m m i s s i o n c o n c l u d e d in 1 6 6 5 , fifteen y e a r s b e f o r e Locke w r o t e t h e Two treatises. Since t h e A b o r i g i n a l p e o p l e s w e r e u n w i l l i n g to c e d e all t h e l a n d t h e s e t t l e r s d e s i r e d t o t a k e , a j u s t i f i c a t i o n w a s r e q u i r e d for t a k i n g land and establishing E u r o p e a n sovereignty without requiring t h e c o n s e n t of t h e n a t i v e p e o p l e s . L o c k e r e w o r k e d t h e a r g u m e n t s t h a t h a d b e e n a d v a n c e d to this e n d in t h e 1630s a n d 1640s, a g a i n s t R o g e r W i l l i a m s ' d e f e n c e of t h e A b o r i g i n a l n a t i o n s , i n t o a c o n s i s t e n t a n s w e r t o this 'very g r e a t difficulty' of j u s t i f y i n g a p p r o p r i a t i o n ' w i t h o u t a n y e x p r e s s C o m p a c t of all the commoners'. F i r s t , Locke s e t s t h e s t a g e s t h e o r y of w o r l d h i s t o r y in p l a c e a n d i d e n t i f i e s A b o r i g i n a l p e o p l e s w i t h i n it as t h e e a r l i e s t a n d m o s t p r i m i t i v e m e m b e r s of t h e h u m a n r a c e . 'In t h e b e g i n ­ n i n g ' , h e p r o c l a i m s , 'all t h e w o r l d was America.' A m e r i c a is 'still a P a t t e r n of t h e first A g e s in Asia a n d Europe'. E u r o p e a n s o c i e t i e s , by c o n t r a s t , a r e in t h e m o s t ' i m p r o v e d ' or 'civilized' a g e . T h i s p r e m i s e p r o v i d e s t h e s t a g e s e t t i n g for his a c c o u n t 1 2

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of w o r l d - h i s t o r i c a l d e v e l o p m e n t a n d , as R o n a l d M e e k h a s s h o w n , for t h e g r a n d t h e o r i e s t h a t followed in t h e e i g h t e e n t h century. I n L o c k e ' s classic f o r m u l a t i o n of t h e c o n c e p t of i n d i v i d u a l p o p u l a r s o v e r e i g n t y , t h e first a g e r e p r e s e n t e d by A m e r i c a is a ' s t a t e of n a t u r e ' . T h e r e is n e i t h e r n a t i o n h o o d n o r t e r r i t o r i a l jurisdiction at this early stage. R a t h e r , A m e r i c a n Indians g o v e r n t h e m s e l v e s o n a n i n d i v i d u a l a n d ad hoc b a s i s by a p p l y i n g t h e law of n a t u r e a n d p u n i s h i n g o f f e n d e r s a s c a s e s a r i s e ; ' e a c h b e i n g , w h e r e t h e r e is n o o t h e r , J u d g e for himself, a n d E x e c u t i o n e r ; w h i c h i s ' to say ' t h e p e r f e c t state ofNature'. By c o n t r a s t , E u r o p e a n s live in s o v e r e i g n n a t i o n s or 'political s o c i e t i e s ' a p p r o p r i a t e t o t h e i r civilised level of d e v e l o p m e n t . T h e y h a v e left t h e s t a t e of n a t u r e by d e l e g a t i n g t h e i r p o w e r s of self g o v e r n m e n t t o r e p r e s e n t a t i v e g o v e r n m e n t s a n d set u p m o d e r n constitutional institutions: 'a c o m m o n establish'd L a w a n d J u d i c a t u r e t o a p p e a l to, w i t h A u t h o r i t y t o d e c i d e Controversies between them, and punish Offenders'. 1 3

14

T h e s t a t e of n a t u r e is also t h e first e c o n o m i c s t a g e , t h a t of h u n t e r s a n d g a t h e r e r s . T h e y h a v e i n d i v i d u a l p r o p e r t y r i g h t s in t h e l a b o u r of t h e i r b o d y a n d t h e w o r k of t h e i r h a n d s a n d , c o n s e q u e n t l y , in w h a t e v e r t h e y m i x t h e i r l a b o u r w i t h . T h u s , L o c k e i l l u s t r a t e s , t h e ' I n d i a n s ' h a v e p r o p e r t y in t h e fruit a n d n u t s t h e y g a t h e r , t h e wild c o r n t h e y pick, t h e fish t h e y c a t c h a n d t h e d e e r t h e y h u n t , b u t n o t in t h e l a n d o n w h i c h t h e y h u n t . M o r e o v e r , t h e y a r e free to a p p r o p r i a t e t h i n g s in t h i s w a y w i t h o u t c o n s e n t as l o n g as ' t h e r e is e n o u g h , a n d as good left in c o m m o n for o t h e r s ' , a c o n d i t i o n w h i c h is m e t b y t h e i r low population density. As a result, they are 'commonly without a n y fixed property in the ground'. By c o n t r a s t , ' t h o s e w h o a r e c o u n t e d t h e Civiliz'd p a r t of M a n k i n d ' ' h a v e m u l t i p l i e d positive laws t o d e t e r m i n e P r o p e r t y ' , for 'in G o v e r n m e n t s t h e L a w s r e g u l a t e t h e r i g h t of p r o p e r t y , a n d t h e p o s s e s s i o n of l a n d is d e t e r m i n e d by positive c o n s t i t u t i o n s ' . T w o i m m e n s e l y i n f l u e n t i a l c o n c l u s i o n s follow, a c c o r d i n g to Locke, from these two features. No one doubts t h a t E u r o p e a n s w h o s e t t l e in A m e r i c a a n d t h e W e s t I n d i e s h a v e t h e r i g h t t o w a g e w a r ' a g a i n s t t h e Indians, [ a n d ] to s e e k R e p a r a t i o n u p o n 15

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a n y injury r e c e i v e d from t h e m ' , w i t h o u t r e c o u r s e t o a c o n s t i ­ t u t e d p o l i t i c a l a u t h o r i t y . T h e r e a s o n is t h a t , b e i n g in t h e s t a t e of n a t u r e , all e n c o u n t e r s , s u c h as ' b e t w e e n a Swiss a n d a n I n d i a n , i n t h e W o o d s of America', a r e d e a l t w i t h u n d e r t h e l a w of n a t u r e . S i n c e t h e A m e r i n d i a n s h a v e n o g o v e r n m e n t s t o d e a l w i t h a n d n o r i g h t s in t h e i r h u n t i n g a n d g a t h e r i n g t e r r i t o r i e s , t h e y v i o l a t e t h e l a w of n a t u r e w h e n t h e y t r y to s t o p E u r o p e a n s from s e t t l i n g a n d p l a n t i n g in A m e r i c a a n d E u r o p e a n s , o r t h e i r g o v e r n m e n t s , m a y p u n i s h t h e m as 'wild S a v a g e B e a s t s ' w h o ' m a y b e d e s t r o y e d as a Lyon'. T h i s v i o l e n t d o c t r i n e p r o v i d e d a m a j o r j u s t i f i c a t i o n for t h e i m p e r i a l w a r s a g a i n s t t h e A b o r i g i n a l p e o p l e s of N o r t h A m e r i c a . 1 6

S e c o n d , E u r o p e a n s m a y a p p r o p r i a t e l a n d in A m e r i c a w i t h o u t t h e c o n s e n t of t h e p e o p l e s w h o h a v e lived t h e r e for t h o u s a n d s of y e a r s . Since t h e y a r e in a s t a t e of n a t u r e , a n y p e r s o n m a y a p p r o p r i a t e u n c u l t i v a t e d l a n d w i t h o u t c o n s e n t as l o n g as t h e r e is e n o u g h a n d as g o o d left in c o m m o n for o t h e r s . I l l u s t r a t i n g t h i s f a m o u s t h e o r y of o r i g i n a l a p p r o p r i a t i o n w i t h o u t c o n s e n t w i t h e x a m p l e s d r a w n from A m e r i c a , L o c k e concludes: 17

let him [a European] plant in some in-land, vacant places of America, we shall find that the Possessions he could make himself upon the measures we have given, would not be very large, nor, even to this day, prejudice the rest of Mankind, or give them reason to complain, or think themselves injured by this M a n ' s Incroachment. It m i g h t a p p e a r from t h e p h r a s e ' v a c a n t l a n d s ' t h a t L o c k e m e a n s Europeans may cultivate and settle without consent only in t h o s e p a r t s of N o r t h A m e r i c a t h a t a r e n o t t h e h u n t i n g a n d g a t h e r i n g t e r r i t o r i e s of A b o r i g i n a l p e o p l e s . O n t h i s r e a d i n g , t h e ' l o n g use a n d o c c u p a t i o n ' of h u n t i n g a n d g a t h e r i n g t e r r i t o r i e s w o u l d give t h e A b o r i g i n a l p e o p l e s r i g h t s in, a n d j u r i s d i c t i o n over t h e i r t e r r i t o r i e s , as t h e i r d e f e n d e r s a r g u e d . T h e t e x t d o e s n o t s u p p o r t t h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . It is d e s i g n e d t o s u b v e r t it a n d m a k e A b o r i g i n a l r i g h t s u n r e c o g n i s ­ a b l e . L o c k e s t i p u l a t e s t h a t ' v a c a n t l a n d ' is a n y l a n d t h a t is ' u n c u l t i v a t e d ' o r ' u n i m p r o v e d ' . T h e t i t l e t o p r o p e r t y in l a n d is solely i n d i v i d u a l l a b o u r , d e f i n e d in t e r m s specific to

74

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multiplicity

E u r o p e a n a g r i c u l t u r e : c u l t i v a t i n g , tilling, i m p r o v i n g a n d s u b d u i n g . H e n c e , l a n d u s e d for h u n t i n g a n d g a t h e r i n g is c o n s i d e r e d v a c a n t a n d , as J o h n C o t t o n c o n c l u d e d fifty y e a r s e a r l i e r , 'in a v a c a n t soil [terra nullius], h e t h a t t a k e t h p o s s e s s i o n of it, a n d b e s t o w e t h c u l t u r e a n d h u s b a n d r y u p o n it, his r i g h t it i s ' . C o n s e q u e n t l y , h u n t e r s a n d g a t h e r e r s p o s s e s s n o r i g h t s in l a n d s t h e y h a v e u s e d a n d o c c u p i e d for c e n t u r i e s a n d so h a v e ' n o r e a s o n t o c o m p l a i n or t h i n k t h e m s e l v e s i n j u r e d ' by European 'incroachment'. 1 8

A l t h o u g h t h e s e two f e a t u r e s of m o d e r n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m v a c a t e A m e r i c a for s e t t l e m e n t w i t h o u t c o n s e n t by r e m o v i n g t h e s o v e r e i g n t y a n d p r o p e r t y of A b o r i g i n a l p e o p l e s , L o c k e m u s t still s h o w t h a t s e t t l e m e n t leaves e n o u g h a n d as good in c o m m o n for o t h e r s . T h e r e a s o n for t h i s proviso is t h a t if a p p r o p r i a t i o n a d v e r s e l y affects t h e A b o r i g i n a l p e o p l e s , t h e i r c o n s e n t w o u l d b e r e q u i r e d , by t h e oldest c o n v e n t i o n of c o n s t i ­ t u t i o n a l i s m : quod omnes tangit ab omnibus comprobetur ( w h a t t o u c h e s all s h o u l d b e a g r e e d t o by all). J u s t as L o c k e b y p a s s e s t h e c o n v e n t i o n of l o n g u s e a n d o c c u p a t i o n by i n v o k i n g a c r i t e r i o n of l a b o u r p a r t i a l t o E u r o p e a n a g r i c u l t u r a l i s t s , h e b y p a s s e s t h e c o n v e n t i o n oiq.o.t. by a n e q u a l l y b i a s e d a r g u m e n t t h a t t h e A b o r i g i n a l p e o p l e a r e b e t t e r off as a r e s u l t of E u r o p e a n s e t t l e m e n t . Specifically, t h e y will b e n e f i t from a s s i m i l a t i o n to t h e m o r e a d v a n c e d E u r o p e a n s t a t e of c o n s t i ­ t u t i o n a l l y p r o t e c t e d p r i v a t e p r o p e r t y in l a n d a n d c o m m e r c i a l agriculture. L o c k e c l a i m s t h a t a s y s t e m of E u r o p e a n c o m m e r c e is s u p e r i o r to t h e n a t i v e A m e r i c a n I n d i a n s y s t e m of h u n t i n g a n d g a t h e r i n g a n d n o n - s e d e n t a r y a g r i c u l t u r e in t h r e e c r u c i a l r e s p e c t s . T h e s y s t e m of p r i v a t e p r o p e r t y a n d c o m m e r c i a l agriculture uses the land m o r e productively, produces m o r e c o m m o d i t i e s a n d p r o v i d e s g r e a t e r o p p o r t u n i t i e s t o w o r k by e x p a n d i n g t h e division of l a b o u r . T h e s t a n d a r d of c o m p a r i s o n h e u s e s is t h e ' C o n v e n i e n c e s of life', i n c l u d i n g b o t h c o m ­ m o d i t i e s a n d o p p o r t u n i t i e s to l a b o u r , w h i c h e a c h s y s t e m p r o d u c e s . T h e a d v a n c e d s y s t e m of E u r o p e a n a g r i c u l t u r e , h e r e c k o n s , u s e s o n e - h u n d r e d t h t h e a m o u n t of l a n d as h u n t i n g a n d g a t h e r i n g t o p r o d u c e t h e s a m e q u a n t i t y of g o o d s : 19

The empire of uniformity

75

For I aske whether in the wild woods and uncultivated wast of America left to Nature, without any improvement, tillage or husbandry, a thousand acres will yield the needy and wretched inhabitants as many conveniences of life as ten acres of equally fertile land doe in Devonshire where they are well cultivated? 'Americans', h e e x p l a i n s , ' a r e r i c h in L a n d , a n d p o o r in all t h e C o m f o r t s of Life.' D u e t o t h e ' w a n t of i m p r o v i n g ' t h e i r l a n d by ' l a b o u r ' , t h e y ' h a v e n o t o n e h u n d r e d t h p a r t of t h e C o n v e n i e n c e s we enjoy'. I n fact, a ' K i n g of a l a r g e a n d fruitful T e r r i t o r y t h e r e [ A m e r i c a ] , f e e d s , l o d g e s , a n d is clad w o r s e t h a n a d a y L a b o u r e r in England'. C o n s e q u e n t l y , t h e A b o r i g i n a l p e o p l e s a r e b e t t e r off as a r e s u l t of a s s i m i l a t i o n to t h e c o m m e r c i a l s y s t e m for t h e y too s h a r e in its g r e a t e r a b u n d a n c e of c o m m o d i t i e s a n d j o b s . It is difficult t o o v e r e s t i m a t e t h e i n f l u e n c e of t h i s e c o n o m i c a r g u m e n t in t h e j u s t i f i c a t i o n of p l a n t i n g E u r o p e a n consti­ t u t i o n a l s y s t e m s of p r i v a t e p r o p e r t y a n d c o m m e r c e a r o u n d t h e w o r l d a n d in j u s t i f y i n g t h e coercive a s s i m i l a t i o n of A b o r i g i n a l a n d o t h e r p e o p l e s . E v e n t h e o r i s t s w h o believe t h a t A b o r i g i n a l p e o p l e s h a v e s o m e r i g h t s in t h e i r t e r r i t o r i e s , c o n t r a r y to L o c k e , often a r g u e t h a t t h e y a r e n e v e r t h e l e s s m o r e t h a n c o m p e n s a t e d for t h e i r loss of l a n d b y t h e m a t e r i a l a b u n d a n c e a n d g r e a t e r p r o d u c t i v i t y of t h e c o m m e r c i a l s o c i e t i e s w h i c h h a v e d i s p l a c e d t h e i r s . L o c k e ' s s t a n d a r d of c o m p a r i s o n , ' g r e a t e r c o n v e n i e n c e s ' , in its m a n y r e f o r m u l a t i o n s , s u c h as t h e g r o s s d o m e s t i c p r o d u c t , is t a k e n for g r a n t e d as a n i m p a r t i a l s t a n d a r d in j u d g i n g different c u l t u r e s . Y e t it is p a r t i a l . It m e a s u r e s all s y s t e m s in t e r m s of t h e c o m m o d i t i e s t h e c o m ­ m e r c i a l s y s t e m d e l i v e r s , w i t h o u t c o n s i d e r i n g t h e goods of a s t e a d y - s t a t e s y s t e m of r e p l a c e m e n t p r o d u c t i o n , s u c h as t h e h u n t i n g , g a t h e r i n g a n d n o n - c o m m e r c i a l a g r i c u l t u r e of m a n y A b o r i g i n a l p e o p l e s of t h e w o r l d . If a d i a l o g u e of m u t u a l r e c o g n i t i o n a n d fair c o m p a r i s o n of t h e two s y s t e m s from E u r o p e a n a n d A b o r i g i n a l p o i n t s of view w e r e a t t e m p t e d , t h e n t h e o u t c o m e m i g h t well b e d i f f e r e n t , as t h e B a r o n d e L a h o n t a n s u g g e s t e d in his Curious dialogues between the author and a savage [Huron] of good sense who has travelled in 1703, or as 2 0

7

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6

multiplicity

William Cronon and Carolyn Merchant have submitted more recently. I n the New English Canaan ( 1 6 3 2 ) , T h o m a s M o r t o n o b s e r v e d first h a n d t h a t A m e r i c a n I n d i a n s h a d few n e e d s , w h i c h t h e y w e r e a b l e to satisfy w i t h a m i n i m u m of w o r k , l e a v i n g t h e m w i t h m o r e l e i s u r e t i m e t h a n t h e c o l o n i s t s . W h e n t h e colonists c l a i m e d t h a t t h e I n d i a n s w e r e poorly c l o t h e d , n e e d y a n d lazy, M o r t o n r e p l i e d t h a t t h e y s h o u l d b e s e e n as r i c h a n d t h e c o l o n i s t s poor: ' N o w since it is b u t foode a n d r a y m e n t t h a t we t h a t live n e e d e t h . . . w h y s h o u l d n o t t h e N a t i v e s of N e w E n g l a n d b e said t o live richly, h a v i n g n o w a n t of e i t h e r ? ' P i e r r e B i a r d , a n e a r l y J e s u i t in N e w F r a n c e , c o m p a r e d A b o r i g i n a l s and E u r o p e a n s even more bluntly: 21

their [Aboriginals'] days are all n o t h i n g but p a s t i m e . T h e y are never in a hurry. Q u i t e different from us, w h o can n e v e r do a n y t h i n g w i t h o u t hurry and worry; worry, I say, b e c a u s e our desire t y r a n n i z e s over us and b a n i s h e s p e a c e from our a c t i o n s .

L o c k e a g r e e s w i t h t h e s e critics t h a t t h e ' e q u a l i t y of a s i m p l e p o o r w a y of liveing confine [d] t h e i r d e s i r e s w i t h i n t h e n a r r o w b o u n d s of e a c h m a n s s m a l p r o p e r t i e ' in h u n t i n g a n d g a t h e r i n g s o c i e t i e s . T h i s reflects his t h e s i s of c u l t u r a l r e l a t i v i t y t h a t m o d e s of life c o n f o r m t o t h e s t a g e of h i s t o r i c a l d e v e l o p m e n t . H e a s k s , w h y 'would a M a n v a l u e T e n T h o u s a n d or a n H u n d r e d T h o u s a n d A c r e s of e x c e l l e n t Land, r e a d y c u l t i v a t e d , a n d well s t o c k e d to w i t h C a t t l e , in t h e m i d d l e of i n - l a n d P a r t s of America, w h e r e h e h a d n o h o p e s of C o m m e r c e w i t h o t h e r P a r t s of t h e W o r l d , t o d r a w Money t o h i m by t h e S a l e of t h e P r o d u c t ? ' H e a n s w e r s , 'it w o u l d n o t b e w o r t h t h e i n c l o s i n g ' . H o w e v e r , o n c e c o m m e r c e is i n t r o d u c e d , t h e s a m e p e r s o n i n e v i t a b l y b e g i n s to d e s i r e m o r e . ' F i n d o u t s o m e t h i n g t h a t h a t h t h e Use and Value of Money a m o n g s t his N e i g h b o u r s , you shall s e e t h e s a m e M a n will b e g i n p r e s e n t l y to enlarge his Possessions.' T h i s c l a i m t h a t h u m a n m o t i v a t i o n is t r a n s f o r m e d by t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n of a m a r k e t s y s t e m of p r i v a t e p r o p e r t y so t h a t a n y p e r s o n will d e s i r e t h e goods it p r o d u c e s w a s r e p e a t e d a n d e s t a b l i s h e d a s c o n v e n t i o n a l w i s d o m a c e n t u r y l a t e r by A d a m 22

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S m i t h . H o w e v e r , t h e r e is l i t t l e e v i d e n c e t h a t t h e w o r l d c o m m e r c i a l system causally h o m o g e n i s e s t h e cultural d i v e r s i t y o f l o w e r societies t h a t c o m e i n t o its o r b i t . A b o r i g i n a l p e o p l e s h a v e i n t e r a c t e d w i t h a n d a d a p t e d to c o m m e r c i a l t r a d e w i t h E u r o p e a n s for h u n d r e d s of y e a r s w i t h o u t d e s i r i n g to a b a n d o n t h e i r c u l t u r a l ways or t o identify w i t h t h e E u r o p e a n s ' u n i f o r m i n s t i t u t i o n s of p r i v a t e p r o p e r t y a n d c o m m o d i t y p r o d u c t i o n . T h e a d d i t i o n a l c o e r c i o n of a r m i e s , m i s s i o n a r i e s a n d g o v e r n m e n t s h a s n o t c a u s e d t h e m to a c c e p t t h i s f e a t u r e of m o d e r n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m as t h e i r own. T h e a s s i m i l a t i o n a r g u m e n t is p a r t of a b r o a d e r a c c o u n t of t h e h i s t o r i c a l d e v e l o p m e n t of f o r m s of p r o d u c t i o n a n d g o v e r n m e n t in c h a p t e r 8 of t h e Second treatise. A s w e h a v e seen, peoples at the earliest stage have limited desires which t h e y satisfy w i t h s u b s i s t e n c e h u n t i n g a n d g a t h e r i n g . A s a result, they have 'no T e m p t a t i o n to enlarge their Possessions of L a n d , o r c o n t e s t for w i d e r e x t e n d of G r o u n d ' , a n d 'so n o n e e d of m a n y laws to d e c i d e ' t h e 'few c o n t r o v e r s i e s ' w h i c h a r i s e . T h e ad hoc f o r m of i n d i v i d u a l self g o v e r n m e n t is a p p r o p r i a t e t o t h i s level of d e v e l o p m e n t a n d t h e r e is n o n e e d for t h e i n s t i t u t i o n s of a m o d e r n p o l i t i c a l society. E u r o p e a n s , by c o n t r a s t , h a v e g o n e t h r o u g h t h e following s t a g e s of progress. T h e d e v e l o p m e n t of m o n e y a n d t r a d e s p u r s t h e g r o w t h of p o p u l a t i o n a n d t h e a p p l i e d a r t s . A n e l a s t i c d e s i r e for m o r e t h a n one needs arises, uprooting t h e p r e - m o n e t a r y economy of l i m i t e d d e s i r e s a n d n e e d s . P e o p l e seek to e n l a r g e t h e i r p o s s e s s i o n s in o r d e r t o sell t h e s u r p l u s o n t h e m a r k e t for a profit. T h e d y n a m i c p r o d u c t i v i t y of m a r k e t - o r i e n t e d l a b o u r causes land scarcity and p r o p e r t y disputes which c a n n o t be h a n d l e d by t h e ad hoc s y s t e m of self g o v e r n m e n t in t h e s t a t e of n a t u r e . At this t h r e s h o l d p e o p l e c o m e t o g e t h e r a n d a g r e e to set u p m o d e r n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l s o c i e t i e s , ' u n i t i n g i n t o C o m m o n ­ w e a l t h s a n d p u t t i n g t h e m s e l v e s u n d e r G o v e r n m e n t ' for t h e s a k e of 'the Preservation of their Property ' . T h e r e f o r e , a c o n s t i ­ t u t i o n a l n a t i o n s t a t e a n d its d e f i n i n g i n s t i t u t i o n s a r i s e only a t t h e E u r o p e a n level of h i s t o r i c a l d e v e l o p m e n t . G i v e n t h i s E u r o c e n t r i c n a r r a t i v e of m o d e r n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m , it is 2 3

24

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multiplicity

obvious t h a t A b o r i g i n a l p e o p l e s d o n o t c o n s t i t u t e i n d e p e n d e n t a n d s o v e r e i g n n a t i o n s e q u a l in s t a t u s t o E u r o p e a n n a t i o n s , as t h e y a n d t h e i r d e f e n d e r s c o n t e n d , b u t a r e , as L o c k e p o s i t s a t t h e o u t s e t , in a p r e - c o n s t i t u t i o n a l s t a t e of n a t u r e . W h e n L o c k e d i r e c t l y c o n f r o n t s t h e c l a i m of A b o r i g i n a l s o v e r e i g n t y , h e d o e s so w i t h i n this c o m p r e h e n s i v e n a r r a t i v e , j u s t as t h e m e m b e r s of t h e t h r e e schools of m o d e r n c o n s t i ­ tutionalism do today. H e acknowledges t h a t some Aboriginal p e o p l e s a r e o r g a n i s e d i n t o n a t i o n s a n d possess f o r m s of g o v e r n m e n t . R o g e r W i l l i a m s h a d c o n c l u d e d e a r l i e r in t h e c e n t u r y t h a t , since ' t h e w i l d e s t I n d i a n s in A m e r i c a a g r e e u p o n s o m e f o r m s of G o v e r n m e n t ' , it follows t h a t ' t h e i r civil a n d e a r t h l y g o v e r n m e n t s be as lawfull a n d t r u e as a n y g o v e r n m e n t in t h e W o r l d ' . H o w e v e r , as we h a v e s e e n , t h e c u s t o m s by w h i c h A b o r i g i n a l p e o p l e s g o v e r n t h e m s e l v e s d o n o t c o u n t as ' e s t a b l i s h e d l a w s ' a n d c a n n o t b e c i t e d as e v i d e n c e of a c o n s t i t u t i o n . M o r e importantly, Locke argues t h a t their 'kings' are 'little m o r e t h a n Generals of their armies' w h o , a l t h o u g h ' t h e y c o m m a n d a b s o l u t e l y in W a r ' , in p e a c e t i m e ' t h e y e x e r c i s e very little dominion, and have but a very m o d e r a t e Sovereignty, the R e s o l u t i o n of P e a c e a n d W a r , b e i n g o r d i n a r i l y e i t h e r in t h e P e o p l e , or in a C o u n c i l ' . B e c a u s e A b o r i g i n a l g o v e r n m e n t s a r e a n a n c i e n t f o r m of d i r e c t d e m o c r a c y in w h i c h t h e p e o p l e d o n o t d e l e g a t e t h e i r p o w e r s of w a r a n d p e a c e to a n i n s t i ­ t u t i o n a l i s e d l e g i s l a t u r e a n d e x e c u t i v e , as E u r o p e a n s h a v e d o n e , t h e y a r e n o t s o v e r e i g n . T h e f o u n d i n g of a m o d e r n E u r o p e a n c o n s t i t u t i o n a n d t h e e x i s t e n c e of m o d e r n E u r o p e a n political i n s t i t u t i o n s a r e u s e d t o define s o v e r e i g n t y a n d so t o d i s p o s s e s s t h e A b o r i g i n a l n a t i o n s of t h e i r e q u a l s t a t u s . I n s u m m a r y , L o c k e ' s a c c o u n t covers over t h e r e a l h i s t o r y of t h e i n t e r a c t i o n of E u r o p e a n i m p e r i a l i s m a n d A b o r i g i n a l r e s i s t a n c e . T h e invasion of A m e r i c a , u s u r p a t i o n of A b o r i g i n a l n a t i o n s , theft of t h e c o n t i n e n t , i m p o s i t i o n of E u r o p e a n e c o n o m i c a n d political s y s t e m s , a n d t h e s t e a d f a s t r e s i s t a n c e of the Aboriginal peoples a r e replaced with the captivating p i c t u r e of t h e i n e v i t a b l e a n d b e n i g n p r o g r e s s of m o d e r n constitutionalism. 2 5

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Vattel, Kant and theirfollowers T h e a r g u m e n t s p r e s e n t e d by L o c k e w e r e widely d i s s e m i n a t e d throughout the eighteenth and n i n e t e e n t h centuries to legitimate E u r o p e a n imperialism. For example, J o h n Bulkley of C o n n e c t i c u t p u b l i s h e d 'An i n q u i r y i n t o t h e r i g h t of t h e a b o r i g i n a l n a t i v e s to t h e l a n d in A m e r i c a ' in 1 7 2 5 to r e f u t e t h e claim a d v a n c e d by t h e M o h e g a n n a t i o n t h a t t h e y c o n s t i ­ t u t e a s o v e r e i g n n a t i o n u n d e r i n t e r n a t i o n a l law. T h e Inquiry is b a s e d e n t i r e l y o n L o c k e ' s Two treatises. I n 1758, E m e r i c d e V a t t e l , in The law of nations, or the principles of natural law, o n e of t h e m o s t w i d e l y c i t e d legal t e x t s in A m e r i c a a n d n o w a n a u t h o r i t a t i v e t e x t in i n t e r n a t i o n a l law, e c h o e d L o c k e in his j u s t i f i c a t i o n of F r e n c h a n d B r i t i s h i m p e r i a l i s m : 27

T h e cultivation o f the soil is an o b l i g a t i o n i m p o s e d u p o n m a n by n a t u r e . Every n a t i o n is therefore b o u n d by t h e law o f n a t u r e to cultivate that land w h i c h has fallen to its s h a r e . T h e r e are o t h e r s w h o , in order to avoid labour, seek to live upon their flocks and t h e fruits of the c h a s e . N o w that the h u m a n race has m u l t i p l i e d so greatly, it could not subsist if every p e o p l e w i s h e d to live after that fashion. T h o s e w h o still pursue this idle m o d e of life o c c u p y m o r e land t h a n t h e y w o u l d have n e e d o f u n d e r a s y s t e m of h o n e s t labour, and they m a y not c o m p l a i n if other, m o r e industrious n a t i o n s , too confined at h o m e , s h o u l d c o m e and occupy parts of their lands. [ W ] h e n the n a t i o n s of Europe c o m e u p o n lands w h i c h the s a v a g e s have no special n e e d of, and are m a k i n g n o p r e s e n t and c o n t i n u o u s use of, they m a y lawfully take p o s s e s s i o n o f t h e m and e s t a b l i s h c o l o n i e s in t h e m .

A s t h e d e t a i l s of L o c k e ' s a r g u m e n t s w e r e t a k e n u p , d e b a t e d a n d a l t e r e d by t h e m o d e r n t h e o r i s t s of t h e S c o t t i s h a n d F r e n c h E n l i g h t e n m e n t s , t h e c o m p r e h e n s i v e vision t h e a r g u m e n t s u p h o l d c a m e t o b e t h e u n q u e s t i o n e d f r a m e w o r k of t h e d e b a t e . T h e l e g i t i m a c y of E u r o p e a n s e t t l e m e n t a n d d i s p o s s e s s i o n w a s a s s u r e d . W h e n t h e o r i s t s of w h a t J o h n Pocock calls t h e c o m p e t i n g t r a d i t i o n s of r i g h t s , v i r t u e s a n d m a n n e r s d e b a t e d t h e n a t u r e of m o d e r n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l societies in t e r m s of Locke's rights-bearing and industrious labourers, J a m e s Harrington's virtuous republicans and A d a m Smith's polished c o m m e r c i a l i s t s , t h e y g a v e t h e i m p l a n t a t i o n of E u r o p e a n

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i n s t i t u t i o n s a n d t r a d i t i o n s of i n t e r p r e t a t i o n t h e i m p r e s s i o n of h i s t o r i c a l inevitability, for all t h r e e c o n c e p t i o n s of m o d e r n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m a r e d e f i n e d in c o n t r a s t t o , a n d in s u p e r cession of, t h e A b o r i g i n a l p e o p l e s t h e y d i s p l a c e d in p r a c t i c e t h e p r o p e r t y l e s s a n d w a s t e f u l h u n t e r g a t h e r e r , t h e vicious s a v a g e a n d t h e r u d e n a t i v e r e s p e c t i v e l y . E v e n if o n e looks o n A b o r i g i n a l p e o p l e s w i t h a d m i r a t i o n in t h i s f r a m e w o r k , as R o u s s e a u a n d S a m u e l J o h n s o n did, t h e only a v a i l a b l e a t t i t u d e is n o s t a l g i a a n d r e g r e t for t h e i r i n e v i t a b l e p a s s i n g . T h e f e a t u r e s of m o d e r n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m w e r e also a c c e p t e d by I m m a n u e l K a n t , w h o is often s e e n as f o u n d i n g a n i n d e p e n d e n t t r a d i t i o n of l i b e r a l political t h e o r y . In^4w idea for a universal history with a cosmopolitan intent (1784) a n d Towards perpetual peace ( 1 7 9 5 ) , K a n t a r g u e s t h a t h u m a n i t y c a n a c h i e v e full m o r a l p r o g r e s s a n d f r e e d o m only a f t e r c o m m e r c e a n d republican constitutions are spread a r o u n d the world. A l t h o u g h there are i m p o r t a n t differences between K a n t ' s c o n c e p t of a r e p u b l i c a n c o n s t i t u t i o n a n d L o c k e ' s c o n c e p t of a m o d e r n political society, t h e y a r e b o t h d e f i n e d by c h a r a c t e r ­ istically E u r o p e a n f e a t u r e s : t h e i n s t i t u t i o n a l i s e d r u l e of law and representative g o v e r n m e n t . O n c e these threshold insti­ t u t i o n s of civilisation a r e e s t a b l i s h e d , K a n t e x p l a i n s , p r o g r e s s t o w a r d s m o r a l f r e e d o m o c c u r s by m e a n s of t h e m e c h a n i s m of ' u n s o c i a l sociability'. M a r k e t s a n d r e p u b l i c a n c o n s t i t u t i o n s c o n s t r a i n s e l f - i n t e r e s t e d i n d i v i d u a l s to c o - o p e r a t e w i t h o t h e r s in o r d e r t o satisfy t h e i r d e s i r e s for m o r e t h a n t h e y n e e d for bare subsistence. A r e p u b l i c a n c o n s t i t u t i o n is d e f i n e d in c o n t r a s t to t h e c u s t o m s of A b o r i g i n a l p e o p l e s . T h e uncivilised h u n t i n g a n d g a t h e r i n g p e o p l e s of A m e r i c a , K a n t a r g u e s , lack a c o n s t i ­ tution, government and property because they have not m a d e t h e t r a n s i t i o n t o a life of a g r i c u l t u r e . I n t h e i r p r e c o n s t i t u t i o n a l s t a t e of n a t u r e t h e y h a v e a 'lawless f r e e d o m of h u n t i n g , fishing a n d h e r d i n g ' , w h i c h , 'of all f o r m s of life is w i t h o u t d o u b t m o s t c o n t r a r y to a civilised c o n s t i t u t i o n ' . A g r i ­ c u l t u r e , c o m m e r c e a n d finally r e p u b l i c a n c o n s t i t u t i o n s a r e b r o u g h t t o t h e s e uncivilised p e o p l e by E u r o p e a n w a r s a n d c o m m e r c i a l e x p a n s i o n . K a n t c o n d e m n s t h e e x c e s s e s of 28

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E u r o p e a n i m p e r i a l w a r s , especially o u t r i g h t c o n q u e s t , a n d p r e f e r s e x p a n s i o n by t r a d e , e c o n o m i c s a n c t i o n s a n d diplo­ m a c y . Y e t h e n o n e t h e less c o m m e n d s t h e s p r e a d of E u r o p e a n m a r k e t s and constitutions because they provide the threshold for m o r a l p r o g r e s s , s t a t i n g t h a t is is ' o u r d u t y to work t o w a r d s b r i n g i n g a b o u t this g o a l ' . K a n t ' s j u s t i f i c a t i o n of c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i m p e r i a l i s m is q u i t e s i m i l a r t o L o c k e ' s n a t u r a l r i g h t to p u n i s h t h e A b o r i g i n a l p e o p l e w h o v i o l a t e n a t u r a l law by r e s i s t i n g t h e E u r o p e a n s w h o t a k e t h e i r l a n d . H i s t h i r d definitive a r t i c l e of p e r p e t u a l p e a c e , w h i c h h e p r o p o s e d for i n t e r n a t i o n a l law, is ' t h e r i g h t of h o s p i t a l i t y ' . It gives E u r o p e a n s t h e r i g h t to e n g a g e in c o m ­ merce with Aboriginal peoples and E u r o p e a n nations the r i g h t t o d e f e n d t h e i r t r a d e r s if t h e A b o r i g i n a l p e o p l e s a r e so i n h o s p i t a b l e as t o d e n y t h e r i g h t . ' I n t h i s w a y ' , K a n t c o n c l u d e s , ' d i s t a n t p a r t s of t h e w o r l d c a n e s t a b l i s h w i t h o n e a n o t h e r p e a c e f u l r e l a t i o n s t h a t will e v e n t u a l l y b e c o m e m a t t e r s of p u b l i c law, a n d t h e h u m a n r a c e c a n g r a d u a l l y b e b r o u g h t closer a n d closer t o a c o s m o p o l i t a n c o n s t i t u t i o n . ' T h e n o n E u r o p e a n p e o p l e s of t h e w o r l d will b e r e c o g n i s e d a s e q u a l s only o n c e t h e y h a v e a b a n d o n e d t h e i r lawless w a y s a n d s u b ­ m i t t e d to E u r o p e a n m a r k e t s a n d r e p u b l i c a n c o n s t i t u t i o n s . 29

30

M a n y m o r e e x a m p l e s could be g i v e n . I n ' S u p e r i o r p e o p l e : t h e n a r r o w n e s s of l i b e r a l i s m from Mill t o R a w l s ' , B h i k h u P a r e k h elucidates how these conventions inform Mill's political theory a n d h i s j u s t i f i c a t i o n of B r i t i s h r u l e a n d c u l t u r a l a s s i m i l a t i o n in I n d i a a n d Q u e b e c . W h e r e a s L o c k e , K a n t a n d Mill a t l e a s t p r e s e n t e d a r g u m e n t s t o a n s w e r t h e c l a i m s of n o n - E u r o p e a n peoples to constitutional recognition, c o n t e m p o r a r y theorists of m o d e r n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m t e n d t o t a k e t h e i r c o n c l u s i o n s for g r a n t e d as a u t h o r i t a t i v e p r e m i s e s a n d t r a d i t i o n s of i n t e r p r e t ­ a t i o n , w i t h o u t even a s k i n g if t h e y m i g h t m i s r e c o g n i s e t h e c l a i m s of o t h e r s . F o r e x a m p l e , o r i g i n a l c o n t r a c t t h e o r i e s s i m p l y overlook t h e p r e s e n c e of A b o r i g i n a l c o n s t i t u t i o n s . T h i s is o b v i o u s in t h e o r i e s w h i c h s t a r t f r o m a L o c k e a n s t a t e of n a t u r e o r i n d i v i d u a l s e l f - o w n e r s h i p , s u c h as R o b e r t N o z i c k ' s Anarchy, state and Utopia. B u t it is n o less t r u e i n t h e o r i e s w h i c h

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s t a r t from a m o r e K a n t i a n p r e m i s e , s u c h as J o h n R a w l s ' A theory of justice, as V e r n o n V a n D y k e h a s p o i n t e d o u t . I n t h e last d e c a d e , R a w l s h a s s u g g e s t e d t h a t his t h e o r y c a n b e s e e n in a slightly d i f f e r e n t way, as a t h e o r y w i t h i n a n a u t h o r i t a t i v e set of i n s t i t u t i o n s a n d t r a d i t i o n s of i n t e r p r e t ­ a t i o n in N o r t h A m e r i c a . T h e i n s t i t u t i o n s a n d t r a d i t i o n s d e r i v e from p o s t - R e f o r m a t i o n European constitutional d e m o c r a c y : t o l e r a t i o n , t h e r u l e of law, r e p r e s e n t a t i v e g o v e r n ­ m e n t , m a r k e t s a n d i n d i v i d u a l r i g h t s . T h e role of t h e t h e o r i s t is to a r t i c u l a t e ' t h e b a s i c i n t u i t i v e i d e a s t h a t a r e e m b e d d e d in t h e political i n s t i t u t i o n s of a c o n s t i t u t i o n a l d e m o c r a t i c r e g i m e a n d t h e p u b l i c t r a d i t i o n s of t h e i r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n ' . This move posits K a n t ' s m o d e r n , threshold institutions a n d their t r a d i t i o n s of i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , w h i c h c o m p r i s e t h e c o n v e n t i o n s of m o d e r n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m , as t h e a u t h o r i t a t i v e f r a m e w o r k for c o n s t i t u t i o n a l t h e o r y a n d p r a c t i c e . T h e i n d e p e n d e n t i n s t i t u t i o n s a n d t r a d i t i o n s of t h e A b o r i g i n a l n a t i o n s , w h i c h p r e - e x i s t R a w l s ' a u t h o r i t a t i v e i n s t i t u t i o n s a n d t r a d i t i o n s by h u n d r e d s of y e a r s , a r e e i t h e r i g n o r e d or, a t b e s t , i m p e r i o u s l y discussed within the very uncosmopolitan institutions and c o n v e n t i o n s t h a t h a v e b e e n forged to a s s i m i l a t e t h e m . 3 1

T o p r e s u p p o s e t h a t t h e i n i t i a l c o n d i t i o n s of p o p u l a r s o v e r e i g n t y a r e a s t a t e of n a t u r e , a veil of i g n o r a n c e , a set of E u r o p e a n t r a d i t i o n s a n d i n s t i t u t i o n s , or a n a l r e a d y e x i s t i n g n a t i o n a l c o m m u n i t y is t o b e g t h e q u e s t i o n of t h e politics of r e c o g n i t i o n . It d i s p o s s e s s e s A b o r i g i n a l p e o p l e s of t h e i r c o n s t i t u t i o n s a n d a u t h o r i t a t i v e t r a d i t i o n s w i t h o u t so m u c h as a h e a r i n g a n d i n s c r i b e s t h e m w i t h i n t h e E u r o c e n t r i c c o n v e n t i o n s of m o d e r n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m . The reform of diversity in Europe and the colonies T h e seven f e a t u r e s of m o d e r n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m h a v e also served to u n d e r m i n e cultural diversity within E u r o p e a n s o c i e t i e s . T h e vision of m o d e r n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m l e g i t i m a t e s t h e m o d e r n i s i n g p r o c e s s e s of d i s c i p l i n e , r a t i o n a l i s a t i o n a n d s t a t e b u i l d i n g t h a t a r e d e s i g n e d to c r e a t e in p r a c t i c e t h e c u l t u r a l a n d i n s t i t u t i o n a l u n i f o r m i t y i d e n t i f i e d as m o d e r n in t h e o r y . T h e s e p r o c e s s e s i n c l u d e t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n of c e n t r a l i s e d

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a n d u n i f o r m c o n s t i t u t i o n a l s y s t e m s over t h e legal a n d political p l u r a l i s m of e a r l y m o d e r n E u r o p e , t h e i m p l a n t a t i o n of s i m i l a r s y s t e m s by E u r o p e a n c o l o n i s a t i o n , t h e e x t e n s i o n of t h e s e by p o s t - c o l o n i a l s t a t e s over I n d i g e n o u s p o p u l a t i o n s a n d c u s t o m ­ ary law, t h e i m p o s i t i o n of l i n g u i s t i c a n d c u l t u r a l u n i f o r m i t y , a n d c o u n t l e s s p r o g r a m m e s of n a t u r a l i s a t i o n , a s s i m i l a t i o n a n d e u g e n i c s to c o n s t r u c t m o d e r n s t a t e s a n d s u b j e c t s . T h e first way t h e e m p i r e of u n i f o r m i t y is e s t a b l i s h e d in t h e o r y is t h e p r e m i s e t h a t t h e s o v e r e i g n p e o p l e w h o e s t a b l i s h t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n a r e a l r e a d y c u l t u r a l l y i n d i f f e r e n t m e m b e r s of o n e society w h o a i m to set u p a r e g u l a r c o n s t i t u t i o n a l associ­ a t i o n w i t h a single locus of s o v e r e i g n t y . T h i s w a s a fiction of t h e e a r l y m o d e r n t h e o r i s t s , as H u g o G r o t i u s e x p o s e d in his survey of t h e diversity of e x i s t i n g c o n s t i t u t i o n s , d e s i g n e d t o e n s u r e in t h e o r y t h e c o n s o l i d a t i o n of e a r l y m o d e r n s t a t e s t h a t t h e y w i s h e d t o p r o m o t e in p r a c t i c e . L e i b n i z r e p l i e d to H o b b e s a n d P u f e n d o r f in 1677 t h a t n o k n o w n p o l i t i c a l society e x h i b i t e d t h e c u l t u r a l a n d i n s t i t u t i o n a l u n i f o r m i t y t h a t t h e y took for g r a n t e d . M a t t h e w H a l e in E n g l a n d a n d M o n t e s q u i e u in F r a n c e u p h e l d t h e a u t h o r i t y of t h e d i v e r s e c u s t o m s of t h e i r i r r e g u l a r r e a l m s . B u t t h e s e voices, b a r e l y h e a r d today, w e r e d r o w n e d o u t by t h e a s c e n d a n c y of u n i f o r m i t y . C o n s e q u e n t l y , w i t h i n t h e d o m i n a n t l a n g u a g e of m o d e r n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m it is difficult t o c o n c e p t u a l i s e t h e s o v e r e i g n p e o p l e as a l r e a d y c o n s t i t u t e d in c u s t o m a r y ways by t h e a u t h o r i t y of t h e i r different c u l t u r e s b e c a u s e c u l t u r e is con­ ceived as r e l a t i v e to a s t a g e of h i s t o r i c a l d e v e l o p m e n t , n o t as v a r i o u s w i t h i n a society. It is e v e n m o r e difficult to c o n c e p ­ t u a l i s e t h e p e o p l e as a g r e e i n g to e s t a b l i s h a c o n s t i t u t i o n a l association t h a t recognises and a c c o m m o d a t e s cultural diversity by a r r a n g e m e n t s of legal a n d political p l u r a l i s m so t h a t c i t i z e n s c a n r e l a t e to g o v e r n m e n t in c u l t u r a l l y different ways or p a r t i c i p a t e in different political i n s t i t u t i o n s . It is t a k e n for g r a n t e d t h a t t h e u n i t y of c o n s t i t u t i o n a l a s s o c i a t i o n consists in a c e n t r a l i s e d a n d u n i f o r m s y s t e m of legal a n d political a u t h o r i t y , or c l e a r s u b o r d i n a t i o n of a u t h o r i t i e s , t o w h i c h all c i t i z e n s a r e subject in t h e s a m e way, a n d from w h i c h all a u t h o r i t y d e r i v e s .

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A f e d e r a t i o n or a n a s s o c i a t i o n t h a t h a s g r o w n u p over t i m e w i t h a v a r i e t y of c u s t o m a r y a u t h o r i t i e s a n d n o single locus of u l t i m a t e a u t h o r i t y w a s s e e n as w e a k , i n c o h e r e n t a n d p r o n e t o civil w a r a n d d i s s o l u t i o n , as H o b b e s classically a r g u e d in Leviathan in 1 6 5 1 . I n 1 6 7 3 P u f e n d o r f l a b e l l e d s u c h a n c i e n t c o n s t i t u t i o n a l a s s o c i a t i o n s , w h i c h i n c l u d e d a l m o s t all t h e e a r l y m o d e r n n a t i o n s of E u r o p e , ' i r r e g u l a r ' a n d ' m o n s t r o u s ' d e v i a t i o n s from t h e m o d e r n n o r m of u n i f o r m i t y : An irregular form of government [respublica irregularis] is one in which we do not find that unity which is the essence of a state so completely established, not because of a disease or fault in the administration of the country, but because the irregularity of its form has been as it were legitimated by public law and custom. A f t e r his i n f l u e n t i a l a t t a c k , it is r a r e to find a m a j o r t h e o r i s t w h o d o e s n o t s u b s c r i b e t o t h e view t h a t ' t h e u n i t y w h i c h is t h e e s s e n c e ' of a m o d e r n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l s t a t e c o n s i s t s i n a single a n d clearly o r d e r e d s y s t e m of i n s t i t u t i o n s a n d laws, e m a n a t i n g from a s u p r e m e l e g i s l a t u r e or e x e c u t i v e , w h i c h is 'anhupeunthunos or u n a c c o u n t a b l e ' . 3 2

I n p r e s e n t i n g t h e definitive c a s e for u n i f o r m i t y , P u f e n d o r f gave t h e following, r e m a r k a b l y g e n e r o u s d e f i n i t i o n of t h e i r r e g u l a r a n c i e n t c o n s t i t u t i o n s of e x i s t i n g s o c i e t i e s h e s o u g h t to d i s c r e d i t a n d to e n c o u r a g e s t a t e b u i l d e r s to r e f o r m : the parts of supreme sovereignty are dividedly and independently in the hands of different persons and bodies of the same common­ wealth, in such a way that each of t h e m holds that part which they possess in their own right and administer it according to their own j u d g e m e n t , but in respect of the other parts of sovereignty, [they] are like subjects. H i s p o i n t w a s to s h o w t h a t t h i s k i n d of m u l t i f o r m i t y w a s i n c o m p a t i b l e w i t h t h e m o d e r n , unified c o n c e p t i o n of a sovereign state that he and H o b b e s aimed to vindicate, and t h e r e f o r e a t h i n g of t h e p a s t . ' T h e e s s e n t i a l s of a p e r f e c t a n d r e g u l a r s t a t e r e q u i r e ' , h e a s s e r t e d , ' t h a t i n it t h e r e b e s u c h a u n i o n a s m a k e s e v e r y t h i n g w h i c h w o r k s t o its a d m i n i s t r a t i o n a p p e a r t o c o m e , as it w e r e , from o n e s o u l . ' A l t h o u g h o t h e r m o d e r n t h e o r i s t s of c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m s u c h as L o c k e a n d

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R o u s s e a u d i s a g r e e d w i t h P u f e n d o r f in m a n y r e s p e c t s , t h e y a g r e e d o n t h e u n i t y of t h e soul of m o d e r n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l s t a t e s . In t h e l e g i s l a t u r e , L o c k e w r i t e s , ' t h e M e m b e r s of a C o m m o n ­ wealth are united, and combined together into one coherent living body. T h i s is the Soul that gives Form, Life, and Unity t o t h e Commonwealth.' 3 3

I n The declaration of the rights of man and citizen of 1789, t h e s e v e n f e a t u r e s of m o d e r n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m a r e g a t h e r e d t o g e t h e r in a n e x e m p l a r y f o r m , p r o v i d i n g t h e classic i m a g e of m o d e r n c o n s t i t u t i o n for t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n a l m o v e m e n t s of t h e n i n e ­ t e e n t h a n d t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r i e s . A c o n s t i t u t i o n is p r e s e n t e d as a w r i t t e n d o c u m e n t w h i c h c r e a t e s t h e f o u n d a t i o n s of g o v e r n ­ m e n t de novo by a n act of t h e s o v e r e i g n will a n d r e a s o n of t h e p e o p l e , w i t h o u t a n y r e f e r e n c e t o t h e c u s t o m s a n d w a y s in w h i c h t h e p e o p l e a r e c o n s t i t u t e d . T h e first two a r t i c l e s of The declaration d e c l a r e t h a t society is c o m p o s e d solely of free a n d e q u a l m a l e c i t i z e n s w i t h r i g h t s . T h e only n o t e w o r t h y political d i f f e r e n c e a m o n g t h e m is t h e i r u s e f u l n e s s to t h e p u b l i c . A r t i c l e 3 s t a t e s t h a t ' s o v e r e i g n t y r e s i d e s e s s e n t i a l l y in t h e n a t i o n ' . T h i s h a s b e e n i n t e r p r e t e d in t w o ways s i n c e 1 7 8 9 : e i t h e r as a n a t i o n of s o v e r e i g n i n d i v i d u a l s w i t h r i g h t s , as in a r t i c l e 1, or as t h e collective n a t i o n of t h e n a t i o n a l i s t a n d c o m m u n i t a r i a n t r a d i t i o n s . C i t i z e n s set u p a n d g o v e r n t h e m ­ selves by r e p r e s e n t a t i v e i n s t i t u t i o n s w h i c h a r e , as a r t i c l e 6 s t a t e s , ' t h e s a m e for all'. A society w h i c h lacks t h e s e m o d e r n f e a t u r e s , a r t i c l e 16 d e c l a r e s , ' h a s n o c o n s t i t u t i o n at a l l ' . The declaration is t h e r e s u l t of d e b a t e s in t h e N a t i o n a l A s s e m b l y over t h e s u m m e r of 1 7 8 9 in w h i c h t h e p r o p o s a l s of Sieyes w o n o u t over t h o s e of J e a n - J o s e p h M o u n i e r . S i e y e s ' critics a g r e e d t h a t t h e a n c i e n t c o n s t i t u t i o n of t h e t h r e e e s t a t e s of F r a n c e (clergy, nobility a n d t h i r d e s t a t e ) h a d b e e n e r o d e d by t h e p r o c e s s e s of m o d e r n i s a t i o n over t h e p r e v i o u s c e n t u r y a n d f o r m a l l y a b o l i s h e d on 17 J u n e 1 7 8 9 w h e n t h e t h i r d e s t a t e d e c l a r e d itself t h e ' N a t i o n a l A s s e m b l y ' : t h a t is, t h e r e p r e s e n ­ t a t i v e b o d y of t h e n a t i o n as a w h o l e . N o t w i t h s t a n d i n g , t h e y a r g u e d t h a t F r a n c e c o n t i n u e d t o b e c o n s t i t u t e d b y laws a n d c u s t o m s i n t o a c o n f e d e r a t i o n of r e g i o n s . A n y w r i t t e n 34

Strange

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multiplicity

c o n s t i t u t i o n h a d t o r e c o g n i s e a n d a c c o m m o d a t e itself t o this a n c i e n t c o n s t i t u t i o n a l diversity. T h i s w a y of t h i n k i n g a b o u t c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m e x t e n d s b a c k t o C l a u d e d e Seyssel, Louis le Roy a n d M i c h e l d e M o n t a i g n e . T h e p r o p o n e n t s in t h e N a t i o n a l A s s e m b l y d r e w t h e i r i n s p i r a t i o n from t h e m o s t f a m o u s t h e o r y in t h e t r a d i t i o n , t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n a l ' a s s o c i a t i o n a l i s m ' , as R e b e c c a K i n g s t o n a p t l y calls it, of M o n t e s q u i e u ' s The spirit of the laws ( 1 7 4 8 ) . T h e d e f e n d e r s of t h e a n c i e n t c o n s t i t u t i o n c l a i m e d t h a t t h e m e m b e r s of t h e N a t i o n a l A s s e m b l y w e r e n o t r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s of s o m e a b s t r a c t a n d h y p o t h e t i c a l society of i n d i v i d u a l s , b u t mandataires from t h e v a r i o u s r e g i o n s , b o u n d to b r i n g f o r w a r d t h e r e g i o n a l g r i e v a n c e s a n d visions of t h e c o n f e d e r a t i o n of t h e i r c o n s t i t u e n t s as e x p r e s s e d in t h e cahiers de doleances ( n o t e ­ b o o k s of g r i e v a n c e s ) of t h e i r r e g i o n s , as h a d b e e n d o n e at every c o n s t i t u t i o n a l a s s e m b l y since t h e f i f t e e n t h c e n t u r y . Sieyes a n d his followers o v e r c a m e t h i s c o n f e d e r a l view of t h e p e o p l e by a r g u i n g t h a t , a l t h o u g h t h e m e m b e r s of a c o n s t i t u t i o n a l a s s e m b l y a r e e l e c t e d by d i s t r i c t s , e a c h m e m b e r r e p r e s e n t s all d i s t r i c t s a n d m u s t s u b o r d i n a t e t h e p a r t i c u l a r will of his c o n s t i t u e n t s to t h e g e n e r a l will of t h e n a t i o n , or n o u n i t y will e m e r g e . T h e m e m b e r s a r e ' r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s of t h e p e o p l e ' as a whole. M o r e o v e r , t h e v e r y i d e a of a n ' a n c i e n t ' c o n s t i t u t i o n of t h e e x i s t i n g c u s t o m s a n d ways of t h e p e o p l e , w h i c h t h e w r i t t e n c o n s t i t u t i o n m u s t r e c o g n i s e , w a s effaced i n The declaration by t h e m o d e r n c o n c e p t of a c o n s t i t u t i o n b r o u g h t i n t o b e i n g by t h e will of t h e h o m o g e n e o u s p e o p l e in a c c o r d w i t h a b s t r a c t p r i n c i p l e s . T h i s c o n c e p t w a s e n u n c i a t e d in t h e a r t i c l e on c o n s t i t u t i o n s in t h e s e c o n d e d i t i o n of t h e Encyclopedia (1780). A n e n t i r e c h a p t e r of V a t t e l ' s On the laws of nations is r e p r i n t e d a n d ' c o n s t i t u t i o n ' is d e f i n e d as t h e ' f u n d a m e n t a l r e g u l a t i o n t h a t d e t e r m i n e s t h e m a n n e r in w h i c h p u b l i c a u t h o r i t y is e x e r c i s e d ' . T h i s R o m a n or ' i m p o s i t i o n ' c o n c e p t of a c o n s t i ­ t u t i o n , s i m i l a r to P a i n e ' s , was also a v a i l a b l e in t h e i n f l u e n t i a l e d i t i o n s of P u f e n d o r f s On the law of nature and nations e d i t e d by J e a n B a r b e y r a c . J e a n - N i c h o l a s D e m e u n i e r , in his a r t i c l e o n c o n s t i t u t i o n s in t h e Methodical encyclopedia of 1 7 8 4 , also 35

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r e p e a t e d V a t t e l ' s d e f i n i t i o n a n d i l l u s t r a t e d it w i t h e x a m p l e s of t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n s of t h e A m e r i c a n colonies. O n c e Sieyes a n d his followers e s t a b l i s h e d this c o n c e p t as a u t h o r i t a t i v e , t h e e x i s t i n g c o n s t i t u t i o n of t h e followers of M o n t e s q u i e u dis­ a p p e a r e d from view. Finally, t h e m o s t powerful a r g u m e n t a d v a n c e d by Sieyes w a s t h a t t h e d i v e r s e r e g i o n a l c u s t o m s a n d ways of F r a n c e w e r e b e i n g s w e p t away in p r a c t i c e as t h e u n i n t e n d e d c o n s e q u e n c e of p r o g r e s s i v e h i s t o r i c a l d e v e l o p m e n t . M o d e r n E u r o p e a n societies w e r e b e c o m i n g a c l e a n s t a t e of i n d i v i d u a l s w i t h universal rights, m a n n e r s and interests, and with uniform r e p r e s e n t a t i v e i n s t i t u t i o n s as t h e sole l e g i t i m a t e form of g o v e r n m e n t . E a c h m o d e r n t h e o r i s t h a d a slightly d i f f e r e n t t h e o r y of h o w p r o g r e s s u n i n t e n t i o n a l l y g r i n d s m o d e r n s politically u n i f o r m , b u t t h e k e y c a u s a l f a c t o r s , as w e h a v e a l r e a d y s e e n in Locke's t h e o r y , a r e c o m m e r c e a n d t h e division of l a b o u r . W h e r e Le R o y a n d his followers h a d s e e n ' t h e diversity or v a r i e t y of t h i n g s in t h e u n i v e r s e ' , Sieyes, following S m i t h , saw a o n e - d i m e n s i o n a l o r d e r : 3 6

M o d e r n E u r o p e a n p e o p l e s b e a r scarcely a n y r e s e m b l a n c e to a n c i e n t o n e s . A m o n g s t us it is a q u e s t i o n solely of c o m m e r c e , a g r i c u l t u r e , m a n u f a c t u r e , etc. T h e desire for w e a l t h s e e m s to m a k e all t h e s t a t e s of Europe i n t o n o t h i n g o t h e r than i m m e n s e w o r k s h o p s . . . Political s y s t e m s too are today f o u n d e d exclusively o n work; t h e productive faculties of m a n are e v e r y t h i n g . . . W e are thus c o m p e l l e d to regard the g r e a t e r part of h u m a n i t y as n o t h i n g o t h e r t h a n work m a c h i n e s .

