Nomos: Essays in Athenian Law, Politics and Society

'UILISHED IY THE 'IIIIS SYNDICATE 0 ' THE UNIVEIIJITY 0' CAMill I DOl! The Pitt BuildinJ, Trumpinpon Slreet, Carnbridp...

Author: Paul Cartledge | Paul Millett | Stephen Todd

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'UILISHED IY THE 'IIIIS SYNDICATE 0 ' THE UNIVEIIJITY 0' CAMill I DOl!

The Pitt BuildinJ, Trumpinpon Slreet, Carnbridp, United KillJdorn CAMIRIDOE UNIVIIU ITY 'IIUS

The Edinbuflh Buildin,.Cambrid"eCB2 2RU. UK 40Ww 2OI:h Street, New York NY 10011-4211, USA

4n WUliarntlown bd, Pon Melbourne, VJC 3:;t07, Au~,.lia Ruiz de AIuc6n 13, 28014 Madrid. SP'lirl Dod Houa. The w.terfronl. Cape TOWJI8001 . SoIIlh Africa

bup:l/Www.carnbridJl!.Of' CCambrid,eUniwnilyPms 1990

This book it in oopyn,ht. SUbjeclto .latutoryaorptlon and 10 tM provisions or releYll.nt eoIleOIillM during hil tenure of a Britieh Academy Rese.rch

Readership.

,

i, TutoriaJ Fellow in Ancient Hiatory at Corpua Chriati College. Oxford. He II the author of Demos: 1M Dist::l1f.Jn'Y ofCla.uicaJ AttiM (11)85), of Clo.sticaJ Landscape with Fiprrl (11)87). and of I number of articla on Greek art • .-rchaeotogy and history. IOIIN OIlOINI

it Profe.or of Greek It the UniveTlity of Newcutle upon Tyne. Hi. plnic:u.... interul it in the /..atJn of Plato. a translation of which he has publilhed in the Penguin CI. .ic:a series (1970). and on which he hu written extenaivcly. He it al praent writing a book. PIo.to', hrud'Co* (to be published by Oxford University PtaI).

TUVOI SAUNDUS

it

in Ctasaice .t Keele University. An earlier venion of 'Evidence in Athenian Courte', hi' fint published pipet, . . . ,warded the ~ Grote Prize of the University of London for 11}88. He it now prepann, , book on 1Jat SJw;j,e of ~an Law (Oxford Univenity

STarMIN TODD

P-l·

Lecturer

Preface

Thil it • boot about IepJ tUtl, and how they 11\81 be ueed .. documentt in writing. hiItory of mety. It has its origin in I Kne. of teminan on 'Law Ind Society in Chpnl. Athens', orpn~ by Plul CartJedge and Plul Millett under the .uspica of the FlCUlty of Cluaiea at Cambridge in Ifj86I,. The ecope of the book is roughly that of the aeminu...mc., but inevitably then: have been .orne changes, both 10l8t:l and pins. John navia had hoped to pracnt a p-pet' on the proto-history of Greek law, but other commitments prennted thil. Douglae MacDowell delivered. pllper on the Athenian oiAot, which hal aince been published eleewhere (1989). Trevor S.unden, on the other band, was WLlbk to take part in the Kminan beaUle of aabbatiad leave in the United Statal : we are pi eI l ed that he hal l:8iCed to publiah his paper in this volume. The chapten which make up the book were for the moat part delivered I I independent papen. The exceptKmi were those on Iykophancy by Robin Oabome and David Harvey, and on ltuInU by Nick Filher and Murny. In each of the.e cues. both papers were delivered at the wne meeting. with one tpeaker praenting I point of view to which the other

0..,"

.............

The uticleI in Ihilcollectton, then, wen: conceived .. tepante mtitiea; and they are intended to be ICC iblt: .. luch. Nevenhele. the book . . (OT 10 we hope). unity ... whole. II does not daim to bt. lyuematic tteat*. covering all or even all the main upecti of Athenian law ; it ill rather • .me. of caIe..atucfia of method, outlining different ways in which the available Athenian lepJ texts can be read. It will 100II become dear to the ruder that the contributors do not hold tdentic:al opinionl. In lOme cues, indeed, the papen prmnt "ert different viewpoinu: Huvty, for inItanc:e, argues that Owbome', '...uti.ed' picture of the I}"kophant remain. at best not proven. But thilaon of dil'gleelDent in. book of this kind abould be acen ... merit rather than • defect. There art however two pmuppolitiona which all the eontributon aIwt;

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and it it theIe which k-nd In underlying unity to the book. Both Ire implicit in our .... bride. In the fint pt.c:e, this is. book about the relationahip between law on the one hand and lodet'lind politics on the other: historiana of ancient Greece have in the pat tended to treat theR I I two teparatc iaNes: but we believe that the two ...bjecta Ire inter-related, 10 that the Rudy of one ahould illuminate the atudy of the other. Secondly, the book fDeUel on 'c1aaaical Athena' rather than on 'ancient Greece'. Thit lroee partly out of conventence : when the orpniaeta oriainally invited contributiona to I aeriea of teminan on 'ancient Greek law and tociety', the raponae waa overwhelmins. From the United Ki,.clom llone, almoat thirty .cholara replied with offen of pa.pen, rneali"l I pneral pelception that thia wu In important combination of topica. Confining the aeries to cta.ical Athent, from which the bulk of our evidence ia derived, restricted the tnlterial to I'IWlIItable proportionl. But thert it • atcOnd, more significant reaaD11 for the concmtrattoa on d ie,1 Athena. All our contributors bcltcve that dl.caI Athenian law ia beat atudtcd in ita own naht, .. the IepII)'ItCm of I unique aocial and political entity, nther than .. part of • cenenJ Itudy of the development of Greek IepI docuinea. This ia • contenrioua ~e, and .ame of ita implieationa are conadered in the fine chapter, which iuelf lerYei I I In introduction to the main themc:t of the book. For the moment, it ia enouch to . .y Ihll recenl worlt Oft GreeklepJ doctrinft .... lended 10 become abetnct:andourcontributonahareabiutowankthec:oncrdc. We po , win face more evidence for the workinp of the ieplayscem of d kal Albene in the cmtury ~:ao than for Iny other pt.c:e or period in the ancient Greek world, with the ~ble exception of Gr.eco-Roman Egypt. Thlt is not to ..y that Iny of our contributora would with to 'let the IOUrces apeak for thelUtelva': Athenian IepI tHta require .. careful intetptctation .. Iny of the litctllry IOUrta which the ancient historian baa to \I.e; IOmC of the problema involved arc d~ in the COUI"IC of thia book, But with such a wealth of tnlterial available, it ICtil" pervtI"IC not to \I.e it. Our u.c of the term '1ep1 text' ia deliben.tely bro.d. We have not l'eltricced our attention to the texU of kpIlt1tutca: lew of thc.c aurvive from clue;""1 AthenI, and their importance within the Ieplayscem ia debatable. lnetcad, the tenn ia uacd to denote Iny text which hal lepl sipifie:ance. Mo.t notable of cow.e ia oratory; but other p t a cited throughout the book include phi&oeophy, amMituttonal history, bapiy, c:omedy, 1)'Iie poetry and inac:riptiona. It baa to be admitted that tbeac can IIIIX*' problems oI.cc ',"licy 10 thole without ayattmltic knowledte of the d 'n! world. Simiarly, 1cpI terma and concepta tend to be unfamiliar even tocta.icalcholan. In order to aaaiat readera aero. a ranee of dt.ciplinea, the contributors have tdopted I deliben.te policy of providinc beckgTOund information whae it necnxd MC I rry. A1lp ,sroiGreekarctnnalated,andtranalitentio.. arcrivcn for worda and phrua for which there ia no prcciac EDllish equivaknt, AU worda, phl"MCl and concepta that lten»cci to IX*' potential problema have

'''' been pthered in a.1oeury at the end of the book; page referenca hive been added. to enable this toteI'Ve:. an index. But the gio.ary is intended to have. value of ita own, independmt of ita function within thEt book : we hopt thlt it will prove helpful to readm who may be baffled by the teehnical terms in boob and articles about Athenian law. For thli leMOn, tevenl important lenni which (u it happena) are not mentioned in the text of the book neverthelela receive entries in the Ikleeary. Many people hive helped in the conception and production of thit book. to whom the editon are IIIOIt aincerely grateful. IndividuaJ debt. art: ac:knowledaed by the various contributors. but _ editors ~ would like to thank in particular • number of law,eli who gave us advice on matten outside our apc:cUli:It knowledse: Graham Davies on ancient Near Eutem law; Neil Duxbury on IepJ h.iatory and philoeopby: Katherine de Garna on kpI anthropotogy; Jenny McEwan on English p~dura1law; and Ted Powell on the law and itt enforcement in medteval Enaland. Theyahould not be held raponaibte for 1ep1 CrTOfI on our part. Two people cielcnc our ptitude in a more pnttalway. The inapiration for the theme of law and IOciety came from the work of John Crook, whoee I..auJ tutd /...ifo ofRt1tM mIIy be talr.en u. model for what the orpniKn of the aeminu hoped to achieve. Ourolhu principaJ debt is 10 Sir M08e$ Finley. He received the idea of a Kminar .m.es revolving around Athenian law and IOciety with enthuaiam, to deliver the opening ""per, and .dvi8ed ua on me fonn that any reaulting publication should take. Sadly, hil death during the summer of 1086 deprived ua of htl promiled ""per. It iI therefore fining that thil book ahould be dedicated to hil memory.

aa.eed

P.A.C., p.e.M., S.C.T .

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Abbreviations

Nok : Abbrevitliont of periocHcall follow the conventiOfll of the relevant volume of L'Altrth pIIi~. the Kholarly _nn\LI) of record which regularly devotes. Kdion to 'Loi, grecque'. KOCH, T . (1880-8). ed., COffIiCOrYM Atliconmt FnvIfWJfta. ] Vo". Leip&ig

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AUSTIN, C., (1973) ed,. Com;icmlfMl ~amtJrJ FrcvIMfItG itt PaY,yril &/InfG . Berlin 6: New York

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DiaLS, H. .. KRANz, W. (1951-a, 19S4). ed,., ~ Fraptnlu tk, Vonolratiw. sth--7th edna. Berlin S!.LIGNAN. E.R.A • • JOHNSON, A. (1930-S), edt ., n,. e"cyc:.dia of Me Social &KnUI . IS vol,. New York JAcon, F. (19:1J-S8). ed .• CM F~,.te d«,mchi. ,dtnt Hi,toriJur. Berlin & Leiden SILLS. D. (1968-79). ed., brtnnationGi E"cycfo.. Ptudia of 1M Social Scintccs , 18 vols. London &: New Yo'"

ESS FGH lESS

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LSI OCD OCT

DUUTI:, R . o HAUSSQtJLLIU, B ... RIINACH, Th.

(ISgI-8). edt .• IWcwt1 des I,.,criptioru JuridiqlUs Gn!cqaus . :I vols. Pari, ZIIGLU. K. AI SoNTHIIMU, W. (1975), edt., Der KkiM Pmdy. 5 volt. Munich LIDDELL. H.G., Scorr, R ... JONES. H .S. ('1940). eds .• A GruIt-E,.,ruIt uxiam. C}th eeln. Oxford (with Supp. 1968) H.uoiOND, N.G.L.• ScULLoUD, H.H. (l!ml), ed• . , 'lJit' OxfonJ Clauical Dictimu,,'Y. :and cdn., Oxford Odord ClaMical Text

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KAssIL, R. 6: AUSTIN, C. (1983-), edt., ~1IIe CoMici GnJui. Bulin II: New York PAULY, A.F. YON, WlltoW,\. G . • Kaou., W. (1894••,.). ...... &~ .., a,.,.udon AJtm~. 66 voII. in 34

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Law, society and Athens STEPHEN TODD

AND

PAUL MILLETT

THE STUDY OF ATHENIAN LAW In what tumed out to be hi. t..t book, Moeea Finley (J985 : C}9-to) devoted 1eVen1 pagel to 'the problem of Greek law'. In doiDl'" he WM returning to one of the earlie81 interatl of his career (el. Pinky 1951 and 19Sa) . It would perMpi be fair to dacribe Finley, along with the cluaicist and mciologist Louis Gemet. 1 . . pre-eminent arnons the very few exponenu of the 'law and 1Ociet)" approach to Greek law for which we are pleading. It is mikirc. therefore. that both Gemet and Finley in major worD lamented the lack of attention wbach the tubjcct hu received from the ICholarly world. In the introduction to hiB fint volume of e.ay., Gemet (1955 : t) complained that Greek law W1IIltUditd by two grouP' oruy: philologilta, who toot no inteIUt in quationa of 1Iw; and Roman Iawyen. who were CORItrained by inappropriate Cltego1ies of thought. Borrowing an apt phrue from Hans-JuliUl Wolff. Finley (JC}8S : 99) deKribed Creek la. . . 'notoriou8ly • ttepchild in modem ItUdy'. One miaht pemap. take Finley'. point, and abo the metaphor, I . . further. The problem of Greek or, to be more precile, Athenian law (lee teetion II of thiI ch.Ipter) ia that it is not limply I Acpchild, but. Itepchild ~er.wed by .vua! overbearing (not to ..,. ugly) siRen. It is not juat that .more wort necda to be done, thoush it hal to be admitted we the Attic: Ontora, the c:entnllOUtc:e for Athenian t.w and legal plocedure, remain relatively under·re.earched. 2 Rather, the relationahip between Athenian t.w and other kindred aubjects need. to be re-eumined. Indeed, part of the iC!M)t• • For. _ .

. I iIItroducrion to Gemel'1 orork, _ H......... t/. (1971 : -,6-106) .

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STEPHEN TODD

AND

PAUL MILLETT

for the low acholarly profile of Athenian law may be that it h.. traditionilly been Itudied on the basil of quationa and catepSe. of thautht derived from. inappropriate diaciplintl. Thit point deIerva to be diacuued in more detail. considering the relatton.hip of Athmian law first with Roman law. then with Greek la•• and finally with law in JCner.J.l

J

ROMAN LAW AND ATHENIAN LAW

The Iep.laytterrw of the modem west are divided broadly into two groups: the civil-law lyRetni of France. Germany and the built of continentaJ Europe; and the common-law ayatema of England and the United S~tel . There are of COUrte eJ:ceptiona: Sc:otallw for inatance ila hybrid. containing elementa of both a,..tema (Robinaon. Fergua &: Gordon rgB5 : 258.-79. J77-405) . The influence of Roman law in continentaJ Europe iI not aurpriling. Civil la•• after all. derives ita name from the ;fU citJik, the 'li. that pertaina to citiuna', of ancient Rome. The connecting link between Roman ita citljk and modern civil I.." is the codification of Roman la. in the Nme of the emperor JUitinian in the linh century A. D. The body of tall illUed under Juatiniln il described collectively .. the CtwpIlS IlIri, CiviIU (corpuaof civilla.), although it wa never u complete and ayatematic as the name lUQuta. Moat important ".... the Dipt, al-o commonly known .. the Pandeeu. *ued in 533. an authoritative compilation of ncerpta from the I~ing c1. .K:al juriata of the IeCOnd and third oenturie. A.D. The Institute. (allo SJJ), an introductory tmbook for law studenta, ..... likewite made up of qUOUitiona from similar but older wotb; and the Corput wu completed in SJ+ by the promulption of a ttcond Code of imperial conatitutioRl (i.e., Itatute law), luperteding an earJier Code of S29 (tee Wolff 19SI: IS8-76; NK:holu u~6.a: J~4S) . Roughly half a millennium later, in the eleventh .nd twelfth centuries, the Digat began to be adopted u the buia of study by the eihuging law schools of northern Italy, moat notably that of Bologna; and the prestige of thae lIw achooll attracted atudenta not only from haly ilK'lf but from the whole of northern Europe, in particular Germany and France. Univenity-tr.ined lawyers, therefore, studied law according to categOl'te. of thouaht derived from Justinian. They took what they had Itudied bad to their own kingdoma, where it aeemed 80 much more aophilticated than the local cuatomary law thlt they appHed it in their pleadinga and their judgententa. Thil Plooua culminated in what i, caUed the Reception, by which a revived Roman lIw ... 'received' (accepted) .. the basis of national law in pllc:e of local CUltom. 4 J

4

In .... foUoon, empMlilMi been pl8cedoariutioaofmcnftCelll worton Alhenien .... For a •• MM'" 01'. f .... dIanc:e ""',,_ in Homn-, on. 1ifthOlot, ......Id CO¥a" It", IqaI .,.-.... of C'OI'Iemponry 'primili"' ...:idia, ....t Iepl.' I~ of 'otd¥anced' ->etia. 8uI the dillitoction ioo in many . .,.. ... unral ...... (Good)'. WMI .')68 , a,..s). Sowtf 096$, ift h;' ~ imroctIId ]80, hi. been ,-nUy KCCpkd . Bonner _ not himM:lf parttcuwly I~ed in the raeon for tl-oe c. . . .' bul be acapud IhI: claim of DenI. lU..... 6 Ib.I i t _ inlended 10 prnenl ....1 the wit_ Mod Mid in _ of • W'-qUCflI dill . I . u - been...... ed: foo- iMta""" lhac it : lOa: M..,Dow.tIl un8: '"43) . A simil., and 10 ...bmit ttM:ir initial 10ftJUI1 tUtcmcnh of (1919) .... even sugeated thol both reform. ." 10 1M: dated • bul mit cannot be proved. attn Alta DPM '97' : 5'""' (P.... IWI). 'piopoeed with __ than the ....... ew. ,e'. EnMtn!ot (U) it ruled 0111 01 COl li~lItioa by hit.., - too J'OUtlfto hi" bftcI, priow:ipel in I trial that

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PAUL CARTLEDGE Er . hdoi (I)

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ERASISTRATOS(III)

looking in the richt quarter, we have to do with a top-notch amb 'dorilll funily of both economic: and political diatinction. Indeed, the compuability between the families of Demoe. and EruistntOl extendt, u ItypotUn, to their continuity of high-profile political statUi during a period in exc:e.. of a century.ZI In light of the usua1 effects of partible inheritance Ind the tendency for inter- and in-marrying ariatoeratic families to fail to reproduce tbem.elvcs either politically or phyaically for more than a couple of IUtC.ltionl, IUch prominent continuity ia quite mnubbk.29 Jt UJUCS. baidea brute physical fertility. political ekill and economic adaptability of the hicheat order. especially in the radically un.table conditiona of the fifth century I .C. at Athena. Not the leut relevant of thOM: c:ondition. wu the riae to effective political power of the Athenian tkmos through the Aratos it wielded in the dWukria (above, aection II). A cloeer identification of our Erasiltntoa may be poacponed until the very end of thiaeuay. Meanwhile. theactentton iaclaimcd by the only othcr known human actor in the peafowl play. Antiphon inevitably comes fil"lt in the Uws of1M Teft! Omton' included in the corpua of Plutarch'. writinga. u he wu the earliat in what by the aecond century A. D. wu accounted the Clnon of 'Clataical' Attic onton (.~s) and apcechwriten (lofoI,apIror).lO In hit brief life of Antiphon the unknown author doea cite CaeciliUl, a respectable Sicilian Greek literary critic of the Auguatan en who had tried to lift the genuine from the . puriou. in Antiphon'. attributed corpua of lOme aixty worn.)l But that . till did not live the author from comprehenaively confu. ing our Antiphon (IOn of Sophiloe of the deme Rhamnou. ) with two of hi • • m known contemporary homonynu.lZ

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CICCIIfnd _ lam then 411110 (date 01. Anliphoa's 6eath) . .... (or Et.iItntoa _ 01. Emon (PA 50*7). tbtft it llllthiftc &pat from Ilia _ to COftiIftl bim with tbiI fllf1ily • TIM fanailiea 01. Kriti .., Solon and rt.to 'torcdw:r Jirid • family liM atteICCd in AIbcna for juIt under Ihree buAdred yean' (0.". 1971 : JU), while the linc oI.lbo! ErMiImtoi eneom.,_ _ hwM!red yean. PlIaiu __ b 1' 100 : Kicnaat I97J: 5,..,.... CompIre HopkiN and G. p, s.,.rt(WI, ill Hopkina I9IJ : dw. _, . (PM.JMcw . • , ....)4b: 011 !he coI~ .. I whole lee Gomme '945 : 56 n.J ,IM-*-w"): K. J. Dovet- in. Go =me,~, ar Dovet-I970 l aI6n . •. On ..-.fly. M. F~. KJmw P..Jy I. 911-9. that he cnatul or decilivdy Maped!he C - 01. Tm it doubled by Knmedy I96J: laS and II. I. B_ ,187: 9411.; o.-Id 1986: J5~1 ud lI.sa. Sa: furtba- tal UId lI.b , bdow.

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Such lamentable iporance is panly attributable to the lite development of the biot'lphic:al genre in Greece, too lite to provide reliable dltl rvm on famoua fifth-ccntury Athenians like Perik1es. n But in Antiphon'. cue the metal ignorance w .. aggnVlted by the einguJar Chancier- of his political and litigious activity. Thit he appeal'S conliltently to have preferred to conduct in the Athenian equivalent of amoke-6lled back rooms, I"'Y from the normally mand.tory glan of public n:posure on the .pealler'. rostrum on the Pnyx M in • courtroom in the Aeon.)4 It is therefon: probably no accident that, detpite his undoubted wea1th, our Antiphon dOd! not appear in Davies', proeopog... phteal register. However, even though biographical reconltruction i. probLem.lic, the ancient claim that Antiphon wu the first Athenian pItos to publiah his speeches after the fact botb is plaUlible in itself and offen an important clue to the chronology and significance of his intellectual and political trtjectory.35 He was born probably uter rather than before Yet he it not reliably atteated until 42t, the likely date of the Peisandros in which the comic playwright Plato (fr. I03K) referred to him unflatteringly u 'greedy for money'; and none of his turviving writings can be dated much if at all before .po.)6 On the principle of Occam's ruor, the timing of Antiphon's first public notice should indicate that it wu in the .p.OI Ind not before that he inaugurllted the practice of circulating commissioned forenlic speeches in written form and thereby invented I peruliarly Athenian literary genre. For that innovation to be made sucee.fully, severa] tlcton had to conspire: tuf6cient development of literllCY and of the rhetoric:aJ art; sufficient demand at Atheni for the kind of expertiae embodied in published umplet of the rhetorician', art; and tuffictent appreciation of rhetorical Rill on the part of thoec Athenians who were likely to judge the penuuiveneu of .peechet compoeed by profeuionallogognlphcrs like Antiphon. Penuaaive speech of iuelf "'f" no new desideratum in the fifth century, nor wu it then desideTlted only in Athen •. 37 But in the 'city of wordl' it had b«ome a deaideratum of I uniquely intense Ind peculiarly Athenian kind, entailing nothing leu tban 'a change in attitude toward. the UIC of word. in

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so

PAUL CARTLEDGE

thia period'" and a privileai.. in the laWCOUttl of 'artificial proofl' CpUtm ftltlt"'NOf). that ia rhetoricallUppottinc IrJUmenta. over 'inarti6ciaJ' (IIU.... not) onet Nch u txculpltory Githa and evidence given under torture (d. chapteT 2, Kdton 1'1). Antiphon ..... probably not the 6m to compote aptechea profe.ionally for othen to deliver. doubdeu largely unaltered. in the Athenian lawcourtl, let alone the 61"1t ontor to write out the text of a apeech bdo~ delivery." But very probably he ..... indeed the nm to publiah commillioned tpeecha, making them available to the I1UTOW circk of the lettered and ~red ~lite. AI Mlch, hit prlCtice Itrortlly panllela that of the IO-CIiIIed 'SophiM.a'. Since about 4So thetIC mainly non-Athenian inteUectuala had been telling privauiy what they claimed to be their unique technical expertilC for practiCiI political purpnln to the .elect - ohen young and arittocratic - few. who both could afford and increasingly felt thlt need for their instruction. 40 In 413 Ariltophana testified obliquely to their IUcceli by vtcioualy aatirising Sophiltic methodl in the CImuiJ. But liready in 427 the Sicilian Sophist Gorgia b.d reportedly dazzled a mind public audtence of mainly poorer Athenian citizena by the Iheet' rhetomal po-...er of alet-pi~ antion (Plat. Hipp. Ma. a8ab; Diod. XII.S3.2-S - 8aA 4" &); Ind in that ..me year, if we may credit Thucydidet (111.38, tip . 38'4-'7), Kleon had taken to tuk pretty much the IUfte Athcniana f01' tMir readi_ to be awayed by the deceitful devemeu of tongue-twitting intelled.uala, meaning Sophiltl. 41 ThOle lut two references happen to concern the Athenian Aaeembly. but the importance of rhttoric and the Itraros of the dmtos were no Imaller in the tiMastm'a than on thlt Pnyx, and the courta were proMbly luffed by much the same aort of citizens, if I01neWhat poorer on avenp. u thOK who regularly .ttended the Aaembly (participation in which _ not remunerated before 400 • .C.) .4Z By -P7, then, our nee I ary conditions for the publication of forenlic apeechea had been IItia6ed. But are thlty alao IUU;cient conditionl? More preci.ely, wu Antiphon motivated IOlely and merely by merttnary STeed, u • GoIdhiU 1916:

~h ,

)

(ct.pt~·litkl •

..oa; d. LanD 1979: np. ch. :a ('11 diecono t il '"""- .,e,. .~ .,t.6; t>o¥er 19Mb: "p •

1ibto1; B\Won 191" "'P... ' 'I. 16, ,.. ; .nd _

"'-r

..._ .

"Kennedy 1,6) : }-''', ~I ; •....,.. I'ClimllU'ld c-ttuat') . • P",odeic:k (1917) di.mh f..-. .he ....,..... Wi_II .. - _ _ B. c-in, C '" 6a (1,sII1 .,.tI - th8I Antiphon of RIIannow _ idallical wilh 'AlIliphon .M SafIh;.e' I.... DiN-K.....) aM ~ that lhe f _ uu,lII rhdorie . but COI _ _ the IitnilariIJ bc!atcn the profCeeiM" of Sophilt and ~; d . Aat. E",IIytJ. ]05e. wilh Rankin .913 : 97 (Sophillh • rbetoriciaM nther !han p.i".,~'x .. . toAtnJ de Romillr .gII). o.t.aIcI {1,B6: 363--.1 caubou.Ir favours the iclmti&c.tion of theM: two AnliphoM • • 1 do . • , GOIJiM .1 Alhaw , WoodNff .,sa, 3"" . o.cwakl .,a6: '"4N. 'nIue. NOd K'-' , MICIeod 1978: esp. 71; _ .... below, n ..... ... Sealey 1917' 16-7; SinclUr 1918: "3-35' 'Tbc ctw.ctm.cion - eM' nlhcr ~rt -of Philokleon..nd fcllow·juron ill W.... m.... on no_III be ,*"Iilerall,.. "-blr' r-! ' Markk ,,as,

h.

1

S' Plato Comic:uI perhape ecurriktully IUggested, or did he entertain I hidden, political-aenda .. well? That i8 to IIY, wu hi, publishing u well .. writing of lawcourt lpeechCl above ,II • wly of conducting high (or low) politics by indirect, forensic mean.? It i••IWI~ dangerous to .....nne consistency and principle of Iny politician. even I bad.room one ; and the dangcn of anachronistic IeCOfld sight Ire: notorious. But in 411 Antiphon did emerge quite conspicuously .. one of the moving .pirita and luding theoreticians of the narrowly oligarchic countcN'tvolution (mt'tastasis) of the Four Hundred: the Ip«'Ch he wrote - and, for once, neccanrily deljvered - in llelf.dcfencc againat • charge of high treuon arising out of that coup adequately proves that.4] Moreovet'", there i, in whIt i, preserved of that bmoul but ul\lu«:e8lIful apetth • pl ...ge which, correctly read, teem. to demonstrate the existence of that hidden -send•. The KCuution that he had regularly composed speeches for other. to deliver in ooun and had made material glIin from the practice"'-

thllt he does not deny, in 'Pite of the Athenian public'. ambivalent attitude tow.rd. the trade of JotograpItia ,45 What he does deny i. that through hi. speec:hwriting (and. we may add, speech-publi. hing) he had aimed to bring about the coup of 411 . He denies thi., however, in a revealing w'y, indulging in hi. favourite argument from probability46 while simultaneou.ly giving it a brilliantly ironical and indeed IOphistical twi.t: i. it likely, he in effect lib, that I.hould have wished for an oligarchic r4ime, when under that oligarchy my speechwriting ability WII politically unuuble, whereas under the preceding democracy it had made me uniquely inAuential? The pride of a maater of his craft-akill (leAh";) .hina through this disingenuou.ly rhetoricaJ plea, and Thucydida. (vllI.68,2) WII no doubt ju.tified in treating the .peech .. a whole I I a masterpiece of oratory. But few Atheniana .ining in judgement on Antiphon in 411 / 10 will have b«n awayed by that panicular argument, and no more .hould we allow ouraelva. to be in the relative calm of our studiea or libraries. In truth, behind the coup of 411 there lay a decade or more of patient preparation, in which the r6le of Antiphon, a major one, had been to lend or perhaps more often hire out hi.

the.v.

.1 ThUC)didn (nn.68.I-a) bath idtatme. ADt . • the eoup'. priIM mover and pn;.. defCMe 1f'MCh; n . A. AM.tuU in Gommo:, And~ III Oovu 1')8. : I~aol . Tbc b4M IIIfYiftnt f •• mcnt of ......... btuI'lC kno-a. the Pm UI_t _ _, on. plpynII now in ~, _ 6,. publilllCd by J. Nicole in '907 but iI ~ .ad in Thalbc:ino; d . W. S. FeIJUIOII ~ eoDdemaalion of AII.ip!xm' in Mil.".l G. GIDtI, :I (pan. 19):1) I:

voa..

J.f9'"'66.

.. But Nicole', reMontion - 'My KaIKf'I claim tlIII: ••• I.d'.tnt) per cent. my 1ft' -;. bath pel OIflflLkaDJ W....iiut (Cemet 19:13 : 16!;-6. eitint the IutOpI)' of V. Martin) and ~ impwwDk (LipIiuI'9IS : 1)06 11..191. MIid.-'. ' ... and dill: The Four HIIIMlred pra6ted by tbiI' (194' : ~I ;. no betm. ., Bon.... 19:17 : &-:J; Llveacy 1964; Do¥er I " ': IS5""9 ; 1974: 1.5""'6; c.re,.&:Rrid I9IS : ¥ii , 1]'"".1; ~ 1911: 186 ..... D-94.. For tha 'rida ,.icc, of ~ cia,. attUled in Aollipboa'. _ worb' (LIoJd 1979: 10 11.,'051_ K I . ~y .t63: ,aN], Is.-'/', :10]-4; DIM HeitIch '914; S. UIhcr in &twaniI • UIioa' I9IS: "'P. 5""'6. 'I1IiI pIrticulIr PIor _ not of ....... to ADtipboa.

.,so.

1*'\'_

,

,a

PAUL CARTLEDGE

exptrti.e u lepl consulbnt and gholtwliter to 'front mtn' of varioualy oliprchic penuuKm. In puticular, hit ....pport will have been caBed upon by members of the upper-claaa I)'R\pobc IfOUpi mown HomcriClI!y uhetairftai ('comradely For IIlK:h men were regularly - and not necemri!y unju.t1y - -=Iectcd .. WJeU in the count by opponeata whom they then vehemently - and not neee uily jUltly - countercharJed with being suloplumttli (maliciou. or ve:utioua pruecuton) and~' (mil-leaden of the People) ; .nd Thucydidel (vlll .54.4) .pecifia the function.ll concentntion of theae '1WOm brQtherhoods' (nNl'.lMOlial) al thit period on la..uiu and electiOnl to office. 41 The a - , at lafJC _ dimly aware of Antiphon'. behind-the-ecenet and aubvenive machinationl, and the politically conedoua democrata hated him for it. But in the .hort run at any nte. the tkirtOttl (ckloel he II ) of Antiphon triumphed over them. 4I Such wu the aubtle political operator who IICripted

band.,.

the ApitU' El'tuiltmttn. IV

Leaving Antiphon the ghoMwriting lOjOJ,up/toI on one aide, we p ... from Pf'OIOPOII'aphy to peafowl, the final ingredient in our bird'. nest IOUp.

JUIt

one pqe of the omnium llliherum entitled Dnpnosoplriltai ('Banqueting

Sophi. .'), which .... compiled at Aleu.ndril by Athenatua around A. D. aoo, preaetVea the largeat collection of literary dau on peafowl in CII.......' Greece : whence, for iDltl.rK:e, Antiphon fro 57 (from Athen. IX.39?Cd). Moat of thi. page, however, il devoted to philological muainp on the noteworthy fact that the Athenisna both pronounced and .pelled ~, their loin-word for 'peecnck', with a rough breathing on the lut . yllable to reprueot the ob.olete ~ .ymbollnd aound (d. Latinpaw). There could be no more graphic illuatflltion of the peacock'i iilemediable foreipnea, and more apeci6cally ita oritntalitm (the bird it I native of IOUth India), to Athenian eya and can." It wu perba", therefore mainly to Ivoid the Itigma of barbarism that Antiphon in hit IpCCCh Ivoided uting the word altoscthcr and aubRituted Of • •

ainWaiI...

1ilJi: Calbowl 19.]; A. AI'od'Ne; in ~_. AfldI'fWa II Oovu 198. : '97' : .S~. '97 -'- n.l) (with rc'r . by J. K. om., C J 41 ('9nl

taI-J, ; d . c:on-

11)&7: 6; J_ 19$6: '&0). '~]. Sytophlrq: belcnor, below. ".69. • Acconlinc to TtNc,diclel (l'UI.M .I), Ant • •wltic:tecI h. per-a public: "" 1.... __ ,...neI,b .die (J4t1l .)-.. .. r'tioutof_roepl"rion (....)fat.i .M#• . n. _ cuetM. of.. t ' , ....,. aDd ~ It 111.3705 (..-.:h of K__ • 4*7) • ]76-1). Coai=ti.... of Ant.: 8

ft.6]. '0.

m

"

. . ..

t

:

m

--'1 noI coilicidenal •

Die. '.

