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CHAPTER 1 The Structure of Metals Kalpakjian • Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology © 2001 Prentice-Hall P...

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CHAPTER 1 The Structure of Metals

Kalpakjian • Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology

© 2001 Prentice-Hall

Page 1-1

Chapter 1 Outline

Figure 1.1 An outline of the topics described in Chapter 1



Page 1-2

Body-Centered Cubic Crystal Structure

Figure 1.2 The body-centered cubic (bcc) crystal structure: (a) hard-ball model; (b) unit cell; and (c) single crystal with many unit cells. Source: W. G. Moffatt, et al., The Structure and Properties of Materials, Vol. 1, John Wiley & Sons, 1976.



Page 1-3

Face-Centered Cubic Crystal Structure

Figure 1.3 The face-centered cubic (fcc) crystal structure: (a) hard-ball model; (b) unit cell; and (c) single crystal with many unit cells. Source: W. G. Moffatt, et al., The Structure and Properties of Materials, Vol. 1, John Wiley & Sons, 1976.



Page 1-4

Hexagonal Close-Packed Crystal Structure Figure 1.4 The hexagonal closepacked (hcp) crystal structure: (a) unit cell; and (b) single crystal with many unit cells. Source: W. G. Moffatt, et al., The Structure and Properties of Materials, Vol. 1, John Wiley & Sons, 1976.



Page 1-5

Slip and Twinning Figure 1.5 Permanent deformation (also called plastic deformation) of a single crystal subjected to a shear stress: (a) structure before deformation; and (b) permanent deformation by slip. The size of the b/a ratio influences the magnitude of the shear stress required to cause slip.

Figure 1.6 (a) Permanent deformation of a single crystal under a tensile load. Note that the slip planes tend to align themselves in the direction of the pulling force. This behavior can be simulated using a deck of cards with a rubber band around them. (b) Twinning in a single crystal in tension. Kalpakjian • Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology


Page 1-6

Slip Lines and Slip Bands Figure 1.7 Schematic illustration of slip lines and slip bands in a single crystal (grain) subjected to a shear stress. A slip band consists of a number of slip planes. The crystal at the center of the upper illustration is an individual grain surrounded by other grains.



Page 1-7

Edge and Screw Dislocations Figure 1.8 Types of dislocations in a single crystal: (a) edge dislocation; and (b) screw dislocation. Source: (a) After Guy and Hren, Elements of Physical Metallurgy, 1974. (b) L. Van Vlack, Materials for Engineering, 4th ed., 1980.



Page 1-8

Defects in a Single-Crystal Lattice

Figure 1.9 Schematic illustration of types of defects in a single-crystal lattice: selfinterstitial, vacancy, interstitial, and substitutional.



Page 1-9

Movement of an Edge Dislocation

Figure 1.10 Movement of an edge dislocation across the crystal lattice under a shear stress. Dislocations help explain why the actual strength of metals in much lower than that predicted by theory.



Page 1-10

Solidification Figure 1.11 Schematic illustration of the stages during solidification of molten metal; each small square represents a unit cell. (a) Nucleation of crystals at random sites in the molten metal; note that the crystallographic orientation of each site is different. (b) and (c) Growth of crystals as solidification continues. (d) Solidified metal, showing individual grains and grain boundaries; note the different angles at which neighboring grains meet each other. Source: W. Rosenhain.



Page 1-11

Grain Sizes TABLE 1.1 ASTM No. –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Kalpakjian • Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology

Grains/mm2 1 2 4 8 16 32 64 128 256 512 1,024 2,048 4,096 8,200 16,400 32,800

Grains/mm3 0.7 2 5.6 16 45 128 360 1,020 2,900 8,200 23,000 65,000 185,000 520,000 1,500,000 4,200,000


Page 1-12

Preferred Orientation Figure 1.12 Plastic deformation of idealized (equiaxed) grains in a specimen subjected to compression (such as occurs in the rolling or forging of metals): (a) before deformation; and (b) after deformation. Note hte alignment of grain boundaries along a horizontal direction; this effect is known as preferred orientation.



Page 1-13

Anisotropy (b)

Figure 1.13 (a) Schematic illustration of a crack in sheet metal that has been subjected to bulging (caused by, for example, pushing a steel ball against the sheet). Note the orientation of the crack with respect to the rolling direction of the sheet; this sheet is anisotropic. (b) Aluminum sheet with a crack (vertical dark line at the center) developed in a bulge test; the rolling direction of the sheet was vertical. Source: J.S. Kallend, Illinois Institute of Technology. Kalpakjian • Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology


Page 1-14

Annealing Figure 1.14 Schematic illustration of the effects of recovery, recrystallization, and grain growth on mechanical properties and on the shape and size of grains. Note the formation of small new grains during recrystallization. Source: G. Sachs.



Page 1-15

Homologous Temperature Ranges for Various Processes

TABLE 1.2 Process Cold working Warm working Hot working


T/Tm < 0.3 0.3 to 0.5 > 0.6


Page 1-16

CHAPTER 2 Mechanical Behavior, Testing, and Manufacturing Properties of Materials



Page 2-1

Relative Mechanical Properties of Materials at Room Temperature TABLE 2.1 Strength Glass fibers Graphite fibers Kevlar fibers Carbides Molybdenum Steels Tantalum Titanium Copper Reinforced Reinforced Thermoplastics Lead

Hardness Diamond Cubic boron nitride Carbides Hardened steels Titanium Cast irons Copper Thermosets Magnesium thermosets thermoplastics Lead Rubbers


Toughness Ductile metals Reinforced plastics Thermoplastics Wood Thermosets Ceramics Glass Ceramics Reinforced Thermoplastics Tin Thermoplastics

Stiffness Diamond Carbides Tungsten Steel Copper Titanium Aluminum Tantalum plastics Wood Thermosets


Strength/Density Reinforced plastics Titanium Steel Aluminum Magnesium Beryllium Copper

Page 2-2

Tensile-Test Specimen and Machine (b)

Figure 2.1 (a) A standard tensile-test specimen before and after pulling, showing original and final gage lengths. (b) A typical tensile-testing machine.



Page 2-3

Stress-Strain Curve Figure 2.2 A typical stressstrain curve obtained from a tension test, showing various features.