M o s t of t h e m o d e r n t h e o r i s t s did n o t b e l i e v e t h a t c u l t u r a l diversity w o u l d d i s a p p e a r solely by t h e u n i n t e n d e d c o n s e ­ q u e n c e s of p r o g r e s s . T h e y also h e l d t h a t it is t h e d u t y of a m o d e r n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l g o v e r n m e n t t o assist t h e p r o c e s s w i t h a n u n h i d d e n h a n d a n d e n s u r e in p r a c t i c e t h e c o n s e q u e n c e s t h e y p r e d i c t e d in t h e o r y . T h e y p u t f o r w a r d policies t o b r e a k d o w n t h e a n a c h r o n i s t i c c u s t o m s of b a c k w a r d c i t i z e n s a n d i m m i g r a n t s a n d r e f o r m t h e m so t h a t t h e y a c q u i r e d t h e m a n n e r s a n d policy of a civilised a n d e n l i g h t e n e d a g e . T h i s a s p e c t of c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m w a s d i s c u s s e d in t e r m s of 'sociability', t h e c o n c e p t P u f e n d o r f i n t r o d u c e d t o d e s c r i b e t h e

88

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h a b i t s a n d d i s p o s i t i o n s w h i c h r e n d e r a p e r s o n a 'fit m e m b e r ' of a m o d e r n society. T h e i n n u m e r a b l e policies t h e y r e c o m ­ m e n d e d w e r e d e s i g n e d to forge c i t i z e n s w h o n o t only possessed the 'cosmopolitan' identity c o m m o n to any 'repub­ l i c a n c o n s t i t u t i o n ' , b u t also t h e d i s t i n c t n a t i o n a l i d e n t i t y of their particular 'nation'. T h e policies of m a k i n g m o d e r n s u b j e c t s fit m e m b e r s of n a t i o n s , classically s t u d i e d by M a x W e b e r , G e r h a r d O e s t r e i c h a n d M i c h e l F o u c a u l t , rely o n a d i s t i n c t l y m o d e r n c o n c e p t of c u s t o m . As R i c h a r d T u c k h a s s h o w n in his m a g i s t e r i a l s t u d y of E u r o p e a n political t h o u g h t from 1550 to 1 6 5 0 , t h e ' r e a s o n of s t a t e ' w r i t e r s first t u r n e d to t h e p r o b l e m of r e f o r m i n g t h e c u s t o m s of t h e ' m a s s e s ' to m a k e t h e m p r o d u c t i v e a n d d i s c i p l i n e d m e m b e r s of m o d e r n E u r o p e a n s t a t e s w h i c h , in t u r n , w e r e r e g a r d e d as locked in a n i n t e r n a t i o n a l c o m p e t i t i o n over t h e c o n t r o l a n d e x p l o i t a t i o n of t h e n o n - E u r o p e a n w o r l d . T h e c o n c e p t of c u s t o m t h a t c a m e t o b e widely a c c e p t e d by t h e l a t e s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y w a s f o r m u l a t e d by L o c k e in An essay concerning human understanding (1690), Thoughts concerning education (1694) a n d his p r o p o s a l for t h e r e f o r m of t h e E n g l i s h p o o r l a w a n d w o r k h o u s e s y s t e m ( 1 6 9 7 ) . C u s t o m is c o n c e i v e d as t h e h a b i t u a l ways of t h i n k i n g , s p e a k i n g a n d b e h a v i n g t h a t a r e i m p l a n t e d in a p e r s o n by t h e c o n s t a n t r e p e t i t i o n of a n y w a y of t h i n k i n g , s p e a k i n g a n d b e h a v i n g o n e w i s h e s t o instil. A n i n d i v i d u a l , L o c k e w r i t e s , is 'only as w h i t e p a p e r or w a x , t o b e m o u l d e d a n d f a s h i o n e d as o n e p l e a s e s ' by ' u s e a n d p r a c t i c e ' . ' C u s t o m ' , h e c o n c l u d e s , ' s e t t l e s h a b i t s of T h i n k i n g in t h e U n d e r s t a n d i n g , as well as D e t e r m i n i n g in t h e Will, a n d of M o t i o n s in t h e Body; all w h i c h s e e m s t o b e b u t T r a i n s of M o t i o n in t h e A n i m a l S p i r i t s , w h i c h o n c e set a g o i n g c o n t i n u e o n t h e s a m e s t e p s t h e y h a v e b e e n u s e d to, w h i c h b y often t r e a d i n g a r e w o r n i n t o a s m o o t h p a t h , a n d t h e M o t i o n in it b e c o m e s e a s y a n d as it w e r e N a t u r a l . ' C u s t o m or c u l t u r e is n o t , h e n c e f o r t h , t h e a u t h o r i t a t i v e e x p r e s s i o n of t h e a g r e e m e n t of t h e p e o p l e , w h o s e c o n s e n t is r e q u i r e d for its a m e n d m e n t , b u t t h e defacto h a b i t s a c q u i r e d b y e n g a g i n g in t h e p r a c t i c e s a n d i n s t i t u t i o n s of o n e ' s society, from t h e m o s t p r i m i t i v e a n d l e a s t reflective to t h e m o s t 3 7

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civilised a n d e n l i g h t e n e d (as w e saw in a n e a r l i e r q u o t a t i o n f r o m L o c k e ) . As P i e r r e Nicole w r o t e a n d L o c k e t r a n s l a t e d from t h e F r e n c h : 3 8

If one takes a general Survey of the World, one shall find the Bulk of Mankind buried in a Stupidity so gross, that if it does not wholly dispossess t h e m of their Reason, yet it leaves t h e m so little Use of it, that one cannot but wonder how the Soul can be depressed into so low a Degree of Brutality. What does a Canibal, Iroquoi, Brasilian, Negro, Cafer, Groenlander, or Laplander think on during his whole life? T h e ordinary wants of the Body, and some dull ways of supplying t h e m , Fishing and Hunting, Dancing, and Revenge on his Enemies, is the whole Compass of his Contemplations. A c c o r d i n g l y , to p r e p a r e p e o p l e for t h e s u p e r i o r life of a m o d e r n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l n a t i o n it is n e c e s s a r y a n d b e n e f i c i a l t o b r e a k d o w n t h e i r a n c i e n t c u l t u r a l ways a n d i n s t i l m o d e r n o n e s t h r o u g h r e p e t i t i v e drills a n d e x e r c i s e s in s c h o o l s , f a c t o r i e s , p r i s o n s a n d a r m i e s . T h e D u t c h a r m y r e f o r m s of t h e m i d s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y p r o v i d e d a n i m p o r t a n t m o d e l for l a t e r r e f o r m s . T h e c o m p l e x t a s k s of s o l d i e r i n g w e r e b r o k e n d o w n i n t o a s u c c e s s i o n of m i n u t e a n d d e t a i l e d behavioural m o v e m e n t s . A raw recruit was put t h r o u g h repetitive e x e r c i s e s a n d drills of t h e s e m o v e m e n t s u n t i l h e b e c a m e a n h a b i t u a l s o l d i e r . T e c h n i q u e s like t h e s e w e r e a p p l i e d in w o r k ­ h o u s e s a n d schools t o r e f o r m t h e c h i l d r e n of t h e p o o r a n d i m m i g r a n t s t h r o u g h o u t E u r o p e . By t h e r e p e t i t i o n a n d d i s c i p l i n e of s i m p l e t a s k s f r o m a n e a r l y a g e , c h i l d r e n c a n b e ' i n u r e d to l a b o u r , w h i c h ' , L o c k e c o n t i n u e s , 'is of n o s m a l l c o n s e q u e n c e t o t h e m a k i n g of t h e m s o b e r a n d i n d u s t r i o u s all their lives'. H i s t o r i a n s s u c h as L i n d a Colley, in h e r s t u d y of B r i t i s h n e s s , Britons: the forging of a nation, 1J07-83, h a v e s h o w n h o w t h e s e t e c h n i q u e s of r e f o r m h a v e b e e n i n t e g r a t e d i n t o b r o a d e r policies by every m o d e r n n a t i o n to m a n u f a c t u r e a h o m o ­ g e n e o u s n a t i o n a l identity. T h e y were also employed t h r o u g h ­ o u t t h e c o l o n i e s t o r e d u c e t h e p r i m i t i v e c u s t o m s of l o w e r p e o p l e s a n d g r a d u a l l y civilise t h e m in t h e s u p e r i o r w a y s of t h e i m p e r i a l s o c i e t i e s . T h e m o d e l for t h e s e colonial policies w a s o f t e n t h e v i o l e n t c o n q u e s t a n d r e d u c t i o n of I r e l a n d a n d t h e 39

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l a t e r c l e a r a n c e of t h e S c o t t i s h H i g h l a n d s in t h e e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y . T h e e x p e r i e n c e g a i n e d in h u n t i n g a n d s u b d u i n g t h e s e 'wild b e a s t s ' w a s t h e n a p p l i e d in t h e c o l o n i e s to A b o r i g i n a l a n d African A m e r i c a n s , as e t h n o h i s t o r i a n s J a m e s A x t e l l a n d F r a n c i s J e n n i n g s h a v e t r a c e d in d e t a i l . D a n i e l N . P a u l , a M i ' k m a q h i s t o r i a n , s u m s u p t h i s r e s e a r c h in t h e title of h i s r e c e n t s t u d y , We were not the savages. T h e o d o r e A l l e n a n d Ronald Takaki have reconstructed how the d o m i n a n t white c u l t u r e w a s m o u l d e d a n d p a s s e d off as u n i v e r s a l a n d s u p e r i o r in colonial A m e r i c a a t t h e s a m e t i m e as A f r i c a n A m e r i c a n , Hispanic American and Aboriginal national identities were b r o k e n d o w n a n d d e g r a d e d . T h e v o t e w a s w i t h h e l d from A b o r i g i n a l p e o p l e s a n d n o n - E u r o p e a n i m m i g r a n t s in C a n a d a a n d the U n i t e d States until this century, w h e n they were c o n s i d e r e d fit a n d t h e e m p i r e of t h e d o m i n a n t i n s t i t u t i o n s a n d t r a d i t i o n s w a s b e y o n d q u e s t i o n . I n Torture and modernity, D a r i u s Rejali h a s s t u d i e d h o w t h e i m p e r i a l t e c h n i q u e s of discipline a n d r e f o r m w e r e a p p l i e d in I r a n a n d A r t u r o E s c o b a r h a s d i s c u s s e d t h e i r d i s s e m i n a t i o n , a n d r e s i s t a n c e to t h e m , throughout the Third World. T h e e x p e r i e n c e of A b o r i g i n a l p e o p l e s in C a n a d a a t t h e h a n d s of a d m i n i s t r a t o r s , m i s s i o n a r i e s a n d e d u c a t o r s is typical of r e f o r m m o v e m e n t s t h r o u g h o u t t h e B r i t i s h e m p i r e in t h e n i n e t e e n t h a n d t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r i e s . I n 1 8 5 7 t h e Act for t h e G r a d u a l Civilization of t h e I n d i a n s T r i b e s of t h e C a n a d a s w a s e n a c t e d t o d e s t r o y t h e i r w a y s a n d to a s s i m i l a t e t h e m c o m p l e t e l y to E u r o p e a n ways by i n c u l c a t i n g h a b i t s of s p e e c h , l a b o u r , p r i v a t e p r o p e r t y a n d r e l i g i o n . F o r , as H o b b e s h a d e x p l a i n e d , a l t h o u g h t h e colonists h a v e t h e r i g h t to m a k e w a r o n t h e I n d i g e n o u s p e o p l e s , b e c a u s e t h e y live in a s t a t e of w a r of all a g a i n s t all, ' t h e y a r e n o t to e x t e r m i n a t e t h o s e t h e y find t h e r e ; b u t c o n s t r a i n t h e m to i n h a b i t closer t o g e t h e r , a n d n o t r a n g e a g r e a t d e a l of g r o u n d , t o s n a t c h w h a t t h e y find; b u t to c o u r t e a c h little Plot w i t h a r t a n d l a b o u r , t o give t h e m t h e i r s u s t e n a n c e in d u e s e a s o n ' . W h e n t h e s e r e f o r m s failed, t h e y w e r e s u c c e e d e d by a m o r e c o m p r e h e n s i v e policy, T h e I n d i a n A c t of 1876. T h e a c t , w h i c h h a s survived a c e n t u r y of r e f o r m s , is a v a s t a d m i n i s t r a t i v e d i c t a t o r s h i p w h i c h g o v e r n s e v e r y 40

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1

d e t a i l of A b o r i g i n a l life. T h e e n t i r e r e g i m e w a s i m p o s e d w i t h o u t t h e c o n s e n t of A b o r i g i n a l p e o p l e s . A l t h o u g h t h e s e coercive t e c h n i q u e s m e t w i t h r e s i s t a n c e a n d failure, the administrators a n d theorists persisted. F r o m w i t h i n t h e p a r a m e t e r s of m o d e r n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m , t h e y saw t h e m s e l v e s as e n l i g h t e n e d g u a r d i a n s w h o w e r e p r e p a r i n g lower, childlike a n d p r e - c o n s e n s u a l p e o p l e s for a s u p e r i o r , m o d e r n life; in t h i s w a y t h e y c o u l d r e g a r d t h e d e s t r u c t i o n of o t h e r c u l t u r e s w i t h m o r a l a p p r o v a l . T h i s k i n d of c u l t u r a l i m p e r i a l i s m c o n t i n u e s , as we shall s e e , in t h e c u r r e n t view t h a t a s s i m i l a t i o n t o t h e d o m i n a n t c u l t u r e serves t o p r o v i d e a s u p e r i o r c u l t u r a l c o n t e x t in w h i c h m e m b e r s of ' m i n o r i t i e s ' c a n b e t t e r e x e r c i s e t h e i r f r e e d o m of choice in m o d e r n societies. The American revolution and the guardians of empire today M a n y m o r e e x a m p l e s could b e given of t h e d i f f e r e n t ways European women and non-European women and m e n were first e x c l u d e d from, a n d t h e n l a t e r a s s i m i l a t e d t o , m o d e r n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m . H o w e v e r , t o r o u n d off t h i s c h a p t e r , allow m e t o r e t u r n t o T h o m a s P a i n e . I n Common sense (1776) a n d The rights of man ( 1 7 9 0 - 2 ) , h e set o u t a classic t h e o r y of t h e m o d e r n c o n s t i t u t i o n . A s M c l l w a i n h i g h l i g h t e d , i t s p i c t u r e of a n undiverse sovereign people and uniform institutions has b e c o m e a u n i v e r s a l n o r m to w h i c h d e m a n d s for c o n s t i t u t i o n a l r e c o g n i t i o n m u s t c o n f o r m if t h e y a r e to b e t a k e n seriously. Y e t t o a c c e p t it u n c r i t i c a l l y as a n i m p a r t i a l s t a n d a r d is t o fail t o d o j u s t i c e t o t w o a l t e r n a t i v e t r a d i t i o n s of c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m P a i n e opposed. F i r s t , t h e a r g u m e n t of T h o m a s J e f f e r s o n in t h e D e c l a r a t i o n of I n d e p e n d e n c e (1776) is t h a t s o v e r e i g n t y w o u l d devolve to t h e p e o p l e as m e m b e r s of t h e t h i r t e e n s t a t e s a f t e r t h e w a r of i n d e p e n d e n c e . Since t h e p e o p l e h a d g o v e r n e d t h e m s e l v e s t h r o u g h t h e i r colonial a s s e m b l i e s for a c e n t u r y , t h e n e w r e p u b l i c w o u l d b e a c o n f e d e r a t i o n of t h i r t e e n s o v e r e i g n s t a t e s , ex uno plures, e a c h c o n t i n u i n g t h e i r a n c i e n t c o n s t i t u t i o n s a n d w a y s , as h e h a d e x p l a i n e d e a r l i e r in A summary view of the rights of British America (1775)- T h i s c o n f e d e r a l or ' a n t i - f e d e r a l i s t '

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c o n s t i t u t i o n (as it is called in c o n t r a s t t o t h e c e n t r a l i s e d f e d e r a l i s m of t h e Federalist papers of 1 7 8 8 ) w a s p r o v i s i o n a l l y e s t a b l i s h e d in t h e A r t i c l e s of C o n f e d e r a t i o n of 1778 ( a r g u a b l y p a r t i a l l y m o d e l l e d on t h e o l d e s t living c o n s t i t u t i o n a l con­ f e d e r a t i o n o n G r e a t T u r t l e I s l a n d : t h e Haudenosaunee or Iroquois Confederation). I n t h e final c o n s t i t u t i o n a l s e t t l e m e n t of 1 7 8 7 , t h e a n t i f e d e r a l i s t c o n s t i t u t i o n w a s d e f e a t e d a n d t h a t of P a i n e a n d t h e Federalist papers w a s v i c t o r i o u s . T h e n e w c o n s t i t u t i o n , w h i c h w a s p a s s e d w i t h o u t t h e c o n s e n t of t h e p e o p l e in all t h e s t a t e l e g i s l a t u r e s , e s t a b l i s h e d t h e C o n t i n e n t a l C o n g r e s s , a n d so t h e f e d e r a l g o v e r n m e n t , as t h e b o d y w h i c h r e p r e s e n t s t h e s o v e r e i g n t y of t h e u n d i f f e r e n t i a t e d p e o p l e of all t h e s t a t e s . I n his p a m p h l e t of 1781, the Public good, P a i n e d e m o n s t r a t e s h o w his g e n e r a l t h e o r y v i n d i c a t e s t h e s o v e r e i g n t y of t h e C o n t i ­ n e n t a l C o n g r e s s over t h e s t a t e s . H e c o n t e n d s t h a t s o v e r e i g n t y did n o t devolve from t h e C r o w n t o t h e r e c o g n i t i o n of t h e s o v e r e i g n t y of p r e - e x i s t i n g s t a t e l e g i s l a t u r e s , b u t d i r e c t l y t o t h e C o n t i n e n t a l C o n g r e s s , as t h e l e g i t i m a t e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of all t h e p e o p l e , to w h i c h t h e s t a t e s a r e s u b o r d i n a t e . T h e r e a s o n w h y P a i n e p r e s s e d this a r g u m e n t lies in t h e s u b t i t l e of t h e Public good: an examination into the claims of Virginia to the vacant western territory, and the right of the United States to the same. H e w a s a s h a r e h o l d e r in t h e I n d i a n a C o m p a n y , a l a n d s p e c u l a t i o n c o m p a n y w h i c h laid c l a i m t o v a s t t r a c t s of l a n d in t h e O h i o V a l l e y t o t h e w e s t of V i r g i n i a . V i r g i n i a c l a i m e d j u r i s d i c t i o n over t h e s e l a n d s b y v i r t u e of its colonial c h a r t e r a n d t h e a s s e r t i o n of its s o v e r e i g n t y by J e f f e r s o n s e r v e d to p r o t e c t V i r g i n i a n l a n d s p e c u l a t o r s a g a i n s t t h e c o m p e t i n g c l a i m s of t h e I n d i a n a C o m p a n y . By l o c a t i n g s o v e r e i g n t y in t h e f e d e r a l g o v e r n m e n t , d i r e c t l y r e p r e s e n t i n g the people, Paine ensured that the Congress, and not Virginia or a n y o t h e r s t a t e , h a d j u r i s d i c t i o n over t h e w e s t e r n l a n d s , t h e r e b y v i n d i c a t i n g t h e c l a i m of t h e I n d i a n a C o m p a n y . T h e c l a i m of V i r g i n i a to s o v e r e i g n t y over w e s t e r n t e r r i t o r y by d e v o l u t i o n a n d t h e c o n t i n u i t y of its a n c i e n t c o n s t i t u t i o n , h e a s s e r t s , w a s e i t h e r fictitious t o b e g i n w i t h or d i s c o n t i n u e d by t h e w a r of i n d e p e n d e n c e .

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T h e e r r o r i n a c c e p t i n g P a i n e ' s t h e o r y as a u t h o r i t a t i v e is n o t , let m e e m p h a s i s e , t h a t it o v e r r u l e s t h e a b s u r d l a n d c l a i m of V i r g i n i a or t h e l a t e r c l a i m s of t h e s l a v e - o w n i n g s t a t e s t o autonomy. T h e s e unilateral claims would be properly defeated by t h e first s t e p of m u t u a l r e c o g n i t i o n in a n y fair c o n s t i ­ t u t i o n a l d i a l o g u e . R a t h e r , t h e e r r o r is t o a c c e p t a p a r t i a l f r a m e w o r k in w h i c h t h e a n t i - f e d e r a l i s t t r a d i t i o n of i n t e r p r e t ­ a t i o n a n d its t w o h u n d r e d y e a r s of d e m a n d s for r e c o g n i t i o n from t h e p o p u l a r o p p o s i t i o n of t h e 1780s t o a b o l i t i o n i s t s , s u f f r a g e t t e s , l a b o u r i t e s , African A m e r i c a n s a n d t h e politics of c u l t u r a l r e c o g n i t i o n t o d a y - c a n n o t b e given a fair h e a r i n g . It p r e s u m e s w h a t t h e a n t i - f e d e r a l i s t s c h a l l e n g e : t h a t e pluribus unum is t h e only f o r m of a s s o c i a t i o n . S e c o n d , as R o b e r t W i l l i a m s d e m o n s t r a t e s in The American Indian in Western legal discourse, P a i n e d o e s n o t s a t i s f a c t o r i l y e x p l a i n h o w t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s a c q u i r e d s o v e r e i g n t y over t h e ' v a c a n t ' w e s t e r n t e r r i t o r i e s . T h e O h i o V a l l e y a n d all of A m e r i c a w e s t of t h e t h i r t e e n colonies w e r e o c c u p i e d by Aboriginal nations. T h e Shawnee and Delaware persistently d e n i e d t h a t e i t h e r t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s or t h e i n d i v i d u a l s t a t e s h a d s o v e r e i g n t y over t h e i r i n d e p e n d e n t n a t i o n s . T h e C a y u g a , Seneca, Oneida, Onondaga, Mohawk and Tuscarora nations of t h e I r o q u o i s C o n f e d e r a t i o n sought recognition as s o v e r e i g n n a t i o n s t i m e after t i m e . F r o m t h e C r e e k , C h o c t a w , C h i c k a s a w a n d C h e r o k e e n a t i o n s in t h e s o u t h to t h e O t t a w a a n d W y a n d o t in t h e n o r t h , t h e A b o r i g i n a l p e o p l e s f o u g h t as n a t i o n s a g a i n s t t h e i n v a s i o n of t h e i r t e r r i t o r i e s . T h e Cherokee later drew up their constitution and petitioned t o b e a d m i t t e d as a n i n d e p e n d e n t s t a t e in t h e n e w U n i o n . Y e t , in t h e Public good, t h e s o v e r e i g n t y of t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s is said t o e x t e n d over t h e i r ' v a c a n t ' t e r r i t o r y w i t h o u t so m u c h a s a m e n t i o n of t h e i r e x i s t e n c e or t h e i r c l a i m s t o r e c o g ­ nition. T h e a u t h o r s o f t h e Federalist papers p r e s e n t a c o n s t i t u t i o n a l t h e o r y s i m i l a r t o P a i n e ' s . J o h n J a y o b s e r v e s in t h e s e c o n d p a p e r , p r e s u m a b l y in o n e of his m o r e s h o r t - s i g h t e d m o m e n t s , t h a t t h e A m e r i c a n p e o p l e a r e c u l t u r a l l y h o m o g e n e o u s by a n c e s t r y a n d t h e e x p e r i e n c e of w a r : 4 1

Strange

94

multiplicity

P r o v i d e n c e has b e e n p l e a s e d to give this o n e c o n n e c t e d country to o n e u n i t e d p e o p l e - a p e o p l e d e s c e n d e d from t h e s a m e a n c e s t o r s , s p e a k i n g the s a m e l a n g u a g e , p r o f e s s i n g the s a m e religion, a t t a c h e d to the s a m e principles of g o v e r n m e n t , very similar in their m a n n e r s a n d c u s t o m s , and w h o , by their j o i n t c o u n s e l s , a r m s , and efforts, f i g h t i n g side by side t h r o u g h o u t a l o n g and bloody war, have nobly e s t a b l i s h e d their g e n e r a l liberty and i n d e p e n d e n c e .

It follows in t h e n e x t s e v e n p a p e r s t h a t a u n i f o r m f e d e r a t i o n w i t h a s o v e r e i g n f e d e r a l g o v e r n m e n t is t h e a p p r o p r i a t e f o r m of c o n s t i t u t i o n . A n y f o r m of c o n f e d e r a t i o n t h a t r e c o g n i s e s c o n s t i t u t i v e d i f f e r e n c e s a n d a s p e c t s of c o - o r d i n a t e s o v e r e i g n t y a m o n g t h e s t a t e s will l e a d i n e v i t a b l y t o i n t e r n a l d i s s e n s i o n a n d d i s u n i t y , a n d so t o w e a k n e s s in t h e face of t h e r e p u b l i c ' s e n e m i e s . H e n c e , t h e f e d e r a l i s t c o n s t i t u t i o n is i d e n t i f i e d w i t h a 'united America' a n d t h e a n t i - f e d e r a l i s t s w i t h a 'disunited America'. A p r i m e e x a m p l e of t h e d i s u n i t y t h a t is s u r e to c o m e w i t h a n y o t h e r f o r m of a s s o c i a t i o n , M a d i s o n l a t e r a m p l i f i e d , is fore­ s h a d o w e d in t h e c o n t e n t i o n s of t h e s o v e r e i g n s t a t e s over t h e i r c o m p e t i n g c l a i m s t o t h e w e s t e r n l a n d s u n d e r t h e A r t i c l e s of C o n f e d e r a t i o n . T h e s o l u t i o n is to r e a l i s e , as d o e s P a i n e , t h a t j u r i s d i c t i o n over t h e w e s t e r n l a n d s p a s s e d t o t h e C o n g r e s s a f t e r v i c t o r y over t h e B r i t i s h , a n d t h e y b e c a m e , in H a m i l t o n ' s p h r a s e , ' t h e c o m m o n p r o p e r t y of t h e U n i o n ' . O n l y a c o n s t i ­ t u t i o n in w h i c h this p o w e r is l o d g e d in a c e n t r a l a u t h o r i t y will e n a b l e t h e u n i o n t o o v e r c o m e w h a t M a d i s o n calls t h e ' p e r p l e x i t y a n d c o n t e n t i o n ' a n d so d e a l w i t h ' t h e s a v a g e t r i b e s on our W e s t e r n frontier', who, H a m i l t o n writes, 'ought to be r e g a r d e d as o u r n a t u r a l e n e m i e s ' . O n c e a c o n s t i t u t i o n m o d e l l e d o n t h e t h e o r i e s of P a i n e a n d t h e Federalist papers w a s e s t a b l i s h e d in 1 7 8 7 , it p r o v i d e d a ' l i c e n s e for e m p i r e ' over t h e A b o r i g i n a l t e r r i t o r i e s as t h e United States expanded westward. Various justifications w e r e a d v a n c e d for t h e r e m o v a l , a s s i m i l a t i o n or e x t e r m i n a t i o n of t h e A b o r i g i n a l p e o p l e s in w h a t R i c h a r d Slotkin calls Regeneration through violence, R o y H a r v e y P e a r c e , Savagism and civilization a n d R i c h a r d V a n A l s t y n e , The rising American empire: t h e r i g h t of c o n q u e s t , L o c k e a n a r g u m e n t s , t r e a t i e s , t h e 4 2

4 3

4 4

The empire of uniformity

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s u p e r i o r i t y of a m o d e r n society or s i m p l y m a n i f e s t d e s t i n y . T h e s e a r g u m e n t s a n d policies t e n d e d to t a k e p l a c e w i t h i n t h e u n d o u b t e d imperium of t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n a n d its m o d e r n c o n v e n t i o n s for, as we h a v e s e e n , t h e A b o r i g i n a l p e o p l e s h a d already been dispossessed and debased within t h e m . In t h e m o s t a u t h o r i t a t i v e d o c u m e n t of t h e n e w r e p u b l i c , t h e D e c l a r a t i o n of I n d e p e n d e n c e , J e f f e r s o n r e c o g n i s e d t h e A b o r i g i n a l n a t i o n s on t h e f r o n t i e r s as ' t h e m e r c i l e s s I n d i a n S a v a g e s , w h o s e k n o w n r u l e of w a r f a r e , is a n u n d i s t i n g u i s h e d d e s t r u c t i o n of all a g e s , s e x e s a n d c o n d i t i o n ' . T h i s h a d b e e n , as you will r e c a l l , t h e l a n g u a g e u s e d to justify w a r since t h e t i m e of L o c k e . 45

As t h e ' f r a u d , politics, a n d t h e dispossession of t h e I n d i a n s ' u n f o l d e d in t h e w a r s of e x p a n s i o n of t h e 1 7 8 0 s , T h a y e n d a n e g e a (Joseph B r a n t ) , a M o h a w k l e a d e r , s a w his h o m e l a n d invaded, b u r n t and occupied a n d the Iroquois C o n f e d e r a t i o n a t t a c k e d , divided a n d d r i v e n i n t o exile in C a n a d a . A t r o u g h l y t h e m i d p o i n t of t h e d e s t r u c t i o n , 1 7 8 6 , T h o m a s E d d y , a c o m m i s s i o n e r of I n d i a n Affairs, w r o t e to B r a n t t o ask i f ' c i v i l i z a t i o n is f a v o u r a b l e to h u m a n h a p p i n e s s ' , p o i n t i n g o u t t h a t t h e r e a r e ' d e g r e e s of civilization', f r o m ' C a n n i b a l s t o t h e m o s t p o l i t e of E u r o p e a n n a t i o n s ' . Brant replies that he was born and raised ' a m o n g those w h o m you a r e p l e a s e d to call s a v a g e s ' . H e r e m i n d s E d d y t h a t h e h a d b e e n e d u c a t e d in t h e classics at M o o r ' s C h a r i t y School (now D a r t m o u t h C o l l e g e ) a n d h a d t r a v e l l e d e x t e n s i v e l y in A m e r i c a a n d E u r o p e , m e e t i n g t h e g r e a t l e a d e r s of t h e civilised w o r l d . N e v e r t h e l e s s , ' a f t e r all t h i s e x p e r i e n c e , a n d a f t e r every e x e r t i o n t o divest myself of p r e j u d i c e , I a m obliged to give m y o p i n i o n in favour of m y own p e o p l e ' . T h e r e a s o n for t h i s is, 'in t h e g o v e r n m e n t s you call civilized, t h e h a p p i n e s s of t h e p e o p l e is c o n s t a n t l y sacrificed t o t h e s p l e n d o r of e m p i r e ' . B r a n t i l l u s t r a t e s his t h e s i s b y s u r v e y i n g t h e m a j o r i n s t i ­ t u t i o n s of E u r o p e a n a n d E u r o p e a n — A m e r i c a n societies a n d c o m p a r i n g t h e m w i t h t h e ways of A b o r i g i n a l s o c i e t i e s . A l t h o u g h A b o r i g i n a l p e o p l e s lack m a n y of t h e i n s t i t u t i o n s E u r o p e a n s e x a l t as t h e m a r k s of civility - ' n o p r i s o n s ' , ' n o 46

9,6

Strange

multiplicity

p o m p o u s p a r a d e of c o u r t s ' , 'no w r i t t e n l a w s ' - j u s t i c e is 'as m u c h r e g a r d e d ' and citizens perform 'brave and worthy' a c t i o n s in service to t h e i r ' n a t i o n ' . H e finds h i m s e l f o b l i g e d t o r e v e r s e t h e c o n v e n t i o n a l E u r o c e n t r i c j u d g e m e n t in every c o m p a r i s o n . T h e r e a s o n w h y h a p p i n e s s is sacrificed to e m p i r e in E u r o p e a n societies, h e e x p l a i n s , is t h a t l i b e r t y , w h i c h e x c e e d s p r o p e r t y 'as t h e l i g h t of t h e s u n d o e s t h a t of t h e m o s t t w i n k l i n g s t a r ' , is p l a c e d o n t h e s a m e level as p r o p e r t y , 'to t h e e v e r l a s t i n g d i s g r a c e of civilization'. As a r e s u l t , ' t h e e s t a t e s of widows a n d o r p h a n s ' a r e ' d e v o u r e d by s h a r p e r s ' a n d , as h e well k n e w , ' r o b b e r y t a k e s p l a c e u n d e r t h e c o l o u r of law'. M o r e f u n d a m e n t a l l y , t h e e l e v a t i o n of p r o p e r t y in o r d e r t o d r i v e t h e e x p a n s i o n of e m p i r e r e q u i r e s a n u n d e r g i r d i n g institution incompatible with liberty and unknown to A b o r i g i n a l s o c i e t i e s : t h e p r i s o n , a n d especially l o n g a n d c r u e l i m p r i s o n m e n t for d e b t . ' H e r e ' , h e e x c l a i m s , ' d e s c r i p t i o n u t t e r l y fails.' ' B u t for w h a t a r e m a n y of y o u r p r i s o n e r s confined? — for d e b t ! - a s t o n i s h i n g ! - a n d will you ever a g a i n call t h e I n d i a n n a t i o n s c r u e l ? ' ' C e a s e , t o o ' , h e c o n c l u d e s , ' t o call o t h e r n a t i o n s s a v a g e , w h e n you a r e t e n f o l d m o r e t h e c h i l d r e n of c r u e l t y t h a n t h e y . ' 47

I n c o n c l u s i o n , t h e l a n g u a g e of m o d e r n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m t h a t h a s b e e n forged in c o n s t i t u t i o n a l t h e o r y a n d p r a c t i c e over t h e last t h r e e h u n d r e d y e a r s is a p a r t i a l forgery. W h i l e m a s q u e r a d i n g as u n i v e r s a l it is i m p e r i a l in t h r e e r e s p e c t s : in s e r v i n g t o j u s t i f y E u r o p e a n i m p e r i a l i s m , i m p e r i a l r u l e of f o r m e r colonies over I n d i g e n o u s p e o p l e s , a n d c u l t u r a l i m p e r i a l i s m over t h e d i v e r s e c i t i z e n s of c o n t e m p o r a r y s o c i e t i e s . W h e n m e m b e r s of t h e a u t h o r i t a t i v e schools t o d a y w r i t e a b o u t c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m , w h e t h e r t h e y c l a i m to b e u n i v e r s a l , h i s t o r i c a l or t r a n s c e n d e n t a l , t h e y d o so w i t h i n t h e c o n v e n t i o n s of u n i v e r s a l i t y , h i s t o r y a n d t r a n s c e n d e n c e of t h i s c a p t i v a t i n g m a p of m a n k i n d . T h e y ( a n d t h i s often i n c l u d e s myself) t h i n k t h a t t h e y a r e t r a c i n g t h e c o n t o u r s of h u m a n i t y ' s c o n s t i t u t i o n s , yet t h e y a r e m e r e l y t r a c i n g r o u n d t h e ' s p l e n d o r o u s ' f r a m e t h r o u g h w h i c h t h e y look a t t h e m . I n h i s ' O n e t h n o c e n t r i s m : a r e p l y to Clifford G e e r t z ' ,

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R i c h a r d R o r t y w r i t e s t h a t t h e t a s k s of a l i b e r a l d e m o c r a c y a r e 'divided b e t w e e n t h e a g e n t s of love a n d t h e a g e n t s of j u s t i c e ' . T h e a g e n t s of love a r e t h e ' c o n n o i s s e u r s of d i v e r s i t y ' w h o 'insist t h a t t h e r e a r e p e o p l e . . . w h o m society h a s failed t o n o t i c e ' . T h e i r j o b is t o m a k e t h e s e ' c a n d i d a t e s for a d m i s s i o n visible' by s h o w i n g t h a t t h e i r o d d b e h a v i o u r , c u r r e n t l y r e g a r d e d as ' s t u p i d i t y , b a s e n e s s , m a d n e s s ' a n d t h e like, c a n b e s e e n as u n f a m i l i a r b u t n o n e t h e less ' c o h e r e n t ' . T h e a g e n t s of j u s t i c e a r e t h e ' g u a r d i a n s of u n i v e r s a l i t y ' w h o e n s u r e t h a t o n c e these people 'have b e e n s h e p h e r d e d into the light by t h e c o n n o i s s e u r s of diversity, t h e y a r e t r e a t e d j u s t like all t h e r e s t of u s ' . 4 8

I h a v e t r i e d t o s u g g e s t in t h i s c h a p t e r t h a t this wellm e a n i n g r e s p o n s e is i n a d e q u a t e a n d m o r e t h a n a l i t t l e t h r e a t e n i n g from t h e p e r s p e c t i v e of t h o s e of u s w h o a r e t o b e ' s h e p h e r d e d ' . T o t r e a t t h e c a n d i d a t e s for a d m i s s i o n 'just like all t h e r e s t of u s ' is n o t t o t r e a t t h e m j u s t l y at all. It is t o t r e a t t h e m within the imperial conventions and institutions that h a v e b e e n c o n s t r u c t e d t o e x c l u d e , d o m i n a t e , a s s i m i l a t e or e x t e r m i n a t e t h e m , t h e r e b y i g n o r i n g t h e q u e s t i o n t h e politics of r e c o g n i t i o n r a i s e s c o n c e r n i n g t h e u n i v e r s a l i t y of t h e guardians and the institutions they guard. M a n y c o m m u n i t a r i a n a n d c r i t i c a l t h e o r i s t s a r e n o less i m p e r i o u s . W h e n t h e y ask t h e c r u c i a l q u e s t i o n of ' w h o s e j u s t i c e ? ' a n d ' w h i c h r a t i o n a l i t y ? ' t h e a n s w e r s a r e always t h e s a m e : s o m e E u r o p e a n , m a l e t r a d i t i o n s of i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s e t w i t h i n t h e s t a g e s view of i n t e l l e c t u a l h i s t o r y ; n e v e r a d i a l o g u e w i t h a n y of t h e n o n - E u r o p e a n t r a d i t i o n s set w i t h i n n o n E u r o p e a n views of h i s t o r y , t h a t h a v e b e e n a u t h o r i t a t i v e for m i l l e n n i a in t h e v e r y p l a c e s w h e r e t h e y w r i t e t h e i r b o o k s . A c h a n g e in G r e e k s y n t a x from H o m e r t o A r i s t o t l e or a c h a n g e in t h e S c o t t i s h u n i v e r s i t y c u r r i c u l u m in t h e s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y a p p e a r s t o b e of u t m o s t significance. T h e l o n g c o n t e s t s of A b o r i g i n a l a n d n o n - A b o r i g i n a l c u l t u r e s a n d of all the other non-authoritative traditions and their histories t h a t h a v e b e e n fought o n t h e g r o u n d t h e y occupy a n d h a v e s h a p e d t h e society in w h i c h t h e y live, go u n n o t i c e d a n d f o r g o t t e n . T h i s is t h e t y r a n n i c a l b l i n d n e s s of O e d i p u s a n d t h e i n j u s t i c e 49

98

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of C r e o n , of r e f u s i n g to h e e d T i r e s i a s a n d h e a r t h e c l a i m s of o t h e r s in t h e i r own voices a n d c u l t u r a l w a y s . I t p r e c l u d e s t h e first p o s t - i m p e r i a l s t e p of m u t u a l r e c o g n i t i o n we n e e d t o t a k e o n b o a r d The spirit ofHaida Gwaii: audi alteram partem. D e s p i t e all t h e a t t e m p t s to g r i n d c u l t u r a l diversity u n i f o r m , its w o n d e r f u l m u l t i p l i c i t y h a s r e m a i n e d , as t h e p a s s e n g e r s of t h e black c a n o e a r e h e r e to r e m i n d u s . F o r t h e c u l t u r a l d i v e r s i t y m o d e r n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m t r i e s t o efface in t h e o r y a n d r e f o r m in p r a c t i c e is n o t t h e e p i p h e n o m e n a l m a s k of underlying and allegedly universal processes and interests, a s t h e m o d e r n t h e o r i s t s followed B e r n a r d M a n d e v i l l e in c l a i m i n g . T h i s is m o d e r n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m ' s i m p e r i a l fable. R a t h e r , c u l t u r a l diversity is t h e living face of h u m a n b e i n g s . In t h e n e x t c h a p t e r , we shall t u r n to t h e k i n d of c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m t h a t d e v e l o p e d in e n c o u n t e r s w h e r e t h e a g e n t s of j u s t i c e recognised and sought to a c c o m m o d a t e this constitutive a s p e c t of t h e h u m a n c o n d i t i o n .

CHAPTER

4

The historicalformation of common constitutionalism: the rediscovery of cultural diversity, part I

The hidden constitutions of contemporary societies In t h i s c h a p t e r I a p p r o a c h t h e l a b y r i n t h of c o n t e m p o r a r y c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m by a n o t h e r p a t h ; f r o m t h e p e r s p e c t i v e of t h e s t r u g g l e s t o g a i n r e c o g n i t i o n of d i v e r s e c u l t u r e s over t h e last four c e n t u r i e s . I n t h e c o u r s e of t h e s e i n t e r c u l t u r a l e n c o u n t e r s , c o n t e m p o r a r y c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m h a s b e e n s h a p e d in v a r i o u s a s p e c t s to r e c o g n i s e a n d a c c o m m o d a t e c u l t u r a l diversity. Specifically, t h e t h r e e c o n v e n t i o n s of t h e c o m m o n l a n g u a g e of c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m a r o s e in t h e s e c o n t e s t s . O f c o u r s e , m o d e r n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m c o n t i n u e s t o r e i g n in its i m p e r i a l s p l e n d o u r , b u t t h e a s p e c t s I will n o w s k e t c h a r e n o t s i m p l y m i n o r d i s t u r b a n c e s o n t h e f r o n t i e r of m o d e r n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m , d e s t i n e d to d i s a p p e a r as it p r o g r e s s e s . T h e y only a p p e a r t h a t way f r o m its p e r s p e c t i v e . T h a t is ' t h e t h i n g a b o u t p r o g r e s s ' , N e s t r o y d i s c e r n e d over a c e n t u r y a g o , 'it a p p e a r s m u c h g r e a t e r t h a n it a c t u a l l y i s ' . T h e r e c o g n i t i o n a n d a c c o m m o d a t i o n of c u l t u r a l diversity in t h e b r o a d e r l a n g u a g e of c o n t e m p o r a r y c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m discloses w h a t m i g h t b e called t h e ' h i d d e n c o n s t i t u t i o n s of c o n t e m p o r a r y s o c i e t i e s ' . T h e y a r e h i d d e n by t h e r u l e of m o d e r n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m a n d t h e n a r r o w r a n g e of u s e s of its c e n t r a l t e r m s . As c o n t e m p o r a r y societies b e g i n t o e n t e r a p o s t i m p e r i a l a g e , a v a s t u n d e r g r o w t h of c u l t u r a l d i v e r s i t y a n d its p a r t i a l r e c o g n i t i o n in c o n s t i t u t i o n s h a s b e g u n to c o m e t o l i g h t as t h e s h a d o w of t h e i m p e r i a l e p o c h b e g i n s to r e c e d e . T h i s discovery flies i n t h e face of t h e s e v e n f e a t u r e s of m o d e r n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m : diversity is n o t a t h i n g of t h e p a s t , it d o e s n o t c o n f o r m t o t h e s t a g e s view of h i s t o r i c a l d e v e l o p m e n t a n d 1

99

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m o d e r n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m did n o t t r i c k l e d o w n u n c h a n g e d f r o m t h e E u r o p e a n c e n t r e to t h e n o n - E u r o p e a n p e r i p h e r y . T h e first sites w h e r e h i d d e n c o n s t i t u t i o n s a p p e a r a r e in t h e w r i t i n g s a n d c o n s t i t u t i o n a l a r r a n g e m e n t s of t h e a g e n t s of j u s t i c e w h o h a v e s o u g h t to c o m e to t e r m s w i t h powerful, n o n E u r o p e a n cultures, i m m i g r a n t s , w o m e n and linguistic and n a t i o n a l m i n o r i t i e s f i g h t i n g for c u l t u r a l survival. O n t h e i n t e r cultural common grounds between the relentless m o m e n t u m of m o d e r n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m a n d t h e t e n a c i t y of o t h e r c u l t u r e s o n e finds ' c o n t r a p u n t a l e n s e m b l e s ' of t h r e e c o n v e n t i o n s w h i c h f a c i l i t a t e t h e r e c o g n i t i o n a n d a c c o m m o d a t i o n of c u l t u r a l diversity. N o d o u b t , t h e s e g r o u n d s a r e d e e p l y d i s t o r t e d by r e l a t i o n s of d o m i n a t i o n a n d i n e q u a l i t y a n d s h o t t h r o u g h w i t h b r o k e n p r o m i s e s a n d f r a u d u l e n t d e s i g n s . Y e t for all t h a t , t h e y a r e p l a c e s w h e r e a n c i e n t reluctant conscripts have said ' e n o u g h ' , stood t h e i r g r o u n d or t a k e n t h e r u i n s of t h e i r c u l t u r e w i t h t h e m in exile, a n d so b e n t t h e yoke of c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m t o fit t h e i r d i v e r s e n e c k s . T h e second places w h e r e hidden constitutions have b e e n d i s c o v e r e d a r e in t h e a p p l i c a t i o n s of c o n s t i t u t i o n a l law in p a r t i c u l a r c a s e s , especially b u t n o t exclusively in t h e c o m m o n l a w of C o m m o n w e a l t h c o u n t r i e s a n d i n t e r n a t i o n a l law. T h i s ' c a s u i s t r y ' of c u l t u r a l d i f f e r e n c e s a n d s i m i l a r i t i e s is a r e m a r k ­ a b l e a s p e c t of c o n t e m p o r a r y j u r i s p r u d e n c e . R a t h e r t h a n f o r c i n g c i t i z e n s a n d i n s t i t u t i o n s t o fit t h e u n i f o r m of m o d e r n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m , t h e l a n g u a g e of c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m h a s b e e n s h a p e d t o fit t h e c u l t u r a l diversity of c i t i z e n s a n d i n s t i t u t i o n s in p r a c t i c e . T o p u t t h i s in a slightly d i f f e r e n t way, t h e g e n r e s or f o r m s of r e a s o n i n g d e v e l o p e d in t h e c o m m o n law t o d e a l w i t h t h e c u s t o m a r y d i v e r s i t y of t h e a n c i e n t c o n s t i t u t i o n s of p r e - m o d e r n E u r o p e a n societies did n o t d i s a p p e a r w i t h t h e r i s e of m o d e r n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m . T h e y h a v e c o n t i n u e d to evolve in p r a c t i c e , a n d o t h e r s h a v e b e e n a d d e d , d e s p i t e t h e official view in t h e o r y t h a t t h e y s h o u l d h a v e b e e n r e p l a c e d by t h e m o r e a b s t r a c t form of r e a s o n i n g typical of t h e m o d e r n t h e o r i s t s . T h e discovery of t h e s e two a s p e c t s of c o n t e m p o r a r y c o n s t i ­ t u t i o n a l i s m w a s m a r k e d b y t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t i n t h e 1980s of a n e w i n t e r d i s c i p l i n a r y field of a n t h r o p o l o g y , h i s t o r y , law a n d

The rediscovery of cultural diversity l

IOI

political p h i l o s o p h y called legal p l u r a l i s m . L e g a l p l u r a l i s m is t h e s t u d y of t h e v a r i e t y of w a y s c o n t e m p o r a r y c o n s t i t u t i o n s r e c o g n i s e a n d a c c o m m o d a t e c u l t u r a l diversity. It b e g a n w i t h t h e discovery by Clifford G e e r t z , Sally F a l k M o o r e a n d o t h e r s t h a t post-colonial s o c i e t i e s a r e c o n s t i t u t e d by a w i d e v a r i e t y of legal a n d c u s t o m a r y s y s t e m s of a u t h o r i t y t h a t c a n n o t b e a c c u r a t e l y r e p r e s e n t e d in t h e l a n g u a g e of m o d e r n c o n s t i ­ tutionalism. Scholars such as Roderick MacDonald, J o n Elster a n d J o h n Griffiths t h e n t u r n e d t h e i r a t t e n t i o n t o m o d e r n E u r o p e a n societies a n d d i s c o v e r e d a v a r i e t y of n o r m a t i v e o r d e r s a n d ways of a c c o m m o d a t i n g s t r u g g l e s for r e c o g n i t i o n t h a t exist in p r a c t i c e d e s p i t e t h e r e i g n of m o d e r n c o n s t i ­ t u t i o n a l i s m . As a r e s u l t , Clifford G e e r t z a n d t h e m a n y s c h o l a r s w h o h a v e b e e n m o v e d by his l o n g a n d involved journeys have begun to explore the post-imperial landscape of c u l t u r e s a n d c o n s t i t u t i o n s w h i c h I i n t r o d u c e d in t h e first chapter. P e r m i t m e t o f r a m e m y s u r v e y of t h e h i d d e n c o n s t i t u t i o n s w i t h t w o i m a g e s of c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m . T h e first c o m e s from R e n e D e s c a r t e s at t h e b e g i n n i n g of m o d e r n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m . D e s c a r t e s is often t h o u g h t of, e s p e c i a l l y in this c e n t u r y , as a l m o s t t h e f o u n d e r of t h e k i n d of r e f o r m a n d r a t i o n a l i s a t i o n t h a t drives t h e classic vision of m o d e r n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m . Y e t n o t h i n g could b e f u r t h e r f r o m t h e t r u t h . I n t h e Discourse on the method, h e goes o u t of t h e w a y t o s h o w t h a t t h e k i n d of r a d i c a l r e f o r m h e a d v o c a t e s for his o w n t h o u g h t s s h o u l d b e c o n t r a s t e d w i t h his a t t i t u d e t o w a r d s c o n s t i t u t i o n a l c h a n g e . H e w r i t e s t h a t , a t first sight, t h o r o u g h a n d s y s t e m a t i c r e f o r m in accord with a central plan appears more reasonable than adjustment a n d a c c o m m o d a t i o n t o t h e a s s e m b l a g e of c u s t o m s a n d laws t h a t a l r e a d y exist: T h u s w e s e e that buildings u n d e r t a k e n and c o m p l e t e d by a single architect are usually m o r e attractive a n d b e t t e r p l a n n e d t h a n those w h i c h several have tried to p a t c h u p by a d a p t i n g old w a l l s built for different purposes. A g a i n , a n c i e n t c i t i e s w h i c h have gradually grown from m e r e villages i n t o large t o w n s are usually ill-proportioned, c o m p a r e d w i t h those orderly t o w n s w h i c h p l a n n e r s lay out as t h e y

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fancy o n level ground. L o o k i n g at the buildings of t h e f o r m e r indi­ vidually, you will often find as m u c h art in t h e m , if not m o r e t h a n in those of the latter; but in view o f their a r r a n g e m e n t - a tall o n e h e r e , a small o n e there - and the w a y they m a k e the s t r e e t s crooked and irregular, you w o u l d say it is c h a n c e , rather t h a n the will of m e n u s i n g r e a s o n , that placed t h e m so.

T h e p r e s u m p t i o n of r e f o r m a n d r e g u l a r i s a t i o n in a c c o r d w i t h a single p l a n is f u r t h e r enforced by t h e vision of C h r i s t i a n i t y , for ' t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n of t h e t r u e r e l i g i o n , w h o s e a r t i c l e s h a v e b e e n m a d e by G o d a l o n e , m u s t b e i n c o m p a r a b l y b e t t e r o r d e r e d t h a n all t h e o t h e r s ' . F u r t h e r m o r e , h e w r i t e s , we t e n d to favour r e f o r m a n d u n i f o r m i t y b e c a u s e w e h a v e t h e i m a g e of classical political p h i l o s o p h y b e f o r e o u r eyes, in w h i c h ' t h e b a s i c laws [ a r e ] laid d o w n by s o m e wise law-giver'. M o r e o v e r , t h i s classical i d e a l is f u r t h e r r e i n f o r c e d by t h e i m a g e of S p a r t a , w h i c h is a d m i r e d ' b e c a u s e [all t h e laws] w e r e devised by a single m a n a n d h e n c e all t e n d e d to t h e s a m e e n d ' . Y e t , for all t h a t , 'we n e v e r see p e o p l e p u l l i n g d o w n all t h e h o u s e s of a city for t h e sole p u r p o s e of r e b u i l d i n g t h e m in a d i f f e r e n t style to m a k e t h e s t r e e t s m o r e a t t r a c t i v e ' . A n d , D e s c a r t e s goes on t o infer t h a t it w o u l d b e ' u n r e a s o n a b l e for a n i n d i v i d u a l to p l a n to r e f o r m a s t a t e by c h a n g i n g it from t h e f o u n d a t i o n s u p a n d o v e r t u r n i n g it in o r d e r to set it u p a g a i n ' . H e t h e r e f o r e c o n c l u d e s t h a t in politics it is b e t t e r to a c c o m m o d a t e t h e a s s e m b l a g e of c u s t o m s a n d ways of t h e people t h a n to radically reform t h e m : 2

A n y i m p e r f e c t i o n s [political a s s o c i a t i o n s ] m a y p o s s e s s - and t h e i r very diversity suffices to e n s u r e that m a n y do p o s s e s s t h e m - have d o u b t l e s s b e e n m u c h s m o o t h e d over by c u s t o m ; and c u s t o m has e v e n p r e v e n t e d or i m p e r c e p t i b l y corrected m a n y i m p e r f e c t i o n s that p r u d e n c e could not so well provide against. Finally, it is a l m o s t always e a s i e r to put up w i t h their i m p e r f e c t i o n s t h a n to c h a n g e t h e m , j u s t as it is m u c h b e t t e r to follow the m a i n roads that w i n d t h r o u g h m o u n t a i n s , w h i c h have gradually b e c o m e s m o o t h and con­ v e n i e n t through f r e q u e n t u s e , t h a n to try to take a m o r e direct route by c l a m b e r i n g over rocks and d e s c e n d i n g to the foot of p r e c i p i c e s .

You will say t h a t t h e s e a r e ' r e a c t i o n a r y ' r e a s o n s for a c c o m m o d a t i n g diversity, w h e r e a s my first c h a p t e r m a d e t h e

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politics of c u l t u r a l r e c o g n i t i o n look ' p r o g r e s s i v e ' . M y r e s p o n s e is to say t h a t t h e u s e s of t h e t e r m s ' r e a c t i o n a r y ' a n d ' p r o ­ g r e s s i v e ' h e r e a r e fixed by t h e s e v e n f e a t u r e s of t h e l a n g u a g e of m o d e r n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m I a m t r y i n g to q u e s t i o n in t h i s book. In c h a p t e r 6, I will d i s c u s s ways of c o n c e i v i n g diversity a n d r e a s o n s for a f f i r m i n g it o t h e r t h a n t h o s e a d v a n c e d by Descartes. W h a t w o u l d D e s c a r t e s ' p i c t u r e of t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n of a city look like a f t e r t h r e e h u n d r e d y e a r s of m o d e r n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l ­ ism? T h e a n s w e r is given, I b e l i e v e , by W i t t g e n s t e i n , w h o is often t a k e n t o b e D e s c a r t e s ' g r e a t e s t p h i l o s o p h i c a l o p p o n e n t . In o n e of t h e m o s t f a m o u s p a s s a g e s of t h e Philosophical investi­ gations, W i t t g e n s t e i n , t h i n k i n g of his two h o m e s , V i e n n a a n d C a m b r i d g e , c o m p a r e s l a n g u a g e to a n a n c i e n t c i t y : 3

O u r l a n g u a g e can be s e e n as a n a n c i e n t city: a m a z e of little s t r e e t s and s q u a r e s , of old and n e w h o u s e s , and of h o u s e s w i t h additions from various periods; and this s u r r o u n d e d by a m u l t i t u d e of n e w boroughs w i t h straight and regular s t r e e t s and u n i f o r m h o u s e s .

T h i s p i c t u r e of t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n of a city is s t r i k i n g l y s i m i l a r t o D e s c a r t e s ' . T h e d i f f e r e n c e is t h a t , after t h r e e h u n d r e d y e a r s , constitutional reform has made its inroads. T h e a n c i e n t city, w i t h its m u l t i p l i c i t y of old, n e w a n d o v e r l a p p i n g a d d i t i o n s is n o w s u r r o u n d e d by ' a m u l t i t u d e of n e w b o r o u g h s w i t h straight and regular streets and uniform houses'. Consti­ t u t i o n a l u n i f o r m i t y is n o t t h e ' s o u l ' of t h e city, as P u f e n d o r f a n d o t h e r m o d e r n t h e o r i s t s s u g g e s t e d it s h o u l d b e . N e i t h e r K a n t ' s n o r P a i n e ' s r e p u b l i c a n c o n s t i t u t i o n d e t e r m i n e s every a s p e c t of t h e w h o l e . R a t h e r , t h e n e w e r u n i f o r m i t y a n d r e g u l a r i t y of m o d e r n c o n s t i t u t i o n s f o r m s a s u r r o u n d i n g m u l t i t u d e of n e w b o r o u g h s a r o u n d a m a z e of old a n d n e w f o r m a t i o n s a n d p a t c h w o r k a r r a n g e m e n t s from m a n y p e r i o d s . Understanding constitutionalism: Wittgenstein and Hale Wittgenstein introduces the analogy between language and a n a n c i e n t city to i l l u s t r a t e t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g of l a n g u a g e o n e c o m e s to a c q u i r e by w o r k i n g t h r o u g h all t h e e x a m p l e s

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carefully a s s e m b l e d in t h e Philosophical investigations. Since this c o n c e p t of u n d e r s t a n d i n g will e n a b l e u s to u n d e r s t a n d t h e l a n g u a g e of c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m , let m e r e v i e w his m a i n p o i n t s . L a n g u a g e , like a city, h a s g r o w n u p in a v a r i e t y of f o r m s through long use and practice, interacting and overlapping in m a n y ways in t h e e n d l e s s d i v e r s i t y a n d strife of h u m a n a c t i v i t i e s . Like a city, it d o e s n o t h a v e a u n i f o r m c o n s t i t u t i o n i m p o s e d by a single lawgiver, a l t h o u g h , of c o u r s e , a r e a s of it h a v e b e e n m a d e r e g u l a r by r e f o r m s , j u s t like s o m e n e w e r n e i g h b o u r h o o d s of a city. W i t t g e n s t e i n often j u s t lists e x a m p l e s of ' t h e m u l t i p l i c i t y of l a n g u a g e g a m e s ' p l a y e d w i t h even t h e m o s t s e e m i n g l y u n i v o c a l c o n c e p t s t o m a k e his p o i n t , j u s t a s a civic g u i d e w o u l d p o i n t to different b o r o u g h s , t h e n to t h e d i v e r s e styles w i t h i n e a c h b o r o u g h , t h e n t o t h e o v e r l a p p i n g a d d i t i o n s from v a r i o u s p e r i o d s to m a k e t h e a n a l o g o u s p o i n t . 4

C o n s e q u e n t l y , t h e g r a m m a r of w o r d s is too m u l t i f o r m to be r e p r e s e n t e d in a t h e o r y or c o m p r e h e n s i v e r u l e t h a t s t i p u l a t e s t h e e s s e n t i a l c o n d i t i o n s for t h e c o r r e c t a p p l i c a t i o n of w o r d s in every i n s t a n c e , j u s t as t h e r e is n o s u c h c o m p r e h e n s i v e view of t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n of a city. ' W e d o n o t command a clear view of t h e u s e of o u r w o r d s ' , n o t b e c a u s e t h e definitive t h e o r y h a s yet to a r r i v e , b u t b e c a u s e l a n g u a g e 'is l a c k i n g in this sort of p e r s p i c u i t y ' . Like The spirit of Haida Gwaii or a c o n s t i t u t i o n a l a s s o c i a t i o n , l a n g u a g e is a s p e c t i v a l : ' a l a b y r i n t h of p a t h s . You a p p r o a c h from one side a n d k n o w y o u r w a y a b o u t ; you a p p r o a c h t h e s a m e p l a c e f r o m a n o t h e r side a n d n o l o n g e r know your way about.' T h e a n a l o g y h o l d s for t h e l a n g u a g e of c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m t h a t is w o v e n i n t o t h e p r a c t i c e s a n d i n s t i t u t i o n s of c o n t e m ­ p o r a r y s o c i e t i e s . It is a l a b y r i n t h of t e r m s a n d t h e i r u s e s from v a r i o u s p e r i o d s , i n c l u d i n g t h e s u r r o u n d i n g r e g u l a r ways a n d u n i f o r m i n s t i t u t i o n s of m o d e r n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m surveyed in c h a p t e r 3. T h e t h e o r i s t s a n d c i t i z e n s w h o i n h a b i t t h e s e m o d e r n suburbs are accustomed to their straight and narrow w a y s , c h a r a c t e r i s t i c f o r m s of t h o u g h t a n d relatively s t a b l e u s e s , a n d t h e y t e n d t o p r e s u m e t h a t t h e i r ways s h o u l d d e t e r m i n e t h e w h o l e . T h e p r e s u m p t i o n is t h a t t h e i d e n t i t y of m o d e r n c o n s t i t u t i o n s c o n s i s t s of s o m e c o m b i n a t i o n of seven 5

The rediscovery of cultural diversity I

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e s s e n t i a l f e a t u r e s . T h e s e f e a t u r e s provide t h e c o m p r e h e n s i v e r u l e by w h i c h all political a s s o c i a t i o n s a n d t h e i r i n s t i t u t i o n s a r e identified a n d r a n k e d o n a scale of h i s t o r i c a l d e v e l o p m e n t . T h i s form of r e p r e s e n t a t i o n is n o t t a k e n as o n e a r r a n g e m e n t of t h e d a t a of c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m from t h e p a r o c h i a l p e r s p e c t i v e of a few m e m b e r s of o n e n e i g h b o u r h o o d , to be c o m p a r e d a n d n e g o t i a t e d in d i a l o g u e w i t h o t h e r s , b u t t h e w a y t h e d a t a a r e a r r a n g e d by h i s t o r i c a l p r o c e s s e s of m o d e r n i s a t i o n . T h e only r a n g e of d i s a g r e e m e n t in u n d e r s t a n d i n g c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m is over t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n a n d a p p l i c a t i o n of t h i s g r e a t m a p by t h e t h r e e a u t h o r i t a t i v e schools. T h i s m a p is t h e n p r o j e c t e d over t h e w h o l e , h i d i n g t h e d i v e r s i t y b e n e a t h . W i t t g e n s t e i n calls t h e p r e s u m p t i o n of s u c h a c o m p r e ­ h e n s i v e t h e o r y ' t h e c r a v i n g for g e n e r a l i t y ' . T h e c r a v i n g h a s its s o u r c e p a r t l y in ' o u r p r e o c c u p a t i o n w i t h t h e m e t h o d of s c i e n c e ' . It is a c c o m p a n i e d by a ' c o n t e m p t u o u s a t t i t u d e towards the particular case'. T h e idea that 'to get clear a b o u t t h e m e a n i n g of a g e n e r a l t e r m ' it is n e c e s s a r y ' t o find t h e c o m m o n e l e m e n t in all its a p p l i c a t i o n s ' h a s ' s h a c k l e d ' philosophy: 'for it h a s n o t only led t o n o r e s u l t , b u t also m a d e t h e p h i l o s o p h e r d i s m i s s as i r r e l e v a n t t h e c o n c r e t e c a s e s , w h i c h a l o n e could h a v e h e l p e d h i m t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e u s a g e of t h e g e n e r a l t e r m ' . T h e i m a g e of a n a n c i e n t city g r a p h i c a l l y i l l u s t r a t e s t h e w a y t h a t t h e c r a v i n g for g e n e r a l i t y o v e r l o o k s and generates a contemptuous attitude towards the i r r e d u c i b l e m u l t i p l i c i t y of c o n c r e t e u s a g e t h a t d e f e a t s its a s p i r a t i o n . T h i s i l l u s t r a t i o n is b a c k e d u p w i t h two lines of a r g u m e n t in t h e Philosophical investigations t h a t e x p o s e t h e m i s t a k e in t h e p r e s u m p t i o n a n d p r e s e n t t h e c o r r e c t w a y to understand general terms. T h e first a r g u m e n t shows t h a t u n d e r s t a n d i n g a g e n e r a l t e r m is n o t t h e t h e o r e t i c a l activity of i n t e r p r e t i n g a n d a p p l y i n g a g e n e r a l t h e o r y or r u l e in p a r t i c u l a r c a s e s . By u s i n g e x a m p l e s of s i g n p o s t s a n d m a p s , W i t t g e n s t e i n shows t h a t s u c h a g e n e r a l r u l e fails t o a c c o u n t for precisely t h e p h e n o m ­ e n o n we a s s o c i a t e w i t h u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e m e a n i n g of a g e n e r a l t e r m : t h e ability t o u s e a g e n e r a l t e r m , as well as t o q u e s t i o n its a c c e p t e d u s e , in v a r i o u s c i r c u m s t a n c e s w i t h o u t 6

Strange

io6

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recursive doubts. No m a t t e r how elaborate such a rule might b e , it is always possible to i n t e r p r e t a n d a p p l y it in v a r i o u s ways. ' D o e s t h e sign-post l e a v e n o d o u b t o p e n a b o u t t h e w a y I h a v e t o go? D o e s it s h e w w h i c h d i r e c t i o n I a m to t a k e w h e n I h a v e p a s s e d it; w h e t h e r a l o n g t h e r o a d or t h e f o o t p a t h or cross-country?' If I a m in d o u b t a b o u t h o w to i n t e r p r e t a n d follow t h e r u l e , or if I c a n i n t e r p r e t it in e n d l e s s w a y s , t h e n t h e r u l e a n d its i n t e r p r e t a t i o n 'do n o t d e t e r m i n e m e a n i n g ' . So, e v e n if a t h e o r i s t could p r o v i d e a t h e o r y w h i c h specified t h e e x h a u s t i v e c o n d i t i o n s for t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n a n d a p p l i c a t i o n of t h e g e n e r a l t e r m s of c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m in every c a s e , as m o d e r n t h e o r i s t s from H o b b e s t o R a w l s h a v e s o u g h t to d o , this w o u l d n o t e n a b l e us to u n d e r s t a n d c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m . F o r i n t e r p r e t ­ ative d i s a g r e e m e n t s w o u l d a r i s e over h o w to a p p l y a n d follow t h e c o n d i t i o n s , as i n d e e d t h e y d o over t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of t h e classic a n d c o n t e m p o r a r y t h e o r i e s , t h e r e b y p r a g m a t i c a l l y proving Wittgenstein's point. R a t h e r , u n d e r s t a n d i n g a g e n e r a l t e r m is n o t h i n g m o r e t h a n t h e p r a c t i c a l activity of b e i n g a b l e t o u s e it in v a r i o u s c i r c u m s t a n c e s : ' t h e r e is a w a y of g r a s p i n g a r u l e w h i c h is not a n interpretation, b u t w h i c h is e x h i b i t e d in w h a t we call " o b e y i n g t h e r u l e " a n d " g o i n g a g a i n s t i t " in a c t u a l c a s e s ' . S u c h a g r a s p is n o t t h e possession of a t h e o r y , b u t t h e m a n i f e s t a t i o n of a r e p e r t o i r e of p r a c t i c a l , n o r m a t i v e a b i l i t i e s , a c q u i r e d t h r o u g h l o n g u s e a n d p r a c t i c e , to u s e t h e t e r m a n d go a g a i n s t c u s t o m a r y u s e in a c t u a l c a s e s . T h e u s e s of g e n e r a l t e r m s , h e c o n c l u d e s , a r e i n t e r s u b j e c t i v e ' p r a c t i c e s ' or ' c u s t o m s ' , like t e n n i s or t h e ' p r a c t i c e ' of law. O u r u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e m c o n s i s t s in t h e ' m a s t e r y ' of a ' t e c h n i q u e ' or p r a c t i c a l skill ' e x h i b i t e d ' in b e i n g proficient p l a y e r s in t h e p a r t i c u l a r c a s e s or ' l a n g u a g e g a m e s ' in w h i c h t h e y a r e u s e d . As C h a r l e s T a y l o r s u m m a r i s e s in his a r t i c l e , ' T o follow a r u l e ' , W i t t g e n s t e i n ' s a r g u m e n t h a s led to a r e v o l u t i o n in philosophy and the h u m a n sciences. Nevertheless, some t h e o r i s t s , s u c h as P e t e r W i n c h , h a v e g o n e o n to infer t h a t p e o p l e u s i n g g e n e r a l t e r m s in t h e e v e r y d a y activities of life a r e still following r u l e s . T h e r u l e s a r e said t o b e ' i m p l i c i t ' or 7

8

The rediscovery of cultural diversity I b a c k g r o u n d ' u n d e r s t a n d i n g s ' e m b e d d e d in p r a c t i c e a n d s h a r e d by all m e m b e r s of a c u l t u r e or c o m m u n i t y . T h e role of t h e t h e o r i s t is t h e n t o m a k e explicit t h e implicit r u l e s e m b o d i e d in p r a c t i c e in a c u l t u r e or c o m m u n i t y . W e h a v e s e e n R a w l s t a k e t h i s t u r n in his r e c e n t w o r k , a n d m a n y of t h e c o m m u n i t a r i a n s a n d n a t i o n a l i s t s m e n t i o n e d in c h a p t e r 2 h a v e d o n e t h e s a m e in o r d e r t o t r y t o r e s u r r e c t g r a n d t h e o r y from t h e a s h e s left by W i t t g e n s t e i n ' s first a r g u m e n t . I n so d o i n g , t h e s e t h e o r i s t s of p r a c t i c e h a v e u n c r i t i c a l l y r e t a i n e d t h e o l d e r a s s u m p t i o n of c u l t u r e s a n d c o m m u n i t i e s as h o m o g e n e o u s wholes and insouciantly carried on with a c o n t e m p t u o u s a t t i t u d e towards particular cases. T h e y have neglected W i t t g e n s t e i n ' s s e c o n d a r g u m e n t t h a t t h e ' g r a s p ' e x h i b i t e d in ' o b e y i n g ' or ' g o i n g a g a i n s t ' a r u l e in a c t u a l c a s e s c a n n o t b e a c c o u n t e d for in t e r m s of following g e n e r a l r u l e s implicit in p r a c t i c e b e c a u s e t h e m u l t i p l i c i t y of u s e s is t o o v a r i o u s , t a n g l e d , c o n t e s t e d a n d c r e a t i v e t o b e g o v e r n e d by r u l e s . W i t t g e n s t e i n i n t r o d u c e s t h i s s e c o n d line of a r g u m e n t w i t h t h e e x a m p l e of t h e g e n e r a l t e r m ' g a m e ' in s e c t i o n s 65 a n d 66. H e r u n s t h r o u g h v a r i o u s e x a m p l e s of g a m e s , s h o w i n g t h a t t h e r e is n o o n e f e a t u r e or set of f e a t u r e s , s u c h as ' a m u s e m e n t ' , 'skill' or ' w i n n i n g a n d l o s i n g ' , c o m m o n t o all, b u t v a r i o u s 'similarities' and 'relationships' a m o n g t h e m . Some features a r e s h a r e d by a n u m b e r of g a m e s , s u c h as b o a r d g a m e s , b u t t h e n p a s s to c a r d g a m e s , w h e r e ' t h e c o m m o n f e a t u r e s d r o p o u t a n d o t h e r s a p p e a r ' . 'I a m s a y i n g ' , h e w r i t e s , ' t h a t t h e s e p h e n o m e n a h a v e n o o n e t h i n g in c o m m o n w h i c h m a k e s us use t h e s a m e w o r d for all.' A s h e m o v e s t h r o u g h m a n y e x a m p l e s , t h e u p s h o t is n o t t h e discovery of a c o m p r e h e n s i v e r u l e i m p l i c i t l y followed in all c a s e s , b u t ' a c o m p l i c a t e d n e t w o r k of s i m i l a r i t i e s o v e r l a p p i n g a n d criss-crossing: s o m e t i m e s overall s i m i l a r i t i e s , s o m e t i m e s s i m i l a r i t i e s of d e t a i l ' , like t h e c o n s t i ­ t u t i o n of a n a n c i e n t city. If, W i t t g e n s t e i n asks h i s i n t e r l o c u t o r , ' o b s e r v a t i o n d o e s n o t e n a b l e us to see a n y c l e a r r u l e ' , a n d t h e p e r s o n u s i n g a g e n e r a l t e r m ' d o e s n o t k n o w it h i m s e l f , t h e n w h a t ' m e a n i n g is t h e e x p r e s s i o n " t h e r u l e by w h i c h h e p r o c e e d s " s u p p o s e d to h a v e left t o it h e r e ? ' ' T h e a p p l i c a t i o n of a w o r d ' , h e r o u n d l y

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c o n c l u d e s , 'is n o t e v e r y w h e r e b o u n d e d by r u l e s . ' If t h e free­ d o m of l a n g u a g e u s e still m u s t b e d e s c r i b e d in t e r m s of r u l e s , t h e n , h e s u g g e s t s , it is like a g a m e ' w h e r e we p l a y a n d - m a k e u p t h e r u l e s as we go a l o n g ' , or ' o n e w h e r e we a l t e r t h e m - as we go a l o n g ' . A c c o r d i n g l y , t h e way t o u n d e r s t a n d a g e n e r a l t e r m is n o t t o look in vain for implicit r u l e s b u t , like t e n n i s or law, to a c q u i r e t h e c o m p l e x abilities t o u s e it c o r r e c t l y in p r a c t i c e by w o r k i n g t h r o u g h a n d b e c o m i n g p r o f i c i e n t in v a r i o u s e x a m p l e s u n t i l o n e is a b l e to go on oneself. Is t h e k n o w l e d g e of a g e n e r a l t e r m like ' g a m e ' , h e a s k s , ' s o m e h o w e q u i v a l e n t t o a n u n f o r m u l a t e d d e f i n i t i o n ' , as t h e t h e o r i s t s of p r a c t i c e p r e s u m e ? H e t h e n p r e s e n t s his r e v o l u t i o n a r y r e p l y : 9

10

Isn't my knowledge, my concept of a game, completely expressed in . . . my describing examples of various kinds of g a m e ; shewing how all sorts of other games can be constructed on the analogy of these; saying that I should scarcely include this or this among games; and so on. H e n c e , like m a n y p r a c t i c a l a c t i v i t i e s t h a t a r e m a s t e r e d by e x a m p l e s m o r e t h a n by r u l e s , u n d e r s t a n d i n g a g e n e r a l c o n c e p t consists in b e i n g a b l e t o give r e a s o n s w h y it s h o u l d or s h o u l d n o t b e u s e d in a n y p a r t i c u l a r c a s e by d e s c r i b i n g e x a m p l e s w i t h s i m i l a r or r e l a t e d a s p e c t s , d r a w i n g a n a l o g i e s or d i s a n a l o g i e s of v a r i o u s k i n d s , finding p r e c e d e n t s a n d d r a w i n g a t t e n t i o n to i n t e r m e d i a t e c a s e s so t h a t o n e c a n p a s s easily from f a m i l i a r c a s e s to t h e u n f a m i l i a r a n d see t h e r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n t h e m . F o r e x a m p l e , in t h e first c h a p t e r I a r r a n g e d t h e six e x a m p l e s of t h e politics of r e c o g n i t i o n so you could see t h r e e similarities a m o n g t h e m . Section 66 on the general t e r m ' g a m e ' illustrates the technique and Wittgenstein then e m p l o y s it t h r o u g h o u t t h e Philosophical investigations t o solve philosophical problems. T h e a i m of t h i s sort of l a n g u a g e g a m e w i t h t h e g e n e r a l t e r m in q u e s t i o n - ' t h e l a n g u a g e g a m e w i t h t h e w o r d " g a m e " ' in W i t t g e n s t e i n ' s e x a m p l e - is to e m p l o y i n t e r m e d i a t e e x a m p l e s w h i c h m a k e m a n i f e s t a c o n n e c t i o n w i t h o t h e r c a s e s so t h a t a p e r s o n u n d e r s t a n d s w h y o r w h y n o t t h e t e r m s h o u l d b e u s e d in

The rediscovery of cultural diversity I t h i s c a s e . As t h e g a m e p r o c e e d s a n d e x a m p l e s a r e a s s e m b l e d in v a r i o u s ways, t h e p l a y e r s c o m e ' t o r e g a r d a p a r t i c u l a r case differently', to ' c o m p a r e it w i t h this r a t h e r t h a n that set of p i c t u r e s ' a n d h e n c e to c h a n g e t h e i r 'way of l o o k i n g a t t h i n g s ' , so t h e y n o t i c e t h e a s p e c t s w h i c h r e n d e r t h e case a n i n s t a n c e of t h e g e n e r a l t e r m or n o t . W i t t g e n s t e i n e x p l a i n s , 'if I c o r r e c t a p h i l o s o p h i c a l m i s t a k e ' , I ' m u s t always p o i n t t o a n a n a l o g y a c c o r d i n g to w h i c h o n e h a d b e e n t h i n k i n g , b u t w h i c h o n e did not r e c o g n i z e as a n a n a l o g y ' . H e calls t h e a n a l o g i c a l a c t i v i t y of f i n d i n g i n t e r m e d i a t e c a s e s t h e g i v i n g of ' f u r t h e r d e s c r i p t i o n s ' a n d c o m p a r e s it to t h e w a y r e a s o n s a r e given in a c o u r t of law for a n d a g a i n s t a p a r t i c u l a r c a s e . " W i t t g e n s t e i n d o e s n o t m e a n t h a t t h e e x c h a n g e of d e s c r i p ­ t i o n s a n d r e d e s c r i p t i o n s of e x a m p l e s t o i l l u m i n a t e s i m i l a r i t i e s a n d d i f f e r e n c e s is s o m e sort of p r e l i m i n a r y e x e r c i s e t o t h e f o r m u l a t i o n of a g e n e r a l r u l e u n d e r w h i c h t h e c o n c r e t e c a s e c a n be s u b s u m e d , for, as we h a v e s e e n , t h e r e is n o n e : O n e gives e x a m p l e s a n d i n t e n d s t h e m to be t a k e n in a particular way. - I do not, h o w e v e r , m e a n by this that he is s u p p o s e d to s e e in those e x a m p l e s t h e c o m m o n t h i n g w h i c h I - for s o m e r e a s o n - w a s unable to e x p r e s s ; but that he is now to employ those e x a m p l e s in a particular way. H e r e giving e x a m p l e s is not an indirect m e a n s o f e x p l a i n i n g - in d e f a u l t o f a b e t t e r .