.. P. 0Iantnine. It; iO",io- .,.,..,.. ",qu. HU..n •• _, tf (r.;. '910) u '.; d . HdIa '9" : 3Ss-63 (kindly bnIupt 10 my.-ice by RobM s.n..) : KcUer '913 : I ~; &.ier, RB lUX. 1 ('931) '4' ..... ' ; Pon.nt 1971: 91-) - f1Mtber orcithololical . . ill J. Ia •• nor "'"".'.,. w.u (HfncIheId .910); d . 11.. o.wm., n.r 8IiM W.ul Ih,. (Oxfont 1916; H."._t A04th .911) '99 (.. a eli evolutionary ap .....ion of the; d',tail).

_n.

1

FOfAJi play: a

at""'"

lawsui, j" dasur::al AtAtlU

53

• kind of plain man', Greek periphrasis, poiltiloi omitltt S ('spangled

birdal Specimens of peIICowl may in fact hive been fil"lt inh'oduced to the Greek wtIrld on the eastern Aegean i.land of SunOl as early .. the eighth century • .e .so But they remained an extreme rarity, at leut in Athen., down into the fourth century (Antiphanes ap. Alhen. IX.3971) ; .nd the pafowl of Pyrilam· pea wen: aimOlt certainly the first 10 be accorded reaident alien Itatul there. 51 Quite certainly. they we1"C the only onea kept by an Athenian in alOft of aviary lMI.,.... regularly opened to the general public, even if jUII on the lint day of each lunar month. This prompts I question .. to the motives of Pyrilampea Ind, sinee he continued the practice, of hi. ton Demos. Partly it Wit. miner of 6lthy lucre (IMrmtDtUmos). So grtlt were the rarity and conaequent prestige-value of peafowl·fancying anywhere in ClINical Greece It this time that, according to Antiphon (fr. 57), 'many people in their yearning (potltos) for I light of the birds travelled from (a fir IMld a) Spana and Tbeaaly Ind spared no effort to get hold of eggs' - perhlpt by foul melM as well as fair. It ia poaible that an entrance-fee wu charged for admiaaion to the lviary, but in any cue the eggs will not have been given away gnJhs (except perhapt to penonal xenoi and any other higb-mtua individuals to whom Pyrilampea and Demos wished to payor return a favour) . Indeed, to IUCTlltive and extensive was the 'buai_' side of the enterpriae that a valuation of no lea than t , 000 drachmas could be placed upon a - presumably breeding - pair {Antiphon fr o S8) .n At that rate juat twenty pain would have placed Dernoa comfortably within the mimated tax·bracket for the ccmpulaory liturgH: payments to which only aome ]00-400 people at Athena were at any one time liable.!J This is an intriguing and unjustly neglected ramification of fifth-OrI 1M ...Juation 01 • ~ . bird .. 10,_ dnm.-. PoIlvd ('917 : 9') ti- tIM: CXIi.«ot ficutt but ,.......,. IIr,d.....Iti· INtel ic .. 1M equl",,1eM oIl.,ooo.t 1977""""'. IJ On the titurpe _ _ (nit . J-4 talenr. mifliaollfD). KC D.... 19'. : e .... ~) . The AchmiaiI. citiRn body proa.bly _ fell below .u dIM the 400 or .u ftftb.cnttury liturv-~ (~ _ • · ~1. _J) Apia,

J.w and IepI penalty Ibould apply to a thtd

(~) .

no matt« whether h" theft " rrnt Oi' .wI : he nna.t lint pay lwice the value of the acolen anicle, if he Ioaea laud of th" kind. and h8t aufficient aurpllJl piopaty overlUld abo.e h" fann with whidl to make the reply ...ent; if he .... not. he mUlt be kept in p'iIon until he JIll,.. up 01' prnuacte. the min who ... hMI him c;:onvicted (10 1et him off] . If a man it convicted of ace.1i~ (AA:Jt!I) from publ'c .ou.reea, he.hall be freed from priaon when he baa either pusuaded the lUte (10 let him off) Oi' p&id b-ck twice the QDO\,Int I

involYed.

PtuUJltl c: 'DiwtirrisJwd'tMft (9,.,b6-C:J) If .. .

_neoItf

pieb up an object of no pal value IUId taka d home, and he it a

Ilne, he tboWd be IOUndly beatm by any pamr-by who "not Ie. than thirty )'Urs a free man (~lftdwrw). in .dditm 10 briac tbouchl uncmdemanty (_kIItMrw. litentlly 'unfree11U1d lawtaa, he mull ~1 lhe pellOll who left the article ten timn itt value.

01.; if he it

Aus. D : T7wftl}'rowt pt'ivate IOWIUS (9)p6-g).,al)

When one min hanna another by theft or • •nee and the darntp it extenaive. the ~yment he mUea to the injured pat}' tboWd be larp, but IN'I'II1Jer if the damare it COrDpanlively triml. The cardinal rutt ahould be that in evftJ' ~ the auln" to vary in p'CJ9C)rtion to the damar done, 10 tIw the 1011 is cured. And each offender it to per an .sdil~ paWt)' appropriate to hill crime• •..

U III'I)'OM IIoK:C fully ph cutes in coun I fOi'eiper Oi' ~ve on. dwJe 01 theft of __ piece of public ptopaty,' dec:iIioa mutt be rnched. to the fine 01' penalty he ___ lei pey • •• U. cirisen •.. it COIi.ricted 01 phlbdeli", or ~ hit htberland,

..ru.p..

"e, •• ..-illlol tWt,ItI¥I, . . . . . below, pp, .HI,,.., (93;te6). Ny heft. wider ndetu_ til. tWt • ..t oIl1akhy.ct. 01 wbieb tloeh -W be thea. t)'picaI euMpIe. At.., tWt

I ".. • J The ~

t ·

~

..

.~

- l a y kiad

rat?

"*rd~ : _'rlI'Clel"'I"jl

.

mil

b.rdIy be

, .'_01~·. 9""r

w

's whether he ill cauahl red·handed (tp' OIfttJpM»fJf) or not, he mUll be punithed by death

When they (the Serutinecn, Itoi nlb_l hlve ..1 in judremenl, either privately and individually. Of in lIIIOciation with collcllUei. on thoee It the end of their term of office in the IeTVice oilhe lUte, tMy must make known, by poIrinc written noIice in 1M maRet-place. what penalty or line in their opinion eac::h official oucht to Pfly. Any official who ref_ to admit that he IWI been jud(ed imputially Mould haul the Serutineen before the Select Judget. and if he ill deemed inDOCalt of 1M ac:euu.tiOlUl he should aeeuM: the Serutinecn themlc:lveI, jf he 10 wilhea. But if he it convicted, and the Scrutineen had decided on death .. hit penalty, he mutt die (. penalty whkh in the nature of the cae cannot be inc« NI): but if hit penalty it OM that it it po.ible to double, then doubk he must ply.

II

EXPULSION OF THE BOGUS LAW

The punlca arc obvious. After the ttTlightfOrwJrd 11.. of sacrilege (.). we have the very different set of provisions in ., which are explicitly at.ted to

Ipply whatntttthc amount of the theft, whether the IkItut:e i. public or private (or indeed.-cred. u Kleinias noln, 8S7bS). without mciologial ditrinction between offenders. or any reprd to motive or cil'CUJllltancQ, A further set of provWioni appliea in c to the removal of property of little value which it not in

the immediate cuRody of ill owner. D preaentl another law, reatricted to theft frompn'vate pereon•. S IE praenll yet another, ratricted to theft from public IOUrca. Finally, , preaumably embraca inter alia theft by official., preaum.blyof public money or propertYi but at fint sight it differs from IE in not making the death penalty mandatory for the citizen. Thia ia a diMipated and unhelpful mode of laWJiving. Plato ia capable of better. For ineCAnce, in the lengthy aequence of important legislation which occupies approximately the lut two-third. of book IX then: ia evident s!riving for order and clarity. 6 Even in the leu complicated leCtiona of hit legal code, in which the offences spill forth in only Iooaely 'Y'ten'lltic .equencc and are often diamt.ed quite briefly, Plato uuaUy round. off hit treatment of one before embarking on another. The fragmented nature of hi. law of theft is wholly exceptional. What accounll for itl The key it the Itructun: of the Laws and ita pena.I code I I s whole. By the end of book VIII lOme 40 offencea have been dealt with ; many. II the Athenian Stranger notes in the opening pa.rII!1Iph of book IX, concerned .,ncul• 'I1w do. F I" ~ theft.,.....-ed below, pp, 71-9· I

9Ue6 ....... ' _ _ ' - - ',

_ndi,..

(i)~. (ii) (ni) _ h . and the "F. ~- 0( (iiI, _ ill deeemd· order 0( ~ ; the . . - _ of (il _ ill lKnIdi.. Of'dtt. f~ by 4 brid' "11 1;'" (iii) ;.. CGmpa bile princ:ipled aequmee of ....loc ..... cIeaIm, with till 'r8ridiea 01-'1,

I The!lCftCn.

irIr

on..-w _;

66

TREVOR SAUNDERS

tural alflin and were relatively trivial. In MHne cateI the range of penalties wu left open-ended; but the molt IWingeinc penalties, notably delth and exile, have not even been mentioned, let alone made mandatory. Now, however, more terioua crimelue in J>rOIPC!Cl: 'MCri1eae. and all the otbeT limilar crimes which art difficult or imposaible to cure' (8,504&). The law of lIcrilege (A and related material) follows ac:c:ordincly; a deecription of procedure in capital c:aeea en.ues. Subventon and 11 eaeon are then deKribed; both naturally attrKt the death penalty. Finally, we are told that a 'aingle law' of procedure (86ses--8S7aI) should apply to aU three offenden, tempJe... robber, milor. and aubverter of the laWi of the . .te. We now encounttt paM'le • . Ita openinc wonk are obvioualy intended to link it clORly to the lIWi of IUbveraioo, treuon and ucrilep. In thoee cues, a 'tincle law' pretcribed a tincle legal procedure and MOde of PIlIfWtWU,d .7 Similarly, a 'tingle law and kpl peNhy' i. to apply •...in·, this time to all thieves without diatinction (8S,.3-..) . The connection ilalightly atrained, in that the law of sacrilege, at lcut, did provide for variation of punishment, .. between citizen and non-citizen; but the tingle law of theft permita no van.tton whatever. at any rate in the KfIIIt that all thieva without exception pay double. Now this latter propoul is a very odd one. u Kleiniu immediately complain. :

How on earth can we be .mo., tir, in uyine that it make. no odds .metheT his theft is latp or amaIl, or whether it conoes!Tom NCr'ed 01" eecu1ar .aurea? And what IIbout all the other diHtreflt circutn.tanca of • robberyl Should not a Iqislator vuy the: penaltift he infI:ictt, 10 thaI he can aJPC with the variety of theftsl The Athenian Stranger lI1lilinaly agreea : for this eumple hu .hoWD that the businn. of laying down la... hal not yet been ' properly worked out' (8S?C). The three interlocuton have not yet achieved their aim of becoming legiala. tora, and aome funbeT explanatton ia needed of how to legialate for ucrilege, all theft. and all acta of injUltice (8S9b). In abort, there ia a Itrong preaumption that in formulatina: _ they have in aome way lot the law of theft

........

The function of. now emergea quite clearly. It i. merely to terVe u a foil to

the lone and crucial penolQlical ncunua on which the Stnnger immediately embub. with the purpoee of showing the proper way to prescribe penalties.The courw of this excursus is aerpentine. and bedevilled by textual crueaj but ita central conduaion is certain enough, namdy that punishment ahould never be inflicted vindictively or retributively. but al __ ,. for the purpoee of the 'cure' of the criminal. Certainly, an injured pany i. alnyaentitkd toeuct rec:ompenae from the offenderj but that ia not afJnt4l meaaure. Effective 'cure'

• 's'e,s...(j; but __ "'" _ I

'$9'

DOt 'P'" . t . . . . . . . .. ~ . SttcnylUlftmaty ill ~('970 :

(1.,taI). T'be _

but 'thaII'.

J6?-91. which itt..d oncnydeuiled

nh1abIt oIf'tm\t ~ .. by SchttpwlMl(19I4).

1

anal,..

PltJto tmJ ,It. At~ lam of ,/wit

demands accurate ditgnosie of the criminll's 'unjust' l»ychic stste; and his penalty, ,..hich is distinct from the recompense he h.. to pay, mult be carefully talkulsted to fit his state of mind, in ordeT that it may be 'cured'. Hence the elsborate diUeRntiations of punilhments found throughout Plsto's penal code.' It follows thst Plato would never tolerate III"" of theft without I lingle such differentiltion. The Is"" of theft in Im2age I is therefore bogua. It is I piece of coat.trailing,10 deatined to be corrected Ind lupeneded . When, after the laws of homicide, wounding Ind ....ult in book IX, Ind the lengthy theodicy that occupies the whole of book x, ""e come It last to the genuine IIWI of theft in boob XI and XII, their defective predeceuor h.. been entirely forgotten . When the 'normal bUlineea' of legillation il resumed It the ltart of book XI, Pll2lIC c occun within two pagel; it il prompted by a diecullion of the unsuthorised removal of buried treuure. TWftlty paget later coma plllige D; it il plrt of a tePferolised description of the vlriOUI waY' in which one penon may hum another, a deKription apparently Itimulated by a set of laws relating to certain highly ~cijic ways of inflicting injuries, i.e. by drugs etc. Puuge ~ appean after a further eight pIIeIi the mention of Herma, I god who delights in theft, bringl that topic into Plato'l mind. Puuge, then occurs after only I further ,ill: ~, in connection with the duties of Scrutineen. In 111 these CIICI Plato proceedl by I looae ueociation of idea: he Illowa one topic to trigger another. Seen in this light, hil untidy mode of presenting his law of theft lw I certain rationale, or at least an intelligible smesil. It ii, however, nee 'fy to lpend a little lorogu in the company of palllBe I . For Dlvid Cohen, in two recent publicationt,ll tHea it v~ aerioully indeed. He believes it to be the definitive Itltement of eertain plrtl of PlatO'1 law of theft, Ind to embody its central principle, 'one IIW, one penalty'; other Plselgel are to be interpreted in harmony with it. This luempt to iron out the uplkit and implicit diacrepanciea between I Ind every other P'II ge teftRI to me unconvincing. 11 (I) Cohen does not ell:plain certain IUlpicioUl, or It leUl striking, diecrep. anciea between I and the law of Athena on the one hand, 10 fir u we know it, and between I and the laws of Magnesia on the other: (i)

Indefinite impr'-onmcnl un(il ~yn>ent 01 a fine - \lAllaily bul not alway.

.hen the I1Ite i. ittelf the agrieved party - .. certainly known in Athenti but it known in the law of theft. U But thil of COUfW" In ~t_~:x

"not

, How PIIItG IUppcIItd!be pMlI. oil pu_ment couldc...-, brvu clelei,ellCt lpan . it too

Mue 10 diKtM ben. " Thia .. nDI I . . . . ail

=

s..re

ian : d . t .l . Veri,. '9:16: 18, n.90 ('AnknOp#unppunkt'), and

Knod! IP: I i rKu....,mf).

11 Cohen l,a., and 108) : ap. 116-30. H... die IinlIO ~ atmnpIed al)"llmlatic ttuct, of PIIItG'.... of theft in .. rdecioa 10 Alb d," P , • _ .elton .. oa>ture. U Nat . . . toe-. he "'M ... D (and,) tIIlittly. '11 iI nDI until 941 (IJ tMt 1M promiItd COI · ' l1ltionoftWI(IStb1 6...uy_'(UI ). IJ H... iooll 197' : 141-4; Rhoda 1971 : 151; MKDoweU l"a : '66-?, 'S7.

1

68

TREVOR SAUNDERS

siw"tio; and even if the proviIioa dKi DOt .pply in thlt law, Plato may be m.U.i"l an innovatm. (u) Formal 'ktti"l olr (aitksU, DOt ttY!: the word occurs in I) by. victorious lilipnl. of an imprilolaed perlOIl uMble to PlY • fine, _ms .milarly uMntited. It it, howe.ti, not wholly unlikely in pncticaI tenr\I.14 and PIaIO m.ly!!pin wish 10 innovate, by builda. it into hit 1._. (iii) The ftfttTIl atTar..emeul. foc the tualboo of judcantnt in M~, in diapultl between private pellO.... make no provision what",n for imprDon. ment (9Sb-c), nor indeed, .. we h.ve Mm, dota lUIy other P I" rtllti"l .ptcific:aIIy 10 theft. (iv) Howtwu, thoR ~t.tionf; rqardinc inabiltty 10 pay. fil\t who.:h octur only ;u. before F II • I (but which m.ly refn only to tatI in which the lUte it the 'ii.icvtd party) do indeed aptcify 'lq imprilonmmt open to public view, .nd v.rious humiliation.' (8SS...c) . This auaau IOmtthing like the ttocb; but it i, turtly implausible to tuppwc lhat auc:h upoetd confinement, thouch long, wou~ Iaat inddinitely, It the pleaurt of the vktoriout proecaItor - who is DOt even mentioned, let Iktnt riven licmct to 'let ofr. (a) In •• the private pro.ecutor .nd the mte art obvioullly both injured pllttit8. In. PI.tonK: .tllte, it it wholly unlikely that the penalty would not be more llevere for injuring the ltate than for injurins I priv.te penon (lite 8S,.I0 . (3) Cohen takes the word which in • I translate 'from public IOUrcea'. dnrtosiai, u referring merely to 'thdt of priv.te property from public pllC'Cl'. But the pa.lge clearly implies that the public it the i"jr4Trd /Hlrty; the location it not at i.ue.'! Moreover, if that it all derwJsiai meana. there would be no aepante provision here, in a law which i. obviously intended to be com· prehen.ivt (u Kleiniu noted), for theft from public aourcea, In omission whkh in I PI.tonic state i. inherently unlikely, The vagueneaa ol'in a public way' it an Plato needa for the purpoee of wh.t i. a non·law .nyway. (.) MOlt crucially, Cohen (11)83: 118) IUppoeet th.t Plato .ubKribea to 'one overriding principle : one Law and one penalty for theft, regardless of amount or circumatances'. But th.t would be quite .Iien to the elaborate .ttention Plato frequently para to such conaidt11lt1ona, u determin.nll of peMlty, elsewhere in the code. Indeed, he would .bominate the principle; 16 for u a tool of reform it i. blunt. Plato i, anxious to fit penalty/cure.. to the precise mental.tate, character and circutnltlnce of each individual criminal. n 14 In .pIe ofdw irnplicWonl of Dem. lOU'l. u5, 135; eI. ~ 1936: 3]9;0, hmch 1909: 71 n.l. Aitkm., of o;oulW u..::...u in ~ Ia_. It M~DowdI (.91.: "l') riplty....- that the cont,.. between 'pes "dm the rna who ' h.cI himconYined' and 'hM ... pe....ded tbettate' dinchmtbe matter. Cohm (.913 : .:10-11 _ DO conllkt between. (allqedJy whoUy about priftle pcopc.ttllUld, (public P'OfH'ity) . • t Pea u.o Scboped"J (19&+: 101). Note how Is')bc ~ 't¥U}' ['fIriety of] tWt', "'" Itlopn : it .,. C'OftIIIka mint, and lib _ I t (tI> ks aWaJ "'1"/0$, 17911, ' _ I t Df t"feI'}'

reqw..,,...

tJpc'), of penaItim • ., 93J&r9J41;: d. the _ ....'d (Of pte • • g", of dill' je IIId preeoeri",ion. (e .I.) I66d ff.1UId 17k (eI, Pt..trw a~7ab). We may..-bly II1Jmc dIlc the ...... ~ of wc:h F I" kw the 1a1ot without MIdI...,...: the M., 11 ' 10 juton..., to ~ in the "irit of the former (el. 711b and 176de).

I" moOt"

1

.

That penalties should vary freely , often at the diacretion of the judges, it eMentia1. • is therefore fUtly inconsistent with Plato', radial and reformative penology, in particular with itl fundamental distinction between rcc:ompente

and 'curt'. Perhaps that ill why Cohen does not notice the possible aigni6C1nce in I of the word 'fil"ll' [the thief mUlt pay double). ConcciVibly, the double ill merely rtcompente; 'second' would come punisbment/cure. But u Plato haa not yet df1lwn the dittinction between recompense and cure. and a i, to be abandoned anyway. he limply drops the point. ·1 To be l ure, I gap in • law does not rule it out u ,law; but the oddity of. 'first' without I 'second' needs to be accounted for .

So I again conclude that, UI serioulatatemcnt of Platonic law, ~. is fundamentally vitiated both by ita context and by it. content . Contrary to hi, uau.a1 practice. and uniquely among the ail[ puaageI,'9 Plato provides no expluution or jUltificatKm - becauae none i, avail.ble. On the contrary, he indicatCl that. is quite unutisfictory. ztI lt is therefore pointleu to .ttempt to !'«Oneile the other pw.'gee with it. We now tum to paaugCl A .nd c-,.. CIa..: eumin.tion of them in their CORtext demonstrata th.t the conaidention which control. their form .nd content,.nd theirdifferenca from Atheni.n l.w, is Plato'a new penology. We aIi.lI, however, be handicapped by the fact that although the corpul of the Athenian oraton is huge and amstitutCl the main source of our knowledge of Greek I.w. no surviving lpeech deala with theft : we h.ve only incidental referencea. Further. the laws of theft aeem not to hive been enacted a.single unified corpus, but at different dates and piecemeal, without regard f(Jf overall contistency. At .ny rite, they exhibit con.iderable Vlriety .nd intricacy. III

THE PLATONIC LAWS OF THEFT, CLOTHED

Passage A: Sacri/rge (85Jb,-8SSll4) Like the Athenisn oraton, Plato doel not define sacrilege, but it aeeml to me certain that he means It leut broadly what they meant; if hi. understanding of it had been .ubst.ntiIUy different, he would hive explained ju.t how. In spite of Cohen'l ueeful review of the evidence,2.1 I .m not pemwled that Lipsius ~ if. don eoMM itKlf 10 reconIpenIe , .moo. contndiclionl wilb A and c-f' remaiD: DOtably, recompnee in 0 RmW only .....Ie reeompcnK, not 6ouble, Ind in Aand Kan alfender can hardly be uecvIed tIIItd 'bpi in prieon liII M pe,..' (I) . (EnaJand ('93.), on 1571-5, .,..1hM '&nt' 'mara aIf 1M _ 01 the man -.bo can pe), flWlllhat of lho: man-.bo cannot'. Pcrhaf-; bul 'fint' . I~, not an .!lmlMi"".} " Eueplr, diwpyoo''''of ~ by oflie;"", and 1M 'PPI09'W"_of I .,... . Oeub WDleaOI:, ..-e limply Wen for JntIItd . • a . 1M ~'Iaw of ~, which ii, hoac. t. , unIIlilfldOl)' not 10 much in iucK. bec:a.t it . . . c:apIaaIrion : ~3d, with n:lde, n.fl, ,8Sb. II 1913: 93-100; d . 131. PoIhP: TIll. 40 indieM.. the c~ _ llI'f¥Iti (I 'public' 1UiI, which oouId be broucfIt by anr-, .diItinct from. diJti, which _ open 10 lbe injured pirt)' only).

I' Note that

wbcft--.

=

70

TREVOR SAUNDERS

(1905-15 : ..,...a-J) was far wrong in taking the word to mean 'theft of ucred objectl from ucred placa'. By 'ucrtd objecta' I mean va/",abh ucred objectl (statUti, arms, money, impJemenu etc. of precio\ll meul or other material), 22 not the trivial thi. like wood and water mentioned in the iDllCriptiona Cohen manhalla (1913; 99, d. (I) on loa). Aa he "ya,n 'The ". tandard cue" of hinoIulia II theft of ucred propeny from templea ia clear, fOf' thia is the type of cue deacribed in what Athenian evidence then: iI.' I have little doubt that theft of auch objectl from anywhere would indeed conatitute ac::rilesc: ;14 but normally it it in templea that they Ire found. Given the oratora' lICk of ineereat in the preeiae ddinition of offenca, thit ia about u f.r u we can go; and Plato makes the aame IllUmption u they do, namely that one jult doea know what

n.

Itinontb'Q &II The Athenian Stranger introduc:a (8Slb-8S+') the law of ucrilege by explaining that alave$ and foreigncn are likely to be the mo.t frequent offendm. The reuons Ire payehological, and are expraaed partly in medkal terma ; not hav;ng had the education enjoyed by citizeM, they.ill be open to the 'diaeue' of wiahing to commit and aimilar crimea. which are 'hard Of impoaible to cure'. The penaltiel now foUow ; they iRCOI porate briefly their pt)'cholog;callpenolotrcaJ jultificatlonl ;16

mil

(a) A ,law oropwillW,.tbould have ,brand of hit 'milfortune' (._,o.\onI, i.e. hia criminality) put on face and bandI, be whipped .. much .. hi. ju . deeidc, and be thmwn naked oul 01 MflMlia. For peThapa by paying that penthy he will beeome 'better', 'havinc been rude: ratrained' (rojIirllM). No diu impoaed by law aims at evil, bul uaaaJly make. the punished perlOn 'rithn better or 1_ wiclted'. (b) A citi.m .00 doca 'euch • thinc'l1 mUll be rcprded .. incur.ble, turfer de.th ('1caaI: of evik'), and by being thruat out of aigtlt beyond the borden of the .ute in ignominy tene .. an eump1e to others. The juati6cation advanced for infcrrinr incur.bility it that in 'pile of hia education Jnd 12

Ii.,.tlM robeI mentioned in Oem. 0

", hypotbelil l--' .

.u 1013: IIJ; d . 1M -.reel 01\ 96, ap. Oem. 1,,," . 6+

Cf. Cohm 1013: 97'-100, ..,. Xm. H~ 1.1.n . u He tpeab II IS3dJ-6 ol I law _ _ ~ _ _ , wbidI pioWbl,. _ 'pillafi", ol tclt",I~I" but could mean timpl,.'pilJacinl ol ~ objeeu'; It IWl7'"tu __ probably haa the Iatter_. To judp from 9UID-9S6b, the obja:b to be IGund in M-cn iln temple. will DOC be ftIuab1e : the)- will be cheriahed mel protl'tUd prKiKl)- ......- thq arc Tn hiItorie.J Illata, 01 cou. . , they needed protectioa DOC only few that ~ bul beeau.c ol their IIMtr t-*ary ftIue . • IWh-lS,Sa. IISbl CIIUI!ly reveaIa IbM tlM law ~ ucriltp 'by ~ and by _!th'. If GIo.ed illUMdirttely (IW) • 'h..,i", eommined one 01 tlM pat IIId \l1IIpftbbIt: _ 01 illjUitict in,.ant to ,oo. ew pvmu ew "Itc'. Cobea (1013 : .11) n,htly ~ 1Me. Ihieft.oI public piopm)' ,110 commit phllMSa' (MmoJ tbeic' fllherland n. ptyehology and medicine : the oil'"" of religious thoupt - the 'i'itA,,;,u of paychology - the NIJIOI of medicine; for, .. we know from the ~,menu] dt.eilel Ire, )ikephyaical dil! I, phy.icalconfiguntionaof a phy.tcaJ .ou!, and are cunble, .. they are, by the appropriate type of

'I!

..........

"m

A man who find, neverthete. that he baa the urge to commit ucrilege had better die; for it ia better to dte ainte.. than to luUer the pains of sin after death (9S9bc) . Does that mnn he ,hould commit auicidel If 10, he will be jultified by the aecond and/or third of the criteria given in the law about ...ieida: obedience to a legal dceiaion of the ltate. and the compuwon of aome excruciating and unavoidable disuter (,Mlti: 873c6) . For aacrilege j, a miafortune (I.....,....U). which il branded on the face and handaoi the a1ave or foreigner who commits it - a miafortUM in the mae that wickedneaa ineluctably entail, lufferiOl; hence one never really wantl to be wicked. and if one duet 80 want, it must be 'involuntarily', in the Socratic eenac: .11 After aU thi', it i, euy to tee why Plato regardl a citizen who commits ..mI. II incunble. The penalty ia the I&JRIC I I in Attic law: death without

011"'_

II • -m ..-iNlUtt that Plate dieI_ hi..-l' from th. inju.cioe: it bode.... I'ICitbcr to ttw wofId of mm (wbrft theR • potentiality lor pod) ... to tbc wwid 01 rodI (llfbo do_C'riI): d . 93]1. Tbe.:.r-., •., •• d '1\U'd' in the.' ..eof tt.mp: but _ _" to tab _ l O t of it. juM • _ .... the ·. . . . illl _ . of the n...nu (....). to lOhich ~ (19'1). on c:ompaftfthe·. . . .li... oUtru. N TIM medical contmt (II;'CUQ at 'ndl, .54"], .... ~ )10 In medicine, I"- •• fIIrIi-n allcpmm, • .,.u.t cInrp (n.-. a,.-d. d. R4 I r't :M

'S4b.

ot05d 401b).

111 cammitteft, lhia. c:alled .,allilll for r- OWl! pi ............. (Enpmd (19'1). 01I'$4n. tplenclMIIy ..... the point:', curiout recipe for inINc:ini beW'.) • 0 . 881~, the • .,.,.,,..., at w .... from the ~m 01. pemIl. and hrtu '913 : 111-9. J61. Ieack to nU.ery: .'!oj 'L' snb 8 •• ...,. c: d. 573bl and z-, 7J+11 H. J7

ou",

1

7J burial in the atalt;" but while Attic law alto confiKated the offender', property. the peculiar conditions of land-tenure in Magnaia forbade it, .. Plato 10ft on to explain immcdiltely. ~ When he deKriba the pena1ties lOl' .taw. and foreignen he apltcidy (and incredibly) enmsr that they may

make 'better', Such perlOIlI have DOC been upoKd to the Magneaian education, and cannot be &aid to have betrayed it; there remains tome hope

ItrVe to

that the pain and ahock of puniahment will induce ..If-controI. 4 ' We cannot lIy euctly what the 'writing of the misfortune on face and handa' means; presumably it is tome 1011 of tattooing (Jona 1987: 146-9. esp. 00·39. H. 58). Expulaion naked beyond the confines of the country might be enough to kill. But even if the man lurvives, and i. cured, M.gneaia itaelf. apparently, will not benefit, aince he will no !onser be raideDt in it. At any rate, • metic (an .Iien regilterN u reaident in Athens) would have suffered the same penalty ... citizen (Lysiu v), and 10 too pmlumably would an itinerant .Iien (and perMP" .lave - we limply do not know).4Z So formally the foreigner in is puniahed JCII leverely, though more elabom:ely, than the foreigner in Alberti; and thi. innovation is • direct couequence of Plato',

M-cnem

""",I..,..

Pats. c: 'DimillisMd' tluft (914b/~~)

When in p'suge IE Pllto deall with theft from public aources, he detc::riba the thief of I amaU piea of public property .. simply 'the thier, but the thief of a tubttantial piece .. 'the remover of whit he hal not deposited' (94lcS-dI). He thua brinp theft of public property undu the general prohibition of 'removin« whit one hal not depoeited' (Sw), which is in tum connected with the celebrated maxim, 'don't move what ia not to be moved' (684e, s..u). On the aamc srounda, juat before pep age c, the simple removal, .. di.tinct from outright theft, of loat or lbandOned property ia limillrly forbidden (913-91411). Such property i. under divine protection, and the cue of Iny man removing valuable treuure·trove muat be referred to Delphi (with I hint that aornc awful divine puniahment IWaita him) , Plato then, in p'·lge c, Ippliea ~ 1.1.n, M.IXI .iliG I. s .63, Lyt:; , I..ocnw, 65, Cohea .913 : 101 n.n, d. Pubr '91] ' .,.. ft. H _ ( .97fI: 4J-6)....-thu ............ -..c IiIbk 10 • •, ': d . PP' 1S-'7 below on •....... wl· lheft. U~ 1905-15: 443 a ." and

" Diodon. SiNIuI :uJ.as ; Xcft.

CoI:M:JI.9IJ: I(D-) .

.. ISS' ff: er.cepI ia eeruia. uua. _

(1s6c-e).

0WQer'. fmUtJ·

M.. .'...... foree_I •

are inllXnolb~ ff'OUl &he

•• AI 'W3 . 1wd 10 (Urt' 1MJ refer 10 It.ICtioaI al .ana. but 'impoeible 10 CIlft'tolbc. alan- (d, '5414). la Ihcf,alpubtic",opc") _ _ _ lhe_,.nem: _ _ mel b,• ..,un puaWlw:d _W¥ftdylheac:il ' •• (, ,,'). Ihoucb p!I,e;"d, bow iII_1fI ..... , bu& it ill ceruinty. and W1ec ......Iy. iaopIied IbM tM pun" , nom 01 _ ... iIia:.. i1C1lft: Mldt gtS'l. a Then i1.1111Cd to unCfonnity al p Ktiee . U"- M iIinena& _ • miIom 01 s _ 1riIh wbicb Atherw bid. t. cv:dd Slid '""-:If in &he _ pwiIKn, •• ...... : UbIe to· .....,. p,r ' • , ....lIuut trW . AI..., nIot, 11M pe....... al itinennIa 1M -ud t.rdIy be • ., thea tbeI of It. c:iIiIm - ' mttit.

jIMficiaI.' __'

.an.

