Oral Cancer Metastasis

Oral Cancer Metastasis

Jeffrey Myers Editor

Oral Cancer Metastasis

Editor Jeffrey Myers Department of Head and Neck Surgery – Unit 441 University of Texas M D Anderson Cancer Center Houston, TX 77030 USA [email protected]

ISBN 978-1-4419-0774-5 e-ISBN 978-1-4419-0775-2 DOI 10.1007/978-1-4419-0775-2 Springer New York Dordrecht Heidelberg London Library of Congress Control Number: 2009930631 © Springer Science+Business Media, LLC 2010 All rights reserved. This work may not be translated or copied in whole or in part without the written permission of the publisher (Springer Science+Business Media, LLC, 233 Spring Street, New York, NY 10013, USA), except for brief excerpts in connection with reviews or scholarly analysis. Use in connection with any form of information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed is forbidden. The use in this publication of trade names, trademarks, service marks, and similar terms, even if they are not identified as such, is not to be taken as an expression of opinion as to whether or not they are subject to proprietary rights. Printed on acid-free paper Springer is part of Springer Science+Business Media (www.springer.com)

This book is dedicated to Dr. Helmuth Goepfert and Dr. Josh Fidler, who taught me the clinical significance and the ways to approach the study of oral cancer metastasis. I am grateful to both of them for providing me with the appropriate “soil” for my germination and growth as a head and neck “surgeon-scientist.”

Acknowledgements

I would like to thank Ms. Mariann Crapanzano for her expertise and dedication in editing this book, and Mrs. Rachel Warren and her team at Springer for their professionalism and support in producing this book.

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Preface

Squamous cell carcinoma of the oral cavity (SCCOC) is one of the most prevalent tumors of the head and neck region. Despite improvements in treatment, the survival of patients with SCCOC has not improved significantly over the past several decades. Most frequently, treatment failure takes the form of local and regional recurrences, but as disease control in these areas improves, SCCOC treatment failures more commonly occur as distant metastasis. The presence of cervical lymph node metastasis is the most reliable adverse prognostic factor in patients with SCCOC, and extracapsular spread (ECS) of cervical lymph nodes metastasis is a particularly reliable predictor of regional and distant recurrence and death from disease. Decisions regarding elective and therapeutic management of cervical lymph node metastases are made mainly on clinical grounds as we cannot always predict cervical lymph node metastasis from the size and extent of invasion of the primary tumors. Therefore, the treatment of the neck disease in the management of SCCOC remains controversial. The promise of using biomarker-based treatment decisions has yet to be fully realized because of our poor understanding of the mechanisms of regional and distant metastases of SCCOT. This book summarizes the contemporary approaches to clinical and radiographic assessment and primary and adjuvant treatment of oral cancer metastases, and also explores the current status of investigations into SCCOC metastases and the potential of these studies to positively impact the clinical management of SCCOC in the future.

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Contents

1 Oral Cancer Overview: The Significance of Metastasis and Surgical Management of the Neck.................................................... Eugene N. Myers

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2 The Role of Diagnostic Imaging in Identifying Cervical Metastases in Oral Cavity Cancer............................................................ Lawrence E. Ginsberg

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3 Sentinel Node Biopsy in Oral Cancer...................................................... L.W.T. Alkureishi, G.L. Ross, and S.J. Stoeckli 4 Prediction of Nodal Metastases from Genomic Analyses of the Primary Tumor................................................................ Amy S. Whigham and Wendell G. Yarbrough

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5 The Role of High Throughput Molecular Analysis of Biofluids and Tumors in Patients with Oral Cancer.......................... 105 Shen Hu, Zhanzhi Hu, Xiaofeng Zhou, and David T. Wong 6 Adjuvant Therapy for Patients with Oral Cavity Cancer...................... 121 C. Wesley Hodge, Deepak Khuntia, Rafael Manon, and Paul M. Harari 7 Animal Models of Oral Cancer Metastasis.............................................. 135 Zvonimir Milas, Jeffrey Myers, and Carlos Caulin 8 TGFb Signaling in Head and Neck Cancer Development and Metastases........................................................................................... 163 Stephen P. Malkoski, Jessyka G. Lighthall, and Xiao-Jing Wang 9 Growth Factor Receptor Signaling and Metastasis of Oral Cancer............................................................................................ 185 Ali Razfar and Jennifer R. Grandis