' T h e w o r k of t h e p h i l o s o p h e r ' , h e s i m p l y s t a t e s , ' c o n s i s t s in a s s e m b l i n g r e m i n d e r s for a p a r t i c u l a r p u r p o s e . ' 1 2

T h e final a s p e c t of W i t t g e n s t e i n ' s two a r g u m e n t s I wish t o d r a w to y o u r a t t e n t i o n is t h a t his e x a m p l e s of u n d e r s t a n d i n g a g e n e r a l t e r m by a s s e m b l i n g e x a m p l e s always t a k e p l a c e in d i a l o g u e w i t h o t h e r s w h o s e e t h i n g s differently. T h e d i a l o g i c a l c h a r a c t e r of u n d e r s t a n d i n g is o n e of t h e m a n y t h i n g s h e w i s h e s t o c o n v e y by c a l l i n g t h e activity of u n d e r s t a n d i n g a ' l a n g u a g e g a m e ' , for, like p l a y i n g t e n n i s , we g r a s p a c o n c e p t by s e r v i n g , r e t u r n i n g a n d r a l l y i n g it b a c k a n d f o r t h w i t h o t h e r p l a y e r s in c o n v e r s a t i o n s . I n d e e d , it is p r e c i s e l y t h e a n a l o g y b e t w e e n t h e u s e of w o r d s in d i a l o g u e a n d g a m e s like t e n n i s t h a t W i t t g e n s t e i n t h o u g h t of e m p h a s i s i n g by s e l e c t i n g as a

Strange

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possible m o t t o for t h e Philosophical investigations, t h e line 'I'll t e a c h you d i f f e r e n c e s ' u t t e r e d by K e n t to O s w a l d in King Lear, for t h e d i a l o g u e b e t w e e n t h e m , in w h i c h t h e d i f f e r e n c e s a r e t a u g h t a n d l e a r n e d , is b a s e d o n t h e a n a l o g y b e t w e e n w o r d play and tennis play. Since t h e r e is n o c o m p r e h e n s i v e view of t h e u s e s of a g e n e r a l t e r m , a n y m o n o l o g i c a l view is always p a r t i a l to s o m e d e g r e e - n o t i c i n g s o m e a s p e c t s of u s a g e a t t h e e x p e n s e of o v e r l o o k i n g o t h e r s . A n y o n e d e s c r i p t i o n of e x a m p l e s , n o m a t t e r h o w e l a b o r a t e , will always be o n e h e u r i s t i c way of c h a r a c t e r i s i n g t h e case in q u e s t i o n a m o n g o t h e r s , n o t a ' p r e c o n c e i v e d i d e a to w h i c h r e a l i t y must c o r r e s p o n d ' . T h i s is t h e p o i n t of his d i c t u m t h a t you a p p r o a c h f r o m o n e side a n d k n o w y o u r way a b o u t ; you a p p r o a c h t h e s a m e p l a c e from a n o t h e r side a n d n o l o n g e r k n o w y o u r w a y a b o u t . T o u n d e r ­ s t a n d a g e n e r a l t e r m , a n d so k n o w y o u r w a y a r o u n d its m a z e of u s e s , it is always n e c e s s a r y t o e n t e r i n t o a d i a l o g u e w i t h i n t e r l o c u t o r s from o t h e r r e g i o n s of t h e city, to l i s t e n to t h e i r ' f u r t h e r d e s c r i p t i o n s ' a n d c o m e t o r e c o g n i s e t h e a s p e c t s of t h e p h e n o m e n o n in q u e s t i o n t h a t t h e y b r i n g t o light, a s p e c t s w h i c h go u n n o t i c e d from o n e ' s own f a m i l i a r set of e x a m p l e s . Since t h e r e is always m o r e t h a n o n e side to a c a s e , o n e m u s t always c o n s u l t t h o s e o n t h e o t h e r side. A s a r e s u l t of e x c h a n g e s of views by d e n i z e n s from v a r i o u s n e i g h b o u r h o o d s a n d t h e f i n d i n g of e x a m p l e s w h i c h m e d i a t e t h e i r d i f f e r e n c e s , a g r a s p of t h e m u l t i p l i c i t y of c a s e s is g r a d u a l l y a c q u i r e d . U n d e r ­ s t a n d i n g , like t h e Philosophical investigations itself, is dialogical. T h e s e t w o lines of a r g u m e n t a r e p r e s e n t e d in c o n d e n s e d form in s e c t i o n 122. A f t e r s t a t i n g t h a t a s i n g l e , c o m p r e h e n s i v e view of t h e m e a n i n g of a g e n e r a l t e r m is u n o b t a i n a b l e , h e i n t r o d u c e s his a l t e r n a t i v e p h i l o s o p h y of t h e dialogical c o m p a r i s o n a n d c o n t r a s t of e x a m p l e s in a c t u a l cases as a ubersichtliche Darstelling — a ' p e r s p i c u o u s r e p r e s e n t a t i o n ' or 'survey' - that 'produces just t h a t u n d e r s t a n d i n g which c o n s i s t s in " s e e i n g c o n n e x i o n s ' " . ' H e n c e t h e i m p o r t a n c e , ' h e c o n t i n u e s , 'of f i n d i n g a n d i n v e n t i n g intermediate cases.' H e t h e n u n d e r l i n e s t h e i m p o r t a n c e of his discovery in a n e x c e p t i o n a l l y direct r e m a r k : 13

14

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T h e concept of a p e r s p i c u o u s r e p r e s e n t a t i o n is of f u n d a m e n t a l significance for us. It e a r m a r k s the form o f account w e give, the way w e look at t h i n g s . (Is this a ' W e l t a n s c h a u u n g ' ? )

W i t t g e n s t e i n ' s p h i l o s o p h y is a n a l t e r n a t i v e worldview to t h e o n e t h a t i n f o r m s m o d e r n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m . F i r s t , c o n t r a r y to t h e i m p e r i a l c o n c e p t of u n d e r s t a n d i n g in m o d e r n c o n s t i ­ t u t i o n a l i s m d i s c u s s e d a t t h e e n d of t h e s e c o n d c h a p t e r , it p r o v i d e s a w a y of u n d e r s t a n d i n g o t h e r s t h a t d o e s not e n t a i l c o m p r e h e n d i n g w h a t t h e y say w i t h i n o n e ' s own l a n g u a g e of r e d e s c r i p t i o n , for t h i s is n o w s e e n for w h a t it is: o n e h e u r i s t i c d e s c r i p t i o n of e x a m p l e s a m o n g o t h e r s ; o n e i n t e r l o c u t i o n a m o n g o t h e r s in t h e d i a l o g u e of h u m a n k i n d . S e c o n d , it f u r n i s h e s a p h i l o s o p h i c a l a c c o u n t of t h e way in w h i c h e x c h a n g e s of views in i n t e r c u l t u r a l d i a l o g u e s n u r t u r e t h e a t t i t u d e of 'diversity a w a r e n e s s ' by e n a b l i n g t h e i n t e r l o c u t o r s to r e g a r d c a s e s d i f f e r e n t l y a n d c h a n g e t h e i r w a y of l o o k i n g a t things. Finally, it is a view of h o w u n d e r s t a n d i n g o c c u r s in t h e r e a l world of o v e r l a p p i n g , i n t e r a c t i n g a n d n e g o t i a t e d c u l t u r a l diversity in w h i c h we s p e a k , act a n d a s s o c i a t e t o g e t h e r . As a r e s u l t , if we c a r e to u n d e r s t a n d The spirit of Haida Gwaii, W i t t g e n s t e i n ' s p h i l o s o p h y e x p l a i n s w h y we m u s t l i s t e n t o t h e d e s c r i p t i o n of e a c h m e m b e r of t h e c r e w , a n d i n d e e d e n t e r t h e c o n v e r s a t i o n o u r s e l v e s , in o r d e r t o find r e d e s c r i p t i o n s a c c e p t a b l e to all w h i c h m e d i a t e t h e d i f f e r e n c e s we wish e a c h o t h e r to r e c o g n i s e . T h i s is a w a y of d o i n g p h i l o s o p h y a n d r e a c h i n g m u t u a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g fit for a p o s t - i m p e r i a l a g e of c u l t u r a l diversity. T h e g e n e r a l t e r m s of t h e l a n g u a g e of c o n t e m p o r a r y c o n s t i ­ t u t i o n a l i s m - c o n s t i t u t i o n s , n a t i o n s , societies, c u l t u r e s , recognition, citizens, rights, sovereignty, justice, institutions, t h e c o m m o n good, a n c i e n t a n d m o d e r n - a r e like g a m e s . David K a h a n e has corroborated W i t t g e n s t e i n ' s second argu­ m e n t by e x p o s i n g t h e p o v e r t y of a t t e m p t s to e x p l a i n t h e u s e of t h e s e c o n c e p t s in p a r t i c u l a r c a s e s by r e c o u r s e to implicit r u l e s a n d s h a r e d u n d e r s t a n d i n g s . T h e y a r e to b e u n d e r s t o o d by

112

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s u r v e y i n g t h e a c t u a l c a s e s of t h e i r use a n d t h e r e a s o n s given for a n d a g a i n s t t h e i r a p p l i c a t i o n , not only in t h e r e g u l a r a n d u n i f o r m u s e s of m o d e r n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m , w h e r e t h e a r r a n g e ­ m e n t of e x a m p l e s h a s b e c o m e fossilised, b u t also in t h e m u c h b r o a d e r r a n g e of u s e s in o t h e r n e i g h b o u r h o o d s a n d b o r o u g h s . O f s p e c i a l i m p o r t a n c e will b e s i t e s w h e r e d i s p u t e s a n d struggles have occurred and the d o m i n a n t uses have been c h a l l e n g e d a n d a l t e r e d . T h e d i a l o g u e s of B a r o n de L a h o n t a n , t h e c o m p a r i s o n s of J o s e p h B r a n t a n d t h e f u r t h e r d e s c r i p t i o n s of o t h e r ' m a r g i n a l ' w r i t e r s will b e c a n o n i c a l e x a m p l e s for us. T h i s book is b u t o n e e x a m p l e of t h i s form of survey w h i c h g r a d u a l l y l o o s e n s t h e g r i p of t h e t h e o r i e s of m o d e r n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m a n d discloses t h e d i v e r s i t y of c o n t e m p o r a r y constitutions and cultures that they conceal. W i t t g e n s t e i n suggests that the diverse similarities a m o n g i n s t a n c e s of g e n e r a l c o n c e p t s like g a m e s c a n b e t h o u g h t of as a n a l o g o u s t o 'family r e s e m b l a n c e s ' , for ' t h e v a r i o u s r e s e m ­ b l a n c e s b e t w e e n m e m b e r s of a family: b u i l d , f e a t u r e s , c o l o u r of e y e s , g a i t , t e m p e r a m e n t , etc., etc., o v e r l a p a n d criss-cross in t h e s a m e way'. G a m e s 'form a f a m i l y ' . I n a n a n a l o g o u s f a s h i o n , t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n s a n d c u l t u r e s of t h e world f o r m a family - t h e c r i s s - c r o s s i n g A b o r i g i n a l a n d n o n - A b o r i g i n a l c o n s t i t u t i o n s , n e w a n d old, p r o v i n c i a l a n d f e d e r a l , g e n e r a l a g r e e m e n t s o n t r a d e a n d tariffs, global c o d e s of h u m a n r i g h t s a n d e n v i r o n m e n t a l t r e a t i e s , i n t e r n a t i o n a l laws of A b o r i g i n a l p e o p l e s a n d so on. M o r e o v e r , w i t h i n a n y c o n s t i t u t i o n a l associ­ a t i o n , t h e r i g h t s , i n s t i t u t i o n s a n d laws a r e n o t i d e n t i c a l in every c a s e , b u t v a r y w i t h t h e i n t e r a c t i n g c u l t u r a l diversity of t h e m e m b e r s , a g a i n f o r m i n g a family; e x c e p t , of c o u r s e , in t h o s e a r e a s w h e r e t h e o v e r w h e l m i n g force of m o d e r n c o n s t i ­ t u t i o n a l i s m h a s c r u s h e d t h e a g o n i c i n t e r p l a y of law a n d cultural freedom. T h e d i r e c t r e l e v a n c e of W i t t g e n s t e i n ' s a r g u m e n t s to o u r t o p i c is c o n f i r m e d by W i t t g e n s t e i n himself. H e first p r e s e n t e d t h e m in his ' R e m a r k s o n F r a z e r ' s Golden Bough' ( 1 9 3 0 ) . In t h e e a r l y d e c a d e s of t h e t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y , t h e a n t h r o p o l o g i s t J a m e s G e o r g e F r a z e r , like t h e t h e o r i s t s of m o d e r n c o n s t i ­ t u t i o n a l i s m , s o u g h t to u n d e r s t a n d a n u m b e r of ' p r i m i t i v e ' 15

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p r a c t i c e s of v a r i o u s ' s a v a g e ' s o c i e t i e s by a r r a n g i n g t h e m in t h e progressive s c h e m e of h i s t o r i c a l d e v e l o p m e n t a n d j u d g i n g t h e m r e l a t i v e to t h e scientific p r a c t i c e s of c o n t e m p o r a r y E u r o p e a n societies. As a c o n s e q u e n c e , W i t t g e n s t e i n r e m a r k s , F r a z e r 'is m o r e s a v a g e t h a n m o s t of his s a v a g e s ' . M u c h as t h e African s c h o l a r V. Y. M u d i m b e w a s to c o m m e n t d e c a d e s l a t e r in The invention of Africa, W i t t g e n s t e i n objects t h a t it is ' i m p o s s i b l e ' for h i m ' t o u n d e r s t a n d a d i f f e r e n t w a y of life from the E n g l i s h o n e of his t i m e ! ' W h a t F r a z e r d o e s n o t r e a l i s e is t h a t ' a n e x p l a n a t i o n ' in t h e f o r m o f ' a n h y p o t h e s i s of d e v e l o p ­ m e n t is only one k i n d of s u m m a r y of t h e d a t a ' . T h e p u r p o s e of this a r r a n g e m e n t of t h e d a t a , or a n y o t h e r , is h e u r i s t i c a n d m e d i a t o r y — 'to s h a r p e n o u r eye for a f o r m a l c o n n e c t i o n ' a m o n g t h e m . It is n o t , as F r a z e r a s s u m e s , a p r e c o n c e i v e d i d e a to w h i c h r e a l i t y m u s t c o r r e s p o n d . W i t t g e n s t e i n t h e n p r e s e n t s his a l t e r n a t i v e a p p r o a c h . T h e ' f a c t u a l m a t e r i a l [ t h e v a r i o u s p r a c t i c e s ] ' c a n be a r r a n g e d 'so t h a t we c a n easily p a s s from o n e p a r t to a n o t h e r a n d h a v e a clear view of it - s h o w i n g it in a p e r s p i c u o u s way'. T h i s cryptic r e m a r k is i m m e d i a t e l y followed by t h e first d r a f t of t h e p a s s a g e w h i c h b e c a m e s e c t i o n 1 2 2 of t h e Philosophical investi­ gations s e v e n t e e n y e a r s l a t e r . I n his n o t e b o o k s , h e is e v e n m o r e i n s i s t e n t t h a t his a p p r o a c h b e r e g a r d e d a s a n a l t e r n a t i v e to t h e p r o g r e s s i v e a n d scientific form of t h i n k i n g typical of m o d e r n E u r o p e a n civilisation. T h e r e f o r e , t h e r e is n o q u e s t i o n t h a t h e i n t e n d e d his a r g u m e n t s to b e e m p l o y e d a s I h a v e u s e d t h e m : t o q u e s t i o n t h e i m p e r i a l a n d m o n o l o g i c a l f o r m of r e a s o n i n g we have found t o be c o n s t i t u t i v e of m o d e r n c o n s t i ­ tutionalism. Since t h e p r a c t i c a l f o r m of r e a s o n i n g W i t t g e n s t e i n d e s c r i b e s is a k i n t o t h e r e a s o n i n g in individual c a s e s a t t h e c o m m o n law, as S t e p h e n T o u l m i n a n d A l b e r t J o n s e n h a v e s u b s t a n t i a t e d , it is n o t s u r p r i s i n g t h a t s i m i l a r a r g u m e n t s w e r e p r e s e n t e d by o n e of t h e g r e a t e s t c o m m o n l a w y e r s , C h i e f J u s t i c e M a t t h e w H a l e , a g a i n s t o n e of t h e f o u n d i n g t h e o r i s t s of m o d e r n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m , T h o m a s H o b b e s . As we n o t i c e d in c h a p t e r 3 , H o b b e s p r e s e n t s h i s m o d e r n t h e o r y as a s o l u t i o n to w h a t h e saw as t h e d i s u n i t y a n d i r r e g u l a r i t y of a n c i e n t 16

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c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m . T h e m e t a p h o r s h e e m p l o y s t o p e r s u a d e his r e a d e r s a r e , as we m i g h t e x p e c t , a l m o s t t h e o p p o s i t e of D e s c a r t e s ' . If t h e p e o p l e e x p e c t t h e i r a s s o c i a t i o n to b e any­ t h i n g o t h e r t h a n 'a crasie b u i l d i n g , s u c h as h a r d l y l a s t i n g o u t t h e i r o w n t i m e ' , t h e n it m u s t b e c o n s t r u c t e d by ' t h e h e l p of a very able Architect'. R a t h e r t h a n a c c o m m o d a t i n g the consti­ t u t i o n t o t h e c u l t u r a l d i v e r s i t y of t h e c i t i z e n s , as D e s c a r t e s r e c o m m e n d s , every man is to strive to accommodate himself to the rest'. T h e a r c h i t e c t is t o view t h e d i v e r s e s u b j e c t s h e m u s t r e n d e r ' p l a i n ' a n d ' s o c i a b l e ' as ' s t o n e s b r o u g h t t o g e t h e r for b u i l d i n g of a n Aedifice'. ' F o r as t h a t s t o n e w h i c h by t h e a s p e r i t y , a n d i r r e g u l a r i t y of F i g u r e , t a k e s m o r e r o o m from o t h e r s , t h a n it selfe fills; a n d for t h e h a r d n e s s e , c a n n o t b e easily m a d e p l a i n , a n d t h e r e b y h i n d e r e t h t h e b u i l d i n g , is by t h e b u i l d e r s cast away as u n p r o f i t a b l e a n d t r o u b l e s o m e . ' E v e n m o r e r e v e a l i n g is t h e k i n d of t h e o r e t i c a l k n o w l e d g e t h e a r c h i t e c t n e e d s a n d Leviathan p r o v i d e s . ' T h e skill of m a k i n g , a n d m a i n t a i n i n g C o m m o n - w e a l t h s c o n s i s t e t h in c e r t a i n R u l e s , as d o t h A r i t h m e t i q u e a n d G e o m e t r y ; n o t (as T e n n i s play) o n P r a c t i s e o n e l y . ' 1

17

H a l e ' s t r e n c h a n t r e p l y is t h a t t h e skill of m a k i n g a n d m a i n ­ t a i n i n g a c o n s t i t u t i o n a l c o m m o n w e a l t h is n o t a m a t t e r of a s o l i t a r y , clever p e r s o n d e d u c i n g g e n e r a l r u l e s from e s s e n t i a l d e f i n i t i o n s . R a t h e r , it is a p r a c t i c a l skill t h a t ' m u s t b e g a i n e d by t h e h a b i t u a t e i n g a n d a c c u s t o m e i n g a n d E x e r c i s i n g of t h a t F a c u l t y [of r e a s o n i n g ] by r e a d i n g , s t u d y a n d o b s e r v a t i o n ' , as well as by ' C o n v e r s a t i o n b e t w e e n m a n a n d m a n ' . T h e r e a s o n w h y it is a p r a c t i c a l skill a c q u i r e d by ' u s e a n d e x e r c i s e ' is t h a t ' a c t i o n s , a n d t h e a p p l i c a t i o n of r e m e d y e s to t h e m ' a r e 'so v a r i o u s ' , ' d i f f e r e n t ' a n d 'diversified from a n o t h e r ' t h a t a b s t r a c t r u l e s a r e a h i n d r a n c e r a t h e r t h a n a h e l p ' w h e n it c o m e s t o p a r t i c u l a r s ' . A m a n , like H o b b e s , w h o h a s ' a p r o s p e c t ' of 'a few t h i n g s m a y w i t h e a s e e n o u g h fitt a L a w e ' t o ' t h o s e t h i n g s ' . B u t , h e c o n t i n u e s , ' t h e t e x t u r e of H u m a n e affaires is n o t u n l i k e t h e T e x t u r e of a d i s e a s e d b o d e y l a b o u r i n g u n d e r M a l a d i e s , it m a y b e of so v a r i o u s n a t u r e s t h a t s u c h P h i s i q u e as m a y b e p r o p e r for t h e C u r e of o n e of t h e m a l a d i e s m a y b e d e s t r u c t i v e in r e l a t i o n t o t h e o t h e r ' . 1 8

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Over three h u n d r e d years later, Albert J o n s e n and Stephen T o u l m i n , c o m m e n t i n g o n t h e t h e o r i e s of B e n t h a m a n d R a w l s in t h e c o u r s e of t h e i r h i s t o r y of r e a s o n i n g by c a s e s , d r a w m u c h the same conclusion: 19

If general, abstract theories in moral philosophy are read against their historical and social backgrounds, they will need to be under­ stood not as making comprehensive and mutually exclusive claims but, rather, offering us limited and complementary perspectives on the whole broad complex of h u m a n conduct and moral experience, personal relations, and ethical reflection. So interpreted, none of these theories tells us the whole truth . . . Instead, each of them gives us part of the larger picture. I n Reason and rhetoric in the philosophy of Hobbes, Q u e n t i n S k i n n e r shows t h a t H a l e ' s c o m m o n - l a w view is typical of the Renaissance h u m a n i s t culture against which Hobbes c o n s t r u c t e d his scientific a l t e r n a t i v e . T h e r e a s o n s t h a t R e n a i s s a n c e h u m a n i s t s give for t h e p r a c t i c a l a n d dialogical c h a r a c t e r of m o r a l a n d political p h i l o s o p h y a r e s i m i l a r t o W i t t g e n s t e i n ' s . O n e s h o u l d always, t h e y a r g u e , l i s t e n t o t h e o t h e r side (audi alteram partem) b e c a u s e it is always p o s s i b l e t o s p e a k o n e i t h e r side of a c a s e (in utramquepartem). T h e r e a s o n w h y t h i s is always possible is t h a t t h e c r i t e r i a for t h e a p p l i ­ c a t i o n of m o r a l a n d p o l i t i c a l c o n c e p t s a r e so v a r i o u s a n d circumstantial, r a t h e r t h a n essential and universal, that any c a s e is always o p e n t o m o r e t h a n o n e d e s c r i p t i o n a n d e v a l u a t i o n , by m e a n s of c o m p a r i s o n s a n d c o n t r a s t s w i t h o t h e r c a s e s ( w h a t t h e y call paradiastole). Therefore, the correct a t t i t u d e or w o r l d v i e w is a w i l l i n g n e s s t o e x c h a n g e a n d negotiate alternative descriptions. H o b b e s s o u g h t to o v e r c o m e t h e ' u n c e r t a i n t y ' of h u m a n i s t m o r a l a n d political p h i l o s o p h y a n d p u t it o n a scientific a n d m o n o l o g i c a l f o o t i n g by s e t t i n g o u t e s s e n t i a l d e f i n i t i o n s and deducing general rules that any rational person would be c o m p e l l e d to a c c e p t . H e t h u s i n i t i a t e d , as Q u e n t i n S k i n n e r c o n c l u d e s , ' t h e shift from a dialogical to a m o n o l o g i c a l style of m o r a l [ a n d political] r e a s o n i n g ' . T h e t h e o r i s t s of m o d e r n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m followed i n H o b b e s ' f o o t s t e p s so t h a t ' t h e v e r y i d e a of p r e s e n t i n g a m o r a l or political t h e o r y in t h e f o r m

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of a d i a l o g u e h a s l o n g s i n c e lost a n y s e r i o u s p l a c e in philos­ o p h y ' (even t h o u g h , ironically, t h e successive m o n o l o g i c a l t h e o r i e s h a v e b e e n a c c o m p a n i e d by d e b a t e a n d d i s a g r e e m e n t t h a t only t h e h u m a n i s t a p p r o a c h c a n e x p l a i n ) . T h i s h i s t o r i c a l shift from a h u m a n i s t t o a scientific worldview t u r n s on t h e a s s u m p t i o n of e s s e n t i a l d e f i n i t i o n s w h i c h W i t t g e n s t e i n c h a l l e n g e d t h r e e h u n d r e d y e a r s l a t e r . As a r e s u l t , a l t h o u g h W i t t g e n s t e i n ' s a r g u m e n t s c a n b e s e e n as t h e p r o g e n i t o r of a shift to p o s t - m o d e r n h u m a n i s m , as D e n n i s P a t t e r s o n r e c o m m e n d s , t h e y c a n also b e r e g a r d e d as a k i n t o t h e e a r l i e r c o m m o n - l a w h u m a n i s m t h a t h a s b e e n , like t h e t r a i l s of R i t a J o e , c o v e r e d o v e r b u t n o t c a s t a w a y by t h e a r c h i t e c t s of m o d e r n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m . T h e g r e a t t r a g e d y of t h e m o d e r n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m is t h a t m o s t E u r o p e a n p h i l o s o p h e r s followed H o b b e s a n d t u r n e d their backs on dialogue j u s t w h e n n o n - E u r o p e a n peoples were e n c o u n t e r e d and dialogue and mediation were needed to avert t h e m i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g a n d i n h u m a n i t y t h a t followed. L e t us n o w t u r n to e x a m p l e s of t h o s e few w h o l i s t e n e d t o a n d negotiated with the others they encountered. 2 0

Examples of the three conventions: the Aboriginal and common-law system and the conventions of mutual recognition and consent T h e following e x a m p l e s of t h e r e c o g n i t i o n a n d a c c o m m o ­ d a t i o n of c u l t u r a l d i v e r s i t y i l l u s t r a t e t h e m u l t i p l i c i t y of u s e s of t h e c o n c e p t s of c o n t e m p o r a r y c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m a n d disclose t h e h i d d e n c o n s t i t u t i o n s of c o n t e m p o r a r y societies. T h e y also b r i n g t o light t h e t h r e e c o n v e n t i o n s of c o m m o n c o n s t i t u t i o n ­ alism: m u t u a l recognition, continuity and consent. Consti­ t u t i o n a l ' c o n v e n t i o n s ' in t h i s c o m m o n - l a w s e n s e a r e n o r m s t h a t c o m e i n t o b e i n g a n d c o m e to be a c c e p t e d as a u t h o r i t a t i v e in t h e c o u r s e of c o n s t i t u t i o n a l p r a c t i c e , i n c l u d i n g c r i t i c i s m a n d c o n t e s t a t i o n of t h a t p r a c t i c e . T h e y g r a d u a l l y g a i n t h e i r a u t h o r i t y by a c t s in c o n f o r m i t y w i t h t h e m a n d by a p p e a l s t o t h e m by b o t h sides, as w a r r a n t s of j u s t i f i c a t i o n , w h e n t h e y a r e t r a n s g r e s s e d . T h e s e t h r e e c o n v e n t i o n s form t h e s t u r d y fibres of A r i a d n e ' s t h r e a d t h r o u g h t h e l a b y r i n t h of conflicting c l a i m s t o c u l t u r a l r e c o g n i t i o n w h i c h c u r r e n t l y block t h e w a y to a

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peaceful twenty-first c e n t u r y . If t h e y g u i d e c o n s t i t u t i o n a l n e g o t i a t i o n s , t h e n e g o t i a t i o n s a n d r e s u l t i n g c o n s t i t u t i o n s will be j u s t w i t h r e s p e c t to c u l t u r a l r e c o g n i t i o n . T h e first a n d m o s t s p e c t a c u l a r e x a m p l e is t h e m u t u a l r e c o g n i t i o n a n d a c c o m m o d a t i o n of t h e A b o r i g i n a l p e o p l e s of A m e r i c a a n d t h e B r i t i s h C r o w n as e q u a l , self-governing n a t i o n s . T h i s form of m u t u a l r e c o g n i t i o n w a s w o r k e d o u t in t h e e a r l y m o d e r n p e r i o d in a c o m m o n a s s o c i a t i o n of ' t r e a t y c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m ' . I w o u l d like t o d i s c u s s it in s o m e d e t a i l b e c a u s e it e x h i b i t s c l e a r l y t h e t h r e e c o n v e n t i o n s t h a t o u g h t t o g u i d e a n y diverse c o n s t i t u t i o n a l a s s o c i a t i o n . O n c e t h e y a r e g r a s p e d in this c a s e , it is easy to see h o w t h e y c a n b e a p p l i e d a n a l o g o u s l y in different c a s e s . T h e p r o b l e m of m u t u a l r e c o g n i t i o n is classically f o r m u l a t e d by J o h n M a r s h a l l , a n e a r l y C h i e f J u s t i c e of t h e S u p r e m e C o u r t of t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , in his final a n d definitive j u d g e m e n t o n U S - A b o r i g i n a l r e l a t i o n s in Worcester v. the State of Georgia of 1 8 3 2 ( S a m u e l W o r c e s t e r ' s l a w y e r s p r e s e n t e d t h e c a s e for Cherokee sovereignty): 21

America, separated from Europe by a wide ocean, was inhabited by a distinct people, divided into separate nations, independent of each other and the rest of the world, having institutions of their own, and governing themselves by their own laws. It is difficult to comprehend the proposition, that the inhabitants of either quarter of the globe could have rightful original claims of dominion over the inhabitants of the other, or over the lands they occupied; or that the discovery of either by the other should give the discoverer rights in the country discovered, which annulled the pre-existing rights of its ancient possessors. If t h e A b o r i g i n a l p e o p l e s of A m e r i c a a r e r e c o g n i s e d a s ' i n d e p e n d e n t n a t i o n s ' , as M a r s h a l l a r g u e s , t h e initial c o n d i t i o n s of c o n s t i t u t i o n a l t h e o r y a n d p r a c t i c e in N o r t h A m e r i c a a r e not a n y of t h e t h r e e f o r m u l a t i o n s of p o p u l a r s o v e r e i g n t y e m p l o y e d by t h e a u t h o r i t a t i v e schools of m o d e r n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m s u r v e y e d in t h e p r e v i o u s l e c t u r e . R a t h e r , t h e s i t u a t i o n is a c o n t i n e n t of over five h u n d r e d s o v e r e i g n A b o r i g i n a l n a t i o n s g o v e r n i n g t h e m s e l v e s by t h e i r o w n i n s t i t u t i o n s a n d a u t h o r i t a t i v e t r a d i t i o n s of i n t e r p r e t a t i o n for

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r o u g h l y t w e n t y t h o u s a n d y e a r s before E u r o p e a n s a r r i v e in t h e s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y . T h e E u r o p e a n s r e f u s e to b e c o m e i m m i g r a n t s of t h e e x i s t i n g A b o r i g i n a l n a t i o n s , as t h e U S a n d C a n a d i a n g o v e r n m e n t s w o u l d c e r t a i n l y insist t o d a y in a n analogous situation, and d e m a n d instead that their nation­ h o o d b e r e c o g n i s e d a n d a c c o m m o d a t e d so t h e y m a y g o v e r n t h e m s e l v e s by t h e i r own laws a n d t r a d i t i o n s . T h e q u e s t i o n is h o w c a n t h e p e o p l e in t h i s d i v e r s e f o r m r e a c h a g r e e m e n t on a c o n s t i t u t i o n a l a s s o c i a t i o n j u s t to b o t h p a r t i e s . T h e a n s w e r w a s w o r k e d o u t t h r o u g h h u n d r e d s of t r e a t y n e g o t i a t i o n s b e t w e e n a g e n t s of t h e C r o w n a n d t h e A b o r i g i n a l n a t i o n s from t h e 1630s t o 1 8 3 2 . I n Worcester, M a r s h a l l r e v i e w e d t h e h i s t o r y of t r e a t y m a k i n g a n d p r e s e n t e d a synopsis of t h e c u s t o m a r y s y s t e m of t r e a t y c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m t h a t evolved over t h e p r e v i o u s two c e n t u r i e s . H e took as a m a j o r p r e c e d e n t t h e R o y a l P r o c l a m a t i o n of 7 O c t o b e r 1 7 6 3 , in w h i c h t h e C r o w n set o u t its u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e r e l a t i o n s between British N o r t h A m e r i c a and the Aboriginal nations. T h e P r o c l a m a t i o n , in t u r n , w a s b a s e d o n a r e v i e w of t r e a t i e s s i n c e 1664, Royal C o m m i s s i o n s on I n d i a n Affairs since 1 6 6 5 , Royal I n s t r u c t i o n s t o colonial a d m i n i s t r a t o r s since 1670, t h e B o a r d of T r a d e ' s r e c o g n i t i o n of A b o r i g i n a l s o v e r e i g n t y in 1 6 9 6 ( w h e n L o c k e w a s a m e m b e r ) a n d in t h e c a s e of t h e M o h e g a n n a t i o n v e r s u s C o n n e c t i c u t of 1705 ( w h i c h J o h n B u l k l e y a t t a c k e d w i t h L o c k e ' s a r g u m e n t s ) , a n d t h e advice of t h e S u p e r i n t e n d e n t of I n d i a n Affairs in N o r t h A m e r i c a , Sir W i l l i a m J o h n s o n ( J o s e p h B r a n t ' s s t e p f a t h e r ) . In a d d i t i o n , s i m i l a r a c c o u n t s of t h e t r e a t y s y s t e m w e r e w r i t t e n by p a r t i c i ­ p a n t s in t r e a t y n e g o t i a t i o n s , s u c h as S a m u e l W h a r t o n , Plain facts: being an examination into the rights of the Indian nations of America to their respective territories ( 1 7 8 1 ) , w h i c h P a i n e a t t a c k e d in The public good, C a d w a l l a d e r C o l d e n , The history of the five Indian nations of Canada ( 1 7 4 7 ) , a n d B e n j a m i n F r a n k l i n ' s collec­ t i o n of t r e a t i e s ( 1 7 6 2 ) . T h e o r a l a c c o u n t s of t h e t r e a t i e s by m e m b e r s of t h e Haudenosaunee or I r o q u o i s C o n f e d e r a t i o n a r e p a r t i a l l y r e c o r d e d in The redman's appeal for justice: the position of the six nations that they constitute an independent state ( 1 9 2 4 ) . D e s p i t e t h e efforts of t h e b u i l d e r s of m o d e r n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l -

The rediscovery of cultural diversity I

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ism t o e x t i n g u i s h it, this a n c i e n t c o n s t i t u t i o n is p a r t of U S c o n s t i t u t i o n a l l a w a n d C o m m o n w e a l t h c o m m o n law, a n d r e m n a n t s of it e n d u r e in p r a c t i c e d o w n t o t h i s d a y . T h e first c o n v e n t i o n of c o n s t i t u t i o n a l n e g o t i a t i o n s is t o a g r e e on a form of m u t u a l r e c o g n i t i o n . I n t h i s c a s e , it involves t h e m u t u a l r e c o g n i t i o n of b o t h p a r t i e s a s i n d e p e n d e n t a n d self-governing nations. T h e initial r e a s o n C r o w n negotiators r e c o g n i s e d t h e A b o r i g i n a l p e o p l e s a s n a t i o n s is t h a t t h e y did n o t r e d e s c r i b e t h e A b o r i g i n a l p e o p l e s in t h e f o r m s of r e c o g n i t i o n c o n s t r u c t e d by t h e a r m c h a i r E u r o p e a n t h e o r i s t s . Instead, they simply listened to h o w t h e Aboriginal nego­ tiators p r e s e n t e d themselves in countless m e e t i n g s . As W i l l i a m J o h n s o n , t h e chief C r o w n n e g o t i a t o r , e x p l a i n e d t o t h e L o r d s of T r a d e in 1 7 6 3 : 22

T h e I n d i a n s o f t h e O t t a w a Confederacy. . . a n d a l s o t h e S i x N a t i o n s , h o w e v e r their s e n t i m e n t s m a y s e e m m i s r e p r e s e n t e d , all a l o n g c o n s i d e r e d t h e N o r t h e r n parts of N o r t h A m e r i c a , as their sole property from t h e b e g i n n i n g ; a n d a l t h o u g h t h e c o n v e n i e n c y of T r a d e , (with fair s p e e c h e s and p r o m i s e s ) i n d u c e d t h e m to afford both us a n d the French s e t t l e m e n t s in their C o u n t r y , yet t h e y n e v e r u n d e r s t o o d such s e t t l e m e n t as a D o m i n i o n , e s p e c i a l l y as n e i t h e r w e , nor t h e French ever m a d e a c o n q u e s t o f t h e m .

' T h e y h a v e e v e n r e p e a t e d l y said a t s e v e r a l c o n f e r e n c e s in m y p r e s e n c e ' , J o h n s o n goes o n t o r e c o u n t , t h a t ' t h e y w e r e a m u s e d by b o t h p a r t i e s [ t h e B r i t i s h a n d F r e n c h ] w i t h s t o r i e s of t h e i r u p r i g h t i n t e n t i o n s , a n d t h a t t h e y m a d e W a r for t h e p r o t e c t i o n of t h e I n d i a n s r i g h t s , b u t t h a t t h e y p l a i n l y f o u n d , it w a s c a r r i e d on t o s e e w h o would b e c o m e m a s t e r s of w h a t w a s t h e p r o p e r t y of n e i t h e r t h e o n e n o r t h e o t h e r . ' T h e ' I n d i a n s ' , J o h n s o n s u m m a r i s e s , a r e n o t 'subject t o ' ' o u r L a w s ' a n d t h e y ' c o n s i d e r t h e m s e l v e s a s a free p e o p l e ' . I n 1 7 6 1 , the Chippewa leader Minivavana enlightened the English t r a d e r A l e x a n d e r H a r v e y a t M i c h i l i m a c k i n a c e i n t h e following typical m a n n e r : 2 3

E n g l i s h m a n , a l t h o u g h you have c o n q u e r e d t h e F r e n c h , you have n o t yet c o n q u e r e d us. W e are not your slaves. T h e s e lakes, t h e s e w o o d s and m o u n t a i n s , were left to us by o u r a n c e s t o r s . T h e y are o u r i n h e r i t a n c e s ; a n d w e will part w i t h t h e m to n o n e .

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T h e second reason why C r o w n negotiators applied the t e r m ' n a t i o n ' a n d ' r e p u b l i c ' t o t h e A b o r i g i n a l p e o p l e s is t h a t t h e f o r m s of A b o r i g i n a l political o r g a n i s a t i o n t h e y o b s e r v e d , w h i l e n o t i d e n t i c a l , w e r e s i m i l a r in a n u m b e r of r e s p e c t s to E u r o p e a n n a t i o n s . T h e y did n o t a p p l y c r i t e r i a t h a t only seventeenth-century European nations m e t and conclude that A b o r i g i n a l p e o p l e s w e r e s a v a g e s at t h e lowest s t a g e of d e v e l o p m e n t . As t h e t e r m s of M a r s h a l l ' s d e s c r i p t i o n n e a t l y i l l u s t r a t e , t h e y w e r e a b l e t o s e e t h e c r o s s - c u l t u r a l family r e s e m b l a n c e s b e t w e e n A b o r i g i n a l a n d E u r o p e a n f o r m s of political a s s o c i a t i o n . W h e r e a s l o n g use a n d o c c u p a t i o n of a t e r r i t o r y gave t h e m j u r i s d i c t i o n , as t h e 1 6 6 5 Royal C o m ­ m i s s i o n h a d r u l e d , t h e ability to g o v e r n t h e m s e l v e s in a c c o r d w i t h t h e i r own laws a n d ways for a l o n g t i m e a n d to h a v e t h e i r i n d e p e n d e n c e r e c o g n i s e d by o t h e r s i m i l a r l y o r g a n i s e d p e o p l e s gave t h e m n a t i o n h o o d . T h e v e r y t e r m ' n a t i o n ' , M a r s h a l l e x p l a i n s , 'so g e n e r a l l y a p p l i e d to t h e m , m e a n s " a p e o p l e d i s t i n c t from o t h e r s ' " . ' T h e c o n s t i t u t i o n ' of t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , 'by d e c l a r i n g t r e a t i e s ' t o b e ' t h e s u p r e m e law of t h e l a n d ' , a d m i t s ' t h e i r r a n k a m o n g t h o s e p o w e r s w h o a r e " c a p a b l e of m a k i n g t r e a t i e s ' " : T h e words 'treaty' and 'nations' are w o r d s of our o w n l a n g u a g e , s e l e c t e d in our d i p l o m a t i c and legislative p r o c e e d i n g s by o u r s e l v e s , h a v i n g each a definite and well u n d e r s t o o d m e a n i n g . W e h a v e applied t h e m to I n d i a n s , as w e have applied t h e m to the o t h e r n a t i o n s of the earth. T h e y are applied to all in t h e s a m e s e n s e .

For emphasis, he states that the U n i t e d States stands to the A b o r i g i n a l n a t i o n s j u s t as it d o e s to ' t h e c r o w n e d h e a d s of Europe'. T h e r e a s o n w h y t h e a g e n t s of j u s t i c e a p p l i e d t h e s e l o o s e r c r i t e r i a of n a t i o n h o o d , r a t h e r t h a n t h e b i a s e d c r i t e r i a of m o d e r n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m , is t h a t t h e y a r e t h e c u s t o m a r y c r i t e r i a u s e d to r e c o g n i s e n a t i o n h o o d t h r o u g h o u t E u r o p e e v e r since B a r t o l u s of S a s s o f e r r a t o e m p l o y e d t h e m to b r i n g t h e H o l y R o m a n E m p i r e to r e c o g n i s e t h e i n d e p e n d e n c e of t h e I t a l i a n city s t a t e s in t h e e a r l y f o u r t e e n t h c e n t u r y . M a r s h a l l , for i n s t a n c e , was a b l e t o d r a w c o n n e c t i o n s w i t h i n t e r m e d i a t e 2 4

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e x a m p l e s of E u r o p e a n n a t i o n h o o d a n d t r e a t y m a k i n g t o m a k e his c a s e . I n r e c o g n i s i n g t h e s o v e r e i g n t y of A b o r i g i n a l n a t i o n s , t h e r e f o r e , t h e C r o w n w a s d o i n g n o m o r e t h a n a p p l y i n g to t h e m the s a m e standards E u r o p e a n nations applied to each o t h e r . T h e s e c o m m o n c r i t e r i a of n a t i o n h o o d h a v e p e r s i s t e d in t h e g r e a t s t r u g g l e s for n a t i o n a l l i b e r a t i o n in t h e n i n e t e e n t h a n d t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r i e s , a g a i n s t t h e a t t e m p t s of e x i s t i n g n a t i o n s to a p p l y t h e r e s t r i c t i v e c r i t e r i a of m o d e r n c o n s t i ­ t u t i o n a l i s m , a n d t h e y h a v e r e g a i n e d c u r r e n c y in r e c e n t i n t e r n a t i o n a l law a n d t h e p r o p o s e d law of I n d i g e n o u s p e o p l e s . T h e negotiators were quite aware that the Aboriginal p e o p l e s did not h a v e E u r o p e a n - s t y l e s t a t e s , r e p r e s e n t a t i v e i n s t i t u t i o n s , f o r m a l i s e d legal s y s t e m s , p r i s o n s a n d i n d e p e n ­ d e n t e x e c u t i v e s . T h e y o b s e r v e d t h e conciliar a n d c o n f e d e r a l f o r m s of g o v e r n m e n t , c o n s e n s u s decision m a k i n g , r u l e b y a u t h o r i t y r a t h e r t h a n c o e r c i o n , a n d c u s t o m a r y law. Y e t this did n o t c a u s e t h e m t o s i t u a t e t h e A b o r i g i n a l p e o p l e s in a lower s t a g e of d e v e l o p m e n t . Q u i t e t h e c o n t r a r y . T h e y w e r e c o n s t a n t l y i n s t r u c t e d by t h e Privy C o u n c i l t o s t u d y a n d r e s p e c t t h e i r c o n s t i t u t i o n s a n d f o r m s of g o v e r n m e n t , e n s u r e t h a t t h e y ' n o t b e m o l e s t e d or d i s t u r b e d ' a n d p u n i s h t h e ' g r e a t f r a u d s a n d a b u s e s ' c o m m i t t e d a g a i n s t t h e m by t h e s e t t l e r s . O b s e r v e r s s u c h as C a d w a l l a d e r C o l d e n , B e n j a m i n F r a n k l i n , Baron de Lahontan and Joseph-Francois Lafitau repudiated t h e j u d g e m e n t of t h e m o d e r n t h e o r i s t s a n d s i d e d w i t h J o s e p h B r a n t . T h e y s u g g e s t e d t h a t E u r o p e a n s w e r e a t a lower a n d m o r e c o r r u p t s t a g e of d e v e l o p m e n t a n d t h a t A b o r i g i n a l n a t i o n s , w i t h t h e i r p a r t i c i p a t o r y g o v e r n m e n t s , service t o t h e p u b l i c good a n d g r e a t d i p l o m a c y , w e r e s i m i l a r in s t a t u r e t o t h e classical r e p u b l i c s . T h e r e a s o n s w h y t h e A b o r i g i n a l n a t i o n s r e c i p r o c a l l y recog­ n i s e d t h e E u r o p e a n s as n a t i o n s a r e s i m i l a r . T h e A b o r i g i n a l p e o p l e s w h o e n c o u n t e r e d E u r o p e a n s in t h e first t w o c e n t u r i e s h a d l o n g t r a d i t i o n s of r e c o g n i s i n g e a c h o t h e r a s n a t i o n s a n d e n t e r i n g i n t o v a r i o u s f o r m s of t r e a t y a l l i a n c e s a n d c o n f e d e r a t i o n s . T h i s is e s p e c i a l l y t r u e of t h e Haudenosaunee c o n f e d e r a c y , w h o s e c o n s t i t u t i o n , t h e G r e a t L a w of P e a c e (Gayaneshakgowa), d a t e s from t h e 1450s. It is n o n e t h e less t r u e

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of t h e C h e r o k e e , S h a w n e e , D e l a w a r e , M o h e g a n , P e q u o t , Ottawa, Huron, Mi'kmaq and many others. When Europeans d e m a n d e d r e c o g n i t i o n as n a t i o n s a n d s o u g h t a c c o m m o d a t i o n , A b o r i g i n a l p e o p l e s took u p t h e d e m a n d in t h e i r c u s t o m a r y f o r m s of n a t i o n to n a t i o n r e c o g n i t i o n a n d a d a p t e d t h e m , in t h e c o u r s e of t h e n e g o t i a t i o n s , to t h e p e c u l i a r i t i e s of t h e c a s e . F r a n c i s J e n n i n g s a n d his f o r m e r s t u d e n t s h a v e s h o w n in The history and culture of Iroquois diplomacy t h a t t h e E u r o p e a n s in t u r n a c c o m m o d a t e d t h e i r ways to t h e e l a b o r a t e d i p l o m a t i c p r a c t i c e s of n e g o t i a t i o n t h e A b o r i g i n a l l e a d e r s i n s i s t e d o n following. L i k e t h e E u r o p e a n n e g o t i a t o r s , A b o r i g i n a l p e o p l e s did n o t view t h i s as a g r e a t f o u n d i n g m o m e n t , m a r k i n g a t r a n s i t i o n from t h e s t a t e of n a t u r e t o c o n s t i t u t i o n a l society, b u t as o n e link in a c h a i n of m u l t i n a t i o n a l c o n s t i t u t i o n a l a g r e e m e n t s t h a t s t r e t c h e d back l o n g b e f o r e t h e n e w c o m e r s arrived on G r e a t T u r t l e Island and would long outlast their t r a n s g r e s s i o n s a n d d i s r u p t i o n s of it. A b o r i g i n a l s c h o l a r s G e r a l d Alfred a n d M a r k D o c k s t a t o r h a v e s h o w n t h a t t h i s c o n t i n u e s to b e t h e a t t i t u d e of m a n y A b o r i g i n a l p e o p l e t o d a y . A l t h o u g h b o t h p a r t i e s a r e r e c o g n i s e d as n a t i o n s , t h e A b o r i g i n a l n a t i o n s a r e p r i o r or 'First N a t i o n s ' , as t h e y a r e called in C a n a d a , since t h e y w e r e in N o r t h A m e r i c a w h e n t h e E u r o p e a n s a r r i v e d . O n c e this f o r m of m u t u a l r e c o g n i t i o n w a s w o r k e d o u t , t h e only j u s t w a y t h a t t h e C r o w n could a c q u i r e l a n d a n d e s t a b l i s h its s o v e r e i g n t y in N o r t h A m e r i c a w a s to g a i n t h e c o n s e n t of t h e A b o r i g i n a l n a t i o n s . T h e c o n v e n t i o n of c o n s e n t is t h e very o n e we h a v e s e e n Locke a n d his followers finesse: quod omnes tangit ab omnibus comprobetur, ' w h a t t o u c h e s all s h o u l d be a g r e e d t o by all'. E n s h r i n e d in t h e c o d e x of R o m a n law, q.o.t. is t h e m o s t f u n d a m e n t a l c o n s t i t u t i o n a l c o n v e n t i o n . It a p p l i e s to a n y f o r m of c o n s t i t u t i o n a l associ­ a t i o n , e n s u r i n g t h a t a c o n s t i t u t i o n or a n a m e n d m e n t t o it r e s t s o n t h e c o n s e n t of t h e p e o p l e , or t h e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s of t h e p e o p l e w h o a r e t o u c h e d by it. T h e way it s h o u l d be a p p l i e d d e p e n d s on h o w t h e ' p e o p l e ' a r e r e c o g n i s e d . M a r s h a l l r e j e c t s t h e a n t i - c o n s t i t u t i o n a l a r g u m e n t s of L o c k e a n d K a n t t h a t c o n s e n t is u n n e c e s s a r y , as well as t h e q u e s t i o n b e g g i n g view of o t h e r m o d e r n t h e o r i s t s t h a t t h e A b o r i g i n a l

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p e o p l e could b e t r e a t e d as i n d i v i d u a l s or c u l t u r a l m i n o r i t i e s w i t h i n s o v e r e i g n E u r o p e a n i n s t i t u t i o n s a n d t r a d i t i o n s of i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . T h e r i g h t of 'discovery' of a p a r t of A m e r i c a by a n E u r o p e a n g o v e r n m e n t did n o t give t h a t E u r o p e a n n a t i o n a n y r i g h t s over t h e I n d i g e n o u s p e o p l e , b u t only a n exclusive r i g h t a g a i n s t o t h e r E u r o p e a n n a t i o n s to s e t t l e a n d a c q u i r e l a n d from t h e A b o r i g i n a l o c c u p a n t s . It w a s s i m p l y a r i g h t t h a t t h e E u r o p e a n p o w e r s h a d a g r e e d to a m o n g t h e m s e l v e s . A p p l y i n g q.o.t., M a r s h a l l infers t h a t it 'could not affect t h e r i g h t s of t h o s e w h o h a d not a g r e e d to it'; t h a t is, ' t h o s e a l r e a d y in p o s s e s s i o n , e i t h e r as a b o r i g i n a l o c c u p a n t s , or as o c c u p a n t s by v i r t u e of a discovery before t h e m e m o r y of m a n ' . R e p u d i ­ a t i n g his e a r l i e r j u d g e m e n t in Johnson and Graham's Lessee v. M'Intosh ( 1 8 2 3 ) t h a t t h e C r o w n g a i n e d t i t l e by c o n q u e s t , h e s t a t e s t h a t t h e w a r s a g a i n s t t h e I n d i a n s w e r e defensive a n d did not convey t i t l e . M o r e o v e r , h e m o c k i n g l y asks, did 'sailing a l o n g t h e c o a s t ' , or 'occasionally l a n d i n g on it' give ' p r o p e r t y in t h e soil, from t h e A t l a n t i c t o t h e Pacific; or rightful d o m i n i o n over t h e n u m e r o u s p e o p l e w h o o c c u p i e d it?' O r , r i d i c u l i n g L o c k e a n d V a t t e l , ' h a s n a t u r e ' , or ' t h e G r e a t C r e a t o r of all t h i n g s , c o n f e r r e d t h e s e r i g h t s over h u n t e r s a n d fisherman, o n a g r i ­ culturalists and manufacturers?' T h e f o r m of c o n s e n t s h o u l d always b e t a i l o r e d t o t h e f o r m of m u t u a l r e c o g n i t i o n of t h e p e o p l e involved. In t h i s c a s e , M a r s h a l l c o n c l u d e s , this is t h e form of ' m u t u a l c o n s e n t ' t h e C r o w n e s t a b l i s h e d in t h e t r e a t y s y s t e m a n d t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s i n h e r i t e d a f t e r t h e w a r of i n d e p e n d e n c e . I n t h i s s y s t e m , t h e C r o w n n e g o t i a t e d , a n d c o n t i n u e s to n e g o t i a t e , w i t h t h e F i r s t N a t i o n s t o p u r c h a s e t e r r i t o r y from t h e m , to g a i n t h e i r r e c o g ­ n i t i o n of C r o w n g o v e r n m e n t in A m e r i c a , a n d t o w o r k o u t v a r i o u s r e l a t i o n s of p r o t e c t i o n a n d c o - o p e r a t i o n over t i m e . In o n e of t h e m o s t g e n e r o u s a c t s of r e c o g n i t i o n a n d a c c o m m o ­ d a t i o n in h i s t o r y , t h e A b o r i g i n a l n a t i o n s in t u r n n e g o t i a t e d , a n d c o n t i n u e to n e g o t i a t e , to c e d e l a n d a n d s e t t l e b o u n d a r i e s , r e c o g n i s e t h e l e g i t i m a c y of C r o w n g o v e r n m e n t s a n d w o r k o u t r e l a t i o n s of p r o t e c t i o n a n d c o - o p e r a t i o n . H o w e v e r , t h e y c o n s e n t t o t h i s on t h e c o n d i t i o n t h a t t h e C r o w n g o v e r n m e n t s 2 5

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a n d t h e i r s u c c e s s o r s always r e s p e c t t h e e q u a l a n d p r i o r s o v e r e i g n t y of t h e A b o r i g i n a l n a t i o n s o n t h e t e r r i t o r i e s t h e y reserve to themselves. I n t r e a t y n e g o t i a t i o n s , M a r s h a l l n o t e s , a ' b o u n d a r y is d e s c r i b e d , b e t w e e n n a t i o n a n d n a t i o n by m u t u a l c o n s e n t . T h e n a t i o n a l c h a r a c t e r of e a c h , t h e ability of e a c h to e s t a b l i s h t h i s b o u n d a r y , is a c k n o w l e d g e d by t h e o t h e r . ' T h e t r e a t i e s ' m a n i f e s t l y c o n s i d e r t h e s e v e r a l I n d i a n n a t i o n s as d i s t i n c t political c o m m u n i t i e s , having territorial boundaries, within w h i c h t h e i r a u t h o r i t y is e x c l u s i v e ' . H e n c e , t h e t r e a t y s y s t e m is e x p r e s s l y d e s i g n e d n o t only t o r e c o g n i s e a n d t r e a t t h e A b o r i g i n a l p e o p l e as e q u a l , s e l f - g o v e r n i n g n a t i o n s , b u t also t o c o n t i n u e , r a t h e r t h a n e x t i n g u i s h , this f o r m of r e c o g n i t i o n t h r o u g h all t r e a t y a r r a n g e m e n t s over t i m e . I n d e e d , t h e l e g i t i m a c y of non-Aboriginal g o v e r n m e n t s in A m e r i c a d e p e n d s o n t h i s c o n t i n u i t y , for it is t h e c o n d i t i o n of A b o r i g i n a l c o n s e n t t o r e c o g n i s e t h e m . T h e p r o o f of t h e C r o w n ' s c o m m i t m e n t t o c o n t i n u i t y , M a r s h a l l c l a i m s ( p r e s u m a b l y in o n e of his m o r e i d e a l i s t i c m o o d s ) , is in t h e e x a m p l e s of its p r a c t i c e . F o l l o w i n g closely t h e a u t h o r i t a t i v e e x p o s i t i o n of t h e Royal P r o c l a m a t i o n by S u p e r i n t e n d e n t S t u a r t of I n d i a n Affairs for t h e s o u t h e r n division of B r i t i s h N o r t h A m e r i c a in M o b i l e in 1 7 6 3 , h e writes: 2 6

C e r t a i n it is that our history furnishes n o e x a m p l e , from the first s e t t l e m e n t of our country, of any a t t e m p t o n the part of t h e crown to i n t e r f e r e w i t h the internal affairs o f the I n d i a n s , farther t h a n to k e e p out the a g e n t s o f foreign p o w e r s , w h o , as traders or o t h e r w i s e , m i g h t s e d u c e t h e m i n t o foreign a l l i a n c e s . T h e k i n g p u r c h a s e d their l a n d s , w h e n t h e y w e r e willing to sell, at a price t h e y w e r e willing to t a k e ; but n e v e r c o e r c e d a surrender of t h e m . H e also p u r c h a s e d t h e i r a l l i a n c e and d e p e n d e n c y by subsidies; but n e v e r i n t r u d e d into t h e interior of their affairs, or i n t e r f e r e d w i t h their s e l f - g o v e r n m e n t , so far as r e s p e c t e d t h e m s e l v e s only.

The Aboriginal and common-law system and the convention of continuity T h e c o n t i n u i t y of b o t h p a r t i e s ' i n d e p e n d e n t n a t i o n h o o d i l l u s t r a t e s t h e t h i r d a n d final c o n s t i t u t i o n a l c o n v e n t i o n . T h e

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m u t u a l l y r e c o g n i s e d c u l t u r a l i d e n t i t i e s of t h e p a r t i e s c o n t i n u e through the constitutional negotiations and associations a g r e e d t o u n l e s s t h e y explicitly c o n s e n t t o a m e n d t h e m . T h e c o n v e n t i o n of t h e c o n t i n u i t y of a p e o p l e ' s c u s t o m a r y w a y s a n d f o r m s of g o v e r n m e n t i n t o n e w f o r m s of c o n s t i t u t i o n a l a s s o c i a t i o n s w i t h o t h e r s is t h e oldest in W e s t e r n j u r i s ­ p r u d e n c e . As w e d i s c u s s e d in c h a p t e r 3 , it is t h e spirit of a n c i e n t c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m , e x p r e s s i n g t h e view t h a t c u s t o m s a n d ways of p e o p l e s a r e t h e m a n i f e s t a t i o n of t h e i r free a g r e e ­ m e n t . T o d i s c o n t i n u e t h e m w i t h o u t t h e i r explicit c o n s e n t w o u l d t h u s b r e a c h t h e c o n v e n t i o n of c o n s e n t . I n t h e e a r l y m o d e r n law of n a t i o n s , t h e c o n v e n t i o n h o l d s even in t h e case of c o n q u e s t . T h e c u s t o m s a n d ways of a conquered people continue until the conqueror expressly d i s c o n t i n u e s t h e m . If t h e c o n q u e r o r r e c o g n i s e s t h e m , e i t h e r e x p r e s s l y or by l o n g a c c e p t a n c e , t h e n his i m p e r i a l r i g h t to d i s c o n t i n u e t h e m m u s t yield to c o n t i n u i t y . A s M a r s h a l l k n e w a n d we shall see in c h a p t e r 5 , t h e c o n v e n t i o n w a s a p p l i e d in m a n y of t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t c o n s t i t u t i o n a l a g r e e m e n t s of t h e e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y . T h e p r o t e c t i o n of A b o r i g i n a l g o v e r n ­ m e n t s in Royal I n s t r u c t i o n s a n d t h e Royal P r o c l a m a t i o n is a n e x a m p l e of t h e c o n v e n t i o n in p r a c t i c e . T h e c o n v e n t i o n of c o n t i n u i t y s t a n d s in o p p o s i t i o n t o t h e d o c t r i n e of d i s c o n t i n u i t y in, for e x a m p l e , N o r m a n law. O n t h i s view, a n e w c o n s t i t u t i o n a l a s s o c i a t i o n , w h e t h e r it is b a s e d o n c o n q u e s t or c o n s e n t , d i s c o n t i n u e s or ' e x t i n g u i s h e s ' t h e p r e ­ e x i s t i n g c u s t o m s a n d ways of t h e p e o p l e , a n d t h e y a r e , as M a r s h a l l e x p l a i n s in Johnson v. MTntosh, n o t ' g o v e r n e d a s a distinct people', but 'incorporated with the victorious n a t i o n ' a n d ' b l e n d e d w i t h t h e c o n q u e r o r s ' , so ' t h e y m a k e o n e people'. H o b b e s p r e s e n t e d t h e classic t h e o r y of c o n s t i ­ t u t i o n a l d i s c o n t i n u i t y in Leviathan a n d m a n y m o d e r n t h e o r i s t s followed suit in o r d e r to t r u m p t h e r e s u l t i n g i r r e g u l a r i t y a n d a s s e m b l a g e of p e o p l e s a n d t h e i r ways t h e c o n v e n t i o n protects. T h e r e f o r e , n o m a t t e r h o w m a n y r e l a t i o n s of p r o t e c t i o n a n d interdependency the Crown (and later, the US and C a n a d i a n governments) and Aboriginal governments enter into as a 27

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r e s u l t of t r e a t y m a k i n g over t h e c e n t u r i e s , t h e i d e n t i t y of b o t h p a r t i e s as e q u a l a n d s o v e r e i g n n a t i o n s c o n t i n u e s , j u s t as it d o e s in o t h e r c a s e s of i n t e r n a t i o n a l t r e a t i e s . ' T h e v e r y fact of r e p e a t e d t r e a t i e s w i t h t h e m ' , M a r s h a l l w r i t e s , ' r e c o g n i s e s it.' F o r e x a m p l e , t h e A b o r i g i n a l g o v e r n m e n t s c o n s e n t from t i m e t o t i m e to d e l e g a t e c o n d i t i o n a l l y c e r t a i n p o w e r s of self g o v e r n m e n t a n d to s h a r e p o w e r s of r e s o u r c e d e v e l o p m e n t . N e i t h e r of t h e s e c o m p l e x c o n s t i t u t i o n a l a r r a n g e m e n t s , w h i c h n o w s p a n over o n e t h o u s a n d a g r e e m e n t s a c r o s s G r e a t T u r t l e I s l a n d , affects t h e i r s t a t u s as e q u a l s e l f - g o v e r n i n g n a t i o n s . M a r s h a l l e x p l a i n s h o w t h e c o n v e n t i o n of c o n t i n u i t y a p p l i e s to Aboriginal sovereignty throughout the treaties with the U n i t e d S t a t e s in t h e following w a y : 28

[ T ] h e s e t t l e d doctrine of the law o f n a t i o n s is, that a w e a k e r power d o e s not s u r r e n d e r its i n d e p e n d e n c e , its right of s e l f - g o v e r n m e n t , by a s s o c i a t i n g w i t h a stronger, and t a k i n g its p r o t e c t i o n . A w e a k s t a t e , in order to provide for its safety, m a y place itself u n d e r the p r o t e c t i o n of o n e m o r e powerful, w i t h o u t stripping itself o f the right o f s e l f - g o v e r n m e n t , and c e a s i n g to be a s t a t e . E x a m p l e s o f this kind are not w a n t i n g in Europe. 'Tributary and feudatory s t a t e s ' , says V a t t e l , 'do not t h e r e b y c e a s e to be s o v e r e i g n and i n d e p e n d e n t s t a t e s , s o l o n g as s o v e r e i g n and i n d e p e n d e n t authority are left in the a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f the state'.