'4

TREVOR SAUNDERS

'the tame rule' to every object, grat 01' 1IIlA11, tut hal been 'left' or 'ioat': if a dave rcmovea it and takea it home,4J and it ill nruJlJ, he muM be whipped by any p' er-by over thirty yean of tee; if a free man doel 80, he mUlt be ecx:ounted 'ungendeman1y and no eJwer in ..,,', and he mtdt pay the PC:"8OlI who Left the object len times ita value. ('The ratrictKm 'I0I&l1' KernS to apply to both thefta, though the Greek ill not quite clear.) Plato then deecribee the procedure under which ownenhip may be Itttled in cue of diapute

(9 14C3....u ). One it perhaps left to a.ume: that removal of I tJOIuabh object would be dealt with by IOn'tt further regulatton, but none ia given; or perhlpa Plato belteva he h.. already dealt with the point in the proviaiona about tlftlUrej moet probably, he "ould deal with it under rqulartheft (p"'. 0). For the apparent restriction to 'amaU' makea JOOd pl'Ktical aenae. On the whole, one dOd! not ' . ' I large object of IOInt value. like a "'lOR or. plough, except by outright theft - "hich ia provided fOl' under the relevant Ilw of theft from private aourct8 (D); and even if one '''-:s' aornethirc automobile. luch IS a pig, one does not ablndon ownenhip, but aearches. But if one inadvertently Ioaes .omethirc trivial, or delibentely Je1IVCI it tomewhere for lOme: reuon, intending to collect it "eer, iu ttatua will not alwaY' be etear to the finder: ill it just 'left', or actually abandoned? To Ippropriate it, on the blithe _umption 44 that the ~ haa effectively relinquiahed ownerahip, is neither theft nor not_theft:·s it betokens.orne minor paychic injustice, which may be cured by a beating for a tlave, and for a free man by IOciaI diagnlce and repayment on alC&le which in point of the multiple ill Jarge (ten times), but. sinceex ItypJot~n the object ia of amall value, will not amount to much. 46 Plllo'a diaeuetion of'IOit property' ia aurprilirc1y lengthy, and thia may be lOme: indication that he felt he .... aupplying. liP in Attic law, in which, U Cohen·7 hu pointed out, the concepti of 'appropriating' and 'stealing' tend to mc:rgt, the word 'loae' being uaed ambiguously. Plato 1Ucc:eeda in dfect in inventirca formal category of 'diminished' thelt; and hia rulirc consideration ia that to find and appropriate a arnall thi .. ia te. 'unjlllt' than to find and appropriate a large one IUcb I I treasure (wbe.e the .umption of abandoned ownership i. implaulible), and Ie. unjust than rqular theft by force or fraud. Again, payc:hological considerationa aeern to have led to innovation and

mann .

.., A.Cobm_ (1913: 116), takiai home IN)" be ' ... ubjeI;tioe ~forlW>ility'. Tbe lialO'U CUI..,. he it _ ~lNt·lCalO.;"'f« "~', wi • . ; bile the: pkIi;' ' - pIwIoibk it ct.c ..ic:le it (in _I) in hit t -. .. One earl ~ IiM'~: d , 9.)hl-] . .. ~"~C;.-t"'" and enm.tI the "",t of ~ to ttw: infonrw:d ;...dtc,...1d of the juron. To IhII: atent, be Ihirt. ffOll'! an ad.u"" to an inqu;.itorill.,..rem. M..... of.l., all of c, iUMI

I.'

piftof.,_ontheflccofit r' .... ;ef.bo.e.ul76d7'""C3 . .. S ,huilu,.,."'u"a, 9)41', d . 'ON in A(I), p. 70. .. In Adw:M, deMh of dw: ofteadu- pR!',.,b'y lobbed the injured put)' of In)' 'cltn' ~F z,.: the deIdI _ tn. only 'IItioIeetioi,'. P1Ito,.,...,.men him hill (1impIe) reeomper.e: 9334, 'Iboorc all', • J lind Cobm', Mtnnpt (19113 : III~) 10 .... u thiI obviouI difficuky, in dfecllO flXl)INOile. with., Urd 10 follow, for bow (:III _ maiet (on the priQCipIa 01.) tIw ' _ ' penMy, 'rtprdIeeI of _ and ~'. and .. ttw: _ time llhetply ¥It)' pmaltieI (deeth eto;., in ~) '-wnr to intemIl-.l_', ., JIIRifldebledlOPtuf -P. J. RbocIetUldDtJ. G. F. PoweIllorthil-A - ....

""'/MM#I,

,a

TREVOR SAUNDERS

pilferer h.. the tame IUit • the greater thief, but continaently enjoyed te. power or opportunity to indulge it (ii). So he too is 'fully' unjUlt, and incur· ablt; hence he delervesthe arne penalty II the ocher (i) . 71unfon~ variationa in penalty will not depend on the comparative amounta of the thefta, but on lOme other conaideration, namely whether the thief. c:urable; on th. criter· ion, the non-citiun is probably curable, the citiun is not. The doctrine itl hanh : any , theft, however tiny, from the raoun:u 01 hia own atate by a cittacn bctolr.ena ineducability and therefore incurability: he is plundering and violatina: the fathtriand. 6Z The baait of differentiation of punithment is therefore aocioltJ8ical, .. in uerilqe. No mention of recompcn.c • rMde, nor of the kga1 procedure to be uecd; poeaibly there would be a ,roplti ,/opts; under the provisiona of ?67bc. Nor • the point of the atipulation. 'whether Clopt red·handed or not', made c1ear.6l What, in Athena, is the counterpart of this law~ At first light, it il the I'r.J#>Iti ItJopcs tkmosiort JJrrmflltOtJ, the public auit for theft of public money (or objecta?): this charge could be brought at their 'audit' or 'acrutiny', n.tlu'"tJ, againat officials about to demit office: the penalty wu I nne of ten times the Imount Itolen. 64 Yet Plato, in PII '1" ", h.. his own lpecill pro· ccdurca for the conduct of ludita : the Scrutineen Ire to judge the conduct (prc:eumably inc:luding financia1 conduct) of officiall at the end of their term of office, and can apparently impoee any penalty including delth. 65 Obvi· oualy .r. ia not in conftict with these provisiona, and could indeed provide the ju.tification for impoaing the death penalty in .. on officials judged at scrutiny to have atolen public propcrty;66 yet itilCOpC IeetnI far wider, covering all theft of all public property (tkmoIion, 94ldS, d . es) in genenl . and embnc· " 942&';' CI. AriM . • nothi"..

,. " IlubaS: the thief of three _1M~rlled half..... would Ittck.t

S« CohnII913 : UN. J.uepea tba if ••• ~ 1nno11l00n (ae below) , Iw -.iahed to mille deer thIt ;u.t • (br impliulioa., _ pp. 1M .bowl_ D, lhe lime Inc:! circulnlllnC:ft of the offender'. dttlKfPf 60 _"feet lwont of 1liI1MMIl_. .. Cohea 1913 : 49-51,"". Pol• ., . .-5, 54. .1, Dnn. ~ . 111, U1 , d. Aach. 111 .11-], Andok. u

I. 7+ (who .od."';";", • d;.qualification from

lOme

ritiRft

riP").

M.c:00wdI {1984:

belicYa the".... o:ouJd be 1Iroufht other lhan It the -til. AnocheT"... (if indftd it m.ed.1 ......1LC1l1ed theft olllCftd ptOjXllt, _~ U_RtoI, fOl".hit;b &Ito the pnWtJ mIJ"'~ been ten timeI the tum It ~ : Ant . II . Cl. 6 , Dnn. Xllt . ~], UlV. III , Cohen 1913 : I _ I . It _1lIO ~ble topt_uU , 1t Ult time , by_of UI ·impacb· nwIIt' or 'denunciltioG', ft· . _, befcn dwMli or~ (t .•. H _ 1975. a.e 1431 : ill th.cwnc citlin' the dtMh penalty on 6nemuld be"", J. S« inac-al H _ (19751 and Rhodn (1979): the ddli'* aft r:c:wnple:x I!Id r:ontrovft'IiIl. On ..n.tiont u. pen.altia, _ Cohen ( 1913: 51 ... 56); I"'~ followed H ...... 1975 : lJ-6. (A. Pibm (191]: 45"1) poin" out, I'IIto .... ~ ~jUl .,,_ : no doubt he mi.atrulced alCh QemoCiltic procedUl'ft, and thoupt hie wIec:t bodt of Sc:rvtinftn, mon: lUiuohk for the imponant and ..-iaIited job of officiall : d . Hyp. 1'\'.1-3. Morrow 1960: .I19-~, etp. 11M·) U EvidmtIy on IheU own IUthority. unlike ia A~ wben _ were refITTed to 1;CIIIn.; d . .I~JOI

eumi.w.

n.64, on ftUl

."IUI .

.. EepecWlt. tbe immediately preeedinr (on embelein

etc.,.

Ii_.

941'14)1, _,,*,11 mieckll _ _ rl by of~

1

79

ing, among the potential thieves. the categories of foreigners and ,Iavea, to whom acrutinies Ire irrelevant, since they could not bold public of6ce . • Kerns then limply to deal with theft of public property by • private penon, whether citizen, foreigner or ,live. Cohen ( rC}8J : 49 n. 46) reports that 'no text dacribes theft of public property by. private citizen [in Athens}'. If the lacuna is not limply I lacuna in OUT IOUrccs hut an indication of • pp in

Athenian 11",,67 then Plato, aru:iou... alWlye to provide fully againat offences agaiNt the commuJlIII interest, lupplies the need. So. includes theft of public property by officiala;" • deal. with theft of public property by priVite penons; D" eaten for thefl of private property by private penona.

IV

LEGISLATION AND PENOLOGY

What emerges from tbeae lengthy complexities? In sum, thlt Plalo has both abridged and opanded Athenian law, partly in order to rationalise and airnplify, but thieRy under the guidance of • penology hued on the psychology of the criminal. Once the law in a baa been ruled out .. unutialactory, he can be teen to meet ita deficienciea by providing a graduated eet of penaldea for a variety of thefts exhibiting psychic 'injuatit:e', on an U«nding tale: c . Mild 'injUllice'" catem:llor in I new formal catepy: quasi-theft, which be timply the pidi"l up of 801M trivial thine whic:h the thief fondly hopa hat

been abandoned, PtfllJl~J : Slow :

whippi",. F,~n'u"f : rqNlItXm for uwmtlnnanli~ .nd tenfold RPI')'meDI HI depoaitOf. II it auf6cient to ret)' on IOCiaJ preelUre and a tlap at the offender'a pocket, D. N()I7ft(J/ 'injUltice', abown in theft by private pntOnl from private 1OUrc:ea, be of variable iDtetllity : the oflendel' may be you", Ind ove. penuackd by the folly of aomeoM elw, or be I victim 01 hia own fool;'" emotr.on. and deeirn. hrtai~s : SlIted without lOcioJorical di.tincrio .... : IUfferins Of fines graded open~edJy in dil-ect .otio to the ~ of the viee and ill ptelUmed c:unbiJity. hychic di.onSer thllt becomet the Nnale determinant of the -mty Of mild __ of the penalty (but IfOl of the amount of the reeocnpenIC). Practically the entire Idf-help proc:edure apiMt theft 01 Athmian law ;. thrown ou·rbo.rd, and with it ~t of the d;ff~t;'t""" of punilhmenta depmdinc on c:onIiderations 01 the hour and location 01 the theft, and the value of the Ito&en object. • . &ri0.4 'injustice' ia dtiplaycd in theft lram public .uun:ea. It is ho ...em not cakulated by relerenc:c to the ¥a/ue 01 the tboth. The detenainanta 01 peyebic I

., otmou.Iy IUCh off_ bMI to be c:akf'ed Iw _...t-, p«hap. by. diItI (or I'f1!IItIl) ~"

.. It

Of

by.r-14/ ,.,.,.

..

. "'hi

, i..depcndently of...,~ (Mldit, lC!'\Itin,) .

~"'C_ (.911: ua) abouI: .(public popat,), tMt'nod;"inction ilmade • • • betw ....... tWt by ofl • .. and tWt by pri_ cit' w ', thouP true, Mrdly rnmer., in -riew of r .

1...

Noc ~ c:«- .913 : " ' and '''9) I, ... hieh .boIdd _ be ...... Iopd;er' with. (public pope.IJ). II (1aI-a), ill diwCjwd of I) (pri_ ptope.t,).

w

80

TREVOR SAUNDERS Ibh: and heoce of penaIty.n: .........ti.. j ... INM.: llaWlil and '01 ....en who Ilal fRlm public -.an:eI.n: 'prot.bly' curable, but c:itiuw.n: QIIt, PntJ/tia: SltIw ad foi •.,." : wffmn, or fiat cakulated opeo-endedly, .100.

death.

Oti:Mw:

11ae law _ _ to cover &I11heft 'rom pubtic ICIW'CeI by all peitoE. whatevet-. No It'p&I'atc pro~""'. iNIde lor 6nlnew malf-.- 01 officialI, but the law 01 a would juatifJ or demand the deeth penalty Il audit (_ .). 50 *beI u Attic law permitted dath or &net, probably 8iXOI~ to prOCtdure, Plato __ to pennit, to jucIp from a, only the (OI ...er. ia

Eis..,,..

d, Very trriotu 'injUlticc' it uhibited in 1Kfilcre; it • tnced 10 an O\'eipo*cr· ....,. ....... daift, whM:b coma from II)I!Ie ....pmwunI but DOt divine IOUfU. Elaborate advice t-d Oft rdiaion, PIJ~ and roedicine it!liftn prophylactically. I'nttJJtWl: Slaw aNIPtv.iIf,: brandinc and expulaion naked, Ci",-: death, expulaion from illite. IUjIpi

A.

In A, c, and z the penaltiea ue differentiated by lOcio-politial rrouIMi in c folCicnen are brKketed with citiaena .. free, and ue thertf~ not to IUffer the deandatton of a whipping. but with a1aves in A and z, in which the cimen ia itolated .. I particularly heinou. offender apinst the soda Ind the lUte that nurtured him, TbcR is I genenJ tendency for incurability to be more rueli!)' ....med. and for penalties therdore to incttale, in proportion to the grandeur of the intereat offended: individuals (c and D), lUte (IE and .), godI (A).70 Although the Attic penal code ... certainly capabie of diatinguiahing fOf'fNlly between voluntary and involuntary ICtI (e.g. in homicide), the Ilw of theft, 10 far II we know, WII framed without rcf'erence to intent i that ia to IIY, it ....med that everyone knows roughly and intuitively what theft objectively iI. and left the lubjective elementa, intention. and excuaea, to be argued out in the If! ~eches delivered at the trW.1t In th;. ieapect it mull have been typtcal of a JmII many offtnoeli and indeed the lack of any mtTft\Ct to intent in any Athenian law of theft ia natural enoup.; one can euily kill without wiahing 10, but if theft mean.aomething like '.tealthy removal of another'. propt'i ty', then it ia difficult (thollIh not impoaaible) to elaim that one did tAG' involuntarily. However that may be, Plato doa for thdt what in principle he doea for hia

" ct. alt

"51.

n.e opeA elide. Iii 01_ F

Iq ...,

1••eRi, ........ tIO _

u-.inty

about what their lpplieetioft wwkI hrre been in 1M_lice. Cotnp.e tIM tirIp 01 baiwion in I (d.' ,'pntt} weIl'~, 94M3) widI tIM Utili iolkicllcc in I (1S4C4)' Sec CoheA (.913: ~I) . If, (90),AII. I'bI. imp. . tMt tIUeYW hoouled by • • ,I bcfOit tIM EJr,n weft killed if they aw:iil,.tmiited tbc ubjecti .... Kt, ~ if IMJ .h. ~ .......... MId aa.. rl pauiDeIy buI: miIubnly dlOl ,tit thI ob;ed _ MiNI', wi " .), tlIn iA • • 'i... 1iability' ..,F!' d. and _ - ' d atbcr hi.... 10 dar.y tlMcieed . . , IOpt. trill (10 _kI it .... --a,. be _ _ '), ... __ 1Upp/y ."....fedt lide 10 0.. ~ _ .. '" I,d to (Ob;ec:ti.... IW:IiliEy -W be .... cp; . $ to. IM~ _fa _ty d.... bpl~ tr-.tf.heIp.) If _iMeedo..~, ...... PIMo·. 4' eo .. the __ ... ., ", .. ia cPF • to Itria Mbility. tbolition '" • •,1 for !heft b IMWwlt b I~' _ iI ........ c:akWMiaa '" _ '" miAII.

u". = .

n

,i..

,"obi

"*

a.- ......

"*

,

k

8. penal code u • •hole: he provides an outline of the contiderationl jurymen should beat in mind when reaching verdicts and eentencing ,72 The dilcmion of Athenian jurymen to formulaic their own criteria would hive been far gtelter. Not that Pl.to it interested in exCUIeI or aggravation. U IUeb, ... meana of arriving at reciprocal justice; hit IOlc concern, recompenee apart, is to establish curability or incurability, and if the former appliea, to estimate that punishment which will be the mO&t effectivc cure. For efficient treltment of • diseue demandt it. efficient diagnoeis. Here u eillewhere hi. aUention to mental lUtes it in advance of Attic: law : he builds them into his oode. Cohen (1983 : 119) rightly .tate. PlIto', position, that 'the legislator', evaluation of an act must not be based upon external circumatanca. hut tither the moral ISUIte of the actor', But he it quite wrong in suppoling thlt thi. approach 'jultifiel the principle of uniform pena1tics', or 'one law, one penalty'. A. my l ummary of PI,to'. I,,, of theft ,bows, PlIto applies. if anything, I more complicated, or rather a more flexible, range of penalties fOt' theft than Attic law. Hil Ilw il 'one' only in the 1erl8e that it provides for penalties in accordance with a single criterion : the relative intensity of the 'injustice' in the offender'a lOul. Cohen (1983 : tl9-ao) allO detecta 'competing motivation', in that Plalo'l 'philosophical theory' conflicu with his 'larger political concernl'. He cllims 'clear inconsistency' between hi. penology and the provisiona that 'two similarly situated offenders may meet with vastly diff«ent fatee depending aimply upon the fortuity of elI;ternal circumstances; how much property they have, whether or not IIOmeoRe else is willing to lend them the money, whether or not they are let off by the injured party. etc.' It it helpful here to remember Plato'l firm diatinction between backward-looking recompense and forward-looking curative peDlilty. If x i. prepared to aupply money 10 y to eDlible y to pay recompense, that is not a penal matter. Only if y cannot pay a fine intended as • penalty would his baiiing-out be inconsistent with Plato'a penology, and then only if the bailing-out were a gift and not a loan.7J Plato legialates {Ot' theft in a decidedly broken manner, lOt' which the artistk structure of theLaws may in part be to blame. Naked, his acattered proviaiona are a puzzling and incongruoua collection. Garbed in his penology, and after the expullion of the rogue law of I, they arc an impreasive uray, with a clear and c:onaistent rationale. I lind no .ign that they were conceiv.e d and written by someone whoee mental powers were failing. Plato the statesman and legislator is firmly in control, and knowse.uctly what he ia doing. He taltca Athenian law I I buic; he exci_, he lupplemenu, he re-ahapa; and he n Secapedally9)4bc (thecoMinuetion aI D). NOb: toDthebrid III - oml alan i",mtionIllUlr alcnUod • .,..,. : thr.l~ mu.Ktoabow&iaKti",'kwp"'p II of ("') tbeft'. "The ._;,,1 of ...1m donn to hne been IItOIm if ~ ill to bepu.nilbed MIM Ihid' ill (9S5b; d . Cohee .911 : It-6). n On t.;Iu.,.-t. _ 85Sb. UnqualiMd 1omUIt-off ill fauN:! only in I .

pada_'_

82

TREVOR SAUNDERS

'PUce. it to a reforminc 'medical' penotorJ. It is ~pI a tribute to the quality of the hlitortc:al model that, phiJoeopher of Plato', penuuion can see fit to retain many of ita contours. Indeed, htl procedure in the cue of theft is fundamentally the same _ in the other parts of his Iepi code.

1

sa Vexatious litigation in classical Athens: sykophancy and the sykophant ROBIN OSBORNE

I

WHAT WAS A

SYKOPHANT~

General ruaories of c1..uc.1 Greece ignore the .ytophant: .ykophltlta do not get into the irtdellea of Bury', Hutory of Gruu (t:vcn .. revised by Moll'. ed. 4. 1975), Hammond'. History o/Gruce (ed. 3. 1986). DlVin' Dnnocracy tmd Ckutical Greeu (1978), Homblowet", T1u GruA World (1C}83) Of' 1M Oxford History of tlte Classical World (tCJ86) . Even in boob tpeci6cally .bout cluaical Athens they make but a Seeting appearance : Jones' Alltneian Dmtocmcy (1957) has two rcfennca, Connor', Nrw PoIi· ticituU (197.) one, Ostwald', monumental From Popular Sowmpty to 1M Sowmpty of I...aw (198(1) dcvotca omy two paragnpht uprettly to thtm in more tIuIn 500 pIgI:S ••nd Sinclair', ~ muJ PartidptJliM (t!J88) baa one pangraph and haU-.-dosen puling rderencft. The implierotion would Kern to be that none of theee ac:holars reprd, the .ykophant u •

It.

significant actor on the of Greek history, or even of Athenian dcnOOCiacy. Woru on the Athenitn legal .)'Item, on the other hand. givt .ykophlnts • prominmt, or even I very prominent place. Bonner and Smith devoted I whole 3S-~ chlptn to them (1938: 39-74), .od then: i. , five-piKe diecuMion in MacDowell', Law i" C/4uical Allt~"s (1978 : 6:1-6), quite ,part (rom the monograph on them by Lofbc:rg (1917). More imporunt than the Ienath of these diecuee.ion., however, is the interpreu.tive tendency lying behind them j for these writers, syltophaney wu , 'curse' (Bonner & Smith 1938: fig), , 'disease' (Lofberg 1917: 2.3) and, more importlntly, , profeaaion (Lofbcrg 1917: ~). The generally sttepted poeition is neatly summed up by Rhodes (lgBl : +44-5) when he defines the .ykophant in the foUowing way: 'nJwp/umUI . .. is 'pplied frequently by Aristophanes Ind later Athenian write... to the men who took IdVlntage of the Ilws Illowing prwecution by Iw boaIcuii.c1lOS on Npublic" charges ... to mike. profeaaion

"

.

"

a.

ROBIN OSBORNE

of proKCuting, in order to obtain the rewardaoffeud to lucceMful proeecutOfS or p8ymenta from the victima or their enemiea . .. ' .1 In thil pipet I eJu,1I niK objectione to both the genenl and the lpecialiat treatments of the Iykophant. Againet the general nadition I will argue that I)'kophancy was vitally important to the nature and running of Athenian democracy; and apinsc the: tpecialitt tradition I will maintain that there were no Iykophanu, in the Knee that there was no el. . of people who could be eIIUed profelllional proeecuton motivated purely by pecuniary conliderationa. Central to thit enquiry it the problem of defining the Iykophlnt. The term IfIltopIea,It#1 it widely used in a pat variety of contexts, but it i.always a tenn of abUle, with no atraightforwatd polite equivaknt. Cluaical authors invariably employ the tenn in an argumentative contut. The historian', problem is how to tell whether thil Iykophant invoked by comic writen and forenaic onton il anything more than a straw man, whoee features it il expedient to attribute to real opponents. Just .. a portrait painter', image of an individual may give no emphuit at all to thoee physical faltura which cartooniata delight in emphuiaing to exoea, 10 the historian who limply reproduces a tendenttout caricature it failing to exelciae properly critical historical judgement. It it not difficult to write a history of the \lie of the word ntAopIImtl#l: the problem it how to tell anything from that history lbout the work-ins of the Athenian Lepl . ,..tem and Athenian toc:idy. The great Victorian expert on the onton and the Athenian courtl, Charlce Rann Kennedy, described the: aykophant .. 'a happy c:ompound of the c:ommon barntOl', infonnet', pettifogger, bul)'body, rogue, liar and danden:r' whote methodl ifK:luded 'calumny and conapirxy, falae ac:culltion, malicioul prol ecution, threau of legal proceedinp to extort money, and generally 111 abuK of legal procell for miKhieVOUl or fraudulent pUrpotel' .t At I deKTiption of the figure evoked by the oraton thit it fine, but more rttent acholara, .hile quoting Kennedy with Ipproval, have attempted to reduce this compoaite deac:ription to a 'core' meaning. Yd how Ire primary ueca of 'INlropI!mtt#I' to be distinguilhed from aecondary? Arbitrarily to iIOlate certain ICnteI of the tenn .. primary can only lead to circularity of argument.) 1 Cocr!ptn BonIlCf" Smith 19JI :+I'lt _onlywbcn mm m8de. profnlionol' pi .....ll00n lot hanc:MI pin that public opinion ___ Ie, SIKh ptr_ weft known. "eykophum~ ... ' ; IlIMI aJeo Sinclair t,al: 7). More btuDdy, Harvey (1915 : 71 n,7) 1I'ritn: 'Tk I)'kophaM _ . piof . .... ~. inforawl'....t pi ..... utot.· Cant..- FiIIMr 1976b: 36-7. who, in the '-lbontrfttmmtol~. 1I'ritn :·AtptdaltrnII.J t P' ..k •• _oppMdto_yoM ia.ohcd in pi ~lItioM 01' wtUc:h _ .....'Si, '-p,,"o.ed,· l In Smith '143 ..... ·SU.....k.· ....t ill Kmaedy '''':Ms. lal!ntfilh writi.. olthuiltttcnth c:ftItIIrJ ' I)'mpbant ' _ \lied botb in iu' in' __ 01 ·; ........ _ · -' in iu modomI_ 01' 'Ilacterer'; tberuftet' the __ oI ',nfonnt'l" is nrc Qcepf in w, ~d ' ~1I1 AlhcbI. ~ __ ol .f\Mtem" is .m.ty founcl ill I..tin New Comed, (tnd ~ the - ' I lion of infOII md fIett_ ill MeundcrfT.uJ Kock) . For the _'0. ditidc betwao, infonni.. ....t Luu". in. noa'. -COCIIJ*I: Hill, ~. IIft. IVab: ·He . .. _ way,w (. teU tab and eeicophInIa 11ft •• .) to detbn to tt. kina whit be .... hard.' I T1wn iI -.thine c'-to."titio",.......·both ia LofbtTr'II_emnd ( 0917: ia) thac ·It _ _ raJ that ... the tcnn (l)'cophantJ c:amc to be ...cI fot III ~. HhUe. IIICh

iti,.

1

8,

Vt%am.u Iiriptiorr;1I classical AtM1I1

The definitions of the sykophant given by the anton themeelves are persuuive definitions aimed at furthering the speU.er'. argument, and they cannot aerve u a secure lltarting point for an historical enquiry into what a .ylwphanl ...... 4 1 want to ,tlrt not from the lena in which .ykoph.nl i. defined, but from those where the meaning of .ykophant is auumed, .nd in particular from metaphorical UKI of the term .ykophant. Communication itlelf is endangered if an .uthar or 8pCIker i. r.dicllly redefining the lenni he employs in his metaphon, and there i. thnefore IOR'IC justification for believing that in the metaphorical UIC of • term an irreducible core of ,ignificance iI uncovered. That the umc fcaturesare in quCltion in all the metaphorical rdeiences to ,ylwphantic behaviour further Itrcngthena this belief. Plato, in &public I, hu Thruymakhos expoatulate, 'You are a .ykophant, in theIe argumentl, Socntcs', after Socntes pulhes the logic of Thrasymakhos'ltItementl harder than Thl1llJlllAkhoe wiahes, to bring out implicationa which Thruymakhoe is unwilli"l to CIpOUIC. I n the enauing diecualion ThnI)'mIkhoe retrests to. poeition with which he defies Socri.tes 10 quibble (~ pltml~"), and Socntcs prottltl that he would no more try to play the syJw.. phant with Thruymalthoe than he would try to lhave alton, 5 AriItotle mUcs • similar point in a more general context in the Topia, where he writes, 'Similarly too if he Iw made allltemcnt, when the IUbject which ill being defined bean ICvcrallC_, without di.tinguillhing them; for then it iI uncertain of which aenM: he h.. given the definition, and it iI poIIIible to make a sykophantic allegation on the RfOUnd that the dcscription does not lit everything of which he h.. given the definition'; .nd .-in, 'It i. poMible to make a IJlwphantic allegation api.nsc one who h...paten metaphorically, reprnenting him .. hiving URd the word in itiliten1ItMe. 16 The metaphorical UIC of 'lJkophant' i. not confined to philoaophcn: DemoIthenes, a frequent \dIU of the word. comments, 'But it might be claimed that I'm being Iykophantic: on tbil point', after a detailed quibMe about the euct wording of • law and ill impiicatioftl.' All thoee metaphorical UICI focUl upon e>rUnIioa in lbe.- of the term .... no part in tho. otudy'. and, .....,..;.1Iy i....... of tho.- of '.,koph&nc'in the ~ priYItc: Oi.tioIlIt, djec:o tlld below, in the claim of 8oMn- A

--:

Smith ('93" 7") ti>M 'In the _re of the _

• Seee·l· L,.. U't.],

[~J

ijwp ..... q eoWd ftftly .....il

~

of

LYU .J+, AeIeh. 1I.14S (~bdow) , Lyk.l .ll .

11f!t, lit ~, h ~~. :W"S' dcv, • ~l' 601ciI ~ au......,.v; dvu ph 06¥. ""'. oW. y6Q III: It ~ no 10li ~ ~ « ~b. ~ ~¥; Wto,: W¥ ,. h~~ 06 ... ...,.. ~ 6qxona iMo.. ~ ~ ~ IIOl ~, If n ~. )+1M, GorJiaI. C'I'CII if whit be .,. .. juII. hDp&e .y Ibe only . . - tilt opeaQ up iI 10 fd ~. and doe man - ' - cIodIa are u..-tbere .. eallecIltykophant nom if ill face be is Ibe one who ........ W.Oi,eeI· (nao''''W{hlIW. ton, rovri«, ~, ' .1&6:tv ~ 6(xOlO · ~ y6Q J.tyQY I MIlO fI6vou"fOllLtd' ~, toO).atId., I aol ~ I EI)'IIg'

Mawodtr

'* !be verb iJI!he _

pooI'''''.

&eo.;: I> W ~ I f:xa,w aol.d:lCU, .

~ ~) .

w

'7 In various p~urC8 in Attic law the luoceuful prosecutor wu financially rewarded (Osborne Il}8sb : 44~) . For an assessment of sykophancy the most important of theee procedum is that known as pluJSu (denunciltion). Connectil'll sykophants with pIuuis is cmouraged not only by the p<M8ible etymologica1 connection betweenp/liUU and the '.phant' of '.ykophanl', but al80 by the frequent linking of .ykophlnte and plltuil in one of the culielt IOUtceI to mention .ykophantl, Ariatophancs. 11 When Dikaiopolil in Ariltophanes' AAJltmrimu aeta up hi, own privatea,ora (market), he Innounces 'Let no .ykophant come here, nor any man from Phuis','Z and I,ter in the play • • ykopbant does make an .ppellran~. to denounce the Megarian for illegal trading (a true alleg1ltioo).11In the BinU ArUtophlnell again makes fun of the irritltton Clluaed by aykoph.nt., and although no particular legal action is specified the putative defendants.re once more non-Athenians. I. Pltasis may alao be in qUeMion.t the opening of Lysiu' lpeechA,anut 1M Com-ulkn, whCf't the speabr c1.ima Ihlt the Counc:il, however much it regard. the com-eeIJen. guilty, aJlO regards thOR who accuse them ...ykophants. 1S It ia difficult to the .icnificance of these genenl ....temmts connee· ting .ykophants withplttuil. We know Iittk about actual cues olphasi' and have no .,.y of teating the ilUlinuatiOM of AriNophanes against the evidence of ~utiol\ll brought under thia procedure. Ariatophanea cm.inly impliea that thOR who bring pNueis are a nuiunce, but he doea not imply that their p/Jauis an: groundl_ i the prOKCutora may obeerve the letter rather than the .pirit of the II." but there ia Ippan:nt legal ju.tification for their actiom. The opening of Lyaiu XXII implies that Athenians were inclined to unjutti6ed Rtlpicion of thOR who acroted the com-tellen (by pIuuis?), rather lhan that thoee who brought pNuftl wete unjultified. 16 Oraton and comic: writen frequently imply that .ykophants made money II·

II The eli '

om,io:Al impeDetnbiliry '" tJ.e ~ Mel ic. -wen .~ in tJ.e late fiftb

cmtury mipt • Awl that doeft or _ _

..n,;nal ~ .JUt... (. ~

i ..'f'OIri.. 6p1J

....t.tdI nmed ¥aJItiout Utipnc. lb. eobriqo.Iet. II Iu . .WI. Ps-6: tvwoe« I""In ~ do(_ I ~. 61J.os: 6ow;; ~ 11m' ~. ~_ 'from the _ ~ the RiYef!'h.il· afIII_ mnnaIIy UKd in the bird' 10 n:fcr to pinc.. 1J .WI. II, 'l ... joUy-n .... IO~ "-'little piIp--ipxk, did )":'Utoo' (10 ~,:o(vvv ..,.~to& / ...,),qw. MOl oil, and ~toI '"-- HiUfthoI to __ Iiboor' (1&Ol1ltr' 6&l N'-qxoo; Iyxc .... . -•• J. A._opt _ .... pu.. at ! D1l&n)' ~~""'_dcarlym~. -I6fiPII .:as6.BinU6II . •4 Birdf 1410-6,. Note tbet AriItofII- could joke IbM the ~ __ produc1 uniqwto Atbnai,.WI. 904'f L,.. un.1 'Gentlemea~, I11III)' ba'ft_ up to me m 1m_ .. tbIc 1_ ptlljlO8inf to _ _ tIM: corn«Uen i.. the Council. pointiac _ that you nprd tt.o.c orbo bri. (hal. , .... them CYm if you thlak lbeJ art b!. tIM: ........ So 1 will"- apIaia ......... _pdled ... to _ _ them' (JIIOUo( 1* ~.6fIac,.y. i 6116qcs:~.

pM...,.....

Oft""'_

_1J'opIe_.

tnt..,..,

,tIInlil)'" h tfIlkmle ....... iiUl ~ 6a~, d", ~ ~A6ucd:v~. o66tv ~ iiUl1OOc" _ _ ~ ~ oa ......_'" ~ 68tv o6v wu'IfI'OVdY ahiIv, RQI. _ _ Iq!6oIOt dAly 1106~.... ) .