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Contents

10 Nuclear Transcription Factors and Signaling Pathways in Oral Cancer Metastasis....................................................................... 197 Zhong Chen, Reza Ehsanian, and Carter Van Waes 11 Wnt/b-Catenin Signaling and Oral Cancer Metastasis........................ 231 Ge Zhou 12 Role of Tumor Stromal Interactions and Proteases in Oral Cancer Metastasis....................................................................... 265 J. Robert Newman and Eben L. Rosenthal 13 Chemokines and Their Receptors in Oral Cancer Metastasis............. 287 Yvonne K. Mburu and Robert L. Ferris 14 Hypoxia, Angiogenesis, and Oral Cancer Metastasis........................... 299 Quynh-Thu Le, Donald Courter, and Amato Giaccia 15 Cancer Stem Cells and Oral Cavity Cancer Metastasis....................... 323 Mark Prince Index.................................................................................................................. 337

Contributors

Lee WT Alkureishi, M.D., M.R.C.S. Department of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery University of Chicago Medical Center 5841 South Maryland Ave Chicago, Illinois 60637 [email protected] Carlos Caulin, Ph.D. Assistant Professor Department of Head and Neck Surgery The University of Texas M. D. Anderson Cancer Center 1515 Holcombe Blvd. Unit Number: 123 Houston, TX 77030 Zhong Chen, M.D., Ph.D. Staff Scientist, Tumor Biology Section Head and Neck Surgery Branch National Institute on Deafness and Other Communication Disorders National Institutes of Health 10 Center Drive, CRC Room 4-2732 Bethesda, MD 20892 [email protected] Donald Courter, Ph.D. Fellow Department of Radiation Oncology Stanford University 875 Blake Wilbur Dr, MC 5847 Stanford, CA 94305-5847 [email protected]

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Contributors

Reza Ehsanian, Ph.D. Tumor Biology Section, Head and Neck Surgery Branch National Institute on Deafness and Other Communication Disorders National Institutes of Health 10 Center Drive, Bethesda, MD 20892 [email protected] Robert. L. Ferris, M.D., Ph.D. Associate Professor Vice-Chair for Clinical Operations Chief, Division of Head and Neck Surgery Departments of Otolaryngology and Immunology Co-Leader, Cancer Immunology Program University of Pittsburgh Cancer Institute Pittsburgh, PA 15232 [email protected] Amato Giaccia, Ph.D. Professor Department of Radiation Oncology Stanford University 875 Blake Wilbur Dr, MC 5847 Stanford, CA 94305-5847 [email protected] Lawrence E. Ginsberg, M.D. Professor of Radiology and Head and Neck Surgery MD Anderson Cancer Center Department of Diagnostic Radiology, Unit 370 1515 Holcombe Blvd. Houston, TX 77030 Jennifer Rubin Grandis, M.D., F.A.C.S. Vice Chair for Research UPMC Endowed Chair in Head and Neck Cancer Surgical Research Department of Otolaryngology Professor of Otolaryngology & Pharmacology University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine Program Leader, Head & Neck Cancer Program University of Pittsburgh Cancer Institute American Cancer Society Clinical Research Professor Eye & Ear Institute, Suite 500 200 Lothrop Street Pittsburgh, PA 15213 [email protected] Paul M. Harari, M.D. Jack Fowler Professor and Chairman Department of Human Oncology