Page 2-4

Mechanical Properties of Various Materials at Room Temperature TABLE 2.2 Mechanical Properties of Various Materials at Room Temperature Metals (Wrought)

E (GPa)

Y (MPa)

UTS (MPa)

Elongation in 50 mm (%)

Aluminum and its alloys Copper and its alloys Lead and its alloys Magnesium and its alloys Molybdenum and its alloys Nickel and its alloys Steels Titanium and its alloys Tungsten and its alloys

69–79 105–150 14 41–45 330–360 180–214 190–200 80–130 350–400

35–550 76–1100 14 130–305 80–2070 105–1200 205–1725 344–1380 550–690

90–600 140–1310 20–55 240–380 90–2340 345–1450 415–1750 415–1450 620–760

45–4 65–3 50–9 21–5 40–30 60–5 65–2 25–7 0

Nonmetallic materials 70–1000 — 140–2600 0 Ceramics — Diamond 820–1050 — — — 140 Glass and porcelain 70-80 — — — — Rubbers 0.01–0.1 — 7–80 1000–5 Thermoplastics 1.4–3.4 10–1 2–50 — 20–120 Thermoplastics, reinforced 35–170 0 Thermosets 3.5–17 — 3500 0 380 — Boron fibers 2000–3000 0 275–415 — Carbon fibers 0 Glass fibers 73–85 — 3500–4600 0 2800 Kevlar fibers 62–117 — Note: In the upper table the lowest values for E, Y, and UTS and the highest values for elongation are for pure metals. Multiply gigapascals (GPa) by 145,000 to obtain pounds per square in. (psi), megapascals (MPa) by 145 to obtain psi.



Page 2-5

Loading and Unloading of Tensile-Test Specimen Figure 2.3 Schematic illustration of the loading and the unloading of a tensile- test specimen. Note that, during unloading, the curve follows a path parallel to the original elastic slope.



Page 2-6

Elongation versus % Area Reduction Figure 2.4 Approximate relationship between elongation and tensile reduction of area for various groups of metals.



Page 2-7

Construction of True Stress-True Strain Curve Figure 2.5 (a) Load-elongation curve in tension testing of a stainless steel specimen. (b) Engineering stress-engineering strain curve, drawn from the data in Fig. 2.5a. (c) True stress-true strain curve, drawn from the data in Fig. 2.5b. Note that this curve has a positive slope, indicating that the material is becoming stronger as it is strained. (d) True stress-true strain curve plotted on log-log paper and based on the corrected curve in Fig. 2.5c. The correction is due to the triaxial state of stress that exists in the necked region of a specimen.



Page 2-8

Typical Values for K and n at Room Temperature TABLE 2.3 Aluminum 1100–O 2024–T4 6061–O 6061–T6 7075–O Brass 70–30, annealed 85–15, cold-rolled Cobalt-base alloy, heat-treated Copper, annealed Steel Low-C annealed 4135 annealed 4135 cold-rolled 4340 annealed 304 stainless, annealed 410 stainless, annealed


K (MPa)

n

180 690 205 410 400

0.20 0.16 0.20 0.05 0.17

900 580 2070 315

0.49 0.34 0.50 0.54

530 1015 1100 640 1275 960

0.26 0.17 0.14 0.15 0.45 0.10


Page 2-9

True Stress-True Strain Curves Figure 2.6 True stress-true strain curves in tension at room temperature for various metals. The curves start at a finite level of stress: The elastic regions have too steep a slope to be shown in this figure, and so each curve starts at the yield stress, Y, of the material.



Page 2-10

Temperature Effects on Stress-Strain Curves Figure 2.7 Typical effects of temperature on stress-strain curves. Note that temperature affects the modulus of elasticity, the yield stress, the ultimate tensile strength, and the toughness (area under the curve) of materials.



Page 2-11

Typical Ranges of Strain and Deformation Rate in Manufacturing Processes TABLE 2.4 Process Cold working Forging, rolling Wire and tube drawing Explosive forming Hot working and warm working Forging, rolling Extrusion Machining Sheet-metal forming Superplastic forming


True strain

Deformation rate (m/s)

0.1–0.5 0.05–0.5 0.05–0.2

0.1–100 0.1–100 10–100

0.1–0.5 2–5 1–10 0.1–0.5 0.2–3

0.1–30 0.1–1 0.1–100 0.05–2 -4 -2 10 -10


Page 2-12

Effect of Strain Rate on Ultimate Tensile Strength Figure 2.8 The effect of strain rate on the ultimate tensile strength for aluminum. Note that, as the temperature increases, the slopes of the curves increase; thus, strength becomes more and more sensitive to strain rate as temperature increases. Source: J. H. Hollomon.



Page 2-13

Disk and Torsion-Test Specimens Figure 2.9 Disk test on a brittle material, showing the direction of loading and the fracture path.

Figure 2.10 Typical torsion-test specimen; it is mounted between the two heads of a testing machine and twisted. Note the shear deformation of an element in the reduced section of the specimen. Kalpakjian • Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology


Page 2-14

Bending

Figure 2.11 Two bend-test methods for brittle materials: (a) three-point bending; (b) fourpoint bending. The areas on the beams represent the bendingmoment diagrams, described in texts on mechanics of solids. Note the region of constant maximum bending moment in (b); by contrast, the maximum bending moment occurs only at the center of the specimen in (a).



Page 2-15

Hardness Tests Figure 2.12 General characteristics of hardness-testing methods and formulas for calculating hardness. The quantity P is the load applied. Source: H. W. Hayden, et al., The Structure and Properties of Materials, Vol. III (John Wiley & Sons, 1965).



Page 2-16

Brinell Testing

(c)


Figure 2.13 Indentation geometry in Brinell testing; (a) annealed metal; (b) work-hardened metal; (c) deformation of mild steel under a spherical indenter. Note that the depth of the permanently deformed zone is about one order of magnitude larger than the depth of indentation. For a hardness test to be valid, this zone should be fully developed in the material. Source: M. C. Shaw and C. T. Yang.


Page 2-17

Hardness Conversion Chart Figure 2.14 Chart for converting various hardness scales. Note the limited range of most scales. Because of the many factors involved, these conversions are approximate. Kalpakjian • Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology


Page 2-18

S-N Curves

Figure 2.15 Typical S-N curves for two metals. Note that, unlike steel, aluminum does not have an endurance limit.



Page 2-19

Endurance Limit/Tensile Strength versus Tensile Strength Figure 2.16 Ratio of endurance limit to tensile strength for various metals, as a function of tensile strength. Because aluminum does not have an endurance limit, the correlation for aluminum are based on a specific number of cycles, as is seen in Fig. 2.15.



Page 2-20

Creep Curve Figure 2.17 Schematic illustration of a typical creep curve. The linear segment of the curve (secondary) is used in designing components for a specific creep life.



Page 2-21

Impact Test Specimens Figure 2.18 Impact test specimens: (a) Charpy; (b) Izod.