"w6:, ....

toc._

.. c-.p.n [Dan.1 un . .........

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orho brouFhll ....' 4

If

prwuw-

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thee the d~ mipt tbinII IbM

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w

88

ROBIN OSBORNE

out of their piOlCCUtionI. 11 Occaicmally the .ykophant it clearly alleged to have brouaht hil pro cution merely in order to tuch an out-of-court tettlement for • .urn of money. Phodoe.oo the Soud. quote. lingle line from Ariltophanel' Jolt plly the Daitaln in which 'beint I Iykophant' iI eocilted with 'thrutenilll. demanclinc mOlley, md 8ecc:inc'." Similuiy. when in

Ariolophaneo' W.a/t.\ (85-959) 1M oykophont _

.. one of . - d....

out of hillivelihood when the pd WftlJth rqaiM blight, 1 take it thlt the IJkopbant iI impoverilbed not, or DOt only, becauee he it hillllelf one of the wicted no Ionaer a1Jowed to proIpCT, but bec:Iute there it no khlcer ICOpe for IICCUIinc men who In: rich in the hope thlt the;r SUi1ty c:onec:ienc:a will make them PIIY their ac:c:uecr off; (or now that Wealth hal hit . t bKlt only the

cood are rich. The c:1euat

~ CMe8

of IUeged .ykophantic: bt.c:ltm.il in the &fth ",ntury c:onc:cm Nw.. and Kriton. Our 'infonNItion' on the payment of I lIrge IUrn of money by NiIti.. to. potentill piC*CUtor coma tolely from I pllage of I comedy by Tekkkide. quoted by Plutlreh, and IfIUIbly it tell, 118 more lbout Nikia' comic: /I"JOfUJ than about anythina ebe. I' Kriton', employment of • c:ounter-eykophant to protect him.elf Ipinat venttout litiption it the IUb;ec:t of • more trustworthy KeOUnt in Xmophon', M~ttttmJbilitJ and it will be nee IlIry to enmine it in deuit liter. AlJu.ioni to, and ~ tpecific aJleptioni of, 'yltop"'ntic blaclttnlil occur in fourth-c:entury anton, but the pereenuge of referenct:l to Iyltophlncy which tum on blackmail illmIlI. Sykophmc:y figures prominently u an evil in hocratea,20 but the cloleat he c:omeI to rnU.ing I blackmail.negation it in the tpe«h Agaitut KAJIi1ruJJtJwn. The centre of the defence is the .negation thlt K.l1imaIthOl' pt'cleclltion c:ontnvcneI the Amneaty .... w of Arlthinol (403 • .c .), but the ,peaker Do cWm. both t"'t he was not lUilty of the crime aJI~, Ind thlt KlllimaithOi iI going apiNt In earlier Igreement to aettle out-of~rt for I IUm of money. The background to the cue ill u follOWl : the tpealter hid been with the ariIIon bGsilnu Pltroklea when P.troldes tei&ed aome money from fUlIi· .7 CI. 1M . . . NlaUKG I1IIJ'rophmcy prcrri~ • Ii~ in~, BmIs '41~ ,

, ..S~ · II Ar. fr. 1'9 ...... : 1orIO¥, t - M l l -' ,lpuO.ow, ~~co6Yquoted by PhotioIand the Souda .. t". oIioaa .. PIutardro,l.i,/ufNi/Mu +.5 (TeIekIcicIee fr .4' KodI): 'SoKhariklelpeid up loodr. IOaphim ~thllbe_lM6ntdUWhil_dwrhldbouPt. Ni ....' _ Nimlp"'400dr., but I _ hiI friend ItId to it ;. oaIy cIecmc thM I .a...ukI keep _ , eMIl thouP I know_II why he IP" it.· (X.,~ tilt" 06.- ~ ~, lv' crow.. !iii >.tnt,

~

e.u ct IDAl ~ . " " b~.

I.'~CI, 6t ~ iIIaI.I N~ N~IIIKP6wu·

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tqQi,.,o.o.; -rOo 6vtW, O'.,g~v 64: IMK 6oIcct.)

Wtdo Il0l: , alCOUIW, baYeto . . . . . . .rtbinI_1t-neeeod ...•• lhiI i r·

CCi4l11be iP..-ed by

10 AI-'l .Uf.S _ XY.I6,., PUI.6.t, Uf.S, I].

1

So rnUhot on the grounda that it wa public propeny. After the resto1'1ltion of democncy KallimakhOl brougbt I cue against Patrokles and tettltd out-ofcourt for t,ooo dr. Subeequently KaJlimakhOl brought an allegation apinst one L,.imakhCM (pn:eurubly in the tame connection) and lettled with him for zoo dr. The proaecution of the speaker followed . The apeaker dairna to have I witnal to an agfeement with K.llimakhOl that KallimakhOi would drop the pl'OeecutWn for I payment of 200 dr., and claima thlt even this agr«nlcnt wu only made beClluae K.llimakhot had eo publici8ed hi. cue that thoise who heard him had Itrongly advised the apeaker to Bettie out-of-court. When KalJimakhoI continued to pre. his charga, the apeaker put in I special plea (mmruut"ria) that the prior Igfeement made the proaecution illegal. By ftiling to cha1le~ this plea with I charge of false witness K.allimakh08 effectively conceded ita validity; nevet'theleas he then proceeded with exactly the ..me charge again, u it appears, and in the cue from which we have hia speech tried an injunction (paragraplei) on the grounds that the proeecutton breached the Amnesty. Then: ia • very great deal in this aff.ir which I~tel' speech does not 1'CVcr.!. If one takes a view aympathetic to the .peaker and, with Newlin in the Loeb CI. .tcaJ Library, tranal.tcr. 'to act as a .ykophant' as 'bt.ckruil', and 'lOme of thoee acquainted with this man' as 'his friends', then a claaaic cue of sykophantic blackmail is produced, But if one takes a view sympathetic to Kallimakhos, noting that he was the injured pany (the eaaence of hia story is nevel' denied) and had not reneged on his out-of-court Rttl~u with Patroklea and LyaimakhOl, whereas the speaker had taken refuge in the A,nnesty, then it is not at aU dcr.r that the aimple veraion of the story of the originaJ out-of-court settlement can be swallowed whole, still leu that the insinuations about the way in which that aenlement was brought about can be ac«pted at face value,ll Allegationa of blackmail (u oppoeed to limply making money by proaecuting)u are no more frequent in Demoathenes and Aeachines, and a1l the cues where blackmail is dearly in question concern men who brought charges againat full·time politicisns, Although the speechA,ainsIAml.ilon is full of insinuation and alluaions it brin" little detailed evidence in .upport of it. interpretations of Ariatogeiton'. behaviour, It cannot be denied that Ariltageiton frequently threatened to bring proeecutions. but it ia anothel' maner to decide _hethel' he did 10 timpIy in ordel' to get paid ofr, The best that Demoathenea can manage in the way of blackmail allegationa is vague, 'he took

I, AI 1_ _ nw, SI-a ~. ~ of hrtinc wiu-d faIedJ 10 ....' Ii>. ,m', beiItt cSe..s oaIy 10 ba" the aid Pf06uo;:cd atm. ~ 1IJIeld!1iIa'- that he _ OM of • "'1' . . . IIUIIIber of wih to thiI 't.ct', &nd lhiI micbI • AI the! the _ _ no! quilE • IMXi_ lep".'lc. iI. ct. Dem. Imt.u.a.

a

e.,.

1

90

ROBIN OSBORNE

IOmdhing', 'he enpsed in every improper behaviour imlfrinablc, attacking allotted ~. beainI and eucting paymentl'. Zl The: cue of Theokrines iI more complex. Mikon, against whom he brought • jIlttuis which he dropped after Mikon had patel him 300 dr" wu not. politician. But althouah we do DOt know • much _ we would like to about Mikon, he cmainly came from a teeptx:table family which was involved in public life at 1eMt to the extent that his brother ... priat of Dion,-aoa and honoured by the Paraloi, probably for eenic:e • financial officer of the .tate trireme the p~ .U The other pro mutionl brouttJt by 11leokrines mm· tioned in Oemoetbena LVIII are I, nee uily political, "afJIti ,pGmNOi:wlI apiRlt the f8ther of Eplkhara. in which 'I'heokrines -=ured a conviction after the defendant refuted to tettle out-of-court for 10 ta1enll. and a IUbeequent and ret.ted cue apiMt • POlycuktM (p bcxl.~ 6lo6c:w;.. ; ~ U! ~ ISoultp 60 ~j!60Utl uvd. IICd I'h' .-.. ~ &6otAn ... ~. aiJv 6l ~ ..ciw 6; ~ ~ JI~II,~, !iii o6v 06WU1' r4 w6. VI. ..w_ ~

............

-re

• "-:h.I.IOS : cU.l.b ~ &vd . . MlG6 v ~ jl6d.vqCa, au.,.ama.~. ~,6rVJa, ~ ... 'lib !iii bM~ ~W wts:~.

,

k

~

ROBIN OSBORNE

defmct (for the raw data lee the lilt of teatimonia concluding Harvey'l ~Iy below). Fourteen 01 the thirty-two 'private orations' do not uee words of the Iyltophant root It all. When: we have the speech of the pl'Iliccution in a diItl, no aUeption of Iykophancy on the opponent't (that it, the defendant'l) part is made. Accordinely there are no uaes of 'sykophant' worda in DelnOlthena lotYU, xx:nn. XLVI. XLVII . ~. L, (.IY, or LVI (and only one trivial instanct in tM a"tiJoIU tpteCh (Oem.] XUI). In (DemOlthena] UII, the tpeech of the man reaponeible for bringing the 4fKWIapIti (denunciation) from which the particular daapute at iaeue in this speech ariaea, the speaker is at painl to point out in the fint eentence that he is NOt heine a Iykophant. Two of the five pr~ I! cution speeches which do ute the word are not in fact diJtoi (LVIII" In nuJftxis, ux a "atJt;). and all five be10nc to acquencea of legal Ktiona: XL v is I proeecution for FIlIe Witnell, thlt ii, effectively, an appeal, and hence a lpeech by the originll defendant; XXXIX and XL are two of a lone series of lpeechea in I complex of cues apparently begun by the man who " the defendant here. TIw: UK of Iykophant in thete lpeeches il thus COnliltent with the pattern in lCtUaI defence speecheI : five of the eevt:n defendant'ltpeechea (xu, u, UI, LV, LVII) UK 'lykophtnt' words; only the two inheritance speeches fail to employ the charge (XUtl and XUY) . Similarly all but one of the injunction ~1 lpeechn Ide '.ykophant'; th_ Ire In lpeec:hn to eItIblish that the cue " inaclmiaible, and hence lpeeches by Ihe original defendant . .iOlt the original ProleC\ltor. The cxccptiontllpeech which docs not UK 'aykophant' it a reply to an injunction, and henet a apeech by the original proeecutor (xxxv). The pattern in the OrItionl delivered in connection with 'public' cues it very different . As it illustrated by the Thcokrincs and Ncain CUt:I mentioned above. Ploeecuton in tbae cues are quite prepa.mI 10 al1cse aykophancy. DemOIthenes himtelf Ulf:llykophant more or s liberally in hit prolecutiom of Mctdlai. LcptiRCI, Ariltocntca and AriIt-.eiton; only Androtion and Timocntca t:ICIpc. Nor did thoac who p'Mtcuted Dcmoachena himaelf let him t:lClpe untarred.19 A dear picture of the ute of the charte 'aykophant' emeigH from the DcmOlthcnic COrpUI. Plow:cuton in private CUCI avoided the 'sykophant' words altOlClhet : unlcaa they wen enpsed in a prolonged Itrugle with the defendant in which they themselves had been pIC I eC'lttcd, they had little cauae to allege that the defendant wu a aykophant, and they may hive tried to avoid putting it into the dikata' heada that they might thcmlClvea be bc;ng tykophantic. Dcfcndantl in IIJCh caaea, on the other hand, a1moat invariably a1lqed that the prtJlecution wu aykophantic. and they did ao both in bringins injunctioN .nd in mUJne their main defence. By conlTMC, in ,.atMai and other cuea where the pro.ecutor ..... not himtelf the injured party but wu

"

claiming to Kt for the public good. the aller-lion of .ykophancy was thrown around by both piC I ecution and ddencc ,like. 30 It ahould by now be clear that even Rhodes' rather cautiou. ltatement of the traditional view of the aykophant it seriously mitleading. 'Sykophant' wall applied to men who took advantage of the"w. .110""118 volunteer Plo&cc;Ulton

in order to obtain te1ft.rde or payments, but it Wat by no means applied nduaively to them. It "'at applied to II"Y prORCUtcw, and it implied not that the proeecutor w.. Kting for corrupt motive" unle. tlult was additionally llpeCified, but rather that the pfOKcutor did not have. good case, that hi, cae depended on improbable uaumptiona. empty Ulertiona or over-meticulout quibbling. 'Sykophant' was • tenn with some abu.in content, liable to be IItrung together with other terms of abuee. but to allege cluit someone "'II • sykophant wu not to prest. very aenous charge. Dtmoathenes does note the fact that Ariatogeiton had been convicted of sykophancy, but he does 10 in I virtual parcnthaia, and Apollodoroelcavea the allegation that Kallippoe h.. ICkd II ••ykophant to the penultimate word of the speech apinst him.]1 To uy that 'aykophant' wu a relatively mild tam of .buK • .till not to tell the whole .tory. It ......lso an ad Itoc allegation. A proec:cutOf showed himaelf a 'Ykophant by bringina a particular p,oeecution, not by adopting any particular kind of proeecution as a profeaaion. AU the orators uae pam of the verb 'to Kt u • I)'kophant' .nd the .batnct noun ·,y\ophancy' much more frequently than they UK the noun 'sykophant', and only laocntea, in hit epideictic not his foteMic speechea. talb of aykophanta in the plural with any frequency.)! IKlttltes xv. aSS taIU of the 'genua of .ykophanta', but there is no ttM:e of the profesaion of sykophant in the onton,]) and the very cuet moR frequently alleged in the modem scholanhip .. profeuional.ykophancy • Fat the effective dioti.Dmon bd .. eo;u " ... \,,; and JiJuJj _ ~ '91sb. J. Dem. :nY,'9, (Onn.] LII.3). Ct. Diphilollr. )",-11-, from ""' ~J: 'H~". man .m.:. can""'" lift witloou1~.. trouble. 00,...... know whM I ....nP H., ..... rithniipCnd hI. niPtt on pdt}' biola........ or ~ or bc~ ttw. .m.:. do MICh thinp, or 1ICti..... ;ylopbantm lbe...,.... atbari. . f_ .itt III . w~ ........ct;'. rid of a11_bacvm. ' (o6x t~ ~ tftY 4Yru MIIOG 11'¥O1; I wiwv ' ~; &)J,.' ~ Ixn' ~ ~v - . ~ f\ "IOI.~dv, I f\ ,.., ~ mVm lIOI.'NVIiv _v, I f!

m_

OIIIit1¥l.m:v*"'~,f\~v ' ~ . w~~.,tvos:.)

D

JJ

n .. L,a." 111*& o l _ pen of tIM: vab, • O".Inio, ,bra of die abitlK"l bOUn

' . ' . tic, _ _ 01. ..•• ,'=,..,inthe ....... ,_lia~ofl '._I.intheplunol. 18Oa _ _ 3I6_ooI_ penoolilM:vnb, lI_ooIilM:.t... .., noun, 4 _of wi ; .....UJ mthe ....... 1nd 14 of ........" . in the plunl (all tM" . ,\ ..,. come mlbe cpideic:lic (Hillioi. vm or H). ~ 11M _ _ _ of !be ..,,-b, S of the IIbIinc:t noun&, II of milM: ..........., _ lofw,.,,,,,,,;mdlCpIunI. The nc-hcnic rorpua "100 _ _ _ part of the vnb, II nou ... 19 m ilM: .,..,.... , • II of ',L,,. mtIM; plun!. On 'the w.--,' ("roo.,",*", 011.,.0:",") ofIOnn,] UXOC .I, lU..9 let: the autiouI b ........" of Bow.... Smith 19)1: 54 and D. ) (c:omr.: c.,.". Reid I9IS: 168). 10 line miMed CaIhaua .91): ......, .... : tlw f .... of the _ dnnead .... hi. . ~ than that Boiotoa ,_iwed help and advice &om. IfOUP of fricCHiio. whetbnro.....n,. ~ ...,..,. at _ . Ii .. m lhe IpMbn lara . . to pui til. advice iD • bed

, '.'_11', .,ki.....'"

ofw" ...,

of.JOt'.·""'"

Thit..-- _

.....

1

94

ROBIN OSBORNE

VIInish on c10ee examination. J4 ThWilaocratea alludea to the,,'GfJ/ta; and diluU Kallimakh08 brought, but the fact is that lR can only be lure of hia involvement u proeecutor in I lingle complex of cuea in which he himaelf WH. or could tuc:ceMfully repreKnt himtelf u being, the injured party. Theokrinea made three proeecutiont that we know of. two of them directly related to the ..me affair, and the third ~bly involving pIIrt of the ..me family. Arittogeiton wu certainly aloud-mouthed politician, who lpecialilitd in alleptioRi nther than proeecutionl. but Quintilian acquired from aomewhere I high opinion of him U In orator, Ind we mly be over-influenced by the fact that an that aurvivea to us are three tptechea made againlt him.)5

II

THE IMPORTANCE OF SYKOPHANCY

The tylr.ophant thus diuppeara before our eyes. but the phenomenon of .ykophancy, of vexatious litigation. remains. When a man stand. up in court and call. hit opponent a .ylr.ophant he is not claiming that he i. bringing the prosecution to make monty, but he i$ claiming that the man i.a pts'. cau.ing him .00 the court unncc try trouble. That the AtheniaN felt the need for a apedal term for the wxahous litigant impl~ that aome Athenian. at leut believed that there WIt an amount of litigation which caused more trouble th.n it WH worth. At lea.t .. early .. IMJCTlltea, the e:Ullence of three different ways of proKCuting the vexatiou. litigant at Athens was taken u evidence for the ale of the problem;J6 but it alto heara witneaa to the difficulty of dnwing the line between proper and improper. or vexatiout. ptoltcutiont. One aspect of this problem i. the difficulty of preventins tylr.ophantic Ult of measures .,.inlt lykophant.,31 but a 8CCORd, and mort significant, liet in the intimate

.. I..ofbnor JI

"'7 ImOmlioualy rvuP' the information on four vet)' well known proeecuton dubbed ' I)'kophants' by Ihcir"" .." .....c. (wt-..-., a . , we have) in a chapter he mtilin 'Typal AthmWll)'aIpbang'! QuiMitiln, /tu'. Or-. XII .'O.U: ' I ..... _1Ie"I'etaI «fton - Lykourp, Arilcoce1toc1 WId IIRIIII and Antip/'lon who weft artier than. them. n- mipc bcdelc:ribed _ men of the lalne f.mity but with differenl indirid.... cbandera' (11_ p/vrimoII, L)'WI'IIlIft, AriIc~ d hi. prioreIla-eum, Anliphonb: qw. \II bomineI inter Ie ~ tirnikl, difkr'entil diuriI

.

~) .

,. ltoe. X1'.]I}-'''' MIC~U ")71:66. Boaner" Smith 1938 : 6J-71 . ForWl,.. of PIQued ... . .inal.ykopNnll_ (Arill.] All. Pol. US, 59-3 and d . lP-l' It _ UAnpldcly uadnt wIw)'OU had eo 60 top: c:onricted of.,.up •••c,. Cauiroly it __ "": ity the_thai dim frequency of (~ul) t;Uption or 1M receipt oUdemand for nate)' weft in

.

to _ 't- ~.bout iafOOQlCtt • of ~r: but it iI _. it ia .-.lble dMot the

.nee

,

k

"

connection between litiption and the proper functioning of Athenian

d<mOCnIumtia .

II

THE CRIME OF SUKOPHANTIAIO

For .ykophancy ... a crime; and that it fatal to Osborne'. thetit. If a plaintiff failed to RCUre one fifth of the jury'. votes, he _liable to. fine, .00 in MJme caa pvtiallOil of citizen npu: he ... prot.bly not permitted to bring any similar ClIIet in the future, II It it&t thitltage, it ICtm•• that the acquitted man eould retaliate (but only if he wilhed: Lipeius 1908: 450-1) . V.riou. procedure$ were open to him (lee Bonner 8t Smith 1938: 6]-6, 70"'1 i MacDowell 1978: 6S) : ,,-apAi. 12 jnoboli 13 andpluuu, 14 and at certain periods at.o eUo",eIiD, 15 efuuixil and GfNIIOIi. 16 It is heeaUIe. convicted IYkoph.nl ... a criminal thlt Peieetairoa ,dviles the IYkophint in Ariatophanea' Birds to tum to a Lawful profeuion (np 1iiMiimon, I....s-SO, with punning reply). 't'Mre ought IUrely to h.ve been _ legal definition of ,ykophancy, even if it lacked the preciaion chIC a modem lawyer might deaire. Our texta make weh a bewildering number of mnarb about whit a aykophant it that it i, difficult to find it,17 Lipaius (1905-15: 449) offen the moet prohlble definition. 10 'I'M ..bole of th~ wction _ oa. ..trice from I>t' dr Su. CnD, who hi how £ttl not 'apoI. .bIe fOO' UN...., in....t.teb it .... beflIlMed . 10 Lipiu. '905-'5 : 449: Bonner. Smith 1911: M ; M.:Oowdllonl : 6+- Harrilon 1971 : 81 dillcmt. Setsp. n'"'pt...d .... ~ (S ,cd,·M-.k 198, : f" •. 4 - Scho!. Oem. UII.] wilt. PGUII>! ~II.SJ ) ; fOO' ... I:DmpIe 01. ........ itnpoKd on tbe man btcau. 'be tried 1(1 1)'kophuII', Hyp. &umt. 34. II L)". K.1II .67 (65) , Itoe . n .ll.; Nnvrr in I>arembaJ-SIsIio rr. l , 1575-6 ; Lipliu. '9OS-15 : ......51 , lAne in RE IYI.. I (19) 1) : lOll-I; HIIITiIon 1971 : b-) ; unc:onrincintfy denied by

Cn'W'\cy un'll.

n AllIN. XU!!.s ' ,_. n.314' L;p.n. '90S-": u;t-14, ~; Bonner a. Smilh 111)8: 67-70: H.m.on 1971 : 61-1. I 'II'ft with o.bomt (n.]7) and Rhodn I~I : 5.17 dwt il iI puulint; tIw NAN. _ 1(1 . , !hit • muimum of thftt "h'4li could be broutbl -UIDt ..... mizen.,· mel. muimum of tbnt metict. Pualill( fOO' two , -M: (_) A .,klpMM nil.! .! 10 be.we to ",_oM. Could. mdic brUIi .,,-.,Itil The modttll I r . _ 1ft - H.n.oa 1971 : 19]-6, ClIp. 194 11.1; MKDoweIl 1978 : ,6, 78. ~; WbiubNd 1977:,...-6: 1lI1.!1. 1981 : 5'7. 655; bvtoaly illacepliollll_. If 10, it iI .urpriIinc that cm.n and mclic -un. _ icknticaI . (6) Sinet the number 01. ritiaenI 1"=""1, ..... wded UN lIumber of mclics, thiI-.Jd imply, _ !bet tnetice weB tu ICtift • cit;" in .,to;pharlcy, bw thlt they '"" _ Kti.... - """ ocI6er ..... dtN IOIIInben drcPF 1.1 in doc f-o. Cl'IItUrJ' when theM.N. _ written. (WhiIebmd 1977 : 97"'"1, 1,59-60). Soallro(tllllei" I~l: I II hid Ilrady. a cd tbM Iht AIJIN. ' mI)' ba¥t ~ throutb cardIM~ ofittlepl_n:e'. Thu.OwboilOC" lr 1M . . . . (11.]7) wbtleb} the mttict b Clif the 'lictiml, _the 1(:CUItft, _ ftI)' llU'Ktift. F", non·AtheniIn vic:limt., Athent , lee Plilt. KiM. K. .9 (. hnian); E!IpO& pee f, .9\1.81-105 (a EpidIuriaa). LofbaJ 1917: 90 n .. . iI_tW..:tory on lb_ poia• . 1.1'kPf : LipMut 1905-IS: ]1)-14, .... ; Bonner.!knith 1918: 41; MacDowell 1978: b-J , OtbacM p.87. ThI: .......-u of U - MtCh • Har,illll (1971' 111-'9), who deny that ~ tpirIIl.,.~huIta,.., refuled by Cohea 1973: 1t-9a. It IU' .. _ : 1_. n '114; Li~ 1905-15 : 101, ++\I . " &"Iri';, _ . " I : Dan. I.nll,lo-ll: MIcl>oweU 1971 : 65 .• _ _ \. Oa the difIadty of fltIdint. dmr definition, Bonner '917 : 6:J-4; ""- • SI'IIirh 19)1: .p-J; CnwIq '970: 1+-9]; Hat ... 1971 : 6o-a ; Otbac. 11.]6. MliCDowI!II 1971 : 654 bcIina theft DWJ 111ft bft-n DO Icpl defiDition , bw .... whit -,. 111ft counted • ~ eoidt,,,, .

,h."",

.und

_ ......

",

'"7 Gnoi"pumt oder U:icAtsi_ : in othet" word. (I take it), when the cue came to coUrt, the proeccutor could provide no proper evidence, witnCS11C8 or proofs, 10 that it became clear that he had cithu hoped that his victim would pay him not to go to Jaw. or th.t he ... bringing the cue tolely in order to obtain the proeecutor'. share of the fine (tee p. Il:l below). A clear example of tbis tense Ippean in Hyperides, who NYS that one Teilit had brought I CMe in the hope of pinilJ8 three-quarten of Euthykrates' property - 4S talents. I hu~ lumbut he had bttn puniahed 'because he had tried to sykophant' his victifN (Eun. 34V 1 Sykophancy, then, was .crime. That alone makes it impouible foro.bome to rehabilitate the .ykophant in the way that Finley (197+) rehabilitated the dem.soguc.

111

A DIRTY WORD

But whatever their original legal me.ning, the Iykophant-worde came to be u.ed in I very wide range of Knees. Definition is never I simple proeHl (Robinaon 1954), and the .yltophant-wordl arc not aimplc conceptt. In the

fint pllCC. they are value-words, and eecondly, even if they originally had • 'core' meaning, by the time they surfaced in litenturc they had certainly loet it (Oobome p. 8n _ peo-hapi IV! I ery to fillihe chid" IinanciIl pc-.. Sindeir 1988 : '09-11, 19S alto beliews in...-olllntHn, with 'little: pr-.n: in the ~ of 1M botJi. TlM: feet thM jurymen wen: chotm from tt- who put tbnr name. f... wd - WId..,. _ offcrecllO ICtncI them to do 110 (Mirtle 1935) - waau thlt the _ _ tNr of mapa.eiet. '1 NikiII_ ~ioatIly walth, by Atbmiwt .,nd", (O,via 197' : 4OH), tnd ••illCll: he

_eo,er.

,!tad, .

mmo..

_ alto timMI , WI Mieal WJtt foe rykophanu: PIIIt. Niit . 1I.s-6, .,11 ..... (dtronoloficlily -"-d), DIU; a..,.Niit . t!lCnus . 1.1. Since IWU KWld.with ThIX . it IooU _ if Niltill' 'comic pc._w' (o.bome p.SI) ' - _ b.iI in retlity . For Iykopt\Intjc MtacU oa lUI brother, lIN: the_ PW •• &ph.

"'.+3.•,

u8

DAVID HARVEY

phanled out of the ttate' (poiitfta; m.n6), and there are other eumplea." Ariatogeiton, saya DerDOIthenea (XXT.83), alwaya demanded the death penalty in the courta, and he wu not the only one (d. e.•. Lya. xxv.a6). The death penalty will have created a dead Athenian, who will hardly have taken a very lively part in political affain; whereu the tArut of the: mth penalty it likely to have driven a man into exile ntha' than into politic.. At a local level, one AntiphilOi contrived to expel ten demeamm of Halimoua from their deme (Oem. LVlI.60) : again, not an obvioua method of forcing them into politic.. Another apeakn complains that hia opponentl'are drivine me right out of my deme with their aykophanting' (Oem. LV.3S). Furthermore, far from benefitting and vitaliainlJ the democracy, aykophancy i. Mid to hlVc had prteillely the oppoaite effect. Sykophanta are a«uled of having turned the rich qaintt the ckrrtos, of making them oligarcha, and of cauaing stam and the overthrow of deihoCi»cy, Sykophantic activity, say Lyaiu (xxvlI.a6) and Demc.thenet (xxv.so, d . sa), Ieada to Ilmi,." laocntea, admittedly not the moet unbiued of writen, cwma that aykophantl reproached the most IUpectable citizena with being oligllrcha and t..konizera (XV.JIS: d. Lya. Xl(V.a7). Arillode, a more reliable IOUrce, tella ua that rtvolutiona in democraciea are cauaed by demagoguea who make men or property band together, IOmetimea becaule they .ykophant them (Politics 1)04b_~,

1)051)-7).

Converaely, there are examples of men who wt~ politically active,so but found their actiolUJ curbed or fruatnted by aykophanu. The politimna moet frequently affected were the strolegoi, the sencnla (d. Sinclair r988: 146-sa). There are aevenl inatlnea in Plutarch (Nil. XXII.a, d. "'4-S, IV.2-4; AJltib. xxxlv.7; P1roIt. XII.3). DemoIthena (XXUI . IS) apeaks of intimidation of s'rttte,oi by aykophant., which reduced them to inactivity. Ariltogtiton, we are told, h~ the S'rtttqoi for money, and when they refused to give him any, he said they wert not fit to be lavatory-inspecton, let alone genenla: and he cxtended hia activitiea to the mqiatntea choeen by lot (Oem. xxv'49""so). Plato'a timarchic man (RIp . S53b) devotes hi! life and hi! money to the city, or holdJ a strttteria or lOme other great magillracy - and then ia taken to court and ruined by lOme aykophant (d. [Plato] AJJtib. Jt.lpa; Diod . xx.lo'3-4) ' 1111.11 sykophantl frequently drove rich men

OIl'

.. E.• . AMok. I.IOS; PIMoRlp. 533b. (Plato) Nlib . 11. '..-; Diod. D'4". I. 'The Old Olipreb (1. 14) aIIo apcsU of mom lrom !he Athenian cmpirt beint driftll into aile by AthetW.n ,ykopbana. LolberJ 1917: sN au. At. K1rqII" s,S9"6). wbic:h DlCd not aIhMk 10 an aile, PIli!. AIw. men to PlIIWda', own lime• .. For I)'kophanttin!he Athenian empire_Old OIiptdII " 40~. 8Wrlr l+:t:a with MacDowdl 1971 : ns-6, L,... 1ClT. 19, hoc. D .).I (I .....iciout _A.t;on all)'koplwr.... ,ad okmt· ppa): o.twtId 1,&6: 1100-11 , o.bome p. IOI . Sy\opIwIIt ill ~ Ainoe: Dorm. L'ftIl '3,..,s. Accotdi..., to DiodonM, l)'kopbtntt'" --.I t .... in Syrxu. (11.1.17-5) tnd lhe f'eIOPOM_ (."'4". 1). to . , 'politially ..:ci'tt', I do not mean 'merely C8Ilini one', ttOIl in !he ~bly or 011 tile boWl' (AdkUrt 19'1'6: 319); I rria' to _ l'OIikw::u_': Finlty 196s; PerlmaD 1963: H _ 1933" 1933b; Sincltit 1918: 34;8, 13~S, SI.-,S·

Bo,'

terri...,

,

k

Copyrighted MaterIal

... of, rather than into, politics; and their attacks on active politiciana hindered their conduct and deterred others from involving themselves in public life. IX

EPILOGUE : THE CROWN OF TAMARISK

Osborne treats us to a story about Solon , Anakhanis and the spider's web (Plut. Solo,. V' 4-Si p. roo). But the context shows that Plutarch's 'Iaws of Solon' are the measures that he took to prevent tyranny. and had nothing to do with the introduction of the voluntary prosecutor. A better story. which encapsulates the traditional view of the sykophant, can be found in Diodor08 (XII. n.I) . The lawgiver at Thourioi decreed that those convicted of sykophancy should walk around wearing a garland of tamarisk, so that it should be obvious that they had been awarded the first prize for wickednm. Some men found themselves unable to cope with this disgrace and committed suicide. Subsequently all the sykophants were sent into exile; and &0 the state was relieved of a great evil, and enjoyed a malum'os bios - or. as we should uy, everyone lived happily ever after. 51

TESTIMONIA Squ. re brackets indica.le a ,ykophant wonU. AIUC H1NE S I . I . 3 ,~.

183 ; nt. 6+, 17a, ANDOIllD U I .

~16,

p~

which rden

3a, 105. 107; ;u6, a31, ~S6 .

II . S.

86, 93, 99-101 , 104-5.

10

, ykophancy but doe. not

39, 66, (93),

99.

UK

Ihe

u.... 145. 170, 177, 181 ,

(U.I).