Contributors

University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health 600 Highland Ave. Madison, WI 53792 C. Wesley Hodge, M.D. Radiation Oncology Robert Boissoneault Oncology Institute 2020 SE 17th St Ocala, FL 34471 Dr. Zhanzhi Hu Affymetrix 3420 Central Expy Santa Clara, CA 95051-0703 Shen Hu, Ph.D. Assistant Professor School of Dentistry & Jonsson Comprehensive Cancer Center University of California, Los Angeles 10833 Le Conte Ave Los Angeles CA 90095 [email protected] Deepak Khuntia, M.D. Associate Professor Department of Human Oncology University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health 600 Highland Ave. Madison, WI. 53792 Quynh-Thu Le, M.D. Professor Department of Radiation Oncology Stanford University 875 Blake Wilbur Dr, MC 5847 Stanford, CA 94305-5847 [email protected] Jessyka G. Lighthall, M.D. Department of Otolaryngology/Head Neck Surgery Oregon Health & Science University Portland, OR 97229 Stephen P. Malkoski, M.D., Ph.D. Assistant Professor Pulmonary Sciences and Critical Care Medicine University of Colorado Denver School of Medicine 13001 East 17th Place Building 500, 1st Floor East Aurora, CO 80045

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Rafael R. Mañon, M.D. Clinical Assistant Professor, FSU College of Medicine Assistant Professor, UCF College of Medicine Department of Radiation Oncology MD Anderson Cancer Center—Orlando 1400 S. Orange Avenue Orlando, Fl 32806 Zvonimir Milas, M.D. Clinical Fellow Department of Head and Neck Surgery University of Texas M D Anderson Cancer 1515 Holcombe Blvd. Houston, TX [email protected] Eugene N. Myers, MD, FACS, FRCS (Hon)Edin Department of Otolaryngology University of Pittsburgh Medical Center Pittsburgh, PA 15213 Distinguished Professor and Emeritus Chair Department of Otolaryngology, University of Pittsburgh Medical Center Pittsburgh, PA 15213 [email protected] Jeffrey Myers, M.D. Ph.D. Ashbel Smith Professor and Deputy Chair Department of Head and Neck Surgery – Unit 441 University of Texas M.D. Anderson Cancer Center 1515 Holcombe Blvd. Houston, TX 77030 [email protected] Robert Newman, M.D. University of Alabama at Birmingham 563 Boshell Building, 1808 7th Avenue South Birmingham, AL 35294 Mark E. P. Prince, M.D., F.R.C.S.(C.) Associate Professor Otolaryngology - Head and Neck Surgery University of Michigan Department of Otolaryngology - HNS 1500 E. Medical center Drive 1904 Taubman Center Ann Arbor, MI 48109

Contributors

Contributors

Ali Razfar Department of Otolaryngology and Head Neck Surgery University of Pittsburgh Suite 500, Eye & Ear Building 203 Lothrop Street Pittsburgh, PA [email protected] Eben L Rosenthal, M.D. Julius Hicks Professor of Surgery Division of Otolaryngology University of Alabama at Birmingham 563 Boshell Building 1808 7th Avenue South Birmingham, AL 35294 Gary Ross M.D. Consultant Plastic Surgeon Honorary Senior Cliinical Lecturer Depeartment of Plastic Surgery The Christie, Wilmslow Road, Manchester, M204BX [email protected] Sandro J. Stoeckli, M.D. Professor and Chairman Clinic of Otorhinolaryngology, Head and Neck Surgery Kantonsspital St. Gallen Rorschacherstrasse 95 9007 St. Gallen, Switzerland [email protected] Carter Van Waes, M.D., Ph.D. Senior Investigator and Chief, Head and Neck Surgery Branch, National Institute on Deafness and Other Communication Disorders National Institutes of Health 10 Center Drive, CRC Room 4-2732 Bethesda, MD, 20892 [email protected] Xiao-Jing Wang, M.D., Ph.D. Professor Department of Pathology Institution University of Colorado Denver 12800 E. 19th Ave., Bldg. RC1N, Rm 5128, mail stop 8104 Aurora, CO 80045 [email protected]