Page 2-22

Failures of Materials and Fractures in Tension Figure 2.19 Schematic illustration of types of failures in materials: (a) necking and fracture of ductile materials; (b) Buckling of ductile materials under a compressive load; (c) fracture of brittle materials in compression; (d) cracking on the barreled surface of ductile materials in compression.

Figure 2.20 Schematic illustration of the types of fracture in tension: (a) brittle fracture in polycrystalline metals; (b) shear fracture in ductile single crystals--see also Fig. 1.6a; (c) ductile cup-and-cone fracture in polycrystalline metals; (d) complete ductile fracture in polycrystalline metals, with 100% reduction of area. Kalpakjian • Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology


Page 2-23

Ductile Fracture Figure 2.21 Surface of ductile fracture in low-carbon steel, showing dimples. Fracture is usually initiated at impurities, inclusions, or preexisting voids (microporosity) in the metal. Source: K.-H. Habig and D. Klaffke. Photo by BAM Berlin/Germany.



Page 2-24

Fracture of a Tensile-Test Specimen

Figure 2.22 Sequence of events in necking and fracture of a tensile-test specimen: (a) early stage of necking; (b) small voids begin to form within the necked region; (c) voids coalesce, producing an internal crack; (d) the rest of the cross-section begins to fail at the periphery, by shearing; (e) the final fracture surfaces, known as cup- (top fracture surface) and cone- (bottom surface) fracture.



Page 2-25

Deformation of Soft and Hard Inclusions

Figure 2.23 Schematic illustration of the deformation of soft and hard inclusions and of their effect on void formation in plastic deformation. Note that, because they do not comply with the overall deformation of the ductile matrix, hard inclusions can cause internal voids.



Page 2-26

Transition Temperature Figure 2.24 Schematic illustration of transition temperature in metals.



Page 2-27

Brittle Fracture Surface

Figure 2.25 Fracture surface of steel that has failed in a brittle manner. The fracture path is transgranular (through the grains). Magnification: 200X. Source: Courtesy of B. J. Schulze and S. L. Meiley and Packer Engineering Associates, Inc.



Page 2-28

Intergranular Fracture Figure 2.26 Intergranular fracture, at two different magnifications. Grains and grain boundaries are clearly visible in this micrograph. Te fracture path is along the grain boundaries. Magnification: left, 100X; right, 500X. Source: Courtesy of B. J. Schulze and S. L. Meiley and Packer Engineering Associates, Inc.



Page 2-29

Fatigue-Fracture Surface Figure 2.27 Typical fatigue-fracture surface on metals, showing beach marks. Magnification: left, 500X; right, 1000X. Source: Courtesy of B. J. Schulze and S. L. Meiley and Packer Engineering Associates, Inc.



Page 2-30

Reduction in Fatigue Strength Figure 2.28 Reductions in the fatigue strength of cast steels subjected to various surfacefinishing operations. Note that the reduction becomes greater as the surface roughness and the strength of the steel increase. Source: M. R. Mitchell.



Page 2-31

Residual Stresses Figure 2.29 Residual stresses developed in bending a beam having a rectangular cross-section. Note that the horizontal forces and moments caused by residual stresses in the beam must be balanced internally. Because of nonuniform deformation during metalworking operations, most parts develop residual stresses.



Page 2-32

Distortion of Parts with Residual Stresses

Figure 2.30 Distortion of parts, with residual stresses, after cutting or slitting: (a) flat sheet or plate; (b) solid round rod; (c) think-walled tubing or pipe.



Page 2-33

CHAPTER 3 Physical Properties of Materials



Page 3-1

Physical Properties of Selected Materials at Room Temperature TABLE 3.1 Physical Properties of Selected Materials at Room Temperature Metal Aluminum Aluminum alloys Beryllium Columbium (niobium) Copper Copper alloys Iron Steels Lead Lead alloys Magnesium Magnesium alloys Molybdenum alloys Nickel Nickel alloys Tantalum alloys Titanium Titanium alloys Tungsten Zinc Zinc alloys

Density 3 (kg/m ) 2700 2630–2820 1854 8580 8970 7470–8940 7860 6920–9130 11,350 8850–11,350 1745 1770–1780 10,210 8910 7750–8850 16,600 4510 4430–4700 19,290 7140 6640–7200

Melting Point (°C)

Specific heat (J/kg K)

Thermal conductivity (W/m K)

660 476–654 1278 2468 1082 885–1260 1537 1371–1532 327 182–326 650 610–621 2610 1453 1110–1454 2996 1668 1549–1649 3410 419 386–525

900 880–920 1884 272 385 377–435 460 448–502 130 126–188 1025 1046 276 440 381–544 142 519 502–544 138 385 402

222 121–239 146 52 393 29–234 74 15–52 35 24–46 154 75–138 142 92 12–63 54 17 8–12 166 113 105–113

2300–5500 2400–2700 1900–2200 900–2000 400–700

— 580–1540 — 110–330 —

750–950 500–850 840 1000–2000 2400–2800

10–17 0.6–1.7 5–10 0.1–0.4 0.1–0.4

Nonmetallic Ceramics Glasses Graphite Plastics Wood



Page 3-2

Physical Properties of Material TABLE 3.2 Physical Properties of Materials, in Descending Order Density

Melting point

Specific heat

Thermal conductivity

Thermal expansion

Electrical conductivity

Platinum Gold Tungsten Tantalum Lead Silver Molybdenum Copper Steel Titanium Aluminum Beryllium Glass Magnesium Plastics

Tungsten Tantalum Molybdenum Columbium Titanium Iron Beryllium Copper Gold Silver Aluminum Magnesium Lead Tin Plastics

Wood Beryllium Porcelain Aluminum Graphite Glass Titanium Iron Copper Molybdenum Tungsten Lead

Silver Copper Gold Aluminum Magnesium Graphite Tungsten Beryllium Zinc Steel Tantalum Ceramics Titanium Glass Plastics

Plastics Lead Tin Magnesium Aluminum Copper Steel Gold Ceramics Glass Tungsten

Silver Copper Gold Aluminum Magnesium Tungsten Beryllium Steel Tin Graphite Ceramics Glass Plastics Quartz



Page 3-3

Figure 3.1 Specific strength (tensile strength/density) and specific stiffness (elastic modulus/density) for various materials at room temperature. (See also Chapter 9.) Source: M.J. Salkind.