I n t h i s r e m a r k a b l e p a s s a g e , t h e m o d e r n view t h a t a c o n s t i t u t i o n a l a s s o c i a t i o n m u s t give rise t o o n e u n i f o r m s o v e r e i g n s t a t e t h a t is u n l i m i t e d by e x t e r n a l a n d i n t e r n a l i n t e r d e p e n d e n c y is u n c e r e m o n i o u s l y s h o w n t o b e i n a d e q u a t e t o t h e c o n c r e t e c a s e s of c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m . T h e t r e a t i e s give rise t o a c o n s t i t u t i o n a l a s s o c i a t i o n of i n t e r d e p e n d e n c e a n d p r o t e c t i o n , b u t not to d i s c o n t i n u i t y or s u b o r d i n a t i o n to a single s o v e r e i g n . M a r s h a l l m a k e s his p o i n t first by c i t i n g t h e c o n v e n t i o n of c o n t i n u i t y t h e n , s u r e l y w i t h i n t e n d e d irony, by c i t i n g e x a m p l e s d r a w n from E m e r i c d e V a t t e l , o n e of t h e a d v o c a t e s of t h e d i s c o n t i n u i t y of A b o r i g i n a l g o v e r n m e n t s w h o m M a r s h a l l r e p u d i a t e d e a r l i e r . It d o e s not b o t h e r h i m t h a t t h e e x a m p l e s h e cites a r e selected from ' a n c i e n t ' c o n s t i t u t i o n a l ­ i s m . I n d e e d , his p o i n t s e e m s to b e t h a t feudal c o n s t i t u t i o n s , in r e c o g n i s i n g f o r m s of c o n s t i t u t i o n a l a s s o c i a t i o n t h a t

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a c c o m m o d a t e t y p e s of self r u l e , a r e m o r e l i b e r a l t h a n t h e m o d e r n t h e o r i e s of l i b e r a l h e r o e s like V a t t e l . S e e n in t h i s u n f a m i l i a r light, t h e d e c i s i o n by t h e C r o w n a n d its r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s t o r e c o g n i s e a n d c o n t i n u e t h e c u l t u r e s of t h e A b o r i g i n a l n a t i o n s a p p e a r s as o n e of t h e m o s t e n l i g h t e n e d a c t s of t h e e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y . T h e c o n t r a r y t e n d e n c y t o d i s c o n t i n u e a n d e x t i n g u i s h t h e i r c u l t u r a l ways, j u s t i f i e d in t h e i m p e r i a l l a n g u a g e of m o d e r n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m , a p p e a r s r e g r e s s i v e — t h e a p p l i c a t i o n of t h e d o c t r i n e of t h e N o r m a n c o n q u e s t . Y e t t h e axis of this r e v e r s a l of vision is n o t t h e p o s t ­ m o d e r n d e c o n s t r u c t i o n of c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m , b u t t h e a n c i e n t c o n v e n t i o n of c o n t i n u i t y . T h e c o n v e n t i o n c o n t i n u e s t h e socalled a n c i e n t c o n s t i t u t i o n s i n t o t h e m o d e r n world, t h e r e b y r e n d e r i n g t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n s of c o n t e m p o r a r y societies different from m o d e r n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s of t h e m . L e t us n o w t r y t o a p p r o a c h t h e t r e a t y s y s t e m from a n A b o r i g i n a l p o i n t of view. O f c o u r s e , t h e d e s c r i p t i o n s of t h e c o n v e n t i o n s will differ from M a r s h a l l ' s a n d m i n e , for t h e r e is n o u n i v e r s a l l a n g u a g e of d e s c r i p t i o n , b u t if we c a n see family r e s e m b l a n c e s a m o n g t h e m , t h e n we a r e on t h e c o m m o n ground. T h e T w o R o w W a m p u m T r e a t y of t h e Haudenosaunee c o n f e d e r a c y is o n e of t h e m o s t f a m o u s e x e m p l a r s of t r e a t y con­ stitutionalism between Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal peoples in America. The constitutional negotiations and r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n t h e m a r e s y m b o l i s e d by b e l t s of w a m p u m b e a d s e x c h a n g e d a t t r e a t y d i s c u s s i o n s from 1664 to t h e n e g o t i a t i o n s b e t w e e n t h e Haudenosaunee c o n f e d e r a c y a n d t h e C a n a d i a n a n d Q u e b e c g o v e r n m e n t s at K a n e h s a t a k e , Q u e b e c , in 1990. T h e two row w a m p u m belt is t h e d i p l o m a t i c lingua franca of A b o r i g i n a l a n d n o n - A b o r i g i n a l c o n s t i t u t i o n a l ­ i s m , r e c o r d i n g t h e form of a g r e e m e n t r e a c h e d a n d e x p r e s s i n g t h e good will t h e a g r e e m e n t e m b o d i e s . A b a c k g r o u n d of w h i t e w a m p u m b e a d s symbolises t h e p u r i t y of t h e a g r e e m e n t ; t h a t is, t h e c o n v e n t i o n of c o n s e n t . T w o rows of p u r p l e b e a d s r e p r e s e n t t h e n a t i o n s involved in t h e d i a l o g u e . T h r e e b e a d s s e p a r a t i n g t h e two rows s t a n d for

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peace, friendship and respect; the values necessary to an u n c o e r c e d a n d l a s t i n g a g r e e m e n t . T h e two p a r a l l e l rows of purple beads, Chief Michael Mitchell explicates, 29

symbolize two paths or two vessels, travelling down the same river together. O n e , a birch bark canoe, will be for the Indian people, their laws, their customs and their ways. The other, a ship, will be for the white people and their laws, their customs and their ways. We shall each travel the same river together, side by side, but in our own boats. Neither of us will try to steer the other's vessel. Aboriginal peoples and E u r o p e a n Americans are recognised as e q u a l a n d c o - e x i s t i n g n a t i o n s , e a c h w i t h t h e i r own f o r m s of g o v e r n m e n t , t r a d i t i o n s of i n t e r p r e t a t i o n a n d ways. T h i s is t h e c o n v e n t i o n of kahswentha, t h e m u t u a l r e c o g n i t i o n of e q u a l i t y . W h i l e not in t h e s a m e c a n o e , as in t h e H a i d a s y m b o l , t h e p e o p l e a r e in t h e s a m e river. T h e y a g r e e t o c o - o p e r a t e in v a r i o u s ways — t r a v e l l i n g ' t o g e t h e r ' , p r e s u m a b l y m e n t i o n e d twice for e m p h a s i s . B u t , n o t w i t h s t a n d i n g t h e a g r e e m e n t s t h e y r e a c h , t h e i r s t a t u s as e q u a l a n d c o - e x i s t i n g n a t i o n s c o n t i n u e s . It is n e v e r p a r t of t h e a g r e e m e n t t o t r y 'to s t e e r t h e o t h e r ' s vessel', or, in M a r s h a l l ' s d e s c r i p t i o n , ' t o i n t e r f e r e w i t h t h e i n t e r n a l affairs' of t h e o t h e r . F o r e x a m p l e , t h e t r e a t y s i g n e d a t C a n a n d a i g u a , N e w Y o r k , in 1 7 9 4 b e t w e e n P r e s i d e n t G e o r g e W a s h i n g t o n ' s official a g e n t , C o l o n e l T i m o t h y P i c k e r i n g , a n d t h e six chiefs of t h e Haudenosaunee r e c o g n i s e s t h e c o n f e d e r a c y as a s o v e r e i g n n a t i o n a n d g u a r a n t e e s t h a t t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s will n e v e r e n c r o a c h o n t h e i r r e m a i n i n g l a n d s in w e s t e r n a n d central New York. T h e c a p a c i t y to d e l e g a t e to, or s h a r e v a r i o u s p o w e r s of self government with the protecting government (either the U n i t e d S t a t e s or C a n a d a ) w h i l e r e t a i n i n g t h e i r s o v e r e i g n t y is e x t r e m e l y i m p o r t a n t t o t h e A b o r i g i n a l p e o p l e s . It e n a b l e s e a c h A b o r i g i n a l n a t i o n t o w o r k o u t by m u t u a l c o n s e n t t h e d e g r e e of self g o v e r n m e n t a p p r o p r i a t e t o t h e i r p o p u l a t i o n , l a n d b a s e a n d p a r t i c u l a r c i r c u m s t a n c e s , w i t h o u t fear of s u b o r d i n a t i o n or d i s c o n t i n u i t y . T h e c o n v e n t i o n of c o n t i n u i t y t h r o u g h r e l a t i o n s of p r o ­ t e c t i o n a n d i n t e r d e p e n d e n c y is also a c o m m o n f e a t u r e 30

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of A b o r i g i n a l c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m . A r t i c l e 84 of t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n of t h e Haudenosaunee c o n f e d e r a c y of six n a t i o n s , for e x a m p l e , s t a t e s t h a t , ' w h e n e v e r a foreign n a t i o n h a s b e e n c o n q u e r e d or h a s by t h e i r own will a c c e p t e d t h e G r e a t P e a c e [ c o n f e d e r a t e d w i t h t h e o t h e r n a t i o n s ] , t h e i r own s y s t e m of i n t e r n a l g o v e r n ­ m e n t m a y c o n t i n u e , b u t t h e y m u s t c e a s e all w a r f a r e a g a i n s t o t h e r n a t i o n s ' . T r u e t o f o r m , e a c h of t h e six n a t i o n s of t h e c o n f e d e r a c y h a s its own l a n g u a g e , c u s t o m s a n d g o v e r n m e n t . T h e c o n f e d e r a t i o n itself w a s f o u n d e d by t h e m e d i a t i o n of D e g a n a w i d a h , w h o b r o u g h t t h e o r i g i n a l five w a r r i n g n a t i o n s together and guided t h e m to reach a g r e e m e n t through d i a l o g u e o n a f o r m of a s s o c i a t i o n t o p r o t e c t t h e i r d i f f e r e n c e s and similarities. 3 1

The Aboriginal and common-law system of constitutional dialogue T h e c o n c l u d i n g a s p e c t of t h i s e x a m p l e is t h e way in w h i c h t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n a l d i a l o g u e itself is g u i d e d by t h e t h r e e con­ v e n t i o n s . A s t h e Royal P r o c l a m a t i o n s t a t e s , t h e n e g o t i a t i o n s t a k e p l a c e in p u b l i c , t o m i n i m i s e force a n d fraud, b e t w e e n r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s of t h e C r o w n a n d A b o r i g i n a l n a t i o n s , t h e r e b y i n s t a n t i a t i n g t h e i r m u t u a l r e c o g n i t i o n as n a t i o n s , a n d w i t h o u t p r e s s u r e , so t h a t t h e a g r e e m e n t will b e u n c o e r c e d . T h e n e g o t i a t i o n s a r e i n t e r c u l t u r a l . E a c h n e g o t i a t o r p a r t i c i p a t e s in his or h e r l a n g u a g e , m o d e of s p e a k i n g a n d l i s t e n i n g , f o r m of r e a c h i n g a g r e e m e n t , a n d way of r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e p e o p l e , or p e o p l e s , for w h o m t h e y s p e a k . T h e s e f e a t u r e s a r e s i m p l y t h e a p p l i c a t i o n of t h e c o n v e n t i o n of c o n t i n u i t y a n d t h e d u t y of audi alteram partem to t h e d i a l o g u e itself. O v e r t h e last t h r e e h u n d r e d y e a r s , e l a b o r a t e g e n r e s of p r e s e n t a t i o n , s p e a k i n g in F r e n c h , E n g l i s h a n d A b o r i g i n a l languages, exchanging narratives, stories and a r g u m e n t s , t r a n s l a t i n g b a c k a n d f o r t h , b r e a k i n g off a n d s t a r t i n g a g a i n , s t r i k i n g n e w t r e a t i e s a n d r e d r e s s i n g v i o l a t i o n s of old o n e s h a v e b e e n d e v e l o p e d t o e n s u r e t h a t e a c h s p e a k e r s p e a k s in h e r or his c u l t u r a l voice a n d l i s t e n s to t h e o t h e r s in t h e i r s . T h e n e g o t i a t i o n s c a n b e very d i v e r s e , s u c h as t h e m u l t i n a t i o n a l a n d m u l t i l i n g u a l G r e a t P e a c e of 1701, w h i c h b r o u g h t over twenty nations together. In the C h a r l o t t e t o w n constitutional

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n e g o t i a t i o n s of 1992, four A b o r i g i n a l n e g o t i a t o r s (two w o m e n a n d two m e n ) , r e p r e s e n t i n g six h u n d r e d F i r s t N a t i o n s , t h e M e t i s , I n u i t a n d A b o r i g i n a l p e o p l e living off r e s e r v e s , a l o n g w i t h a n a t i o n a l a s s o c i a t i o n of n a t i v e w o m e n o n t h e s i d e l i n e s , m e t t e n provincial p r e m i e r s , two t e r r i t o r i a l l e a d e r s a n d a p r i m e m i n i s t e r , all o n e q u a l footing. W h e n t h e m u l t i c u l t u r a l n e g o t i a t i o n s e n d for t h e d a y a n d t r a n s c r i p t s a n d t r a n s l a t i o n s a r e c h e c k e d , this is only t h e b e g i n n i n g of t h e d i a l o g u e . T h e n e g o t i a t o r s m u s t t u r n to t h e i r d i v e r s e c o n s t i t u e n t s , e x p l a i n w h a t h a s t r a n s p i r e d , l i s t e n to t h e i r objections in t h e i r t e r m s , r e a c h a g r e e m e n t in t h e a p p r o ­ p r i a t e w a y on a n a c c e p t a b l e r e s p o n s e , a n d t h e n r e t u r n t o t h e n e g o t i a t i o n s . T h i s c a n t a k e m a n y f o r m s , as t h e c o n s u l t a t i o n s s u r r o u n d i n g t h e m u l t i l a t e r a l c o n s t i t u t i o n a l n e g o t i a t i o n s in C a n a d a in 1 9 9 2 i l l u s t r a t e d . I n t h e e a r l y y e a r s of t h e t r e a t y s y s t e m , W i l l i a m J o h n s o n , for e x a m p l e , w o u l d h a v e t o e x p l a i n his provisional a g r e e m e n t w i t h t h e A b o r i g i n a l n a t i o n s t o W h i t e h a l l a n d f o u r t e e n v e r y different colonial g o v e r n m e n t s . T h e g r e a t A b o r i g i n a l n e g o t i a t o r s , s u c h as C a n a s a t e g o , S h a m o k i n , T e c u m e s h or P o n t i a c , w o u l d in t u r n h a v e t o r e a c h a g r e e m e n t in t h e a p p r o p r i a t e ways w i t h six Haudenosaunee nations, the Shawnee, Delaware, Miami and Ottawa, each w i t h t h e i r own i n t e r n a l diversity. I n 1992 O v i d e M e r c r e d i , t h e C h i e f of t h e F i r s t N a t i o n s , h a d to leave t h e t a l k s a n d t r y to r e a c h c o n s e n s u s w i t h t h e six h u n d r e d chiefs for w h o m h e s p o k e , w h o , in t u r n , h a d t o r e a c h a g r e e m e n t w i t h t h e i r constituents. Ellen Gabriel, the brave Mohawk negotiator a t K a h n e s a t a k e , Q u e b e c in 1 9 9 0 , k e p t a c o n s e n s u s a m o n g M o h a w k c i t i z e n s as she n e g o t i a t e d in t h e face of t h e force of the Canadian army ranged against her. As R i c h a r d W h i t e e x p l a i n s in his f a s c i n a t i n g study, The middle ground: Indians, empires, and republics in the Great Lakes region 1650-1815, t h e s y s t e m c a n d e a l w i t h issues o t h e r t h a n b o u n d ­ aries, military alliances and commerce. Marriages between c a t h o l i c canadiennes, or canadiens, a n d C r e e (which gave rise t o t h e M e t i s n a t i o n ) , E u r o p e a n A m e r i c a n s in A b o r i g i n a l n a t i o n s a n d vice v e r s a , a n d a h o s t of o t h e r i n t e r c u l t u r a l issues w e r e r e c o g n i s e d a n d c o n c i l i a t e d in t h e c o m m o n s y s t e m . H e h a s

The rediscovery of cultural diversity I b e e n u n a b l e to find o n e case w h e r e t h e n e g o t i a t i o n s w e r e b e t w e e n two i n t e r n a l l y h o m o g e n e o u s c u l t u r e s . T h e t h r e e schools of m o d e r n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m d i s r e g a r d t h e h i d d e n diversity of a c t u a l c o n s t i t u t i o n a l d i a l o g u e n o t only by laying d o w n s i m p l i s t i c c o n c e p t s of p o p u l a r s o v e r e i g n t y a n d c o n s t i t u t i o n a l a s s o c i a t i o n as p r e m i s e s , b u t also by t h e i r c o r r e s p o n d i n g c o n c e p t s of c o n s t i t u t i o n a l d i a l o g u e . I n r e c e n t w o r k (still w r i t t e n in m o n o l o g i c a l f o r m ) , two c o n c e p t s of d i a l o g u e p r e d o m i n a t e : t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s a i m to r e a c h a g r e e ­ m e n t e i t h e r o n u n i v e r s a l p r i n c i p l e s or o n n o r m s implicit in p r a c t i c e a n d , in b o t h c a s e s , to fashion a c o n s t i t u t i o n a l associ­ a t i o n accordingly. B o t h c o n c e p t s a r e , for e x a m p l e , p r e s e n t in t h e w o r k of J i i r g e n H a b e r m a s . T h e p r e s u p p o s i t i o n of s h a r e d , i m p l i c i t n o r m s is m a n i f e s t l y false in this c a s e , as well as in a n y c a s e of a c u l t u r a l l y d i v e r s e society. Also, t h e a i m of n e g o t i a t i o n s over c u l t u r a l r e c o g n i t i o n is n o t t o r e a c h a g r e e m e n t on u n i v e r s a l p r i n c i p l e s a n d i n s t i ­ t u t i o n s , b u t to b r i n g n e g o t i a t o r s to r e c o g n i s e t h e i r d i f f e r e n c e s a n d s i m i l a r i t i e s , so t h a t t h e y c a n r e a c h a g r e e m e n t o n a f o r m of a s s o c i a t i o n t h a t a c c o m m o d a t e s t h e i r d i f f e r e n c e s in a p p r o p r i a t e i n s t i t u t i o n s a n d t h e i r s i m i l a r i t i e s in s h a r e d i n s t i t u t i o n s . (In t h e c a s e a t h a n d , t h e a p p r o p r i a t e i n s t i t u t i o n s a r e , r e s p e c t i v e l y , self g o v e r n m e n t a n d c o - o p e r a t i v e a r r a n g e ­ m e n t s for p r o t e c t i o n , r e s o u r c e d e v e l o p m e n t , h e a l t h c a r e a n d t h e like.) T h e p r e s u m p t i o n of a n i m p l i c i t c o n s e n s u s or a u n i v e r s a l goal m i s - i d e n t i f i e s t h e telos of t h i s type of c o n s t i ­ t u t i o n a l d i a l o g u e , f i l t e r i n g out t h e d i v e r s e s i m i l a r i t i e s a n d d i f f e r e n c e s t h e s p e a k e r s t r y to voice. U n i v e r s a l i t y is a m i s ­ l e a d i n g r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of t h e a i m s of c o n s t i t u t i o n a l d i a l o g u e b e c a u s e , as we h a v e r e p e a t e d l y s e e n , t h e w o r l d of c o n s t i ­ t u t i o n a l i s m is n o t a u n i v e r s e , b u t a m u l t i v e r s e : it c a n n o t b e r e p r e s e n t e d in u n i v e r s a l p r i n c i p l e s or its c i t i z e n s in u n i v e r s a l institutions. T h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y of l i s t e n i n g t o o t h e r s is also b y p a s s e d by m i s c o n c e i v i n g t h e d i v e r s i t y of m o d e s of s p e a k i n g . I n s o m e t h e o r i e s , it is a s s u m e d t h a t t h e c l a i m s of v a r i o u s s p e a k e r s c a n b e f r a m e d in a p u r p o r t e d l y u n i v e r s a l g e n r e of a r g u m e n t . A good i l l u s t r a t i o n of t h e diversity b l i n d n e s s of t h i s m o n o l o g i c a l

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a s s u m p t i o n is Delgamuukw v. the Queen ( 1 9 9 1 ) . T h e G i t s k a n a n d W e t ' s u w e t ' e n n a t i o n s of t h e n o r t h w e s t coast of G r e a t T u r t l e I s l a n d b r o u g h t f o r w a r d t h e i r c l a i m for r e c o g n i t i o n of t h e i r nations and territories. Gisday W a and Delgam Uukw carefully o u t l i n e d A b o r i g i n a l c o n c e p t s of e v i d e n c e , history, government and argument, contrasting these with European u n d e r s t a n d i n g s a n d f i n d i n g i n t e r m e d i a t e e x a m p l e s to h e l p t h e j u d g e u n d e r s t a n d . T h e y t h e n e x p l a i n e d t h e i r c l a i m to t e r r i t o r y a n d self r u l e , b a s e d o n t h e i r f o r m s of g o v e r n a n c e a n d u s e l o n g before t h e E u r o p e a n s a r r i v e d , in t h e i r own t e r m s a n d c o m p a r e d it w i t h a n a l o g o u s E u r o p e a n c o n c e p t s , calling on respected anthropologists to support their claims. C h i e f J u s t i c e A l l a n M c E a c h e r n r u l e d t h a t t h e i r f o r m s of p r e s e n t a t i o n , o r a l e v i d e n c e a n d t i t l e did n o t m e a s u r e u p to t h e s t a n d a r d s of t h e c o u r t a n d d i s m i s s e d t h e i r c l a i m . W h a t t h e c o u r t ' s e v i d e n c e c e r t a i n l y s h o w s , h e f u l s o m e l y c o n c l u d e d , is t h a t t h e 'plaintiffs' a n c e s t o r s h a d n o w r i t t e n l a n g u a g e , n o h o r s e s or w h e e l e d v e h i c l e s , s l a v e r y a n d s t a r v a t i o n w a s [sic] n o t uncommon, wars with neighbouring people were common, a n d t h e r e is n o d o u b t , to q u o t e H o b b e s , t h a t a b o r i g i n a l life in t h e t e r r i t o r y w a s , at b e s t , " n a s t y , b r u t i s h a n d s h o r t " ' . W r i t e r s s u c h as Seyla B e n h a b i b a r e c r i t i c a l of t h e m o n o logical t h e o r i e s of d i a l o g u e a n d a r g u e t h a t a d e m o c r a t i c c o n s t i t u t i o n a l discussion in a c u l t u r a l l y d i v e r s e society will involve a m u l t i p l i c i t y of s p e e c h g e n r e s . N e v e r t h e l e s s , s h e goes o n o p t i m i s t i c a l l y to s u g g e s t t h a t we will always b e a b l e to p u t o u r s e l v e s in t h e s h o e s of o t h e r s a n d u n d e r s t a n d t h i n g s from t h e i r p o i n t of view, ' e i t h e r b y a c t u a l l y l i s t e n i n g t o all involved or by r e p r e s e n t i n g to o u r s e l v e s i m a g i n a t i v e l y t h e m a n y p e r s p e c t i v e s of t h o s e involved'. I n h e r p a t h - b r e a k i n g p a p e r , ' C o m m u n i c a t i o n a n d t h e o t h e r ' , Iris Y o u n g d e e p e n s o u r u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e v a l u e of s p e a k i n g in a n d l i s t e n i n g t o a v a r i e t y of s p e e c h m o d e s in s u c h a d i s c u s s i o n . ' F r e e a n d o p e n c o m m u n i c a t i o n e n a b l e s d i f f e r e n t g r o u p s e a c h t o l e a r n of t h e i r o w n p a r t i a l i t y by l e a r n i n g s o m e t h i n g a b o u t o t h e r p e r s p e c t i v e s o n t h e i r collective p r o b l e m s a n d o n t h e m s e l v e s . ' H o w e v e r , s h e is s c e p t i c a l of B e n h a b i b ' s c l a i m t h a t t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s 3 2

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could r e a c h full r e c i p r o c i t y a n d s y m m e t r y of u n d e r s t a n d i n g . T h e r e r e m a i n s ' m u c h about the others that they do not under­ stand'. T h i s s e e m s t o b e a n u n d u l y p e s s i m i s t i c view of t h e possibility of u n d e r s t a n d i n g a m o n g c u l t u r a l l y d i v e r s e h u m a n b e i n g s . It is c e r t a i n l y t r u e t h a t we c a n n o t u n d e r s t a n d c u l t u r a l l y different o t h e r s s i m p l y 'by r e p r e s e n t i n g t o o u r s e l v e s i m a g i n a t i v e l y t h e m a n y p e r s p e c t i v e s of t h o s e involved', a n y m o r e t h a n I c a n m a s t e r t e n n i s by i m a g i n i n g v a r i o u s e x c h a n g e s . U n d e r s t a n d i n g c o m e s , if it c o m e s a t all, only by e n g a g i n g in t h e volley of p r a c t i c a l d i a l o g u e . W e n e e d t h e d i a l o g u e itself to b e c o m e a w a r e of all t h e a s p e c t s of o u r a s s o c i a t i o n t h a t o u g h t to be r e c o g n i s e d a n d a c c o m m o d a t e d in t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n . It is also t r u e t h a t t h e d i v e r s i t y a w a r e n e s s o n e c o m e s t o a c q u i r e in d i a l o g u e d o e s n o t consist in b e i n g a b l e to r e p l a c e t h e o t h e r p e r s o n a n d s p e a k for h i m or h e r . M u c h r e m a i n s o p a q u e . H o w e v e r , t h e r e is n o r e a s o n t o b e l i e v e t h a t t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s in t h e d i a l o g u e could n o t c o m e t o ' u n d e r ­ stand' each other. T h e r e a s o n it is possible t o u n d e r s t a n d o n e a n o t h e r in i n t e r c u l t u r a l c o n v e r s a t i o n s is b e c a u s e t h i s is w h a t w e d o all t h e t i m e in c u l t u r a l l y d i v e r s e societies t o s o m e e x t e n t . T h e every­ d a y m a s t e r y of t h e criss-crossing, o v e r l a p p i n g a n d c o n t e s t e d u s e s of t e r m s is n o t different in k i n d ( b u t of c o u r s e in d e g r e e ) from the u n d e r s t a n d i n g d e m a n d e d by constitutional dialogue. If o n e t h i n k s of u n d e r s t a n d i n g in t h e w a y I p r e s e n t e d it in t h e previous section, the connection becomes clear. T h e dialogue in s u c h c o n s t i t u t i o n a l n e g o t i a t i o n s u s u a l l y c o n s i s t s in t h e b a c k a n d f o r t h e x c h a n g e of s p e e c h a c t s of t h e f o r m , 'let m e see if I u n d e r s t a n d w h a t you said', 'let m e r e p h r a s e w h a t you said a n d see if you a g r e e ' , 'is w h a t you said a n a l o g o u s to this e x a m p l e in m y c u l t u r e ' , or 'I a m sorry, l e t m e t r y a n o t h e r i n t e r m e d i a t e e x a m p l e t h a t is closer', or ' c a n you a c k n o w l e d g e t h i s a n a l o g y ? ' ' N o w I t h i n k I see w h a t you a r e s a y i n g - let m e p u t it t h i s w a y for I n o w see t h a t it c o m p l e m e n t s m y view.' T h e p a r t i c i p a n t s a r e g r a d u a l l y able to see t h e a s s o c i a t i o n f r o m t h e p o i n t s of view of e a c h o t h e r a n d c o b b l e t o g e t h e r a n a c c e p t a b l e i n t e r ­ c u l t u r a l l a n g u a g e c a p a b l e of a c c o m m o d a t i n g t h e t r u t h in e a c h 3 3

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134

multiplicity

of t h e i r l i m i t e d a n d c o m p l e m e n t a r y views a n d of s e t t i n g a s i d e the incompatible ones. R e a d i n g t h e t r a n s c r i p t s , I find it difficult to d o u b t t h a t A b o r i g i n a l n e g o t i a t o r s failed to u n d e r s t a n d W i l l i a m J o h n s o n . T h e t r a n s c r i p t of Delgamuukw m a k e s it c l e a r t h a t t h e G i t s k a n and Wet'suwet'en understood the concepts that the Chief J u s t i c e u s e d to dispossess t h e m u n d e r t h e colour of law, a n d so w e r e a b l e t o l a u n c h a n a p p e a l . I s r a e l i a n d P a l e s t i n i a n n e g o t i a t o r s over self r u l e s u r e l y u n d e r s t a n d o n e a n o t h e r . T h e Cree, Naskapi and Inuit negotiators understood the Quebec a n d C a n a d i a n p a r t i c i p a n t s in t h e J a m e s B a y a n d N o r t h e r n Q u e b e c A g r e e m e n t of 1 9 7 5 all t o o well. T h o s e w h o p a r t i c i ­ p a t e d in t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n a l n e g o t i a t i o n s a n d b r o a d con­ s u l t a t i o n s in C a n a d a from 1991 t o 1 9 9 2 c a m e , as a r e s u l t , to u n d e r s t a n d o n e a n o t h e r fairly well a n d t e m p e r t h e i r e a r l i e r views. T h o s e w h o r e f u s e d t o p a r t i c i p a t e , on t h e c o n t r a r y , i n s i s t e d t h a t t h e i r o w n views w e r e c o m p r e h e n s i v e a n d exclusive, h e l d t h e m o s t e x t r e m e p o s i t i o n s a n d , c o n s e ­ quently, misunderstood the others. O f course, one cannot fully g r a s p ' w h e r e t h e o t h e r s a r e c o m i n g f r o m ' a n d so c a n n o t s p e a k for t h e m , b u t o n e c a n , by i n t e r m e d i a t e s t e p s , u n d e r s t a n d w h a t t h e y a r e s a y i n g a b o u t t h e a n c i e n t city we share. Y o u n g m a y t a k e a s c e p t i c a l s t a n c e t o w a r d s full i n t e r c u l t u r a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g b e c a u s e s h e b e l i e v e s t h a t , if it is possible, t h e n d i a l o g u e m i g h t b e r e d u c e d to a m e r e s t e p p i n g s t o n e t o a m o n o l o g i c a l a n d u n i v e r s a l o v e r v i e w of t h e e n s e m b l e . T h i s c o n c e r n is s u g g e s t e d by h e r c o n c l u s i o n t h a t o n l y t h e ' p r e s e r v a t i o n of d i f f e r e n c e a n d t h e r e c o g n i t i o n of a s y m m e t r y — t h e n o n - r e c i p r o c i t y — of social p o s i t i o n s c a n p r e s e r v e p u b l i c i t y a n d t h e n e e d for c o n t i n u e d c o m m u n i ­ c a t i o n ' . B u t this p a t h o u t of t h e w o r l d of c u l t u r a l d i v e r s i t y is closed, n o t by t h e i n a b i l i t y to u n d e r s t a n d o n e a n o t h e r , b u t by t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n of t h e p h e n o m e n o n w e a r e t r y i n g t o u n d e r ­ s t a n d . It is l a c k i n g in this sort of p e r s p i c u i t y as a r e s u l t of t h e t h r e e f e a t u r e s of c u l t u r a l diversity. U n d e r s t a n d i n g it consists in b e i n g a b l e to m o v e a b o u t w i t h i n t h e d i a l o g u e , p a s s i n g from o n e n e i g h b o u r h o o d t o t h e n e x t , e x c h a n g i n g stories a n d 34

The rediscovery of cultural diversity I

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n o t i c i n g o u r s i m i l a r i t i e s a n d d i f f e r e n c e s en passant, n o t by transcending the h u m a n condition. F u r t h e r e v i d e n c e for this m u n d a n e p o i n t is t h a t w r i t t e n c o n s t i t u t i o n s w h i c h h a v e a r i s e n o u t of s u c h c o n s t i t u t i o n a l d i a l o g u e s a r e i n t e r c u l t u r a l , w i t h o u t even a p r e t e n c e of t r a n s c u l t u r a l s t a t u s . T h e ' p a r t n e r s h i p ' c o n s t i t u t i o n of A o r e t e r a N e w Z e a l a n d , t h e W a i t a n g i t r e a t y , is w r i t t e n in M a o r i , t h e l a n g u a g e of t h e tangata whenua ( t h e o r i g i n a l i n h a b i t a n t s ) a n d in E n g l i s h , t h e l a n g u a g e of t h e n e w c o m e r s . B o t h a r e a u t h o r i ­ t a t i v e a n d h a v e d i s t i n c t t r a d i t i o n s of i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , w i t h different c o n c e p t i o n s of h i s t o r y , e v i d e n c e , a r g u m e n t a n d g o v e r n m e n t . T h e n o n - A b o r i g i n a l C a n a d i a n c o n s t i t u t i o n is w r i t t e n in F r e n c h a n d E n g l i s h . B o t h a r e a u t h o r i t a t i v e a n d h a v e d i s t i n c t t r a d i t i o n s of i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . T h e f u n d a m e n t a l c o n s t i t u t i o n of N o r t h A m e r i c a , t h e t r e a t i e s of t h e A b o r i g i n a l and common-law system, should be t h e s a m e . I n m o d e r n t h e o r i e s of c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m , t h e a g r e e m e n t r e a c h e d in d i a l o g u e is s e e n as f o u n d a t i o n a l , u n i v e r s a l a n d t h e fixed b a c k g r o u n d to d e m o c r a c y . T h i s P l a t o n i c i m a g e reinforces the a t t i t u d e t h a t t h e a g r e e m e n t m u s t be compre­ h e n s i v e a n d exclusive. I n t h e A b o r i g i n a l a n d c o m m o n - l a w s y s t e m , t h e a g r e e m e n t is s e e n as o n e link in a n e n d l e s s c h a i n , stretching back to what one's ancestors have done before a n d f o r w a r d t o w h a t o n e ' s c h i l d r e n will d o in t h e f u t u r e . T h e p r e s e n t link, w h i l e a p p r o p r i a t e to t h e c i r c u m s t a n c e s a t h a n d , is in line w i t h t h e w h o l e c h a i n as far as o n e c a n s e e . I n a d d i t i o n , t h e link is always o p e n t o review a n d r e n e g o t i a t i o n in a f u t u r e d i a l o g u e if it is n o t as f i t t i n g as it a p p e a r e d a t t h e t i m e . As a r e s u l t of this m o r e flexible a n d p r a g m a t i c i m a g e , t h e c o n c e p t of ' r e a c h i n g a g r e e m e n t ' is d i f f e r e n t f r o m t h e m o d e r n o n e a n d t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g a t t i t u d e of t h e p a r t i c i ­ p a n t s is m o r e o p e n to m u t u a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g , a c c o m m o d a t i o n and conciliation. M o h a w k s call t h e p r a c t i c e of m e e t i n g to r e v i e w h o w well a n a g r e e m e n t fits, e i t h e r a m e n d i n g or r e a f f i r m i n g it, ' r e p o l i s h i n g ' t h e c h a i n . T h e y see t h e p e r i o d i c r e f l e c t i o n o n t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n as a n e c e s s a r y i n g r e d i e n t of a h e a l t h y a n d u n t a r n i s h e d a s s o c i a t i o n , j u s t as w e n o t e d a m o n g t h e m e m b e r s

136

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of t h e black c a n o e . T h i s d e m o c r a t i c c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m d o e s n o t , as o n e m i g h t object f r o m t h e m o d e r n v i e w p o i n t , l e s s e n the veneration with which they hold an a g r e e m e n t . Each one is s a c r e d a n d sworn to last 'as l o n g as t h e s u n s h i n e s a n d t h e w a t e r s flow', u n l e s s a n e w a g r e e m e n t is r e a c h e d in a c c o r d a n c e w i t h t h e t h r e e c o n v e n t i o n s . It is, a f t e r all, n o t t h e y w h o h a v e b r o k e n t h e c h a i n i n n u m e r a b l e t i m e s a n d allowed it t o t a r n i s h b u t , r a t h e r , t h o s e w h o swore t h a t ' p e a c e a n d f r i e n d s h i p ' w o u l d subsist ' t h r o u g h all s u c c e e d i n g g e n e r a t i o n s ' . 3 5

As t h e s e t t l e r s g a i n e d t h e u p p e r h a n d in t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y , t h e A b o r i g i n a l a n d c o m m o n - l a w s y s t e m w a s over­ w h e l m e d by t h e t h e o r y a n d p r a c t i c e of m o d e r n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l ­ i s m . W i t h i n its h o r i z o n s , t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p of p r o t e c t i o n , w h i c h c o n t i n u e d A b o r i g i n a l self g o v e r n m e n t a c c o r d i n g t o M a r s h a l l , was r e i n t e r p r e t e d . T r e a t i e s w e r e said to be m e r e private contracts and Aboriginal rights m e r e individual rights to h u n t a n d fish on C r o w n l a n d . T h e E u r o p e a n — A m e r i c a n g o v e r n ­ m e n t s w e r e u n i l a t e r a l l y r e c o g n i s e d as s u p e r i o r g u a r d i a n s w h o s e b u r d e n it w a s to p r o t e c t A b o r i g i n a l p e o p l e w h o w e r e r e c o g n i s e d as inferior w a r d s i n c a p a b l e of c o n s e n t a n d w h o s e p r i m i t i v e ways h a d t o b e d i s c o n t i n u e d a n d r e f o r m e d for t h e i r own good. W h e n t h e w a r d s r e s i s t e d , t h e y w e r e d e p i c t e d as ' o b s t a c l e s t o p r o g r e s s ' a n d r e m o v e d to d i s a p p e a r , by n e g l e c t , s t a r v a t i o n or, as a t W o u n d e d K n e e , by s l a u g h t e r . Although the Aboriginal nations protested throughout this c e n t u r y of t h e ' g r a d u a l civilisation of t h e I n d i a n t r i b e s ' , it is only in r e c e n t d e c a d e s t h a t t h e i r c l a i m s for r e c o g n i t i o n h a v e s t a r t e d to b e effectively h e a r d . T h e y h a v e revived the Aboriginal and common-law system hidden beneath the e m p i r e of m o d e r n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m to r e c l a i m self g o v e r n ­ m e n t a n d c o n t r o l of t h e i r t e r r i t o r i e s . F r o m 1 9 7 2 t o 1975, t h e first c o n t e m p o r a r y t r e a t y c o n s t i t u t i o n w a s negotiated between the Cree, Naskapi and Inuit nations and the Quebec and C a n a d i a n g o v e r n m e n t s . T h e J a m e s Bay and N o r t h e r n Q u e b e c A g r e e m e n t , w h i l e far f r o m i d e a l , is a p r e c e d e n t t h a t h a s h e l p e d to set t h e 'world r e v e r s a l ' in m o t i o n . Since t h e n , t h e j u s t i c e of A b o r i g i n a l c l a i m s for r e c o g n i t i o n h a s b e g u n t o b e

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a c k n o w l e d g e d in t h e c o u r t s of c o m m o n - l a w c o u n t r i e s a n d in t h e U n i t e d N a t i o n s d r a f t D e c l a r a t i o n o n t h e R i g h t s of Indigenous Peoples. In this post-imperial dawn, treaties and a g r e e m e n t s h a v e b e g u n to t a k e o n s o m e of t h e i r f o r m e r l u s t r e a n d t h e C r o w n h a s s t a r t e d t o d i s c e r n its fiduciary r e s p o n s i ­ bility in t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p of p r o t e c t i o n . E v e n t h e m i g h t y l e v i a t h a n s w h o h a v e e x t e n d e d t h e i r e m p i r e of m o d e r n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m over ' s t o l e n c o n t i n e n t s ' a r e b e i n g i n s t r u c t e d o n c e a g a i n by Royal C o m m i s s i o n s t o see t h e m s e l v e s as t h e R o y a l C o m m i s s i o n of 1 6 6 4 r e c o m m e n d e d : as e q u a l ' p a r t n e r s in c o n f e d e r a t i o n ' w i t h t h e A b o r i g i n a l n a t i o n s w h o h a v e survived a n d c o n t i n u e d t h r o u g h t h e u s u r p a t i o n . 3 6

T h e s e p a r t n e r s h i p s will t a k e m a n y f o r m s , d e p e n d i n g on t h e a r r a n g e m e n t s t h e p a r t n e r s r e a c h in d i s c u s s i o n s g u i d e d by the t h r e e conventions. By calling these a g r e e m e n t s 'treaty c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m ' a n d u s i n g t h e e x a m p l e of t h e T w o R o w W a m p u m T r e a t y , I d o n o t m e a n t o i m p l y t h a t only o n e f o r m is p o s s i b l e . T h i s w o u l d b e a n o t h e r k i n d of i m p e r i a l i s m . T h e a p p r o p r i a t e d e g r e e of i n t e r d e p e n d e n c y a n d t h e b e s t sort of a g r e e m e n t v a r y w i t h t h e v e r y different c i r c u m s t a n c e s of A b o r i g i n a l a n d n o n - A b o r i g i n a l p a r t n e r s o n t h i s e a r t h . E v e n in C a n a d a , t h e differences w i t h i n a n d a m o n g F i r s t N a t i o n s , I n u i t a n d M e t i s a r e legion. As A u g i e F l e r a s a n d J e a n Elliot s u g g e s t in The nations within, a n e w d i s c i p l i n e , t h e c o m p a r a t i v e politics of A b o r i g i n a l n a t i o n s , is n e e d e d t o s t u d y t h e v a r i e t y of a p p a l l i n g social, e c o n o m i c a n d political c o n d i t i o n s of A b o r i g i n a l n a t i o n s a n d to assist t h e n e g o t i a t o r s . O f c o u r s e , o n e m i g h t object, only a r o u g h b a l a n c e of p o w e r in the early m o d e r n period a m o n g the Aboriginal nations, F r a n c e , E n g l a n d a n d t h e colonial g o v e r n m e n t s c a u s e d t h e C r o w n t o e n t e r i n t o t r e a t y c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m a n d occasionally a b i d e by it. As c o n s t i t u t i o n a l s c h o l a r s s u c h as M i l n e r S. Ball, P a t r i c k M a c k l e m , B r i a n S l a t t e r y a n d J o s e p h S i n g e r , as well as h i s t o r i a n s s u c h as J o h n T o b i a s , V i n e D e l o r i a J r . a n d R u s s e l l Barsh, have shown, the t h r e e conventions have been abused m a n y t i m e s over t h e c e n t u r i e s . T h e t r e a t y of C a n a n d a i g u a , for e x a m p l e , h a s n e v e r b e e n h o n o u r e d , d e s p i t e two c e n t u r i e s of

r 8 3

Strange

multiplicity

p r o t e s t . I n a d d i t i o n , t h e C r o w n h a s i m p e r i o u s l y p r o c l a i m e d , in t h e l a n g u a g e of H o b b e s , t h e t r e a t i e s t o b e a ' b u r d e n ' t o l e r a t e d solely a t its ' p l e a s u r e ' . As a r e s u l t , A b o r i g i n a l p e o p l e s , as O r e n Lyons a n d J o h n M o h a w k p r o t e s t , h a v e b e e n ' e x i l e d in t h e l a n d of t h e f r e e ' . T h e p r a c t i c e of t r e a t y c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m is n o t t h e ideal s p e e c h - s i t u a t i o n or t h e h e t e r o g l o s s i a of t h e s c h o l a r s . T h e ' k i n d of s c r u b b e d , d i s i n f e c t e d i n t e r l o c u t o r ' in t h e s e t h e o r e t i c a l m o d e l s of d i a l o g u e , E d w a r d Said w r i t e s , 'is a l a b o r a t o r y c r e a t i o n , w i t h s u p p r e s s e d , a n d t h e r e f o r e falsified, c o n n e c t i o n s t o t h e u r g e n t s i t u a t i o n of crisis a n d conflict t h a t b r o u g h t h i m or h e r t o a t t e n t i o n in t h e first p l a c e ' . T h e t r e a t y s y s t e m is a living h u m a n p r a c t i c e in w h i c h , by g r e a t effort, t h e b a t t l e for r e c o g n i t i o n by a r m s h a s b e e n t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o t h e conflict of w o r d s . T h i s d o e s n o t e n d t h e s t r a t e g i e s of f r a u d a n d d e c e i t h u m a n s play u n d e r t h e c o l o u r of t h e c o n v e n t i o n s . It only s t o p s t h e killing, a n d this only a s l o n g as t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s c o n t i n u e to listen to each other. N e v e r t h e l e s s , t h e p o i n t of t h i s book is t h a t w h e n A b o r i g i n a l p e o p l e s c l a i m injustice h a s b e e n d o n e a n d d e m a n d r e d r e s s , they appeal to the t h r e e conventions to justify their case, a r g u i n g t h a t t h e i r s t a t u s as n a t i o n s h a s b e e n m i s r e c o g n i s e d , t h e i r p o w e r s of self r u l e d i s c o n t i n u e d a n d t h e i r c o n s e n t b y p a s s e d . T h e a g e n t s of j u s t i c e o n t h e o t h e r side a p p e a l t o t h e s a m e n o r m s of j u s t i f i c a t i o n . T h e y a r g u e t h a t t h e y h a v e r e c o g ­ n i s e d A b o r i g i n a l p e o p l e a p p r o p r i a t e l y , t h a t t h e y c o n s e n t e d to d i s c o n t i n u e t h e i r p o w e r s or t h a t c o n s e n t c a n b e i g n o r e d in this c a s e . T h e t h r e e c o n v e n t i o n s of c o m m o n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m a r e i m m a n e n t in this p r a c t i c e — a n d in t h e p r a c t i c e s of c o n s t i ­ t u t i o n a l i s m t o follow —as t h e n o r m s of j u s t i f i c a t i o n , in s p i t e of t h e efforts of m o d e r n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s t s to b u r y t h e m . It is possible t o e x p o s e t h e b i a s e s a n d s p e c i o u s a r g u m e n t s , a n d see t h e j u s t i c e of t h e p r a c t i c e , n o t by c r e a t i n g a n i d e a l m o d e l to w h i c h r e a l i t y m u s t c o r r e s p o n d b u t , as we a r e e n g a g e d in d o i n g , by s u r v e y i n g it f r o m A b o r i g i n a l a n d n o n - A b o r i g i n a l p e r s p e c t i v e s . A n d t h i s p r a c t i c a l activity of c r i t i c a l reflection c a n b e e x t e n d e d by d r a w i n g c o m p a r i s o n s w i t h o t h e r e x a m p l e s of c o m m o n a n d m o d e r n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m , g r a d u a l l y a c q u i r i n g 37

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a critical u n d e r s t a n d i n g of c o n t e m p o r a r y c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m as we a p p r o a c h t h i s l a b y r i n t h f r o m o n e p a t h a f t e r a n o t h e r . I n this way, as W i t t g e n s t e i n r e c o m m e n d s , we e x t e n d o u r c o n c e p t of c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m , as 'in s p i n n i n g a t h r e a d we twist fibre o n fibre. A n d t h e s t r e n g t h of t h e t h r e a d d o e s n o t r e s i d e in t h e fact t h a t s o m e o n e fibre r u n s t h r o u g h its w h o l e l e n g t h , b u t in t h e o v e r l a p p i n g of m a n y f i b r e s . ' 38

CHAPTER 5

The historicalformation of common constitutionalism: the rediscovery of cultural diversity, part II

Diversefederalism and the conventions of mutual recognition, continuity and consent T h e n e x t e x a m p l e of a c o n s t i t u t i o n a l a s s o c i a t i o n b a s e d o n t h e t h r e e c o n v e n t i o n s I w i s h t o discuss is ' c o m p a c t ' or, as I p r e f e r , ' d i v e r s e ' f e d e r a l i s m . I n t h e first c h a p t e r w e s a w t h a t o n e of t h e m a j o r c a u s e s of conflicts a n d civil w a r s over c u l t u r a l r e c o g n i t i o n is t h e i n a b i l i t y of m o d e r n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m t o tolerate multinational constitutional associations with a d i v e r s i t y of often o v e r l a p p i n g legal a n d political c u l t u r e s . T h e r e q u i r e m e n t s of o n e s o v e r e i g n p e o p l e (in o n e of t h r e e f o r m s ) , o n e n a t i o n a n d o n e u n i f o r m o r d e r of m o d e r n legal a n d politi­ cal i n s t i t u t i o n s m a k e t h e r e c o g n i t i o n a n d a c c o m m o d a t i o n of d i v e r s i t y i m p o s s i b l e . T h e only o p t i o n s a v a i l a b l e w i t h i n t h e s e p a r a m e t e r s a r e e i t h e r a s s i m i l a t i o n or s e c e s s i o n , n e i t h e r of w h i c h r e s o l v e s t h e p r o b l e m of r e c o g n i t i o n u n d e r c o n d i t i o n s of c u l t u r a l diversity. T h e f o r m e r Y u g o s l a v i a is o n e of t h e m o s t t r a g i c e x a m p l e s , as N o e l M a l c o l m h a s a r g u e d in his e x e m p l a r y c a s e s t u d y , a n d t h e b r e a k u p of C z e c h o s l o v a k i a is a n o t h e r , non-violent but e x t r e m e l y expensive instance. D i v e r s e f e d e r a l i s m is a m e a n s of c o n c i l i a t i o n b e c a u s e it enables peoples mutually to recognise and reach a g r e e m e n t o n h o w t o a s s e m b l e or f e d e r a t e t h e legal a n d political d i f f e r e n c e s t h e y w i s h t o c o n t i n u e i n t o t h e a s s o c i a t i o n . A good e x a m p l e is t h e c o n f e d e r a t i o n of t h e p r o v i n c e s of N o v a Scotia, New Brunswick, Lower C a n a d a (Quebec) and U p p e r C a n a d a ( O n t a r i o ) t o f o r m C a n a d a in 1 8 6 7 . T h e d i s c o n t i n u i t y a n d u n i f o r m i t y school i n t e r p r e t s c o n f e d e r a t i o n as t h e s u b o r d i ­ n a t i o n of t h e p r o v i n c e s t o t h e s o v e r e i g n f e d e r a l g o v e r n m e n t 140

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a n d t h e c r e a t i o n of u n i f o r m p r o v i n c e s . T h e c o n t i n u i t y a n d d i v e r s i t y school i n t e r p r e t s it as t h e c r e a t i o n of a f e d e r a l g o v e r n m e n t by t h e d e l e g a t i o n of s o m e p r o v i n c i a l p o w e r s a n d t h e c o n t i n u i t y a n d c o - o r d i n a t e s o v e r e i g n t y of t h e d i v e r s e provinces. T h e b e s t p r e s e n t a t i o n of t h e d i v e r s e f e d e r a l i s m i n t e r p r e t ­ a t i o n is by a Q u e b e c j u r i s t , J u s t i c e T h o m a s - J e a n - J a c q u e s L o r a n g e r , in Lettres sur ^interpretation de la constitution federate: premiere lettre ( 1 8 8 3 ) . F i r s t , t h e four p r o v i n c e s r e c o g n i s e d e a c h o t h e r as a u t o n o m o u s , s e l f - g o v e r n i n g c o n s t i t u t i o n a l associ­ ations u n d e r British rule. 'These provinces', Loranger writes, w e r e 'in t h e e n j o y m e n t of t h e i r c o m p l e t e political a n d legis­ lative a u t o n o m y . ' T h e i r pre-existing s t a t u s was ' g u a r a n t e e d to t h e m by t r e a t i e s a n d I m p e r i a l s t a t u t e s ' of t h e p r e v i o u s c e n t u r y . A s C h i e f J u s t i c e D o r i o n h a d e x p l a i n e d in 1 8 7 4 , 'we h a v e r e s p o n s i b l e g o v e r n m e n t in all t h e p r o v i n c e s , a n d t h e s e p o w e r s a r e n o t i n t r o d u c e d by l e g i s l a t o r s , b u t in c o n f o r m i t y w i t h u s a g e ' , t h a t is ' f o u n d e d o n t h e c o n s e n t a n d r e c o g n i t i o n of those principles which guide the British Constitution'. T h e s e c o n d or ' c o m p a c t ' f e a t u r e is t h a t t h e act of c o n f e d e r ­ a t i o n c o n s i s t e d in r e a c h i n g a g r e e m e n t , by t h e c o n s e n t of t h e four colonial g o v e r n m e n t s t h r o u g h t h r e e y e a r s of n e g o ­ tiations, on which powers they would delegate to constitute a f e d e r a l g o v e r n m e n t t o g o v e r n t h e i r c o m m o n affairs. T h e ' p r o v i n c e s did n o t a t t r i b u t e t o t h e f e d e r a l g o v e r n m e n t p o w e r s of a n a t u r e d i f f e r e n t from t h o s e t h a t e a c h b e f o r e p o s s e s s e d . T h e y d e l e g a t e d t o it a p o r t i o n only of t h e i r local p o w e r s t o f o r m a c e n t r a l p o w e r , t h a t is to say, t h e y allowed it t h e m a n a g e m e n t of t h e i r affairs of a g e n e r a l c h a r a c t e r , b u t r e t a i n e d t h e i r o w n g o v e r n m e n t for t h e i r local a f f a i r s . ' A s a c o n s e q u e n c e , finally, t h e political a n d l e g a l i n s t i t u t i o n s of t h e p r o v i n c e s - t h e i r c u l t u r e s of self r u l e — c o n t i n u e d through the confederation. 'In constituting themselves into a c o n f e d e r a t i o n , t h e p r o v i n c e s did n o t i n t e n d t o r e n o u n c e , a n d in fact n e v e r d i d r e n o u n c e t h e i r a u t o n o m y . T h i s a u t o n o m y with their rights, powers and prerogatives they expressly p r e s e r v e for all t h a t c o n c e r n s t h e i r i n t e r n a l g o v e r n m e n t . ' H e n c e , t h e r e is n o s u b o r d i n a t i o n t o t h e f e d e r a l g o v e r n m e n t , 1

2

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142

multiplicity

b u t r a t h e r , ' a n e q u a l i t y b e t w e e n t h e m or r a t h e r a s i m i l a r i t y of p o w e r s , a n d t h a t e a c h of t h e t w o p o w e r s is s o v e r e i g n w i t h i n its r e s p e c t i v e s p h e r e s ' . T h i s is, h e c o n c l u d e s , t h e s a m e in t h e ' H e l v e t i a n a n d G e r m a n i c c o n f e d e r a t i o n s a n d in all o t h e r possible c o n f e d e r a t i o n s ' , i n c l u d i n g , h e c l a i m s , t h e U n i t e d States: 3

the central g o v e r n m e n t has only t h o s e powers w h i c h are conferred o n it by the s t a t e s and t h e latter retain the r e m a i n d e r , for the very s i m p l e r e a s o n , that the c e n t r a l g o v e r n m e n t is the creation o f the several g o v e r n m e n t s that have g i v e n it the form and totality of powers which t h e y d e e m e d s u i t a b l e , and no m o r e .

L e t us d r a w out t h e i m p l i c a t i o n s of t h i s f o r m of c o n s t i t u t i o n . Since t h e p r e - e x i s t i n g f o r m s of p r o v i n c i a l g o v e r n m e n t a r e b o u n d to b e v a r i o u s , a n d s i n c e t h e c i t i z e n s will a m e n d t h e m from t i m e to t i m e , t h e r e s u l t i n g f e d e r a t i o n is a n i r r e g u l a r a n d m u l t i f o r m a s s e m b l a g e . T h e e q u a l i t y it e m b o d i e s is not t h e i d e n t i t y of political a n d l e g a l i n s t i t u t i o n s , b u t t h e e q u a l r e c o g n i t i o n a n d a u t o n o m y of t h e d i v e r s e f o r m s of provincial self g o v e r n m e n t . T h e i r r e g u l a r i t y of t h e f e d e r a t i o n will also i n c r e a s e as o t h e r p r o v i n c e s j o i n , as in t h e case of C a n a d a , so t h e r e s u l t i n g a s s e m b l a g e will h a v e t h e a p p e a r a n c e of diversity that Descartes commended and Pufendorf condemned. Since t h e c o n s e n t of e a c h p r o v i n c e is r e q u i r e d for c o n f e d e r ­ ation and any subsequent a m e n d m e n t that touches their legal a n d political c u l t u r e , s o m e p r o v i n c e s m a y a g r e e to d e l e g a t e p o w e r s t o t h e f e d e r a l g o v e r n m e n t t h a t o t h e r s c h o o s e to r e t a i n u n t i l t h e y see h o w e c o n o m i c a l l y t h e f e d e r a l g o v e r n m e n t e x e r c i s e s t h e m , or p e r h a p s t o e x p e r i m e n t w i t h a different m o d e l t h e m s e l v e s . F o r e x a m p l e , Q u e b e c h a s its own p e n s i o n plan whereas the other provinces have delegated this power to t h e f e d e r a l g o v e r n m e n t . S u c h a n a s s o c i a t i o n also v a r i e s in c h a r a c t e r d e p e n d i n g on which powers are delegated, s h a r e d a n d r e t a i n e d . S o m e f e d e r a l p o w e r s a p p l y d i r e c t l y to c i t i z e n s ; o t h e r s to t h e p r o v i n c e s . H e n c e , it is difficult a n d p o i n t l e s s t o a p p l y t h e rigid c o n c e p t s of f e d e r a t i o n a n d c o n f e d e r a t i o n t o a n a s s o c i a t i o n like C a n a d a , a s J e n n i f e r S m i t h shows, or, say, I n d i a , for t h e y e x h i b i t f e a t u r e s of b o t h . T h e c i t i z e n s a r e t h e

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s o v e r e i g n p e o p l e of two political a s s o c i a t i o n s , w i t h o v e r l a p p i n g political i d e n t i t i e s a n d loyalties. Ex uno plures is t h u s a n a p p r o p r i a t e m o t t o for s u c h a n a s s o c i a t i o n . C o m p a c t f e d e r a l i s m d o e s n o t r e q u i r e u n a n i m i t y o n every a m e n d m e n t , only t h e c o n s e n t of t h e p e o p l e of t h e p r o v i n c e s affected, or t h e i r provincial r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s , in a c c o r d w i t h q.o.t. T h e p r o v i n c e s c a n also a g r e e o n a n a m e n d i n g f o r m u l a s h o r t of u n a n i m i t y , p r o v i d e d t h a t o n e a g r e e m e n t is u n a n i m o u s . T h i s is a n a l o g o u s to t h e i n d i v i d u a l c a s e in l i b e r a l t h e o r y , w h e r e e a c h i n d i v i d u a l c o n s e n t s on e n t e r i n g a political society to b e g o v e r n e d by t h e m a j o r i t y p r i n c i p l e . T h e r e a r e also m a n y i n f o r m a l a r r a n g e m e n t s in t h e f e d e r a l t r a d i t i o n t o ensure that m e m b e r s are properly protected. An a m e n d m e n t t h a t affects t h e i n d i v i d u a l c i t i z e n s of t h e e n t i r e f e d e r a t i o n r e q u i r e s t h e c o n s e n t of t h e m a j o r i t y t h r o u g h t h e i r f e d e r a l r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s or a r e f e r e n d u m . T h o s e w h o find t h e s e c h e c k s a n d b a l a n c e s too o n e r o u s w a n t a w a r r a n t to r a m t h r o u g h t h e i r m o n o l o g i c a l vision of t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n w i t h o u t t h e difficult b u t r e w a r d i n g activity of b e c o m i n g a w a r e of t h e d i v e r s i t y of t h e i r p a r t n e r s a n d of r e a c h i n g a g r e e m e n t b y c o n s t i t u t i o n a l dialogue. Their attitude belongs to the imperial age. T h e final f e a t u r e is t h e l i b e r a l c h a r a c t e r of c o m p a c t f e d e r a l i s m . L o r a n g e r e x p l a i n s t h a t a n a s s o c i a t i o n of t h i s k i n d is b a s e d o n a c o m b i n a t i o n of t h e c o n v e n t i o n s of c o n t i n u i t y of self r u l e a n d of c o n s e n t to a n y a l t e r a t i o n . H e s t a t e s t h a t a ' r i g h t or a p o w e r c a n n o m o r e b e t a k e n a w a y f r o m a n a t i o n t h a n a n i n d i v i d u a l , e x c e p t by a law w h i c h r e v o k e s it or by a voluntary a b a n d o n m e n t ' . T h e analogy he draws between a n a t i o n a n d a n i n d i v i d u a l b r i n g s o u t its l i b e r a l p e d i g r e e . I n e a r l y m o d e r n l i b e r a l t h e o r i e s , s u c h as L o c k e ' s , i n d i v i d u a l s enter into a constitutional association with pre-existing rights w h i c h a r e m u t u a l l y r e c o g n i s e d . T h i s c u l t u r e of i n d i v i d u a l r i g h t s is c o n t i n u e d i n t o t h e a s s o c i a t i o n e x c e p t for t h o s e r i g h t s w h i c h t h e y , or t h e i r r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s , c o n s e n t t o d e l e g a t e t o c o n s t i t u t e a g o v e r n m e n t . L o r a n g e r ' s p o i n t is t h a t t h e s a m e principles apply whenever the people who form the association h a v e p r e - e x i s t i n g f o r m s of self g o v e r n m e n t as well as p r e ­ e x i s t i n g i n d i v i d u a l r i g h t s , w h i c h is, d e s p i t e t h e c o u n t e r f a c t u a l 4

144

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multiplicity

c o n c e p t i o n of t h e p e o p l e in m o d e r n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m , a l m o s t every t i m e . If so, w h y is n o t c o m p a c t f e d e r a l i s m a c o n s t i t u t i v e f e a t u r e of m o d e r n l i b e r a l t h e o r y ? I n a d e c i s i o n t h a t affirms L o r a n g e r ' s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , L o r d W a t s o n of t h e Privy C o u n c i l d r a w s a sharp contrast with the discontinuity interpretation which p u t s t h i s q u e s t i o n in f o c u s : 5

T h e object o f the A c t of C o n f e d e r a t i o n w a s n e i t h e r to w e l d the provinces into o n e , nor to s u b o r d i n a t e provincial g o v e r n m e n t s to a central authority, but to c r e a t e a federal g o v e r n m e n t in w h i c h they s h o u l d all be r e p r e s e n t e d , e n t r u s t e d w i t h t h e exclusive a d m i n i s ­ t r a t i o n o f affairs in w h i c h t h e y had a c o m m o n i n t e r e s t , e a c h province r e t a i n i n g its i n d e p e n d e n c e and a u t o n o m y .

T h e difficulty from t h e p o i n t of view of L o r a n g e r a n d W a t s o n is t o u n d e r s t a n d w h y a n y p e o p l e w o u l d w e l d t h e m s e l v e s i n t o a u n i o n or s u b o r d i n a t e t h e m s e l v e s t o a f e d e r a l s o v e r e i g n . I n t h e m o s t s e a r i n g p a s s a g e in t h e t e x t , L o r a n g e r a s k s w h y a n y p e o p l e , a f t e r s t r u g g l i n g for c e n t u r i e s to g o v e r n t h e m s e l v e s by t h e i r o w n laws a n d w a y s , w o u l d d o s u c h a t h i n g : 6

W h y should t h e Province o f Q u e b e c , for e x a m p l e , h a v e , on an i n a u s p i c i o u s day, w i t h u t t e r w a n t of t h o u g h t , a b a n d o n e d its rights t h e m o s t sacred, g u a r a n t e e d by t r e a t i e s a n d p r e s e r v e d by secular c o n t e s t s , and sacrificed its l a n g u a g e , its i n s t i t u t i o n s and its laws, to e n t e r into an i n s a n e u n i o n , w h i c h , c o n t r a c t e d u n d e r t h e s e c o n d i t i o n s , would have b e e n t h e c a u s e of its n a t i o n a l and political a n n i h i l a t i o n ? A n d w h y s h o u l d t h e o t h e r provinces, any m o r e t h a n Q u e b e c , have c o n s e n t e d to lose t h e i r n a t i o n a l e x i s t e n c e and c o n s u m m a t e this political suicide?

T h e a n s w e r from t h e o t h e r side is t h a t t h e r e f u s a l t o d o so offends a g a i n s t j u s t a b o u t every f e a t u r e of m o d e r n c o n s t i ­ t u t i o n a l i s m . T o see t h e d i f f e r e n c e , let u s r e t u r n t o H o b b e s ' e x t r e m e f o r m u l a t i o n of t h e o p p o s i n g v i e w : 7

w h e r e t h e r e be divers P r o v i n c e s , w i t h i n t h e D o m i n i o n of a C o m m o n ­ w e a l t h , and in those provinces diversity o f L a w e s , w h i c h c o m m o n l y are called the C u s t o m e s o f e a c h severall Province, w e are not to u n d e r s t a n d that such C u s t o m e s have their force, o n e l y from L e n g t h o f t i m e ; but that t h e y w e r e a n t i e n t l y L a w e s w r i t t e n , or o t h e r w i s e

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made known, for the Constitutions, and Statutes of their Soveraigns; and are nowLawes, not by vertue of the Praescription of time, but by the Constitutions of their present Soveraigns. T h e g e n e r a l p r i n c i p l e is t h a t 'all L a w e s , w r i t t e n a n d u n w r i t t e n , h a v e t h e i r A u t h o r i t y , a n d force, from t h e Will of t h e C o m m o n - w e a l t h ; t h a t is t o say, from t h e Will of t h e R e p r e s e n t a t i v e ' . O n t h i s view, t h e p r o v i n c e s w e r e n o t a u t o n o m o u s a n d did n o t h a v e t h e a u t h o r i t y t o e n t e r i n t o c o n s t i t u t i o n a l n e g o t i a t i o n s in 1 8 6 7 . T h e y d e r i v e d t h e i r a u t h o r i t y from t h e i m p e r i a l C r o w n . A f t e r c o n f e d e r a t i o n , s o v e r e i g n t y g r a d u a l l y devolved in t h e c o u r s e of d e c o l o n i s a t i o n t o t h e f e d e r a l g o v e r n m e n t , for t h e r e c a n b e only o n e will of t h e c o m m o n w e a l t h , a n d t h e p r o v i n c e s a r e s u b o r d i n a t e to it. F u r t h e r m o r e , a s t h e t h r e e u n d i f f e r e n t i a t e d c o n c e p t s of p o p u l a r s o v e r e i g n t y c a m e to b e a u t h o r i t a t i v e , t h e a u t h o r i t y of t h e p r o v i n c e s w a s f u r t h e r r e d u c e d , if n o t e n t i r e l y d i s ­ r e g a r d e d . Q u e b e c t h e n a p p e a r s as n o t h i n g m o r e t h a n a l a r g e n u m b e r of F r e n c h - s p e a k i n g i n d i v i d u a l s in o n e r e g i o n or s o m e k i n d of e t h n i c m i n o r i t y a s k i n g for s p e c i a l s t a t u s a g a i n s t t h e n o r m of u n i f o r m i t y . T h e v e r y i d e a t h a t L o r a n g e r w a s t r y i n g t o g e t a c r o s s - t h a t Q u e b e c is a s o v e r e i g n a n d c o - o r d i n a t e c o n s t i t u t i o n a l society t h a t h a s g o v e r n e d itself by its laws a n d ways for c e n t u r i e s a n d is m u l t i c u l t u r a l in c o m p o s i t i o n — is i m p o s s i b l e t o e x p r e s s in t h i s f r a m e w o r k .