ANTIPHO N (Tetral. l.i . I)); V.78-30; VI '4) ' .... tSTOPHANU Atllonlimu SIS-::I3, 5S9, 7~S-6 , 818-a8, 8+0 , 904-S8; Birds (68(1)J , a8S, 1+10-61), 1+79. [1694-9J ; Ell.1!1~s . 431>--9, +sa. S6~3; Kniglltl [asUsJ , [)ooJ, +)7-"", [sa9), [uS6); P~(JC~ 191, 6S~4 ; PI"tIlS ) D- I, 8SCI-9S8 , 97D-1 ; Wosps

1+5-6, 897. [10),......] , 1094-{!· Fngmenta (the fif1t figure rdef1 to Kock O\P, the figure in bracketl 10 KISKI· Aultin PCG) : +D (-) (Amphiomos); 100, loS (_loa, 110) (Gto,.,;) : aJ9 (-u8) ([Joitoks) ; 009 ( - +S4> (Ptlrull'oi ); S39 (-S5::II) (T~'-sseis) . Scholi. on Birds 38, Pilltus 31 , 8S4; Hypoth. to Birds III (OCT) 1-~. Cf. Vita AtUroplu2I'ris aMI (PCG lII.a, p.a) ,

JI I hope 10 dillC\lll thit peW-I" eltewhere. Diodorl», by. chrono\osical minoo;le, IUribUIt:a the

..... of Thoonoi, founded in +43 '.e. , 10 thE airth-cenlury Kluorona.. . The Ilw-gi~r ito gn>er.lly ~Iie ..ed 10 tlaYe been ProtI(oru : 1ft l'Iatvey 1966 : sSg n.lo; Muir Iq.III -lhou(Ib Aristotle dca not, .. Muif ~ witb n.:l4 impliel , «fer 10 the odder enactment..

Copyrighted Material


uo

DAVID HARVEY

Ali STOTLf. Elh.Eud. II . U:ub5-7; PMI. '45613-7: Pol. fl. u68b21- S; {v. 13o,.h»31 . 130SI~J; Prahl. 9Sau-6; Ilkl. fl . 138:1a1-7, '40:laI ..-6; Soph.EJ.. 174b8-u; Top . VI. 139ba3-14021, VIII. IS721~33; (rr. 667 RmeJ. [AIIISTOTLI:) AIII.Pol. (IX. I). xxxv. z-3. XLIII.S. UX.3; RlIet.ad Alex. 14a~a6-3a; '4Z4bll--4, 14-442-30-5; Virt.1'!I Vito uSlb:l--3. COM IC fIIAGMENTS (figures refer to Kock. unles. otherwise indicated) Old comedy Epicharmos 84 CGFP "" P. Oxy. Z4a9 fr .7 ; Eupolis a31 (PCG 2-45). PCG 99. 78 (~mo,) ; PCG 259 (Prospaltioj); Kratinos 69-70 (PCG 70) (Etu7ltnidts); Plalo 14 (Amphianws) . ISS (Fob. inc.); Telekleides -4'; Ad~p . 7. Middle and new comedy Ab.ia ,8a (Poietai); Diphilos 3:1 (PCG 31) (Emparos). (Euboulos 74 (PCG 7i») : Menander (ed.5.ndb.ch) EpitlY/>Ontts :118. Geo'J'Os h.l, Pen"keir. 373-8. Samia 578, 'l"'MrJpJwr. h .l . Fab.inc. KOne SiS. 919; Gnomai m<Jnoslidrm ....0-603: Philippidl:$ :19; Adesp. :151 . Uncertain date Adesp. 90S, 11 86. DE INARKHDS

I.

6;

fI .:I.

D£MOSTH£NES V. 6; VII. 21; IX. 56; XII . 9, 19 ; XVIII . 95, 11 :1-- 13, 118. 121. 138, 189. 192,212, :13:1-5. IJ9, a42, :149, 256, 2.66, a7S. a89, 3'7 ; XIX. 98, au; xx. 6a, 152; XX I. 103, 11 6- 18.122, '14 ; XXIII . IS, 61 . 67.180, ' 90; XXIV.] ,,...8. 14. 66. aOO-I, a03; xxv. 8--9, 18-19. 35-7. 39-4 1. 45-P. 63, 8:1--4, 96-7; XXIX. n. 25 , 30. ii, 55; XXXII. 26-8; XXXI II . 2., 16. 37; ltXXn' . 40: XXXVI. ), I 2, 14, 21. a4, 26-7. 5:1--4. 58, 60; XXVII. a-3, 8, I) , 17-18.14, )5. )9-'P , 45. 49, 51-) ; XXXVIII.). 16, "UI; XXXIX. 2, 25-6. 3i; XL. ), 9, 4]; XL I. 23: XLII . 13: XLV. 47 ; LI. 16 ; LII . 33; Lillo I; LV. I-a, 6, 9, It-3. 16-9. JJ, 35: LVII . )2, 34. +4. 49. 57. 60; LV III . 2, 6, 8-13. :13. a6-9. 32-7. 40 • .p-). 62-5; uX. 39.43-4. 68; Prooim. xxxv. z; Epist . 11 .9. DIODOROS 10·3- 4·

I.

17.", 901.5. IV. 8.5; XI. 87'5: XII . 12.2.24.2-) ,39.2-3. xv. 40.1; xx.

olocuns LAF.RTIOS II . 63.

HU.AKL£ IOE S KUTIKOS

I.

4 (Pfisle r ).

HVPUE 1DuAthenog. 25--6: o,moslh .); l::uJeenipp. 3J-4; Lykophr.

2.

ISAEUS I. ..1. So; XI. 4. '3. 31. I SOCRATES VIII. U3. 129""30, 133; XII . 9. 13, '401; xv. 8, 11. 013, 88. 96, 163-4. '74-5. 24-5, 2.)0, ~)7. 141-2.. z.lI8. 300, 3~, )n-~o. XVI. I-a, 41, 46; XVII . .p, 46. 56; XVIII. 2--3. 7. 10. '4. :12- 4. 37, 43. 51-a. 55. 64; XXI. 5, 8. 100It, 13-14. 19· KRATUOS FGrH 3.. 1

f 11

(= Plut. Arilt. a6.1-4).

LYKOURGOS I. 3-6, I). 31. LYSIAS I. +4; III ..... ; IV. 14; VI. J I ; VII. I. 10-1, 38-c]; Xli. 5; XIII. 67. 76; XVIII. 9: XIX. 9,51; xx. (7}, 11; XXI. 17; xXU. I; XX IV. a; xxv.). 19. a.-7; XXV!. 14; XXVIII. 5--6, Frr. 1. 1- 2,43 Thalhcim ... 38. I-a, 21 Ge rnet-Bizos. PLATO Crito +4e-4Sc; &p. I. Hod- J4IC; VIII. S53b; 7iSa; XI. 928bc.

[nAToJA/Ii.

II .

1,,2a, Copyrighted Material

IX .

575b. Cf. Lows v. 7Jod.

e-

,LUT.uCH 0·9 .hove) Akx-Mr 7+5 ; ~biotks IJ.S. 19·7. 34.7; ArUkUks 16.2; o,-lItnws 14.4; &--.r 16.1-+; KiMtm 10.9; NiJtUu 2'5-6, 4.20-5.1. [8.41.

c-,. Nilfitu

fY Crumu I. :lo-J with Mor. 54lef. 84"b; hloPJ,tu 25.1-,; hrillu 37.4: I'ftDItitM 10.3. 10.9 with Mor. l88b. n .J, 16.2. 29." JI.J; SoIoIr [18.6-71. 24.2: nil II Off J7· I-J; Monziia 18~ , S2J.b, 9S~, 998ab. U.2 j

TH.O'.U.STO.a.ar. ZXlII. 4: XX". 5. TR.O'OIIlPO.FOrH 115 F 110, aSl, J17. :' :'"O'RO" HdI. II, J. la, n. J8; MnIf. II. 9; ,,.. 4.11; Oil. Xl. al; S".",. IV.JO.

[UNO.HON] AM. Pol. (,Old OIipreh11. 14 .

... Yal P.c.iro Zen. ua (as. • . c.); 6aS brd c . • . c.). 1-5; P .Mkh.Zcn. 57 (J.+8 •.c.) 1-5: WiJcken UPZ I. In (20]11 • .c.)]-8; IIJ (ISh.c.), 3-18; P. Tcbt. 41 (1I8J .C.), D-, d . Humphreys (.!}8)I: 3J&-q). and Fi,he, (forthcoming: ch.a) . MacDowell (1976: ~) ugues for • aixth -cenlury date, without eommilling him",lf 10 Solon. On the meaningof/X'ra-.on (Irlnsgr-eaion of lI"Iy lOCiallmo.al norma, not of Iny apecilic ItoWle). d. Ostwald (r!}86: 11'-19) . • Cf. Humphrey, ( I~ l a: 339), and Fisher (forthcoming : ch.a), apintt e.g. Ruxhenbuech ( 1Q68: ·47- 51), Hurieon (1971: 76-8). ! On Ihese pusagQ, cf. O.borne ( 1'}8sb: ,,0-,,). Also relevant i. the alkt'ed Solonian law fo.biddinl ncutralilY in lime of ,Iasil, and Plutarch', eommen,- on il (&loll 30. ' ); ICC Manyille (,~ : 20'7- 19). , Cf. VlulO$

(1 1}46~

6Q-7o).



1M law ofhubris iN Alhem

'"

Many of these puugea will be diac:uued later. Firet it will be advisable to give a brief account of the way hubris ia interpreted in our forenaic texta, of the types of acta which are envisaged aa in principle lading to actions of hubris, and the evidence for actual cases. Let us atan with the latter. Despite some statements to the contrary,' there is, as Osborne'a catalogue shows (JI)85b: 56, d. alao So), one hubn's charge which certainly came to court, one which wu started but then dropped, and there are also a number of possible CHea. The certain ca!e concerns the allegedly villainous Diokles of Phlya. laaeus, auacking him for his depredations against his relatives' propertiea, mentiona that at one stage he shut his brother-in-law up in a house, perhap. in In attempt to kill him, and Ichieved hia atimia - dishonourable deprivation of citizenship; Ind concludes that 'though he haa been indicted on a graplJi huiJnos, he has not yet paid the legal penalty' (vllt.4t, d. also VIl1.+4, on I proa«Ution impending against him) . The exiatence, known to lexicographers and aimilar late sources, of another of laaeus' speeches, Against Diokles on hubris, suggests that he wu subsequently brought to court on I graphi hubnos, in which the locking up and deprivation of citizen atatus - i.e. the infliction of the most severe dishonour on a citizen, thereby rendered unable to bring a case himself - was probably the central feature.' The other cue is the admittedly unusual one of ApoUodorOl' objections to his father's allegedly forged will, depriving him of the bank and imposing the marriage of his mother to Phormion: the purpose wu clearly to move the issue towards one court or another, and at that time private auits, diltai , were temporarily unavailable ((Oem.] XLV.3-S)' But the notional basi. of the cue must have been the inault to hitmelf of such a acttlement of the property and marriage to an ex·slave (however ludicrous that could be made to seem in view of the fact that he was himself the son of an ex.slave). This, which haa not always been acen by modem scholars, is made virtually explicit by Demosthenes in the speech he wrote on Phormion's behalf (Oem . XXXVI.30).9 The more doubtful cases are, first, the possibility of a political trial in the aftermath of the ",1 I revolution, the prosecution by Sophocles (probably the tngedian) of PeisandrOl, for SO outraging Euktemon that he forced him to commit suicide (Ariat. Rhet . I, I 374b35-'75U) ;10 then there are a number of cases of violent assault at festivals, referred to in the Meiditu as parallels to Meidias' auack, which may have been graphai or may have used the proboli procedure for offences at festivals (on which d . below) ;11 there is the (1976: aq) illmnic:ally CCK'IftI. but perha~nver·c,ulioul :· ) do nlll know of any quite cenl;n cue in which I penon _ f(lf1Tlally fou nd .,.ilty of 1t.JwU in an Albenian I.....-court·. The Oiokltll:Uewu te1Uinly brought,.m! may well hive produced ll:OfIvic:tion. Cf. a110 below p. '34. I Cf. 1 _ VlIl.4o-,¢ (and Wyte 1904: b'-a). £1'11. 5-6 (TIWbeim), Baiter,Sluppe (,850: 1)0-1) • • nd Ouits ('97': 3',..'4) . • Neith« Gtprin ('979: :alo n·4) , nor Dover (1974: 54 n. ,6) quile brinp Ihi. out, .,.hUe oVet'.emph..i';"Ilhe IbnortNlity of the _ . It it to be noI~ tNt heR IOOcitiKn ttoItlU it at iuJue; d . Murray , below p. ',.0. '0 CI. Jameeon (1971: 555'"1)' II CI. Dem. Jal.]~, 7.-6, '75-81 . ,

MIC~1l


n6

N ICK FISHER

Lytlianic cue .,aiMt Teisis, alleging. honifically brutal revenge whipping, which may poaibly be a hbriJ charge, but, like many another, may be rather a dilti QiluillJ (a 'private'action for 'battery', for which the defining criterion w.. llriking fiT1t);11 and, finally, there an a few even more obecure CUC$ where many charges are poMible, and, of course, a pat many threats, in comedy .. well .. in ontory, to bring a ~ hubmn which ended in a different, or in no, charge being brought. u II

If one ub, then , what ia the buic criterion in these fairly disparate actIthat would enable a charge of hubriJ to be consideml, there is one clear answer, which , it seenu to me, fita eXictiy what the sources conaiueDtly ..y (above an Oem. XXI Mftdill' , lice. xx LoIeJIit~J, Oem. uv Ktmott and a number of puuges in Arillotle's RUtoric) . It is surprising that, dClpite this unanimity on the part of the sources, very different viCWI have often been taken by modem scholars. The view I hold ia that the euenee of hub"', is the deliberate attack on the timi (honour) of another. That is, it is constituted by intentional, often gntuitous action, frequently but by no meana alwayt violent, and specifically designed to inftict shame and public humiliation. Thil, u tan readily be lten, does account for all the actUil or threatened legal caaea, and can indeed explain the Ulel of hubriJ in Solon'a ponnt about the crisia racing the poli, and his legal, economic and political refoma; and it ia spelt out, u dearly I I one could wish. in Ariuotle's definition in RAet. II, and in Oem. XXI.7I-6. Thi. view of the I.w of hubri, hu been taken by the majority or schol.n in the field, from Cope and Li.-iu. to Ha",i.en and MacDowell ; 14 u I ahall argue more fully elsewhere, it does alao explain the uaea of the concept of hubris in the whole range of Greek. literature, in Homer and tragedy, I I well I I in Demosthenes. But those who have not accepted thit interpretation of forensic hubris have had their reasone, and their explicit or hidden Ulumptiona, and they merit a little examination. The mOlt recent anicle on the law, by Gagarin, tuuting the position of Hitzig, looks briefly at some of the pauagea bearing on the interpretation of legal hubris, finda them 'confticting', milSeS, or perhaps " Lya. Ir . XVII (GenwUBi.oI). MOIl (e., . Gemn," ed. II : :104') JO for, diIti....,..,: but ...inet !he phrMe 110 pM . . . I~. d~ one con lid the f-et tllM the tpHkH al the _ ii, frimd al the yictim . II (Dem.) l.Ui • • 6, {Rin . l.a3, Ar. WMI" 14'7"'49. ao.a, '&97""Joa, Bird. IOJ5-57,

E.,.

"Hldl886-93 6 . " Lip.iUl (1905-IS : .-0-9): ~ (18n) I: a39-40: Thalhcim mRE I.y. HIIbrrN GrGp4i: M _ (1939: 38-•• ): HlrriMm (.1)68 : .68. Ip) : M.:eo-u (19']6: 1971: I~Jal : Filber '9?6f.: Dover (1971 : )4"'9) : CantarelLa (19I3: 85-96) : C. ('914: 99). MIC~I'1 inl'"l'f«llion al 1t.1wU f _ rmn: on the ltat., al mind 01 the man commini"" II"""', ·II.... ftIet"JY or power and mieulilll it·, mine mher rmn: on the inter\lion lpeeifically to il*lh and the rifma al dilhonour Ktuned: my maka it eMier to.- """y 1whrU_ IUCII lleriout lOCial Ind rnortl offenee, and the IUbjeft of llepi Kl'ion thai: coukl CIfT}' tIw

!""

nrt""

datil penalty.

M

w


"7

. denies, the clear concentration on the presence of the intention seriously to insult and on its effects in shame, and puts in its place .. the criterion distinguishing hub"'s from ' l~r' assaults the notion of 'serious and unprovoked assault'. 1$ One explicit argument is that to prove in court the presence of a 'hybristic ,tate of mind', the intention to insult, was too difficult; underlying this seems to be an assumption that ideas such as 'dishonouring' and 'infliction of shame' are too vague and subjective to be used as the agreed criterion in a legal charge, and that the degree of force or violence deliberately applied is a more satisfactory, more objective and more patent criterion. What is wrong with this account is, fint, that while it does, as we s hall see, identify a problem, the answer offered fits neither those texts which give extended discussions of the nature of culpable hubris, nor the range of acu which, according to the 8Ourcn, led or might have led to a graphi hubuo$ (and Gaglrin's accusations of 'conflicting evidence of the orators' are captious, and disappear on close examination); and second, that it under-rates the central importance of the concepts of statUI, of honour and shame, in discussiona of the aims and eff«ts of social actions inside Greek communities. The use of the turns atimia, epitimoi, etc., to indicate citizen rights is merdy one of the more striking examples, which i! directly relevant to the one secure cue of agraplti hu~s (that of Diokles), and may have been to many othen!l. Another, more popular, line has been to take the element of public interest or concern u the determining criterion. This line has been followed , in various forms , by Partsch, Latte, and Wolff, 16 but the fullest exposition, and indeed in many ways the most inleresting treatment so far of the grtJphi h"b~. was that of Gernet in his '1917 Parie thesia, who makes his Ulumptions helpfully explicit. He raisee, more than any other critic, the right questions ; but, at a time when he was himself 80 heavily influenced by the sociological theories of Durkheim and Mauss, and by the work of Glott (1904) , he came up. I think, with the wrong anawen, through over-emphasis on the collective and the religious in place of outraged individual honour Y Gemet accepted that many texts in the fourth century do focus on the intention to insult as the commonest distinguishing mark; but, he argued, they do not all do 80 consistently or coherently, and their accounts do not inspire confidence. A different account was n«essary, in his view, to explain the underlying rationale, the collective 'repr&entatioos', that apparently G..,rin '979; d. Hittig '907. Giprin i. 1110 ptobtobly in8ueneed by the deli~ 10 lind I apecifie let of ~ II .. hi: n-,), o.t.or- (lglSb : S-]),Ind me _,.. by 0wb0J ... NICS H.rYCJ ia !hit 'IOhJmc.

r.pcmc-

•

M

w

134

NICK FISHER

coincidence thlt the one cue that CfttIinly did reach I court, Ind mly have IUlined I conviction, that broutht against Diokles, involved the indubitable form of 'dilhonour' constituted by legal dtimid.

IV Evidence of I chlnge in the Ilw - the introduction of the proboIi proceduremly IUggHt thlt lOme of the difficulties of the llubri.r law were recognised . According to Demoathenet (XXI.14?), 'thia law' - preaumably the law enabling the proboli pr~ure to be used for groeI offencea against individual. committed at major public festival. (when drink might be flowing. and where the humiliations inAicted were especially public) - did not exist in the late fifth century, when AUr.ibildes punched hia fellow...uOfYIOJ Taureu.l l It might, then, be auggeated that at some point, for example It the restoration of the democracy in 4°3, it WII decided to increue the attractiveneas of bringing .uch CIICI to court and the likelihood of convictiona being achieved. by encouraging the victims. or any othen who were willing, to win the initial advantage of a lwift, preliminary vote in the lSumbly, many of whOle members would be lik.e1y to have witneued the event . and whoee memoriet would be frelh. AI WIS the ulual rule in thedemocncy, the final decilion wu left 10 a court .11 Such an addition to the 1a_ IUggeatl that aome c:onc:ern had betn fdt thlt the Ilws dealing with such outrages needed Itrengthening, perhaps in the intereats of preventing disruption of the festivals u well u of dealing with particularly inaultinlJ crimet. But that the law of IIubri.r may hive needed thia reinforcement, and that many lidg.nls. for fully understandable reasons, often choee a lesser charge, does not meln that the law of IIubri.r wa. a f.ilure . Theproboli WIS intended to help it to work more efftttivdy in ceruin important cues. not to replace it generally ; and the continued existence and recognised importaRct! of the graplri gave a legitimacy and a IOlidity to the rhetoric with which litiganta pleading a wide variety of cues were able to enhance the illegal humiliations they had allegedly been aubjected to. In other worda, llubri.r wu not only a term of very Itrong moral weight for UII: in condemning such imulta (with, it may be, lOme religioua overtones on occuiona);3) but lince it wu the title of the mOlt serious crime in the area of offences againlt the per'80n, the argument that great Je"bn, had been committed. Ind agrophi Jeubmu could have betn brought, teem. likely to have increucd. the average jury'slCOlI: of angt:r and J' Cf. MKDo_tI ( un8 : '94-7 ). lZ On th~ principle in the ckmoc:rIcy. uod tho::...- it radn, d . • bo¥e all the won: of H _ (e.l . •913': '39-40, ' 55-60); while the ~I ~, and indeed lhe phoci.. formulation, III the ~lationMip belwUA ~bly m4 Ia.-.;ouTU remain alike COllt~, lhe very wick (and final) powu. III the QlUTU'~ not in diapute. U The reliplui MpeCU of Meidi.' offera! at the fmaiyal an: not apIoilcd _ inaMkmly_rnis/lt have bun up«Ied (d. 5'-5, 914, ,a6-?), hOI" ialltthriJ ueed n .plicitlyof thelllfence .pnll the p;\I. Cf. •Ito Ooftr '974: as" m4 Oft the (ratly euqenlecl) '~lipNI' owe,ltHoa III IIJ1briI , d . Fiaher (1918.nd 10000000i,.-, 1990).

1

."

17w low of hub", i" Athttu

outrtge, and, in itself, to h.ve incrustd its rudinees to convict and .pply eerioua penalttea for hybristic beh.viour. wh.tever the charge. This tK1ic teemI admirably exemplified in the lpeuhes ...,illSt Konon .nd Lokhites (.nd perhape also the Lytiu fragment . .inst Teilil). rr 10, .w.rene. of that poetibilitiea may.lso have played lOme pan in deterring some potential offendcn from such behaviour. l4 But, of courae, hybriltic behaviour wu scarcely eradicated ; drunken fights over M,ajroi (call-girb) or boys, general fights at sumpositJ or in the strecta, drunken . . .ults on enemies or paM ..-by, deliberate. sometimes vicious. sometimes homicidal, attac:'" on enemies, .11 seem to occupy. not inconsider.ble part of the 'coMpicuou.' behaviour of the wealthy and politically active da c. that maR of our sources concern; and often, not surprisingly, and for a v.riety of reaIOns, conviction of .uch offend en, and execution of judgements, were difficult to achieve (and in many cases, of course, the outcome of a tri.1 il not known to ua).15 Do we, though, have .ny reason to suppose that any hubris'tJi were actually damaged by any accuaations relying on, or rhetorically malr.ing UIIC of, the~ hubnos? Diolr.Jes the villain of baeus VlII may well have been incommoded, or even punished, by one or more of the charses brought again.t him , including the "apIti bbn04. 16 Othu intuesting cues, where some progren may poseibly be made. would IIeCI11 to be thoee of Meidiu .nd lOme of the comparable CIICI DemOithenea mentions in his speuh. It might be fooliah to believe.1I that he of IUccc:uful prolccutiona of men for hubris against Ilaves (49). of cuea where people avoided laying handa on thoee they might have been thought to hive had ground. for 80 inaulting because they were deterrtd by the exi.tence of the laWi and the sp;rit of the democracy (6~5), of other cuea of proboli for wronsdoina at the festival. where cuea involving little or no hubris were talr.en eeriou.ly. and one taken to involve con.iderable bbris brought death (175-81); and one mUlt note other t:UCII where he eeclnS to compl.in that the courtaare more lenient to rich offenders than to poor (36-41, 18a-3; d . • Iso [Andok.) tv. zt-]) . But there may well be lOme evidence here that proeecutions for hybriltic behaviour, or the fear of them. did occuionally produce significant raultl. The cauu dum of Allr.ibiades at least, mentioned by Demosthena (143-50) u by many other IOUrcea, provides IOlid evidence th.t. politician of the highett birth. wealth (It lent at fint), and natural qualitiCi of ch.riamattt: Jeadcnhip, generalahip. rhet:orical powen and charm. wu datroyed, above

II,..

of"""s to nob an nnorional. r _ by findint hybtiotic ckmc_ ia. nridy of off_: .....y -P'm aft Ji-' in Fithcr (fOf1bcomi,..: da.3). Same CO_lice th.t _ pa.ibiJity of • ~ he "n _ thoutht to be • eeriaua dcteilUitmiptbefowMl ia.tbelek ..... p II I.of Ar*~(n. '3 aboYc),npccWlyin _ahU •• IIKtiaa ofdw oober B4efykkop tou. th..- of the an.ion: 'HIlbrisP For lhe pch • ...., daa't pIe.e brint th.t _ _'. aDd ... off.... 10 miN: (WI any rum. (Ar. WaqIS "41~. and d . Powell 19118: 316-17). IS Cf. F __ (1976b : 37-45). o.bcwne {Itlsb: sol. CaIhowo 19"7. " DaYiea (1971 : 31]-14). :If

o . alia Dcm:r (1974: 54). OI'!Idoe _

1

IJ6

NICK FISHER

.11, by hi. incurable blnis, or, more fully, by his contradictory impw.ea to win honour .nd power from hi. city and simultaneoualy to treat iu citiant .nd their religiow .nd moral values with contempt, and where convenient with violmce.l1 Cun of IIJdnU Karl to have been notIbie in the late 6fth century ([Xen.], AlII.PoI. 111.5, and d. perh'J» the cue of Sophocles and Peiundl'Ol); even if Alkibisdes evaded conviction on auch a chatJe, the damage done to his career (and to Athena) by the accumulation of pl.uaible accuutions is patent, and thereafter let an example for other auch politiciant operating in the restoml democrK)'.lI The cue of Meidiat hirnlelf, however, teemI in itKlf the atroncest evidence of the unfettered opportunities for wealthy, unecrupulow men with good connedions to Rd away with repeated actI ofll.mris in fourth-century Athent; it wu., pretented by Finley (11)81 : 85-6), .. J»rt of the obvioualy correct argument that achievement of the ideal of equalitJ before the law .... , and ii, extraordinarily difficult for democracies to achieve in practice, and that even Athen., .mong Incient MJcicties. lacked the technica1 IRKhinery, Ind the con.ment hardneaa of will, to deal with auch an obRinate villain . Finley'. strictures on modem achow. fOl" dismissing thisapeec:h 'u an unfiniUed draft of.n undelivered .peec:h' Ire, It !cut in.arne cues, unf.ir; that view of the apeec:h eeema cle.rly well· founded, in the light both of the intema1 state of the text. and of the allepliona in Ae8Chinea (111'52) and el_here th.t Demoathenes 'aold the cue' to Meidiu for 30 ",nai: Ind, u .orne ac:hol.rs have reooa:niaed, this makes the apparent aequence of events no k:eI interesting, .nd .t fint 'i,ht no Iaa deprnaing, than the alternative. las plauaible, view that the apeec:h wu delivered, .nd that DernoHhenea••t lOme point in thc trial, Ic:c:epted • mere 6nancia1 penalty and atopped prootedinp. Th.t ia, on the view I accept. Demoathenea, after yeara of nultreatment It the h.nda of Meidiu and his brother and the final inault .t the Dionym., won • vote in the lIIembly on the proboIi charge; he had anyway prepared, over. period of years, • tnueive invective against Meidiat, to be deli~ in court (and, no doubt, some of this found ita way into the ..... "'bly .peeeh .t the twoboIi heann, It lcut); but, before the cue c.me into court. he qTeed to drop the cue for ]o",,,ai, .nd even.a atill allowed his .rgumenu to EO into 'circulation' in Athens : hence it has come down to ua. J9 So, it would seem, Meidiu got .way with it .,.in . Precilely why Demosthenes settled out of court cannot be known; the rel.tive importance of the fear of Meidiat and hia frienda, doubts .bout the poesibility of. conviction, hope for. """'rocIanIwrtt to atrenathen his poaition

,

k

'37 in the foreip policy debates, or desire for. quick cuh lettiement, cannot

begin to be unravelled. One may note, on the one hand, that Meidiu survived.

befHdcr.tonu. sacred delegate to the Delphic: AmphiktKmy,

in 340. and to leave hil toni iltu,.;c.i but .1.0. on the othet'. tMc Meidi..' reputation mutt hive tuffered IOJDeWhat by the vote in the'll mbly.1O that he preferred to pay than fllCe anodter trial and ~blc penalty, and that Den)Olthenei probably reckoned that renewed expowre, to the reading to

tlltates: 40

public. of hit crimes would do Meidi.. more hann than the rnnindet" of the lettlcmmt thenby risked would further hann hilnKlf. On the pe...anal level DemoRhcna achieved at leut. minor victory; and Meidiu' Clpacity to insult and d.m.aBt: other citizens might h.ve IUnned IOmething of. blow, even if he WII far from ruined . The Athenian Establishment. like many another I for.lI its bitter internal vitupention, could lOItletima teem to outsiders a doted circle of friends (e.g. [Oem.] LVIII): but what may Kern like an illicit and hypocritiCiI dOling of ranb and collusion in criminality might at 'UII on lOme occuiona be, or be intended to be, • tettlement that conatituted tome of Ilatu•• nd of wellth, and peThap. of the opportunity to commit further crimea, on the part of the man who paid up. Control of the wealthy and detennined wu bound to be difficult ; and the contradictory attitude. to the rich on the part of the tkmos included aome vicarioua admintWn for their 'goinp-on', which only comedy could afford them an opportunity to fantuise themaelvea enjoying. 41 None the leas, among the mechanWni, both legal and aoc:iaJ, for persuading or compelling the rich and powttful to .pend lOme of their wealth on the community and not on their pleuul'el,4l and to treat fellow-citizena with decency and not with contempt, the law of IIflbris aurely played a major r6le ; its exi.tenct gave the opportunity to litipnta to aJwpen and intenaify their .ceuution. of diagraceful, oligarchic and contttnptuoua inaolena:. whatever the actual charge. and thereby to reinfon:c the coha.ive, egalitarian, ideology of the democracy. The law of Iul#ms no doubt did not work u well u it .hould have, or u Solon may have intended it tOj·] but there ia good reuon to IUppoee that, even if not uled all that frequent1y, it played. considerable part in malting the daily lives of many M)rl of. diminution

M

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1)8

NICK fi S HER

Athenians less fearful and less oppressed than they would otherwise have been .44 offen~n -vinic che ~non in UK in Ptolemaic Alcundril (ct. PI.tech 193.0) included - in addit ion to I vulety of fairly preeillC provisiOfl.l lgainll _lIlta, threltll .... ith In offen,ive weapon, violence committed when drv.nk, II night, in a temple, and 10 on _ Ila... 1(fliMt /rubril 'of I type not covered in the written code', with ~nllti~ tixed It dOllble tht danuges IlISC5Rd ; th;' WIS I 'p rinte' dilli , not I public action , with la.sc. penalties. The differen Sec Bon.mente . eo- and Iakr.

7 The social context of adultery at Athens DAVID COHEN

Before examining the norms, values. and loci,1 prxtica chllt define the social conCn! of adultery at Athen•• few remarks about the IepJ regulation of adultery Ire appropriate. In my opinion. fund.menul milunderstanding prevail, in the Kholarly literature on the Athenirln la... of adultery. The traditiona1 view holds that moidena at Athcna wa not defined in tmnl of the marital relation, hut included illegitimate interc:oune: with any female membeT of the family - mother, lister, daughteT, etc. This vicw, which would make Atbent unique among early Western and Nelr Eastern legal l)"ItCmI, reeta upon blatant misinterpretationa of certain crowl p,.agel and I conlu.ton u to the diatinction bttwem prohibitory norms and acuaing condittona. Space does not pennie. full prtttntl.tion of the evidmcc htte, 110 I will simply ·u:rt that in ct. .ical Athena the ..... defined moieNia .. adultery, thlt it .... tuUal violation of the mariu) relation . Athenian Ilw thua defined adultery in the ume wly as biblical, Allyriln. Blbyloniln, Ind d_ical ROmln law, and, like thole IepIIYiteme, permitted the hUlb.nd to lubject theadultenr tUen in the act to ceruin summary procedures. In Atheniln Ilw thit meant thlt the adulterer (lftOI'·chos) wu dauified U I IeClAou'l/OS. I Cltegory of offenders INbject to the procedure of afHJIOIi or lummary lnut and. poeaibly, IUtnmary execution. Understanding lIfIDicJuia in thilltgl1 context pmnitl I hypothetical recon.ruction 0( the llatute on adultery : If IOIUeooW tate. In IduIterez- let him do with him whatever he plaia or like him 10 the E1enn. If he..tmiu h.,.uk dnth ill the penalty. but if he dmin it kt him be broutbt into court • ,. When he: hII c:aucht the adukem-, it shall not be lawful lor the one who hal caucht him 10 continue \ivins with h. wik, and if he: don to he Null _ h. ciYic riP"; and it thaD not be lawful for lhe woman who " taken in adultery to .ttend publK: .-c:rilic:ft;; and if the don .ttmd them, let her auffer whltever may be inftK:ted upon her, acept dellth, with tepI impunity.' I A detailed ..,...oltbeeiOck • lor lhiI ~ion oltbc Ia.of .duJtery rrwybe found ill

c...a-. .9i4. I....w

_

II quite

"

. . ... tbc IoypootloetDl natunof III)' pi Fliid lat; the .........

IiUfJ _ _• but tile ~ ~ 1M)' M'I"C becII nthu diffcrmt.