Specific Strength and Specific Stiffness



Page 3-4

Specific Strength versus Temperature

Figure 3.2 Specific strength (tensile strength/density) for a variety of materials as a function of temperature. Note the useful temperature range for these materials and the high values for composite materials. Kalpakjian • Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology


Page 3-5

CHAPTER 4 Metal Alloys: Their Structure and Strengthening by Heat Treatment



Page 4-1

Induction-Hardened Surface Figure 4.1 Cross-section of gear teeth showing induction-hardened surfaces. Source: TOCCO Div., Park-Ohio Industries, Inc.



Page 4-2

Chapter 4 Outline Figure 4.2 Outline of topics described in Chapter 4.



Page 4-3

Two-Phase System

Figure 4.3 (a) Schematic illustration of grains, grain boundaries, and particles dispersed throughout the structure of a two-phase system, such as a lead-copper alloy. The grains represent lead in solid solution in copper, and the particles are lead as a second phase. (b) Schematic illustration of a twophase system consisting of two sets of grains: dark, and light. The dark and the light grains have separate compositions and properties.



Page 4-4

Cooling Curve Figure 4.4 Cooling curve for the solidification of pure metals. Note that freezing takes place at a constant temperature; during freezing the latent heat of solidification is given off.



Page 4-5

Nickel-Copper Alloy Phase Diagram Figure 4.5 Phase diagram for nickelcopper alloy system obtained at a slow rate of solidification. Note that pure nickel and pure copper each has one freezing or melting temperature. The top circle on the right depicts the nucleation of crystals. The second circle shows the formation of dendrites (see Section 10.2). The bottom circle shows the solidified alloy, with grain boundaries.



Page 4-6

Mechanical Properties of Copper-Nickel and Copper-Zinc Alloys Figure 4.6 Mechanical properties of copper-nickel and copper-zinc alloys as a function of their composition. The curves for zinc are short, because zinc has a maximum solid solubility of 40% in copper. Source: L. H. Van Vlack; Materials for Engineering. Addison-Wesley Publishing Co., Inc., 1982.



Page 4-7

Lead-Tin Phase Diagram Figure 4.7 The lead-tin phase diagram. Note that the composition of the eutectic point for this alloy is 61.9% Sn-38.1% Pb. A composition either lower or higher than this ratio will have a higher liquidus temperature.



Page 4-8

Iron-Iron Carbide Phase Diagram Figure 4.8 The iron-iron carbide phase diagram. Because of the importance of steel as an engineering material, this diagram is one of the most important of all phase diagrams.



Page 4-9

Austenite, Ferrite, and Martensite

Figure 4.9 The unit cells for (a) austenite, (b) ferrite, and (c) martensite. The effect of percentage of carbon (by weight) on the lattice dimensions for martensite is shown in (d). Note the interstitial position of the carbon atoms (see Fig. 1.9). Note, also, the increase in dimension c with increasing carbon content; this effect causes the unit cell of martensite to be in the shape of a rectangular prism.



Page 4-10

Iron-Carbon Alloy Above and Below Eutectoid Temperature

Figure 4.10 Schematic illustration of the microstructures for an ironcarbon alloy of eutectoid composition (0.77% carbon), above and below the eutectoid temperature of 727 °C (1341 °F). Kalpakjian • Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology


Page 4-11

Pearlite Microstructure Figure 4.11 Microstructure of pearlite in 1080 steel, formed from austenite of eutectoid composition. In this lamellar structure, the lighter regions are ferrite, and the darker regions are carbide. Magnification: 2500X. Source: Courtesy of USX Corporation.



Page 4-12

Extended Iron-Carbon Phase Diagram

Figure 4.12 Phase diagram for the iron-carbon system with graphite (instead of cementite) as the stable phase. Note that this figure is an extended version of Fig. 4.8. Kalpakjian • Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology


Page 4-13

Microstructures for Cast Irons (a)

(b)

(c)

Figure 4.13 Microstructure for cast irons. Magnification: 100X. (a) Ferritic gray iron with graphite flakes. (b) Ferritic Ductile iron (nodular iron), with graphite in nodular form. (c) Ferritic malleable iron; this cast iron solidified as white cast iron, with the carbon present as cementite, and was heat treated to graphitize the carbon. Source: ASM International.



Page 4-14

Figure 4.14 (a) Austeniteto-pearlite transformation of iron-carbon alloy as a functionof time and temperature. (b) Isothermal transformation diagram obtained from (a) for a transformation temperature of 675 °C (1247 °F). (continued)

Austenite to Pearlite Transformation



Page 4-15

Austenite to Pearlite Transformation (cont.) Figure 4.14 (c) Microstructures obtained for a eutectoid iron-carbon alloy as a function of cooling rate. Source: ASM International.



Page 4-16

Hardness and Toughness of Annealed Steels Figure 4.15 (a) and (b) Hardness and (c) toughness for annealed plain-carbon steels, as a function of carbide shape. Carbides in the pearlite are lamellar. Fine pearlite is obtained by increasing the cooling rate. The spheroidite structure has spherelike carbide particles. Note htat the percentage of pearlite begins to decrease after 0.77% carbon. Source: L. H. Van Vlack; Materials for Engineering. Addison-Wesley Publishing Co., Inc., 1982.



Page 4-17

Mechanical Properties of Annealed Steels

Figure 4.16 Mechanical properties of annealed steels, as a function of composition and microstructure. Note (in (a)) the increase in hardness and strength and (in (b)) the decrease in ductility and toughness, with increasing amounts of pearlite and iron carbide. Source: L. H. Van Vlack; Materials for Engineering. Addison-Wesley Publishing Co., Inc., 1982.



Page 4-18

Eutectoid Steel Microstructure

Figure 4.17 Microstructure of eutectoid steel. Spheroidite is formed by tempering the steel at 700 °C (1292 °F). Magnification: 1000X. Source: Courtesy of USX Corporation.



Page 4-19

Martensite (b)

Figure 4.18 (a) Hardness of martensite, as a function of carbon content. (b) Micrograph of martensite containing 0.8% carbon. The gray platelike regions are martensite; they have the same composition as the original austenite (white regions). Magnification: 1000X. Source: Courtesy of USX Corporation.



Page 4-20

Hardness of Tempered Martensite Figure 4.19 Hardness of tempered martensite, as a function of tempering time, for 1080 steel quenched to 65 HRC. Hardness decreases because the carbide particles coalesce and grow in size, thereby increasing the interparticle distance of the softer ferrite.



Page 4-21

Figure 4.20 (a) End-quench test and cooling rate. (b) Hardenability curves for five different steels, as obtained from the end-quench test. Small variations in composition can change the shape of these curves. Each curve is actually a band, and its exact determination is important in the heat treatment of metals, for better control of properties. Source: L. H. Van Vlack; Materials for Engineering. Addison-Wesley Publishing Co., Inc., 1982.