Diverse federalism and continuity: the Quebec Act and the ancient constitution T o u n d e r s t a n d h o w t h e m o d e r n f r a m e w o r k c a m e t o b e widely a c c e p t e d , a n d d i v e r s e f e d e r a l i s m r e l e g a t e d t o t h e m a r g i n s , we n e e d t o r e t r a c e o u r s t e p s . T h e c o n t i n u i t y of t h e p r o v i n c e s ' ways of self g o v e r n m e n t w a s also r e c o g n i s e d , a s L o r a n g e r n o t e s , in e a r l i e r c o n s t i t u t i o n a l a c t s : t h e C o n s t i t u t i o n A c t of 1 7 9 1 , w h i c h e s t a b l i s h e d t h e p r o v i n c e s of L o w e r a n d U p p e r C a n a d a , a n d t h e Q u e b e c Act of 1774, w h i c h b r o u g h t Q u e b e c (or C a n a d a , as it w a s t h e n called) i n t o t h e B r i t i s h E m p i r e a f t e r t h e c a p i t u l a t i o n of F r a n c e in 1 7 6 0 . T h e Q u e b e c Act g u a r a n t e e d t h a t the R o m a n catholic

146

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religion, French language, seigneurial property system and t h e c u s t o m a r y laws a n d f o r m s of g o v e r n m e n t from t h e F r e n c h period would continue until a legislature was established. T h e Q u e b e c l e g i s l a t o r s could t h e n a l t e r t h e s e old f o r m s as t h e y s a w fit. T h e p r o t e s t a n t r e l i g i o n , E n g l i s h l a n g u a g e a n d schools, a n d t h e r i g h t to u s e E n g l i s h in t h e c o u r t s a n d l e g i s l a t u r e w e r e also r e c o g n i s e d a n d p r o t e c t e d for t h e E n g l i s h - s p e a k i n g i m m i g r a n t s . I n d e f e n d i n g this m o s t e n l i g h t e n e d e x a m p l e of c o n t i n u i t y , W i l l i a m K n o x , a w h i g u n d e r s e c r e t a r y , gave o n e of t h e b e s t a n a l y s e s of t h e p r o s a n d c o n s of c o n t i n u i t y a n d d i s c o n t i n u i t y , as well as a n e x a m p l e of h o w a c o n s t i t u t i o n a l d i a l o g u e c a n b e a p p r o x i m a t e d e v e n in a case of c a p i t u l a t i o n . I will let K n o x s p e a k for himself. I n TheJustice and policy of the late act ofparliament of 1774, K n o x e x p l a i n s , a l t h o u g h t h e 'free e x e r c i s e of t h e i r r e l i g i o n ' a n d ' t h e full e n j o y m e n t of t h e i r p r o p e r t y ' w e r e g u a r a n t e e d t o t h e canadiens by t h e c a p i t u l a t i o n of 1760 a n d t h e s u b s e q u e n t t r e a t y of P a r i s , t h e s e w e r e t e m p o r a r i l y d i s c o n t i n u e d in 1 7 6 3 a n d a n E n g l i s h legal s y s t e m i m p o s e d . It 'is difficult to conceive t h e m i s e r y a n d d i s t r e s s in w h i c h t h e p o o r C a n a d i a n s found t h e m ­ selves involved by t h e o p e r a t i o n of t h e s e n e w a n d u n k n o w n laws'. F o r e s h a d o w i n g J o s e p h B r a n t ' s c a n d i d a s s e s s m e n t of t h e E n g l i s h legal s y s t e m twelve y e a r s l a t e r , K n o x w r i t e s , 'we shall c e a s e t o w o n d e r , t h a t t h e C a n a d i a n s a r e n o t in r a p t u r e w i t h t h e E n g l i s h laws of a r r e s t s , a n d b e less a m a z e d at t h e o b s t i n a t e p r e j u d i c e t h e y m a i n t a i n for t h e i r own laws a n d c u s t o m s ' , if we only r e a l i s e t h a t ' t h e r e is n o c o u n t r y u n d e r h e a v e n , w h e r e t h e r e c o v e r y of d e b t is a t t e n d e d w i t h m o r e c i r c u m s t a n c e s of c r u e l t y , m i s e r y a n d slavery t h a n o u r o w n ' . T h e c i t i z e n s of Q u e b e c p e t i t i o n e d for t h e r e s t o r a t i o n of t h e i r ' f o r m e r laws a n d c u s t o m s ' . I n s t e a d of d r a w i n g u p a t h e o r y , t h e ' k i n g ' s s e r v a n t s ' l i s t e n e d , for t h e y ' w e r e n o t i n a t t e n t i v e to t h e s t a t e of Q u e b e c , or d e a f to t h e cries of t h e C a n a d i a n s ' . M r M o r g a n w a s s e n t 'to collect t h e laws a n d c u s t o m s w h i c h h a d p r e v a i l e d or b e e n in force in C a n a d a u n d e r the French government'. A commission was instructed to e x a m i n e t h e whole a n d t r a n s m i t t h e i r o p i n i o n s , 'how far t h o s e laws a n d c u s t o m s w e r e fit to b e a d o p t e d in a n y g e n e r a l p l a n for 8

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t h e r e g u l a t i o n of t h e p r o v i n c e , a n d fully to r e p o r t t h e i r s e n t i m e n t s of t h e n a t u r e of t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n , w h i c h w a s m o s t likely t o give c o n t e n t a n d s a t i s f a c t i o n to t h e i n h a b i t a n t s , a n d a t t a c h t h e m to t h e E n g l i s h g o v e r n m e n t ' . T h e o p i n i o n s w e r e t h e n s t u d i e d a n d a n u m b e r of c o n f l i c t i n g p l a n s w e r e p r o p o s e d . T o find a r e s o l u t i o n t h e y t h e n e x a m i n e d e a r l i e r e x a m p l e s t h a t could serve as ' p r e c e d e n t s ' . I r e l a n d w a s s e l e c t e d as a c a s e of d i s c o n t i n u i t y a n d M i n o r c a of c o n t i n u i t y . In t h e c a s e of I r e l a n d , ' t h e c a p i t u l a t i o n of L i m e r i c k w a s t h e only a s s u r a n c e ' for I r i s h catholics of ' t h e e n j o y m e n t of t h e i r p r o p e r t y or t h e e x e r c i s e of t h e i r r e l i g i o n ' . T h i s c o n t i n u i t y affected only a few. T h e 'vast m a j o r i t y of t h a t w r e t c h e d p e o p l e , w e r e a t t h e m e r c y of t h e v i c t o r i o u s p r o t e s t a n t s ' . A r e g i m e of d i s c o n t i n u i t y a n d r e f o r m w a s i m p o s e d . T h e Irish c a t h o l i c s w e r e 'by law r e n d e r e d i n c a p a b l e of p u r c h a s i n g , i n h e r i t i n g or e v e n o b t a i n i n g t h e s e c u r i t y of a m o r t g a g e u p o n a l a n d e s t a t e ' . T o e n c o u r a g e t h e discovery a n d ' d e t e n t i o n of o f f e n d e r s a g a i n s t t h e s e laws, as well a s to p r o m o t e refor­ m a t i o n , t h e i n f o r m e r s a r e r e w a r d e d w i t h a g r a n t of t h e l a n d s , w h i c h , u p o n conviction of t h e o w n e r , b e c o m e forfeited to t h e c r o w n ' . B e s i d e s t h e legal d i s a b i l i t i e s , t h e R o m a n c a t h o l i c s a r e d e p r i v e d o f ' a l l w e a p o n s offensive or d e f e n s i v e ' , a n d it is ' p e n a l for t h e m t o c u t t h e i r v i c t u a l s w i t h k n i v e s e x c e e d i n g a c e r t a i n l e n g t h ' . T h e y a r e d e b a r r e d from giving t h e i r c h i l d r e n a n y e d u c a t i o n ' u n l e s s u n d e r p r o t e s t a n t m a s t e r s ' , a n d if t h e p r o f i t s o n t h e i r f a r m s ' e x c e e d o n e t h i r d of t h e r e n t , t h e i r l e a s e s become voidable'. It 'is difficult to i m a g i n e ' , h e r e f l e c t s , ' w h a t m o r e c a n b e d o n e by s e v e r e t r e a t m e n t to e x t i n g u i s h a sect, or d e p r i v e its followers of all spirit or ability to d i s t u r b t h e g o v e r n m e n t ' . Y e t , t h e effect of t h e s e policies of d i s c o n t i n u i t y a n d r e f o r m h a s been precisely the opposite. After almost a century, 'such is still t h e m a l i g n a n t h a t r e d b o r n e by t h e p a p i s t s t o t h e p r o t e s t a n t s ' , that, 'although the p r o t e s t a n t s now b e a r t h e pro­ p o r t i o n of two t o five t o t h e R o m a n c a t h o l i c s , a r e in p o s s e s s i o n of all t h e offices of t h e s t a t e , t h e l a n d o w n e r s of n e a r l y t h e w h o l e i s l a n d , a n d p r o t e c t e d ' as well 'by t h e w h o l e p o w e r of E n g l a n d , t h e y t h i n k t h e m s e l v e s in t h e u t m o s t d a n g e r of b e i n g

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m a s s a c r e d by t h e p a p i s t s , if, e v e n in t i m e of p e a c e , t h e r e s h o u l d h a p p e n t o b e a less n u m b e r t h a n twelve t h o u s a n d effective t r o o p s r e m a i n i n g in t h e i s l a n d ' . W h a t 'success m a y we h o p e for from t h e like m e t h o d s in C a n a d a , w h e r e t h e R o m a n c a t h o l i c i n h a b i t a n t s a r e five h u n d r e d to o n e p r o t ­ estant, and those R o m a n catholics ten years ago were subjects of F r a n c e , a n d every m a n b e a r i n g a r m s a g a i n s t E n g l a n d ? ' T u r n i n g to t h e e x a m p l e of c o n t i n u i t y in M i n o r c a , K n o x w r i t e s , ' t h e effects of l e n i t y ' w e r e ' m o r e p r o m i s i n g ' a n d ' m o r e to t h e p o i n t ' . T h e i n h a b i t a n t s of M i n o r c a w e r e S p a n i a r d s ' h o s t i l e t o E n g l a n d ' , yet t h e y w e r e ' p e r m i t t e d t h e full enjoy­ m e n t of t h e i r r e l i g i o n a n d p r o p e r t i e s , from t h e cession of t h e i s l a n d to G r e a t B r i t a i n by t h e t r e a t y of U t r e c h t t o t h e p r e s e n t h o u r ' . A l t h o u g h 'we h a v e h a d t w o w a r s w i t h S p a i n in t h a t t i m e , a n d t h e i s l a n d h a s o n c e b e e n c o n q u e r e d by F r a n c e , t h e i n h a b i t a n t s have shewn no impatience u n d e r English govern­ m e n t ' . Therefore, he concludes, the p l a n n e r s were induced 'to a d o p t a p l a n of l e n i t y a n d i n d u l g e n c e ' t o w a r d s Q u e b e c , 'from t h e c o m p a r i s o n of t h e a d v a n t a g e s w i t h w h i c h t h a t m o d e of t r e a t m e n t h a d b e e n a t t e n d e d in M i n o r c a , w i t h w h a t h a d b e e n t h e r e s u l t of t h e s e v e r e s y s t e m ' in I r e l a n d . A n o t h e r policy c o n s i d e r a t i o n , h e a d d s , w a s t h e o t h e r t h i r t e e n hostile c o l o n i e s w o u l d seize o n a n y ' d i s c o n t e n t ' t h a t s u c h a s e v e r e s y s t e m w o u l d surely c a u s e . So far, h e c o n t i n u e s , I h a v e ' a r g u e d t h e p o i n t u p o n t h e o p p o s i t i o n ' s g r o u n d ' , a n d ' m a d e it a p p e a r , t o t h e conviction of every u n p r e j u d i c e d m i n d , t h a t t h e p l a n , w h i c h b e n e v o l e n c e a n d h u m a n i t y r e c o m m e n d , is c o n s o n a n t w i t h t h e s o u n d e s t policy'. B u t , t h e r e is still t h e c o n s i d e r a t i o n of 'justice', w h i c h o u g h t t o p r e v a i l e v e n o v e r 'impolicy, if t h a t could b e p r o v e d ' . I n this c a s e , j u s t i c e a n d policy c o i n c i d e , for t h e t r e a t y of P a r i s g u a r a n t e e s the R o m a n catholic religion and the pre-existing s y s t e m of p r o p e r t y , ' w h i c h his m a j e s t y is n o t by his p r e r o g a t i v e e n a b l e d to a b o l i s h ' . T h e R o m a n c a t h o l i c s in C a n a d a , in addition, are not subject to the disabilities, and penalties, to w h i c h R o m a n c a t h o l i c s in t h i s k i n g d o m a r e s u b j e c t ' , b e c a u s e t h e A c t s of P a r l i a m e n t w h i c h i m p o s e d t h e m 'do n o t e x t e n d t o Canada'.

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T h e C a n a d i a n s ' a r e also c a p a b l e of a n d e n t i t l e d t o all t h e r i g h t s of B r i t i s h s u b j e c t s in t h a t p r o v i n c e ' t o h o l d p u b l i c office, s e r v e o n j u r i e s , hold e l e c t i o n s a n d h a v e a n a s s e m b l y . T h e c o n t i n u i t y a n d e x p a n s i o n of t h e i r r i g h t s of g o v e r n i n g t h e m ­ selves by t h e i r o w n laws a n d ways is ' f o u n d e d u p o n t h e p r i n c i p l e s of h u m a n i t y ' . I n s u m m a r y , t h e ' Q u e b e c A c t ' s e c u r e s ' t h e e n j o y m e n t of t h e i r p r o p e r t i e s a n d civil r i g h t s ; a n d t h e r e - e s t a b l i s h m e n t of t h e i r a n c i e n t laws a n d c u s t o m s , subject to s u c h a l t e r a t i o n s as t h e l e g i s l a t u r e of t h e p r o v i n c e m a y t h i n k fit to m a k e ' . T h e r e a s o n w h y t h e c o n v e n t i o n s of c o n t i n u i t y a n d c o n s e n t w e r e f a m i l i a r t o a n d e m b r a c e d by e i g h t e e n t h - c e n t u r y w h i g loyalists like W i l l i a m K n o x a n d L o r d M a n s f i e l d is t h a t t h e y a r e t h e n o r m a t i v e f o u n d a t i o n s of t h e i r w h i g p h i l o s o p h y of t h e ' a n c i e n t c o n s t i t u t i o n ' . O n t h i s w i d e s p r e a d e a r l y m o d e r n view, r e c o n s t r u c t e d by J o h n Pocock in The ancient constitution and the feudal law, w h e n W i l l i a m c o n q u e r e d E n g l a n d a n d i m p o s e d t h e N o r m a n yoke of f e u d a l law, h e could n o t d i s c o n t i n u e t h e p r e - e x i s t i n g a n c i e n t c o n s t i t u t i o n of A n g l o - S a x o n local g o v e r n ­ m e n t , t r i a l by j u r y , i n d e p e n d e n t p r o p e r t y a n d i n d i v i d u a l l i b e r t i e s . T h e s e e a r l y b e g i n n i n g s of t h e c o m m o n - l a w l i b e r t i e s of a free p e o p l e survived t h e c o n q u e s t a n d w e r e a u t h o r i t a t i v e in v i r t u e of t h e i r l o n g u s e a n d p r a c t i c e . A l t h o u g h w h i g a n d r e p u b l i c a n w r i t e r s w o u l d often s p e a k of t h e s e l i b e r t i e s of self r u l e as ' n a t u r a l ' a n d d e r i v e t h e m from ' r e a s o n ' a l o n e , t h e y w o u l d a l m o s t always, as M a r k G o l d i e a n d R i c h a r d A s h c r a f t have shown, m a k e t h e c o m p l e m e n t a r y a r g u m e n t t h a t they could also b e d e r i v e d from t h e h i s t o r y of t h e a n c i e n t c o n s t i ­ t u t i o n . A s a c o n s e q u e n c e , t h e very civil l i b e r t i e s a n d f o r m s of self g o v e r n m e n t t h a t t h e w h i g s c h a m p i o n e d w e r e b a s e d o n t h e c o n v e n t i o n s of t h e a n c i e n t c o n s t i t u t i o n as t h e y a p p l i e d to t h e N o r m a n c o n q u e s t of E n g l a n d . As we m i g h t e x p e c t , M a t t h e w H a l e p r e s e n t s a classic e x p o s i t i o n of t h e a n c i e n t c o n s t i t u t i o n in The history of the common law of England. T h e c o n q u e s t by K i n g W i l l i a m w a s n o t , h e o p e n s his f a m o u s d i s c u s s i o n , ' s u c h a c o n q u e s t as did, or could a l t e r t h e L a w s of t h i s K i n g d o m , or i m p o s e L a w s u p o n

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t h e P e o p l e per Modum Conquestus'. C o n t r a r y t o H o b b e s , t h e p r e v a i l i n g laws have a u t h o r i t y f r o m t h e i r ' u s a g e a n d c u s t o m ' . T h e p r i m a r y r e a s o n w h y t h e laws a n d r e l i g i o n of a c o u n t r y a r e c o n t i n u e d t h r o u g h a c o n q u e s t is o n ' A c c o u n t of H u m a n i t y , t h i n k i n g it a h a r d a n d o v e r - s e v e r e t h i n g to i m p o s e p r e s e n t l y u p o n t h e c o n q u e r e d a C h a n g e of t h e i r C u s t o m s , w h i c h l o n g U s e h a s m a d e d e a r to t h e m ' . 9

I n his c h a p t e r on c o n q u e s t in t h e Two treatises, Locke d e f e n d s t h e a n c i e n t c o n s t i t u t i o n , b u t h e r e d e s c r i b e s it in t e r m s of r i g h t s in a m a n n e r w h i c h e l i m i n a t e s t h e c o n v e n t i o n of c o n t i n u i t y . E v e n 'if W i l l i a m h a d a r i g h t to m a k e W a r o n t h i s I s l a n d ' , ' ( a s by t h e H i s t o r y it a p p e a r s o t h e r w i s e ) ' , his d o m i n i o n by c o n q u e s t w o u l d ' r e a c h n o f a r t h e r , t h a n to t h e Saxons a n d Britains t h a t w e r e t h e n I n h a b i t a n t s of t h i s C o u n t r y ' . H e lays it d o w n in successive s e c t i o n s t h a t e v e n a j u s t c o n q u e r o r ' g e t s n o p o w e r b u t only o v e r t h o s e , w h o h a v e a c t u a l l y a s s i s t e d , c o n c u r r ' d , o r c o n s e n t e d to t h a t u n j u s t force, t h a t is u s e d a g a i n s t h i m ' . C o n q u e s t gives h i m 'no right of Dominion' over t h o s e w h o did n o t fight a g a i n s t h i m , o r e v e n of t h e p o s t e r i t y of t h o s e t h a t did: t h e y ' a r e free of a n y s u b j e c t i o n to h i m ' . Secondly, a c o n q u e r o r h a s a r i g h t to t h e a m o u n t of p r o p e r t y n e c e s s a r y t o m a k e u p for d a m a g e s , b u t t h i s 'will s c a r c e give h i m a Title to any Countrey he shall Conquer'. H e ' h a s n o t t h e r e b y a R i g h t a n d T i t l e to t h e i r P o s s e s s i o n s ' . H e n c e , t h e i n h a b i t a n t s of ' a n y c o u n t r y ' w h o ' d e r i v e a T i t l e to t h e i r E s t a t e s from t h o s e , w h o a r e s u b d u e d , a n d h a d a G o v e r n m e n t forced u p o n t h e m a g a i n s t t h e i r free c o n s e n t , retain a Right to the Possession of their Ancestors': m

For t h e first Conqueror never having had a Title to the Land o f that Country, the P e o p l e w h o are the D e s c e n d e n t s of, or c l a i m u n d e r t h o s e , w h o w e r e forced to s u b m i t to the Y o k e of a G o v e r n m e n t by c o n s t r a i n t , have always a right to s h a k e it off, and free t h e m s e l v e s from t h e U s u r p a t i o n , or Tyranny, w h i c h the Sword h a t h b r o u g h t in upon t h e m , till their Rulers put t h e m u n d e r such a F r a m e o f G o v e r n m e n t , as they willingly, a n d of choice c o n s e n t to.

A c o n q u e r o r h a s n o r i g h t s o v e r t h e p r e v a i l i n g s y s t e m of p r o p e r t y a n d form of g o v e r n m e n t u n l e s s t h e p e o p l e c o n s e n t to its a l t e r a t i o n . If h e c a n n o t g a i n t h e i r c o n s e n t , h e is

The rediscovery of cultural diversity II c o n s t r a i n e d to r e c o g n i s e t h e c o n t i n u a t i o n of b o t h , as W i l l i a m p r e s u m a b l y did, or face j u s t i f i e d r e v o l u t i o n . ' W h o d o u b t s ' , Locke c o n c l u d e s , ' b u t t h e G r e c i a n C h r i s t i a n d e s c e n d e n t s of t h e a n c i e n t p o s s e s s o r s of t h a t C o u n t r y m a y j u s t l y c a s t off t h e T u r k i s h yoke w h i c h t h e y h a v e so l o n g g r o a n e d u n d e r w h e n e v e r t h e y h a v e t h e p o w e r to d o it? F o r n o G o v e r n m e n t c a n h a v e a r i g h t t o o b e d i e n c e from a p e o p l e w h o h a v e not freely c o n s e n t e d to it.' I n this powerful a n d r e v o l u t i o n a r y d o c t r i n e , t h e c o n v e n t i o n of c o n s e n t d o e s all t h e work. T h e p r e v a i l i n g s y s t e m of p r o p e r t y a n d g o v e r n m e n t h a s n o a u t h o r i t y from t h e n o r m a t i v e force of c u s t o m a n d u s a g e , b u t solely from t h e p e o p l e ' s r e f u s a l t o c o n s e n t t o t h e c o n q u e r o r ' s s y s t e m . T h i s r e f o r m u l a t i o n is c o n s i s t e n t w i t h L o c k e ' s m o d e r n a c c o u n t of c u s t o m w e c o n s i d e r e d in c h a p t e r 3. Locke t h o u g h t t h a t t h e d o c t r i n e w o u l d h a v e v e r y l i t t l e use b e c a u s e h e m i s t a k e n l y a s s u m e d , a s m o s t m o d e r n t h e o r i s t s h a v e d o n e , it ' s e l d o m h a p p e n s ' t h a t the 'Conquerors and Conquered never incorporate into one p e o p l e , u n d e r t h e s a m e laws a n d f r e e d o m ' . Looking back from t h e e n d of t h e t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y , it is obvious t h a t h e w a s w r o n g , n o t only in t h e long r u n , b u t a l m o s t i m m e d i a t e l y . For, if a c o n q u e r o r c a n n o t a l t e r t h e p r o p e r t y or g o v e r n m e n t of a c o n q u e r e d p e o p l e w i t h o u t t h e i r c o n s e n t , t h e n a colonial p e o p l e , w h o h a v e not e v e n b e e n c o n q u e r e d , m u s t enjoy a t l e a s t as m u c h f r e e d o m from t h e i r i m p e r i a l g o v e r n m e n t . L o c k e ' s close friend, W i l l i a m M o l y n e u x , w a s t e d n o t i m e in d r a w i n g this i n f e r e n c e , to L o c k e ' s d i s a p p r o v a l , in his i n f l u e n t i a l d e f e n c e of t h e a u t o n o m y of t h e I r i s h p r o t e s t a n t l e g i s l a t u r e from I m p e r i a l i n t e r f e r e n c e , in The case of Ireland being bound by the Acts of the Parliament of England ( 1 6 9 8 ) . H e did n o t , we m a y n o t e , a p p l y it m u t u a l l y t o I r i s h c a t h o l i c s . M o l y n e u x ' s a r g u m e n t c o m p l e m e n t e d t h e o l d e r view t h a t t h e four n a t i o n s of E n g l a n d , S c o t l a n d , W a l e s a n d I r e l a n d c o n s t i t u t e d a c o n f e d e r a l or ' m u l t i p l e ' k i n g d o m . W i t h i n thirty-five y e a r s , J o h n N o r r i s , in The liberty and property of British subjects ( 1 7 2 6 ) , u s e d t h e Two treatises to j u s t i f y colonial r e s i s t a n c e to t h e i m p e r i a l c o n s t i t u t i o n of C a r o l i n a t h a t Locke h i m s e l f h a d h e l p e d t o d r a f t . I n t h e Rights of the 11

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British colonies asserted and proved (1764), J a m e s O t i s c o m b i n e d L o c k e ' s c o n v e n t i o n of c o n s e n t w i t h his s e c t i o n s o n t h e b e g i n n i n g s of political societies t o p r o t e s t t h a t t h e B r i t i s h g o v e r n m e n t could not i n t e r f e r e w i t h colonial p r o p e r t y w i t h o u t t h e c o n s e n t of t h e colonial l e g i s l a t u r e s . E v e n t h o u g h Locke a r g u e d t h a t t h e c o n v e n t i o n of c o n s e n t d i d n o t a p p l y t o A b o r i g i n a l p e o p l e s , S a m u e l W h a r t o n , w h o m we m e t e a r l i e r , u s e d t h e Two treatises to d e f e n d t h e i r p r o p e r t y a n d g o v e r n m e n t in Plain facts ( 1 7 8 1 ) . Diverse federalism, the three conventions and the American revolution T h e m o s t effective i n t e r p r e t a t i o n a n d selective a p p l i c a t i o n of t h e c o n v e n t i o n s of t h e a n c i e n t c o n s t i t u t i o n is A summary view of the rights of British America by T h o m a s J e f f e r s o n in 1775. I n t h e p a m p h l e t , J e f f e r s o n s e t s o u t t h e m a i n j u s t i f i c a t i o n for t h e revolution: the British g o v e r n m e n t passed laws a n d interfered w i t h colonial p r o p e r t y w i t h o u t t h e c o n s e n t of t h e colonial legislatures. T h e 'universal law' the British government has v i o l a t e d is, 'a r i g h t w h i c h n a t u r e h a s given t o all m e n , of d e p a r t i n g from t h e c o u n t r y in w h i c h c h a n c e , n o t c h o i c e , h a s p l a c e d t h e m , of g o i n g in q u e s t of n e w h a b i t a t i o n s , a n d of t h e r e e s t a b l i s h i n g n e w societies, u n d e r s u c h laws a n d r e g u l a t i o n s as t o t h e m shall s e e m m o s t likely t o p r o m o t e p u b l i c h a p p i n e s s ' . T h e first B r i t i s h s e t t l e r s in A m e r i c a a p p l i e d t h i s law in t h e s a m e m a n n e r as ' t h e i r S a x o n a n c e s t o r s h a d ' l o n g a g o in l e a v i n g n o r t h e r n E u r o p e a n d p o s s e s s i n g ' t h e m s e l v e s of t h e i s l a n d of B r i t a i n ' , w h i c h w a s ' t h e n less c h a r g e d w i t h inhabitants'. T h e Saxons then 'established t h e r e that system of laws w h i c h h a s so l o n g b e e n t h e glory a n d p r o t e c t i o n of t h a t c o u n t r y ' . T h e i r m o t h e r c o u n t r y in n o r t h e r n E u r o p e e x e r t e d n o c l a i m over t h e m , a n d , if it w e r e t o d o so n o w , t h e p r e s e n t s u b j e c t s of G r e a t B r i t a i n ' h a v e too firm a f e e l i n g of t h e r i g h t s d e r i v e d t o t h e m from t h e i r a n c e s t o r s , t o b o w d o w n t h e s o v e r e i g n t y of t h e i r s t a t e b e f o r e such v i s i o n a r y p r e t e n s i o n s ' . W i t h t h i s v e n e r a b l e p r e c e d e n t firmly in p l a c e , J e f f e r s o n d r a w s t h e i n e s c a p a b l e a n a l o g y . As for t h e B r i t i s h s e t t l e r s in A m e r i c a , 'for t h e m s e l v e s t h e y f o u g h t , for t h e m s e l v e s t h e y c o n q u e r e d , a n d for t h e m s e l v e s a l o n e t h e y h a v e r i g h t t o

The rediscovery of cultural diversity II

l

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h o l d ' . G r e a t B r i t a i n offered n o a s s i s t a n c e w h a t s o e v e r . T h e e m i g r a n t s t h e n freely chose ' t o a d o p t t h a t s y s t e m of laws u n d e r w h i c h t h e y h a d h i t h e r t o lived in t h e m o t h e r c o u n t r y , a n d to c o n t i n u e t h e i r u n i o n w i t h h e r by s u b m i t t i n g t h e m s e l v e s to the s a m e c o m m o n sovereign, who was thereby m a d e t h e c e n t r a l link c o n n e c t i n g t h e s e v e r a l p a r t s of t h e empire'. G r e a t B r i t a i n v i o l a t e d this i m p e r i a l c h a i n of s o v e r e i g n p a r t s l i n k e d t o g e t h e r by c o n s e n t . T h e B r i t i s h C r o w n a n d p a r l i a m e n t t r a n s g r e s s e d t h e a u t h o r i t y of t h e colonial a s s e m b l i e s to d r a w t h e i r own b o u n d a r i e s a n d e s t a b l i s h t h e c o m m o n - l a w s y s t e m of allodial p r o p e r t y a l l o t m e n t , w h i c h t h e colonies i n t r o d u c e d by collective a s s e m b l i e s of t h e p e o p l e , or 'by t h e i r l e g i s l a t u r e , to w h o m t h e y m a y h a v e d e l e g a t e d s o v e r e i g n a u t h o r i t y ' , or by t h e L o c k e a n r u l e t h a t ' e a c h i n d i v i d u a l of t h e society m a y a p p r o p r i a t e to h i m s e l f s u c h l a n d s as h e finds v a c a n t , a n d o c c u p a n c y will give h i m t i t l e ' . I n s t e a d , t h e C r o w n seized c o n t r o l of l a n d g r a n t s by t h e 'fictitious p r i n c i p l e t h a t all l a n d s b e l o n g o r i g i n a l l y to t h e k i n g ' , a n d t h e s e t t l e r s , b e i n g f a r m e r s n o t l a w y e r s , ' w e r e e a r l y p e r s u a d e d ' a n d ' a c c o r d i n g l y took g r a n t s of t h e i r o w n l a n d s from t h e c r o w n ' . T h e fiction is b a s e d on t h e p r i n c i p l e , 'first i n t r o d u c e d ' by ' W i l l i a m , t h e N o r m a n ' , t h a t 'all l a n d s in E n g l a n d w e r e h e l d e i t h e r m e d i a t e l y or i m m e d i a t e l y of t h e c r o w n ' . B u t t h i s s y s t e m could only b e r i g h t l y a p p l i e d t o ' t h o s e w h o fell in t h e b a t t l e of H a s t i n g s ' . Although this comprises 'a considerable proportion of t h e l a n d s of t h e w h o l e k i n g d o m ' , it d o e s n o t i n c l u d e t h e l a n d 'left in t h e h a n d s of his S a x o n s u b j e c t s : h e l d of n o s u p e r i o r , a n d n o t s u b j e c t to f e u d a l c o n d i t i o n s ' . I n t h e s a m e w a y t h a t ' N o r m a n l a w y e r s ' s o u g h t to i m p o s e f u r t h e r ' f e u d a l b u r d e n s ' o n t h e c o m m o n - l a w p r o p e r t y of free b o r n E n g l i s h m e n u n d e r t h e g u i s e of t h e N o r m a n fiction of d i s c o n t i n u i t y , successive ' p r i n c e s ' s o u g h t t o u s u r p p r o p e r t y in A m e r i c a a n d , a m o n g other methods, 1 2

1 3

parted out and distributed among the favourites and followers of their fortunes, and, by an assumed right of the crown alone, were erected into distinct and independent governments; a measure which it is believed his majesty's prudence and understanding would

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prevent him from imitating at this day, as no exercise of such a power, of dividing and dismembering a country, has ever occured in his majesty's realm of England. T h e p r o b l e m J e f f e r s o n a n d t h e o t h e r r e v o l u t i o n a r i e s faced is, if t h e c o n v e n t i o n s of c o n t i n u i t y a n d c o n s e n t a p p l y in t h e i r c a s e a n d j u s t i f y t h e i r c a u s e , t h e n , by t h e c o n v e n t i o n of m u t u a l r e c o g n i t i o n a n d p a r i t y of r e a s o n i n g , t h e y a p p l y as well t o t h e A b o r i g i n a l n a t i o n s , as t h e C r o w n r e c o g n i s e d in t h e R o y a l P r o c l a m a t i o n of 1 7 6 3 , a n d to t h e colony of Q u e b e c , as t h e C r o w n r e c o g n i s e d in t h e Q u e b e c Act of 1774. All we n e e d to d o t o see t h i s is t o v i e w j e f f e r s o n ' s c o n f e d e r a l e m p i r e of s o v e r e i g n s o c i e t i e s , l i n k e d t o g e t h e r by t h e c o n s e n t of t h e p a r t s , from e a c h n e i g h b o u r h o o d . I n t u r n , as s o m e loyalists w e r e willing t o c o n c e d e to avoid r e v o l u t i o n , t h e C r o w n w a s e q u a l l y c o n s t r a i n e d t o r e c o g n i s e t h e c o - o r d i n a t e s t a t u s of t h e colonial a s s e m b l i e s , as it s o m e w h a t b e l a t e d l y did in t h e B a l f o u r D e c l a r a t i o n of 1927. H o w e v e r , as J e f f e r s o n ' s a c c o u n t of t h e ' c o n q u e s t ' a n d ' a l l o t m e n t ' of A m e r i c a f o r e s h a d o w s , t h e r e v o l u t i o n a r i e s h a d n o i n t e n t i o n of m u t u a l l y r e c o g n i s i n g t h e c l a i m s of o t h e r s . I n s t e a d , t h e y i n v a d e d C a n a d a t o t h e north a n d the Indian lands to the west. T h e j u s t i f i c a t i o n for n o t r e c o g n i s i n g t h e c o n t i n u i t y a n d c o n s e n t of o t h e r s is p r e s e n t e d in t h e D e c l a r a t i o n of I n d e p e n d e n c e of 1 7 7 6 . T h e A b o r i g i n a l n a t i o n s , as we h a v e s e e n , a r e r e d e s c r i b e d in t h e p r o g r e s s i v e l a n g u a g e of m o d e r n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m as s a v a g e s in a s t a t e of w a r . T h e R o y a l P r o c l a m a t i o n p r o t e c t e d t h e A b o r i g i n a l n a t i o n s to t h e w e s t a n d o u t l a w e d colonial c l a i m s to t h e i r l a n d s by t h e v e r y s y s t e m J e f f e r s o n c o n d e m n e d in 1775. It is a l l u d e d to, as o n e of t h e ' l o n g t r a i n of a b u s e s a n d u s u r p a t i o n s ' w h i c h evinces a d e s i g n t o introduce 'absolute despotism', under the grievance of'raising t h e c o n d i t i o n s of n e w A p p r o p r i a t i o n of L a n d s ' . T h e Q u e b e c Act is r e d e s c r i b e d as a g r i e v a n c e , for ' a b o l i s h i n g t h e free s y s t e m of E n g l i s h Laws in a n e i g h b o u r i n g P r o v i n c e , e s t a b ­ l i s h i n g t h e r e i n a n A r b i t r a r y g o v e r n m e n t , a n d e n l a r g i n g its b o u n d a r i e s so as t o r e n d e r it at o n c e a n e x a m p l e a n d fit i n s t r u m e n t for i n t r o d u c i n g t h e s a m e a b s o l u t e r u l e i n t o t h e s e

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C o l o n i e s ' . T h e so-called 'free s y s t e m of L a w s ' t h a t w a s ' a b o l i s h e d ' refers t o t h e s y s t e m of E n g l i s h laws t h a t w a s i m p o s e d in 1763, in violation of t h e t r e a t y of P a r i s a n d t h e c o n v e n t i o n of c o n t i n u i t y , a n d r e s c i n d e d in 1 7 7 4 ! T h i s h o s t i l e c o n d e m n a t i o n of C a n a d a as a n e n e m y is e x p l a i n e d by C h a r l e s M e t z g e r in t e r m s of t h e r e l i g i o u s i n t o l e r a n c e of t h e r e v o l u t i o n a r i e s . Be t h i s as it m a y , t h e c o n t r a s t b e t w e e n ' f r e e ' E n g l i s h a n d ' a r b i t r a r y ' canadien g o v e r n m e n t s s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e c o n v e n t i o n of c o n t i n u i t y h a s b e e n r e p l a c e d by t h e m o d e r n i n t o l e r a n c e of d i f f e r e n t f o r m s of government. T h e grievance that C a n a d a ' s borders were e n l a r g e d in o r d e r t o i n t r o d u c e a s i m i l a r f o r m of ' a r b i t r a r y ' g o v e r n m e n t in t h e colonies p o i n t s t o a f u r t h e r r e a s o n . I n e x p l a i n i n g t h e Q u e b e c Act two y e a r s e a r l i e r ( 1 7 7 4 ) , W i l l i a m K n o x r e m i n d s his r e a d e r s t h a t t h e Royal P r o c l a m a t i o n of 1763 e s t a b l i s h e d a b o u n d a r y d o w n t h e w e s t e r n b a c k s of t h e colonies. It l i m i t e d ' s e t t l e m e n t s u n d e r g r a n t s from t h e old p r o v i n c e s ' , e x c l u d e d 'all p r o v i n c e s from j u r i s d i c t i o n in t h e i n t e r i o r of I n d i a n c o u n t r y ' , a n d r e g u l a t e d all ' t r a d e w i t h t h e s a v a g e s ' . T h e colonists v i o l a t e d t h e b o u n d a r y , ' e m i g r a n t s in g r e a t n u m b e r s flocked t h i t h e r ' a n d t h e y ' t o o k p o s s e s s i o n of v a s t t r a c t s of c o u n t r y w i t h o u t a n y a u t h o r i t y , a n d s e a t e d t h e m ­ selves in s u c h s i t u a t i o n s as p l e a s e d t h e m b e s t ' . F o r t u n a t e l y , K n o x c o n t i n u e s , t h e canadiens h a d a s t r i n g of t r a d i n g posts along the entire boundary which they had built u p over t h e p r e v i o u s c e n t u r y a n d o n e half. T h e r e f o r e , t o s t o p t h e i n t r u s i o n o n I n d i a n l a n d , ' t h e w h o l e of t h e d e r e l i c t c o u n t r y is, by t h e first c l a u s e of t h e [ Q u e b e c ] act, p u t u n d e r t h e j u r i s d i c t i o n of t h e g o v e r n m e n t of Q u e b e c , w i t h t h e a v o w e d p u r p o s e of e x c l u d i n g all f u r t h e r s e t t l e m e n t t h e r e i n , a n d for t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t of u n i f o r m r e g u l a t i o n s for t h e I n d i a n t r a d e s ' . T h e r e f o r e , for t h e r e v o l u t i o n a r i e s t o r e c o g n i s e t h a t t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n a l c o n v e n t i o n s w h i c h t h e y a p p l i e d in t h e i r o w n c a s e a p p l i e d m u t u a l l y to Q u e b e c , w o u l d b e , eo ipso, to c o n c e d e t h a t t h e y a p p l i e d as well to t h e A b o r i g i n a l n a t i o n s . 14

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In these examples, the three conventions are abused to under­ m i n e the diverse federations they would entail and to establish

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u n i f o r m c o n s t i t u t i o n a l a s s o c i a t i o n s in t h e i r p l a c e . H o w e v e r , as M c l l w a i n o n c e a r g u e d , t h e p a t r i o t s w h o fought t h e r e v o l u t i o n c o n t i n u e d t o t h i n k a b o u t c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m in t h e t e r m s of these t h r e e ancient conventions, even w h e n they applied t h e m p a r t i a l l y . W h a t b r o u g h t m a n y to a b a n d o n t h e m a l t o g e t h e r , a n d to e m b r a c e t h e n e w c o n s t i t u t i o n of t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s in 1787? T h e c o n s t i t u t i o n a l c o n v e n t i o n w a s u n a b l e to g a i n t h e u n a n i m o u s c o n s e n t of t h e s t a t e l e g i s l a t u r e s to t h e n e w c o n s t i ­ t u t i o n . Y e t , t h e r e v o l u t i o n , as J e f f e r s o n e x p l a i n e d a b o v e , w a s f o u g h t in t h e n a m e of t h e s o v e r e i g n t y of t h e s t a t e l e g i s l a t u r e s , d e l e g a t e d to t h e m by t h e c i t i z e n s of t h e s t a t e s , a n d t h i s w a s a f f i r m e d in t h e A r t i c l e s of C o n f e d e r a t i o n . A n y a l t e r a t i o n in the constitution that touched t h e m would require their c o n s e n t , for, a g a i n , t h i s w a s t h e j u s t i f i c a t i o n for t h e r e b e l l i o n a g a i n s t G r e a t B r i t a i n a n d t h e p r i n c i p l e of t h e A r t i c l e s of C o n f e d e r a t i o n . T o p r o c e e d w i t h o u t t h e c o n s e n t of t h e s t a t e s w o u l d b e t o a b a n d o n t h e c o n v e n t i o n on w h i c h t h e n e w republic rested. M a d i s o n t a k e s u p t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i m p a s s e in n u m b e r forty of t h e Federalist papers. T h e d i l e m m a is, h e w r i t e s , n o t h i d i n g h i s p r e f e r e n c e : ' w h e t h e r it w a s of m o s t i m p o r t a n c e t o t h e h a p p i n e s s of t h e p e o p l e of A m e r i c a t h a t t h e A r t i c l e s of C o n f e d e r a t i o n s h o u l d b e d i s r e g a r d e d , a n d a n a d e q u a t e g o v e r n m e n t b e p r o v i d e d , a n d t h e U n i o n p r e s e r v e d ; or t h a t a n a d e q u a t e g o v e r n m e n t s h o u l d b e o m i t t e d , a n d t h e A r t i c l e s of C o n f e d e r a t i o n p r e s e r v e d ' . T h e c r i t e r i o n for d e c i d i n g c o n s t i ­ t u t i o n a l c a s e s s u c h as t h e s e is t h a t , ' w h e r e t h e s e v e r a l p a r t s c a n n o t b e m a d e to c o i n c i d e , t h e less i m p o r t a n t s h o u l d give w a y t o t h e m o r e i m p o r t a n t p a r t ; t h e m e a n s s h o u l d b e sacrificed t o t h e e n d , r a t h e r t h a n t h e e n d to t h e m e a n s ' . O n M a d i s o n ' s view, ' t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t of a g o v e r n m e n t a d e q u a t e to the national happiness was the end', to which the A r t i c l e s of C o n f e d e r a t i o n o u g h t , 'as insufficient m e a n s , t o h a v e b e e n sacrificed'. A c c o r d i n g l y , t h e a n c i e n t c o n v e n t i o n of c o n s e n t w a s r e d u c e d t o a n e x p e n d a b l e m e a n s a n d t h e new constitution established. T h e new, m o d e r n convention, w h i c h h e w e a v e s i n t o his f o r m u l a t i o n of t h e d i l e m m a , is t h e ' h a p p i n e s s of t h e p e o p l e of A m e r i c a ' . T h e ' p e o p l e of A m e r i c a ' 16

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a r e n o t t h e c i t i z e n s of s t a t e s , w h o f o u g h t t h e r e v o l u t i o n for t h e r e c o g n i t i o n of t h e i r f o r m s of g o v e r n m e n t , b u t t h e u n c o n s t i t u t e d m e m b e r s of t h e e n t i r e r e p u b l i c . T h e j u s t i f i c a t i o n for o v e r r i d i n g a n d s u b o r d i n a t i n g t h e s t a t e s in t h i s way, h e r e t r o a c t i v e l y a r g u e s , is t h a t in m a n y c a s e s ' t h e p o w e r s of t h e [new] C o n f e d e r a t i o n o p e r a t e i m m e d i a t e l y o n t h e p e r s o n s a n d i n t e r e s t s of i n d i v i d u a l c i t i z e n s ' . O n c e t h e p e o p l e a r e s e e n in t h i s u n c o n s t i t u t e d light, t h e n it is u n d e m o c r a t i c n o t t o p r o c e e d w h e n t h e c o n v e n t i o n h a d t h e c o n s e n t of n i n e of t h e t h i r t e e n s t a t e s w i t h a m a j o r i t y of t h e p o p u l a t i o n , or t o c o n s i d e r ' t h e a b s u r d i t y of s u b j e c t i n g t h e f a t e of twelve s t a t e s t o t h e p e r v e r s e n e s s or c o r r u p t i o n of a t h i r t e e n t h ' . 1 8

T h e a r g u m e n t s prove, Madison concludes, ' t h a t the charge a g a i n s t t h e c o n v e n t i o n of e x c e e d i n g t h e i r p o w e r s ' h a s ' n o f o u n d a t i o n to s u p p o r t it'. E v e n 'if t h e y h a d v i o l a t e d b o t h t h e i r p o w e r s a n d t h e i r o b l i g a t i o n s ' , as h e c o n c e d e s , ' t h i s o u g h t n e v e r t h e l e s s t o b e e m b r a c e d , if it b e c a l c u l a t e d t o a c c o m p l i s h t h e views a n d h a p p i n e s s of t h e p e o p l e of A m e r i c a ' . By a b a n d o n i n g t h e conventions on which the revolution had been f o u g h t , a n d by e m p l o y i n g a r g u m e n t s n o t i c e a b l y s i m i l a r t o t h e o n e s u s e d e a r l i e r by B r i t i s h loyalists a g a i n s t t h e d e m a n d s of t h e colonial a s s e m b l i e s , t h e n e w c o n s t i t u t i o n w i t h its m o d e r n c o n c e p t i o n of t h e p e o p l e w a s laid over t h e old c o n f e d e r a t i o n a n d its a n c i e n t a r t i c l e s . T h e c o n s t i t u t i o n a l 'coup d'etat', as C h a r l e s B e a r d called it, w a s c o m p l e t e . A s t h e Haudenosaunee i m a g e of t h e c h a i n is m e a n t to r e m i n d u s , s u c h c e l e b r a t e d c o n s t i t u t i o n a l a c t s a p p e a r g r e a t e r in t h e o r y t h a n t h e y a r e in p r a c t i c e . M u c h of t h e old s o v e r e i g n t y of t h e s t a t e s c o n t i n u e d i n t o t h e n e w f e d e r a t i o n a n d , a s C a l v i n R. M a s s e y r e m i n d s u s , t h e s o v e r e i g n s t a t e s h a v e u s e d it t o c r e a t e a d i v e r s e f e d e r a t i o n of legal a n d political p l u r a l i s m in p r a c t i c e , u n k n o w n to t h e t h e o r i s t s a n d s i m i l a r in s o m e a s p e c t s to Canada. 1 9

The modern attack on diversefederalism: the Durham report and its followers T h e p r o b l e m w i t h t h e t h r e e c o n v e n t i o n s from a m o d e r n p o i n t of view is t h a t t h e y b r i n g i n t o a n e w c o n s t i t u t i o n a l a s s o c i a t i o n

i 8 5

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f o r m s of g o v e r n m e n t from a lower s t a g e of h i s t o r i c a l d e v e l o p ­ m e n t , m a k e r e a c h i n g a g r e e m e n t difficult a n d o b s t r u c t p r o g r e s s i v e c o n s o l i d a t i o n a n d u n i f o r m i t y . Now, we h a v e j u s t s e e n t h e e x e m p l a r y a r g u m e n t s e m p l o y e d to d i s c r e d i t t h e c o n v e n t i o n of c o n s e n t a n d r e p l a c e it w i t h ' t h e h a p p i n e s s of t h e p e o p l e ' . A b u s e s of t h e c o n v e n t i o n of m u t u a l r e c o g n i t i o n a r e too n u m e r o u s t o r e c a l l . T h i s leaves t h e c o n v e n t i o n of c o n t i n u i t y . I n w h a t c i r c u m s t a n c e s w a s it r e d e s c r i b e d in t h e l a n g u a g e of m o d e r n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m as a n o b s t a c l e t o p r o g r e s s , a n d t h e policy of d i s c o n t i n u i t y a n d r e f o r m a p p l a u d e d a s e n l i g h t e n e d c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m ? O n e of t h e m o s t i n f l u e n t i a l i n s t a n c e s is t h e r e p o r t o n C a n a d a by t h e l i b e r a l L o r d D u r h a m in 1 8 4 0 . I n 1791 C a n a d a w a s c o n s t i t u t e d i n t o two p r o v i n c e s w i t h t h e i r own l e g i s l a t u r e s : L o w e r C a n a d a ( Q u e b e c ) a n d U p p e r C a n a d a ( O n t a r i o , t h e f o r m e r pays d'en haut). F r e n c h w a s t h e m a j o r i t y l a n g u a g e in L o w e r C a n a d a a n d E n g l i s h in U p p e r C a n a d a . I n a d d i t i o n , t h e l a n g u a g e s , religions a n d r i g h t s to u s e b o t h F r e n c h a n d E n g l i s h in t h e c o u r t s a n d l e g i s l a t u r e s w e r e c o n t i n u e d a n d g u a r a n t e e d for t h e E n g l i s h m i n o r i t y in L o w e r C a n a d a a n d t h e F r e n c h m i n o r i t y in U p p e r C a n a d a . T h e r e c o g n i t i o n of t h e g o v e r n m e n t s a n d t e r r i t o r i e s of A b o r i g i n a l n a t i o n s in t h e Royal P r o c l a m a t i o n w a s r e a f f i r m e d in R o y a l Instructions and t r e a t y m a k i n g . In 1 8 3 7 - 8 , several Lower a n d U p p e r C a n a d i a n s , b o t h F r e n c h a n d E n g l i s h , d e c i d e d it w a s t i m e t o d o w h a t t h e t h i r t e e n o t h e r colonies h a d d o n e : over­ throw British rule and establish i n d e p e n d e n t republics. T h e p o p u l a r r e b e l l i o n s w e r e d e f e a t e d a n d D u r h a m was s e n t t o report. G i v e n w h a t t h e r e b e l s h a d a c t u a l l y said, especially in L o w e r C a n a d a , D u r h a m w r i t e s t h a t h e ' e x p e c t e d t o find a c o n t e s t b e t w e e n a g o v e r n m e n t a n d a p e o p l e ' : t h a t is, a c o n t e s t of C a n a d i a n s against British rule. This expectation was f u r t h e r e d by t h e fact t h a t ' t h e F r e n c h ' , w h o led t h e r e b e l l i o n in L o w e r C a n a d a , ' h a v e b e e n viewed as t h e d e m o c r a t i c p a r t y , c o n t e n d i n g for r e f o r m ' , a n d ' t h e E n g l i s h as a c o n s e r v a t i v e minority, p r o t e c t i n g t h e m e n a c e d connexion with the British C r o w n ' . M o r e o v e r , s o m e ' v a g u e e x p e c t a t i o n of a b s o l u t e

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i n d e p e n d e n c e still s e e m s to d e l u d e t h e m ' . T h e i r ' n a t i o n a l v a n i t y ' i n d u c e s ' m a n y to f l a t t e r t h e m s e l v e s w i t h t h e i d e a of a C a n a d i a n R e p u b l i c ' , a n d t h e n a m e of t h e l e a d e r , ' M r . P a p i n e a u ' , 'is still c h e r i s h e d by t h e p e o p l e ' . T h e p r e s u m p t i o n of a s t r u g g l e for d e c o l o n i s a t i o n w a s also r e i n f o r c e d by w h a t D u r h a m ' s e d i t o r calls 'foolish v a p o u r i n g a b o u t C a n a d i a n I n d e p e n d e n c e a n d a C a n a d i a n R e p u b l i c in 1 8 3 7 - 8 ' . D e s p i t e t h e t e s t i m o n y of t h e s e voices, t h e i d e a of t h e p e o p l e s e e k i n g t h e i r political f r e e d o m is a c o m p l e t e m i s c o n s t r u a l of t h e s i t u a t i o n a c c o r d i n g to D u r h a m . H e p r o c e e d s to c o n s t r u e t h e conflict in a m a n n e r t h a t will b e e n t i r e l y f a m i l i a r n o t only to quebecois(es) a n d C a n a d i a n s , b u t also to a n y o n e w h o r e a d s W e s t e r n m e d i a r e p o r t s of conflicts over c u l t u r a l r e c o g n i t i o n t o d a y . T h a t is t o say, h e p r e s e n t s it as a n e t h n i c or r a c i a l conflict, c a u s e d by t h e c o n t i n u i t y of p r e - m o d e r n w a y s . H e b e g i n s by s t a t i n g t h a t h e ' f o u n d a s t r u g g l e , n o t of p r i n c i p l e s , b u t of r a c e s ' , a ' d e a d l y a n i m o s i t y t h a t n o w s e p a r a t e s t h e i n h a b i t a n t s of L o w e r C a n a d a i n t o t h e hostile divisions of F r e n c h a n d E n g l i s h ' . T h e s o u r c e of t h e a n i m o s i t y is t h e d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n t h e t w o r a c e s . T h e F r e n c h - s p e a k i n g colonists w e r e g o v e r n e d in t h e old r e g i m e by a ' c e n t r a l , ill-organised, unimproving and repressive despotism'. U n e d u ­ c a t e d a n d d o m i n a t e d by p r i e s t s , t h e y b e c a m e ' a r a c e of m e n h a b i t u a t e d t o t h e i n c e s s a n t l a b o u r of a r u d e a n d u n s k i l l e d a g r i c u l t u r e ' a n d so on. T h e y ' r e m a i n e d t h e s a m e u n i n s t r u c t e d , i n a c t i v e , u n p r o g r e s s i v e p e o p l e ' . I n s u m , t h e y ' c l u n g to a n c i e n t p r e j u d i c e s , a n c i e n t c u s t o m s a n d a n c i e n t laws, n o t from a n y s t r o n g s e n s e of t h e i r beneficial effects, b u t w i t h t h e u n r e a s o n i n g t e n a c i t y of a n u n e d u c a t e d a n d u n p r o g r e s s i v e people'. T h e r a c e of E n g l i s h s e t t l e r s w h o a r r i v e d a f t e r 1760, in c o n t r a s t a r e s u p e r i o r in every r e s p e c t . T h e y h a v e ' a g r e a t r e s p e c t for p o p u l a r r i g h t s ' a n d i n c l u d e ' h a r d y f a r m e r s a n d h u m b l e m e c h a n i c s ' . T h e 'active a n d r e g u l a r h a b i t s of t h e E n g l i s h c a p i t a l i s t d r o v e o u t ' t h e ' c a r e l e s s c o m p e t i t o r s of t h e F r e n c h r a c e ' , c r e a t i n g e m p l o y m e n t a n d profits t h a t ' h a d not previously existed'. T h e y purchased seigneurial lands of t h e F r e n c h s e t t l e r s , a n d 'full half of t h e m o r e v a l u a b l e 2 0

21

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multiplicity

s e i g n i o r i e s a r e a c t u a l l y o w n e d by E n g l i s h p r o p r i e t o r s ' . T h e E n g l i s h f a r m e r ' c a r r i e d w i t h h i m t h e e x p e r i e n c e a n d h a b i t s of t h e m o s t i m p r o v e d a g r i c u l t u r e in t h e w o r l d ' , so o v e r t a k i n g ' t h e w o r n - o u t a n d slovenly f a r m of t h e h a b i t a n t ' . E v e n t h o u g h h e n o t e s t h a t t h e F r e n c h w e r e t h e first n o n Aboriginals to explore the continent and establish continentwide trade routes, he reports that the English have 'developed t h e r e s o u r c e s of t h e c o u n t r y ' , ' c o n s t r u c t e d or i m p r o v e d its m e a n s of c o m m u n i c a t i o n ' , a n d ' c r e a t e d its i n t e r n a l a n d foreign c o m m e r c e ' . A s a c o n s e q u e n c e , t h e ' l a r g e m a s s of t h e l a b o u r i n g p o p u l a t i o n a r e F r e n c h in t h e e m p l o y of E n g l i s h c a p i t a l i s t s ' . A l t h o u g h a 'few of t h e a n c i e n t r a c e s m a r t e d u n d e r t h e loss o c c a s i o n e d by t h e success of E n g l i s h c o m p e t i t i o n ' , h e cautions, p e r h a p s concerned about how this narrative might b e i n t e r p r e t e d in E n g l a n d , t h i s is n o t to be ' r e p r e s e n t e d as a c o n t e s t of c l a s s e s ' , b u t , 'in fact, a c o n t e s t of r a c e s ' . A n d , d r a w i n g t h e obvious c o n c l u s i o n , in this c o n t e s t of r a c e s t h e ' s u p e r i o r political a n d p r a c t i c a l i n t e l l i g e n c e of t h e E n g l i s h c a n n o t b e , for a m o m e n t , d i s p u t e d ' . T h e p r o b l e m is t h a t , a l t h o u g h t h e r i g h t s of t h e E n g l i s h m i n o r i t y a r e p r o t e c t e d , t h e y a r e o u t n u m b e r e d by t h e F r e n c h m a j o r i t y in t h e A s s e m b l y . ' T h a t a r a c e w h i c h felt itself t h u s s u p e r i o r in political activity a n d i n t e l l i g e n c e , s h o u l d s u b m i t w i t h p a t i e n c e to t h e r u l e of a m a j o r i t y w h i c h it could n o t respect, was impossible.' In particular, t h e 'jealousy a n d d i s l i k e ' of t h e m a j o r i t y in t h e A s s e m b l y w a s b l o c k i n g t h e E n g l i s h m i n o r i t y ' s a m b i t i o n to a c q u i r e a n d s p e c u l a t e in l a n d . T r u m p e t i n g t h e t h e m e of p r o p e r t y a n d e m p i r e t h a t J o s e p h Brant and William Knox discerned earlier, D u r h a m explains that the 'enterprising' English population, 22

23

looked on t h e A m e r i c a n Provinces as a vast field for s e t t l e m e n t and s p e c u l a t i o n , and in t h e c o m m o n spirit o f the A n g l o - S a x o n i n h a b i t a n t s o f that c o n t i n e n t , r e g a r d e d it as the c h i e f b u s i n e s s o f t h e G o v e r n m e n t , to p r o m o t e , by all possible use of its legislative and a d m i n i s t r a t i v e powers, t h e increase of p o p u l a t i o n and t h e a c c u m u l a t i o n o f property.

A s u p e r i o r a n d p r o g r e s s i v e r a c e is t h u s h e l d in ' c h e c k ' b y a n inferior a n d s t a t i c r a c e . T h e c a u s e is t h a t t h e a n c i e n t w a y s of

The rediscovery of cultural diversity II

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t h e F r e n c h s e t t l e r s w e r e c o n t i n u e d a f t e r t h e C o n q u e s t in 1760. T h e ' c o n t i n u e d n e g l i g e n c e of t h e B r i t i s h G o v e r n m e n t left t h e m a s s of t h e p e o p l e w i t h o u t a n y of t h e i n s t i t u t i o n s t h a t s h o u l d h a v e e l e v a t e d t h e m in f r e e d o m a n d civilization'. If t h e s e E n g l i s h i n s t i t u t i o n s h a d b e e n forced o n t h e m , ' t h a t w o u l d h a v e a s s i m i l a t e d t h e i r c h a r a c t e r a n d h a b i t s , in t h e e a s i e s t a n d b e s t way, t o t h o s e of t h e E m p i r e of w h i c h t h e y b e c a m e a p a r t ' . B u t , t h i s w a s n o t d o n e a n d t h e y ' r e m a i n a n old a n d s t a t i o n a r y society, in a n e w a n d p r o g r e s s i v e w o r l d ' . T u r n i n g d i r e c t l y n o w to t h e c o n v e n t i o n of c o n t i n u i t y , h e e x p l a i n s t h a t t h e r e ' a r e t w o m o d e s by w h i c h a g o v e r n m e n t may deal with a conquered territory': either 'respecting the r i g h t s a n d n a t i o n a l i t y of t h e a c t u a l o c c u p a n t s ' or treating the conquered territory as one open to the conquerors, of encouraging their influx, of regarding the conquered race as entirely subordinate, and of endeavouring as speedily and rapidly as possible to assimilate the character and institutions of its new subjects to those of the great body of its empire. I n t h e c a s e of C a n a d a , w h e r e t h e r e is a v a s t l a n d a n d a s m a l l p o p u l a t i o n , t h e c o n q u e r o r s h o u l d n o t c o n s i d e r ' t h e few i n d i v i d u a l s w h o h a p p e n a t t h e m o m e n t t o i n h a b i t a p o r t i o n of t h e soil', b u t , r a t h e r t h e m o d e r n c r i t e r i o n of t h e p e o p l e a s a w h o l e - ' t h o s e of t h a t c o m p a r a t i v e l y vast p o p u l a t i o n ' t h a t will p o p u l a t e it in t h e f u t u r e . H e s h o u l d ' e s t a b l i s h t h o s e i n s t i ­ tutions which would be most acceptable to the race by which h e h o p e d t o colonize t h e c o u n t r y ' . T o r e m o v e a n y d o u b t , D u r h a m a d d s t h a t t h e vast p o p u l a t i o n will u n d o u b t e d l y b e ' A n g l o - S a x o n ' , for t h e ' E n g l i s h r a c e ' is s u r e t o p r e d o m i n a t e , ' e v e n n u m e r i c a l l y in L o w e r C a n a d a ' , as ' t h e y p r e d o m i n a t e a l r e a d y , by t h e i r s u p e r i o r k n o w l e d g e , e n e r g y , e n t e r p r i s e a n d w e a l t h ' . T h e r e f o r e , h e c o n c l u d e s , t h e f u n d a m e n t a l c a u s e of t h e conflict in C a n a d a is n e i t h e r i m p e r i a l i s m n o r e x p l o i t a t i o n , as t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s c l a i m e d , b u t t h e a r c h a i c c o n v e n t i o n of c o n t i n u i t y . T h e ' e r r o r ' to w h i c h ' t h e p r e s e n t c o n t e s t m u s t b e a t t r i b u t e d , is t h e v a i n e n d e a v o u r to p r e s e r v e a F r e n c h C a n a d i a n n a t i o n a l i t y in t h e m i d s t of A n g l o - A m e r i c a n c o l o n i e s and states'. 2 4

162

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H a v i n g d i s m i s s e d t h e oldest c o n v e n t i o n of W e s t e r n consti­ t u t i o n a l i s m , h e r e c o m m e n d s t h e u n i o n of L o w e r C a n a d a w i t h t h e m o r e p o p u l o u s U p p e r C a n a d a so t h e F r e n c h C a n a d i a n s could b e c o m p l e t e l y a s s i m i l a t e d t o t h e s u p e r i o r E n g l i s h ways. T h e union should be n e i t h e r a m e r e ' a m a l g a m a t i o n ' nor a f e d e r a t i o n of two e q u a l p r o v i n c e s , b u t o n e w h i c h e n s u r e s t h e ' e n d of o u t - n u m b e r i n g t h e F r e n c h ' . T h e ' c h a n g e of a l a n g u a g e ' over 'a w h o l e p e o p l e ' will t a k e s o m e t i m e , b u t t h e ' a l t e r a t i o n of t h e c h a r a c t e r of t h e P r o v i n c e o u g h t t o b e i m m e d i a t e l y e n t e r e d on, a n d firmly, t h o u g h c a u t i o u s l y followed u p ' . L o w e r C a n a d a ' m u s t b e g o v e r n e d now, as it m u s t h e r e a f t e r , by a n E n g l i s h p o p u l a t i o n ' . T h e j u s t i f i c a t i o n for d i s c o n t i n u i t y a n d a s s i m i l a t i o n is a ' c o m p r e h e n s i v e view of t h e f u t u r e a n d t h e p e r m a n e n t i m p r o v e m e n t of t h e P r o v i n c e ' . 25

I n this e x a m p l e , t h e ways of p r o p e r t y a c q u i s i t i o n a n d e m p i r e b u i l d i n g a r e a t t r i b u t e d to a d o m i n a n t r a c e a n d p a l m e d off as u n i v e r s a l a n d m o d e r n , t o w h i c h all o t h e r s m u s t b e s u b j e c t e d a n d g r a d u a l l y a s s i m i l a t e d in t h e n a m e of p r o g r e s s . R e s i s t a n c e t o t h i s m o d e r n form of u s u r p a t i o n is c o n s t r u e d as t h e r e a c t i o n of e t h n i c b a c k w a r d n e s s . W i t h a r g u m e n t s such as t h e s e , t h e policies of d i s c o n t i n u i t y a n d r e f o r m s u r v e y e d in c h a p t e r 3 found t h e i r m o d e r n j u s t i f i c a t i o n s . As B h i k h u P a r e k h p o i n t s o u t , J o h n S t u a r t Mill ' e n t h u s i a s t i c a l l y w e l c o m e d t h e D u r h a m R e p o r t , c a l l i n g it a n " i m p e r i s h a b l e m e m o r i a l of t h a t n o b l e ­ man's courage, patriotism and enlightened liberty"'. He h o p e d t o see a s i m i l a r policy in I n d i a . T h e Act for t h e G r a d u a l C i v i l i z a t i o n of t h e I n d i a n T r i b e s of 1 8 5 7 w a s w r i t t e n in t h e s a m e s p i r i t of i m p e r i a l e x p a n s i o n a n d r a c i a l s u p e r i o r i t y . Sir J o h n Seeley p r e s e n t e d s i m i l a r a r g u m e n t s for a c u l t u r a l l y h o m o g e n e o u s B r i t i s h e m p i r e in The expansion of England in 26

1884.

Q u e b e c s t r u g g l e d successfully a g a i n s t t h e u n i o n t h a t followed D u r h a m ' s r e c o m m e n d a t i o n a n d , as L o r a n g e r e x p l a i n e d , a g r e e d to t h e d i v e r s e f e d e r a t i o n of 1867 o n t h e g r o u n d s t h a t its t h r e e c o n v e n t i o n s w o u l d p r o t e c t Q u e b e c from any future a t t e m p t s at usurpation. No constitutional a m e n d ­ m e n t t o u c h i n g Q u e b e c ' s political c u l t u r e was p u t t h r o u g h

The rediscovery of cultural diversity II w i t h o u t t h e c o n s e n t of t h e provincial g o v e r n m e n t u n t i l 1 9 8 2 , w h e n t h e C a n a d i a n C h a r t e r of R i g h t s a n d F r e e d o m s w a s e n a c t e d w i t h t h e e x p r e s s d i s s e n t of t h e Q u e b e c A s s e m b l y . T h e a m e n d m e n t t r a n s f e r r e d c o n s i d e r a b l e j u r i s d i c t i o n over p r o p ­ e r t y a n d civil r i g h t s from t h e p r o v i n c e s to t h e f e d e r a l c o u r t s , w h e r e a s t h i s j u r i s d i c t i o n w a s g u a r a n t e e d to t h e p r o v i n c e s by t h e 1867 c o n s t i t u t i o n a n d , in t h e case of Q u e b e c , by t h e Q u e b e c Act of 1774. T h e Q u e b e c g o v e r n m e n t h a d n o objection to t h e i n d i v i d u a l r i g h t s in t h e C h a r t e r ( e x c e p t for t h e t o u c h y issue of l i n g u i s t i c r i g h t s w h i c h I will c o m e to in a m o m e n t ) , for Q u e b e c a l r e a d y h a d its own C h a r t e r of R i g h t s . T h e objections t h e Q u e b e c g o v e r n m e n t r a i s e d in t h e c o u r t s , as we c a n n o w a n t i c i p a t e , were t h a t the a m e n d i n g procedure violated the convention of c o n s e n t a n d t h e a m e n d m e n t v i o l a t e d t h e c o n v e n t i o n of c o n t i n u i t y , t h e very p r i n c i p l e s o n w h i c h t h e f e d e r a t i o n a n d t h e c o n s e n t of t h e Q u e b e c p e o p l e to it, r e s t s . If t h e s e v i o l a t i o n s a r e not rectified a n d Q u e b e c ' s c o - o r d i n a t e s o v e r e i g n t y r e c o g n i s e d through constitutional negotiation, then Quebec has the right to s e c e d e . T h e d e f e n d e r s of t h e i m p o s i t i o n of t h e C h a r t e r on Q u e b e c w i t h o u t c o n s e n t d i s r e g a r d e d t h e l a n g u a g e of d i v e r s e f e d e r a l ­ ism from H a l e , L o c k e , M o l y n e u x a n d J e f f e r s o n t o K n o x a n d L o r a n g e r in w h i c h t h e p e o p l e of Q u e b e c , t h r o u g h t h e i r r e p r e s e n t a t i v e a s s e m b l y , voiced t h e i r a p p e a l . T h e y c o v e r e d over t h e b r e a c h of c o n s e n t a n d c o n t i n u i t y w i t h a r g u m e n t s s i m i l a r to t h o s e of M a d i s o n in 1787: u n a n i m o u s c o n s e n t is i m p o s s i b l e , t h e C h a r t e r h a s t h e a p p r o v a l of a m a j o r i t y of t h e p r o v i n c e s a n d t h e p o p u l a t i o n of C a n a d a , a n d it is a n e c e s s a r y f e a t u r e of a m o d e r n society. F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e y r e d e s c r i b e d Q u e b e c ' s c l a i m to political c o n t i n u i t y as a n illiberal d e m a n d of a b a c k w a r d e t h n i c m i n o r i t y for special s t a t u s in a n o t h e r w i s e u n i f o r m C a n a d i a n society b a s e d on t h e s o v e r e i g n t y of t h e ( E n g l i s h - s p e a k i n g ) m a j o r i t y . In so d o i n g , t h e y r e p r o d u c e d t h e a s s i m i l a t i v e a r g u m e n t s of D u r h a m w i t h o u t so m u c h as listening to the o t h e r side. A f t e r f o u r t e e n y e a r s of f u r t h e r conflict, t h e r e is n o sign t h a t t h e p r o t a g o n i s t s u n d e r s t a n d e a c h o t h e r ' s p o i n t of view.

164

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multiplicity

I n d e e d , it is a t e x t b o o k i l l u s t r a t i o n of t h e p h e n o m e n o n of c o n s t i t u t i o n a l d i s i n t e g r a t i o n we a r e s t u d y i n g . T h e w o r d s a n d d e e d s of o n e side a r e r e d e s c r i b e d a n d a d j u d i c a t e d in t h e m o n o l o g i c a l f r a m e w o r k of t h e o t h e r , t h e r e b y p r o v i d i n g f u r t h e r e v i d e n c e for t h e c o r r e c t n e s s of t h e i r c o m p r e h e n s i v e a n d exclusive view from t h e safety of t h e s i d e l i n e s . Not surprisingly, those courageous citizens who have taken the beau risque of e n g a g i n g in t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n a l d i a l o g u e on t h e c o m m o n g r o u n d , e i t h e r in c o n s t i t u t i o n a l n e g o t i a t i o n s or t h e public conversation s u r r o u n d i n g t h e m , have become a w a r e of t h e p a r t i a l j u s t i c e in e a c h o t h e r ' s views a n d , as J e r e m y W e b b e r nicely p u t s it, a r e ' r e i m a g i n i n g ' t h e i r associ­ a t i o n in its u n a s s i m i l a b l e diversity. T h e s e e x a m p l e s of d i v e r s e f e d e r a l i s m a r e n o t u n u s u a l . As M i c h a e l B u r g e s s a n d A l a i n - G . G a g n o n a r g u e in Comparative federalism and federation, legal a n d political p l u r a l i s m is t h e n o r m r a t h e r t h a n t h e e x c e p t i o n in c o n t e m p o r a r y s o c i e t i e s . M a n y are m o r e akin to C a n a d a , India a n d the U n i t e d K i n g d o m t h a n to t h e n o r m of a u n i f o r m s t a t e in m o d e r n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m a n d its t h r e e a u t h o r i t a t i v e schools of i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . T h e y a r e f e d e r a t i o n s of m o r e or less selfg o v e r n i n g a n d o v e r l a p p i n g political a s s o c i a t i o n s w i t h s o m e ­ w h a t d i s s i m i l a r legal a n d political ways. O n c e t h e r e c o g n i t i o n a n d a c c o m m o d a t i o n of this diversity is s e e n t o r e s t o n t h r e e d e f e n s i b l e c o n v e n t i o n s of c o n t e m p o r a r y constitutionalism, they no longer appear as unenlightened a n d ad hoc, as t h e y d o from t h e m o n o l i t h i c p e r s p e c t i v e of m o d e r n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m . Q u i t e t h e o p p o s i t e . T h e exclusive r e i g n of m o d e r n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m a p p e a r s as t h e c o n t i n u a t i o n of t h e a n c i e n t N o r m a n y o k e by o t h e r m e a n s . W h e n c o n t e m ­ p o r a r y s o c i e t i e s a r e s e e n in t h i s p o s t - i m p e r i a l l i g h t , o n e c a n n o t h e l p b u t see t h a t , if t h e t h r e e c o n v e n t i o n s w e r e a c c e p t e d as t h e n o r m s of c o n s t i t u t i o n a l n e g o t i a t i o n s over, for example, N o r t h e r n Ireland and Palestine, the dialogues would p r o c e e d m o r e fairly t h a n t h e y h a v e u n d e r t h e c o n s t r a i n t s of t h e c o n v e n t i o n s of m o d e r n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m , as W i l l i a m K n o x p l e a d e d long a g o .