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Contributors

Amy S. Whigham, M.D. Chief Resident Department of Otolaryngology Vanderbilt-Ingram Cancer Center Vanderbilt University School of Medicine 2220 Pierce Avenue 654 Preston Research Building Nashville, TN 37232 David T. Wong, D.M.D., D.M.S.C. Felix & Mildred Yip Endowed Professor Associate Dean of Research Director- Dental Research Institute Oral Biology & Medicine/Dentistry University of California at Los Angeles 10833 Le Conte Avenue, 73-017 CHS Los Angeles CA 90095 Wendell G. Yarbrough, M.D. Ingram Professor of Cancer Research, Otolaryngology and Cancer Biology Director, Barry Baker Laboratory for Head and Neck Oncology Department of Otolaryngology Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, TN 37232 [email protected] Ge Zhou, Ph.D. Assistant Professor Department of Head and Neck Surgery The University of Texas M.D. AndersonCancer Center 1515 Holcombe Blvd. Houston, TX 77030 [email protected] Xiaofeng Zhou, Ph.D. Assistant Professor College of Dentistry/Center for Molecular Biology of Oral Diseases University of Illinois at Chicago 801 S. Paulina Street Chicago IL 60612 [email protected]

Chapter 1

Oral Cancer Overview: The Significance of Metastasis and Surgical Management of the Neck Eugene N. Myers

Abstract  Squamous cell carcinoma of the oral cavity has the propensity to metastasize to the cervical lymph nodes even in the early stages. The presence of lymph node metastasis is the most significant independent variable in determining survival of patients with cancer of the head and neck. Therefore, the diagnosis and management of cervical lymph node metastasis is one of the most important responsibilities of the head and neck oncologist. The management of the neck in patients with cancer of the oral cavity has gone through several cycles. Initially, it was thought that the removal of the primary cancer from the oral cavity without paying attention to the neck was sufficient. However, this policy of “waiting and watching the neck” resulted in approximately one-third of the patients developing recurrence in the neck; some of these recurrences were not operable, and therefore, the majority of these patients died of their cancer. Neck dissection has evolved from radical neck dissection for patients with clinically detectable disease in the neck to selective neck dissection for patients who have N0 or N+ neck and a “super”-selective neck dissection for patients who have persistent disease following chemoradiation. Although the use of the selective neck dissection in patients with an N0 neck has not improved the cure rate, it has had a major positive impact on regional disease-free survival and has decreased the morbidity associated with surgical management of the neck. The evolution of the neck dissection and its current use in the management of patients with cancer of the oral cavity are the subject of this chapter.

E.N. Myers (*) Department of Otolaryngology, University of Pittsburgh Medical Center, Pittsburgh, PA, 15213, USA e-mail: [email protected] J. Myers (ed.), Oral Cancer Metastasis, DOI 10.1007/978-1-4419-0775-2_1, © Springer Science+Business Media, LLC 2010

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E.N. Myers

Introduction Squamous cell carcinoma of the oral cavity has a propensity to metastasize to the cervical lymph nodes even in the early stages. The presence of lymph node metastasis is the most significant independent prognostic variable in determining survival of patients with cancer of the head and neck (Fig. 1.1) (Hollenbeak et al. 2001). Therefore, the diagnosis and treatment of cervical lymph node metastasis are the most important responsibilities of the head and neck oncologist. There are several important demographic factors that also appear to impact survival. According to the surveillance epidemiology and end results (SEER) data for cancer of the oral cavity, the 5-year relative survival rate for the group of older patients was lower than the corresponding value for the younger group (Fig. 1.2) (Funk et al. 2002). The 5-year relative survival rates for males was significantly lower than that for females (Fig. 1.3) (Funk et al. 2002). The 5-year relative survival rate for AfricanAmericans is significantly worse than that whites (Fig. 1.4) (Funk et al. 2002).

Fig. 1.1  Survival for patients with (n = 9,938) lymph node involvement from the SEER database, computed based on the Kaplan–Meier method (P