End-Quench Hardenability Test



Page 4-22

Aluminum-Copper Phase Diagram Figure 4.21 (a) Phase diagram for the aluminum-copper alloy system. (b) Various microstructures obtained during the age-hardening process. Source: L. H. Van Vlack; Materials for Engineering. Addison-Wesley Publishing Co., Inc., 1982.



Page 4-23

Age Hardening

Figure 4.22 The effect of aging time and temperature on the yield stress of 2014-T4 aluminum alloy. Note that, for each temperature, there is an optimal aging time for maximum strength.



Page 4-24

Outline of Heat Treatment Processes for Surface Hardening TABLE 4.1 Process

Metals hardened

Element added to surface C

Procedure Heat steel at 870–950 °C (1600–1750 °F) in an atmosphere of carbonaceous gases (gas carburizing) or carboncontaining solids (pack carburizing). Then quench.

Carburizing

Low-carbon steel (0.2% C), alloy steels (0.08–0.2% C)

Carbonitriding

Low-carbon steel

C and N

Heat steel at 700–800 °C (1300–1600 °F) in an atmosphere of carbonaceous gas and ammonia. Then quench in oil.

Cyaniding

Low-carbon steel (0.2% C), alloy steels (0.08–0.2% C) Steels (1% Al, 1.5% Cr, 0.3% Mo), alloy steels (Cr, Mo), stainless steels, high-speed tool steels Steels

C and N

Heat steel at 760–845 °C (1400–1550 °F) in a molten bath of solutions of cyanide (e.g., 30% sodium cyanide) and other salts. Heat steel at 500–600 °C (925–1100 °F) in an atmosphere of ammonia gas or mixtures of molten cyanide salts. No further treatment.

B

Part is heated using boron-containing gas or solid in contact with part.

Flame hardening

Medium-carbon steels, cast irons

None

Surface is heated with an oxyacetylene torch, then quenched with water spray or other quenching methods.

Induction hardening

Same as above

None

Metal part is placed in copper induction coils and is heated by high frequency current, then quenched.

Nitriding

Boronizing

N


General Characteristics A hard, high-carbon surface is produced. Hardness 55 to 65 HRC. Case depth < 0.5–1.5 mm ( < 0.020 to 0.060 in.). Some distortion of part during heat treatment. Surface hardness 55 to 62 HRC. Case depth 0.07 to 0.5 mm (0.003 to 0.020 in.). Less distortion than in carburizing. Surface hardness up to 65 HRC. Case depth 0.025 to 0.25 mm (0.001 to 0.010 in.). Some distortion. Surface hardness up to 1100 HV. Case depth 0.1 to 0.6 mm (0.005 to 0.030 in.) and 0.02 to 0.07 mm (0.001 to 0.003 in.) for high speed steel. Extremely hard and wear resistant surface. Case depth 0.025– 0.075 mm (0.001– 0.003 in.). Surface hardness 50 to 60 HRC. Case depth 0.7 to 6 mm (0.030 to 0.25 in.). Little distortion. Same as above


Typical applications Gears, cams, shafts, bearings, piston pins, sprockets, clutch plates

Bolts, nuts, gears

Bolts, nuts, screws, small gears

Gears, shafts, sprockets, valves, cutters, boring bars, fuel-injection pump parts

Tool and die steels

Gear and sprocket teeth, axles, crankshafts, piston rods, lathe beds and centers Same as above

Page 4-25

Heat Treatment Processes Figure 4.23 Heat-treating temperature ranges for plain-carbon steels, as indicated on the iron-iron carbide phase diagram. Source: ASM International.

Figure 4.24 Hardness of steels in the quenched and normalized conditions, as a function of carbon content. Kalpakjian • Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology


Page 4-26

Properties of Oil-Quenched Steel Figure 4.25 Mechanical properties of oil-quenched 4340 steel, as a function of tempering temperature. Source: Courtesy of LTV Steel Company



Page 4-27

Induction Heating

Figure 4.26 Types of coils used in induction heating of various surfaces of parts.



Page 4-28

CHAPTER 5 Ferrous Metals and Alloys: Production, General Properties, and Applications



Page 5-1

Blast Furnace Figure 5.1 Schematic illustration of a blast furnace. Source: Courtesy of American Iron and Steel Institute.



Page 5-2

Electric Furnaces

Figure 5.2 Schematic illustration of types of electric furnaces: (a) direct arc, (b) indirect arc, and (c) induction.



Page 5-3

Basic-Oxygen Process Figure 5.3 Schematic illustrations showing (a) charging, (b) melting, and (c) pouring of molten iron in a basic-oxygen process. Source: Inland Steel Company



Page 5-4

Figure 5.4 The continuous-casting process for steel. Typically, the solidified metal descends at a speed of 25 mm/s (1 in./s). Note that the platform is about 20 m (65 ft) above ground level. Source: Metalcaster's Reference and Guide, American Foundrymen's Society.

Continuous Casting



Page 5-5

Typical Selection of Carbon and Alloy Steels for Various Applications TABLE 5.1 Product Aircraft forgings, tubing, fittings Automobile bodies Axles Ball bearings and races Bolts Camshafts Chains (transmission) Coil springs Connecting rods Crankshafts (forged)

Steel

Product

Steel

4140, 8740

Differential gears Gears (car and truck) Landing gear Lock washers Nuts Railroad rails and wheels Springs (coil) Springs (leaf) Tubing Wire Wire (music)

4023 4027, 4140, 1060 3130 1080 1095, 1085, 1040 1045, 1085

1010 1040, 4140 52100 1035, 4042, 4815 1020, 1040 3135, 3140 4063 1040, 3141, 4340 1045, 1145, 3135, 3140



4032 4340, 8740

4063, 6150 4063, 9260, 6150 1055

Page 5-6

Mechanical Properties of Selected Carbon and Alloy Steels in Various Conditions TABLE 5.2 Typical Mechanical Properties of Selected Carbon and Alloy Steels in the Hot-Rolled, Normalized, and Annealed Condition AISI

Condition

1020

As-rolled Normalized Annealed As-rolled Normalized Annealed Normalized Annealed Normalized Annealed Normalized Annealed

1080

3140 4340 8620

Ultimate tensile strength (MPa) 448 441 393 1010 965 615 891 689 1279 744 632 536


Yield Strength (MPa)


Reduction of area (%)

Hardness (HB)