..,

148

DAVID COHEN

What acholars of Greek law orten forxct ia that reconatructing what pena1tia the Illtutes provided ii, in itaelf, not particularly interesting. The bare statutes tell UI relatively little about the law u applied, interpreted, vio"ted, and avoided in the aocialsr-cem of which the t.w is but one part. In othu words, one muat move from the Iqpl poaitiviat interpretation of the criminal law u a td of prohibitory rules that impoee ordu upon aociety to an understanding of legal norma IS but a part of the complex Itructure of IOcia! practica through which a social ordu ia maintained and reprodl,!ced. Building, then, upon this nsrrowly lepl exposition, I tum now to the broader social and ideological context of which the la. and practice of adultery form a pan. The modem Anglo--American rudu, accuaIomed to the deueaaing lepl and social significance of adultery, may wondu why thil partkular sexual delict Ihould provide the focus for invntiption. Fint of all, one should note that, although in modem westun eociety it i. npe which hIS become the pre-eminent or p.radigmatic aexual crime, in Athens this wu apparently not the cue. Apart from exceptional circumstanca such u tyranny or the ..cking of a city in wartime, we hear relatively little about the rape of free Athenian women, Ind the natute of the statutory provisions i. IIOmewhlt ohacure. Structur.l facton .rising from the lOCi.1 organilltion of modem Meditu· ranesn societies may sccount for the relative infrequency of npe in luch societies, structural f.ctors which .Iao hold good for clUlieal Alhen•.' For present purposes, however, it suffica to note thlt, whereas modem Ilw foculeS upon coerciVe, non-consensual sexual tranaaetionl, making rape the pre-eminent sexuII delict, Athenian law accordl thil place of honour to adultery, which il clearly the paradigmatic sexual offence in the Athenian orators, tragedy, Ind Old Comedy.3 Further, this preocc:upation with adul· tery alao chsrlcteriaea modem Mediterranean eocietin, and the following .nalyais will diacull why thil should be the cue, Ind will relate the context of adultery to more general problems conCffning women, the funily, and sexuality. In sketching this toeial context, the seemingly b.nal questions of how snd why furnish a convenient ltIrting point. H, IS much contemporary acholarship holdl, women were Itrictly confined to their houaea, watched by their hwbandl. and accompanied in their every movement by relatives or allVes, how did they form aduiteroul relationships and then consummate them~ Further, why did men and women run the conaiderabk: riab that adultery ent.iled? Aftu aU, u L)'iu' ontion, em tJr~ Mllrd~rof Eratos.Jterws , makn dear, tome hUlbandt, at least, were not loath to exen::ile the .ummary procedures provided by the law, and othtt pa.agel atteat to the ill-treatment S"'littki Oft . .~ ill (onlanpor...., ,..tu", !uropaoll ~ia. aut that Ihil ",,"em IMylrill hold. for ltaly,nd c~ hlft fu lower ..tao( (I'ftouled) ~ dwI do. for nampE, Britain Ilnd Wdt GemwlY. I . . . of )'01.1"1. unmuried -ooilit'ft It fnti ..... pa.,.. • prominent r6k in 1M plot. 0( leftI'"II cornedi" of MrM"". bul il iI often no!: dear wbdMr 1M lO\III ~ion rcalIy_ bIoKd upon force or i,limply rdnnd 10 .1Ud! in ork to helP... .e lhe tcpUtMion of d~ pt.

J

,

k


'49 which adulterers were likely to suffer if apprehended . Indeed. the question of motivation arises with particular force for men, since, according to many scholars, the only significant romantic attachments for men were homosexual, and sexual gratification, in this slave society, was ubiquitous and cheap. Indeed, if Andromache', description of her life in Euripides' Trojan Wmmn is taken as typical , one wonders why and how adultery happened at all, let alone achieved its pre-eminence in the pantheon of sexual misconduct: I made good repulltion my aim; I was fairly sueceaeful; but now I hive lost what 1 gained. As Hector's wile I studied Ind practised the perfection 01 womanly modesty. First, if I woman don not stay in her own houte, thit very fact brinp iII·flme upon her, whether thc it It fault or not; I thcreforc gaY!: up my longing to go out, Ind Itlyed It homc; and I refused to admit into my house the Imusing gossip of othcr women ... Before my husband I kept I quiet tongue and modest eyc; I knew in what matten I should rule, Ind wherc I ahould yield to hi•• uthority.~

Such statements are all too often regarded by scholars as representative, yet the y contraat markedly with the many assertiont of the sexual intemperance of women and the frequency of adultery one finds in the sourCe!. As a character in Euripides' Sthene!Joea, mouthing a commonplace, puts it, 'Many a man , proud of his wealth and birth, has been disgraced by hi. wanton wife.' What accounts for the antithetical descriptions of the married woman and her rale which one find s throughout the classical sources? An examination of this ambivalence about the characterisation of women may serve as a first step towards understanding adultery and the context in which it occurred . Conflicting characteri8l.tions of women in the ancient lQurcet!l have caused considerable confusion, which scholars have dealt with in two waY'. The more primitive method denies the force of the antinomy, explaining it away in some fashion . Thus, Flacelihe (1f1>5 : 55) accepta the Andromachean typology at face value : Whereas married WQmen aeldom croued the threaholds of thcir own fmnt door, . dolellCent girls wcre lucky if thcy wcre .1I0wed 15 far I t thc inncr couny.rd tince they hid to stay where they could not be seen - well aWflY evcn from the male memben of thc f.mily. He admits, though , that Aristophanes presents a very dif£erent picture of Athenian women, but concludes (1965: 69) that this mult represent a change towards greater freedom in the late fifth century - a rather desperate expedient, since we have almost no evidence befo~ the second half of the century. More recently, Gould (1980) and Humphreys acknowledge the contradiction, but Humphreys rather unsatisfactorily contents herself with commenting that, 'This contradictoriness must be to some extent a product of the nature of our sources, which are heavily dominated by cultural themes in which women are seen through a grid designed to fit men .'5 Gould, more • Eur. T", . 643- 56, triM. Vel1acotll97S:~. J Humphrey. 19B3b: 49; am/ra Hcndtnon 1975 :

~.


150

DAVID COHEN

aensibly, tries to relate the contradiction to profound cultural conflicta conttrning women and their aexuality, conflicta expreaaed with particular force in myth. These conflicta ariee out of a central cuhuraJ ambiguity about women and aexuality, baaed upon a dynamtc of dependence and hatred, desire and fear, which, it will be UJUed below, is typical of Mediterranean lOcieties. A aatisfactory explanation, however, must go beyond the realm of myth, important u that may be, and attempt to explain the. contradictiona in terma of what Giddent (11)84: th. I) calla the 'atructural properties' of aocial ayatema. Looking at aimilar difficulttea that have ariaen in describing the toeial r6le of women in the contemporary Mediterranean world may prove helpful in addreMing this task. AnthropologilU, predominantly male, had ktng formulated a view of Mediterranean women as ateludtd, powerlHa, and ieollted from the life of their aocltty. A later generation of researchen, however, challenged this widely accepted thetis. Clark, for example. in her aocialanthropologica1 study of a modem Greek village, acutely formulates the contrut between thc.e diffumt interpretations of the r6le of women in tradition.] Mediterranean societies :

When ....e began our field study at Meth.",. it wu lOOn evident that cbaraderiaationtof Greek women in tome of the ethnognphic .,.;aunt. did not fit the wOhlen we were mtQUnlerifll" While ....e had read .bout povrCTI_, tubmiMive femUei who contidued themlClvCl monlly inferior to men, we found pb)'licll.ly and IOciaIly .boill WOIIkIl who had • pal deal lOllY about what took pllC'e in the va• . The lOcia.l and eeonomic anain of teverwl houteholda were actually dominated by older women, includi"lIM haute of vii. official,.' CI.rk'a explanation of this contradiction foculel on the way in which the gender and maritalltltua of the reaearclter largely determine the information to which he or abe has ac:ctII . 1 A aignificant body of recent re.earch has confirmed theat findinga, revealing how conceptualisations of the r6le of women vary M:COrding to the penpective of the infonnant and the rhetorical nature of the context in which the view is uplc:wc:d. Both penpectivea mit within thi,IOci.) context, and both reflect the values and norma of the lOciety. What is misguided is to try to identify one u 'COrred.', on the IMUmption that auch norma and values mUlt form a coherent 'sY'tem', free of ambiguity, ambivalence, or conflict. A further aourte of difficulty in anthropological asu ..menu of women in Mediternnean aoeietiea ariaea from the related problem of failing to differentiste fint-hand obeervation from informants' accounts, based as they often are upon the conacioUi and uncoll8cioua manipulation of nonnt and cuhuraJ ideak 10 u to convey a particular point of view. In a.. ing the IUtUi of women, as well as rellted queatiOlll like aecluaion, c1. .icaltcholan have perhaps often fallen prey to the aame trap, • Clan 1913. See . . . the pio_crine wtie1c 01 E. Friedl, 'The lX"ition of _ : appeanncc and rulit}" NftltJ~ QMrrc.fy 40 ( 11)67) 97-101 (repr. ia Dubid 1916: .p-sa). J For 1M _ recenl ltudia on Ibil qucttion. ~ Whitehad. c--)' 1916.

,


T1r~

social context of adu/l~ry at AthellJ

'5'

failing to distinguish between ideology and (sometimes conflicting) normative ideals on the one hand, and social practicet on the other,' Too often normative ideals are taken IS objective structures which determine behaviour, rather than as what Bourdieu calls 'official representations of practiccs', which are manipulated according to the strategic exigencies of particular practical contexts.'-iI Seeing the way such norms operate as an element of social practices illuminates tbe otherwise perpJexing contradictions. The two Athenian authors who were most acutely aware of tbe problems of women in their society, Aristophanes and Euripides, wue also fully cognisant of such contradictions. That is, the contradiction between conflicting normative idealisations of woman : desire and fear, dependence and hatred, Medea and Andromache, and the further conflict between those positive and negative ideals on the one hand, and the life of the society on the other. Euripides in Medea, Troja" Wom~n, 8acchae, Hippolytus. and other plays deliberately embodies in drama these conflicting positions. In Me/anippe, a play noted in antiquity for its collection of antithetical characterisations of women, one character thus exclaims, 'The worst plague is the hated race of women.' ' Except for my mother I hate the whole female se,,:10 On the other hand, in the same playa woman asserts that, Women manage homes and preserve the good! which Ire brought from abroad. Houses where there it no wife arc- neither orderly nor p~perous. And in religion - I take this to be impanaot - we women play a large pan .. . How then ClIn it be just thlt Ihe lemale sex should be abused? Shan not men ceue their foolish rcpmachcs, cease to blame all wOmen aliI.. .. if they meet on.. who;' bad?11

The way in which Euripides repeatedly plays upon the conflicts inherent in these view9, stereotypes and ideals should have indicated to e1uaical acholan that great caution is required in evaluating the portrayal of women in Athenian sources. He depicts I society whose values reRect profound ambivalence about women and their sexuality, and his conscious dramatic mlnipulation of ideologically determined stances shows the way in which neither Andromache's speech, nor nominally non-fictional accounts like that in Xenophon's Oeconomicus, can be tallen at face value u reflecting 'how it really was'. 12 If Euripides used this conflict as the fuel of tragedy, Aristophanes no leas brilliantly pla«d the "me antitheses and ambiguities at the centre of some of his most serious comic creations. In Lysistrata. Ecciesiazusae , and Thesmop/roriazusae much of the sexual humour derives from the wlY in which he exploits the contradictions between the cultural ideal a.nd real life, between I The I00I1 penetntinglnal)'litof 1M manipulation of IIICh Cllqori~ ill Boordieo 19n: J6;3.

58---7 I, • caic: atlldy.

9 BOllfdicu. 1917: t h oa. 10 EU.f. 'n . w6. 500. tn",. vcn_, I91S: 97. II Tnllllition by Vel1.acott I97S: 97. 1'heK mw-. .. pre.erved 'rcuprmcd in ;.oiated ucerptI , bul they can never1MIaa KfVC to ~aetnpHfy EuripidQ' employment of antithetical vie. . of women in hie play.. Familiar inau.1\Cft abound: e ., . M ...., HippoIytlU, and Hecuba. II To tl"ltlliatelootcly Leopold von Ranke'. 'wit ~ eiJentlic:h rewam·. on whicb lee the critique

by Finley ICJIIS : +7"'66.


IS~

DAVID COHEN

woman u men think lhe ibould be, woman as men fear lhe is, and the mothen, maidera, wives and wid,"" of everyday exiltence, If the conflicting ponrayall of women in the lOurCft an reflect something about the norms and valuCi of duaica1 Athens, how it one to relate theee producu of ideology to the lOcial practica which they inform? It wu IUggated above that in order to illuminate the motivCllnd conduct aeociated with adultery one would have to broaden the enquiry to include the sexual r6le of woman. Now, uling comparltive evidence, the ICOpe of the di8cuaion mult be funher eXPlnded to cover the broader normative context encompuaing femlle sexullity, that ii, the related antinomiet of honour Ind lIlame, public Ind private, Ind the lOCialand ICxual r61e. ueociated with them. One may begin by briefly aketching lOme of the central featurel of the ayatem of honour and ahame u it appliea to texuality in modem Mediterranean toeietiea. IJ The crucial point here is that the honour of men ia, in large pnt, defined through the chastity of the women to whom they are rellted. Female honour largely involve. aexual purity Ind the behaviour which .ocill norm. deem necessary to maintain it in the eye. of the watchful community. Male honour receive. the active r6le of defending that purity. A man'a honour is therefore involved with the sexual purity or his mother, sitten, wife and daughters - of him chutity is not required. The vigilance of men is necesaitated therefore by the free play which social norma give to the expression of muculinity through the seduction of the women of others, and Iiso by the view of female texuality which posita thlt women need to be protected from themselves u well. Aa Pitt-Riven puu it,

n the inevitable COfftllte of Ihn eonceptulHudon, Ind the notion ia not, perh.ps. diapleuing to the mile who m.y ~ in it an tnC1)I.Irarement of lIuu.1 (Of}queat. Thu •• In honourable woman, bom with Ihe proper tmtiment 01 ahame. llrivn 10 n!>id the human eonl.:" which mipat expolC her to diahonour; the Clnnot expect to auCCftd in Ihn .mbition unaupponed by maJe authority. Thit fact giva juatificltion to the uuge which maket the dettived huaband. not the Idulterer, the object of ridicule .nd opprobrium ... 14 The fnilty of women

Aaaocilted with these beliefs il the felr and hltred of unbridled female sexuality, which only the fon:e of &oct.1 convention and male vigilance can restrain . Since the cxprealion of this aexu.lity in illicit WIlY" may bring humiliation Ind dishonour to a family and lineage. women arc dangerous and are often teen al the ICxual embodiment of the daemonic. The violence with II The Ct'MBI intrrpH1.tion of honour and WIM in MeditetrlnQII -=ietiu loIloW'I that propoeed in II.ICh d_~ lIudiu .. PiIl·Riven 1977; d . Pm.iln,. 1966. wbieb itw:luda Bourdiw', d_~ _y 'The KfltilMnt of honour in Kabyle -=iety'; and D.... 1977. Of courw. the kind 01 onl ftlieBliMtion for wb~h D..... hat bHri mt>Ned it • dln,cr in thit am : IH Hen:feld 1910. But Henfdd, on the other hand , iI_~y n:prded .. .00. too fir in hit C8mpliln lor ~ pmic:uIariMn : .e, for t/M: molt r«:mt cor.pat.. 01 opinion on honour Ind wnw, Gil~, D., ed., no- _ ~ rad tlw U,,;ty'" tJw Mfiliurro'Won (Wqhincton, D .C. 19117), I tpec:iaI iMue of !.IIIiI',itclJl AoItI\ •.,.....,;,I. I< Pitt.RinB '977: 1).

1

'"

which tranegre.ions are punished expraKS thi! implicit hOitility. for, as it is uau.J1y put, the dishonour can only be washed I"Y with the blood of the tranegreaon. Thus. 80urdieu notes the proverbial uying in KabyUa that 'Shame is the maiden', and women In: often called the 'cows 01 Satan' or 'the

dcvil'a lnarcI',lS This nexus of honour and lexullity characterises Athenian society IS well. A. one of the peg 'ges from Euripidea quoted above puts it. 'Many I man, proud of his wealth and birth, has been disgraced by hi, wanton Wife.' This is not &imply. literary formula, fOf" in the Attic ontOf'l it ill not uncommon to anack an opponent by uferring to the unchastity of hi! women . FurtheT, numerouaorationt mea] the wly men feel dishonoured when their women are compromited. For example, the cuckolded husband in Lysiu' On tile Munh,. of EmtostM-I claims that the adulterer he killed diagr.~ hit children and humililted him by entering his houle and leducing hi. wife. Indeed. the code of honour and shame i.enahrined in the Jaw of homicide, which allows a man to kill anyone found having intercourae with hia wife, mother, si.ter, daughter or legal concubine - preciaely thaec relationahipt which Pitt-Riven li.ted in the pa.age quoted above. In .uch a law rape, &eduction, and adultery are an implicitly included. From the standpoint of honour luch Icgaliltic definition. are unimportant, for any act of intICTCourae with a woman whaec IICxual purity mUit be protected can be avenged with blood. 16 The Athenian code thus embodies the principles expreseed in the customary Itw of the Bedouins, and ...hich Itill peniat in many Mediterranean communities alongside the nationallcp.1 codes which now prohibit IUch vengeance. Whether among the Bedouin, the Sarabtaani, or in clUlieal Athena, the need for luch rules is appucnt, for they define the circumstanca. under which such killings mUit be accepted by the family of the victim 10 that blood feud may be avoided . 17 S~ does not permit a full dllcuuion of the way in which the IICxual purity enjoined by the code of honour and .hame i. defined, embodied , and protected. The diacu..ion will inatcad focus on one important facet of the eocial ""lea CORnected with honour and shame, namely the !Sexual upect of the dichotomy of public and private Iphere8, uprcsacd Ipatially in the related dichotomy of inside and outtide. It may be helpful to begin by contruting ancient and modem vicwa, and then move to conaidcration of lOme confuliona in c1aaical acholarahip which comparative evidence ean help to dilpel. In traditional Mediterranean aocictia the general identification of the public sphere with men and the private sphere with 'WOmen is familiar and requira littLe elaboration ." Men arc ueociated with commerce and politica, the marketplace. cafl. 6clda, and 10 on, the women with the home. The man'. r6Ic rcquira him to be outaide; • Xenophon puts it, men who auy at home

ac.e

II Bowditu 1977: ........5:1. ,. Coben 1914: 151. " For I.dluin .... _ Owihoc! 1971 : 100t-:l): for tnditional AlbMian U"","HIt1IIa.., H.tuc:k 19st : :l1:a-13. Tbe SuM I ~i.-illbed;"" ,.!beIo-Ir. 1II See, ddlniti" CI I t o ( the ICOIIMICtioIl bct==• .,.tiel ~Iat_ and boQour, in PcriItiaay 1966: d-J).

c.,., .....,.,,'.

1

154

DAVID COHEN

during the day art contidtrtd womanith (Ote. 7.2; 7.30). The woman'a r61e, on the other hand, requires her to ltay indoors. As Bourdieu pub it : The oppotilion between the inlide.nd the DUuiele .. . is COtI(:,etely u.pre_d in Ihe deu-cul diltinction between the feminine 1t'eI, Ihe boule .nd ill pnkn, .nd lhe mueuline .ru, the pl_ ol-.nbly, the lI'MlIquc, the caff, etc, In the Kabyle rill. the two i f n i ' " dittinctly tCpInte , .. •9 The house it the domain of KUecy, of intim.te life. Honour require. that it. IIndity be protected, and the mere fact that atnngerl pin entrance to it, avoiding the vigilantt of male memben of the ramily, itself calls the chastity of the women into question, Any vioL.tion of the house itan attaclt on the honour of ill men and the chllliey of ita women, even if the intruder be only a thief. The IItparation of women from men and the man', public aphett within thit protected domain i. the chief means by which sexual purity il both JUarded and demonstrated to the community.20 As it gtnerally ucOlniRCi, theK dichof:omies - publidprivate, inside/out.ide -1110 eh.racten.e lOciety in dlUical Athens. Xenophon and [Aristotle], for example, expound It length on how by their very natures men Ire l uited for the outaide, women for the inside.:' Apart from Andromache'l eloquent ttllimony 10 the connection of honour and seclulion, hUlblnda in Ariatoph.nea typic.l1y grow .nrry on diKOvering that their wives hive been out, .nd their immedilte IUIPicion il of Itxual tranagrtMion (e.g., 1Jresm. 414, 519, 78J) , In &clesi(UustU a wife, reprolched by her hUlband when abe returnl from usilting a friend in childbirth, ub him, ' Do you thinlt I've been to Itt my lover (moichDl)? ' (520 Ind d . 1008) ,U Not only ought women to remain within, but they mUll 1110 guard themselves from contact with any men who pus by or call for their hUlbanda, ThuI, in Theophrutu. (Cflar, 28.J), in.ubing I woman by Slying she Iddresses tha.e who pus by on the street, or that &he Inswers the door hendf, or that abe talb with men, Ire .11 roughly equivalent to ..ying 'Thil house ia It

Bourdieu in Pmlliany 196(1' UI . Bourdieu 1m' 41-'71 , ISH7 IUminn the lIuidity of optntion of lUeh within the cornpla poollrm of eocial and political ",nteain, rhetoric, and.niorl . 5ft lito M. Hcn:fdd . 'Within and without , tIM: ellqory of the MFmtlkM in the rthnornphy of modern GIftCe', in Dubilch ,916: .u 5-3) . On men who are ridiculed forllUlyi .. lround thl t - , _ M.tIer 1974 : I I" ; Ntd. for lnomparMive penpec!i ..... , Grqor

eaiecone-

1985 : 1) . .. 5ft Campbe:U 1964 : 1'5,

:to) , J6I-7+ )Ol-itO;

Du Bouby '974 : I"I-:aoo ; Hindman I9IJ '

7 1-1 75. I!

Xm. OK. 7. t7-+0; [Arill.] On. I.H .

u HandllWl 191] : 16.t~ nota dial in Pouri (GIftCe) the men alway.. FE~t their _omen of Iyi .. ; bIIt bow It. .,., they to ¥ilit a ncicbbow for a dIN acqIt by -)'inc, lnIly or falwly. that ,hey he" to bOliO_ IOnIeIhi. . ' MOIl of 1M fll-nbk .niritin for ..... he" are covcml by lift _ a ntCcwity _hicb becoma a 10ft of n:fIn . What ~ ill" comp/ic:IIi«I ..... of tuUal poIi,a _belcb, _,." jH " I tpbm: for Ihmllcl... Ih-.h the rwc and the lie. whlc:h lhe men know and KCtpI but, throuP their "SF icion and quacioainc, 111mIf'C 10 limit and control. Handman noca thM lyinc in ci",,",*_ whcft tbIft ill no .,pMlot bmefit from dotnc 10 amJIlo be, for many WOI'Im , a Wly of Iad;nc • life of tbeit OWD,

1

'55

limply a brothel', or 'They couple lik, dogs in the Itreet.>1J Lysin. in • rhetorical variation of the familar topot , emphuillel the honour of women woo bad led luch orderly lives tNt 'they are uhamed to be teen even by their kinamen' (111 .6). Apin, IUcb normative judgements of women'. conduct teem

typic;al of many Mediterranean communities. To name but one of mIIoy

aueh examples, DlVit. in his scudy of the modem Iulian village of Pilticci, nporU that. 'St:venl men told me tb.t I wu the first man not their kinsman to croM their threaholda.114 This statement ii, of coune, no more true than Lyai..• rhetorical "'Ucr'lion of 'proper' feminine modesty. Some IChoJan, however, have taken statements like those of Lyaiu u veracioua descriptions of actual conduct, using them to IUpport their ponDyal of the i80t.ted and KCluded Athenian woman. How, tben, can one distinguish ideology and IOcial practice in luch puaagea? The problem with the ancient evidence is that it it like I jigsaw puulc where most of tbe pieces are missing and the picture on the cover of the box hu inconveniently been lost . Evidence from lOCi.1 anthropology, in my opinion, can provide different potMIible ' pictures' in the form of models of lOciai .ystem• . The model which an provide the moM pbulible explanation of the evidence we do have can therefore help to reconstruct. the eocial practicee which produ«d it. AI.. first step tOWllrda such a reconltruction, I have very briefly sketched such a model sbove, and, .;th further ebbontlon, I believe it can provide the bais for. critique of (!emin important misconceptions concerning the public/private dichotomy and the r6le and statu. of women. To begin ';th, then: is • marked tendency to uke the public/private dicbotomy IS an abeolute ontological ategory.nd hence to confuse sepantton and eecluaion. That is, it does not follow that because, genenlly speaking, the man'. sphere ill public/outside, and woman'. is priv.te/inside, women live their lives in total iaolation from all but tbeir slaves and tbeir family . Separation of .pbern of activity doea not imply pby.ical aequettntion, and, conaequently utter subjection, IS doea ICdusion. While it is undeniable that women did not oper.te in tbe public and politic.llphern in the way tbat men did. it does not netw.rily follow that they did not have public, aocial, .nd economic spheru of their own, nor that the&e categoriea were not fluid .nd manipulable U oppoetd to rigid .nd eternally fixed . Scbobn 100 often . .ume this to be the cue, howevft", milled by the well-known, ideologically determined tata like Andromache'• • peech Of Xenophon'. picture of the ideal wife, and do not attempt to ICIt critically the validity of thea models. Thus Flacel~ (1965 :55) a.umed that women never left the houte and adolacent girls never even reKhed the courtyard. Or, more recently. TyrTClI uncritically acceptI Xenophon'. ideali8ed deaaiption arguing tbat 'The outer door of the :u CamPWCI'-lciafonnant'l_ inWilliame 1967' ?6-'7, 'Arood cirl walks;" lhe_

mel do.n't . . to cbM't . . . her.'

iil)_ •• .

1'be b..:I _. Ihe

me. 10 talk 10 c.t.)bocI), evm if I

" 0 ..... 197).

1

DWI


IS6

DAVID COHEN

house is the boundary for the free woman. Segregated {rom women of other households, with only female relatives by marriage and slaves for company (one wonders how the relatives got there!]' women tended to the domestic chores of running the house for their husbands. >25 Walcot also speaks of the seclusion of women, but he is sensible enough to note that 'we have no way of being certain how rar social reality corresponded to the social ideal of female seclusion'.2.6 I, however, would argue that we do have a way of making such distinctions, for social anthropological studies of modern Mediterranean societies show that the pattcrns of male-female role divisions in classical Athens are typical products of forms of social organisation prevalent in traditional Mediterranean communities. 8e
*"..

F

"

" ,

of.,

'.. exchange, are beat underalood through an alternative type of UUllyaia along non-market lirtCl. S Exc:hance iI an area where, by compariaon with adVfoIlCel in understanding the Plooeu in other periodland pl.ca, the ancient Greek world h.. been left behind. There ia irony here in that the d«iaive contribution, opening up the whole field of compal'llhve exchange relationa, wu the achievement of Karl Polanyi, who had an informed, profesaional interest in the economy and IOciety of ancient Greece (Humphreya 1¢9; Garlan 1973)' Although Polanyi was by no meant the tim to appreciate the qualitative differences between exchange in ancient and modem, pre-eapitllJiet and capitaliat eocicties. he establt.hed the problem as one of the preoccupations of modem .nthropo~ gista. 6 Specifically I he rejected the idea that contemporary economic theory, generlted by and for the modem market economy. was helpful in the analysis of anything beyond. minority of recent IOcietiee, thecreation of the Industrial

Revolution or (18 he termed it) 17te Grrat Transformation (1944). In oppc*tion to the market principle. Polanyi identified two nrlier modes of exchange (19S,.; 19S7C) : 11!cipnxtltive (reciprocal gift.giving) and 11!dUtri· "",tive (ttansfeT of reeourea to, and their re-Illocation from, I central repository or authority). On the face of it, the variety and flexibility of thi. three-.ided approach to exchange look attractive to the historian of ancienl Grce« ; but progrCSl in itl appliCition baa been p.tchy and limited to the economics of the pre-clusiCiI period. 7 That Pollnyi'l Ipprolch should be ignored for the period for which our lIOurea an: relatively full, and in application potentially fruitful, il a paradoJ: to be uplained on two diffCTent but connected levell. In the 11m plaec, Polanyi'. typea of exchange were originally pracnted u mutuilly CJ:dueive a1ternativlCl, lacking in flexibility . The imprC8llion wu given that a aocicty had to conform to one of the three modes, or It leut be tIO helvily dominated by a lingle mode u to fendCT the remaining two peripheral. The implication that the market mode of uchangc could not easily co-cxilt with reciprocity and redistribution helps to account for the eecond part of the explanation. Polanyi hilTUlClf ecems to have been won over by the outward Ippcannce of d . .ical Athenian exchange (u detailed above) to lICe in Athena a partial exception to the pre-capiwill rule of non-market CJ:change. He devoted. whole paper (19S']b) 10 prcaenting price· making marketl, not 18 the heritage of early Meeopotamia, but u an invention of the Greeb; more preciaely. the invention of the Atheniana in the fourth century. Thil intrulion

, LiIIinc 01 pricw ..... for _ Frwt 1917: 61-70; (~

btotoriam, ..:quiftd the _ aI. feeiM: Heichelbftm 19)0; ....a.ty) EIu-mba, '951 : :II,..... But prioN by lhmMlva, di....-l fnaI tbe p 01 fomwtion, M'fC tittle to offer lillie "*""-. I Iunoat dw-"on8lld wwbcited by PoJanyi. pede •• _ : M..ine 1161; T6nniee 1881; M.n(_!Mer IglS : 31~17); MAI~ Up:lj M_ upS ; lind Tbumwald '93:1. J On tbe ~ • • of dw MJ" ,.1 : Polenyi 1960i Fiftley '951; 00'1 the &d: • ....s ,eo ..... ocily: Fiahy 19.55; 19711: 5"-'07; .. tbe.....-m.lol nciprocal adlanceiDI:o the AtdaMc: period : Mom. 1916.

..,a.,

1

170

PAUL. MIl.L.ETT

01 the market principle into an economy depending primarily on reciprocal and redistributive exchange resulted in an 'inevitable cmil of vaJues', .. re8ected in Aristotle'a normativt d....inction between natural. and unnatural. exchange (EtJejcs 113111G-J.... :a5) . It hal to be conceded that there are dif6cuhiet about thit paper by Polanyi. It leavet unclear, for example, what kind of exchange relationthipl are being replaced by price-making marketa and the extent to which the change it taking place. Polanyi talb in vague tenm about (65) 'Greece at the clim.aic point 01 her awakening from a heroic to a lefRi-comm~ial economy', Empirica1 evidence for thil 'awakening' ii, however, decidedly thin : not much more than a mnterpretation of MKne of the moat problematical pa·-sea in Aristotle'a Etmes and PoIitics,a Later writings acid linle by way of clarificltion. Hil aUflRpt. in a comparative atudy of economic inatitutiont (1960: 333-40), to reatrict the ICOpc of the market principle in Athena ia not without inaccunae. and inconsiatenciet (Humphreyt 1969: 49), In a final, poIthumoul publication (1977 : 159-87) , Polanyi tried to account for the growth of the 'market habit' in Athens in lerma of broad political developments. The _lth of empire. pa..ed on to the citizena in the form of public pay, .... aeen .. instrumental in auataininll the "lOra as a market for rudy-cooked food : the CORtrut between the old and the new being exemplified by the contest betwccn the rediatributive behaviour of Kimon (Plutareh, K.irfton X,I-3) and the policiea of the market-oriented PericlCl (Plutarch, p~,;cus XVI'4-S). Although not without insights, the theory ia naive in formulation , depending on the selective citation of paI.. gw out of context. And yet, in 'Pite of theee and other imperfectiona, Polanyi'. broad conception of a decisive abift towud. market exchafllt in claatieal AtheOl teema to havt found favour with hiatorianl who reject the crude, manet-dominated appro.ch to the whole of Greek. history. And there the matter of exchange in duaical Athena appein to

-.' More recent research on CORtflRponry non-capitalia lOcietiea hal aerved to !how up the limitationa of Polanyi'. nther rigid, tripanite analysia. Although it remains helpful in the preliminary atagea of d_meation, the detailed {and

I n in quntion (&Vel IIJa.o-)4U5 ; IWirin nj6ba?-Sa.'4) hIowe been repnudly re-examined ; FinIcJ ('970) IIi- a critical Rport on earl. . war\, II it !he MrftIIIh of Fin.,." ..... yW (and thai of WiD 19,54b) thai AriItotIc',.,...-.1Ift intcrpreud.,u...1he bKqrouncI of founh.century«OllOl1l' mel 1OrieIy, TbM it _lhr_ with recenc 'etOIlOCIIic' ialerpm.tioow of !he teIrtI (l.ewit ,~ : t-ry .969, 1974, .9111. Oft whieh _ Meilde 1989), AD 1'- i * - eilMr irpMwt !he -.icH:UHWIU.ic coamn cw my aa iMlkq_ MId outdated _ N ~.". _ _ (_, fcw • .. 0..... Witian 1975: 61 n.a. , "hen fcw 'MDeI' rnd 'Michdl,), • Thaup!ben 11ft dilkie. of opinion _!he jN ....... period dI wbieh Ibc •• ,1:,.: rill of marbI achance b.pn to bawe "p"e • ' COlli aa.ocicl,. a wtde, Fcw Stm (1971: 191) Ihe ptOftW _ well under..,. bJ' 5110; FmdI {196+: 107-34) _ 1 0 fiftlI oaIIW'y. M~ (1979) IoUowI PoImJi dllIO". lie taka AriItotIc. tW Oill"lCC ,.,... fourth-omtwy 1nnIf_ _ , To fl. . . . wida thiI debMc it bqwod'" tcape of chit,...... tM _ uI. the ptoblelill in.ohcd dI ickatif,ir4 dM 'rile of. - r fl(t : . " _ _ plli...ed out bic.,., h1 r - (19441. 0. the eriticII qo.lIl'ioa of the rei 'MNtoobip bina" ca ' , . _ dw ....oclll C . . _ _ y, _ Kru, 1964; C••• fwd .9I. : :19"!9, I TII.e PI

*

f._ . .