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Linguistic minorities and the three conventions: theform of reasoning appropriate to mutual recognition and accommodation So far, we h a v e s u r v e y e d e x a m p l e s of h o w t h e t h r e e c o n v e n ­ tions c a n be e m p l o y e d by l a r g e m e m b e r s of t h e black c a n o e to m u t u a l l y r e c o g n i s e e a c h o t h e r , p r o v i d i n g t h e n o r m s by w h i c h t h e b e a r s , e a g l e a n d wolf c a n w o r k o u t ways of p a d d l i n g t o g e t h e r . T h e r e a r e also s m a l l e r m e m b e r s of t h e c r e w : t h e frog, t h e dogfish w o m a n , t h e m o u s e w o m a n , t h e b e a v e r , t h e b e a r c u b s a n d t h e a n c i e n t r e l u c t a n t c o n s c r i p t . T h e r e is also t h e r a v e n , t h e i n d i v i d u a l m e m b e r of a n y c u l t u r e , s m a l l or l a r g e , w h o w i s h e s t o d i s s e n t f r o m all t h e o t h e r s a n d e x p r e s s h i m - or h e r s e l f in a d i s t i n c t i v e way. These passengers are more vulnerable because they cannot c l a i m t h e i r own political i n s t i t u t i o n s t o p r o t e c t t h e i r c u l t u r e s . T h e m e m b e r s of m i n o r i t y c u l t u r e s m u s t seek r e c o g n i t i o n and accommodation within the institutions they share with m e m b e r s of t h e m a j o r i t y c u l t u r e s of c o n t e m p o r a r y s o c i e t i e s . T h e y ask t o u s e t h e i r l a n g u a g e s in t h e p u b l i c s p h e r e , t o h a v e a p p r o p r i a t e schools a n d access to t h e m e d i a , to b e a c k n o w l ­ e d g e d a n d a f f i r m e d in t h e c u r r i c u l a a n d n a r r a t i v e s of t h e societies t h e y h a v e h e l p e d to b u i l d , a n d to b e a b l e t o live in a c c o r d w i t h t h e i r c u l t u r a l ways w i t h o u t d i s c r i m i n a t i o n , so t h e y too c a n p a r t i c i p a t e in t h e g o v e r n a n c e of t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n a l a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h o u t o p p r e s s i o n . I h a v e a p a r t i a l i t y for t h e s e m i n o r i t y m e m b e r s b e c a u s e I see t h i n g s from such a s t a n d p o i n t myself. F u r t h e r m o r e , a c k n o w l e d g i n g a n o t h e r a s p e c t of t h e black c a n o e , t h e r e a r e t h e f e m a l e m e m b e r s of all c u l t u r e s , l a r g e a n d s m a l l , w h o c o m p r i s e o n e h a l f of t h e c i t i z e n s of a n y c o n t e m ­ p o r a r y society: t h e b e a r m o t h e r , t h e dogfish w o m a n , t h e m o u s e w o m a n , t h e r a v e n h a l f t h e t i m e , a n d laana augha, t h e village m o t h e r . As we h a v e s e e n in c h a p t e r 2, t h e i r m a n y s p l e n d o u r e d voices d e s e r v e t o b e h e a r d a n d r e c o g n i s e d in appropriate and equitable ways. O u r survey h a s s h o w n t h a t t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n s , i n s t i t u t i o n s a n d t r a d i t i o n s of i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of c o n t e m p o r a r y s o c i e t i e s h a v e not b e e n , t o say t h e l e a s t , e s t a b l i s h e d t o r e c o g n i s e a n d a c c o m m o d a t e , let a l o n e affirm, t h e c u l t u r a l d i f f e r e n c e s of

Strange

multiplicity

t h e s e m e m b e r s . If t h e t h r e e c o n v e n t i o n s d o n o t s u p p o r t t h e j u s t d e m a n d s of w o m e n a n d c u l t u r a l m i n o r i t i e s to a m e n d t h e s e i m p e r i a l i n s t i t u t i o n s , t h e y a r e u s e l e s s , for t h e s e a r e t h e i n t e r c u l t u r a l c i t i z e n s w h o s e c u l t u r e s criss-cross, o v e r l a p a n d i n t e r a c t t h e m o s t a n d p o s e t h e t o u g h e s t c h a l l e n g e to c o n t e m ­ p o r a r y c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m . I n d e e d , it is often a s s e r t e d , e v e n by a s c h o l a r as sensitive t o t h e s e issues a s E d w a r d Said, t h a t t h e r e c o g n i t i o n a n d a c c o m m o d a t i o n of t h e ' o v e r l a p p i n g t e r r i ­ t o r i e s ' a n d ' i n t e r t w i n e d h i s t o r i e s ' of t h e m o r e ' n o m a d i c ' c i t i z e n s is i n c o m p a t i b l e w i t h t h e a n a l o g o u s t r e a t m e n t of larger m e m b e r s : interculturalism clashes with nationalism a n d f e d e r a l i s m . If o u r a c c o u n t c a n n o t r e c o g n i s e t h e c l a i m s of individuals, women, linguistic minorities and intercultural c i t i z e n s — s u c h as A f r i c a n , H i s p a n i c , A s i a n , J a p a n e s e , C a r i b b e a n , I n d i a n , T u r k i s h , A r a b a n d J e w i s h c i t i z e n s of t h e United Kingdom, European Union, United States and C a n a d a — t h e n it will be a n i n a d e q u a t e g u i d e to c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m in a p o s t - i m p e r i a l a g e of c u l t u r a l diversity. 27

T h e a r g u m e n t of t h i s s e c t i o n is t h a t t h e t h r e e c o n v e n t i o n s a r e a d e q u a t e to this t a s k . T h e c o n v e n t i o n s of m u t u a l recog­ nition, consent and continuity can be a d a p t e d to these complex cases and applied analogously to recognise and a c c o m m o d a t e t h e c u l t u r a l d i v e r s i t y of t h e s e c i t i z e n s in j u s t ways. A s in t h e e a r l i e r e x a m p l e s , t h e t h r e e c o n v e n t i o n s a r e a l s o a l r e a d y to s o m e extent the norms of justification a p p e a l e d t o by b o t h sides in t h e s e s t r u g g l e s . T h e s a m e s o r t s of r e a s o n s a d v a n c e d by t h e l a r g e r m e m b e r s to r e s i s t i m p e r i a l i s m a n d g a i n l i b e r t y a r e n o w u s e d , as I p o i n t e d o u t in c h a p t e r i, in a n a l o g o u s ways to d e f e n d this t h i r d m o v e m e n t of a n t i i m p e r i a l s t r u g g l e s for a p p r o p r i a t e c u l t u r a l f o r m s of self r u l e w i t h i n t h e s h a r e d i n s t i t u t i o n s of c o n t e m p o r a r y s o c i e t i e s . I e x p e c t t h a t m a n y r e a d e r s will see t h e c o n n e c t i o n s b e t w e e n t h e e a r l i e r e x a m p l e s a n d t h e s e c a s e s , a n d so b e a b l e t o go o n t o a p p l y t h e t h r e e c o n v e n t i o n s a n d t h e c o n c e p t s of c o n s t i ­ t u t i o n a l i s m w i t h o u t f u r t h e r a d o . N o n e t h e less, a b r i e f s u r v e y will n o t b e s u p e r f l u o u s . As we p a s s t h r o u g h t h e e x a m p l e s , carefully a p p l y i n g t h e c o n v e n t i o n of m u t u a l r e c o g n i t i o n in e a c h c a s e , o u r u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e n a t i o n a l i s t a n d

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f e d e r a l i s t c l a i m s of t h e l a r g e r m e m b e r s will b e c o r r e ­ s p o n d i n g l y e x t e n d e d , e n a b l i n g u s t o see t h a t t h e a p p a r e n t conflict is c a u s e d by t h e r e s t r i c t i v e a n d n o n - a s p e c t i v a l u s e s of c o n s t i t u t i o n a l t e r m s , n o t by t h e c h a r a c t e r of c u l t u r e s t h e m ­ selves. T h e first e x a m p l e is of s m a l l l i n g u i s t i c m i n o r i t i e s , s u c h as t h e F r e n c h - s p e a k i n g m i n o r i t i e s in t h e E n g l i s h - l a n g u a g e p r o v i n c e s of C a n a d a a n d t h e E n g l i s h - s p e a k i n g m i n o r i t y in Q u e b e c . T h e i r d e m a n d s for schools a n d t h e use of t h e i r l a n g u a g e s in t h e c o u r t s , l e g i s l a t u r e s a n d p u b l i c s p h e r e of t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e p r o v i n c e s h a v e b e e n d e f e n d e d in c o m m o n - l a w c o u n t r i e s o n t h e s a m e g r o u n d s as t h e c l a i m s of t h e m a j o r i t y c u l t u r e s . If Q u e b e c a n d t h e E n g l i s h - l a n g u a g e p r o v i n c e s seek t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n a l r e c o g n i t i o n a n d c o n t i n u i t y of t h e i r c u l t u r a l ways, t h e n , by p a r i t y of r e a s o n i n g , t h e y m u s t a p p l y all t h r e e c o n v e n t i o n s in t h e a p p r o p r i a t e m a n n e r t o t h e l i n g u i s t i c m i n o r i t i e s in t h e i r m i d s t . R e c o g n i t i o n , t o b e j u s t , m u s t b e mutual. T h e a r g u m e n t w a s p r e s e n t e d in a n e x e m p l a r y fashion by E r n e s t L a p o i n t e in t h e f e d e r a l p a r l i a m e n t in 1 9 1 6 . H e w a s (unsuccessfully) d e f e n d i n g t h e F r e n c h - s p e a k i n g m i n o r i t y in O n t a r i o a g a i n s t t h e policy of t h e p r o v i n c i a l g o v e r n m e n t t o d i s c o n t i n u e t h e i r F r e n c h - l a n g u a g e schools. S t a t i n g t h e c o n v e n t i o n of c o n t i n u i t y first, h e w r i t e s t h a t , 'it h a s long b e e n t h e s e t t l e d policy of G r e a t B r i t a i n t h a t w h e n e v e r a c o u n t r y p a s s e d u n d e r t h e s o v e r e i g n t y of t h e C r o w n by t r e a t y or o t h e r w i s e , t o r e s p e c t t h e r e l i g i o n , u s a g e s a n d l a n g u a g e of t h e i n h a b i t a n t s ' . T h e n , 'while fully r e c o g n i s i n g t h e p r i n c i p l e of provincial r i g h t s ' , w h i c h , as w e h a v e s e e n , r e s t s as well o n c o n t i n u i t y , h e goes on to ' r e s p e c t f u l l y s u g g e s t to t h e legislative a s s e m b l y [of O n t a r i o ] t h e w i s d o m of m a k i n g it c l e a r t h a t t h e privileges of t h e c h i l d r e n of F r e n c h p a r e n t a g e of b e i n g t a u g h t in t h e i r m o t h e r t o n g u e n o t b e i n t e r f e r e d w i t h ' . I n 1 9 3 2 , L o r d S a n k e y of t h e Privy C o u n c i l m a d e it c l e a r t h a t t h e c o n v e n t i o n s of r e c o g n i t i o n a n d c o n t i n u i t y on w h i c h confederation rests apply mutually to the English and French minorities: 2 8

29

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multiplicity

it is important to keep in mind that the preservation of the rights of minorities was a condition on which such minorities entered into the federation, and the foundation upon which the whole structure was subsequently erected. T h e process of interpretation as the years go on ought not to be allowed to dim or to whittle down the provisions of the original contract upon which the federation was founded. O f course, their minority rights have been d i m m e d a n d w h i t t l e d d o w n m a n y t i m e s . T h e F r e n c h - s p e a k i n g s e t t l e r s of A c a d i a w e r e d r i v e n i n t o exile by B r i t i s h t r o o p s in 1755. F r e n c h schools w e r e o u t l a w e d in N o v a Scotia in 1 8 6 4 , N e w B r u n s w i c k (1871), Prince Edward Island (1877), M a n i t o b a (1890), Northwest Territories (1892), Albert and Saskatchewan (1905), K e e w a t i n (1912), O n t a r i o (1912), M a n i t o b a (1916) a n d

Saskatchewan (1930). Alberta a n d Saskatchewan continue to defy S u p r e m e C o u r t r u l i n g s u p h o l d i n g t h e r i g h t s of t h e i r F r e n c h - s p e a k i n g m i n o r i t i e s . I n s p i t e of t h e c o n t i n u a l policies of d i s c o n t i n u i t y a n d a s s i m i l a t i o n , t h e F r e n c h - s p e a k i n g m i n o r i t i e s h a v e c o u r a g e o u s l y survived a n d , in t h e c o u r s e of t h e i r legal a n d political a p p e a l s , c o m m o n - l a w j u s t i c e s h a v e d e v e l o p e d a f o r m of r e a s o n i n g w h i c h a p p l i e s t h e c o n v e n t i o n s of r e c o g n i t i o n a n d c o n t i n u i t y i n a n e v e n - h a n d e d m a n n e r t o c l a i m s of l i n g u i s t i c m i n o r i t i e s a n d m a j o r i t i e s . T h i s is t h e f o r m of r e a s o n i n g involved in t h e a p p l i c a t i o n of c o n s t i t u t i o n a l l a w in p a r t i c u l a r c a s e s w h i c h I m e n t i o n e d e a r l i e r ; a c a s u i s t r y of c u l t u r a l d i f f e r e n c e s a n d s i m i l a r i t i e s w h i c h s h a p e s t h e l a n g u a g e of c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m t o fit t h e c u l t u r a l d i v e r s i t y of c o n t e m p o r a r y societies. O n e p a r t i c u l a r l y i l l u s t r a t i v e e x a m p l e is a r e c e n t c a s e c o n c e r n i n g t h e E n g l i s h - s p e a k i n g m i n o r i t y in Q u e b e c . T h e y h a v e b e e n vastly b e t t e r t r e a t e d t h a n t h e F r e n c h - s p e a k i n g m i n o r i t i e s . As t h e D u r h a m r e p o r t s h o w s , t h e y could o n c e c o m m a n d t h e m o s t powerful e m p i r e in t h e w o r l d t o i m p o s e t h e i r will on t h e w h o l e of Q u e b e c . Since t h e q u i e t r e v o l u t i o n in t h e 1960s, t h e F r e n c h - s p e a k i n g m a j o r i t y h a s g a i n e d political a n d e c o n o m i c p o w e r a n d s o u g h t t o d e f e n d its p o p u l a r s o v e r e i g n t y in, or, if n e c e s s a r y , o u t s i d e t h e C a n a d i a n con­ federation. Although the democratic majority has continued to p r o t e c t t h e l a n g u a g e , schools a n d social services of t h e

The rediscovery of cultural diversity II m i n o r i t y , following t h e g u a r a n t e e s a g r e e d t o in t h e 1867 con­ stitution, after 1976 the g o v e r n m e n t passed a law proscribing t h e u s e of E n g l i s h o n c o m m e r c i a l signs a n d p r e s c r i b i n g t h e u s e of F r e n c h only, as p a r t of w i d e r l e g i s l a t i o n t o p r o t e c t a n d p r o m o t e t h e F r e n c h l a n g u a g e a n d visage linguistique of Q u e b e c . T o adapt D u r h a m ' s report to these changed circumstances, a 'few of t h e ' E n g l i s h - s p e a k i n g c i t i z e n s ' s m a r t e d u n d e r t h e loss o c c a s i o n e d by t h e success o f t h e ' c o m p e t i t i o n ' of t h e i r fellow French-speaking citizens. A g r o u p of E n g l i s h - s p e a k i n g s h o p k e e p e r s a p p e a l e d to t h e c o u r t s t h a t t h e law v i o l a t e d t h e i r i n d i v i d u a l r i g h t of f r e e d o m of e x p r e s s i o n g u a r a n t e e d in b o t h t h e Q u e b e c a n d f e d e r a l c h a r t e r s of r i g h t s . T h e Q u e b e c a n d f e d e r a l c o u r t s r u l e d in t h e i r favour. P o l i t i c i a n s a n d c o m m e n t a t o r s i m m e d i a t e l y h a i l e d or c o n d e m n e d t h e c a s e as a g r e a t conflict b e t w e e n i n d i v i d u a l a n d g r o u p r i g h t s , or b e t w e e n i n d i v i d u a l a n d community. Scholars unhesitatingly and habitually interpret it in t h e s e t e r m s , t h e r e b y p r o v i n g t h e c a p t i v i t y t h a t t h e l a n g u a g e of m o d e r n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m c o n t i n u e s t o e x e r t over t h e w a y we look at c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s s u e s . H o w e v e r , as Avigail E i s e n b e r g d e m o n s t r a t e s in h e r careful survey of t h i s a n d r e l a t e d c a s e s , t h e f e d e r a l c o u r t j u s t i c e s did not t a k e u p t h e c a s e in t h e s e t e r m s , b u t , r a t h e r , in t h e l a n g u a g e of c u l t u r a l r e c o g n i t i o n . T h e y r e a s o n e d over t h e v a l u e o f ' i d e n t i t y r e l a t e d d i f f e r e n c e s ' . T h e ' n o t i o n of d i f f e r e n c e ' , s h e explains, 'denotes differences b e t w e e n people t h a t play a c o n s t i t u t i v e role in s h a p i n g t h e i r i d e n t i t i e s . C u l t u r e , r e l i g i o n , language and g e n d e r are a m o n g s t t h e central differences t h a t d i s t i n g u i s h a n d h e l p t o d e t e r m i n e t h e i d e n t i t i e s of p e o p l e in Canadian society'. T h a t is, t h e s o v e r e i g n p e o p l e c o m e a l r e a d y c o n s t i t u t e d in d i v e r s e ways by t h e i r ' i d e n t i t y r e l a t e d ' or, in m y t e r m s , ' c u l t u r a l ' d i f f e r e n c e s of l a n g u a g e , r e l i g i o n a n d g e n d e r . If a v a l u a b l e c u l t u r a l difference is c o n s t i t u t i v e of t h e ways a p e r s o n s p e a k s a n d a c t s , t h e n , like c u s t o m in a n c i e n t c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m , not t o r e c o g n i s e a n d a c c o m m o d a t e it is t h e injustice of c u l t u r a l i m p e r i a l i s m , for it is t o a s s i m i l a t e t h a t p e r s o n to d i f f e r e n t w a y s of s p e a k i n g a n d a c t i n g w i t h o u t consent. 30

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I n t h e i r decision, t h e j u s t i c e s b e g i n w i t h t h e p l a i n t i f f s ' side. T h e y give full r e c o g n i t i o n t o i n d i v i d u a l f r e e d o m of e x p r e s s i o n in p u b l i c in t h e l a n g u a g e of o n e ' s c h o i c e . ' L a n g u a g e is so i n t i m a t e l y r e l a t e d to t h e f o r m a n d c o n t e n t of e x p r e s s i o n ' , t h e y w r i t e , ' t h a t t h e r e c a n n o t b e t r u e f r e e d o m of e x p r e s s i o n by m e a n s of l a n g u a g e if o n e is p r o h i b i t e d f r o m u s i n g t h e l a n g u a g e of o n e ' s c h o i c e . ' T h e y t h e n d r a w a t t e n t i o n to a c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n t h e t w o sides. L a n g u a g e is n o t only ' a m e a n s b y w h i c h a p e o p l e m a y e x p r e s s its c u l t u r a l i d e n t i t y ' , as t h e Q u e b e c c h a r t e r of t h e F r e n c h l a n g u a g e i n d i c a t e s a n d t h e d e f e n d a n t s s u b m i t , b u t also ' t h e m e a n s b y w h i c h t h e i n d i v i d u a l e x p r e s s e s his or h e r p e r s o n a l i d e n t i t y a n d s e n s e of individuality'. O n c e l a n g u a g e is s h o w n t o fit e x p r e s s i o n in t h e w a y f o r m line s c u l p t u r e fits H a i d a m y t h c r e a t u r e s , t h e y a r g u e t h a t f r e e d o m of e x p r e s s i o n in o n e ' s o w n l a n g u a g e is e s s e n t i a l t o p a r t i c i p a t i o n in a d e m o c r a t i c society. It is n e c e s s a r y t o i n d i ­ v i d u a l ' d e v e l o p m e n t ' a n d ' d i g n i t y ' , as well as t o ' p a r t i c i p a t i o n by t h e m e m b e r s of t h e society in social, i n c l u d i n g political, d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g ' . O n c e t h e v a l u e of t h e c u l t u r a l d i f f e r e n c e in q u e s t i o n is e s t a b l i s h e d b y t h e s e c r i t e r i a d r a w n f r o m J o h n S t u a r t Mill a n d s h a r e d b y b o t h sides, t h e o n l y r e m a i n i n g q u e s t i o n is w h e t h e r t h e u s e of o n e ' s l a n g u a g e in c o m m e r c i a l s i g n a g e is a n a r e a of free e x p r e s s i o n p r o t e c t e d b y t h e C h a r t e r . I n a g r o u n d - b r e a k i n g s e c t i o n , t h e j u s t i c e s c o n c l u d e t h a t it is, giving t h e E n g l i s h - s p e a k i n g s h o p k e e p e r s t h e m o s t s y m p a t h e t i c h e a r i n g t h e y could h a v e i m a g i n e d . T h e j u s t i c e s t h e n t u r n to l i s t e n to t h e o t h e r side, a s k i n g w h a t could j u s t i f y p l a c i n g l i m i t s o n s u c h a v a l u a b l e i d e n t i t y r e l a t e d difference in a free a n d d e m o c r a t i c society. T h e a n s w e r t h e y gave is t h a t if it t h r e a t e n s t h e p r e s e r v a t i o n a n d e n h a n c e m e n t of t h e F r e n c h l a n g u a g e . F o r , as w e h a v e s e e n in t h e a b o v e q u o t a t i o n , t h e F r e n c h l a n g u a g e is r e c i p r o c a l l y r e c o g n i s e d as t h e c o n s t i t u t i v e m e a n s in w h i c h t h e ' p e o p l e ' of Q u e b e c express their cultural identity. H e n c e , the French visage linguistique is a v a l u a b l e c u l t u r a l d i f f e r e n c e w o r t h y of p r o t e c t i o n , especially in l i g h t of its v u l n e r a b i l i t y i n t h e c o n t e x t of N o r t h A m e r i c a . 3 1

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A f t e r t h e two c l a i m s for c u l t u r a l c o n t i n u i t y a r e m u t u a l l y r e c o g n i s e d in t h e s e t e r m s , t h e j u s t i c e s ask if t h e r e is a m o d e of a c c o m m o d a t i o n s u i t a b l e to t h e c i r c u m s t a n c e s of t h e c a s e . T h e y a n s w e r t h a t a c o m m e r c i a l sign policy of F r e n c h ' a l w a y s ' r a t h e r t h a n F r e n c h 'only' r e s o l v e s t h e conflict. As l o n g as t h e overall ' p r e d o m i n a n c e ' of t h e F r e n c h l a n g u a g e is e n s u r e d , b i l i n g u a l signs s h o u l d b e p e r m i t t e d . T h e r e s o l u t i o n , m u c h like t h e l a t e r decision in F r a n c e o v e r t u r n i n g t h e F r e n c h only s e c t i o n s of t h e T o u b o n law, a c c o m m o d a t e s e a c h c l a i m for r e c o g n i t i o n . M o r e o v e r , t h e l i n g u i s t i c m i n o r i t i e s in Q u e b e c , by e x p r e s s i n g t h e m s e l v e s o n t h e i r s i g n s in F r e n c h a n d t h e i r first l a n g u a g e , affirm t h e p r e d o m i n a n c e of F r e n c h l a n g u a g e a n d give p r o p o r t i o n a l p u b l i c e x p r e s s i o n t o t h e d i v e r s e l a n g u a g e s t h a t c o n s t i t u t e a s p e c t s of t h e l i n g u i s t i c c h a r a c t e r of t h e society as a w h o l e . In coming to their decision, t h e justices explained t h a t they u s e d a h e u r i s t i c t e s t w h i c h c a n b e a p p l i e d in m a n y c a s e s of c u l t u r a l r e c o g n i t i o n . It is n o t a set of u n i v e r s a l r u l e s a n d a c a l c u l u s for its a p p l i c a t i o n in every i n s t a n c e . T h e h e u r i s t i c t e s t is m o r e like W i t t g e n s t e i n ' s 'object of c o m p a r i s o n ' w h i c h b r i n g s t o light t h e c u l t u r a l d i f f e r e n c e s a n d s i m i l a r i t i e s in a c a s e a n d f u r n i s h e s c r i t e r i a for t h e i r m u t u a l a c c o m m o d a t i o n . It m i g h t b e called t h e ' e v e n - h a n d e d ' t e s t for m u t u a l c u l t u r a l r e c o g n i t i o n . T w o r e q u i r e m e n t s m u s t b e satisfied t o e s t a b l i s h t h a t a legislative limit t o a c o n s t i t u t i o n a l r i g h t , s u c h as t h e f r e e d o m of e x p r e s s i o n , is j u s t i f i e d in a free a n d d e m o c r a t i c society. F i r s t t h e legislative o b j e c t i v e , s u c h as t h e p r e s e r v a t i o n a n d p r o m o t i o n of t h e F r e n c h l a n g u a g e , m u s t b e 'of sufficient i m p o r t a n c e ' a n d 'a p r e s s i n g a n d s u b s t a n t i a l c o n c e r n ' to ' w a r r a n t ' overriding the right. Second, t h e legislative m e a n s employed m u s t be 'proportional to t h e ends'. T h e proportion­ ality r e q u i r e m e n t , in t u r n h a s t h r e e a s p e c t s . T h e ' l i m i t i n g m e a s u r e s m u s t be carefully d e s i g n e d , or r a t i o n a l l y c o n n e c t e d , t o t h e objective; t h e y m u s t i m p a i r t h e r i g h t as little as p o s s i b l e ; a n d t h e i r effects m u s t n o t so s e v e r e l y t r e n c h on i n d i v i d u a l or g r o u p r i g h t s t h a t t h e legislative objective, a l b e i t i m p o r t a n t , is n e v e r t h e l e s s o u t w e i g h e d by t h e a b r i d g e m e n t of rights'. T h e court adds t h a t the proportionality test varies

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' w i t h c i r c u m s t a n c e s ' a n d t h a t 'rigid a n d inflexible s t a n d a r d s ' should be avoided. S i m i l a r f o r m s of r e a s o n i n g in t h e l a n g u a g e of c o m m o n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m a r e a p p l i e d in m a n y c a s e s of conflicting c l a i m s to c u l t u r a l r e c o g n i t i o n . I n a d j u d i c a t i n g a conflict b e t w e e n A b o r i g i n a l a n d n o n - A b o r i g i n a l fishing r i g h t s o n t h e w e s t c o a s t , for e x a m p l e , t h e c o u r t found t h a t fishing a specific b o d y of c o a s t a l w a t e r is c o n s t i t u t i v e of t h e c u l t u r a l i d e n t i t y of t h e A b o r i g i n a l M u s q u e a m n a t i o n , in a w a y t h a t it is n o t for n o n - A b o r i g i n a l c o m m e r c i a l fishers. T h e r e f o r e , t h e l i m i t s on n o n - A b o r i g i n a l fishing r i g h t s d o n o t a p p l y in t h e s a m e w a y to A b o r i g i n a l fishing r i g h t s . It d o e s n o t follow, h o w e v e r , t h a t t h e r e a r e n o l i m i t s o n A b o r i g i n a l fishing r i g h t s . T h e c o u r t c o n c l u d e d t h a t ' c o n s e r v a t i o n ' is a good s h a r e d by b o t h sides o n t h e c o m m o n g r o u n d , e v e n t h o u g h t h e y u n d e r s t a n d it differently. T h e r e f o r e , it c a n p r o v i d e t h e ' p r e s s i n g a n d s u b s t a n t i a l c o n c e r n ' to a c c o m m o d a t e a n d l i m i t d i f f e r e n t i a l l y both rights. 32

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I n Thomas v. Norris, t h e c o u r t r e j e c t e d t h e c l a i m by t h e C o a s t Salish n a t i o n t h a t t h e y h a d t h e collective r i g h t t o c o e r c e o n e of t h e i r m e m b e r s to p a r t i c i p a t e in a s p i r i t d a n c e . W h e n t h e plaintiff, T h o m a s , r e f u s e d t o t a k e p a r t in a s p i r i t d a n c e h e w a s s u b j e c t e d t o , h e a l l e g e d , a s s a u l t , b a t t e r y a n d i m p r i s o n m e n t by t h e S a l i s h b a n d council g o v e r n m e n t . T h e c o u r t f o u n d , as E i s e n b e r g p u t s it, ' t h a t t h e Spirit D a n c e , a n d m o r e specifically t h e i n v o l u n t a r y a s p e c t of it, w a s n o t a c e n t r a l f e a t u r e of t h e Salish w a y of life'. T h e r e f o r e , ' t h e g r o u p c l a i m t o i n v o l u n t a r i l y i n i t i a t e p a r t i c i p a n t s i n t o t h e Spirit D a n c e could n o t o v e r r i d e ' t h e i n d i v i d u a l m e m b e r s ' ' r i g h t s t o b e p r o t e c t e d from a s s a u l t , b a t t e r y a n d false i m p r i s o n m e n t ' . I w o u l d like to e m p h a s i s e t h a t in e a c h of t h e s e c a s e s r i g h t s a r e t a k e n seriously. T h e q u e s t i o n t h e j u s t i c e s ask is h o w to a p p l y r i g h t s e v e n - h a n d e d l y so t h e y d o n o t d i s c r i m i n a t e a g a i n s t c i t i z e n s ' i d e n t i t y - r e l a t e d d i f f e r e n c e s t h a t c a n b e s h o w n t o be w o r t h y of p r o t e c t i o n . If r i g h t s w e r e a p p l i e d w i t h o u t t a k i n g these cultural differences into account, t h e result would not be i m p a r t i a l . T h e d o m i n a n t c u l t u r e w o u l d in fact b e i m p o s e d in e a c h c a s e . T h e r e f o r e , t h e r e a r e n o g r o u n d s for c o m p l a i n t from 3 4

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a d e f e n d e r of r i g h t s , for r i g h t s a r e r e s c u e d f r o m b e i n g a tool of c u l t u r a l d o m i n a t i o n . C o n v e r s e l y , a c r i t i c of r i g h t s h a s n o r e a s o n to c o m p l a i n , for t h e a l l e g e d b l i n d n e s s t o c u l t u r a l differences h a s b e e n c o r r e c t e d , yet w i t h o u t a b a n d o n i n g r i g h t s . I n Making all the difference: inclusion, exclusion, and American law, M a r t h a M i n o w shows t h a t U S c o u r t s e m p l o y t h e s a m e sort of contextual and aspectival reasoning to a c c o m m o d a t e identityr e l a t e d d i f f e r e n c e s , especially g e n d e r d i f f e r e n c e s , in t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n a n d a p p l i c a t i o n of r i g h t s in s o m e c a s e s , a n d t h e y s h o u l d in o t h e r s . A l b e r t J o n s e n a n d S t e p h e n T o u l m i n t r a c e t h e b r o a d family of s i m i l a r t y p e s of r e a s o n i n g t h r o u g h E u r o p e a n h i s t o r y from A r i s t o t l e t o t h e p r e s e n t in The abuse of casuistry. M y s t u d y of t h e f o r m s of m u t u a l r e c o g n i t i o n a n d a c c o m m o d a t i o n in c o n s t i t u t i o n a l n e g o t i a t i o n s over c u l t u r a l r e c o g n i t i o n in C a n a d a , ' D i v e r s i t y ' s g a m b i t d e c l i n e d ' , s u g g e s t s t h a t s i m i l a r m o d e s of r e a s o n i n g a r e involved. E a r l i e r e x a m p l e s d i s p l a y e d r e l a t e d g e n r e s of r e a s o n i n g in t h e p r a c t i s e of t r e a t y constitutionalism and diverse federalism. W e m a y , if w e p l e a s e , r e d e s c r i b e t h e s e f o r m s of r e a s o n i n g o n t h e c o m m o n g r o u n d as t h e r e c o n c i l i a t i o n of c l a s h e s b e t w e e n i n d i v i d u a l a n d collective r i g h t s , l i b e r a l i s m a n d n a t i o n a l i s m , or, as H a b e r m a s r e c o n s t r u c t s t h e m , ' t h e i n d i ­ v i d u a l i s t i c d e s i g n of t h e t h e o r y of r i g h t s ' a n d t h e 'collective e x p e r i e n c e s of v i o l a t e d i n t e g r i t y ' . B u t t h e s e f u r t h e r d e s c r i p ­ t i o n s in t h e a b s t r a c t l a n g u a g e of m o d e r n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m o c c l u d e t h e ways of r e a s o n i n g t h a t a c t u a l l y b r i n g p e a c e t o t h e conflict. P r o j e c t i n g s u c h a g e n e r a l s c h e m e over p a r t i c u l a r c a s e s is a n a l o g o u s to, W i t t g e n s t e i n s u g g e s t s , a p u p i l in g e o g r a p h y b r i n g i n g a m a s s of falsely s i m p l i f i e d i d e a s a b o u t t h e c o u r s e a n d c o n n e c t i o n s of t h e r o u t e s of r i v e r s a n d m o u n t a i n c h a i n s . It s h a c k l e s t h e ability t o u n d e r s t a n d a n d c a u s e s u s t o d i s m i s s as i r r e l e v a n t t h e c o n c r e t e c a s e s w h i c h a l o n e c a n h e l p t o u n d e r s t a n d h o w t h e c o n c i l i a t i o n is a c t u a l l y a c h i e v e d . T h e p e r s p i c u o u s r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of t h e r e a s o n i n g t h a t m e d i a t e s t h e conflicts over c u l t u r a l r e c o g n i t i o n c o n s i s t s of dialogical d e s c r i p t i o n s of t h e v e r y l a n g u a g e u s e d in h a n d l i n g a c t u a l cases. A tragic example should, I hope, carry this m e s s a g e h o m e . 35

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M o s t r e a d e r s will a g r e e t h a t if o n e w i s h e s t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e conflict in Antigone, t h e w o r s t w a y to a p p r o a c h t h e t e x t is in t e r m s of t h e i n d i v i d u a l v e r s u s t h e s t a t e or s o m e s u c h g r a n d s c h e m e f r o m m o d e r n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l t h e o r y . R a t h e r , we c a r e ­ fully l i s t e n to A n t i g o n e ' s p l e a for r e c o g n i t i o n , t h e r e a s o n s s h e gives a n d t h e c o n t r a r y a r g u m e n t s of C r e o n in t h e d i a l o g u e between t h e m , paying particular attention to the words t h e y use a n d h o w t h e y h a n d l e t h e m . T h e n , p e r h a p s m o r e i m p o r t a n t l y , w e l i s t e n i n t e n t l y to t h e e v e n - h a n d e d ways H a e m o n t r i e s to r e a s o n w i t h b o t h sides: t h e f u r t h e r d e s c r i p ­ t i o n s h e offers, t h e a n a l o g i e s h e d r a w s a n d t h e c o n v e n t i o n s h e a p p e a l s to in o r d e r to r e a c h a form of a c c o m m o d a t i o n t h a t will a v e r t t h e t r a g e d y w h i c h follows. T h i s close a t t e n t i o n t o t h e h a n d l i n g of l a n g u a g e is w h a t we mean by the e x p r e s s i o n ' d o i n g j u s t i c e t o t h e t e x t ' , a s Q u e n t i n S k i n n e r h a s carefully e x p l a i n e d over t h e last t h r e e d e c a d e s . It is also w h a t W i t t g e n s t e i n m e a n s w h e n h e says t h a t ' o u r only t a s k is to b e j u s t . T h a t is, we m u s t only p o i n t o u t a n d resolve t h e injustices of p h i l o s o p h y , a n d not posit n e w p a r t i e s - a n d c r e e d s . ' T o avoid c r e e d s , h e c o n t i n u e s in his n o t e b o o k , o n e m u s t 'in n o w a y i n t e r f e r e w i t h t h e a c t u a l u s e of l a n g u a g e , w i t h w h a t is r e a l l y said', b u t 'in t h e e n d only d e s c r i b e i t ' . If w e w i s h t o d o j u s t i c e to t h e conflicts t h a t s u r r o u n d u s a n d l e a d to o n e t r a g e d y a f t e r a n o t h e r , w e c a n d o no better t h a n t o k e e p t h e e x a m p l e of Antigone c o n s t a n t l y in m i n d . 3 6

T o r e s u m e , t h e g o v e r n m e n t of Q u e b e c o v e r r o d e t h e c o u r t ' s d e c i s i o n a n d c o n t i n u e d to enforce t h e F r e n c h only sign law. T o p r o t e c t t h e b a l a n c e b e t w e e n t h e s o v e r e i g n t y of t h e p e o p l e in t h e i r provincial p a r l i a m e n t s a n d t h e u n e l e c t e d f e d e r a l c o u r t , w h o s e j u s t i c e s a r e a p p o i n t e d by t h e p r i m e m i n i s t e r , t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n allows a provincial p a r l i a m e n t t o o v e r r i d e a n u n p o p u l a r f e d e r a l c o u r t i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of t h e C h a r t e r for a p e r i o d of u p t o five y e a r s . T h i s b a l a n c i n g device of d i v e r s e federalism provides an opportunity to bring hot-headed d e m o c r a t i c s e n t i m e n t in line w i t h t h e c o u r t ' s r e a s o n a b l e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n or, a l t e r n a t i v e l y , to b r i n g a b i a s e d c o u r t to see t h a t its i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o v e r l o o k e d t h e r e s p e c t - w o r t h y r e g i o n a l

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c i r c u m s t a n c e s t h a t s h o u l d h a v e b e e n t a k e n i n t o a c c o u n t . In this case, Q u e b e c p a r l i a m e n t a r i a n s considered themselves j u s t i f i e d in i n v o k i n g o v e r r i d e n o t o n l y b e c a u s e t h e s o v e r e i g n t y of t h e Q u e b e c p a r l i a m e n t h a d b e e n a t t h e h e a r t of Q u e b e c ' s s t r u g g l e for r e c o g n i t i o n for over t w o h u n d r e d y e a r s , b u t also b e c a u s e t h e f e d e r a l c o u r t ' s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n w a s b a s e d on t h e very C h a r t e r Q u e b e c h a d n o t c o n s e n t e d to in 1 9 8 1 . N o t w i t h s t a n d i n g a n y of t h e s e p o i n t s , t h e sign l e g i s l a t i o n itself v i o l a t e s t h e c o n v e n t i o n s of m u t u a l r e c o g n i t i o n a n d c o n t i n u i t y , for it u n i l a t e r a l l y r e c o g n i s e s t h e F r e n c h l a n g u a g e to t h e e x c l u s i o n of t h e m i n o r i t y E n g l i s h l a n g u a g e , a n d this w a s c o n f i r m e d by Q u e b e c ' s o w n p r o v i n c i a l c o u r t . O n e m i g h t c o n c l u d e t h a t t h i s p r o v e s t h e p o v e r t y of d i v e r s e f e d e r a l i s m . A s t r o n g H o b b e s i a n s o v e r e i g n is n e e d e d to enforce u n i l a t e r a l l y t h e f e d e r a l c o u r t ' s r u l i n g s . T h i s is to m i s u n d e r s t a n d h o w e n f o r c e m e n t w o r k s in a c u l t u r a l l y d i v e r s e society. U n i l a t e r a l a t t e m p t s of e n f o r c e m e n t by t h e f e d e r a l g o v e r n m e n t a r e ineffective a n d t h e y p r o v o k e d i s u n i t y a n d s e c e s s i o n . T h e r e will always b e conflicts over m u t u a l r e c o g n i t i o n in a n y free a n d d i v e r s e society. T h e r e is n o final s o l u t i o n . T h e m u t u a l c h e c k s a n d b a l a n c e s of t h e d i v e r s e m e m b e r s a r e a m o r e effective a n d d e m o c r a t i c m e t h o d of e n f o r c e m e n t t h a n a c e n t r a l s o v e r e i g n . At t h e s a m e t i m e as t h e g o v e r n m e n t of Q u e b e c o v e r r o d e t h e c o u r t ' s decision, t h e y w e r e also n e g o t i a t i n g a c o n s t i ­ t u t i o n a l a m e n d m e n t t o r e g a i n p o w e r s from t h e f e d e r a l g o v e r n m e n t . Even t h o u g h t h e i r a m e n d m e n t , t h e M e e c h Lake a g r e e m e n t , contained a clause protecting t h e Englishs p e a k i n g m i n o r i t y , a m a j o r i t y of t h e c i t i z e n s of t h e r e s t of C a n a d a were sceptical. T h e y rejected the proposed a m e n d ­ m e n t on t h e e x p r e s s g r o u n d t h a t t h e Q u e b e c g o v e r n m e n t h a d failed to a b i d e by t h e c o u r t d e c i s i o n . T h i s e x p r e s s i o n of d e m o c r a t i c will p l a y e d a decisive r o l e in d e f e a t i n g t h e a m e n d ­ m e n t . F u r t h e r p r e s s u r e w a s a p p l i e d by a n E n g l i s h - s p e a k i n g citizen of Q u e b e c w h o r e f e r r e d t h e offensive law to t h e U n i t e d Nations. T h e s e p r e s s u r e s h e l p e d c i t i z e n s in Q u e b e c w h o w e r e in favour of revising t h e sign l e g i s l a t i o n . T h e g o v e r n m e n t of Q u e b e c i n i t i a t e d a p u b l i c d i s c u s s i o n a n d p l u r a l i s t i c

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n a t i o n a l i s t s p u b l i s h e d apacte linguistique c a l l i n g for t h e official r e c o g n i t i o n of t h e E n g l i s h l a n g u a g e a n d t h e e l e v e n A b o r i g i n a l l a n g u a g e s as c o n s t i t u e n t s of t h e l i n g u i s t i c c h a r a c t e r of Q u e b e c . As a r e s u l t of p u b l i c d e l i b e r a t i o n , t h e m a j o r i t y e x p r e s s e d t h e m s e l v e s in favour of b r i n g i n g t h e sign l e g i s l a t i o n in line with t h e c o u r t r u l i n g a n d t h e l a w was c h a n g e d . T h i s i l l u s t r a t e s t h e d e m o c r a t i c a n d dialogical way in w h i c h m u t u a l r e c o g n i t i o n c a n b e e n f o r c e d in d i v e r s e s o c i e t i e s w i t h o u t r e c o u r s e t o a H o b b e s i a n s o v e r e i g n or a n y o t h e r u n i l a t e r a l device. Intercultural citizens, gender differences and the three conventions If t h e c o n v e n t i o n s a p p l y t o i n d i v i d u a l s a n d l o n g s t a n d i n g m i n o r i t i e s , t h e n , by t h e c o n v e n t i o n of m u t u a l r e c o g n i t i o n , t h e y a p p l y a n a l o g o u s l y to t h e r a i n b o w coalition of m e m b e r s of other cultures who have joined the constitutional association m o r e r e c e n t l y or w h o h a v e b e e n o p p r e s s e d in t h e p a s t . T h e i r cultural differences should continue into the constitutional a s s o c i a t i o n u n l e s s t h e y c o n s e n t to a s s i m i l a t e to t h e d o m i n a n t c u l t u r e . G i v e n t h e m i g r a t i o n p a t t e r n s of t h e p r e s e n t c e n t u r y , this is a l a r g e p e r c e n t a g e of t h e p o p u l a t i o n of c o n t e m p o r a r y s o c i e t i e s . T h e w i d e s p r e a d p e r s e c u t i o n of c u l t u r a l d i f f e r e n c e s t h a t o f t e n c a u s e s m i g r a t i o n i n t h e first p l a c e , a n d j u s t as often a w a i t s m i g r a n t s in t h e i r n e w c o u n t r y , is o n e of t h e m o s t explosive problems of the a g e . T h e w a y in w h i c h the three conventions should apply varies with the constitutional t r a d i t i o n s of a given society a n d t h e f o r m s of r e c o g n i t i o n d e m a n d e d . T h e different s i t u a t i o n s of, say, I n d i a n S o u t h A f r i c a n s , A f r i c a n A m e r i c a n s , A s i a n C a n a d i a n s or m i g r a n t w o r k e r s in J a p a n a r e too g r e a t to d r a w a n y g e n e r a l i s a t i o n s . N o n e t h e less, a n o t h e r e x a m p l e from m y b o r o u g h p r o v i d e s a n i l l u s t r a t i v e e x a m p l e . S e c t i o n 27 of t h e C h a r t e r p r o t e c t s t h e c u l t u r a l d i f f e r e n c e s of all c i t i z e n s a n d e n s u r e s t h a t t h e y a r e r e c o g n i s e d a n d a f f i r m e d in p u b l i c life. B a s e d o n t h e con­ v e n t i o n of c o n t i n u i t y , it s t a t e s t h a t t h e ' C h a r t e r shall b e i n t e r p r e t e d in a m a n n e r c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h e p r e s e r v a t i o n a n d e n h a n c e m e n t of t h e m u l t i c u l t u r a l h e r i t a g e of C a n a d i a n s ' . M u l t i c u l t u r a l g r o u p s w o n this f o r m of r e c o g n i t i o n in t h e

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c o n s t i t u t i o n a l n e g o t i a t i o n s of 1 9 8 1 . Since t h e n , t h e y h a v e b e e n able to u s e it to e n s u r e t h a t t h e y h a v e a say over l e g i s l a t i o n a n d c o n s t i t u t i o n a l a m e n d m e n t s t h a t a d v e r s e l y affect t h e i r i d e n t i t y - r e l a t e d differences. T h e y h a v e also u s e d it t o fight for p u b l i c s u p p o r t of t h e p r e s e r v a t i o n a n d e n h a n c e m e n t of t h e i r c u l t u r a l ways, to r e d r e s s p a s t d i s c r i m i n a t i o n a n d p e r s e c u t i o n , and to ensure that their histories are woven into the curricula a n d p u b l i c n a r r a t i v e s of C a n a d i a n society. Protecting and enhancing t h e cultural differences a n d s i m i l a r i t i e s of i n t e r c u l t u r a l c i t i z e n s involves m o r e t h a n j u s t a c o n t i n u a t i o n of t h e t h r e e c o n v e n t i o n s . T h e y a r e A n t i g o n e ' s c h i l d r e n , t h e c i t i z e n s of t h e c o m m o n g r o u n d c r e a t e d by E u r o p e a n i m p e r i a l i s m a n d t h e m a n y r e s i s t a n c e s t o it. T h e s e c i t i z e n s , as E d w a r d Said a r g u e s , b e a r t h e e x p e r i e n c e of i n t e r t w i n e d h i s t o r i e s a n d live t h e t h r e e f e a t u r e s of c u l t u r a l diversity to a g r e a t e r d e g r e e t h a n t h e o t h e r m e m b e r s of c o n t e m p o r a r y societies. C u l t u r a l d i v e r s i t y is t h e i r i d e n t i t y r e l a t e d difference; t h e good t h e y b r i n g t o t h e a s s o c i a t i o n . T h e r e c o g n i t i o n a n d a c c o m m o d a t i o n of t h e s e s u p p r e s s e d a n d p e r s e c u t e d c i t i z e n s o n e q u a l f o o t i n g w i t h o t h e r m e m b e r s of a society m a r k s t h e t r a n s i t i o n t o p o s t - i m p e r i a l c o n s t i t u t i o n a l ­ i s m . It r e q u i r e s m o r e t h a n t h e m u t u a l t o l e r a t i o n a n d r e s p e c t t h a t m i g h t h a v e b e e n sufficient in t h e e a r l i e r e x a m p l e s . It r e q u i r e s t h a t t h e c i t i z e n s affirm d i v e r s i t y itself as a c o n s t i ­ t u t i v e good of t h e a s s o c i a t i o n . T h i s is n o t a c h a n g e in c o n v e n t i o n s b u t in civic a t t i t u d e . I n t h e e a r l y m o d e r n e x a m p l e s of r e c o g n i t i o n , t h e c o n v e n ­ t i o n s a r e e x t e n d e d t o o t h e r s o n t h e g r o u n d of t h e g o l d e n r u l e of m u t u a l r e c o g n i t i o n : you s h o u l d d o u n t o o t h e r s w h a t you w o u l d h a v e t h e m d o u n t o you. T h e r e s u l t i n g d i v e r s i t y of t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n is t o l e r a t e d a n d r e s p e c t e d , b u t it is n o t u s u a l l y s e e n as a good in itself, e x c e p t by A b o r i g i n a l p e o p l e s (as J a m a k e H i g h w a t e r n o t e d in c h a p t e r 1 ) . I n this p o s t - m o d e r n e x a m p l e of r e c o g n i t i o n , d i v e r s i t y is itself a f f i r m e d as a good. T h e good of a c o n s t i t u t i o n a l a s s o c i a t i o n t h a t r e c o g n i s e s c u l t u r a l diversity in its p u b l i c life is, of c o u r s e , t h a t it e n g e n d e r s a n a t t i t u d e of d i v e r s i t y a w a r e n e s s a m o n g its c i t i z e n s . T h i s is a good specific to t h e p o s t - i m p e r i a l a g e - a

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good of The spirit of Haida Gwaii - w h i c h I e x p l o r e f u r t h e r in c h a p t e r 6. T h e final e x a m p l e is t h e s t r u g g l e s of w o m e n for t h e recog­ n i t i o n a n d a c c o m m o d a t i o n of t h e i r g e n d e r - r e l a t e d d i f f e r e n c e s in t h e i n s t i t u t i o n s a n d t r a d i t i o n s of i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of c o n t e m ­ p o r a r y s o c i e t i e s . As we saw in c h a p t e r 2, t h e s e s t r u g g l e s a r e also i n t e r c u l t u r a l . T h e y involve c o a l i t i o n s of w o m e n of m a n y c u l t u r e s w h o s e d i f f e r e n c e s criss-cross w i t h t h o s e of m a l e c i t i z e n s . T o s u m m a r i s e , t h e c l a i m a d v a n c e d by c u l t u r a l f e m i n i s t s is t h a t , since c o n s t i t u t i o n s a n d t h e i r t r a d i t i o n s of i n t e r p r e t a t i o n h a v e b e e n e s t a b l i s h e d by m e n w i t h o u t t h e c o n s e n t of w o m e n , it is n o t e n o u g h t o h a v e a say w i t h i n t h e m . W o m e n m u s t h a v e a n e q u a l say 'in t h e i r o w n v o i c e ' in c o n s t i t u t i o n a l d i a l o g u e s o n t h e g e n d e r b i a s of c o n t e m p o r a r y constitutions. T h i s is to r e c o n c e i v e t h e c o n c e p t of p o p u l a r s o v e r e i g n t y in t h e s a m e w a y we h a v e d o n e in e a r l i e r e x a m p l e s . It is to a c k n o w l e d g e , as G i l l i g a n a n d S p e l m a n h a v e forcefully s u b ­ mitted, that the sovereign people come to any constitutional d i a l o g u e a l r e a d y c o n s t i t u t e d by t h e i r i d e n t i t y - r e l a t e d differ­ e n c e s . I n t h i s c a s e , t h e t h r e e c o n v e n t i o n s a r e a p p l i e d to r e c o g n i s e a n d c o n t i n u e g e n d e r d i f f e r e n c e s . A c c o r d i n g l y , for w o m e n t o be t r e a t e d fairly in d i s c u s s i n g a n y c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s s u e , n o t only issues r e l a t e d t o t h e i r g e n d e r d i f f e r e n c e , t h e i r c u l t u r a l l y different ways of s p e a k i n g a n d a c t i n g n e e d t o b e r e c o g n i s e d a n d a c c o m m o d a t e d in t h e d i a l o g u e itself. O n e a s p e c t of a n y j u s t c o n s t i t u t i o n a l n e g o t i a t i o n s will b e t o r e a c h a g r e e m e n t on which g e n d e r differences a r e relevant and w o r t h y of b e i n g c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s e d . W i t h t h i s p r o t e c t i o n in p l a c e , w o m e n will b e a b l e t o a m e n d t h e political i n s t i t u t i o n s t h e y s h a r e w i t h m e n so t h e y c a n s p e a k a n d a c t in t h e i r o w n ways on e q u a l footing in e v e r y d a y political s t r u g g l e s : t h a t is, w i t h o u t a s s i m i l a t i o n to o t h e r ways of s p e a k i n g a n d a c t i n g . M a n y male and female sceptics doubt t h a t t h e r e are i d e n t i t y - r e l a t e d d i f f e r e n c e s of g e n d e r w h i c h r e q u i r e c o n s t i ­ tutional protection. However, cultural feminists have brought f o r w a r d sufficient e v i d e n c e of t h e i r d i f f e r e n c e s a n d t h e i r

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c o n s t i t u t i o n a l d o m i n a t i o n by m e n t o e s t a b l i s h t h a t t h e i r c l a i m w a r r a n t s a fair h e a r i n g . T h i s is all t h a t t h e y n e e d to c l a i m , for t h e q u e s t i o n c a n n o t b e d e c i d e d in a m o n o l o g i c a l t h e o r y . T h e only fair h e a r i n g s will b e p e r i o d i c c o n s t i t u t i o n a l d i a l o g u e s i n w h i c h t h e g e n d e r bias of t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n a n d t r a d i t i o n s of interpretation are discussed and t h e t h r e e conventions a p p l i e d t o t h e m a l e a n d f e m a l e i n t e r l o c u t o r s . If t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s r e a c h a g r e e m e n t t h a t n o significant d i f f e r e n c e s r e m a i n t h a t c a n n o t b e r e c o g n i s e d a n d a c c o m m o d a t e d in t h e p r e v a i l i n g c o n s t i t u t i o n a l o r d e r , t h e n t h e s c e p t i c s will b e p r o v e n c o r r e c t . If n o t , t h e n t h e y m u s t a g r e e t h a t t h e c u l t u r a l d i f f e r e n c e s t h a t r e m a i n a f t e r t h e d i s c u s s i o n o u g h t to b e c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s e d , j u s t as in a n y o t h e r c a s e , a n d subject t o p e r i o d i c a l review. M a r y W o l l s t o n e c r a f t voiced t h i s a r g u m e n t over two h u n d r e d y e a r s a g o . It w o u l d b e t h e s u p r e m e i n d i g n i t y n o t to r e t e l l it in h e r o w n lucid w o r d s . M . T a l l e y r a n d - P e r i g o r d p u b l i s h e d a p a m p h l e t e x t o l l i n g t h e r i g h t s of m a n t h a t h a d b e e n a g r e e d o n by t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n a l n e g o t i a t o r s of The Declaration of the rights of man and citizen in 1 7 8 9 . I n t h e p a m p h l e t h e n o t e s in p a s s i n g t h a t w o m e n a r e e x c l u d e d from t h e r i g h t s in t h e D e c l a r a t i o n . W o l l s t o n e c r a f t w r i t e s to h i m , c o m p l i m e n t i n g h i m for his a s t u t e o b s e r v a t i o n . A ' g l i m p s e of t h i s t r u t h s e e m e d t o be o p e n before you w h e n you o b s e r v e d ' , q u o t i n g T a l l e y r a n d - P e r i g o r d , ' t h a t t o s e e o n e - h a l f of t h e h u m a n r a c e e x c l u d e d by t h e o t h e r from all p a r t i c i p a t i o n of g o v e r n m e n t w a s a political p h e n o m e n o n t h a t , a c c o r d i n g t o a b s t r a c t p r i n c i p l e s , it w a s i m p o s s i b l e t o e x p l a i n ' . If t h i s is so, s h e r e p l i e d , 'on w h a t g r o u n d s d o e s y o u r c o n s t i t u t i o n r e s t ' ? 'If, s h e c o n t i n u e s , ' t h e a b s t r a c t r i g h t s of m a n will b e a r d i s c u s s i o n a n d e x p l a n a t i o n , t h o s e of w o m a n , by a p a r i t y of r e a s o n i n g , will n o t s h r i n k f r o m t h e s a m e t e s t . ' H o w , t h e n , is t h e t e s t t o b e c a r r i e d o u t ? F i r s t , m e n c a n n o t discuss for w o m e n , for this s u r e l y w o u l d b e u n j u s t . C o n s i d e r , whether, when men contend for their freedom, and to be allowed to judge for themselves respecting their own happiness, it be not inconsistent and unjust to subjugate women, even though you firmly believe that you are acting in the m a n n e r best calculated to promote

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their happiness? Who made man the exclusive judge, if woman partake with him of the gift of reason? S e c o n d , it is n o t e n o u g h for w o m e n to discuss by u s i n g t h e c o n c e p t s t h a t m e n h a v e d e v e l o p e d to d e s c r i b e t h e m a n d t h e i r r i g h t s . A s t h e e n t i r e Vindication of the rights of woman a i m s t o d e m o n s t r a t e , t h e s e c o n c e p t s h a v e b e e n d e s i g n e d by m e n to l e g i t i m a t e t h e s u b j u g a t i o n of w o m e n . T h e d o m i n a n t c o n c e p ­ t i o n s of m e n a n d w o m e n by m a l e w r i t e r s , from t h e c r e a t i o n of Eve o u t of t h e r i b of A d a m d o w n t o R o u s s e a u ' s e q u a l l y b i a s e d a c c o u n t , a r e only 'his i n v e n t i o n t o s h o w t h a t s h e o u g h t t o h a v e h e r neck bent u n d e r the yoke, because the whole creation w a s only c r e a t e d for his c o n v e n i e n c e or p l e a s u r e ' . T h e r e f o r e , u n l e s s w o m e n a r e a b l e to p r e s e n t t h e i r own a r g u m e n t s in t h e i r own voices t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n a l a s s o c i a t i o n will r e m a i n unjust: 37

But if women are to be excluded, without having a voice, from a participation of the natural rights of mankind, prove first, to ward off the charge of injustice and inconsistency, that they want reason, else this flaw in your N E W C O N S T I T U T I O N will ever show that m a n must, in some shape, act like a tyrant. Again, a C a n a d i a n e x a m p l e illustrates how the t h r e e c o n v e n t i o n s serve t o e n g e n d e r d i a l o g u e s of t h i s e m a n c i p a t o r y kind. First, the major women's organisations applied the c o n v e n t i o n s of r e c o g n i t i o n , c o n t i n u i t y a n d c o n s e n t in t h e d i s c u s s i o n s a m o n g t h e c u l t u r a l l y d i v e r s e m e m b e r s of t h e i r own o r g a n i s a t i o n s t o e n s u r e a m u l t i p l i c i t y of p e r s p e c t i v e s o n t h e c o n d i t i o n s of w o m e n in C a n a d i a n society. T h e n , f e m i n i s t activists a n d s c h o l a r s a m a s s e d e v i d e n c e t o s h o w t h e g e n d e r b i a s of C a n a d i a n political a n d e c o n o m i c i n s t i t u t i o n s a n d t h e i r t r a d i t i o n s of i n t e r p r e t a t i o n in l a w a n d p a r l i a m e n t . N e x t , t h e y f o u g h t h a r d for c o n s t i t u t i o n a l r e c o g n i t i o n a n d r e d r e s s in 1 9 8 1 , s e c u r i n g two c o n s t i t u t i o n a l a m e n d m e n t s . T h e first c l a u s e , s e c t i o n 2 8 of t h e C h a r t e r , r e c o g n i s e s t h e i r f o r m a l e q u a l i t y : ' n o t w i t h s t a n d i n g a n y t h i n g in t h i s C h a r t e r , t h e r i g h t s a n d f r e e d o m s r e f e r r e d t o in it a r e g u a r a n t e e d e q u a l l y to m a l e a n d f e m a l e p e r s o n s ' . S e c o n d , t h e y s t r u g g l e d a l o n g w i t h r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s of d i s a d v a n t a g e d m i n o r i t i e s t o w i n

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an affirmative action a m e n d m e n t to redress substantive inequalities based on g e n d e r and cultural discrimination. This u m b r e l l a c l a u s e d r a w s t o g e t h e r t h e family r e s e m b l a n c e s of linguistic minorities, intercultural groups and w o m e n . S e c t i o n 15, p a r t 2, r e a d s , i n d i v i d u a l e q u a l i t y b e f o r e a n d u n d e r t h e law ' d o e s n o t p r e c l u d e a n y law, p r o g r a m or activity t h a t h a s as its object t h e a m e l i o r a t i o n of c o n d i t i o n s of dis­ a d v a n t a g e d i n d i v i d u a l s or g r o u p s , i n c l u d i n g t h o s e t h a t a r e d i s a d v a n t a g e d b e c a u s e of r a c e , n a t i o n a l or e t h n i c o r i g i n , colour, r e l i g i o n , s e x , a g e or m e n t a l or physical disability'. O n c e t h e s e w e r e in p l a c e , w o m e n c o u l d t h e n a p p e a l t o t h e m , n o t only t o c o r r e c t g e n d e r b i a s e s in C a n a d i a n society, b u t also to g a i n a b e t t e r p o s i t i o n to p r o t e c t w o m e n in f u t u r e c o n s t i ­ tutional negotiations. T h e s e e x a m p l e s of h o w all t h e d i v e r s e m e m b e r s of Haida Gwaii a r e r e c o g n i s e d a n d a c c o m m o d a t e d i l l u s t r a t e t h e m u l t i p l i c i t y of ways c o n s t i t u t i o n a l a c t o r s c a n b e g u i d e d by t h e t h r e e c o n v e n t i o n s of c o m m o n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m . I n m o d e r n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m , t h e r e is a t e n d e n c y to t h i n k , following H o b b e s , t h a t this c a n n o t b e r i g h t , t h a t t h e r e c a n b e only o n e c o r r e c t w a y of b e i n g g u i d e d by a r u l e . T h i s l e a d s u s to t h i n k t h a t c o n v e n t i o n s from p r e - m o d e r n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m could n o t possibly g u i d e c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m in a p o s t - m o d e r n a g e b e c a u s e t h e s i t u a t i o n s a r e so d i f f e r e n t . T h e i n c l i n a t i o n is t o say, ' B u t b e i n g g u i d e d is s u r e l y a p a r t i c u l a r e x p e r i e n c e ! ' T h e ' a n s w e r to t h i s ' i n c l i n a t i o n , W i t t g e n s t e i n r e p l i e s , is 'you a r e n o w thinking of a p a r t i c u l a r e x p e r i e n c e of b e i n g guided'. T h e u s e of t h e old c o m m o n - l a w t e r m ' c o n v e n t i o n ' is i n t e n d e d t o dispel this fixation. As t h e e x a m p l e s h a v e s h o w n , a c o n s t i t u t i o n a l c o n v e n t i o n , like W i t t g e n s t e i n ' s ' r u l e ' , c a n b e g r a s p e d in a v a r i e t y of ways, 'in w h a t we call " o b e y i n g t h e r u l e " a n d " g o i n g a g a i n s t i t " in a c t u a l c a s e s ' . T o b r i n g his i n t e r ­ l o c u t o r s t o see t h a t t h e c o n c e p t of b e i n g g u i d e d c a n b e e x t e n d e d in this a s p e c t i v a l way, W i t t g e n s t e i n , u n s u r p r i s i n g l y , i n v i t e s t h e m to i m a g i n e t h e following h o m e s p u n e x a m p l e s of being guided:

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You are in a playing field with your eyes bandaged, and someone leads you by the hand, sometimes left, sometimes right; you have constantly to be ready for the tug of his hand, and must also take care not to stumble when he gives an unexpected tug. Or, again: someone leads you by the hand where you are unwilling to go, by force. Or: someone takes you for a walk; you are having a conversation; you go wherever he does. Or: you walk along a field-track, simply following it. T h e n , h e s i m p l y asks, all ' t h e s e s i t u a t i o n s a r e s i m i l a r t o o n e a n o t h e r ; b u t w h a t is c o m m o n to all t h e e x p e r i e n c e s ? ' If i n t e r l o c u t o r s from o t h e r n e i g h b o u r h o o d s a n d b o r o u g h s p r e s e n t t h e i r e x a m p l e s of s t r u g g l e s for r e c o g n i t i o n t o c o m p l e m e n t t h e l i m i t e d p e r s p e c t i v e of m i n e , as I t r u s t t h e y will, o u r c o n c e p t of b e i n g g u i d e d by t h e c o n v e n t i o n s of c o m m o n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m will be e x t e n d e d f u r t h e r . S u c h a n e n d l e s s d i a l o g u e of h u m a n k i n d will c o r r e c t m y t e n d e n c y t o w r i t e as if all t h e w o r l d is A m e r i c a , a n d t h e a n a l o g o u s t e n d e n c i e s of t h e o t h e r p a r t i c i p a n t s . I n t h i s dialogical way, t h e c i t i z e n s of s u c h a r e p u b l i c of w o r d s , s p e a k i n g a n d l i s t e n i n g in t u r n , could g r a d u a l l y b e c o m e m u t u a l l y a w a r e of t h e c u l t u r a l d i v e r s i t y t h a t o u g h t to b e r e c o g n i s e d a n d a c c o m m o d a t e d in t h e global family of c o n s t i t u t i o n s a n d c u l t u r e s . F o r now, h o w e v e r , you will b e r e l i e v e d t o l e a r n t h a t , a l t h o u g h o n e c a n ' d e m o n s t r a t e a m e t h o d , by e x a m p l e s ' , f o r t u n a t e l y , ' t h e s e r i e s of e x a m p l e s c a n b e b r o k e n o f f . 38

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6

Constitutionalism in an age of cultural diversity

A summary of contemporary constitutionalism T h e s u r v e y of t h e c o m p o s i t e l a n g u a g e of c o n t e m p o r a r y c o n s t i ­ t u t i o n a l i s m s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n s of c o n t e m p o r a r y societies a r e c o n s i d e r a b l y d i f f e r e n t f r o m t h e p i c t u r e given by t h e m o d e r n t h e o r i e s a n d t h e t h r e e a u t h o r i t a t i v e schools. W h e r e t h e m a c h i n e r y of m o d e r n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m h a s n o t c l e a r - c u t t h e living c u l t u r a l diversity, b e c a u s e t h e s o v e r e i g n p e o p l e h a v e said e n o u g h a n d r e f u s e d t o s u b m i t , t h e r e s u l t i n g c o m m o n g r o u n d is a m u l t i p l i c i t y . T h e s e c o n s t i t u t i o n s a r e b a s e d o n t h e s o v e r e i g n t y of c u l t u r a l l y d i v e r s e c i t i z e n s h e r e a n d now, n o t o n a b s t r a c t f o r g e r i e s of c u l t u r a l l y h o m o g e n e o u s i n d i v i d u a l s , c o m m u n i t i e s or n a t i o n s . T h e a s p e c t i v a l c h a r a c t e r of t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n s is n o t g r a s p e d by a c o m p r e h e n s i v e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n , b u t by p a r t i c i p a t i o n in a p r a c t i c a l d i a l o g u e where limited and c o m p l e m e n t a r y stories are exchanged. C o n s t i t u t i o n a l n e g o t i a t i o n s a r e n o t m o n o l o g u e s in a n i m p e r i a l voice, b u t i n t e r c u l t u r a l d i a l o g u e s w h e r e t h e p o s t i m p e r i a l m a j e s t y of audi alteram partem always h a s h e r final say. T h e s e constitutions are not causal stages high above t h e a n c i e n t o n e s of early m o d e r n E u r o p e a n s or A b o r i g i n a l p e o p l e s , b u t c o n t i n u o u s w i t h t h e m . T h e y p r e s e r v e legal, political a n d c u l t u r a l p l u r a l i t y r a t h e r t h a n i m p o s e u n i f o r m i t y a n d r e g u l a r i t y . T h e r e is n o t o n e n a t i o n a l n a r r a t i v e t h a t gives t h e p a r t n e r s h i p its unity, b u t a d i v e r s i t y of criss-crossing a n d contested narratives through which citizens participate in and identify w i t h t h e i r a s s o c i a t i o n . C o n s t i t u t i o n s a r e n o t fixed a n d unchangeable a g r e e m e n t s r e a c h e d at some foundational m o m e n t , b u t c h a i n s of c o n t i n u a l i n t e r c u l t u r a l n e g o t i a t i o n s 183

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a n d a g r e e m e n t s in a c c o r d w i t h , a n d v i o l a t i o n of t h e conven­ t i o n s of m u t u a l r e c o g n i t i o n , c o n t i n u i t y a n d c o n s e n t . I n s u m , as t h e p e o p l e r e m o v e m o d e r n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m from its i m p e r i a l t h r o n e a n d p u t it in its p r o p e r p l a c e , w h a t r e m a i n s to b e s e e n looks t o m e like t h e o u t l i n e s of t h e black c a n o e in dawn's early light. T h e six e x a m p l e s of t h e politics of c u l t u r a l r e c o g n i t i o n in t h e first c h a p t e r c a n n o w b e s e e n as t h e e x t e n s i o n of this c o m m o n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m . T h e y c o m p r i s e a t h i r d c l u s t e r of a n t i i m p e r i a l s t r u g g l e s a g a i n s t t h e s e v e n f e a t u r e s of m o d e r n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m a n d for t h e l i b e r t y to e n g a g e in self r u l e in a c c o r d w i t h c i t i z e n s ' d i v e r s e c u l t u r a l w a y s . It follows t h a t t h e q u e s t i o n p o s e d at t h e o u t s e t c a n b e a n s w e r e d in t h e affirm­ a t i v e . As I a n t i c i p a t e d at t h e close of c h a p t e r i, a c o n t e m p o r a r y c o n s t i t u t i o n c a n r e c o g n i s e c u l t u r a l d i v e r s i t y if it is conceived as a f o r m of a c c o m m o d a t i o n of c u l t u r a l diversity. It s h o u l d be s e e n as a n activity, a n i n t e r c u l t u r a l d i a l o g u e in w h i c h t h e c u l t u r a l l y d i v e r s e s o v e r e i g n c i t i z e n s of c o n t e m p o r a r y societies n e g o t i a t e a g r e e m e n t s o n t h e i r w a y s of a s s o c i a t i o n over t i m e in a c c o r d w i t h t h e c o n v e n t i o n s of m u t u a l r e c o g n i t i o n , c o n s e n t and continuity. I n t h e c o u r s e of t h e survey of e x a m p l e s , r e a s o n s h a v e b e e n given for a m e n d i n g or, in s o m e c a s e s , a b a n d o n i n g e a c h of t h e seven f e a t u r e s of m o d e r n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m . T h e c o n t e m ­ porary constitutionalism that remains includes c o m m o n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m a n d m o d e r n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m t r i m m e d of its f e a t u r e s t h a t v i o l a t e t h e t h r e e c o n v e n t i o n s . I n a like manner, contemporary constitutionalism comprises the family of c o n s t i t u t i o n s a n d t r a d i t i o n s of i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of t h e w o r l d t h a t a r e r e l a t e d by t h e i r c o m m o n r e s p e c t for t h e three conventions, such as the Aboriginal constitutions and t r a d i t i o n s of i n t e r p r e t a t i o n we s u r v e y e d in c h a p t e r 4. C o n t e m p o r a r y c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m is j u s t b e c a u s e it r e s t s o n t h e t h r e e v e n e r a b l e c o n v e n t i o n s of j u s t i c e t h a t survived o u r critical survey. It is also w o r t h y of o u r h e a r i n g , a n d p e r h a p s a l l e g i a n c e , b e c a u s e it f u r t h e r s t h e l i b e r t y of self r u l e . Since t h e r e is n o g r e a t e r v a l u e in W e s t e r n civilisation, a n d p e r h a p s

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in a n y civilisation, this is n o s m a l l r e c o m m e n d a t i o n for t h e vision p r e s e n t e d h e r e for y o u r c o n s i d e r a t i o n . M o r e o v e r , t h e p a t h from m o d e r n t o c o n t e m p o r a r y c o n s t i ­ t u t i o n a l i s m w a s n o t t a k e n lightly or w i t h o u t d u e c o n s i d e r a t i o n of t h e o t h e r side. T o r e c a l l , H o b b e s f o u n d e d t h e c o m p r e ­ h e n s i v e a n d exclusive a u t h o r i t y of m o d e r n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m o n its scientific s t a t u s . H a l e r e p l i e d t h a t t h e m o d e l of s c i e n c e is i n a p p l i c a b l e t o t h e t a n g l e d d o m a i n of c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m . It c a n n o t provide k n o w l e d g e of h o w c o n s t i t u t i o n a l a c t o r s o u g h t to be g o v e r n e d b e c a u s e t h e y a r e n o t , a n d c a n n o t b e c o e r c e d to b e , g o v e r n e d by c o m p r e h e n s i v e r u l e s as t h e m o d e l p r e ­ supposes. T h e h e r m e n e u t i c a l sciences sought to restore c o m p r e h e n s i v e t h e o r y to office o n t h e b a s i s of r u l e s implicit in practice. Nationalism, communitarianism and practice-based l i b e r a l i s m r e s t e d t h e i r c o m p r e h e n s i v e c l a i m s o n t h i s v e r s i o n of the model. W i t t g e n s t e i n d e m u r r e d , pointing out that this r e v i s e d m o d e l is e q u a l l y i n a p p r o p r i a t e to t h e a s p e c t i v a l d o m a i n of h u m a n a c t i o n . T h e h u n d r e d s of voices h e a r d in t h e survey s u p p o r t H a l e a n d W i t t g e n s t e i n in d e t h r o n i n g m o d e r n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m . T h e final i r o n y of m o d e r n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l ­ i s m ' s l o n g r e i g n is t h a t t h e m o d e l of s c i e n c e o n w h i c h its a u t h o r i t y r e s t e d is e v e n a false r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of t h e n a t u r a l s c i e n c e s . As Clifford G e e r t z d e m o n s t r a t e s , n a t u r a l s c i e n t i s t s t o o s t u d y i n d i v i d u a l cases, a d v a n c e l i m i t e d a n d c o m p e t i n g s k e t c h e s , d r a w a n a l o g i e s w i t h o t h e r c a s e s a n d discuss t h e s e w i t h a s m a n y c o l l e a g u e s as p o s s i b l e . I n s t e a d of g r a n d t h e o r y , c o n s t i t u t i o n a l k n o w l e d g e a p p e a r s t o b e a h u m b l e a n d p r a c t i c a l d i a l o g u e in w h i c h i n t e r l o c u t o r s from n e a r a n d far e x c h a n g e l i m i t e d d e s c r i p t i o n s of a c t u a l c a s e s , l e a r n i n g as t h e y go a l o n g . A c c o r d i n g l y , t h e l a n g u a g e a n d i n s t i t u t i o n s of m o d e r n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m s h o u l d n o w t a k e t h e i r d e m o c r a t i c p l a c e a m o n g t h e m u l t i p l i c i t y of c o n s t i ­ t u t i o n a l l a n g u a g e s a n d i n s t i t u t i o n s of t h e w o r l d a n d s u b m i t t h e i r l i m i t e d c l a i m s to a u t h o r i t y t o t h e t h r e e c o n v e n t i o n s , j u s t like all t h e o t h e r s . H e n c e , in t h i s p o s t - i m p e r i a l v i e w of c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m t h e v a l u e of p r o g r e s s is also p r e s e r v e d a n d t r a n s f o r m e d . P r o g r e s s is not t h e a s c e n t o u t of t h e a n c i e n t c u l t u r a l a s s e m b l a g e u n t i l 1

i86

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o n e r e a c h e s t h e i m a g i n a r y u n i f o r m m o d e r n r e p u b l i c , from w h i c h o n e r a n k s a n d j u d g e s t h e less d e v e l o p e d o t h e r s o n t h e r u n g s far below. R a t h e r , it c o n s i s t s in l e a r n i n g t o r e c o g n i s e , c o n v e r s e w i t h a n d b e m u t u a l l y a c c o m m o d a t i n g to t h e c u l t u r a l l y diverse n e i g h b o u r s in t h e city w e i n h a b i t h e r e a n d now. T h i s is t h e r e v e r s a l of w o r l d v i e w c a l l e d for, as J a m a k e H i g h w a t e r w a r n s , c i t i n g t h e M e x i c a n essayist O c t a v i o P a z , if t h e family of h u m a n k i n d is t o s u r v i v e : 2

W h a t sets worlds in motion is the interplay of differences, their attractions and repulsions. Life is plurality, death is uniformity. By suppressing differences and peculiarities, by eliminating different civilizations and cultures, progress weakens life and favors death. T h e ideal of a single civilization for everyone, implicit in the cult of progress of technique, impoverishes and mutilates us. Every view of the world that becomes extinct, every culture that disappears, diminishes a possibility. T h i s q u o t a t i o n t u r n s o n a c o n n e c t i o n s u g g e s t e d by t h e t e r m ' c u l t u r e ' itself. T h e v a l u e of c o n t i n u i n g t h e o v e r l a p p i n g , i n t e r ­ a c t i n g a n d c o n t e s t e d f o r m s of life w e call h u m a n c u l t u r e s is a n a l o g o u s to t h e v a l u e of p r e s e r v i n g t h e e q u a l l y i n t e r ­ d e p e n d e n t p l a n t a n d a n i m a l c u l t u r e s . Since b o t h A b o r i g i n a l a n d n o n - A b o r i g i n a l ecologists c o n c u r t h a t all f o r m s of life a r e s u s p e n d e d in t h i s d e l i c a t e l y b a l a n c e d l a b y r i n t h of biodiversity, t h e v a l u e is life itself. A n d , on t h e o t h e r s i d e , t h e r e is a c o n n e c t i o n , as W i l l i a m C r o n o n , C a r o l y n M e r c h a n t , D a v i d M a y b u r y - L e w i s , Alfred C r o s b y a n d J u l i a n B u r g e r h a v e s h o w n b e y o n d r e a s o n a b l e d o u b t , b e t w e e n t h e global s p r e a d of m o d e r n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m , w i t h i t s policies of d i s c o n t i n u i t y a n d a s s i m i ­ l a t i o n , a n d t h e ecological i m p e r i a l i s m a n d d e s t r u c t i o n t h a t c o n t i n u e s to a c c o m p a n y it. T h e k i n s h i p b e t w e e n t h e r e c o g ­ n i t i o n of h u m a n a n d ecological c u l t u r e s is effortlessly e x p r e s s e d by Bill R e i d in his m e d i t a t i o n on t h e m e a n i n g o f ' H a i d a ' : 3

As for what constitutes a Haida - well, H a i d a only means h u m a n being, and as far as I'm concerned, a h u m a n being is anyone who respects the needs of his fellow man, and the earth which nurtures and shelters us all. I think we could find room in South Moresby [one of the islands of Haida Gwaii] for quite a few Haida no m a t t e r what their ethnic background.