346 330 294 586 524 375 599 422 861 472 385 357

36 35 36 12 11 24 19 24 12 22 26 31

59 67 66 17 20 45 57 50 36 49 59 62

143 131 111 293 293 174 262 197 363 217 183 149


Page 5-7

AISI Designation for High-Strength Sheet Steel TABLE 5.3 Yield Strength psi x 10 35 40 45 50 60 70 80 100 120 140

3

Chemical Composition

Deoxidation Practice

MPa 240 275 310 350 415 485 550 690 830 970

S = structural alloy

F = killed plus sulfide inclusion control

X = low alloy K = killed W = weathering O = nonkilled D = dual phase



Page 5-8

Room-Temperature Mechanical Properties and Applications of Annealed Stainless Steels TABLE 5.4 Room-Temperature Mechanical Properties and Typical Applications of Selected Annealed Stainless Steels Ultimate tensile Yield Elongation AISI strength strength in 50 mm (UNS) (MPa) (MPa) (%) Characteristics and typical applications 303 550–620 240–260 53–50 Screw machine products, shafts, valves, bolts, (S30300) bushings, and nuts; aircraft fittings; bolts; nuts; rivets; screws; studs. 304 (S30400)

565–620

240–290

60–55

Chemical and food processing equipment, brewing equipment, cryogenic vessels, gutters, downspouts, and flashings.

316 (S31600)

550–590

210–290

60–55

High corrosion resistance and high creep strength. Chemical and pulp handling equipment, photographic equipment, brandy vats, fertilizer parts, ketchup cooking kettles, and yeast tubs.

410 (S41000)

480–520

240–310

35–25

416 (S41600)

480–520

275

30–20

Machine parts, pump shafts, bolts, bushings, coal chutes, cutlery, tackle, hardware, jet engine parts, mining machinery, rifle barrels, screws, and valves. Aircraft fittings, bolts, nuts, fire extinguisher inserts, rivets, and screws.



Page 5-9

Basic Types of Tool and Die Steels TABLE 5.5 Type High speed Hot work

Cold work Shock resisting Mold steels Special purpose Water hardening


AISI M (molybdenum base) T (tungsten base) H1 to H19 (chromium base) H20 to H39 (tungsten base) H40 to H59 (molybdenum base) D (high carbon, high chromium) A (medium alloy, air hardening) O (oil hardening) S P1 to P19 (low carbon) P20 to P39 (others) L (low alloy) F (carbon-tungsten) W


Page 5-10

Processing and Service Characteristics of Common Tool and Die Steels TABLE 5.6 Processing and Service Characteristics of Common Tool and Die Steels Resistance to decarburization Medium High Low Medium Medium Medium

Resistance to cracking Medium High Medium Highest Highest Highest

Approximate hardness (HRC) 60–65 60–65 60–65 38–55 57–62 35–56

Machinability Medium Medium Medium Medium to high Medium Medium

Toughness Low Low Low Very high Medium High

Resistance to softening Very high Very high Highest High High High

D2

Medium

Highest

54–61

Low

Low

High

D3 H21

Medium Medium

High High

54–61 36–54

Low Medium

Low High

High High

H26 P20

Medium High

High High

43–58 28–37

Medium Medium to high

Medium High

Very high Low

P21 W1, W2

High Highest

Highest Medium

30–40 50–64

Medium Highest

Medium High

Medium Low

AISI designation M2 T1 T5 H11, 12, 13 A2 A9

Resistance to wear Very high Very high Very high Medium High Medium to high High to very high Very high Medium to high High Low to medium Medium Low to medium

Source: Adapted from Tool Steels, American Iron and Steel Institute, 1978.



Page 5-11

CHAPTER 6 Nonferrous Metals and Alloys: Production, General Properties, and Applications



Page 6-1

Approximate Cost per Unit Volume for Wrought Metals and Plastics Relative to Carbon Steel TABLE 6.1 Approximate Cost per Unit Volume for Wrought Metals and Plastics Relative to Cost of Carbon Steel Gold 60,000 Magnesium alloys 2–4 Silver 600 Aluminum alloys 2–3 Molybdenum alloys 200–250 High-strength low-alloy steels 1.4 Nickel 35 Gray cast iron 1.2 Titanium alloys 20–40 Carbon steel 1 * Copper alloys 5–6 1.1–2 Nylons, acetals, and silicon rubber * Zinc alloys 1.5–3.5 0.2–1 Other plastics and elastomers Stainless steels 2–9 *As molding compounds. Note: Costs vary significantly with quantity of purchase, supply and demand, size and shape, and various other factors.



Page 6-2

General Characteristics of Nonferrous Metals and Alloys TABLE 6.2 Material Nonferrous alloys Aluminum Magnesium Copper Superalloys Titanium Refractory metals Precious metals

Characteristics More expensive than steels and plastics; wide range of mechanical, physical, and electrical properties; good corrosion resistance; high-temperature applications. High strength-to-weight ratio; high thermal and electrical conductivity; good corrosion resistance; good manufacturing properties. Lightest metal; good strength-to-weight ratio. High electrical and thermal conductivity; good corrosion resistance; good manufacturing properties. Good strength and resistance to corrosion at elevated temperatures; can be iron-, cobalt-, and nickel-base. Highest strength-to-weight ratio of all metals; good strength and corrosion resistance at high temperatures. Molybdenum, niobium (columbium), tungsten, and tantalum; high strength at elevated temperatures. Gold, silver, and platinum; generally good corrosion resistance.



Page 6-3

Example of Alloy Usage Figure 6.1 Crosssection of a jet engine (PW2037) showing various components and the alloys used in manufacturing them. Source: Courtesy of United Aircraft Pratt & Whitney.



Page 6-4

Properties of Selected Aluminum Alloys at Room Temperature TABLE 6.3 Alloy (UNS) 1100 (A91100) 1100 2024 (A92024) 2024 3003 (A93003) 3003 5052 (A95052) 5052 6061 (A96061) 6061 7075 (A97075) 7075

Temper O H14 O T4 O H14 O H34 O T6

Ultimate tensile strength (MPa) 90 125 190 470 110 150 190 260 125 310

Yield strength (MPa) 35 120 75 325 40 145 90 215 55 275

Elongation in 50 mm (%) 35–45 9–20 20–22 19–20 30–40 8–16 25–30 10–14 25–30 12–17

O T6

230 570

105 500

16–17 11



Page 6-5

Manufacturing Properties and Applications of Selected Wrought Aluminum Alloys TABLE 6.4 Characteristics* Alloy 1100

Corrosion resistance A

Machinability C–D

Weldability A

2024

C

B–C

B–C

3003

A

C–D

A

5052

A

C–D

A

6061

B

C–D

A

7075

C

B–D

D

Typical applications Sheet metal work, spun hollow ware, tin stock Truck wheels, screw machine products, aircraft structures Cooking utensils, chemical equipment, pressure vessels, sheet metal work, builders’ hardware, storage tanks Sheet metal work, hydraulic tubes, and appliances; bus, truck and marine uses Heavy-duty structures where corrosion resistance is needed, truck and marine structures, railroad cars, furniture, pipelines, bridge rail-ings, hydraulic tubing Aircraft and other structures, keys, hydraulic fittings

* A, excellent; D, poor.