"

'7' conflicting} contributions of Bohannan &:: Dalton (196:1), Dewey (1C)62), Belshaw (11)65), Nub (tC)6S), Sahlint (1974), Gregory (11)8,) and Hill (1986) .11 iIluatrate the complexity and .ubtlety of non.capitaliat cxchange. lo Not only are the mechanismt of exchange mixed up and modified. there can .Iso be • blendin£ of the ideologies assumed by Polanyi to be appropriate to the different modes of exchange. So, in our own capitalist lOciety, the 'monl ecooomy' of aift-giving both parallels and impinges upon the 'political economy' of market exchange (Davia 197:1 i Cheal 11}88) . The result, therefore. may be compromiae and control rather than the tension identified by Polanyi in fourth-century Athens. 11 To apply thi. kind of plet-Polanyian integnted .n.lyai, to the economy and aodlCty of clulical AthlCl'II would be. muaive undertaking, involving study of • range of different types of testimony: literary, cpignphic, numismatic, archaeological, iconogn.phic Ind comparative . It ill IS. contribution towlrd. luch • comprehensive study thlt this piper i. offem!. Although I variety of IOUrce materiu. will nee' arily be brought into pl.y, the problem is Ippt'MChed obliquely by eumining the complex of .ttitudes rel.ting to the exchange of goods .. mediated through lawslnd legal writings from Athens. 1z

II Any Ittempt to gnpple with the legs1upects of exchange in Athens must take .. its point of deputure Prinpheim's fundlmental study of 17te GrPeit Law of &Ie (1950). Since its appearance thia hu remained the standard work in the field and is the esaentiallOUrce for the f~ psges devoted to IIle in more recent textbooks of Athenian law and legal theory (Jones 1956: 227-32; MacDowell 1978: 138-+0). Prinpheim began the conclusion to his book by expreuing the hope that new dlscoveries and better interpretations would lead to revision and correction of many of the Itltementa and explanations it contained (502) . He aIao stated hil expectation that the two theKs running through the book would remain unchallenged; namely, the notion of IIle in the Greek world .. IIle for ready money. and the verutiJity with which the Greth manipulated th.t limple concept to meet the requirements of In increasingly IOphistiCited economy and tociety. To date, both these predictionl have proved correct . ,e MUlY of tIM: worb lilted in the lut (and pIaIty of othere) ..., uecfuUylWlllrl&riled in 1M .,-napIic INdy by HodpI (11)88): flit' IIWW}' aI the rOle aI the mnct in erier 1CIcictia, 1ft Rodi ..... (1973) · II On the inIdequIC)' of the qnal PoIaayi pandip> • UI ~ of t:II~ in the G . . - a - world, _ Finley IOns: In. P.tinanl hen.;. the recml diIco ..,,) .....111 Fink-y'• ....-. of the unpubIlebcd C'onltibwllt'l that 1M: "';lhIM:1d lrom 1M n...k ouuJ M. ., (H~ '969: 4l'): tIM: po.Iibility of ih publimion iI Mi,. d~ . It Ihoukl .... be noted 6oI.>btI brre ! . . . ., PoIaayi'a fN_ntltion of awtec. tndi. . . the daminent lorm aI adwtr in the eacieot N __ Eat (Gkdhill a. Lanen 1,B:a). 11 POI'the . . . aI ~ty. the....,.. IbM. fono.. ~ ewer tIM:. UnportlDt q..-ionl of !be.ektioillibip bet .... ~ tnde IIDd rdailint ( Finky (93S) end tho: -U)'Iick • • _ aI -..ppI_ for the C'ity lo.bacllll: I,s,..: 9)-11:a). .\leo ipoted II tho: ~ aI oppoted to aoodt (flit' tIM:. hiriDa allIboI;tt Nllica, _ Fub '951 , M~ (9'f6).

"me

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"

17~

PAUL MILLETT

Such amendmenll u have been offered involve only poinll of detail (Oemeyere 1952, 1953; Gerr.et 1953: Wolff 1957; KrInzlein 11}63: 76-82). But application to excha~ 01 the broader &pproKh outlined. in the fint part of thil paper cuta &CfOII Pringsheim'l anaIym. of ule. ca1ling into question Ind in plrt modifying his twin themes of cuh ule and conaequent legal venatility. The II.... of sale at conceived by Prinpbeim provides an apparent exception to the rule (noted in the fint Itction of ch. 1 of this volume) that the ltudy of the law in ancient Greeee I'ItCE lrily echoes the pnctice of Greek history in ita Athenocentricity. The num~ of accua1lawa relating to sale surviving from Athens is small (Lipsius1915; 73B---49) . There are aeveral references (an from fourth-century IOUn:a) to I law forbidding deceit or misrepr EI Entltion in the agora (atnetulei" ell lei tJIOI'Qi : Hyp. AtMIIOfftU'S 14: d . Oem. xx.9). The Hyperidel puaage i, gloued by Hlrpoknlion in his late LexiCOft ofw Ten Oraton u follows (, .v. lata te"lJIO'U" apse"dei") : The law moreovct requirn honat dali", in tht 1IfOI'fI. and it _ probably writttn to cover pxh flwn' tOfl 0IIi0fI). Theophnlloe DYS in hil N~ (LIraIJ - SRJCdy· Muuk 19111 : fr .:&0) that the fflD'dltOMlli (market inapttton) mUll look aftu two thinp: good order in theDfl'"l snd abKnc:e of deceit not only by the adlm but slIo by the buyen.

According to the Ariatotdian Cott.rti~timt of Me AlMnimu (LI .• ), there were ten of these a,omnomoi Ippointed by lot, five each for the Pciraitul and the city of Athena: 'TheM: Ife required by the laws to take responsibility for all goodl lhlt Ire on IIle (to" mriml), to enture that what il sold is in good con· dition and genuine.' Hyperidel (AtheJllOfl!"ILI IS) also mentiona a law thlt obliged anyone telling a Ilave to uy if he had Iny physical defect; and TheophrattOi in his Nomoi (Szegedy-Muzak 1981 : fr.~I.I) record. that where real property wu involved, the teller hid to regi.ter the we with I magi.trate at lent lixty days in advance of the tranuction, Ind the bu)'tf' had to deposit one per cent of the purchuc price. TheM:, then. make up the total of known la..... concerning the general conditiORl of Wt in claaica1 Athens. 1] Although it clnnot be ...umed thlt this collection is complete, it i. at leat conai.tent in content. There is repeated emphasia on the avoidance of deceit (qleud~tl) and, with the exception of the sale of real. property and mVel. the IlCenario for thil bad faith i. the tlf'Md (see Ste. Croix H}P: 399) . Thlt auociltion recall. the alleged gibe of the Penian King Cyrus that he could never fear I people like the Greekt. 'who hive a pllce tet apart in the centre of thepolil where they cheal one another with oaths' (Hdt. 1. 153; lor the possible nature of theM: oaths. ace the finalleCtion) . The flUTOW range of Athenian Ia......bout we (11 leut. u they survive) is in striking contrut with the ICOpt of modem law .bout sale. The ltandard exegesi. of current English law II 0... the dutiet of the.." u "'" StaMy 1976: 19?-J97. I an InI certain than SUnley tMW ...poueibtlitiel iQC/vc&ed ...... known only from • f" 01 01 fourth. century totIlCd, (Athm. uSC). Pft'hibitqllk.WlldlmflVOl~ __ tbeir_. On the It_ rcbtit!f to lhe purm. of n:aI Plope,t, ia Att.m., '" Sdrnba 19)4.

( - . . ,) lhal

,

k

'73

relating to the sale of gooda (Atiyah JI}8o) involyed the citation of over a thouaand statutes and cues, and invites conlideTition of I wide range of concepts and problems, including definition and nature of the contract of Slle, dfectl of the contract, duties of seller and buyer I .nd remedies open to them. The hiltorian of Athenian law has to make do with I lina1e Ilw-court speech arising out of. sale tranaaction. 14

A. might be anticipated from the meagreneas of the mlterial, encyclopaedic U'Htmenta of Athenian law COVeT the law of sale in a handful of pages (Vinosndoff 19U : 2SC)-6S; Ham.on tC}68: ~5, 1971 : :15-'7) . By contrast, Pringthcim', treatment of the Ond law of ..Ie rivala modem legal textbooks in ill amplitude. Wb.t makee a1l this poaible is the range of text. built into the IUrvey : Prinpheim incorporates material from the world of Homer, through archaic and cluaical Greece, to Ptolemaic and even Roman Egypt, moving backwards and forwards acroes the Mediterranean world, through I thousand years of h~tory. The IMthodological question raised by thie aggt"egation of texts WII one of the major themes of Finley'a review (1951) of T'Iu G~ek lAw of Sole and it remains a matter for debate. Although lOme of the improbabili. ttea inherent in Pringaheim's combining of texts across tilM and space will emerge below (and ace Prtaux I¢I), that il not the aspect of his metbod under scrutiny in thie paper, which is concerned with the wider problem of the choice of concepts and categories.]5 In h~ Preface (1951 : VIII), Pringsheim diaclaiml any intention of writing a syatematic ttcltise on the Grccklaw of sale and prescnts his task in terms of the interpretation of texu. The texts arc grouped under more than 180 lubheadiop, with an overall div~ion between the history and theory (86-,..,), and the practice of Ale (14J-500). It is therefOft appropriate that the chapter headed 'ConclUlion' should open with the frank admission that " summary of concJUliOlll is neither neeessary nor possible (500) . But in spite of the apparently unayttematic approach, there are underlying principles that give the book a definite ahape. The aim of Pringsheim il not eO much recon.truction of the individuallaWi and S"'tutes encompusing sale in the Greek world. II clucidttion of the broad legal doctrines that are presumed to underpin the mau of material he has collected. Where he differs fundamentally from h~ predeceuors (Caillemer 1871, 1873 ; Bcauchet 1&}7, IV : 10C'n the two JtokU tbet mipt conti_ into tbe flltllre . '" A. often in the ~t"I~~ . thc IUI\II and mnninc of the tnt Irt Iwrc (XlOt . u) IInclcar. but 1M ~nenl drift it IInmill:....bIc; _ U..hct' 1960: ffd Ioc. Comparabk ia 1M bt.llaviour of the 'M"n Min' (G"",kllroVrM), who .,111 off the: _ fn;>m • -.ifico: he: ia tIbIipd 10 perform rMbrr than ,;vor it aWlY (nil •• ). Othc:r r I ' . , . , _ cI ' ~"!Uta ;Ux1IpoIC ..k with reciprocily: hoc: . II.S.: Pt.to, IAtc',I7&-a&l; d . Dem. Ut . 1 where ,1ouI of 3,drxhmac .. weipcd am:.ticIi.ly "';l1li tlw .cnp of papa' - " two coppen (Altai"") liven I I . rteeipf . Allo rtleYatt is tbc tendmq for wordI mcaninc 'buy' IIId '.,11' 10 br combined with GIp ...... 'money' or '.aver'. nu. ida of buyi. or .,W.. 'Ior money' "'Oelll thlt II'IOM1 c:ould itlelf be _ .. 1ft object of rae"' ; _ Kray 1964: 90; lor. mDtktn African panlleI, Bohannan " Datto. 1961 : I . AppoptiMe tab aft colk::tcd by Prinphcim ( "itSo: 100-1), who mtuprctl the p/IrMi. . . ~ '-ct...J .. k for ready P'~

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I " 1l1latify 10 lhe livel} aiateooe and apprccillion of tlwOOf>Cepf 01

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AIIO under suspicion are th06C who sell on I more-thln-cuull basis. making I living out of buying Ind selling (1uJ~I~a) . Again. credit provides I pllrallcl with the populu mistrust of profCMional money.lenders. u indicated by attacks on them in the courts (Dem. xxxVII .sz-4; XLV . ~) . Alleged grounda IN: the way in which profcaaionallendera make their living through the ayatematic exploitation of other people's misfortunes. With profcaaional retailers (~loi). suspicion SCCrM to have arisen out of the obligation impoKd on them by their OttUpation to buy cheap and sell dear. It WlS Ulumed that without linb of philia to restrain them they would incline towarda deceit and miareprcaentation . Some of the stock acc:usatione made againlt retailers in Athens are given below; but mention might be made of the aIlame appllrently felt by a citizen in being al&OCiated with the busincas·end of the tI6f"tJ (Oem. LVII.30-6). and the unpleaunt auociationa of lOme agora· worda.)9 The huhhy lU.picion with which market tradert were regarded in Athens should not be confulCd with the downright hostility and even contempt they meet with in the pages of Plato and Aristotle. Both identify ..Ie with exchange (aJJa,e. alloJt;ti1tij refa. in Pringaheim 1950: 99) and are highly IICnaitive to the way in which exchange in purtuit of increased wealth . rather than for the uke of .If-sufficiency. is liable to abuse. diarupting the Jroinoni4. Thia is the baia of Ariatotle'a notorious distinction between exchange that is 'natural' and 'unnatural' (Politic$ IZsSa39""hz). But in what follows. the cmphuia will be on Plato's presentation of the problem of retail trade in the poIi$. arguing by reference to empirical evidence for exchange thzt he (and Polanyi) undHestimated the acopc for integration between p11l1;0 and exchange in the a,tON . In Plato'a SopIWt (azJc-d). exchange (alloJrtiJri ) is agTccd to be of two kinds: gift (donotiAoJll') and IIle (a,onutiAon). It is further agreed that ClIchangc-by-aa.le can be further subdivided into 'aelling one's own products' (autopoliJri) and '1IClling what othera produce' (~tabktjJri). which in the city is called 'retailing' (Jrtl/N!liu) . In the Po/jtjcru (a6oc-d). Plato revcala his relative diupprova! of lJ.apelilti : kings and their heralda are metaphorically and rapectively COfRpllrcd with outopoloi and Itapeloi; and in the RqIlblic (J7IC) disapproval is abeolute. with /taj¥Joi prtaented as weaklings. fit only for hanging around the GpnJ I exaying: how hil neiShbours hive bHn for~ to lbandon their houleland rent othen fir away; how he refuln to repay hi, mJltos 101m, with the rault that thOle who helped him out are themselves ruined ; how there are.a many people standing ouuide hi. hou&e at dawn, demanding repayment, that pUlers·by think it'l hil funeral and the crowd i. waitins for the corpse to be carried out. The lpeaker .. The lUI at rntGl'ed br Wilhelm (190-4) Ind.: +4QCY ~ lOY xiQ(qllov lOy XVlQWv·/ cbi:066vat lit Nauo(ru/ f\ 8Qc:at1t of,1tt Atlwttia.. &-.y. London n I EDlICH. c . J. (19Ji) 'Separalion of ""' ..e ....·, in ESS XIII : 66]-7 " .. I ..... . w. (1985 ) 1M Risc of,Itt R-.a..1"nru,· ftJl&, j" Ci~'s ""' CtIItC"ituI .

Princeton (11)60-.,:1 ) G~d';sclv, II)Ift~CItt, W"omr6udt. HeidclberJ nOIT , , . J . (lgB7 ), ed" Grrd Society, )rd edn. Lexincton, MA "UU . A. (1951) 'KDItmos ",;,tlttos : labour exebance in el_ieaI Athena', ErtJw.n 49: 171-] (photo.tttieally reproin Fub, Social QmfIic:t j" AlrciAt Grwa (11)841 30J-5. Jeruaalcm &: Lcidcn)

nlU , H .

1

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FULL", A. (1961) P-",,,W', ofII J..d,.mw" Mtumn Vill~ . Cambridp. MA 'UIl&10TIS, c. (19s6) 'Alii dan .ttiec:hm Recht : dte .61K8 ANAl'CfHl:', in holi 1956 : ]:1]-]1 ruaTU 01: COVUNGIS, N. D. (I~) L4 till DPlhqw . p,n. (Small, W " tnn •.• 7Jw Attcimt City: A Sttuly 1m tJw IW/jplf, LtmJs aNd TariMio", of(ftHu tntd /toIIH, ,8n. rqK'., with I nnr fOihord [- Momirliano 6: Humphreys 191131 . Baltimore &; London 1(80) GAl"', E. (19113), ed., Tria Corda. &rilti;1I /mOrt' di AmDido M-,oo"' ,

Como G"UtUUM, Yo(1987) 'TheAlitidom

plocedu~

in d-aJ Athem', C&lM J8:

M'

ClA-OUIN , iii . (1973) 'lJiji in the W~ aNd Days', CPIt 68 : 81-94 (1979) 'The Albertian LI", tpinlt Hyhris'. in BOWfl'lOCk. G . W. , Burbrt. W . , and Putnam, M. C. J., eds., Atit.otlros: Hflln,ic 5,..-, /Ift""kd to ~

KnoJr, 229-J6. Bnlin Ie Nt .... YCM"k

(11)86) &rly GrwA r-. SmIley &: Lot Angeles GALLANT, T, ,.. . (l98s) A FisltnMa,,', Tok: All Analysis of IIw Pot,,,,itJ1 ProtbIcti'IJity of FiJIti"l itt tM AntVftl World (Miscellanea GrKCI 7) . Gml GAILAN, Y. (1973) 'L'Oeuvre de Pollnyi : fa place de I'konomie dans Is .,aM& anciennes', La Pemh 171 : 118-27 GAaNU, • . (11}87) Uno lind SocWty;" Classical AI.vIll. London &: Sydney GUNnY, r . D . A. (19B8) F_·. _d Food S~MJIy;" dw G~co-Rornort World: Rnt-u, 10 RitA orad CrisU. Cambridse GAUTHIU, Ph. (u}fh) 'De Lyti.u 1 An.tote (AlII. Pol. 51.4) : Je commerce de gnin 1 A~ et lee fonction.des sitophylaqun', RDFE 59 : 5-~ GKl.N&T, L. (19t7t) PlolOff, LoU IX, Tradw:litm d a--"t";~ . Di• . Paria (191,b) &clwrdw, I~r Ie Mw~1 tk '0 pnuh jllridiqut! ~t WW}raw /1" Gria. Paris (rep3), ed., Attn,Aott (SucU eeln) . P.ris (19lo7) 'La diamartyrie, pfOddure uclIaique du droit athlnien', RHD 6: 5- 17 (repr. in Gernet 1955 : 8]-10:1) (1933) 'Comment caraetm.er J'konomie de Ia Grt« Inlique?', AnllOltJ d'ltisUJUw i~~t JOciiJU a : 561~ (repr. in Gemet I98J : 19)-100) (1937) 'Sur Ia notion du ~t en droit gnc', AlIoo I : 111- +4 (rept". in Gernet 1955: 61-81) (1938a) 'Inuoduction ll'ftude du droit gnc anden', AlIoo a : 161-ga (1938b) ' 51,1' Ie. ..:lioN eommerciaIea en droit athhlien', REG 51 : 1- 44 (repr. in Gemn 1955 : 173-100) (1939) ' L'inllitution da .rbil:res pubtics 1 Athtnet', REG 5a : 3&)-414 (rrpr. in Gernet 19S5 : 10)-19) (11}4B) 'La notion mythique de 1a valeur en Grm',7-mtJI tk ~ 41 : 41S-63 (tranl. II, and cited from, 'MV.lue" in Greek myth', in GOI'don, R. L ., ed., MytJe, lWiipM and SocWty: Struchlralilt &,ay., Cambridge &: Pan. re}fh, 111-46) (1941-9) 'Droit et prfdroit en Grtce .nciennc:', L'AlrJlh rodoiotiQlw, Ier . 3: 11-119 (Irma. II, and dIed from, Gernet '981 : 143-1'5) (1950) ' Alpeeta du droit athmien de I'eecl.v-rt", AlIoo S: 151]-17 (repr. in Gcmet 1955: 151-71)

k

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&jertnUI

(1951) 'Le: droit de la vente etla nol io n du contrat en Gr~e d'.prh M. Pringaheim', RDFE 29: 560-8i ( ~pr. in Gernet 1955; l00-2i> (1953) 'Sur l'obligalion CQntnctuelle dans I, vente hd lfnique', RlDA 2 : 229-i7 (repr. in Gemet 1955 : 2)5-36) (1955) Droil el Sociil; dalls la Grice allcie""e. P.ris (repr., with bibliographical nates by tmbert, J. and Modrujewlki, J., 196i) (1956) 'Le: tempe dana I" formes Irch.iquea du droit',journal de Psychologie tu)rm~/e el pathologique 53 : 379-~ (trans. u, 2nd cited from , 'The concept of time in the earliest forms of law', in Gernet 1981 : :116-39) (19591), ed., DitrtOllhine: Plaiooyen ciuils (Budf «In). Vol. 3 (of i). P.ris (1959b) 'Note lur I. notion de dflit privf en droit grec', in Mi langes Levy.Bruhl (Droits de I'antiq"iti et IOCioJOgit: j"n'diq"e) - Public ations de l'lnl till.ll de droit Romain de I'Vnivenitf de Paris, XVII, 393--f05' P. ris (1981) TIlt: Anthropology of Ancil!nt Cr'/!/!cI!, trans. Hamilton , J. and Nagy, B. Baltimore & London (Fren~ h origin.l, Pari. 1¢8) (1gB) us Grl!Cs sans miracll!, cd. R. Di Donalo. Paris C£J.r; ET, L. and IIZ0 5 , M. (1955-9), eds., l.ysios; Discoun (Budf cdn). 2 vol •. Pari, C Ea ST, K. (196) Dil! allgemeine Anlt./agebl!fugnis in du allisc/ll!n Demolt.ratit . Di5l. Erlangen/ Niirnberg CIOOE",. , ... . ( l93i) TIle Conslilulion of Society. Berkeley CLEDHILL, J. and L,U SE"', N . (1982) 'The Polanyi paradigm and a dynamic analysis of archaic states', in Renfrew, C., Rowlands, M. J. and Segnves, B. A., eds., Theory and Explanalion in ArchtUO/ogy, 19?-2.29. New York lit London CLDTZ, G. ( rgoi) La Sofida,ite de Ia.familfl! danJ II! droit crimine/ en Grice . Paris (repr. New York 1973) (1g06) Etudes 50o'a/1!S I!t jun'diqul!l sur rantiquite gr'/!cqul! . Paris (192.6) Ancient Cruce al Work (tran •. Dobie, M. R.). London (French original, Paris 1920) . (19~8) l.a Cite gret.que. Paris (repr., wi th supplementary bibliography, Pa';.

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wrtenJahrhuntUrts v. GIIr. Berlin nOLL, J. H. (197
TtlCU. , T . G . (1906) Lifo itt NuientAtMtu. ~SocialarrdJ\lhlj( Life of(l cttwiCoiIultntimt J- Day to Day. London TU,LIN, c . J . (l98s) ' Imperial tyranny: tome n:fk.cliona on I c1_ical G reek metaphor', in Cartledge &: Harvey 1985: J48-7s TUUIIIWICZ, • • (1I}6l) lk urttU usnbus;" AtM,wM_ ituJiriiJ fMC . V tt IV t:I. o... ". ~IOt~Io~ . W_ _ TunLL, Y . • . (1984) ",",a.· ......: A St.dy jrJAt""'tIJI' My'~ . Baltimore tlCHINDO , T. (1967) 'Some principlet of haalina: in peaant maRm', &0,..",." Drwbl DNi CadtJII'GJ CtaaJwr 16: 31"""50 USSR",'. c. (1960), cd ., 17w Cltarockncfneo~"Whu . London "AN ...... N. ' . :Ift ......N, • . 1',lN V&LLACOTT, Po (1975) from, DraIrw. c.mbrid~ VItIINO, C. (Jp6) PI4toru OeMIU: DW, Erritb", • ..., Sttll2u . FrankfurtlMain

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VICinal , .. . J. (1CJ84, pub!. 19M) 'DemUl" BOld plriDh (LysiM 19.:115)', AJAH 9 :

08-s, Rc-aIIII ~;" MldjMUiJI E~ . Oxford (Igao) 0..,1ifW, ofHistorialJ JllrisfwwkttU I. IllttodllCtiorI: Trib4llAfg. Oxford (19:1:1) OtaIirw'ofHUrom:tJi:J~ II. nt-JllrifpnuUnaof,. Grrd Cit)' . Oxford nAlTOS , o . (1946) 'SoJon~n ilJltke', CP#I +1 : 6S-83 " Ablt-Can, H. T . (19S8) EISOYs ill ~. History . OxfOfd "ALeOT, r . (1970) 0-.. hlUGftu ~t aml Mode,." . Manc:hetC« (1gB.) ' Greek anituda towarde WOIMn : tbe rnythoJorical evidmee', Gem 31 :

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"ALTIUN, J. L. UK! HOLLAND,

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CoNm i,. Mode,." ~s . London WANUL, H. (19'76) ~tllnws: RedtforKu,ip/toIt iihn'dtn /(mrQ . HetdclberJ WAT SON', A. (197+) Lqcl TraMp/_tl: AIr Anm»cll to '4> for Sotn'tJiwU,ntUM/t tlml ~til +1 [Igal) 6n-'71:1) wal'Tn, T. • . L. (1969) Ewryday Ufe j" CItu,ica/ AIhe1u . London "aI5l, It . (193J) 'Greek la,,', in ESS IX : HS-9 "aueo", It . c. (lgBS), ed., &.itJk ~,.trilfr. &Iqsll/lnwnr~id:ttU al~dwr_·a""~~OOftH.wrbilAm'ou", .

"MtTIH'AD, O. (1977)

c.m......

ne IIkWoo oftltc Atlwm'_

Vol.

I.

Metic (PCPltS SUPP.4'.

(11JSo) 'The triba of 1M Thirty Tyrants',JHS 100 : :ao8-IJ (lgBJ) 'Competitive 00"', UK! community profit', C&tM 3+ : SS-?4 "NITEMIAD, T . and CO"A"4" , • • (1986), cds., &1/. &Jt, and Gttrded1l Crrm-. Forty-, the. mlll'lltI, pt. mlMlaii Eng. dibet(l) A man ... ho lef'Veci on In Athenian diAasttT· ;0,,', fulfilli", the functioN both of. modern juror and of, modem judse (pp, !.2.. it.. 2S n. ]S, 100 with n ,so). ~ in the cae of the botJe.. IIKi many other public offica, the P*tion .... rftlricted to citizent, who had rnched the.-e of thirty. diltastmo", pl. milos/triG ; Ene. diblteryraa One of the numerous People'a Courtl of Athene, to be contruted with thoee apecial coyna which weft not manned by milas/at"', IUch II the AreiopicOl-. The typtcaJ mJu'lkrioft conAlttd of ~Soo diltos/m" , .elected by loti (_ 11.0 nN. -Itkrot~, __ See Je .... raIly pp. !9.. t!t ft. ~ ~ S2! 9.L ~ n.j'. mid, pl. t/iltai A concept of wide 1eOpC : 'jUitice', 'good ordff', 'judsement' (p. !..ll.: But it cln a110 refer to the procell by which I jUil wttlement it determintd, thu. ' , I...uit', ',trial', ,nd even 'the cue which one plods' or 'the penalty which one h.. to pay'. In the aenw of 'II_it', diJti can be uaed rithu lu... rially, to refer to Iny type of indictment, or elK (more commonly) in, temi·technical ten8C , to denote lhe olde.- ' pr;"'lte l u;t' (whic:h only the ,,""evee! pany OC' hie immedieto: pefWONl repretentatives could bring) II oppwed to the newer 'public lUil' 1Oli in pi ICllion did not have the unenc:umbered ript 10 dilpe;ele of it (t.,., bec:a"", he: had offered the ptupal)' _ aecurity for 11ou:.: pp. 1'j'6-8}. Three typea of trll*c:tion lite rec:ordee:l on extant 1Ioroi: h"f1~rwItl, pnuis". I.m, aDd.,OiI· a.a ; but the ptec:de utun: of the diarinction beNeen ta- rem. it \UIdear (_ furtba p. 1,1). (flll''''-) b6rew A public: indic:tment ~WrU' (pp. U]-45,&cu""').

,

128

STEPHEN TODD

AIdwU The core-eoncept of"",,", it ditputcd: it • probably an IICtion .hich intmtionally a _ damIrc to the ~ 01 the pc._• it (p. u6). Sec ~lIy pp. U3"""45. and aha 158 with n.J •. I"Jlrisks A penon who commih bbris- (pp. IJI, IJ:I, IJ5, 139). A.,lwAl Set w . Itotw-.

.wfcm.

imprilonmmt See w. pma1~ . inheritance The inheritance rqulationa of "''"iaI Atbmi were very dillinctivc. If the d«"! •• ed Ich a direct heirorhctnin the mIk line, thm he Met indfect no poWUI to roUe I will; mel immcdiltdy. without the need for I c:oun heIriat, the inheritance" cd to the W(I) (_ rtI . plltiblc- int.clitaDot). If MWher the deccmd hid no mile heir but left. d.aushter, the became anqi"'fuQi-: thai .., the WIll not henelf the hciftII, but I" .on of the prupc:lly WIll vt:Sted in her. The man.ho mamed her took lhe atItc, but.p..... entlyonly •• trUIleC : wbm the __ of th. mII'Tiarc reached adulthood. the propelt, revelled 10 them. The IwKtiol. of thit inllitulion it dilputed: WIll it intended (II hit tnditkJnally hem believed) to pro";dc an heir for a houMhokI that would otherwiee leek onel or _the lim (II hit rettntly been .ugnted) to protect the intereltl of the PfOPCntcd woman in a IOCWty where .tie had no real control 0VC1' her propcny and her muitIl proepceu, by eMurinl that In ufIKrupuloua m.le ntllt-ol·kin did not Itek 10 keep her unmarried in the evmtual hope of inheriti", her propcny l A man who had no direct /Nle h~r did hIve the poWCT to make I will: iu PUrpoK woukl be primarily to fill the IbImcc olIn h~r, normally by poethumoualy adoptinsl male relative or cloec friend II eon, or marryina him 10 the tC'ltator'ldauKhtet, or bach; if the dectued died without heir and inteatate-, then hit rcl.tivca in aid order of kinship had the riaht to cllim the hand of the rpiAwros , or if then ... no qi/tkros to "'aim the CItItc in their own ri(ht. But whether or ROC there _ a will, the dntinlltton of.ueh an ar.te had to be confirmed by • rJiAallvitm- praidcd over by the 1JrtiM-, a hcarinc .t whkh IIlYbody mi(ht submit. claim . An unconlClCed claim • • known U In qfdf~- ; if there _ a ditp'ne between two or more daimantl, the hcrri. _ c:alled a diDdi*an,,-. It wu notoriout tNit Athenian 4iJuut"." tended ta rank the daima of rcliltivC'l IheId of the intmtionl of the teatltOf. inquiaitorial An inquititorial.y1tem of jUlttcc (p. :lJ) • one In which the iudr in , criminal trial it charged with dilcovninc the Inlth : he will nonnally direct poteedinp, dceidil'll_hat wit_ to call mel cuminirc them in pcrwn. nil. the t.ia 01 the Iystem of criminal jUltK:c that Optilla In moll a";I·la'- countries. See for C1;Intrutltl. adnnarial- 1JIICm. intalaC)' (noun); intCIWe (adj.) In EnPiah 11., intcataey i, the condition of dyinc without leavina • will; • pelion who don thit is detcribcd II inlCllate. Athenian rqulattom for inheritlnce m .umnwiKd w. inheritance-. isofeki" Lif., 'equalit)' of tuation': one of , number of privilqca IfVIted by individual decree to particularly fa_red meta-; the pri";. in th. elM _ cxemptton from the _toi..".-, the rqular direct tu to who all meta wae OdM:i wili: lilble. FOf other llirnilar prj";., _ w . itMlnis-.

judge Sec w . diluute,jury Sec no. diitutts- .

1

GL

ry-Inda.

(eu-) k' fCIIIW Lit . '(~tion t'OI"",,*,liIi. .) evil...""kinc' : , printe indichUellit COIIOtIl.mc.a.ncler (p. 133). It it not cm wbethn .ny a1lqedly fal:te iItlIkmc:m _ Ietioub&e, or only eaWn ph~ or .uternenb made in Cftt&in

Iit1wica.

"'o..U. ',1. Lit. ' (pt. !:\Irion ODuceiilinc) .'Ol.,tut pIotUnr' : , pri~le indictnM!nt broupt""" IMn who MeI.bomed, fal:te wm- (p. 36 n ' 31). AdNi'lOl, pl . ..... '.... Lit. 'evil-doer', 'lMlef-=tor'. KtMow,oi aucht mI·hmdrd could be metted by . . . . of tIP""", but it it not certain .betheT thit ptoctdure could be UKd IpiaIt Uly criminal 10 caucbt, Of whether (Of the purpoee of . . . (~)

the tam .... C'W,. . acquir'ed , temi·technkal -run, 10 denoIe cauin oflmen Iptcified by ltatute: the latter teemI rr:ore likely. See p . IUJIor .. ",.".,.., pl. UJoi Iurpdtoi Lit. ',ttJ'llc:tive and honou,.ble', or 'to.nct.ome and virtuouI', thta 'pdemUl': I _U' lpprobitory term uted by the Atheniuo arittoen.t 10 detcribe himlelf and toil fe\lowt (pp. 100-1 ";th IOU n .SI , 104 n.a , 116, u8). UorejW, pl. 4ltote"; 'LeIder or producu of I chorus': the term refm not to I membeTof the chorul in I drlJl\l new to I playwript, but 10 the impresario .... ho hu 10 undertlke .. hilliturn- the1llor-e,ia; tfw it, plJinI for the production oil play It one of the lMuIl drImIUc: fcstivalaorpnjled tither by tbepoliJ' or by one 01 the

'.7.

clarKI- (p. 134). ~ Lit. 'Wlter-ttealer'. A WItet-ckd, uted to ftlUlate the lenfth of pwcced. Hlp in krpI_. II colll' md of. bowl of WMer with I tmall hole _ tiM! Nw, IUCb that the t.»e eould be ttopped or opened. daired: normally two Iuc:h 00. 11 were UIed, the one bei"l allowed to empty n. contenq inlO the other, and then via t.ltna, 10 me.ure the P_ Ie of tUne. In any cacqory of CIIt, I tel number of bowla-full _ aIIoc.ated 10 each tpCIker, but the flow of Wltrr _Iloppcd for the radinc of ...... and the tettimony of wit~. llMar, pl. Wrro.' onp..tty 'the action of eati"llott'; hence 'thlt .hkb ilillotted'. often 'I _ '.Ianded pope.ty·; and th.. 'an eettte .hich iI to be inherited'. lAfoi 1IkriJIoi, tpeeclw:e COIlOtminc ItkrfJi (inheritance ditputel), wen: I recogniled CIteJOf1 of lote.1IIie oratory; but theR iI no evidence for ,diJti- or a".,.(_ further PP. 36--7 with 37 n.la); inItead, inheritance dilputet were nonnaIly dalt with by meana of diodiAasiG- . Wnokrioft A mKhine UIed in the fourth «ntllfY I .C. to allocate di.tu'ca" to lawcourta: MIt further stN . JottI,~ • . iJeur, pl. iJe.,n; IWIftUU Lit. 'one .ho can.', etc. Kk~ it the action of .wnmoninc eitha- Idefendant or • ..m- to court. T1M: .irnific.nc-e of the rules for the ItkkllSil of wit~ it ~ on pp. a.rS. In the CIK of. defendant, on the other '-'d, it .. the plaintiff. job Ioenfon:c the IUmmum; and he ,,",uld take one or more IW~I (tumJnOM-witlKll : p . 37 n.33) with him. If the ddmdant f.iled to Itlend and the court ......tiI6cd by the Ak~1 thlt he had been properly IUmmoned, the verdict would be delivered apiflll him lutOfflltic:ally ; if tubMqUCntly be withed 10 c:onteIl thil, he h.d to claim thlt the Rlmonon. had never been _",ed, by c:onYicti.. the wi __ of Iyi"l (_ pnufrtAMbiu-, "tJfI/ti). ItlIIpI 'Tbeft (pp. 6)-8a.-,"'). Very unuwaUy, thil • • 1n offence .hkh eould be piC I uted by botb~ mod"4~. It. how(ter ~b&e (d'OIJ1h nul ttrtIin) thIt the larter _ rIll rved for _ of embealement or theft from public ~reet. (..,-),.., See p . 75 with ".+8 mod n.sa, 76 with n.S7, 79 with n.6" IItId aJ.ont.