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N o t w i t h s t a n d i n g t h e s e a r g u m e n t s in s u p p o r t of c o n t e m ­ p o r a r y c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m , I h a v e n o t r e s p o n d e d d i r e c t l y to four o b j e c t i o n s voiced by t h e g u a r d i a n s of m o d e r n c o n s t i ­ t u t i o n a l i s m in t h e c o u r s e of o u r survey. C o n t e m p o r a r y c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m conflicts w i t h n a t i o n a l i n t e g r i t y in n a t i o n a l ­ i s m , v i o l a t e s i n d i v i d u a l f r e e d o m a n d a u t o n o m y in l i b e r a l i s m , p r o t e c t s e n c l a v e s of a n t i - d e m o c r a t i c r u l e a n d l e a d s t o d i s u n i t y in p r a c t i c e . I a d d r e s s t h e s e l e g i t i m a t e c o n c e r n s in t h e n e x t s e c t i o n . A c o n s i d e r a t i o n of t h e two p u b l i c goods of c o n t e m ­ p o r a r y c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m follows in t h e t h i r d s e c t i o n . A b r i e f c o n c l u s i o n a n s w e r s t h e q u e s t i o n r a i s e d in c h a p t e r 1 of t h e i d e n t i t y of t h e chief of The spirit of Haida Gwaii. Replies tofour objections to contemporary constitutionalism T h e p o s t - i m p e r i a l c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m of t h i s book is i n c o m ­ p a t i b l e w i t h t h e ' i n t e g r i t y ' of t h e n a t i o n in n a t i o n a l i s m in o n e s e n s e of t h i s t e r m . If t h e i n t e g r i t y of t h e n a t i o n is a code w o r d for a n e t h n i c n a t i o n , t h e n , as we s a w in c h a p t e r 1, it is e m p i r i c a l l y false. N a t i o n s a r e , in W i l l i a m M c N e i l l ' s p h r a s e , p o l y e t h n i c . T h i s h a s n o t s t o p p e d t h e i d e o l o g i s t s of t h e e t h n i c n a t i o n s t a t e f r o m m a k i n g t h e i r false c l a i m s . W e saw a classic e x a m p l e in t h e Federalist papers in c h a p t e r 3 . A n t h o n y S m i t h e x p l a i n s t h a t e t h n i c i t y h a s b e e n a f e a t u r e of t h e m o d e r n c o n c e p t of a n a t i o n from t h e s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y to t h e r a c i a l v e r s i o n s of t h e n i n e t e e n t h a n d t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r i e s . It is l o d g e d in p l a c e by t h e b r o a d e r a s s u m p t i o n t h a t c u l t u r e s a n d n a t i o n s c o n s t i t u t e a w o r l d s y s t e m of s e p a r a t e , closed a n d h o m o ­ g e n e o u s u n i t s a t v a r i o u s s t a g e s of d e v e l o p m e n t . T h e i n t e g r i t y of t h e e t h n i c n a t i o n is m o r e o f t e n a c l a i m t h a t t h e n a t i o n s h o u l d be purified, r a t h e r t h a n a c l a i m t h a t it is p u r e , a l t h o u g h t h e two a r e often c o n n e c t e d . T h e policies of ' f o r g i n g ' a n a t i o n in c h a p t e r 3 a n d t h e j u s t i f i c a t i o n s of L o r d D u r h a m a n d J o h n S t u a r t Mill in c h a p t e r 5 a r e classic e x a m p l e s of h o w m o d e r n n a t i o n s t a t e s h a v e a t t e m p t e d t o construct d o m i n a n t ethnic identities. T h e s e a t t e m p t s to a s s i m i l a t e t h e e t h n i c c i t i z e n s w h o fail t o fit t h e m o u l d h a v e b e e n , a n d c o n t i n u e to b e , d i s a s t r o u s a n d a b h o r r e n t f a i l u r e s . T h e a b a n d o n m e n t of t h e set of a s s u m p t i o n s t h a t h e l d

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e t h n i c n a t i o n a l i s m in p l a c e a n d t h e a d o p t i o n of t h e m o r e a c c u r a t e p i c t u r e of c u l t u r a l d i v e r s i t y is c e r t a i n l y i n c o m p a t i b l e w i t h e t h n i c n a t i o n a l i s m a n d a n y o t h e r f o r m of exclusive n a t i o n a l i s m . H o w e v e r , it is n o t i n c o m p a t i b l e w i t h t h e s e n s e of b e l o n g i n g to a p e o p l e or a n a t i o n w h o g o v e r n t h e m s e l v e s by t h e i r own laws a n d w a y s . T h i s a s p i r a t i o n to b e l o n g t o a selfg o v e r n i n g n a t i o n is a n d h a s b e e n c e n t r a l t o t h e politics of r e c o g n i t i o n , in s p i t e of t h e a t t e m p t s of L o r d D u r h a m a n d o t h e r s t o r e d u c e it t o a n e t h n i c s t r u g g l e . T h e t y p e of n a t i o n a l ­ i s m w h i c h survives is c o n c e i v e d in a w a r e n e s s of t h e c u l t u r a l d i v e r s i t y of a n y n a t i o n . T h e t e s t is t h e a p p l i c a t i o n of t h e t h r e e c o n v e n t i o n s of c o m m o n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m . T h e s a m e c o n v e n ­ t i o n s by w h i c h a p e o p l e g a i n r e c o g n i t i o n , c o n t i n u i t y a n d q.o.t. also r e c o g n i s e , c o n t i n u e a n d r e s p e c t t h e c o n s e n t of t h e o t h e r c u l t u r a l l y different m e m b e r s of t h e a s s o c i a t i o n , r i g h t u p to, as we saw in c h a p t e r 5, t h e i n d i v i d u a l w h o w i s h e s t o d i s s e n t from the rest. A p a r t i c u l a r l y p r o m i s i n g e x a m p l e is t h e vision of d i v e r s e n a t i o n a l i s m p r e s e n t e d by a y o u n g g e n e r a t i o n of Q u e b e c n a t i o n a l i s t s . Following in t h e f o o t s t e p s of L o r a n g e r , t h e y a p p l y t h e t h r e e c o n v e n t i o n s t o t h e c u l t u r a l d i v e r s i t y of Q u e b e c society. F r e n c h l a n g u a g e , c u l t u r e a n d d e m o c r a t i c i n s t i t u t i o n s c o n s t i t u t e a linguafranca of political life. By p a r i t y of r e a s o n i n g , t h e eleven self-governing Aboriginal nations, the English l a n g u a g e , schools a n d social services of t h e E n g l i s h - s p e a k i n g m i n o r i t y , t h e l a n g u a g e s a n d schools of t h e i n t e r c u l t u r a l c i t i z e n s , t h e c h a r t e r of i n d i v i d u a l r i g h t s a n d t h e c o n f e d e r a l r e l a t i o n of t h e d i v e r s e Q u e b e c n a t i o n t o t h e r e s t of C a n a d a a r e also r e c o g n i s e d a n d c o n t i n u e d . A n o t h e r p e r t i n e n t e x a m p l e is the way the Aboriginal scholars associated with the C a n a d i a n Royal C o m m i s s i o n o n A b o r i g i n a l P e o p l e s c o n c e p t u a l i s e A b o r i g i n a l n a t i o n a l i s m t o r e c o g n i s e t h e c u l t u r a l diversity of A b o r i g i n a l n a t i o n s . T h e s e a r e s u r e l y two of t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t i n t e l l e c t u a l m o v e m e n t s of c o n t e m p o r a r y c o n s t i ­ tutionalism. 4

L e t u s n o w view c o n t e m p o r a r y c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m from t h e p e r s p e c t i v e of m o d e r n l i b e r a l s a n d t h e i r objection. A

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c o n s t i t u t i o n o u g h t t o p r o v i d e t h e f o u n d a t i o n for t h e i n d i v i d u a l f r e e d o m a n d d i g n i t y of all c i t i z e n s in b o t h t h e p u b l i c a n d p r i v a t e s p h e r e s . It s h o u l d e n a b l e t h e m t o p a r t i c i p a t e freely a n d w i t h e q u a l d i g n i t y in t h e g o v e r n i n g of t h e i r society a n d to live t h e i r p r i v a t e lives in a c c o r d w i t h t h e i r o w n choice a n d responsibility. In recent years, liberal philosophers have asked h o w t h e s e v a l u e s of civic a n d p r i v a t e f r e e d o m a n d r e s p o n s i ­ bility c a n b e p r e s e r v e d in t h e c u l t u r a l l y d i v e r s e societies of t o d a y . T h e y a r g u e t h a t t h e social c o n d i t i o n of b e i n g a b l e to e x e r c i s e i n d i v i d u a l f r e e d o m in b o t h t h e civic a n d p r i v a t e s p h e r e s is t h a t c i t i z e n s a r e m e m b e r s of v i a b l e c u l t u r e s . T h e r e a s o n for t h i s is t h a t a viable c u l t u r e is a n e c e s s a r y a n d p a r t l y c o n s t i t u t i v e c o n t e x t for i n d i v i d u a l f r e e d o m a n d a u t o n o m y . C o n s e q u e n t l y , a l t h o u g h l i b e r a l s p l a c e n o v a l u e o n c u l t u r e s in t h e i r o w n r i g h t , t h e y a r e n o w classified as a p r i m a r y good of a l i b e r a l society b e c a u s e t h e y p r o v i d e t h e s u p p o r t for l i b e r a l values. T h e older imperial liberals agreed with this, but they presumed that modern European cultures were the superior c u l t u r a l b a s e s for i n d i v i d u a l f r e e d o m . W i t h i n t h e i r s t a g e s vision of h i s t o r y , t h e y b e l i e v e d t h a t t h e s e s u p e r i o r c u l t u r e s d e v e l o p e d as a c a u s a l r e s u l t of t h e p r o c e s s e s of m o d e r n i s a t i o n , s u p p l e m e n t e d w h e r e n e c e s s a r y by policies of r e f o r m a n d socialisation. Accordingly, l i b e r a l g o v e r n m e n t s could look on t h e d e s t r u c t i o n of t h e d i v e r s i t y of p r i m i t i v e c u l t u r e s a n d t h e i n c u l c a t i o n of E u r o p e a n c u l t u r e w i t h m o r a l a p p r o v a l . I n h i n d s i g h t , s o m e l i b e r a l s n o w s e e t h e e r r o r of t h e i r w a y s . T h e i m p e r i a l l i b e r a l s from L o c k e t o Mill w e r e n o t only m i s t a k e n in t h e i r p r e s u m p t i o n t h a t m o d e r n i s a t i o n c a u s e s c u l t u r a l c o n v e r g e n c e . As D a n i e l W e i n s t o c k , a l i b e r a l , e x p l a i n s in a d i a l o g u e o n c u l t u r a l diversity w i t h a c o m m u n i t a r i a n a n d a n a t i o n a l i s t , t h e y also o v e r l o o k e d t h e social p r e c o n d i t i o n s of o n e of l i b e r a l i s m ' s p r i m a r y g o o d s : i n d i v i d u a l self r e s p e c t . C i t i z e n s c a n t a k e p a r t in p o p u l a r s o v e r e i g n t y , by h a v i n g a say in c o n s t i t u t i o n a l n e g o t i a t i o n s , a n d e x e r c i s e t h e i r civic a n d p r i v a t e f r e e d o m only if t h e y h a v e a t h r e s h o l d of self r e s p e c t . Self r e s p e c t is a s e n s e of o n e ' s o w n v a l u e a n d t h e r e l a t i v e l y s e c u r e conviction t h a t w h a t o n e h a s to say a n d d o in politics

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a n d life is w o r t h w h i l e . T h e social b a s i s of t h i s t h r e s h o l d s e n s e of self r e s p e c t is t h a t o t h e r s r e c o g n i s e t h e v a l u e of o n e ' s activities a n d goals; t h a t t h e r e is a n a s s o c i a t i o n in w h i c h i n d i v i d u a l s c a n a c q u i r e a level of c o n f i d e n c e in t h e w o r t h of w h a t t h e y say a n d d o . S i n c e w h a t a p e r s o n says a n d d o e s a n d t h e p l a n s h e or she f o r m u l a t e s a n d revises a r e p a r t l y c h a r a c ­ t e r i s e d by his or h e r c u l t u r a l i d e n t i t y , t h e c o n d i t i o n of self r e s p e c t is m e t only in a society in w h i c h t h e c u l t u r e s of all t h e m e m b e r s a r e r e c o g n i s e d a n d a f f i r m e d by o t h e r s , b o t h by t h o s e w h o do a n d t h o s e w h o d o n o t s h a r e t h o s e c u l t u r e s . A c o m p l e m e n t a r y a r g u m e n t , also s t a r t i n g from R a w l s ' c o n c e p t of self r e s p e c t , is a d v a n c e d by S u s a n J a m e s from a l i b e r a l feminist perspective. Consequently, a constitutional association whose m e m b e r s view t h e d i s a p p e a r a n c e of t h e c u l t u r e s of o t h e r m e m b e r s w i t h m o r a l a p p r o v a l or m o r a l i n d i f f e r e n c e , a n d w h o t r e a t o t h e r c u l t u r e s w i t h c o n d e s c e n s i o n a n d c o n t e m p t , d e s t r o y s t h e self r e s p e c t of t h o s e m e m b e r s . I n so d o i n g , t h e ability of t h o s e c i t i z e n s to e x e r c i s e t h e i r i n d i v i d u a l f r e e d o m a n d a u t o n o m y in c o n s t i t u t i o n a l n e g o t i a t i o n s , civic p a r t i c i p a t i o n a n d p r i v a t e life is u n d e r m i n e d . T h i s is s c a r c e l y a n e w discovery. I n A vindication of the rights of woman, M a r y Wollstonecraft c a t a l o g u e d t h e d e b i l i t a t i n g effects o n w o m e n of t h e d e g r a d i n g s t e r e o t y p e s a n d e d u c a t i o n u p h e l d by m e n . T h e d i s a s t r o u s effects of policies of c u l t u r a l d e s t r u c t i o n a n d a s s i m i l a t i o n o n t h e self r e s p e c t a n d self e s t e e m of A b o r i g i n a l p e o p l e s p r o v e s this obvious b u t o v e r l o o k e d p o i n t b e y o n d r e a s o n a b l e d o u b t . If a l i b e r a l c o n s t i t u t i o n is t o p r o v i d e t h e b a s i s for its m o s t i m p o r t a n t v a l u e s of f r e e d o m a n d a u t o n o m y , it t h u s m u s t p r o t e c t t h e c u l t u r e s of i t s m e m b e r s a n d e n g e n d e r t h e p u b l i c a t t i t u d e of m u t u a l r e s p e c t for c u l t u r a l d i v e r s i t y t h a t i n d i v i d u a l self r e s p e c t r e q u i r e s . T o p u t t h i s differently, t h e p r i m a r y good of self r e s p e c t r e q u i r e s t h a t p o p u l a r s o v e r e i g n t y is conceived as a n i n t e r c u l t u r a l d i a l o g u e . T h e v a r i o u s c u l t u r e s of t h e society n e e d t o b e r e c o g n i s e d in p u b l i c i n s t i t u t i o n s , h i s t o r i e s a n d s y m b o l s in o r d e r t o n o u r i s h m u t u a l c u l t u r a l a w a r e n e s s a n d r e s p e c t . F a r from b e i n g a t h r e a t t o l i b e r a l v a l u e s , t h e r e c o g n i t i o n a n d p r o t e c t i o n of c u l t u r a l diversity is a n e c e s s a r y

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c o n d i t i o n of t h e p r i m a r y good of self r e s p e c t , a n d so of t h e i n d i v i d u a l f r e e d o m a n d a u t o n o m y t h a t it u n d e r p i n s , in a m a n n e r a p p r o p r i a t e to a p o s t - i m p e r i a l a g e . It is also w o r t h n o t i n g t h a t t h e p r o t e c t i o n of c u l t u r a l diversity is c o m p a t i b l e w i t h t h e p r i n c i p l e of l i b e r a l n e u t r a l i t y . As we h a v e s e e n in m a n y classic l i b e r a l t h e o r i e s , t h e f e i g n e d c u l t u r a l i n d i f f e r e n c e of t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n s e r v e d t o r e i n f o r c e t h e d o m i n a n t , E u r o p e a n m a l e c u l t u r e a t t h e e x p e n s e of all o t h e r s . I n h i n d s i g h t , it is obvious t h a t t h e s t a g e s view of c u l t u r a l d e v e l o p m e n t s e r v e d t o p r o p u p t h e self r e s p e c t , a n d so t h e a u t o n o m y of t h e m e m b e r s of t h e d o m i n a n t society a n d t o u n d e r m i n e t h e self r e s p e c t , a n d so t h e ability t o p a r t i c i p a t e fully of t h e o t h e r m e m b e r s . If a c o n t e m p o r a r y c o n s t i t u t i o n is to b e c u l t u r a l l y n e u t r a l , it s h o u l d n o t p r o m o t e o n e c u l t u r e a t t h e e x p e n s e of o t h e r s , b u t m u t u a l l y r e c o g n i s e a n d a c c o m m o ­ d a t e t h e c u l t u r e s of all t h e c i t i z e n s in a n a g r e e a b l e m a n n e r . A closely r e l a t e d w o r r y is t h a t legal a n d political d i v e r s i t y will s h i e l d illiberal a n d u n d e m o c r a t i c e n c l a v e s . T h e c o n s i s t e n t a p p l i c a t i o n of t h e c o n v e n t i o n s of m u t u a l r e c o g n i t i o n , con­ t i n u i t y a n d c o n s e n t r e n d e r s s u c h a n o u t c o m e i m p o s s i b l e for, as we h a v e s e e n , t h e c o n v e n t i o n s w h i c h p r o t e c t t h e p r o v i n c e s a n d n a t i o n s of a m u l t i n a t i o n a l c o n f e d e r a t i o n also a p p l y t o t h e c i t i z e n s w i t h i n t h e m . N e v e r t h e l e s s , I w o u l d like t o a n s w e r t h e o b j e c t i o n by t a k i n g u p t h e case of t h e r e c o g n i t i o n of t h e s o v e r e i g n t y of A b o r i g i n a l p e o p l e s by t h e n o n - A b o r i g i n a l s t a t e s t h a t h a v e b e e n e r e c t e d over t h e m . If t r e a t y c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m does n o t l e a d t o u n d e m o c r a t i c f o r m s of g o v e r n m e n t , t h e n t h e l e s s e r d e g r e e s of self g o v e r n m e n t n e c e s s a r y t o a c c o m m o d a t e c u l t u r a l diversity in o t h e r c a s e s a r e u n l i k e l y to as well. Before p r o c e e d i n g , I w o u l d like t o e n t e r a d i s c l a i m e r . T h e p r e s u m p t i o n t h a t n o n - A b o r i g i n a l p e o p l e m a y sit in j u d g e ­ m e n t , from t h e u n q u e s t i o n e d s u p e r i o r i t y of t h e i r c o n s t i t u t i o n s a n d t r a d i t i o n s of i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , a n d g u a r d t h e t r a n s i t i o n of t h e A b o r i g i n a l p e o p l e s from c o l o n i a l i s m t o self g o v e r n m e n t s m a c k s of t h e i m p e r i a l a t t i t u d e t h a t c o n t e m p o r a r y c o n s t i ­ t u t i o n a l i s m a i m s t o d i s l o d g e . G i v e n t h e h i s t o r i c a l r e c o r d , it is n o t A b o r i g i n a l p e o p l e w h o n e e d g u a r d i n g . T o avoid t h i s

192

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u n d i g n i f i e d s t a n c e , I will t r y to p r o c e e d in a w a y t h a t l e a d s n o n - A b o r i g i n a l r e a d e r s to see t h e i r r o l e , n o t as s u p e r i o r j u d g e s a n d g u a r d i a n s b u t as t r e a t y p a r t n e r s in a n i n t e r c u l t u r a l dialogue. T w o of t h e p r i m a r y goods of c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m a r e civic p a r t i c i p a t i o n a n d t h e civic d i g n i t y t h a t a c c o m p a n i e s it. T h e y c a n n o t b e r e a l i s e d by a s s i m i l a t i n g A b o r i g i n a l p e o p l e s to n o n A b o r i g i n a l f o r m s of g o v e r n m e n t . T h i s is u n j u s t a n d t h e c a u s e of t h e a l i e n a t i o n a n d r e s i s t a n c e t h a t c o m e to a n y free p e o p l e w h o a r e forcefully g o v e r n e d by a l i e n laws a n d w a y s . Self g o v e r n m e n t e n a b l e s A b o r i g i n a l p e o p l e s , j u s t as it e n a b l e s n o n A b o r i g i n a l p e o p l e s , to p a r t i c i p a t e in g o v e r n i n g t h e i r societies in a c c o r d w i t h t h e i r own laws a n d c u l t u r a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g s of self r u l e , a n d so r e g a i n t h e i r d i g n i t y as e q u a l a n d active citizens. T h e s e two goods a r e not r e a l i s e d only in o n e c a n o n i c a l f o r m of i n s t i t u t i o n a n d c h a r t e r . T h e p r a c t i c e of g o v e r n m e n t s h o u l d r e s t o n t h e s o v e r e i g n t y of t h e p e o p l e , e n a b l i n g t h e m t o e x e r c i s e t h e i r p o w e r s of self r u l e in c u l t u r a l l y a p p r o p r i a t e ways a n d t o a m e n d or o v e r t h r o w t h e g o v e r n m e n t if it t h w a r t s t h e i r p o w e r s . Accordingly, t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n a l f o r m s of d e m o ­ cratic participation a n d citizen dignity vary with t h e cultures a n d c i r c u m s t a n c e s of t h e p e o p l e s of t h e world. I n m a n y c a s e s A b o r i g i n a l p e o p l e s , w i t h t h e i r s m a l l e r , o r a l societies, t e n d t o p l a c e g r e a t e r e m p h a s i s o n d i r e c t p a r t i c i p a t i o n by all a n d g o v e r n m e n t by c o n s e n s u s . As J . A n t h o n y L o n g e x p l a i n s , in a l a r g e n u m b e r of A b o r i g i n a l n a t i o n s , p o l i t i c a l a u t h o r i t y r e s t s o n t h e ability of t h e chief or council t o s u s t a i n t h e c o n t i n u o u s c o n s e n t of t h e c i t i z e n s . W i t h t h e i r r e s p e c t for family, t r a d i t i o n a n d p l a c e , t h e m e t h o d s of e l e c t i o n also vary. W h e n c o n s e n t d i s s i p a t e s d u e to d i s t r u s t , t h e c i t i z e n s often f o r m s o v e r e i g n b o d i e s , s u c h as h e a l i n g circles, to r e f o r m defective p r a c t i c e s a n d e l e c t a n e w c h i e f or council. A l t h o u g h t h e s e f o r m s of face t o face g o v e r n m e n t h a v e often s e r v e d as a n ideal in W e s t e r n p o l i t i c a l t h o u g h t , m o d e r n t h e o r i s t s c o n d e m n t h e m as p r i m i t i v e , a n c i e n t a n d i n c o m ­ patible with m o d e r n constitutions. Locke, Kant, Constant and t h e i r followers took t h e size a n d i n s t i t u t i o n a l f o r m a t i o n of

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E u r o p e a n societies as t h e n o r m a n d h e l d t h a t r e p r e s e n t a t i v e g o v e r n m e n t , a g g r e g a t e m a j o r i t y r u l e , t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n of sovereignty and compulsory obedience are essential features of a m o d e r n c o n s t i t u t i o n . T h i s was yet a n o t h e r h a s t y a n d p a r o c h i a l g e n e r a l i s a t i o n . T h e d e m o c r a t i c goods of p a r t i c i ­ p a t i o n , free e x p r e s s i o n a n d r e f o r m a r e r e a l i s e d b e t t e r for A b o r i g i n a l p e o p l e s in t h e i r c u l t u r a l l y d i s t i n c t f o r m s of c o n s t i ­ tution. T h e a t t e m p t to impose E u r o p e a n institutions would c r e a t e r e s i s t a n c e a n d u n d e r m i n e t h e d e m o c r a t i c goods t h e i n s t i t u t i o n s a r e m e a n t to s e c u r e , j u s t a s e a r l i e r a t t e m p t s h a v e d o n e for t h e last four c e n t u r i e s . This response, however, does not address t h e i m m e d i a t e c o n c e r n . T h e fear is t h a t , as t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i v e d i c t a t o r s h i p s over A b o r i g i n a l p e o p l e s a r e d i s m a n t l e d , t h e y m a y l e a v e a class of A b o r i g i n a l m a l e e l i t e s i n p o w e r . T h e y m a y u s e t h e i r s o v e r e i g n t y t o r u l e d e s p o t i c a l l y over t h e i r o w n p e o p l e a n d s h i e l d t h e m s e l v e s from c o n s t i t u t i o n a l l i m i t s . T h e y h a v e g a i n e d so m u c h p o w e r u n d e r t h e cloak of t h e I n d i a n Act a n d other administrative a r r a n g e m e n t s that Aboriginal people m a y n o t b e a b l e t o c o n t r o l t h e m . T h i s is a g e n u i n e c o n c e r n t h a t is also s h a r e d by m a n y A b o r i g i n a l p e o p l e , especially A b o r i g i n a l w o m e n w h o h a v e suffered p h y s i c a l a b u s e a n d d i s c r i m i n a t i o n on r e s e r v e s . First, the p a t r i a r c h a l structures t h a t t h e elites occupy w e r e set u p by colonial a d m i n i s t r a t o r s . T h e y d e s t r o y e d t h e w i d e v a r i e t y of f o r m s of r u l e by w o m e n a n d m e n t h a t A b o r i g i n a l p e o p l e s previously enjoyed. T h e e x i s t e n c e of s u c h e l i t e s , t h e n , is s c a r c e l y a n a r g u m e n t for c o n t i n u i n g t o subject A b o r i g i n a l p e o p l e to n o n - A b o r i g i n a l r u l e . Q u i t e t h e c o n t r a r y . T h e s o l u t i o n is to e n s u r e t h a t A b o r i g i n a l p e o p l e s a r e a b l e t o d r a w on and innovate with their older constitutions a n d traditions in o r d e r to l i m i t or o v e r t h r o w t h e elites in t h e t r a n s i t i o n t o self g o v e r n m e n t . T h e c h a r a c t e r of s o v e r e i g n t y in c o n t e m p o r a r y constitutionalism m a k e s this possible. I n t h e t h e o r i e s of H o b b e s a n d P u f e n d o r f , s o v e r e i g n t y signifies a single locus of political p o w e r t h a t is a b s o l u t e o r a u t o n o m o u s . It is n o t c o n d i t i o n e d by a n y o t h e r political p o w e r . A s o v e r e i g n r u l e r or b o d y of p e o p l e ( s u c h as a l e g i s l a t u r e )

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e x e r c i s e s political p o w e r over o t h e r s ( s u b j e c t s ) b u t is n o t s u b j e c t or a c c o u n t a b l e to t h e e x e r c i s e of political p o w e r by o t h e r s . A b s o l u t e s o v e r e i g n t y a r o s e in t h e a g e of a b s o l u t e m o n a r c h y a n d p a s s e d t o a b s o l u t e n a t i o n s t a t e s in t h e e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y . T h i s s e n s e of s o v e r e i g n t y g e n e r a t e s t h e p r o b l e m of u n d e m o c r a t i c e n c l a v e s . H o w e v e r , it is a false d e p i c t i o n of s o v e r e i g n t y t o d a y . T h e c o n c e p t of s o v e r e i g n t y h a s u n d e r g o n e a c h a n g e in t h e t r a n s i t i o n from H o b b e s t o c o n t e m p o r a r y c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m . F i r s t , t h e e x e r c i s e of political p o w e r is d e p e n d e n t o n a n d l i m i t e d by t h e c o n s e n t or a g r e e m e n t of t h e p e o p l e . T h i s l i m i t , r e q u i r e d by t h e c o n v e n t i o n of c o n s e n t , is m a r k e d by t h e p h r a s e ' p o p u l a r s o v e r e i g n t y ' . It is t h e single m o s t i m p o r t a n t c o n d i t i o n of l e g i t i m a c y in t h e c o n t e m p o r a r y w o r l d . N o c o n s t i t u t i o n a l a s s o c i a t i o n is c o n s i d e r e d l e g i t i m a t e u n l e s s g o v e r n m e n t r e s t s o n t h e c o n s e n t , a n d so t h e s o v e r e i g n t y , of t h e p e o p l e . A l t h o u g h the expressions sovereign 'nations' and sovereign 'states' c o n t i n u e t o b e u s e d , t h e y i m p l y t h e proviso t h a t t h e e x e r c i s e of p o l i t i c a l p o w e r in t h e m h a s t h e c o n s e n t of t h e p e o p l e . P o p u l a r s o v e r e i g n t y t a k e s two f o r m s : e i t h e r t h e p e o p l e e x e r c i s e political p o w e r t h e m s e l v e s or t h e y d e l e g a t e political p o w e r to t h e i r representatives. T h e people place m o r e constraints on t h e e x e r c i s e of political p o w e r by c h a r t e r s of r i g h t s . S e c o n d , s o v e r e i g n t y is l i m i t e d by a d e g r e e of i n t e r d e p e n ­ d e n c y on, b u t n o t s u b o r d i n a t i o n t o , i n t e r n a t i o n a l r e l a t i o n s of v a r i o u s k i n d s . All c o n t e m p o r a r y n a t i o n s a r e involved in c o m p l e x r e l a t i o n s of i n t e r d e p e n d e n c e , y e t t h e y a r e still r e c o g n i s e d as s o v e r e i g n . T h e M a a s t r i c h t t r e a t y , t h e N o r t h A m e r i c a n Free T r a d e A g r e e m e n t , t h e G e n e r a l A g r e e m e n t on Tariffs a n d T r a d e , i n t e r n a t i o n a l laws, t r e a t i e s , e n v i r o n m e n t a l accords and a g r e e m e n t s on h u m a n and Indigenous rights all l i m i t t h e e x e r c i s e of political p o w e r . N o n e t h e l e s s , t h e c o n t i n u e d u s e of t h e t e r m ' s o v e r e i g n t y ' s i g n a l s t h a t t h e r e a r e limits to external i n t e r d e p e n d e n c e . T h e s e are h a r d to define a n d a r e always o p e n t o d e b a t e , b u t t h e r e s e e m t o b e t w o widely h e l d c o n d i t i o n s . As C h i e f J u s t i c e M a r s h a l l e x p l a i n e d in c h a p t e r 4, t h e r e l a t i o n s of i n t e r d e p e n d e n c y s h o u l d b e v o l u n t a r i l y t a k e n o n a n d t h e y s h o u l d fall s h o r t of c o l o n i a l

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in an age of cultural diversity

d e p e n d e n c y . If e i t h e r of t h e s e t w o c o n d i t i o n s of c o n s e n t a n d c o n t i n u i t y is n o t m e t , t h e n it is s t a n d a r d l y said t h a t s o v e r e i g n t y h a s b e e n lost. Finally, political p o w e r is d i v i d e d a m o n g a n u m b e r of r e p r e s e n t a t i v e b o d i e s , t h e r e b y f o r m i n g v a r i e t i e s of f e d e r a l a n d c o n f e d e r a l a s s o c i a t i o n s , r a t h e r t h a n b e i n g c o n c e n t r a t e d in o n e s u p r e m e body, as in t h e classic m o d e r n t h e o r i e s . As we s a w in c h a p t e r 4, t h e m a j o r i t y of c o n t e m p o r a r y societies divide p o w e r in v a r i o u s ways to allow r e g i o n s , p e o p l e s a n d n a t i o n s to g o v e r n t h e m s e l v e s to d i f f e r e n t d e g r e e s , a s in A u s t r a l i a , t h e U n i t e d K i n g d o m a n d G e r m a n y a n d , c o n c u r r e n t l y , to p l a c e c h e c k s o n t h e c o r r u p t i n g t e n d e n c y of c o n c e n t r a t i n g p o w e r in a s i n g l e , c e n t r a l body. It d o e s n o t follow from t h e d e m i s e of t h e a b s o l u t e s e n s e of s o v e r e i g n t y t h a t ' t h e e n d of s o v e r e i g n t y ' is n e a r , as s o m e s c h o l a r s h a v e h a s t i l y c o n c l u d e d . R a t h e r , a c o n c e p t of sovereignty remains which incorporates these three limits and is a p p r o p r i a t e t o t h e c o n t e m p o r a r y a g e . S o v e r e i g n t y in t h i s n o n - a b s o l u t e s e n s e m e a n s t h e a u t h o r i t y of a c u l t u r a l l y d i v e r s e p e o p l e or a s s o c i a t i o n of p e o p l e s to g o v e r n t h e m s e l v e s by t h e i r o w n laws a n d ways free from e x t e r n a l s u b o r d i n a t i o n . It is a c o n c e p t of s o v e r e i g n t y t h a t a c c o r d s w i t h t h e o v e r l a p p i n g a n d i n t e r d e p e n d e n t t e r r a i n of c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m w e h a v e d i s c o v e r e d in t h e p r e v i o u s c h a p t e r s . A s t h e politics of c u l t u r a l r e c o g n i t i o n c o n t i n u e s to s u b m i t g o v e r n m e n t s t o t h e t h r e e c o n v e n t i o n s , it will b e l i m i t e d f u r t h e r . O n c e it is r e a l i s e d t h a t t h e r e c o g n i t i o n of s o v e r e i g n t y in a post-imperial age can m e a n no more t h a n this, the normative p r o b l e m of a d e s p o t i c elite dissolves, for s u c h a n elite could n o t survive t h e a p p l i c a t i o n of t h e l i m i t s to s o v e r e i g n t y . T h i s c o n c e p t of s o v e r e i g n t y is n o t a l i e n t o A b o r i g i n a l c o n s t i t u t i o n ­ a l i s m , for it is t h e c o n c e p t of s o v e r e i g n t y e m b o d i e d in t h e treaty system. F u r t h e r m o r e , the a r g u m e n t applies analogously to a n y r e c o g n i t i o n of s o v e r e i g n t y in d i v e r s e f e d e r a l i s m . N o s o v e r e i g n m e m b e r is s h i e l d e d from t h e s e l i m i t s , j u s t as n o i n d e p e n d e n t c o u n t r y is, for t h e y a r e p r e s c r i b e d by t h e t h r e e c o n v e n t i o n s w h i c h j u s t i f y t h e r e c o g n i t i o n of t h e i r s o v e r e i g n t y . T h e m o s t c o m m o n objection to t h e r e c o g n i t i o n a n d 5

Strange

196

multiplicity

a c c o m m o d a t i o n of c u l t u r a l diversity is t h a t it will l e a d to d i s u n i t y . T h e c o n n e c t i o n s b e t w e e n u n i f o r m i t y a n d u n i t y on o n e h a n d a n d diversity a n d d i s u n i t y on t h e o t h e r a r e so firmly f o r g e d in t h e l a n g u a g e of m o d e r n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m t h a t it s e e m s u n r e a s o n a b l e to r a i s e d o u b t s . In t h e t h e o r i e s of H o b b e s a n d P u f e n d o r f , u n i f o r m i t y l e a d s to u n i t y a n d so t o t h e s t r e n g t h a n d p o w e r n e e d e d t o h o l d o u t in t h e c o m p e t i t i o n w i t h o t h e r E u r o p e a n p o w e r s over t h e w e a l t h a n d l a b o u r of t h e n o n E u r o p e a n w o r l d . D i v e r s i t y l e a d s to d i s u n i t y , w e a k n e s s , dissol­ ution a n d d e a t h . T h e 'crasie house', Hobbes concluded, 'hardly l a s t i n g o u t t h e i r own t i m e , m u s t a s s u r e d l y fall u p o n t h e h e a d s of t h e i r p o s t e r i t y ' . W e h a v e n o t i c e d t h e s a m e c o n n e c t i o n d r a w n in t h e Federalist papers b e t w e e n u n i f o r m i t y , u n i t y a n d i m p e r i a l e x p a n s i o n , t h i s t i m e over t h e A b o r i g i n a l n a t i o n s , a n d t h e d i s u n i t y a n d w e a k n e s s t h a t w o u l d befall a d i v e r s e c o n f e d e r a t i o n . L o r d D u r h a m in C a n a d a w a s n o less c o n c e r n e d t o insist t h a t t h e u n i t y c r e a t e d by c u l t u r a l u n i f o r m i t y w o u l d e m p o w e r t h e B r i t i s h e m p i r e to e x p a n d a c r o s s t h e c o n t i n e n t . I n fact, it is difficult t o find a classic t e x t of m o d e r n c o n s t i ­ tutionalism which does not contrast uniformity, unity and p o w e r t o diversity, d i s u n i t y a n d w e a k n e s s . 6

C o m p a r a b l e a r g u m e n t s a r e b a n d i e d b a c k a n d f o r t h in t h e c u r r e n t d e b a t e s over t h e politics of c u l t u r a l r e c o g n i t i o n . I n The disuniting of America, for e x a m p l e , A r t h u r S c h l e s i n g e r voices s i m i l a r f e a r s a b o u t t h e d i s u n i t y a n d w e a k n e s s c a u s e d by d i v e r s i t y . I n his r e v i e w of t h e c o n t e s t , S h e l d o n W o l i n s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e p a r a b l e of t h e t o w e r of B a b e l is t h e i n t e r m e d i a t e c a s e which enables us to see the connections a m o n g the a r g u m e n t s . B e c a u s e t h e m e n of t h e p l a i n of S h i n a r all s p o k e o n e l a n g u a g e a n d h a d n o c u l t u r a l d i f f e r e n c e s t h e y w e r e a b l e t o u n i t e in b u i l d i n g a t o w e r so powerful t h a t it c h a l l e n g e d t h e a u t h o r i t y of god. G o d saw w h a t w a s h a p p e n i n g a n d s m a s h e d t h e t o w e r . H e s c a t t e r e d t h e p e o p l e a n d i n t r o d u c e d a m u l t i p l i c i t y of l a n g u a g e s a n d c u l t u r e s so t h e y w o u l d forever r e m a i n dis­ u n i t e d , w e a k a n d u n a b l e to c h a l l e n g e his o m n i p o t e n c e . A l t h o u g h these imperial a r g u m e n t s were originally served t o us as r e a s o n s for u n i f o r m i t y , I h u m b l y s u b m i t t h a t t h e y m a y n o w s i m p l y b e r e t u r n e d as r e a s o n s a g a i n s t it. F u r t h e r , e v e n if

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c u l t u r a l u n i f o r m i t y w e r e n e c e s s a r y to u n i t y , t h e only j u s t w a y it c a n b e o b t a i n e d is t h r o u g h c o n s e n t of t h o s e affected. M o r e decisively, t h e i n f e r e n c e is false. T h e i m p o s i t i o n of u n i f o r m i t y d o e s n o t l e a d to u n i t y b u t to r e s i s t a n c e , f u r t h e r r e p r e s s i o n a n d disunity. T h e p r o o f is t h e d i s m a l r e c o r d in p r a c t i c e . K n o x ' s c o m p a r i s o n of I r e l a n d a n d M i n o r c a r e m a i n s as r e l e v a n t t o d a y as it w a s in 1774, as w e h a v e s e e n in e x a m p l e after e x a m p l e . A b o r i g i n a l p e o p l e s a r e e x e m p l a r y . E v e r y i m a g i n a b l e m e a n s of d e s t r u c t i o n of t h e i r c u l t u r e s a n d a s s i m i ­ l a t i o n i n t o u n i f o r m E u r o p e a n ways h a s b e e n t r i e d . Y e t , a f t e r five h u n d r e d y e a r s of r e p r e s s i o n a n d a t t e m p t e d g e n o c i d e , t h e y a r e still h e r e a n d as m u l t i f o r m as ever. T h e o t h e r c u l t u r e s I h a v e m e n t i o n e d h a v e suffered s u p p r e s s i o n a n d a s s i m i l a t i o n as well. T h e y too h a v e r e s i s t e d , like so m a n y b e n t b u t u n b r e a k a b l e twigs, t o u s e Sir I s a i a h B e r l i n ' s p h r a s e , for c u l t u r a l r e c o g n i t i o n is a d e e p a n d a b i d i n g h u m a n n e e d . T h e s u p p r e s s i o n of c u l t u r a l difference i n t h e n a m e of u n i f o r m i t y a n d u n i t y is o n e of t h e l e a d i n g c a u s e s of civil strife, d i s u n i t y and dissolution today. C o n v e r s e l y , w h e r e c u l t u r a l diversity h a s b e e n r e c o g n i s e d a n d a c c o m m o d a t e d in v a r i o u s ways, c o n f r o n t a t i o n a n d conflict h a v e e a s e d a n d t h e m e m b e r s of a c o n s t i t u t i o n a l a s s o c i a t i o n have been able to work t o g e t h e r on their c o m m o n problems. As we h a v e s e e n , r e s o u r c e s of legal a n d political p l u r a l i s m a n d c u l t u r a l l y sensitive c o n s t i t u t i o n a l r e a s o n i n g a r e a v a i l a b l e in t h e h i s t o r y of c o m m o n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m to h a n d l e t h e s e s i t u a t i o n s . T h e i r u s e d e m o n s t r a t e s t h a t t h e u n i t y of a c o n s t i t u t i o n a l a s s o c i a t i o n d e r i v e s from t h e p r o t e c t i o n a n d concordance, rather than the discontinuity and assimilation, of t h e c u l t u r a l i d e n t i t i e s of its m e m b e r s . T h e s t r e n g t h of t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n a l fabric c o n s i s t s in t h e i n t e r w e a v i n g of d i f f e r e n t t h r e a d s - a crazy quilt r a t h e r t h a n a crazy house. T h e m u t u a l r e c o g n i t i o n of t h e c u l t u r e s of c i t i z e n s e n g e n d e r s a l l e g i a n c e a n d u n i t y for two r e a s o n s . C i t i z e n s h a v e a s e n s e of b e l o n g i n g t o , a n d i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w i t h , a c o n s t i ­ t u t i o n a l a s s o c i a t i o n in so far as, first, t h e y h a v e a say in t h e f o r m a t i o n a n d g o v e r n i n g of t h e a s s o c i a t i o n a n d , s e c o n d , t h e y see t h e i r own c u l t u r a l ways publicly a c k n o w l e d g e d a n d

Strange

multiplicity

a f f i r m e d in t h e b a s i c i n s t i t u t i o n s of t h e i r society. N o m a t t e r h o w d i v e r s e or c o n f e d e r a l it is, t h e s e two f e a t u r e s n u r t u r e a s t r o n g s e n s e of p r i d e in t h e a s s o c i a t i o n . T h e r e is n o i r r e c o n ­ cilable conflict b e t w e e n a l l e g i a n c e to t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n a n d o n e ' s c u l t u r e or c u l t u r e s , for t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n a n d its p u b l i c i n s t i t u t i o n s a n d t r a d i t i o n s of i n t e r p r e t a t i o n a r e t h e p r o t e c t o r s , r a t h e r t h a n t h e d e s t r o y e r s , of t h e c u l t u r e s a n d r i g h t s of t h e m e m b e r s . If t h e s e two c o n d i t i o n s a r e n o t m e t , t h e a s s o c i a t i o n is e x p e r i e n c e d as a n a l i e n a n d i m p o s e d yoke t h a t suppresses the m e m b e r s ' liberty and cultural identities, c a u s i n g r e s i s t a n c e a n d d i s u n i t y . As S a i d p r a g m a t i c a l l y r e p l i e s to S c h l e s i n g e r , 'it is b e t t e r to e x p l o r e h i s t o r y t h a n t o r e p r e s s or d e n y it'. T h e 'fact t h a t t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s c o n t a i n s so m a n y h i s t o r i e s , m a n y of t h e m n o w c l a m o u r i n g for a t t e n t i o n , is by n o m e a n s to b e s u d d e n l y f e a r e d since m a n y of t h e m w e r e always t h e r e , a n d o u t of t h e m an A m e r i c a n s o c i e t y a n d p o l i t i c s ' w e r e c r e a t e d . If t h e 'old a n d h a b i t u a l i d e a s of t h e m a i n g r o u p ' a r e n o t 'flexible e n o u g h to a d m i t n e w g r o u p s , t h e n t h e s e i d e a s n e e d c h a n g i n g , a far b e t t e r t h i n g t o d o t h a n reject t h e emerging groups'. 7

T h i s is t h e oldest lesson of W e s t e r n a n d A b o r i g i n a l c o n s t i ­ t u t i o n a l i s m . T h e politics of c u l t u r a l r e c o g n i t i o n is t h e r e s p o n s e to t h e f l o u t i n g of t h e lesson i n m o d e r n c o n s t i t u t i o n ­ a l i s m . If t h e twenty-first c e n t u r y is t o b e different from t h e d e v a s t a t i n g c u l t u r a l conflicts of t h e l a t e t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y , t h i s l e s s o n will h a v e to b e r e l e a r n e d . T h e c o u r a g e o u s c i t i z e n s of P a l e s t i n e a n d I s r a e l , i n c l u d i n g t h e d i s s i d e n t s , m a y prove in p r a c t i c e t h a t t h i s lesson c a n be l e a r n e d e v e n after l o n g p e r i o d s of b i t t e r conflict a n d i m p e r f e c t n e g o t i a t i o n s . Two public goods of contemporary constitutionalism: belonging and criticalfreedom W h y , t h e n , in t h e face of injustice a n d inefficacy, is m o d e r n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l politics d o m i n a t e d by t h e will to i m p o s e u n i f o r m i t y in t h e n a m e of u n i t y a n d p o w e r ? W h y is t h e first s t e p of m u t u a l r e c o g n i t i o n so difficult? T h e r e a r e m a n y a n s w e r s to this q u e s t i o n . T h e p u r s u i t of p r o p e r t y a n d t h e s p l e n d o u r of e m p i r e , t h e m i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g a n d fear of o t h e r s

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l

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different from o n e s e l f a n d o t h e r e x p l a n a t i o n s h a v e b e e n r a i s e d in t h e c o u r s e of t h i s b o o k . Since I a m d e a l i n g w i t h l a n g u a g e , I w a n t t o t a k e u p t h e r e a s o n w h y t h e language of m o d e r n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m d i s p o s e s its u s e r s to u n i f o r m i t y . W e o b s e r v e d in c h a p t e r 4 t h a t t h e l a n g u a g e of m o d e r n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m is i n f o r m e d by t h e m i s t a k e n a s s u m p t i o n t h a t t h e g e n e r a l t e r m s of c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m a r e a p p l i e d i d e n t i c a l l y in every i n s t a n c e . T h i s a s s u m p t i o n p r e d i s p o s e s t h e t h e o r i s t s a n d c i t i z e n s w h o u s e t h e l a n g u a g e to look for a n d insist u p o n a u n i f o r m i t y a n d u n i t y t h a t t h e d i v e r s e a n d a s p e c t i v a l c o n s t i t u t i o n a l p h e n o m e n a it is s u p p o s e d t o r e p r e s e n t d o n o t e x h i b i t . T h e y p r e d i c a t e of t h e p h e n o m e n a w h a t lies in t h e l a n g u a g e of r e p r e s e n t a t i o n . W h e n t h e associ­ a t i o n a n d its c o n s t i t u e n t s fail to live u p to t h e i d e a l t h e y a r e said t o b e suffering a n i d e n t i t y crisis. I n t h e c o u r s e of his m a n y a t t e m p t s to d i s l o d g e t h e a s s u m p ­ t i o n t h a t a c o n c e p t is i d e n t i c a l t o itself in every i n s t a n c e , W i t t g e n s t e i n p a u s e d t o s u g g e s t o n e e x p l a n a t i o n for t h e powerful hold of t h i s w i d e s p r e a d ' p a r a d i g m of i d e n t i t y ' . H i s i n t e r l o c u t o r insists, s u r e l y , 'a t h i n g is i d e n t i c a l w i t h i t s e l f . W i t t g e n s t e i n r e p l i e s , t h e r e 'is n o finer e x a m p l e of a u s e l e s s p r o p o s i t i o n , w h i c h yet is c o n n e c t e d w i t h a c e r t a i n p l a y of t h e i m a g i n a t i o n . It is a s if in i m a g i n a t i o n w e p u t a t h i n g i n t o i t s o w n s h a p e a n d s a w t h a t it f i t t e d . ' T h i s e x p l a n a t i o n a p p l i e s t o t h e c o n c e p t s of m o d e r n c o n s t i ­ t u t i o n a l i s m , for t h e i m a g e of a t h i n g f i t t i n g i n t o i t s own s h a p e is e x e m p l i f i e d in t h e i d e a t h a t t h e r e a r e n e c e s s a r y a n d sufficient c o n d i t i o n s for t h e a p p l i c a t i o n of a g e n e r a l t e r m of c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m . W h e n t h e i d e n t i t y of a c o n s t i t u t i o n a l a s s o c i a t i o n a n d its c o n s t i t u e n t s is i m a g i n e d in t h i s way, it is t h o u g h t of as i d e n t i c a l t o itself, for e x a m p l e , t h a t a n a t i o n m u s t fit i n t o its own s h a p e , like it fits i n t o its b o r d e r s o n a m a p . T h e t h o u g h t t h a t it is n o t i d e n t i c a l t o itself, b u t a c o m p l i c a t e d n e t w o r k of s i m i l a r i t i e s , o v e r l a p p i n g , criss-crossing a n d o p e n to n e g o t i a t i o n offends a g a i n s t t h e i m a g i n a r y u n i t y of t h e n a t i o n . T h i s play of t h e i m a g i n a t i o n is h e l d in p l a c e a n d r e i n f o r c e d by t h e h a b i t u a l u s e of t h e l a n g u a g e of m o d e r n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m . T h e c a p t i v a t i n g role of t h i s i m a g i n a r y p a r a d i g m of i d e n t i t y 8

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in m o d e r n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m h a s b e e n n o t e d by m a n y observers. Descartes m e n t i o n s how t h e early m o d e r n consti­ t u t i o n a l r e f o r m e r s w e r e d r i v e n by t h e classical i m a g e s of t h e u n i t y of S p a r t a a n d t h e vision of t h e m y t h i c a l l e g i s l a t o r w h o m a k e s t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n to fit his ideal p l a n . T h e s e r e p u b l i c a n i m a g e s h a v e b e e n s u p p l e m e n t e d by t h e i n d i v i d u a l i s t a n d c o m m u n i t a r i a n s o v e r e i g n p e o p l e of L o c k e a n d R o u s s e a u , t h e m o d e r n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l m o n o c u l t u r e of K a n t a n d C o n s t a n t , t h e veil of i g n o r a n c e , t h e h o m o g e n e o u s c o m m u n i t y , t h e t r a n s c u l t u r a l ideal s p e e c h - s i t u a t i o n a n d t h e s h a r e d u n d e r ­ s t a n d i n g s of t h o s e w h o followed. Q u e n t i n Skinner records how H o b b e s ' philosophy, which m a n y i m a g i n e as t h e p a r a d i g m of a m o d e r n political philos­ o p h y , is a n a t t e m p t to t r a n s c e n d t h e i n d e t e r m i n a c y a n d lack of fit of t h e c o n c e p t s of h u m a n i s t c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m . J o h n Pocock e x p l a i n s h o w t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n a l p h i l o s o p h y of H a l e , b a s e d o n t h e s t u d y of different cases a n d t h e h i s t o r y of e x i s t i n g a n d a n c i e n t law, gave w a y t o t h e a h i s t o r i c a l i m a g e of t h e s t a g e s view of h u m a n h i s t o r y , w h i c h , ironically, c a m e t o b e c a l l e d h i s t o r i c i s m . It consists in, h e w r i t e s , t h e habit of g e n e r a l i z i n g about the periods o f history, o f s u p p o s i n g e a c h of t h e m to have b e e n g o v e r n e d by c e r t a i n g e n e r a l character­ istics, so that it could be further s u p p o s e d that t h e r e was a c e r t a i n logic about t h e way in w h i c h o n e period s u c c e e d e d a n o t h e r , and that t h e d o m i n a n t characteristics o f o n e period m i g h t h e l p to e x p l a i n h o w it had b e e n transformed i n t o a n o t h e r or r e p l a c e d .