Page 6-6

All-Aluminum Automobile

Figure 6.2 (a) The Audi A8 automobile which has an allaluminum body structure. (b) The aluminum body structure, showing various components made by extrusion, sheet forming, and casting processes. Source: Courtesy of ALCOA, Inc.



Page 6-7

Properties and Typical Forms of Selected Wrought Magnesium Alloys TABLE 6.5

Condition F H24 T5

Ultimate tensile strength (MPa) 260 290 380

Yield strength (MPa) 200 220 275

Elongation in 50 mm (%) 15 15 7

H24 T5

255 365

200 300

8 11

Composition (%) Alloy AZ31 B

Al 3.0

Zn 1.0

Mn 0.2

AZ80A

8.5

0.5

0.2

HK31A ZK60A

3Th 5.7

Zr

0.7 0.55



Typical forms Extrusions Sheet and plates Extrusions and forgings Sheet and plates Extrusions and forgings

Page 6-8

Properties and Typical Applications of Selected Wrought Copper and Brasses TABLE 6.6 Type and UNS number Electrolytic tough pitch copper (C11000)

Nominal composition (%) 99.90 Cu, 0.04 O

Ultimate tensile strength (MPa) 220–450

Red brass, 85% (C23000)

85.0 Cu, 15.0 Zn

270–725

70–435

55–3

Cartridge brass, 70% (C26000)

70.0 Cu, 30.0 Zn

300–900

75–450

66–3

61.5 Cu, 3.0 Pb, 35.5 Zn 60.0 Cu, 39.25 Zn, 0.75 Sn

340–470

125–310

53–18

380–610

170–455

50–17

Free-cutting brass (C36000) Naval brass (C46400 to C46700)


Yield strength (MPa) 70–365

Elongation in 50 mm (%) 55–4


Typical applications Downspouts, gutters, roofing, gaskets, auto radiators, busbars, nails, printing rolls, rivets Weather-stripping, conduits, sockets, fas-teners, fire extinguishers, condenser and heat exchanger tubing Radiator cores and tanks, flashlight shells, lamp fixtures, fasteners, locks, hinges, ammunition components, plumbing accessories Gears, pinions, automatic highspeed screw machine parts Aircraft turnbuckle barrels, balls, bolts, marine hardware, propeller shafts, rivets, valve stems, condenser plates

Page 6-9

Properties and Typical Applications of Selected Wrought Bronzes TABLE 6.7 Ultimate tensile strength (MPa) 415 (As extruded)

Yield strength (MPa) 140

Elongation in 50 mm (%) 30

Type and UNS number Architectural bronze (C38500)

Nominal composition (%) 57.0 Cu, 3.0 Pb, 40.0 Zn

Phosphor bronze, 5% A (C51000)

95.0 Cu, 5.0 Sn, trace P

325–960

130–550

64–2

Free-cutting phosphor bronze (C54400) Low silicon bronze, B (C65100)

88.0 Cu, 4.0 Pb, 4.0 Zn, 4.0 Sn 98.5 Cu, 1.5 Si

300–520

130–435

50–15

275–655

100–475

55–11

Nickel silver, 65–10 (C74500)

65.0 Cu, 25.0 Zn, 10.0 Ni

340–900

125–525

50–1



Typical applications Architectural extrusions, store fronts, thresholds, trim, butts, hinges Bellows, clutch disks, cotter pins, diaphragms, fasteners, wire brushes, chemical hardware, textile machinery Bearings, bushings, gears, pinions, shafts, thrust washers, valve parts Hydraulic pressure lines, bolts, marine hardware, electrical conduits, heat exchanger tubing Rivets, screws, slide fasteners, hollow ware, nameplates

Page 6-10

Properties and Typical Applications of Selected Nickel Alloys TABLE 6.8 Properties and Typical Applications of Selected Nickel Alloys (All are Trade Names)

Type and UNS number Nickel 200 (annealed)

Duranickel 301

Nominal composition (%) None

Ultimate tensile strength (MPa) 380–550

Yield strength (MPa) 100–275

Elongation in 50 mm (%) 60–40

4.4 Al, 0.6 Ti

1300

900

28

Monel R-405 (hot rolled) Monel K-500

30 Cu

525

230

35

29 Cu, 3 Al

1050

750

30

Inconel 600 (annealed)

15 Cr, 8 Fe

640

210

48

Hastelloy C-4 (solutiontreated and quenched)

16 Cr, 15 Mo

785

400

54



Typical applications Chemical and food processing industry, aerospace equipment, electronic parts Springs, plastics extrusion equipment, (age hardened) molds for glass, diaphragms Screw-machine products, water meter parts Pump shafts, valve stems, springs (age hardened) Gas turbine parts, heat-treating equipment, electronic parts, nuclear reactors High temperature stability, resistance to stress-corrosion cracking

Page 6-11

Properties and Typical Applications of Selected Nickel-Base Superalloys at 870 °C TABLE 6.9 Properties and Typical Applications of Selected Nickel-Base Superalloys at 870 °C (1600 °F) (All are Trade Names)

Alloy Astroloy Hastelloy X IN-100 IN-102 Inconel 625

Condition Wrought Wrought Cast Wrought Wrought

Ultimate tensile strength (MPa) 770 255 885 215 285

lnconel 718 MAR-M 200 MAR-M 432 René 41 Udimet 700 Waspaloy

Wrought Cast Cast Wrought Wrought Wrought

340 840 730 620 690 525


Yield strength (MPa) 690 180 695 200 275

Elongation in 50 mm (%) 25 50 6 110 125

330 760 605 550 635 515

88 4 8 19 27 35


Typical applications Forgings for high temperature Jet engine sheet parts Jet engine blades and wheels Superheater and jet engine parts Aircraft engines and structures, chemical processing equipment Jet engine and rocket parts Jet engine blades Integrally cast turbine wheels Jet engine parts Jet engine parts Jet engine parts

Page 6-12

Properties and Typical Applications of Selected Wrought Titanium Alloys TABLE 6.10 Properties and Typical Applications of Selected Wrought Titanium Alloys at Various Temperatures Nominal composition (%)