'k_

..,... ........

1


:130

STEPHEN TODD

I,grophi- ) It/opes See pp. 56 n.6t, 7S f1 ·49, 79 n.67, and also SV. Itlopi- above. ItTotor Power or authority: see sv. tktno/tratia- . Itrisis A judgement or dedsion : the word ia used to descri~ all forma of decision· making, but particularly that of a court: p. 43. /tun'os Lit. ' master', 'lord', or in certain ctlntexts 'sovereign'. An At henian woman had to be represented in legaltranuctions by a male relative, who WIS descri ~d IS her Iturior: in the case of an unman-ied girl or a widow who had returned to the hQU!It of her family, this would normally be her father or (failing him) her brother or paternal uncle, but it could even be her adult son. A married woman was represented by hcr husba nd, but it appearslhl! her agnatic- kurior did retain certain rights: for instance, the reversion of her dowry. Confusingly, the term kurios was also us.ed to denote the owner of property or master of a hou!lthold, and there Ire contexts ;n which the two u ~ migh t conflict: a married son, for instance, would belturios of his wife; but hi. father may still be kurim of hi. household. law.making See SV. norrrothnia- . legislation See w. nomolhesia-, (sutute of) limitations See sv. prothesmio-. (dike- ) lipumanunou A private indictment against a man who refuses to witness : the precise constituents of Ihe offence are discusaed on P.:lS with n.ll. See also lV .

exomosio- . liturgy ; Gk.leirour,io, pl.leilou"iai Much of Athenian public expenditure was met, not by the state paying out money which it had collected as taxel!. but in the form of compulsory public service imposed on rich individuals (mostly citi~ ns, but for some taska metics- were included). The task. in question were called leitouTgiai ('worka for the people'), conventionally transliterated as ' liturgies', but wi th none of the ecclesiastical overtones of the English term . These leitourgiai included th~ khoregio - (paying for the production of a play at a dramatie festival) and the trierarkh y- (paying for the crew and the up keep of a warsh ip for a year). There was of course an element of ctlntpetitive outlay implicit in this synem: an impreSSively. perfonned li turgy stood to win great prestige for ita pe rformer, and this could be exchanged into political currency (khoris: P.54). There were also possibilities of tax·fraud and unde r-declaration of wealth: hence the need for the a nlidosis- . The number of men liable to undertake liturgies at anyone lime is unknown, but was probably no more than 300-400, It least if we exclude the trierarkhs (p. 53 n.S3)considerably fewer and considerably richer than thOM: liable to pay cisp}rorai-, ~cause the sums in question stood 10 be much larger. For liturgies, see pp. 45,53, r./J. 137 with n·41. logistai, (pI.) See IV. euthunai- . /ogogrophia The art of the logographos-: p. 51. logographos, pI. /Qgograplw; Lit. 'speech.writer' : specifically, a profenional writer of speeches for litiganu to deliver in coun. It has recently been argued that the logogropJros did not normally write the spe«h so much as help the litigant to prepare it, but this view is contested. For the career of Antiphon, the first fogograplwr whose work has survived , see pp. 48-51 (esp. P.49 n.34), 60 n.79. iogrri. (pI.) See SV . t uthunai-. lot The majority of public offices at Athens were filled not by election but by casting lots, on the ground that this was more democratic: elections, as Aristotle observed, Copyrighted Material

Gh

",

.,....Indu

favour the weIl·known. AlimilarsytUm WIt ueed in tM daily a1loc:atton of Jilt.,,,,.. to Iawcouru, tlthouth here the rationale WIt apparently to prevent jury·'nobblinc': ICC fwtber IW. ~, " ... 6•••. For the detaih of .Lection for nnou.

of6c:a, 1CC p. 117 D.¢. mllilblle

manUrt

Setftl. ~.

For the two a1ttmative typee of rJWTiIae in Athtnian law, lite (for the recular form) IW. ntpP and ~1tdorU· , and (for the procedure in the cae of an qilWrw.) 111. qfdiAtuiG· and (for the impbcationl of thil) IV . inheritance·. For PIato'llUIIutioDJ, ICC p. 6g n.:ao. -nu, pl. _twa A witneIe : daa-d in dttail on pp. 19-35 #NUn., d . a110 p . t83· ..........~riD., pl. ~ The tatimony of a ...an",.: P.3 1. Ridej GIr.. _IOiJI,o" pl. _1oiIroi A non-citiztn. et' !knt mote M lea pennanmtly in I Greek ~ (metita aft ltteIIed in IDOft than 70 poIfts, but in 10 little detail that ~rtuaUy lIB our information deriva from AtheM) : pp. 27 n . I., 53, 73, 94 n .37, 106 n. 13. Metics It AtbmI-.rren: IUbjcct to c:onAdcrable ratric:tionl; for inltanct, they -.rren: oblp to pIIy IIpeciIJ or mette·tax, Ind to rqiNer the rwnt of I alDen .. tN;r "",14k'·, md they -.rren: not entitled to own land : lee for contrllt

t.,.

_1oiJrior..

_ L • ....:• •

1tIV. ~ ..

, UOk_ . •

, - ' __

_1OitiOR Lit., 'metie-tax' : ICC IV . ~ . Only I t)'TInt , in Greelr. politital thourht, rtnpoMd rquIar dircd tuition on hil IUbtecu; it • notable that III citizen Wte. It Athena -.rren: ritheT imgulu (like the eis,Mot ... ) or indirtCt (like liturFt-· or harbour duet) : even thouJh the Wt ibtlf DIlly not ha.,e been finmcially cripplinc (our IOUfCtI augnt I rate of one dnchma ptf" month for men, and half thil for womm), to imP*' I direct replu Wt on mttin _ nevtrthc1tM I potent Makmtnt of tN;r subordinate 1tIWI. miM; GIr.. __ Set ftl. cob It-. ".,tJeos Pay for holdinc publte of6ot : Greek politicallheory rtprded th. . . one of the diltinpilhinl 'e-tum of I democracy. At Athtni the datut";- Wert paid for atttncIanct from the.so- (p. ...), Ind the membtn of Ihe ,lrAkJia· from Ipproxi. mately p (p. 50 with n.42) . Publte 016ciala were ctrtIinly paid during the late 6fth century, and in both &fth and rourth centuritt they ~ved rikm (probably mtaIs It public expel_, rather than In allowance in lieu); but itil diaputtd whr:lher they reeeivtd IffiIt!tor duri,. the rourth century. . . _ ; , .. mtnI ftl . COlftII't •

.

...

.

.. '6"fto Adultery : d*'-d m detail m pp. 14~5/)GS- . Set ftl . c:oiDap". monthIyClle Stenr.·....'P••u __ ~·diltl. money

Set ftl . poaiti'lt. law, W'..,.,.) _ _ f1'iktMictt tIwittai Set nr. paiDl_·" ,apItl. JU.WI, pl. ~ Lit. I 'norm', in the ImIe both of 'CUltom' md of 'law' (pp. 11-12, 142, 18+ n ' 37, 194). lID",. iI often _bated, npecjelly in fifth-ctntury Gfftk tholcht, with (lit. 'bIlurt') ; the iatttl' It.,. lib undtrlyinr reality, and the larliler denotee the pettee .. by which men try to ah.pe thil. In Ibia IeMe IA: ' " normally tn"'·ed '_'eatio..'. natunllaw

,...ri,

1

aJa

STEPHEN TODD

NfIfIfIN .... alto, II leur Ute.- SOO I.e:., the normal1ll'Of'd for ' I lI.' in the .,.. 01 'I tUtute' (e.l . p. 14J n.14); bdorethit.. the 1II'Of'd ,",, XI Mel been prefnnd, IDd the chlnge it lurely aipi6cJnt: 'thle which ill Wet down (by the pH~)' hIIi1nn _y 10 'the order that men impoee'; for ¥ariouI interpfttidoIM of the ~ific:ance of the chinrt, tet p . n rUJ. In d_iclluure, I dillinctioa Ibould be dnwn between _ I (_,..), meaninr 'I ....• in the KnIt of I particular 1tatUk, IDd _ _ (pl.), meaninr '11w' or 'the "w' in the KnIt 01 'the COfIItitution' or perM", even 'the Iep!

.,..e:tm' . One additionll contrul Ilhould be noted, lhat betW"iI _ IDd ~ (lit. ·decree1. In the 61th century there .... no diffei~" in lIw between that two fotml oIlt1tute i Illy dectlion 01 the: dJr#,u,. could be cIacribed either • I IIGWKtJ or • I /lJ'tfIItWtuJ. From 40J I .e., howcV'CT, I formal diltinctm .... dnwn : the ,ltAksio continued to JIIU pstjJllUM(Jltl., but th. term .... confined either to temporlry ruin or to thole which applied only to cwned indiriduals; the pltlifll (thourh not the ptopolina) of r-a, rules which were intended to be 01 rnleftlllnd ptrnJIntirt Yalidity, .... tden out of the hindi of the tIdtIt,u,. Thil.aYed to enhInce Iep! ttability, I1td to p"event the Oftrthrow of the - . .' CCOl'lltitution1 in the wly thIt __ felt to hive OttUrm::I too taily duri. . the oliprdlic rnolution 01 4' r I .e .: it becamr: much more difficult to ch.... I _ (fordeuill tetnJ. -rAtsio'): and it .... iUcpl for Iny propoeed ~_ to contrlvme I _ . See further ro. pcPlI_'"ropAi. rtoMOlMsio ; -'ltettl, pl. rtoMDI/w'ai N~" the P"OC! II of tnkIinc lawa (of JCneral Indlor ptl'l'lllnent "!idit)': _.ro. _ I ) . Met' 40J I .C.• this _ tIlen out of the hinds of the tltAksia' and aiven to the ~t4i, in order to provide I check on the pm r 01 reckIea leplltkln. The prea. urancaoentI for the prOCCllteem to hive been rev_d ... eral timadurincthe fourth century; but it it notIble thlt the -rltelai WCf't I body Itlected by lot' from amGIII the panel of elirible diAtutai' . Their funaion .... to hear in detail (but not ~t1y to ditcUII) the urumentl for and . .inac: lIny pIVj>Oled I~ft chance, and to make I final and luthoritltive decision. They could ho_e ver only IICt when requnted to do 10 on the initiltive of the dltklilJ. ,.,." pI. Lit. 'I buwd'. In the c:I ' ~II period, Athenian citiaenlbip_ confined to thole born of citixn permtl on both - .. The chad olin unmarried unKm bet_un citiaen lnet non-citilcn .... clearly iUqilimate, and hid rifbu neither of inheriunce nor of citizenehip. The IWUI of the child of unmarried citizen pumtI it Ie. clear: tuCh I penon _ clearly I ,..,.., witbou1 riptl of inheritance, but it it disputed whechn II'he .... or _ not I citixn. It it poIIiblc. thoup. Ie. certain, Ihll the word IfOIItos .... UKd to deKribe lhe child of I mixed nwriare: even in thoR contexts (e.,. before 450 I .C. ) where weh I marriIte _Ieplly pennillible, even thouab IUCh I child mirht hlYC full nptl to inheritlnce .. weD • to citGmtbip.

1tOI_

Gllh The UK of the Glth in Atbeniln Ilw w. very different from itt UIC in I modem Enatilh coun. Witnena l were not normally required to _ , eacept in _ of homicide, wheTe they had to join in the oath rqularty IWW1I by the litipntl (tee ro. l ) . Women ho_U'c:r, who could not be wit" , could in principle_ In Gllh, proyided thil_ done with the "iftment of both litipnts: for the tole lItelted alit, tee p. JS i for the pliocedure, tee pp. a6, as, J3. JS n.ag, and alto ftI. JWDkkris'j for the UIC of OIt'" in the .,una', tet pp. 17a, 193 n.S7.

__.,ia

,

k

G~I,*" ~Ih.hdpcT

A medieval witnell who .~ not 10 the tn.Jth of. IKt but in tupport 01 the 'deanneII' 01 hie principal'. 0Ith (p. ](0). Sometimes known II. 'COf1Ipurptor'. obol See IV. ~-. , . " A boutehoId (p. 1)0): the word can be ueed to dacribe people Of f.mily piope.t)' Of • buiJdi..-, or three totethn'. The tet'm ;. rarely uled in the formulation of Athenian 1UtUta, but the concept IeemI to play an important r6k ftOC only in famity but in citilre. .ip law: M:e,fIN. AtmOt-, rnarn.,e-, and compare the dilco . m of the epiUe:me IV . inherit.nce-. Old Olipreb See 1tI. AIlI.PoI'. ottraciIm EYft)' year the Athenian cHJetiG- hid the richt tlO ckcide.hethc-r 10 hold anOllCKiwu,. ballot in .hich anycitizmcould voce apinllOM: political leader. If. quonma of 6,000 voted, the man with the molt vota _ niled lOt' len yeut , but with DO furtbu pt'MIty. The inItiturion _ frequently UICd in the fint half of the fifth century; but it IlppIf'mdy feU into .bey1ince (.pan from • tinlle occa.ion probably in 417) liter 44] • .c. A TOte _ cal by ICratchinr. name on an ortnaAort (. piec:e of broken pottery): hence the name 01 the procedure. See pp. 58, 94 n .)7. ormMotl, pI .ortnaU A voce in .n~· : tevtrai thoutandtof theeeor'~ ......e now been d1IcoWftd, tome beari..- off.ve penonal rmwU about the man MrDed : p. 59 0·74·

an

.t.-;

,.,..' VV A counter· jnd.ictment, in which the defendant chup the plaintiff with brinci.. .n illepl pic HUtion (pp. 89. 9:1). The pnxedure _ invented (or pGIIibly re-orpnieed) IftlUnd 400, to help thoee thrutened with e"''P which broke the Amnetty : the letter had been rmpoeed under Sptrtan INpervition 10 PfOtcd formerlUpporta1 of the Thirty TTfUl", the oIipn:hic juntl of 40+'3 which bad been Oftrthrown by the dtmoc: •• tic ratonlion of +0]1:1. PGldI'O,r.i too.her rapidly extmcIed. its ecope : fOt' the defendant, it _ to tu.w had the .dvaqtage th.t it _ ittelf • Pi' turion; .be . .. the older procedure of di_art"rio- .imply iel ved to block. puticulll' claim by the plaintiff, IkJ'iIf'OfIIt/: entbled the defendant to tum the tabkt, btwoainc hiawdf the proeeeu.tOf and (if lUcce.ful) irnpotinr •

penalty on

m. opponent.

ptnaIuItlIboIi See 111. court·fea-.

tzr ....,.·) , . , _

A public indicbnent lpinll the plopotC. of. new~ that hill PliipOIII ;. UlKO"Mtitutiona! (lit. ''Pi'" the !tw'):

(dtoee), clwtinI pp. ]I , 90, 95 0.]8. One of the molt atentively documented of.1I Athenian lepl pocedUofet, IDd one of the iDOIt overtly political : the ptc mrtor mirht claim lor inItanoe that the biD had been pj(,~utd _bout tbe Me .ry fnnnaJitin ; bul ....ny of the ulIInl, ..., , _ /4I4JIIO :0 '"' diRetcd qai..... bOllo,U}' dec. eel. and in thew the PC] I ecut« regularly baIeI hill CaIe on the claim that the honour ;. it.clf

IIOMOI·.

under :rud. See aIIO w. The PfOCedure c:oukI be emv'oyed Ipinst popoelll both before tnd tfter !My bad been voted on by the ,,6b;"·. Unril4C)l ' .e., it . . tppU"mdy uaed without dillCriminltion tpinII: both _ _ (Ia_) tnd ~G ; but in that yaf • fnnnaJ cIiItti:r:ction _ fOf the &nt time drawn between the two typet of ltaiutt (M:e W . .......) . The old procediJi'e 01'.4'11, retained lor ute tpintl ~; but ..... paallel procedure, the"".\i _ ".,,,.·udfttM tItmim·, _ felt to be required fw ute apifIIC uncot. .itutiona) (lit. 'inupedimt1-;: for the latter, _ p. ]1 .

.*'_ ..

1


1J4

STEPHEN TODD

/HIras/osi, Seesv. court-fees- . partible inheritance The custom of dividing the estate of a dead man equally among his legitimate sons, This system obtained at Athens (P.48), as pl"ellumably throughout the Greek world : for details on the Athenianlyltem seeSl/. inheritance-. English lind law however has traditionally rested on _n assu mption of primagenitu~- (where everything passes to the eldest son), but this has now been abolished. palriline A min', relatives in the male line, palticullfly in I context of d~nt or inheritance (p. 46). penalty The penalties imposed by Alheniln courtl could affect either the peT$On of the defendant (exewtion-, a/imia-) or else his property (either by fine or by confiscation. for which Ke sv. apographi-) , Imprisonment however was uncom· mon, at least II I fX'nalty ; it could be u&ed for remInd, particularly to ensure that I foreign defendant did not IIbscond lxfore trial. In the case of fines, it il sometimcs difficult to see whether the money is strictly II penally (payable to the ltate) or damages (payable to the plaintiff); for the latter, &cC further IV. tJCoulcs-, diki. perlOnal property English I,w classifies property as either 'rul- ' (broadly speaking, land Ind houses) or 'perlOnal' (everything else: pp. 167-94 pa1sim). The law treats the two categories of property in different wara, particularly in cases of intestlteinheritance. For the significance of a superficially limilar distinction in Athenian law, see sv. aphanu- olUia. phanera olUia Lit. 'apparent or visible property': I catcgory which roughly corres· ponded to English real- property (Le., land and houses). For the contruting term, and the significance of the contrast, lee sv. aphor/cs- ousja. pharis Lit. 'a showing fOlth, declaration' : denunciation of a man who is illegally withholding property which belongs to the state (pp. s,....s with n.66 and n.68, 87 with n. 11 .nd n.13, 90, 95 n.38, 106 with n.14, I I f). Unlike the related (and much better attested) procedure of apographi-, phosis was apparently directed against the person rather than the property. (diki-) phonou A private indictment concerning murder, or more generally homi· cide: P.33 n ..,.. In striking contrast to contemporary pnctice both in civill·.and common- ·!aw systems, homicide in Athenian law was normally dealt with by means of a diM: in other words, only the immediate relatives of the deceased had the right (and duty) to bring an action. Homicide cases were heard by one 01 a number of courts, among which the AreiopJ.gos- was only the most notable : the choice of court seems to ha ve been determined both by the details of Ihc charge (was the deceased a citizen, or a mdic- or slavel) and also by the nature of the defendant', plea (claims of justifiable homicide for instance were heard by a special coun). Procedure in homicide . 1tJI,."e. (diM') PIA' Lit. '(proeecution eonc:eminc) fllK "';tneM': I pri~e indM:tmmt . . - I 1IIIUheI- , This ia by ita S\lture I II!COnCIuy action, brought lpinlt. man "ho .... been • witnee. in pmtioullegal proeeedinp, and :;:harFrc him with hlvinc I fabe or illepl Ultimony (pp, 19-)9J1rd.uiM, esp. :a.8 and

,uut......

,......

).

"Yen

'7"

real c:ontnct See p, Ind alIo 11.1. :;:OIlKMUall c:ontract. real .. oped, 8ro.dly tp"Ikm" land and houaea, "hich in Encliah II" Ire trnled diffemrtly from 'pliUO.W-' property (t'f'erything elK) : p. 173 n . IJ. Receptioh The pr~ CIII by which :;:lerical Roman II. _ ' rettiyed ' (lC'CCpted) in pllCe of loc:al cuatonwy Ia" • the baaie for the legal I)'ItC'ln of moat of the

continental counlne. of rMdieval Europe (pp. ~) . riwtor, pl. riwlorn An orator. The word can mean l imply 'public lpeakltt' or 'writer of ~'. 01' perlJapa 'te-chC!' of rhetoric': thua tome of the 'Ten Omon' canoniaed. by later Greel rbetorical theory dKl not themKlvea normally apeak in public (d. nt. JotoI'I~-) . But it:;:an a.i.o mean 'public apeakC!" in the KnK of 'politkaJ I-ser' (pp . 9S n .)8); thia ia paniculariy true in the fourth ttntury It Atbma. "hen it Mel become normal for poIiricalleaden not to hold any public office (Keftl.poIikw::Ulto"I ). Of coune the lime man may be I rlILlot' in both ten_, ..

..s,

.""..".,..

-.

adf.heIp TWnc the Ia. (lqitimately) into one'l own handa. The UK 01 officiall,.. IInCtioned 41' I ,ia~ u.- violen:;:e .. I ...,. of ddmdinr OM'I npta; in particular, the UK of _mary aneII apiDlt certain Cltqoriea of criminal (pp. S6 n.61, 76). Thct tam 'aelf-belp' .. a _ _bat awlr..ant literal Cranalltton of the Getmln &l6stJri¥-: the CObc:etA iI inftllefttial in both German and Athenian lepI thoupt, but DOC in Ensiiah . ". IOfJ/rUra, p1· IOfIItiII.; Enr. aopIUM(.) Lit. 'pnc:tjrionn of wiadom'. The .uphista '\I"ef'e profeM' anal ceac:he,... of.,_ ('wMo...1. "hi:;:b included not limply 'phil. oeophy' (JJtiio-.Jot>Ai4, ' Io~ of ••dom1 in the modern ImK of the word, but alIo IUCh topics • ..ruraI KielK:C and J*tic:uIar rbc:IoIK. The aophiltic mo'f'tment _ noc I ~ical KbooI; what united them _ not .haRd doctrines but limi1aricy of method : in peni:;:uIar, c:onaicIerabIe intellec:tua1 "'PhiltDlion com· bined with I flair for muketinr at I hip price their abilittea .. tachen. See pp. So with n .40. 107 with n.19.

m

IlS

STEPHEN TODD

sttJsil Lit. 'takinc up I poIition': th... 'the takinc up of putiIan poeitionl', culminltire in revolution or chil war: pp. 54 n.55. 95, 100, liS with n .+9, lSi n' 5, Ilo. ltatute of limitltionl See ftI. stnWJDl, pl. 'trak,of A boud 01 ten le.IItftl., the tcniof military officiaJs of Atheni in the cI.....1period (pp. 117. liS). They differed from Ilmolt III other of6ciUI in t'IffO rClp«tI: they were clec:ted rather thin Ippoimecl by I~ ; md Ilthouch their tmn of office .... I yeu, there wen: no limita on re-election. !u I result. the I"neralahip bcCIme I poaition of conaidcnble political importance, ptlrticularly dun.. the teCoud half of the fifth oentury : it .... ehe priI:c for which intencima: politic:allcadcn would Itrive. In the fourth oentury, two"ever, ina ,inc military epedlliution tended to diride political from miliIuJ Lc.denltip: fourth-cmtury poIiriciana were for the moat part private c:itiRna rather than office.hokfen. Sec IlIo ftN . miAoIi-, rlwtorn-, fJOlikwJ' ae_". Lit. 'under (thrut of) penalty': in E,.tiah met AtncriQn IIw, the court will lit the requat of the litipnu tummon compellable win mel to mend and sift evidence; if they mlJle, they will be comminina: an offence and 1ft Iiebk to be puniahed for it. nil IlUmmont is detdbecl • I ~ (PP.1f-5). MlbMlnlift law n i t part of IlcpIlysttm .hich annrcn the qUC:llion, '.hlllft my .;pllind my duties?' (pp. 5, ao). Sec for contrail ftN . prnccdUral-'I•. s~t~s, pI. I~tai (noun); 'd¥.tei1l (verb) A term of disputed ctymoloc (p. 105 with 11.6) and dilputed rMminc (pp. 52, 56 with n.6" 8)-111 passiM , Il3), uacd pe)cllltively to dacribe an oflK:ioua litipnt. Convmrioftally tf"lnaliterat~ .. '.ycophant' or '.ykopt..Dt" but the E"'I .... edjedive "yc:ophanlic' derive. from I Ilin', poII-C'l_icll devclopmmt in the meanirll of the 'IrOfd. (To lvoid ItIKhronillic c:onfulion, we trInIIiteratc the ~ temall '.,.kophant', He. ) for tht verb , ...... 'to be I Iykophant', tee pp. as, 8)-121 ~,;"" c.p.

"""Iturttio-,

Ii.

,,,,,,,,ItJ

"ki"

110.

(1.4 LP) ,.,lIopItalino. A public: indic:tmcnt .bic:h clwpi the defendant with bc:i"l II~t~I- : pp. 37, 107 n.18. tummat)' IfftIt See w . ....... IUmmat)' tJlccution Sec AI • • , . . ,... • _poJiort, pI. ,-,eo.ria ; EIII· f)'fftpoaion or f)'fftpoeium Lit. '(the action of) drinkinc torcther' : , ICIICIIl term for uppcr-eJ.. ritualteed drinkinc·particI, common even in d kll Grcec:t arnonc the wealthy iNured llite, but particularly important in the archaic period (pp. 119 11..19, Il5, Il9-45 ,oa,,;.;); the Encl_ ..tjcctivc 'aympotic:' itUlled 10 mean 'pcruinire to the , ..., ,tIIMJr.' (pp. 52, laB). ,.,rrdiltos, pl. , ...tJiJtoi Lit. '(one.ho iI) toscther (with lOfllcbody) in juIlk:e'. The title of I little·known board of public of6c:iala; but the term iI more often uted U I virtual aynonyrn for III_POS- to mean IlUpportilll apeaker, whether Ippointed by the tUtt or actina on behalf of I private individual, ,.,.".w, pl. 'lDHIOfoi MOlt c:ommonIy, I penon.ho 1pPai'l in eou.n to apeak on bchaIf of I litipnt (pp. 1f, 31, 56). Lit. '1pC8ker toscther with', thua Itle.t in theocy ptnervinc the rult that litipnta c:oulcI not be .epr ••ted by adYOClltct: the SIlIWjOlW WfII of6cially I ... pporti", apcaker. The 1IJOI"d it aIao UIIed 10 decribe I ","ker Ippointed to iCpttICnt the 1tIIC, normaIl,. • pre HUIOl'; but the 0'tCi" • ...t.dminc majority cYen of public: pi, cutionl 'fPU't broufht by private indiftduu..

lIIIIOffIOIia (or xwlliiOMO:Jia) Lit.', joint 1I".n. 01111 oath', hence '1IfOUP 01 men bound torcthcr by auch I mutual _th'. UKd • the cquiYlknt of but

"',aima-,

1

'"

with. Itronaer mphuit on the politicaJ or conapirltorial ovutOnet (p. 51 with

n,.7)· IUrety

See"" ertpP.

I)'kophanl Sec IV.

~tts· .

talent Sec IV. coinage-, t"'~UJ

The titk of the ,ill: junior .rkhon,': pp. I") . 1.5. tirnl (I ) The nlue, honour or rapect .... hieh.n individual enjoY' or believn that he ouaht wenjo),: pp. SS with n.S1. 60, u6, J~ n.KI, 13HSJWsiM . etp. 140-'" To .ttack I man', tiPJtI ... probably the eaential C'ONtituenl of hlims·. The word un aJeo be..-d in an KOfIOmic IImIe to maon 'price': pp. 19:1-3. np. 191 n .54(a) To deprive I man of hit timi is to make: him atirrtoJ, lub}cct to the coodition of

.

..

o~a

( lee"',. )

n-ns',

(]) Ti1ttI in the limit of ·tvalultKm'I~ It the root of the .ylttm by which the penalty _ 6ud for the _jority of offenca. A few proc:edufQ laid down atutory penalrin: IUCh I pl'OCftl '\It'D on-los' (pI. an-lot) , 'rKM aubjed to

tifrtnU', The v. . majority of proc:edurahowev«weren-IOI" : in IheR, ~mins that the defendant .at tonMtd, both lilipnu had 10 propoee alternative penaltin. the propoeal of the plaintiff bane the n-rna' and that of the defendant 1M IJJIn~' ; the tIiIuu'm" would then vote for • teeond time, .nd tMy wen obliled to ehooee one or other propo.!. Like the a)"tern of 'pendu"r arbitration' whieh ia ocmionally u.ed in modem ind....ria1 dilputcs (whereby employen and ,r.de unionllCftC to bindinr arbitration on ~ndition ,hallhe Irbitrator will decide wholly in flvour of one or other lide), thit tended to dilcourqe !tipplnt propoaal.; but the eumpk of Soc:ntel (whoR flilure to propote I terious allemative provoked the jury 11 hit trial imo VO(inc for the death-penalty propoled by the p'ulecution) tho. . that it did not a1wl}'llUcceed. 8ft further p . ?6 n .S7. lis:ec_, n-wm (nou..); n-IOI (.elj.) 8ftw. ,;",e- (J). tomJre Athmian citiaml were exempt from judicial torture, but it could be Ippl)ed under ~n c:in:urmtancel to metial· and other foreipen. In lhe cue of alaves, indeed, their evidence _ not .elmillibk in court ncept under torture: (p. a6); but IUCh tonure eould only be adminittered with the content of both litigant., on the buis of I proItksiJ· or challenge, which w.. (it Ippears) alWl}'l refUKd : the rationale of the I)"Iem it d*'-ed on pp. )3--6. (dai·) "U.""lllWt"t».......tm A private indictment concerning Ittempted murder or (lit.) 'woundinc with intml (to kill)'! p. 133. It _ eloeeIy related to thedilti pItortof. (Ke W . ,*,-., diJrl) , and _ IUbjeet to mlny of the lime pmcedunl peeuliaritiea. tricrtJ~,

E",. trieraRb The trieruthy _

one 01 the ItIOIl importlnt Ind expmlive Iiturpea· : the man who undertook it had to pay for the manning and the upket'p 01 .....rlhip (Irireme) for I yeu. He _ opeded, atlnat in theory, to command the- ~hip in penOn! hence the title trierukh ('commander of a trireme1. It it very diificult to calculate the numben of trierarkhI required, evm if _ ~me (.. KemI probabk) that the Iize of the Athenian nil"}' never aceeded 400 shipl. Thil_ I muimum &pre, raebed only in tM 1ate fiflh century; Ind evm thm, lOme It leaat of thne Ihipl remlined in the dockyanil .. I reaerve. On the other hand, then were periock apeciaJly dunn, the founh century when the trierarkhy w .. shued between .even! individu.lt, prewmably becaute the burden w .. proving 100 mertlU• •

,

:LfO

STEPHEN TODD

usufruct A term of Roman law, IIItd to denote the riPt (UIU&IIy _llife.interest) to \lit inti mjoy the fmitt or piofibi of InOthn' per.M'" propelty, but without betnc IIlcnred fundlmmtall, to liter thIt proptn" There i. one lnetted example of I bequett in an Athenian will on bro.dly aimilar 1tf'fM; but the ibeent't of the dtlrly-defined RomIn doetrintl of propc:n, It Athml makn it ~ to Ipeak of ' ....uhuct in Athenian Ia,,',

JtntUJ Lit . 'betnc I Jt~-'. The lerm meant lelkrally 'outsidet-', "oitilner', bul it puticullrly uaed of Ilk formllilcd hereditary frimdlbipl betWUil memben of diffrrmt poIfts- or between GRtb 1M non·Greet. (PP. 45 n.3O, 59 n.74). Sueb linb _~ eotnmon amonc the lfiltoc,lCY, Ind formed rtNeb of the pnr:tic:II buit for international dealinc 1M dipknlcy. Ci•..,.w-) Jt~(U A public indictment.broupt IPNiI fOieiclier who .,n ,tdly prflendii'l( 10 be I citiun (pp. 33 n.a,., 36-7';!h 31 n·3:1, 39 n·35, 133); Itk penIhy WIt tile into tllytry ouuide the poIU- of Athml. Sa ftI. Jt_-. JtntOI, pl. Jttfftli Lit. 'ItrlfllU'Of 'outsider'. Either'l fon:icner' (_ in" ..... JtRNu-) or ellt " foreigner with "horn one hal entered into I relatiorMip _ auett or holt' (u in Jtll,jll-). In 1M litter 1CMt, _ pp. 53. 59. Jt,,~o Se-e ftI. I I I _ j O - .

1

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