By t h e i r w i l l i n g n e s s ' t o e n g a g e in s w e e p i n g g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s , m a n y of w h i c h w e r e n a t u r a l l y u n s o u n d ' , t h e m o d e r n t h e o r i s t s of c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m ' c o n v e r t e d h i s t o r y i n t o a u n i f i e d s c i e n c e , c a p a b l e (at l e a s t in t h e o r y ) of looking a t t h e w h o l e of h u m a n life from a s t a n d p o i n t d i s t i n c t i v e l y its o w n ' . I n c a s e a f t e r c o n c r e t e c a s e , Pocock h a s g o n e on t o s u r v e y h o w t h e N a p o l e o n i c m a n n e r in w h i c h t h e g e n e r a l i s a t i o n s w e r e s p r e a d s w e p t over t h e c o m p l e x i t y of t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n a l l a n g u a g e s a n d c r i t i c a l c o n t e s t s in w h i c h r e a l h u m a n b e i n g s strive t o give m e a n i n g to their actions and settle their differences. A d a m K u p e r , J o h a n n e s F a b i a n , E d w a r d Said, B r u c e 9

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Trigger, Anthony Pagden, Calvin L u t h e r Martin and m a n y o t h e r s p r e s e n t s t u d i e s of h o w t h i s g r e a t m a p of m a n k i n d c o n t i n u e s t o b e foisted on t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n a l d i v e r s i t y of h u m a n k i n d l o n g after it h a s b e e n s h o w n n o t t o fit, as if t h e s h a p e of h u m a n o r g a n i s a t i o n m u s t - s o m e h o w - fit i n t o itself. J o h n D u n n i n t r o d u c e s a n a r r a y of i l l u s t r a t i o n s of h o w t h e u n i f o r m a n d h o m o g e n e o u s i m a g e of A t h e n i a n d e m o c r a c y c o n t i n u e s to e x e r c i s e a p r o f o u n d i n f l u e n c e o n t h e m o d e r n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i m a g i n a t i o n . T h e ways in w h i c h t h e i m a g e s of m a p s and sharp borders inform the imaginary c o m m u n i t y of m o d e r n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l t h e o r y a n d p r a c t i c e a r e b r o u g h t to critical light by t h e r e s e a r c h of B e n e d i c t A n d e r s o n . Sir I s a i a h B e r l i n a s s e m b l e s r e m i n d e r after r e m i n d e r of h o w u n i f o r m i t y a n d u n i t y d o m i n a t e m o d e r n E u r o p e a n political p h i l o s o p h y so t h o r o u g h l y t h a t diversity is s c a r c e l y ever e v e n c o n s i d e r e d as a n y t h i n g b u t a t h r e a t to law a n d o r d e r . Seyla B e n h a b i b , P e t a B o w d e n , C h r i s t i n e Di S t e f a n o , J a n e F l a x , C a r o l G i l l i g a n , J a n e Roland Martin, Susan Mendus, M a r t h a Minow, Elizabeth S p e l m a n , Iris Y o u n g a n d o t h e r f e m i n i s t s c h o l a r s , w h o a r e n o t u n f a m i l i a r w i t h t h e psychological e x p l a n a t i o n s of t h e i m a g e of s h a p e s f i t t i n g i n t o perfect r e c e p t a c l e s , d e m o n s t r a t e t h e ways in w h i c h l i b e r a l , c o m m u n i t a r i a n a n d n a t i o n a l i s t t h e o r i e s e x c l u d e t h e c o n t i n g e n c y a n d differences of c o n c r e t e o t h e r s in t h e q u e s t for a n i m a g i n a r y u n i t y . M a n y m o r e e x a m p l e s c o u l d b e given. It is n o t too e x t r a v a g a n t to s u g g e s t , t h e r e f o r e , t h a t t h e failure m u t u a l l y to r e c o g n i s e a n d live w i t h c u l t u r a l d i v e r s i t y is a f a i l u r e of i m a g i n a t i o n ; a f a i l u r e to look on h u m a n associ­ a t i o n s in ways n o t r u l e d by t h e s e d u b i o u s i m a g e s . I h a v e i n v i t e d you t o see t h e t e r m s of c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m as n e v e r q u i t e i d e n t i c a l to t h e m s e l v e s . I h a v e d e s c r i b e d t h e m as o v e r l a p p i n g , i n t e r a c t i n g a n d n e g o t i a t e d in u s e b e c a u s e t h e s e a r e t h e ways t h e y a r e h a n d l e d in p r a c t i c e , t h e r e b y c o n s t i t u t i n g t h e a s p e c t i v a l a n d d i v e r s e i d e n t i t y of t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n a l a s s o c i a t i o n s t h e y d e s c r i b e . T h e s e d e s c r i p t i o n s free us to r e g a r d c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m differently, p r o v i d i n g a n a l t e r n a t i v e ' p a r a d i g m of i d e n t i t y ' a n d e v o k i n g a play of t h e i m a g i n a t i o n

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m o r e c o n g e n i a l to r e c o g n i s i n g a n d n e g o t i a t i n g c u l t u r a l d i v e r s i t y in a p o s t - i m p e r i a l a g e . T h e b e s t e v o c a t i o n of this a l t e r n a t i v e p l a y of t h e i m a g i n ­ a t i o n is The spirit of Haida Gwaii. If c o n t e m p o r a r y c o n s t i t u t i o n ­ a l i s m is i m a g i n e d in t h e light of this w o n d e r f u l s c u l p t u r e , t h e two p u b l i c goods it h a r b o u r s c o m e i n t o s h a r p relief. A s c h a p t e r 2 foreshadowed, they are the critical freedom to q u e s t i o n in t h o u g h t a n d c h a l l e n g e in p r a c t i c e o n e ' s i n h e r i t e d c u l t u r a l w a y s , o n o n e h a n d , a n d t h e a s p i r a t i o n t o b e l o n g to a c u l t u r e a n d p l a c e , a n d so to b e at h o m e in t h e w o r l d , o n t h e o t h e r . T h e differences b e t w e e n t h e s e i n v a l u a b l e goods h a v e b e e n s e t t l e d in t h e black c a n o e . T h e i r c o n c o r d is i n d i c a t e d by Bill R e i d ' s e p i g r a m , ' t h e b o a t goes o n f o r e v e r a n c h o r e d in t h e s a m e p l a c e ' , a n d by t h e v a r i o u s a s p e c t s of t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n a l o r g a n i s a t i o n of t h e m e m b e r s o n b o a r d . T h e s t r e a m of e x a m p l e s in t h i s book h a s b e e n a r r a n g e d so t h a t t h e i r m e d i a t i o n c o m e s i n t o view in t h e c o u r s e of t h e voyage. N o w t h a t we h a v e r e a c h e d o u r d e s t i n a t i o n it will n o t be a m i s s to recollect w h a t we h a v e s e e n . In modern constitutionalism, critical freedom and a d h e r e n c e to c u s t o m a r e t h o u g h t of as t h e m u t u a l l y exclusive a n d i r r e c o n c i l a b l e goods w h i c h u n d e r l i e t h e conflicts of o u r t i m e over c u l t u r a l r e c o g n i t i o n . T h e a n c i e n t c o n s t i t u t i o n is said to h a v e p r o v i d e d a s e n s e of b e l o n g i n g , by t h e d e f e r e n c e to c u s t o m , b u t e x c l u d e d t h e critical f r e e d o m e s s e n t i a l t o m o d e r n identity. Modern constitutionalism e n t h r o n e s the freedom of critical e n q u i r y a n d d i s s e n t by e x c l u d i n g t h e a u t h o r i t y of c u s t o m . T h i s o p p o s i t i o n b e t w e e n a n c i e n t a u t h o r i t y a n d m o d e r n e x a m i n a t i o n w a s at t h e h e a r t of t h e g r e a t e a r l y s t r u g g l e s for m o d e r n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m a n d it c o n t i n u e s to i n f o r m d e b a t e s a m o n g liberals, n a t i o n a l i s t s , c o m m u n i t a r i a n s , post-moderns, cultural feminists and interculturalists today. C h a p t e r 3 e x p o s e d t h e c a r i c a t u r e in t h i s o p p o s i t i o n . T h e sign law case in c h a p t e r 5 i l l u s t r a t e d h o w t h e good of b e l o n g i n g to a s e c u r e c u l t u r e a n d t h e f r e e d o m to d i s s e n t n e e d n o t c l a s h in a c u l t u r a l l y d i v e r s e a s s o c i a t i o n b a s e d o n t h e t h r e e c o n v e n t i o n s . L e t u s e x a m i n e m o r e carefully h o w t h e y a r e

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c o n c i l i a t e d in The spirit of Haida Gwaii, t h e n in c o n t e m p o r a r y c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m , by s t a r t i n g f r o m t h e m o r e f a m i l i a r i m a g e of c o n s t i t u t i o n a l u n i f o r m i t y a n d w o r k i n g t o w a r d s t h e less f a m i l i a r i m a g e of diversity. I m a g i n e t h e l a r g e f a t h e r grizzly b e a r a t t h e b o w of t h e c a n o e a d d r e s s i n g t h e o t h e r p a s s e n g e r s . H e d e s c r i b e s his vision of t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n a l a s s o c i a t i o n in his t e r m s a n d t r a d i t i o n s , explaining how bears exercise their rights, govern themselves, c a r e for e a c h o t h e r a n d r e l a t e to o t h e r s . I n s t e a d of t h e n l i s t e n i n g to t h e o t h e r s , b e c o m i n g a w a r e of a n d m a r v e l l i n g a t t h e diversity of c u l t u r a l ways, enjoying t h e reflective dis­ equilibrium the dialogue engenders, and negotiating a peaceful a r r a n g e m e n t of t h e i r s i m i l a r i t i e s a n d d i f f e r e n c e s , h e u n j u s t l y d e m a n d s t h a t e v e r y o n e a d o p t t h e w a y s of t h e b e a r c l a n , as m a l e b e a r s s e e t h e m . H e c l a i m s t h a t t h e w a y s of t h e b e a r c l a n a r e s u p e r i o r to all t h e o t h e r s in t h e i r civility or efficiency. A l t e r n a t i v e l y , h e m a y c l a i m t h a t t h e y a r e n o t b e a r ways a t all, b u t u n i v e r s a l ways t h a t t h e b e a r s , b e i n g a t a h i g h e r s t a g e , a r e a b l e t o d i s c e r n . O r h e c o n f i d e n t l y a s s e r t s t h a t his a r t i c u l a t i o n of t h e a s s o c i a t i o n c o m p r e h e n d s a n d s u b l i m a t e s t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n a l ways of t h e o t h e r s in a h i g h e r s y n t h e s i s . T h e o t h e r p a s s e n g e r s w o u l d a c c e p t t h e s e ways if t h e y t o o w e r e r e a s o n a b l e , if t h e y w o u l d t h i n k t h r o u g h t h e following t h o u g h t e x p e r i m e n t , or if t h e y would only s p e a k in t h e l a n g u a g e of constitutionalism he uses. T h e injustice of not a p p l y i n g t h e c o n v e n t i o n s of r e c o g n i t i o n a n d c o n t i n u i t y m u t u a l l y is g l a r i n g l y obvious. T h e v a r i o u s s t r a t e g i e s of t h e b e a r m a n i f e s t t h e i m p e r i a l a t t i t u d e of s p e a k i n g for r a t h e r t h a n w i t h o t h e r s , t h e a n t i - d e m o c r a t i c a t t i t u d e w h i c h i n f o r m s t h e i m p e r i a l f e a t u r e s of m o d e r n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m . T h i s a t t i t u d e of s u p e r i o r i t y is s u p p o r t e d by the background image that the association must exhibit u n i f o r m i t y , t h a t s o m e s u c h vision m u s t c a p t u r e its i d e n t i t y . A n d , a l a s , if t h e o t h e r p a s s e n g e r s a c c e p t his m o d e r n l a n g u a g e , t h e y too will find it difficult t o i m a g i n e o t h e r w i s e . F r o m t h e p e r s p e c t i v e s of The spirit of Haida Gwaii, it is u n i m a g i n a b l e t h a t t h i s a t t i t u d e could b e s e e n as j u s t . T h e passengers are a r r a n g e d to subvert this imperial a t t i t u d e at

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every t u r n . O f c o u r s e , t h e b e a r w a y s a r e i n d i s p e n s a b l e to t h e b e a u t y of t h e c a n o e , b u t t h e y w o u l d b e c o m e m o n s t r o u s if t h e y w e r e t o g a i n h e g e m o n y a n d efface t h e living c u l t u r e s of t h e o t h e r m e m b e r s . T h e b e a u t y of t h e b e a r , a n d of a n y o t h e r m e m b e r of t h e e n s e m b l e , c o m e s from his p l a c e a m o n g t h e o t h e r s . T h e a e s t h e t i c j u s t i c e involved is p r e c i s e l y t h a t of r e n d e r i n g e a c h m e m b e r his or h e r d u e . As o n e w a l k s a r o u n d t h e s c u l p t u r e a n d is d r a w n to i m a g i n e o n e s e l f a b o a r d , o n e is c o n s t a n t l y m a d e a w a r e t h a t t h e p a s s e n g e r s n e v e r fit i n t o t h e i r o w n s h a p e . T h e play of o n e ' s i m a g i n a t i o n is n e v e r allowed to s e t t l e o n t h i s possibility. T h i s Xuuya p l a y is o r c h e s t r a t e d by t h e e n d l e s s j u x t a p o s i t i o n of t h e s e d i v e r s e a n d i n t e r r e l a t e d c r e a t u r e s , t h e i d e n t i t y of e a c h c o n s i s t i n g in t h e i n n u m e r a b l e ways it r e l a t e s t o a n d i n t e r a c t s w i t h t h e o t h e r s . As t h e a s s e m b l a g e is v i e w e d from o n e p o i n t of view, c e r t a i n a s p e c t s a r e r e c o g n i s e d a n d t h e y give a vision t o t h e w h o l e . F o r e x a m p l e , t a k e in t h e b r e a t h t a k i n g view f r o m t h e r a v e n ' s p o s i t i o n . T h e n view t h e m u l t i p l i c i t y from t h e b e a r ' s locale. O t h e r a s p e c t s a n d r e l a t i o n s c o m e to light, a n d a d i f f e r e n t vision of t h e w h o l e . N o w , look a t h o w t h e m o t h e r b e a r , a c c o r d i n g to Bill R e i d , a p p e a r s t o b e c a u t i o n i n g h e r h u s b a n d t h a t his vision overlooks s o m e i m p o r t a n t a s p e c t of t h e c o n f e d e r a t i o n . T h e n w a l k a r o u n d a n d see h o w e a c h m e m b e r a n d t h e e n s e m b l e a r e t r a n s f o r m e d from t h e n e i g h ­ b o u r h o o d of hlkkyaan qqusttaan, t h e frog, o r t h e b o r o u g h of Qaganjaat, t h e m o u s e w o m a n . T h e i m p e r i o u s a t t e m p t to colonise t h i s c e l e b r a t i o n of d i v e r s i t y in o n e f o r m of r e c o g n i t i o n — w h e t h e r of o n e p a s s e n g e r , of t h e c o m p r e h e n s i o n of all p a s s e n g e r s , or of a f o r m w h i c h t r a n s c e n d s t h e i r d i f f e r e n c e s — is c o n t i n u a l l y r e s i s t e d a n d d e f e a t e d by t h e play of t h e i r r e d u c i b l e d i v e r s i t y of t h e w o r k of a r t o n o n e ' s i m a g i n a t i o n . Xuuya, t h e r a v e n , is a t t h e h e l m a s a r e m i n d e r t h a t this p l a y is t h e spirit of t h e voyage. If we n o w view o u r s e l v e s as m e m b e r s of t h e black c a n o e , t h e diversity of o u r fellow c i t i z e n s evokes a s e n s e of b e l o n g i n g t o a c o n s t i t u t i o n a l a s s o c i a t i o n in w h i c h o n e ' s own c u l t u r e (or c u l t u r e s ) is r e c o g n i s e d as a c o n s t i t u e n t a n d i n t e r r e l a t e d p a r t of t h e j u s t i c e of t h e w h o l e a s s o c i a t i o n . T h i s specific s e n s e of

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b e l o n g i n g a n d civic p r i d e w o u l d b e lost if o n e ' s c u l t u r e w e r e e x c l u d e d , i d e n t i f i e d in i s o l a t i o n from t h e o t h e r s o r i m p o s e d on all t h e m e m b e r s . T h e s e n s e of b e l o n g i n g c o m e s from b e i n g associated with the other cultures. T h e good of b e l o n g i n g typical of a n c i e n t c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m is t h u s t r a n s f o r m e d in a m a n n e r a p p r o p r i a t e t o a c u l t u r a l l y d i v e r s e a g e , as we f o r e s a w in o u r d i s c u s s i o n of t h e m i n o r m e m b e r s of t h e b l a c k c a n o e in c h a p t e r 5. T h e s e n s e of b e l o n g i n g a n d a l l e g i a n c e c o m e s not only from t h e p u b l i c r e c o g n i t i o n of o n e ' s c u l t u r e , b u t also b e c a u s e o n e ' s c u l t u r e is r e s p e c t e d a m o n g o t h e r s a n d w o v e n i n t o t h e p u b l i c fabric of t h e a s s o c i a t i o n , g a i n i n g its s t r e n g t h a n d s p l e n d o u r from its accommodation among, and interrelations with, the others. T h i s is m o r e t h a n a civic a w a r e n e s s t h a t c i t i z e n s of o t h e r c u l t u r e s exist in o n e ' s polity. O n e ' s own i d e n t i t y as a c i t i z e n is i n s e p a r a b l e from a s h a r e d h i s t o r y w i t h o t h e r c i t i z e n s w h o a r e i r r e d u c i b l y different; w h o s e c u l t u r e s h a v e i n t e r a c t e d w i t h a n d e n r i c h e d o n e ' s o w n a n d m a d e t h e i r m a r k on t h e b a s i c i n s t i ­ t u t i o n s of society. T h e loss or a s s i m i l a t i o n of a n y of t h e o t h e r c u l t u r e s is e x p e r i e n c e d as a n i m p o v e r i s h m e n t of o n e ' s o w n identity. I i m a g i n e t h a t m a n y c i t i z e n s of t h e four n a t i o n s of t h e U n i t e d K i n g d o m h a v e a v e r y s i m i l a r s e n s e of b e l o n g i n g t o t h e i r m u l t i p l e k i n g d o m . As i n t e r c u l t u r a l i s t s a r g u e d in c h a p t e r 5, t h e s e n s i b i l i t y s h o u l d be e x t e n d e d a n a l o g o u s l y to t h e o t h e r c u l t u r e s of c o n t e m p o r a r y societies. S u c h a p o s t - i m p e r i a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g of b e l o n g i n g is i n c o m p a t i b l e w i t h a s s i m i l a t i o n a n d t h e b e s t b u l w a r k a g a i n s t it. T h e p r i d e of b e l o n g i n g t o a c u l t u r e t h a t g a i n s its s p l e n d o u r a n d r e p u t a t i o n from its a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h o t h e r s e n c o u r a g e s c i t i z e n s to c a r e for t h e survival a n d c o n s e r v a t i o n of all c u l t u r e s . T h e s u r v i v i n g c u l t u r a l m u l t i p l i c i t y c o n s t i t u t e s t h e s e c u r e p l a c e of a n c h o r a g e . A t t h e s a m e t i m e , t h e black c a n o e evokes a s e n s e of e s t r a n g e ­ m e n t from o n e ' s o w n c u l t u r a l o u t l o o k by s e e i n g it j u x t a p o s e d t o a m u l t i p l i c i t y of o t h e r s . A l t h o u g h t h e m y t h c r e a t u r e s view t h e w h o l e from t h e i r own i n d i v i d u a l p o i n t s of view, t h e i r over­ lap, interaction and negotiation ensure that they cannot help

206

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b u t b e a w a r e t h a t t h e i r own viewpoint is o n e a m o n g m a n y , a n d t h a t t h e o t h e r s a r e n o t exotic a n d s e p a r a t e , b u t n e a r a t h a n d a n d i n t e r r e l a t e d t o t h e i r own in a v a r i e t y of ways. T h e i r e n t a n g l e d a r r a n g e m e n t , g r a p h i c a l l y h i g h l i g h t e d by t h e wolf a n d eagle, creates the disequilibrium with respect to one's s e t t l e d c u l t u r a l self u n d e r s t a n d i n g . T h e s e n s e of b e i n g a t h o m e in t h e m u l t i p l i c i t y yet a t t h e s a m e t i m e playfully e s t r a n g e d by it a w a k e s a n a t t i t u d e of w o n d e r . T h e H a i d a m y t h s Bill R e i d r e t e l l s in The raven steals the light overflow w i t h e x a m p l e s of h o w t h e c r e a t u r e s of t h e b l a c k c a n o e revel in t h i s w o n d e r f u l c u l t u r a l f r e e d o m . I n o u r d i s c u s s i o n of e x c h a n g i n g s t o r i e s in A b o r i g i n a l c o n s t i t u t i o n a l d i a l o g u e in c h a p t e r i, we n o t e d t h a t it is a h i g h l y p r i z e d a n d carefully n u r t u r e d a c h i e v e m e n t of m a n y A b o r i g i n a l civilisations. N o w , t h e ability to free o u r s e l v e s from w h a t is m o s t f a m i l i a r a n d to w o n d e r a g a i n a t t h e s h e e r d i v e r s i t y of t h i n g s is j u s t as h i g h l y v a l u e d in c o n t e m p o r a r y , n o n - A b o r i g i n a l civilisations. H o w e v e r , as G e o r g e M a r c u s a n d M i c h a e l F i s c h e r s u b m i t in Anthropology as cultural critique, it is t h o u g h t t o r e q u i r e a n e x o t i c e x p e r i e n c e : a t o n a l m u s i c , c u b i s t or s u r r e a l p a i n t i n g , Waiting for Godot or, especially, a n e n c o u n t e r w i t h a p r i m i t i v e c u l t u r e . T h e j u x t a p o s i t i o n of t h e m y t h c r e a t u r e s r e v e a l s t h a t t h i s i n v a l u a b l e a t t i t u d e of w o r l d r e v e r s a l a n d w o n d e r c a n b e a w a k e n e d j u s t by d o i n g w h a t W i t t g e n s t e i n d o e s in t h e Philo­ sophical investigations a n d w h a t t h e y d o a b o a r d t h e c a n o e : exchange and juxtapose their myths, narratives and further d e s c r i p t i o n s of t h e i r i n t e r r e l a t e d h i s t o r i e s t o g e t h e r . T h e w o n d e r f u l n e s s of The spirit of Haida Gwaii t h u s u s h e r s in t h e o t h e r p u b l i c good of c o n t e m p o r a r y c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m : t h e ability t o see o n e ' s o w n ways as s t r a n g e a n d u n f a m i l i a r , t o s t r a y f r o m a n d t a k e u p a critical a t t i t u d e t o w a r d s t h e m a n d so o p e n c u l t u r e s t o q u e s t i o n , r e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , n e g o t i a t i o n , transformation and non-identity. T h e t h e o r i s t s of m o d e r n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m d e f i n e c r i t i c a l f r e e d o m a n d d i s s e n t as t h e i r p r i m a r y good. Y e t , a f t e r a c r i t i c a l survey, t h e s e t t l e d f o r m s of c r i t i c a l f r e e d o m a n d d i s s e n t w i t h i n m o d e r n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m a n d its t h r e e

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t r a d i t i o n s of i n t e r p r e t a t i o n t u r n o u t t o b e m u c h n a r r o w e r t h a n t h e y first a p p e a r . T h e y a r e e x e r c i s e d w i t h i n t h e u n c r i t i c i s e d h o r i z o n s of s e v e n f e a t u r e s w h i c h look i n c r e a s i n g l y c o n t i n g e n t a n d p a r o c h i a l as t h e v e s t i g e s of t h e i m p e r i a l a g e r e c e d e . M o r e o v e r , t h e p r e s u m p t i o n of a c o m p r e h e n s i v e t h e o r y fore­ closes t h e possibility of a n i n t e r c u l t u r a l d i a l o g u e in w h i c h d i v e r s i t y a w a r e n e s s a n d b r o a d e r c r i t i c a l f r e e d o m could b e e n g e n d e r e d and exercised. A constitutional association which recognises and a c c o m m o d a t e s c u l t u r a l diversity, in c o n t r a s t , p r o v i d e s t h e social b a s i s for critical r e f l e c t i o n o n a n d d i s s e n t from o n e ' s own c u l t u r a l i n s t i t u t i o n s a n d t r a d i t i o n s of i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . C i t i z e n s a r e m a d e a w a r e of c u l t u r a l d i v e r s i t y a t h o m e , as s o m e t h i n g related to and overlapping with their own culture, b u t n e v e r t h e l e s s d i f f e r e n t . T h e possibility of c r o s s i n g f r o m o n e c u l t u r e t o a n o t h e r is a v a i l a b l e a n d u n a v o i d a b l e , for e a c h citizen is a m e m b e r of m o r e t h a n o n e c u l t u r e . T h e d i v e r s e legal a n d political i n s t i t u t i o n s of t h e a s s o c i a t i o n c r e a t e a n e n v i r o n m e n t in w h i c h o n e ' s o w n i n s t i t u t i o n s a n d t r a d i t i o n s c a n s c a r c e l y b e t a k e n for g r a n t e d . T h e m u t u a l r e s p e c t for a n d a f f i r m a t i o n of c u l t u r a l d i v e r s i t y in t h e civic life of a society f u r t h e r e n h a n c e a critical a t t i t u d e t o o n e ' s o w n c u l t u r e a n d a t o l e r a n t a n d c r i t i c a l a t t i t u d e t o w a r d s o t h e r s . A n e t h o s of c r i t i c a l f r e e d o m is also s u s t a i n e d by t h e p u b l i c a c k n o w l e d g e ­ m e n t t h a t t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n is o p e n t o r e v i e w a n d t h a t d i s c u s s i o n of it is a v a l u a b l e d i m e n s i o n of c i t i z e n s h i p . M o s t i m p o r t a n t l y , e n g a g e m e n t in i n t e r c u l t u r a l d i a l o g u e s o n t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n , like A b o r i g i n a l e x c h a n g e s of s t o r i e s , is itself t h e e x e r c i s e of critical f r e e d o m , as c i t i z e n s tell a n d m e d i a t e t h e i r s t o r i e s of t h e a s s o c i a t i o n . I n t h e s e a n d o t h e r ways, c o n t e m p o r a r y constitutionalism provides a broader and m o r e c o s m o p o l i t a n f o r u m for a civic life of critical f r e e d o m t h a n modern constitutionalism. H e n c e , t h e goods of b e l o n g i n g a n d f r e e d o m s u p p o r t r a t h e r t h a n o p p o s e e a c h o t h e r in a c u l t u r a l l y d i v e r s e a s s o c i a t i o n b a s e d o n t h e c o n v e n t i o n s of m u t u a l r e c o g n i t i o n , c o n t i n u i t y a n d c o n s e n t . C r i t i c a l f r e e d o m r e q u i r e s t h e p r e s e n c e of a d i v e r s i t y of living c u l t u r e s a n d t h e a c c o m m o d a t i o n of d i v e r s e

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cultures requires critical dialogue in accord w i t h the three conventions. W h i l e The spirit of Haida Gwaii presents a wonderful artistic symbol, is there an analogous written expression of the spirit of m u t u a l recognition and accommodation? M a n y e x a m p l e s have b e e n m e n t i o n e d . T h e great s p e e c h e s of negotiators in the Aboriginal and c o m m o n law system are a m o n g the best. H o w e v e r , let m e select a more recent e x a m p l e . In 1969 t h e p r i m e minister of C a n a d a , Pierre T r u d e a u , a n n o u n c e d his plan to abolish the treaty system and assimilate all Aboriginal people into the m o d e r n C a n a d i a n society for the sake o f their i m p r o v e m e n t . Harold Cardinal, a n Aboriginal leader, responded w i t h a short book, The unjust society, which has b e c o m e a classic in Aboriginal struggles against the plan and for recognition. H e evokes an unforgettable array of i m a g e s and analogies to put into words the spirit of treaty consti­ t u t i o n a l i s m as one m a l e Aboriginal s e e s i t . 10

An Indian looks at nature and sees beauty - the woods, the marshes, the mountains, the grasses and berries, the moose and the field mouse, the soaring eagle and the flitting hummingbird, the gaudy flowers and the succulent bulbs. He sees an overall fitness, an overall collective beauty, but he looks deeper. He sees the beauty of the individual components of the big picture. He sees the diversity of the various elements of the entire scene. H e admires the grace of a leaping deer, the straight-line simplicity of the pines the deer leaps through, the jagged, three-dimensional thrust into the sky of the rugged peaks, the quick silver flash of a trout on the surface of a wind-whipped lake. He turns a sensitive ear to the faraway eerie wail of the loon and the nearer snuffling grunt of a bear pawing at a ground-squirrel's den, and he blends them into the whispering of grasses and the bolder talk of the tall pines. He feels the touch of wind against his cheek and the coolness of the mist above the rapids. He surveys the diversities of nature and finds them good. An Indian thinks this might be the way of people. He knows that whites and Indians are different. He knows that there are differ­ ences even within these groups, differences between Scot and Ukrainian, between C r e e and Iroquois. He knows that there are dif­ ferences between man and his brother, red or white. To the Indian this is the natural way of things, the way things

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should be, as it is in nature. As the stream needs the grasses, so do peoples need of each other, and so can peoples find good in each other. Indians are close to nature, so it natural for t h e m to see the bigger world in terms of the small world they do know. They know that m e n of different cultures and races have much to offer one another. We offer our culture; we offer our heritage. We know it is different from yours. We are interested in your culture and heritage; we want you to discover ours. N o w , t r y t o i m a g i n e , as a n improvement, a w o r l d in w h i c h t h i s a u t h o r a n d t h e c u l t u r e w h i c h a n i m a t e s his w r i t i n g h a v e b e e n c o m p l e t e l y a s s i m i l a t e d t o n o n - A b o r i g i n a l society. If t h e s u g g e s t i o n a p p e a r s t o be a c o n t e m p t i b l e affront to y o u r d i g n i t y as a h u m a n b e i n g , t h e n t h i s book will n o t h a v e b e e n in v a i n , for you will h a v e c o m e t o s h a r e t h e view of t h e p a s s e n g e r s of t h e b l a c k c a n o e . Conclusion: the philosophy and practice of contemporary constitutionalism I h a v e s o u g h t t o o u t l i n e b o t h t h e p h i l o s o p h y a n d p r a c t i c e of c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m i n f o r m e d by t h e s p i r i t of m u t u a l r e c o g n i t i o n a n d a c c o m m o d a t i o n of c u l t u r a l diversity. B o t h t h e p h i l o s o p h y a n d p r a c t i c e c o n s i s t in t h e n e g o t i a t i o n a n d m e d i a t i o n of c l a i m s t o r e c o g n i t i o n in a d i a l o g u e g o v e r n e d by t h e c o n v e n ­ t i o n s of m u t u a l r e c o g n i t i o n , c o n t i n u i t y a n d c o n s e n t . T h i s t r a d i t i o n of c o n t e m p o r a r y c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m is a m i n o r o n e in p h i l o s o p h y a n d p r a c t i c e . It d o e s n o t r e c o m m e n d itself t o t h e c o m p e t i n g schools in t h e o r y or t h e c l a s h i n g p a r t i e s in p r a c t i c e . T h e i r a i m is t o fit t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n t o t h e s h a p e of t h e i r c o m p r e h e n s i v e t h e o r i e s of j u s t i c e , w h e r e a s m i n e is t o s u b m i t their partial claims to just negotiation a n d mediation. T h e s i m i l a r i t i e s a n d d i f f e r e n c e s of e a c h w h i c h g a i n t h e a c c e p t a n c e of all in t h e d i a l o g u e a r e t h e n a c c o m m o d a t e d in t h e c o n s t i ­ tution. T h e t r a d i t i o n h a s few i l l u s t r i o u s m e m b e r s . D e g a n a w i d a h , t h e m e d i a t o r of t h e Haudenosaunee C o n f e d e r a t i o n in t h e fifteenth c e n t u r y , is a n o t e w o r t h y e x c e p t i o n in p r a c t i c e a n d W i t t g e n s t e i n in p h i l o s o p h y . M a n y p r a c t i t i o n e r s , like H a e m o n , h a v e b e e n s i l e n c e d by t h e b a t t l e s t h a t e n g u l f e d t h e i r a t t e m p t s

2IO

Strange

multiplicity

a t m e d i a t i o n or, like H a l e , by t h e victory of m o n o l o g i c a l f o r m s of c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m . H o w m a n y p e o p l e n o w e v e n r e m e m b e r those who negotiated and mediated the constitutional a g r e e m e n t b e t w e e n Israel a n d Palestine, the South African c o n s t i t u t i o n or t h e f e d e r a t i o n of B o s n i a n C r o a t s a n d M u s l i m s ? H o w l o n g will t h e s e fragile a c c o m m o d a t i o n s last? T h o s e w h o n e g o t i a t e d a c o n s t i t u t i o n a l a g r e e m e n t in C a n a d a in 1 9 9 2 w e r e v o t e d d o w n , t h r o w n o u t of office a n d r e p l a c e d by t h o s e w h o s t o o d o n t h e s i d e l i n e s a n d took t h e m o s t e x t r e m e positions. T h e f a t e of C h i e f J u s t i c e M a r s h a l l is typical. A f t e r l e a d i n g r u t h l e s s w a r s of s l a u g h t e r a g a i n s t t h e C r e e k a n d S e m i n o l e , G e n e r a l A n d r e w J a c k s o n , ' S h a r p knife', was elected p r e s i d e n t in 1829. O n h e a r i n g of M a r s h a l l ' s j u d g e m e n t in d e f e n c e of t h e C h e r o k e e n a t i o n , d i s c u s s e d in c h a p t e r 4, h e flatly r e s p o n d e d , J o h n M a r s h a l l m a d e his d e c i s i o n , let h i m e n f o r c e it.' P r e s i d e n t J a c k s o n t h e n o r d e r e d t h e forced r e m o v a l of t h e five 'civilised' t r i b e s ( C h e r o k e e , C h o c t a w , C h i c k s a w , C r e e k a n d Seminole) from their ancestral lands a n d their relocation e i g h t h u n d r e d m i l e s w e s t w a r d . T h o u s a n d s of A b o r i g i n a l p e o p l e w e r e killed a n d s t a r v e d t o d e a t h d u r i n g t h e b r u t a l e x o d u s . T h e C h e r o k e e suffered t h e w o r s t t r e a t m e n t . O v e r four t h o u s a n d d i e d in t h e final c l e a n s i n g m a r c h , t h e ' t r a i l of t e a r s ' of 1838—9. T h e i r l a n d s w e r e s t o l e n , p o s s e s s i o n s p l u n d e r e d a n d schools c o n v e r t e d t o t a v e r n s for t h e i n c o m i n g s e t t l e r s . T h e a t r o c i t i e s w e r e so a b h o r r e n t t h a t a n e n q u i r y w a s set u p in 1841. It r e p o r t e d t h a t , ' b r i b e r y , p e r j u r y , a n d f o r g e r y , s h o r t w e i g h t s , issues of spoiled m e a t a n d g r a i n , a n d e v e r y c o n c e i v a b l e s u b t e r f u g e w a s e m p l o y e d by d e s i g n i n g w h i t e m e n ' . T h e g o v e r n m e n t did n o t r e l e a s e t h e r e p o r t . M o r e o v e r , a t r a d i t i o n , w h i c h i n c l u d e s S o p h o c l e s a n d Bill Reid, Wittgenstein and Geertz, J o s e p h Brant and Ellen G a b r i e l , is u n l i k e l y t o r a i s e false h o p e s . N e v e r t h e l e s s , c h a p t e r s 4 a n d 5 s u r v e y e d h o w t h i s t r a d i t i o n of c o n s t i t u t i o n a l p h i l ­ o s o p h y a n d p r a c t i c e h a s m a d e a d i f f e r e n c e to t h e a c t u a l c o n s t i t u t i o n a l h i s t o r y of t h e last four h u n d r e d y e a r s . E v e n Marshall's decision continues to be used t h r o u g h o u t t h e world t o c o u n t e r J a c k s o n ' s m a n y followers t o d a y . T h i s book h a s 11

Constitutionalism

in an age of cultural diversity

211

also shown how recent practitioners have transformed the t r a d i t i o n t o d o j u s t i c e to t h e m o r e c u l t u r a l l y d i v e r s e c i r c u m ­ s t a n c e s in p r a c t i c e a n d t h e a d v a n c e s in t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g of c u l t u r e s in p h i l o s o p h y . I n e a c h c a s e , t h e a c c o m m o d a t i o n is j u s t b e c a u s e t h e t h r e e c o n v e n t i o n s of j u s t i c e a r e h e l d fast in a n d by t h e d i a l o g u e . O n t h e s e c o n v e n t i o n s w e , like t h e a n c i e n t r e l u c t a n t c o n s c r i p t , s t a n d fast, for t h e y a r e t h e r u l e s of t h e c o m m o n g r o u n d o n w h i c h we s t a n d . E v e n t r a n s g r e s s i o n s by L o c k e , K a n t , H e r d e r , P u b l i u s a n d Mill a r e n o t t o l e r a t e d . F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e two previous sections have provided a sketch of t h e goods t h a t m i g h t a c c r u e to t h e c u l t u r a l l y d i v e r s e c i t i z e n s of t h e twenty-first c e n t u r y if this t r a d i t i o n w e r e t a k e n m o r e s e r i o u s l y t h a n it is. Finally, t h e p h i l o s o p h y a n d p r a c t i c e of c o n t e m p o r a r y c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m offers a m e d i a t e d p e a c e . I n b o t h t h e o r y a n d p r a c t i c e t h i s is s e e n as s e c o n d b e s t r e l a t i v e to a j u s t p e a c e . A j u s t p e a c e is a c o n s t i t u t i o n a l s e t t l e m e n t in a c c o r d a n c e w i t h t h e c o m p r e h e n s i v e t h e o r y of j u s t i c e . T h e a r g u m e n t of t h e s e l e c t u r e s is t h a t t h i s is t h e m o s t d e s t r u c t i v e illusion of o u r a g e . T h e j u s t p e a c e of t h e t h e o r i s t s a n d d o g m a t i s t s is n e i t h e r j u s t i c e n o r p e a c e . It is always a l i m i t e d a n d p a r t i a l d e s c r i p t i o n of j u s t i c e w h i c h , w h e n i m p o s e d , galls t h e n e c k s of o t h e r s a n d l e a d s t o d i s c o r d . O n t h e c o n t r a r y , a m e d i a t e d p e a c e is a j u s t p e a c e : j u s t b e c a u s e it is a c o n s t i t u t i o n a l s e t t l e m e n t in a c c o r d w i t h t h e t h r e e c o n v e n t i o n s of j u s t i c e a n d p e a c e f u l b e c a u s e t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n is a c c o m m o d a t e d t o t h e d i v e r s e n e c k s of t h o s e w h o a g r e e t o it. If t h i s view of c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m c a m e to b e a c c e p t e d , t h e a l l e g e d l y i r r e c o n c i l a b l e conflicts of t h e p r e s e n t w o u l d n o t h a v e t o b e t h e t r a g i c h i s t o r y of o u r f u t u r e . H o w t h e wise m e m b e r s of The spirit of Haida Gwaii avoid t h i s t r a g i c f a t e is n o w as c l e a r as day. W e b e g a n w i t h t h e q u e s t i o n of t h e s p i r i t a p p r o p r i a t e t o a p o s t - i m p e r i a l a g e of c u l t u r a l diversity. A s V a c l a v H a v e l w r i t e s , 'if t h e w o r l d t o d a y is n o t t o b e c o m e h o p e l e s s l y e n m e s h e d in e v e r m o r e t e r r i f y i n g conflicts, it h a s only o n e possibility: it m u s t d e l i b e r a t e l y b r e a t h e t h e s p i r i t of m u l t i c u l t u r a l c o - e x i s t e n c e i n t o t h e civilization t h a t e n v e l o p s it'. T h e ' b a s i s ' of t h i s ' n e w s p i r i t ' is 'for d i f f e r e n t

212

Strange

multiplicity

p e o p l e s , religions and c u l t u r e s ' to learn to 'respect each other', to 'respect and honour e a c h o t h e r s ' d i f f e r e n c e s ' . T h i s is the spirit of Haida Gwaii. T h e answer given by the black c a n o e is that, a l t h o u g h t h e passengers vie and negotiate for recognition and power, t h e y always d o so in accord with the three conventions. O f equal importance to their pacific way of life, they also never fail to h e e d what is said by the chief w h o s e identity has r e m a i n e d a mystery until this m o m e n t . She or he is the mediator. 12

Notes

I have cut the n u m b e r of notes to the m i n i m u m so the book retains the character of lectures. All the authors and texts mentioned are listed in the bibliography. I have used notes only for direct quotations and for texts mentioned which require a specific reference. In the case of successive quotations from the same author or text, the references are gathered together in one note at the end of several quotations. i DEMANDS FOR CONSTITUTIONAL

RECOGNITION

1 Isaiah Berlin, 'Return of the Volkgeisf, New Perspectives Quarterly, 8, 4 (1991) 4 - 1 0 , and 'The bent twig: on the rise of nationalism', The crooked timber of humanity (New York: Random House, 1992) 238-62. 2 J a c q u e s Derrida, The other heading: reflections on today's Europe, tr. Pascale-Anne Brault and Michael R. Naas (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1992) 9. 3 Clifford Geertz, 'The uses of diversity', Michigan Quarterly Review, 1

4 5

8 6

I 0

2

25, 0 9 ) 5 - 3 T h o m a s Hobbes, Leviathan, ed. Richard Tuck (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991) 88. Robert Bringhurst and Ulli Steltzer, The black canoe: Bill Reid and 'The spirit of Haida Gwaii' (Vancouver: Douglas and Mclntyre, I99 ) 49-59Doris Shadbolt, Bill Reid (Vancouver: Douglas and Mclntyre, 1986) 182. Bill Reid, 'These shining islands', Islands at the edge: preserving the Queen Charlotte Islands wilderness (Vancouver: Douglas and Mclntyre, n.d.) 24. Luther Standing Bear, Land of the spotted eagle (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1933) viii. Rita J o e , Poems of Rita Joe (Halifax: Abenaki Press, 1978) 4. 1

6 7

8 9

213

214

Notes to pages

10 Bill Reid, Gallant beasts and monsters (Vancouver: Buschlen Mowatt, 1992) 15. 11 Carl Sandburg, 'Old timers', Cornhuskers (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1918), cited in Bringhurst and Steltzer, The black canoe, 5 7 - 8 . 12 Reid, Gallant beasts, 21. 2 DIVERSITY AND CONTEMPORARY CONSTITUTIONALISM 1 Michel Foucault, L'usage des plaisirs (Paris: Editions Gallimard, 1984) 14. 2 Reid, Gallant beasts, 25. 3 Ibid., 25. 4 Edward W. Said, Culture and imperialism (New York: Knopf, 1993) 5 Ludwig Wittgenstein, Philosophical investigations, tr. G. E. M. Anscombe (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1967) s. 241. 6 J a c q u e s Derrida, Writing and difference, tr. Alan Bass (Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1978) 282. 7 J a m e s Clifford, The predicament of culture: twentieth-century ethnogra­ phy, literature, and art (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1988) 95. 8 Peter Emberley, 'Globalism and localism: constitutionalism in a new world order', Constitutional predicament: Canada after the referendum of 1992, ed. Curtis Cook (Montreal: McGill-Queens University Press, 1994) 199-218, 202. 9 Adrienne Rich, 'Taking women S t u d e n t s seriously', Gendered subjects: the dynamics of feminist teaching, ed. Margo Culley and C a t h e r i n e Portuges (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1985) 2 1 - 8 , 28. 10 Ibid., 24. 11 J o h n Rawls, Political liberalism (New York: Columbia University Press, 1993). See further Anthony Laden, 'Constructing shared wills' (Harvard University Ph.D., 1996). 3 THE HISTORICAL FORMATION OF MODERN CONSTITUTIONALISM: THE EMPIRE OF UNIFORMITY 1 Wittgenstein, Philosophical investigations, s. 115. 2 Henry St J o h n , Viscount Bolingbroke, A dissertation upon parties ( 1 7 3 3 - 4 ) , The works of Lord Bolingbroke, 4 vols. (Philadelphia: 1841)

Notes to pages

3 4

5

6

7

8 9 10

11

12 13 14 15 16 17 18

19 20 21

6o-y6

215

vol. 11, 88, cited in Charles Howard Mcllwain, Constitutionalism: ancient and modem, revised edition (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1947) 3. Cicero, De re publico (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1963) bk. 1, s. 69. T h o m a s Aquinas, Summa theologiae, 1-11, ci.97, AA.3, in S. Thomas Aquinas, On law, morality and politics, ed. William P. B a u m g a r t h and Richard J . Regan (Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing Company, 1988) 7 9 - 8 1 . J o h n Locke, Two treatises of government, ed. Peter Laslett (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991) second treatise, s. 30. J o h n Locke, An essay concerning human understanding, ed. Peter Nidditch (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1975) 1.4.12, 92, discussed in Daniel Carey, Travel narrative and the problem of human nature in Locke, Shaftesbury and Hutcheson (doctoral thesis, 1993) chapter 3. E d m u n d Burke, The correspondence of Edmund Burke, 4 vols., ed. George H. Guttridge (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1961) vol. m, 3 5 0 - 1 , cited as the motto in Peter J a m e s Marshall, The great map of mankind: perceptions of new worlds in the age of en­ lightenment (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1982). Locke, Two treatises, first treatise, s. 106. E m m a n u e l Joseph Sieyes, Qu'est-ce-que le tiers etat?, ed. Roberto Z a p p e d (Geneva: Groz, 1970). Q u e n t i n Skinner, 'The state', Political innovation and conceptual change, ed. Terrence Ball, J a m e s Farr and Russell L. Hanson (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989) 90-132. T h o m a s Paine, The rights of man, ed. Gregory Claeys (Indianapolis/ Cambridge: Hackett Publishing Company, 1992) 43, cited in Mcllwain, Constitutionalism, 2. Locke, Two treatises, s. 25. Ibid., ss. 49, 108, 30. Ibid., s. 87. Ibid., ss. 28, 30, 27, 38, 30, 50. Ibid., first treatise, s. 130, second treatise, ss. 14, 3 7 - 8 , 11. Ibid., s. 36. Ibid., ss. 42, 45, 32, J o h n Cotton, 'John Cotton's answer to Roger Williams', The complete writings of Roger Williams, 7 vols. (New York: Russell and Russell, 1963) vol. 11, 47. Locke, Two treatises, s. 37. Ibid., s. 41. T h o m a s Morton, New English Canaan (1632), T h e Publications of the Prince Society, ed. Charles F. Adams, xrv (Boston: 1883),

2l6

22 23 24 25 26 27

28

Notes to pages

j6-8g

175-7; Pierre Biard, S.J., 'Relations', in The Jesuit relations and allied documents 1610-1791, 73 vols., tr. Reuben G. Thwaites (Cleveland: Burrows, 1896-1901) vol. H I , 135. Locke, Two treatises, ss. 107-8, 4 8 - 9 . Ibid., s. 107. Ibid., ss. 108-24. Roger Williams, 'The bloody tenant', in Complete writings, vol. in, 250. Locke, Two treatises, s. 108. Emeric de Vattel, The law of nations or the principles of natural law, tr. Charles G. Fenwick (Washington: Carnegie Institute, 1902), 1.8.81 (207-10). I m m a n u e l Kant, Idea for a universal history with a cosmopolitan intent and Perpetual peace: a philosophical sketch, in Perpetual peace and other essays, tr. Ted H u m p h r e y (Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing Company, 1983) 29-40 and 107-44, 3 - > 4 Ibid., i n , 112 note, 123, 119, 125. Ibid., 1 1 8 - 1 9 . J o h n Rawls, 'Justice as fairness: political not metaphysical', Philosophy and Public Affairs, 14 (1985) 2 2 3 - 5 2 , 225, and see his development of this idea in Political liberalism, xxi-xxx, 8 - 1 1 , 5 8 - 6 6 , 1 4 0 - 5 0 , 1 6 4 - 8 , 220-7. Samuel Pufendorf, On the duty of man and citizen according to natural law, ed. J a m e s Tully, tr. Michael Silverthorne (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991) 2.8.12, 144, 2.9.2, 146, and Severinus de M o n z a m b a n o (Pufendorf), De statu imperii Germanici (On the constitution of the German empire) (Frankfurt: 1664). Samuel Pufendorf, On the law of nature and nations, tr. C. H . and W. A. Oldfather (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1934) 7.5.13, 1038-9; Locke, Two treatises, s. 212. Declaration des droits de I'homme et du citoyen, ed. J . Delene Creation (Paris: Roger Rimbaud, 1989). 'Constitution', Encyclopedic, ou dictionnaire universel et raisonne des conaissanceshumaine, 5 8 vols., ed. Fortunato-Bartholomeo de Felice (Yverdon: 1770-80) vol. 11, 189-91. E m m a n u e l J o s e p h Sieyes, Dire de I'Abbe Sieyes sur la question du veto Royal a la seance du 7 Septembre 1789 (Paris: 1789) 11, cited in M u r r a y Forsyth, Reason and revolution: the political thought of Abbe Sieyes (Leicester: Leicester University Press, 1987) 138. J o h n Locke, The educational writings of John Locke, ed. J a m e s Axtell (Cambridge: C a m b r i d g e University Press, 1968) 325; Locke, An essay concerning human understanding, 2.33.6, 396. Pierre Nicole, Discourses on the being of a god, the immortality of the soul, :

29 30 31

32

33

34 35

36

37

38

2

I 2

Notes to pages

8g-i02

217

the weakness of man and concerning the way ofpreserving peace with men, t r . J o h n Locke (London: 1712) 7 2 - 3 , cited in Carey, Travel narrative, chapter 3, 37. 39 J o h n Locke, A Report of the Board of Trade to the Lords fustices respecting the relief and employment of the poor, i6 ' 5 4 and diverse federalism, 1 4 0 - 5 and g e n d e r differences, 178—81 and intercultural groups, 1 7 6 - 8 and linguistic minorities, 166 and w h i g theory of ancient constitution, 1 4 9 - 5 2 C o n s t a n t , B e n j a m i n , 4 2 , 6 2 - 3 , 67, 1 9 2 , 200 constitution, 5, 6, 70 customary, 6 0 - 1 definition of, 8 6 - 7 as a form of activity, 3 0 intercultural, 1 3 5 irregular, 6 6 - 7 and l a n g u a g e , 3 6 and the people, 5 9

129-30 Cherokee, 93, 117, 122, 210 C i c e r o , 60

4 3 - 4 . 5 3 . 5 7 . 4> ' ° 7 .

247

1

see also ancient constitution; constitutionalism Constitution A c t ( 1 7 9 1 ) , 1 4 5 constitutional law, 100, 1 1 9 see also common law constitutionalism, 3 - 4 a g r e e m e n t in, 1 3 5 - 6 and convention of continuity, 124-9 and conventions of mutual recognition and consent, 1 1 6 - 2 4 and critical freedom, 207 and dialogue, 2 4 - 9 , 5 6 , 5 7 , 1 2 9 - 3 6 , 1 8 2 , 1 8 3 , 185, 209 and 'family resemblances', 1 1 2 , 120 and gender-related differences, 178-81 l a n g u a g e of, 103—11, 1 9 9 - 2 0 1 and reasoning by e x a m p l e s , 1 1 4 - 1 5 reform of, 1 0 1 - 2 subordinate areas of, 31 see also constitution; contemporary constitutionalism; modern constitutionalism; treaty constitutionalism

248

Index

contemporary constitutionalism, 4, 9 change i n , 2 8 - 9 diversity of, 3 7 - 8 , 99, 1 8 3 , 1 8 4 as a g a m e , 4 0 and hidden constitutions, 9 9 - 1 0 1 history of, 5 8 and j u s t i c e , 184 language of, 3 0 - 1 , 3 4 - 4 1 objections to, 1 8 7 - 9 8 philosophy and practice of, 2 0 9 - 1 1 and sovereignty, 1 9 3 - 5 stability of, 3 8 see also common law; constitutionalism; modern constitutionalism continuity, 3 0 , 1 1 6 , 1 2 4 - 9 , '54> ' 5 ^ . 209 and diverse federalism, 145—9 and g e n d e r differences, 178—81 and interculturalism, 1 7 6 - 8 and linguistic minorities, 1 6 6 , 1 6 7 , r68 violation of, 1 6 3 , 1 7 5 and whig philosophy, 1 4 9 - 5 2 contracts, 2 6 , 5 9 , 69, 81 'conventions', 1 1 6 , 181 see also consent; continuity; mutual recognition C o t t o n , J o h n , 74 C r e e , 130, 1 3 4 , 1 3 6 C r e o n , 2 2 - 3 , 60, 174 critical freedom, 2 0 2 - 7 cultural diversity, 97, 9 8 , 177, 1 8 4 , 202-5 and critical freedom, 207 and dialogue, 2 4 - 9 , 3 0 , 1 0 9 - 1 1 and fears of disunity, 1 9 6 - 7 'form of accomodation' of, 3 0 and forms of reasoning, 169—74 and gender, 4 9 , 1 7 8 - 8 1 and hidden constitutions, 9 9 - 1 0 1 and liberalism, 1 8 8 - 9 1 and mutual recognition, 7 - 1 4 objections to, 1 8 7 - 9 8 and politics, 5 - 6 problem of, 1 reform of, 7 2 - 4 , 87 responses to, 4 4 , 70 and rights, 1 7 2 - 3 and self rule, 5 understanding of, 1 3 3 - 4 see also cultural recognition, politics of; diverse federalism

cultural recognition, politics of, 1 - 6 , 1 0 , 1 3 , 14, 1 6 - 1 7 , 3 ° ) ' ^ 4 , 1 8 8 and challenge to modern constitutionalism, 4 3 - 5 6 conflicts in, 3 2 and l a n g u a g e , 3 5 - 4 1 responses to, 4 3 - 4 similarities within, 4 - 6 and weakness and disunity, 196 see also cultural diversity; mutual recognition cultural relativity, 6 5 , 76, 8 3 cultures, 6 2 , 6 3 , 1 8 6 , 189, 2 0 4 - 5 allegiance to, 198, 205 conflicts within, 12 critical attitude to, 2 0 6 definition of, 10 dialogue between, 2 4 - 9 identity of, 1 1 , 13 interaction of, 1 1 , 1 3 , 2 4 - 5 and nations,

8—g, 8g

new definition of, 1 3 - 1 4 , 4 6 and progress, 64—6 and social relations, 15 see also cultural diversity custom, 4 1 , 60, 6 1 , 6 2 , 151 modern concept of, 8 8 , 2 0 2 and progress, 67 traditional, 6 4 customary a g r e e m e n t , 3 8 - 4 0 Declaration of Independence ( 1 7 7 6 ) , 9 ' - 2 , 95- >54 Declaration of the rights of man and

citi&n

Mg).

8 5 - 7 , 179 Declaration on the R i g h t s of Indigenous Peoples, 137 D e g a n a w i d a h , 209 Demeunier,Jean-Nicholas, 86 democracy, 2 8 - 9 , 69, 7 8 , 201 Derrida, J a c q u e s , 14, 2 5 , 4 5 , 4 7 Descartes, R e n e , 1 0 1 - 3 , 1 1 4 , 1 4 2 , 200 dialogue, 2 4 - 9 , 3 0 , 5 2 - 3 , 5 6 , 5 7 , 1 0 9 - 1 0 , 1 4 6 , 1 8 2 , 1 8 3 , 1 8 5 , 190, 207, 209 and reasoning, 1 1 5 - 1 6 and treaty negotiations, 1 2 9 - 3 6 differences, 4 9 , 1 0 9 , n o , 169, 1 7 1 , 173, 186, 2 0 3 , 205 discontinuity, 1 2 5 , 146, 147, 1 5 8 , 162 dissent, 2 8 , 206, 207 disunity, 1 9 6 - 7

Index diverse federalism and A m e r i c a n revolution, 1 5 2 - 4 , 1 5 6 - 7 attack on, 1 5 7 - 6 4 and convention of continuity, 1 4 5 - 5 2 and conventions of mutual recognition and consent, 1 4 0 - 5 , •49-52 in Q u e b e c , 1 7 4 - 5 see also federalism diverse nationalism, 1 8 8 see also nationalism diversity fee cultural diversity Dockstator, M a r k , 1 2 2 D u n n , J o h n , 3 5 , 201 D u r h a m report ( 1 8 4 0 ) , 1 5 8 - 6 3 , 168, 1 6 9 , 187, 188, 196 D u t c h a r m y reforms, 8 9 Eddy, T h o m a s , 95 Eisenberg, A v i g a i l , 1 6 9 , 172 elites, 1 9 1 - 5 E m b e r l e y , Peter, 47 E n g l a n d , 70, 146, 1 4 9 - 5 0 English-speaking minority, 1 6 8 - 7 6 epigram, 3 3 equality, 15, 2 6 , 4 1 , 4 2 , 66, 68 ethnicity, 1 8 7 - 8 Europe, 1 5 - 1 6 , 1 9 , 3 1 , 3 3 , 42 and Aboriginal sovereignty, 7 1 - 8 and language of constitutionalism, 37-8 and modern constitution, 67—8 and popular sovereignty, 63—4 and progress, 6 4 - 6 , 77 recognised by Aboriginal peoples, 121-2 w a r s in, 6 6 - 7 examples, 108-9, > > "3 and c o m m o n law, 1 1 3 - 1 5 I I O

I I 2

'family resemblances', 1 1 2 , 1 2 0 , 181 federalism, 9, 9 2 - 5 see also confederalism; diverse federalism Federalist papers, 7, 9 2 - 4 , 156, 187, 196 federation, 9, 5 5 see also federalism feminism, 2—3, 44, 4 7 - 5 3 , 178, 190, 201 feudal law, 149, 1 5 3 F i c h t e , J o h a n n , 7, 60 fishing rights, 172 Foucault, Michel, 3 2 , 3 5 , 40, 8 8

249

F r a n c e , 8 5 - 7 , 146, 1 4 8 , 171 Franklin, B e n j a m i n , 1 1 8 , 121 Frazer, J a m e s George, 1 1 2 - 1 3 freedom, 3 2 , 3 3 , 189 see also critical freedom freedom of expression, 1 6 9 - 7 1 , 1 9 3 F r e n c h language, 169, 1 7 4 - 6 F r e n c h Revolution, 5 9 , 68 French-speaking colonists, 1 5 8 - 6 2 , 167-8 Fuentes, C a r l o s , 1 5 , 5 4 G a b r i e l , Ellen, 130 Gagnon, Alain, 55 g a m e s , 3 5 , 40, 1 0 7 - 8 , 109, in—12 see also language G e e r t z , Clifford, 14, 9 6 , 101, 1 8 5 Gellner, Ernest, 8 g e n d e r differences, 173, 1 7 8 - 8 1 see also feminism general term, 1 0 5 - 1 0 , 199 generalisations, 200 Gilligan, C a r o l , 4 8 , 201 Gitskan, 132, 134 government, 151 G r e a t Britain, 117, 1 1 8 , 141, 148, 1 5 2 - 3 , .67 G r e a t Peace of 1701, 1 2 9 G r e a t T u r t l e Island, 9 2 , 1 2 2 , 1 2 6 , 1 3 2 G r e e k s , 60, 201 see also Antigone Grotius, Hugo, 83 H a b e r m a s , J i i r g e n , 44, 1 3 1 , 1 7 3 H a e m o n , 2 2 - 3 , 2 8 , 60, 174 H a i d a , 17, 20, 2 1 , 2 4 - 5 , 1 8 1 , 186, 206 see also spirit of Haida Gwaii, The Hale, Matthew, 83, 1 1 3 - 1 5 , 1 4 9 - 5 ° . '85, 200, 210 Haudenosaunee see Iroquois Confederation H a v e l , V a c l a v , 211 H e g e l , G e o r g W i l h e l m Friedrich, 4 2 H e r d e r , J o h a n n , 60, 70 hidden constitutions, 9 9 - 1 0 1 historical development, 6 3 , 64—6, 71—2, 76, 77, 8 3 , 8 7 , 1 1 3 , 200 see also progress Hobbes, T h o m a s , 15, 4 2 , 5 9 , 60, 6g, 8 3 , 84, 90, 106, 1 2 5 , 1 5 0 , 1 8 1 , 185, 1 9 3 , 194, 196, 200 and federalist a r g u m e n t , 1 4 4 - 5 and scientific reasoning, 1 1 3 - 1 6

Index

250 humanism, 1 1 5 - 1 6 , 200 see also civic humanism H u m e , David, 63 hunter g a t h e r e r s , 74, 77 identity, 4 5 - 7 , 173, 1 9 9 - 2 0 1 cultural, 1 1 , 1 3 national, 8 8 - 9 0 imagination, 2 0 2 , 204 imperialism, 1 5 - 1 7 , 34, 3 7 - 8 , 4 2 , 4 5 , 70, 90, 2 0 3 - 4 justification of, 7 3 - 8 1 , 9 5 , 96, 162 imposition, 6 2 India, 5 5 , 142, 162 Indian A c t ( 1 8 7 6 ) , 9 0 - 1 indigenous peoples see Aboriginal peoples individuals, 15, 4 1 , 60, 6 3 , 85, 143 institutionalisation, 40, 4 1 , 64, 66 interculturalism, 2, 3 , 8, 16, 44, 5 3 - 6 , 132-4, 166, 1 7 6 - 8 intermedate cases, n o international law, 4, 3 4 , 8 1 , 1 0 0 Inuit, 5 5 , 1 3 0 , 134, 136, 137 Iran, 90 Ireland, 89, 147, 1 5 1 , 197 Iroquois Confederation, 90, 9 3 , 9 5 , 1 1 8 , 2

121, 127-9, ' 3 ° . ° 9 irregularity, 6 6 - 7 Jackson, General Andrew, 210 J a m a k e Highwater, 25, 186 J a m e s B a y and N o r t h e r n Q u e b e c A g r e e m e n t ( 1 9 7 5 ) , 134, 1 3 6 Jay, John, 9 3 - 4 Jefferson, T h o m a s , 91, 92, 95, 1 5 2 - 4 J o h n s o n , W i l l i a m , 1 1 8 , 119, 1 3 0 , 134 Jonsen, Albert, 113, 115, 173 jurisprudence, 100 just peace, 211 justice, 5 , 6, 3 4 , 4 8 , 60, 97, 184, 211 K a n t , I m m a n u e l , 4 2 , 60, 6 3 , 67, 8 0 - 1 , 8 2 , 103, 1 2 2 , 192, 200 Kelley, Donald, 61 K n o x , W i l l i a m , 1 4 6 - 9 , 155, 160, 1 6 4 , 1 9 7 Kymlicka, Will, 4 4 , 5 3 labour, 7 4 - 5 , 77, 87, 89 L a f i t a u , J o s e p h - F r a n c o i s , 121 Laforest, G u y , 4 4 , 5 5 L a h o n t a n , B a r o n de, 70, 7 5 , 1 1 2 , 121

land, 7 2 - 5 , 79 language, 146, 158, 1 6 8 - 7 1 , 1 7 4 - 6 comprehensive nature of, 5 6 - 7 , 6 2 of constitutionalism, 1 0 3 - 1 1 of contemporary constitutionalism, 3 0 - 1 , 3 4 - 4 1 , 111—16, 1 9 9 - 2 0 1 and cultural identity, 170 and customary a g r e e m e n t , 3 8 - 4 0 feminist critique of, 5 0 - 1 games, 35 and mutual recognition, 3 4 - 5 and self identity, 199 Lapointe, E r n e s t , 167 L a s C a s a s , B a r t o l e m e de, 71 L e Roy, Louis, 86, 87 legal pluralism, 101 Leibniz, Gottfried 70, 8 3 Levi-Strauss, C l a u d e , 18 liberalism, 7, 3 6 - 7 , 3 9 - 4 0 , 4 2 , 4 3 - 4 , 5 3 , 57, 63, 69, 8 1 - 2 , 201 and compact federalism, 1 4 3 - 4 and cultural diversity, 188—91 liberty, 6, 96 L o c k e , J o h n , 4 2 , 5 2 , 60, 65, 66, 8 4 - 5 , 1 4 3 , 192, 200 on conquest theory, 1 5 0 - 1 on consent, 122, 1 5 2 on cultural diversity, 70 on custom, 8 8 - 9 , 151 defence of imperialism, 79 on popular sovereignty, 72 and problem of A b o r i g i n a l sovereignty, 7 1 - 8 theory of appropriation, 73 L o r a n g e r , T h o m a s - J e a n - J a c q u e s , 141—5, 162,188 L u t h e r S t a n d i n g B e a r , 20 McEachern, Chief Justice Allan, 132 Mcllwain, Charles Howard, 4 2 , 5 9 , 61, 64, 9 1 , 1 5 6 Madison, J a m e s , 94, 1 5 6 - 7 , 1 6 3 Mansfield, Lord, 149 Maori, 135 markets, 76, 80 M a r s h a l l , J o h n , 70, 7 1 , 1 1 7 - 2 4 , 1 2 6 , 1 3 6 , 210 masculinity, 5 0 , 66 Mashpee, 46 Maybury-Lewis, David, 8 mediated peace, 2 1 1 mediation, 209, 2 1 0 , 2 1 1

Index M e e c h L a k e a g r e e m e n t , 175 M e r c r e d i , O v i d e , 130 M e t i s , 2 5 , 1 3 0 , 137 M i l l . J o h n S t u a r t , 4 2 , 8 1 , 162, 170 M i n i v a v a n a , 119 M i n o r c a , 147, 1 4 8 , 197 minorities, ethnic, 3 , 1 6 , 165—6 minorities, linguistic, 3 , 1 2 , 1 6 , 1 4 6 , 1 5 8 - 6 2 , 1 6 5 - 7 6 , 181 M i n o w , M a r t h a , 49 modern constitutionalism, 1 5 , 1 7 , 85—7, 1 3 5 , 136, 164, 1 8 1 , 184, 185, 1 8 6

Mudimbe, V . Y . , 113 multiculturalism see interculturalism M u s q u e a m , 172 m u t u a l recognition, 7—14, 3 5 , 129, 209 convention of, 3 0 , 1 1 6 - 2 4 , '54> ' 5 8 and cultural dialogue, 2 4 - g and diverse federalism, 1 4 0 - 5 form of reasoning and, 1 6 8 - 7 4 and gender differences, 1 7 8 - 8 1 and interculturalism, 1 7 6 - 8 and linguistic minorities, 1 6 5 - 7 6 violation of, 175

and A m e r i c a n revolution, 91—6

myths, 17, 2 2 , 2 5 , 2 0 3 - 6

anti-democratic nature of, 2 8 , 69 challenge to, 4 3 - 5 6

N a s k a p i , 134, 1 3 6

c o m m o n origins of, 4 2 contrasted with ancient constitution, 59-62, 64-6 and critical freedom, 2 0 2 , 2 0 6 and cultural uniformity, 5 8 , 6 6 , 8 2 - 4 , 87, 90, 199 and custom, 67 customary uses of, 38—40 and disunity, 196 economic justification of, 74—7, 96 and E u r o p e a n institutions, 6 7 - 8 and forging of national identity, 88-90 founding moment of, 69 history of, 1 5 - 1 6 , 5 8 - 6 2 and imperialism, 7 3 - 8 1 , 9 5 , 96, 1 1 3 masculine bias of, 5 0 monological reasoning in, 115—16 narrowness of, 99, 1 0 1 , 1 3 1 , 183, 207 and the nation state, 68 and need for new l a n g u a g e , 5 6 - 7 and popular sovereignty, 63—4 and problem of cultural diversity, 1, 58 and progress, 6 4 - 6 seven features of, 4 1 - 2 , 62—70 three schools of, 3 4 - 4 3 see also constitutionalism; contemporary constitutionalism modern society, 6 3 - 4 M o h a w k , 9 3 , 9 5 , 130, 1 3 5 Mohegan, 118, 122 Molyneux, W i l l i a m , 151 Montesquieu, C h a r l e s - L e w i s de Secondat, 70, 8 3 , 86, 87 moral philosophy, 115 M o r t o n , T h o m a s , 76

nation state, 2 , 8 - 9 , 10, 1 5 - 1 6 , 4 1 , 4 2 , 6 8 , 77, '87 see also nationalism; nations nationalism, 2 , 3, 7, 3 6 - 7 , 3 9 - 4 0 , 4 2 , 4 3 - 4 - 53> 5 7 . ° 9 . '07. ' 8 7 - 8 , 201 see also nation state; nations nations, 9, 4 1 , 68, 7 8 , 129, 187 and Aboriginal peoples, 1 1 9 - 2 1 , 124 and cultures, 8, 60 identity of, 8 8 - 9 0 see also nation state; nationalism nature, state of, 6 3 , 7 2 , 7 3 , 81 negotiations, 1 1 7 - 2 4 , 1 2 9 - 3 6 , 183—4, 209, 210 neutrality, 4 3 , 191 N e w Z e a l a n d , 7, 5 5 , 1 3 5 N o r m a n conquest, 1 4 9 - 5 0 N o r m a n law, 125, 1 5 3 N o r r i s , J o h n , 151 Nozick, R o b e r t , 81 O e d i p u s , 2, 2 3 O n t a r i o , 140, 1 5 8 , 1 6 7 , 1 6 8 Otis,James, 152 P a g d e n , A n t h o n y , 70, 201 Paine, T h o m a s , 4 2 , 4 3 , 5 9 , 6 1 , 6 2 , 6 3 , 6 9 - 7 0 , 8 6 , 91, 9 2 - 4 , 103, 118 participation, 192, 1 9 3 patriarchy, 5 2 Paul, Daniel N . , 90 peace, 211 people, the, 27, 4 1 , 60, 6 3 , 66, 157 a g r e e m e n t of, 61 and community, 64 as locus of authority, 67 see also popular sovereignty

Index

252 play, 2 0 4 pluralism, 5 5 , 164, 197 see also legal pluralism Pocock, J o h n , 3 7 , 79, 1 4 9 , 200 politics, 2 8 , 37 and cultural diversity, 5 - 6 see also cultural recognition, politics of popular sovereignty, 5 , 27, 2 8 , 29, 4 1 - 3 , 6

8

5 9 . 7 > 3 . '94 as intercultural dialogue, 190 L o c k e on, 72 three concepts of, 6 3 - 4 see also people, the post-colonial societies, 101 post-modernism, 4 4 - 7 , 1 1 6 progress, 6 4 - 6 , 67, 7 1 - 2 , 77, 87, 99, .85-6 property, 7 2 , 7 5 , 7 6 , 96, 1 5 0 , 1 5 1 , 162 proportionality test, 1 7 1 - 2 Pufendorf, S a m u e l , 60, 68, 8 3 , 8 4 - 5 , 8 6 , 8 7 - 8 , 103, 1 4 2 , 1 9 3 , 196 Q u e b e c , 7, 1 1 - 1 2 , 127, 1 3 4 , 1 3 6 confederalism in, 140—5 and D u r h a m report, 1 5 8 - 6 2 English-speaking minority in, 1 6 8 - 7 1 , 174-6 nationalism in, 1 8 8 and Q u e b e c A c t ( 1 7 7 4 ) , 1 4 5 - 9 , ' 5 4 - 5 . 163

Said, E d w a r d , 1 5 , 3 8 , 5 4 , 1 3 8 , 166, 177, 198, 200 Sandel, M i c h a e l , 44 Saskatchewan, 168 Schlesinger, A r t h u r , 1 9 6 , 1 9 8 scientific reasoning, 1 1 3 - 1 6 , 1 8 5 , 200 Seeley, Sir J o h n , 7, 1 6 2 self respect, 1 8 9 - 9 1 self rule, 4 - 5 , 6, 5 5 , 184, 192 Sieyes, E . J . , 6 3 , 67, 8 5 - 7 sign legislation, 1 6 9 — 7 1 , 1 7 4 - 6 similarities, 4, 1 0 8 , 109, 1 7 1 , 199, 2 0 3 Skinner, Q u e n t i n , 3 5 , 3 7 , 68, 1 1 5 , 174, 200 S m i t h , A d a m , 4 2 , 6 3 , 67, 77, 79, 87 'sociability', 8 7 - 8 sovereignty, 4 5 , 4 6 , 6 6 - 7 , 8 5 , 9 1 , 9 2 , 1 9 3 - 5 Aboriginal, 7 0 - 8 see also popular sovereignty spirit of Haida Gwaii, The, 17—29, 32—4, 104, i n , 1 7 8 , 202—6, 211—12 stage of development see historical development Stannard, David, 20 state, 8 - 9 , 68, 6 9 stories, 2 6 , 32—3, 2 0 6 T a k a k i , R o n a l d , 5 4 , 90 T a l l e y r a n d - P e r i g o r d , M . , 179 T a y l o r , C h a r l e s , 4 4 , 106 theory, 1 0 4 — 1 0 , 1 8 5 see also rules T o u l m i n , S t e p h e n , 1 1 3 , 1 1 5 , 173

R a w l s , J o h n , 44, 5 5 , 6 3 , 8 2 , 1 0 6 , 107, 190 reason, 6 1 , 65, 8 5 , 1 1 3 , 1 1 5 reasoning, form of, 168—74 recognition, 2 3 - 4 , 4 5 , 62 see also mutual recognition reform, 7 2 - 4 , 101—2 R e i d , Bill, 1 7 - 1 9 , 2 3 , 24, 2 7 , 3 2 - 3 , 1 8 6 , 202, 204, 206 republicanism, 6 7 - 8 , 69, 79, 80, 103 R i c h , A d r i e n n e , 50—1 rights, 79, 8 5 , 1 4 3 , 1 7 1 - 3 Rita, J o e , 2 1 , 1 1 6 Robertson, W i l l i a m , 66 R o m a n catholics, 1 4 5 - 8 Rorty, R i c h a r d , 6 3 , 97 R o u s s e a u , J e a n - J a c q u e s , 4 2 , 60, 8o, 180, 200 Royal Proclamation ( 1 7 6 3 ) , 1 1 8 , 1 2 4 , 1 2 9 , '54-5 rules, 40, 105—11, 1 8 1 , 1 8 5

treaty constitutionalism,

117-24,127-9,

• 9 ' . ' 9 5 . 208 and dialogue, 1 2 9 - 3 6 revival of, 1 3 6 - 7 and three conventions, 1 3 8 T r u d e a u , P i e r r e , 11, 208 T u c k , R i c h a r d , 3 7 , 70, 8 8 Two Row W a m p u m Treaty, 1 2 7 - 8 understanding, 1 0 9 - 1 1 , 1 3 3 uniformity, 5 5 , 5 8 , 66, 8 2 - 4 , 87, 90, 1 0 2 , ' 9 6 - 7 . '99. 2 0 ' . 2 0 3 U n i t e d K i n g d o m , 7, 9, 2 0 5 U n i t e d Nations, 3 9 , 1 3 7 , 175 U n i t e d S t a t e s , 19, 90, 9 2 - 5 , 142, 1 7 3 , 198 and treaty negotiations, 1 1 7 - 2 4 , 1 2 8 see also A m e r i c a unity, 1 9 6 - 7 , 200, 201 see also uniformity universalism, 6 6 , 6 9 , 131

Index V a t t e l , E m e r i c de, 79, 86, 87, 123, 1 2 6 - 7 V i r g i n i a , 92—3 W a i t a n g i treaty, 1 3 5 W a l z e r , M i c h a e l , 44, 5 3 war, 6 6 - 7 , 7 2 - 3 W a t s o n , L o r d , 144 Weber, M a x , 88 Weinstock, Daniel, 189 W e t ' s u w e t ' e n nation, 1 3 2 , 134 Wharton, Samuel, 118, 152

253

W i l l i a m s , R o g e r , 7 1 , 78 W i n c h , Peter, 106 Wittgenstein, Ludwig, 35, 3 6 , 5 1 , 58, 1 0 3 - 1 6 , 1 3 9 , 1 7 1 , 173, 174, 1 8 1 - 2 , 1 8 5 , 199, 206, 209 Wolf, E r i c , 1 1 , 3 8 Wollstonecraft, M a r y , 5 1 , 70, 179, 190 w o m e n , 3 , 1 2 , 16, 37, 3 9 , 4 5 , 4 7 - 5 3 , 1 6 5 , 166, 1 7 8 - 8 1 , 190, 193 see also feminism Worcester, Samuel, 117

whiggism, 3 7 , 149 W h i t e , R i c h a r d , 130 W i l l i a m the C o n q u e r o r , 1 4 9 - 5 0 , 1 5 3

Y o u n g , Iris M a r i o n , 5 2 , 5 4 , 1 3 2 , 134, 201