Ultimate tensile strength (MPa)

Yield strength (MPa)

UNS

99.5 Ti

R50250

Annealed

330

5 Al, 2.5 Sn

R54520

Annealed

6 Al, 4V

R56400

Annealed

Condition

Solution + age

13 V, 11 Cr, 3 Al

R58010

Solution + age

Temp. (°C)

Ultimate tensile strength (MPa)

Yield strength (MPa)


Reduction of area

55

300

150

95

32

80

16

40

300

565

450

18

45

14

30

300

725

650

14

35

20

425 550 300

670 530 980

570 430 900

18 35 10

40 50 28

830

12 22 12

35 45 —

Elongation (%)

Reduction of area (%)

240

30

860

810

1000

925

1175

1275

1100

1210


10

8

—

425

1100


Typical Applications

Airframes; chemical, desalination, and marine parts; plate type heat exchangers Aircraft engine compressor blades and ducting; steam turbine blades Rocket motor cases; blades and disks for aircraft turbines and compressors; structural forgings and fasteners; orthopedic implants

High strength fasteners; aerospace components; honeycomb panels

Page 6-13

CHAPTER 7 Polymers: Structure, General Properties and Applications



Page 7-1

Range of Mechanical Properties for Various Engineering Plastics TABLE 7.1 Material ABS ABS, reinforced Acetal Acetal, reinforced Acrylic Cellulosic Epoxy Epoxy, reinforced Fluorocarbon Nylon Nylon, reinforced Phenolic Polycarbonate Polycarbonate, reinforced Polyester Polyester, reinforced Polyethylene Polypropylene Polypropylene, reinforced Polystyrene Polyvinyl chloride Kalpakjian • Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology

UTS (MPa) 28–55 100 55–70 135 40–75 10–48 35–140 70–1400 7–48 55–83 70–210 28–70 55–70 110 55 110–160 7–40 20–35 40–100 14–83 7–55

E (GPa) 1.4–2.8 7.5 1.4–3.5 10 1.4–3.5 0.4–1.4 3.5–17 21–52 0.7–2 1.4–2.8 2–10 2.8–21 2.5–3 6 2 8.3–12 0.1–1.4 0.7–1.2 3.5–6 1.4–4 0.014–4


Elongation (%) 75–5 — 75–25 — 50–5 100–5 10–1 4–2 300–100 200–60 10–1 2–0 125–10 6–4 300–5 3–1 1000–15 500–10 4–2 60–1 450–40

Poisson’s ratio (ν) — 0.35 — 0.35–0.40 — — — — 0.46–0.48 0.32–0.40 — — 0.38 — 0.38 — 0.46 — — 0.35 —

Page 7-2

Chapter 7 Outline

Figure 7.1 Outline of the topics described in Chapter 7



Page 7-3

Structure of Polymer Molecules

Figure 7.2 Basic structure of polymer molecules: (a) ethylene molecule; (b) polyethylene, a linear chain of many ethylene molecules; © molecular structure of various polymers. These are examples of the basic building blocks for plastics Kalpakjian • Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology


Page 7-4

Molecular Weight and Degree of Polymerization Figure 7.3 Effect of molecular weight and degree of polymerization on the strength and viscosity of polymers.



Page 7-5

Polymer Chains Figure 7.4 Schematic illustration of polymer chains. (a) Linear structure-thermoplastics such as acrylics, nylons, polyethylene, and polyvinyl chloride have linear structures. (b) Branched structure, such as in polyethylene. (c) Cross-linked structure--many rubbers or elastomers have this structure, and the vulcanization of rubber produces this structure. (d) Network structure, which is basically highly cross-linked-examples are thermosetting plastics, such as epoxies and phenolics.



Page 7-6

Polymer Behavior Figure 7.5 Behavior of polymers as a function of temperature and (a) degree of crystallinity and (b) cross-linking. The combined elastic and viscous behavior of polymers is known as viscoelasticity.



Page 7-7

Crystallinity Figure 7.6 Amorphous and crystalline regions in a polymer. The crystalline region (crystallite) has an orderly arrangement of molecules. The higher the crystallinity, the harder, stiffer, and less ductile the polymer.



Page 7-8

Specific Volume as a Function of Temperature Figure 7.7 Specific volume of polymers as a function of temperature. Amorphous polymers, such as acrylic and polycarbonate, have a glass-transition temperature, Tg, but do not have a specific melting point, Tm. Partly crystalline polymers, such as polyethylene and nylons, contract sharply while passing through their melting temperatures during cooling.



Page 7-9

Glass-Transition and Melting Temperatures of Some Polymers TABLE 7.2 Material Nylon 6,6 Polycarbonate Polyester Polyethylene High density Low density Polymethylmethacrylate Polypropylene Polystyrene Polytetrafluoroethylene Polyvinyl chloride Rubber


Tg (°C) 57 150 73

Tm (°C) 265 265 265

–90 –110 105 –14 100 –90 87 –73

137 115 — 176 239 327 212 —


Page 7-10

Behavior of Plastics

Figure 7.8 General terminology describing the behavior of three types of plastics. PTFE (polytetrafluoroethylene) has Teflon as its trade name. Source: R. L. E. Brown.



Page 7-11

Temperature Effects

Figure 7.9 Effect of temperature on the stress-strain curve for cellulose acetate, a thermoplastic. Note the large drop in strength and the large increase in ductility with a relatively small increase in temperature. Source: After T. S. Carswell and H. K. Nason.


Figure 7.10 Effect of temperature on the impact strength of various plastics. Small changes in temperature can have a significant effect on impact strength. Source: P. C. Powell. © 2001 Prentice-Hall

Page 7-12

Elongation (a)


(b)


Figure 7.11 (a) Loadelongation curve for polycarbonate, a thermoplastic. Source: R. P. Kambour and R. E. Robertson. (b) High-density polyethylene tensile-test specimen, showing uniform elongation (the long, narrow region in the specimen).

Page 7-13

General Recommendations for Plastic Products TABLE 7.3 Design requirement Mechanical strength Functional and decorative

Applications Gears, cams, rollers, valves, fan blades, impellers, pistons Handles, knobs, camera and battery cases, trim moldings, pipe fittings

Housings and hollow shapes

Power tools, pumps, housings, sport helmets, telephone cases

Functional and transparent

Lenses, goggles, safety glazing, signs, food-processing equipment, laboratory hardware Gears, wear strips and liners, bearings, bushings, roller-skate wheels

Wear resistance



Plastics Acetal, nylon, phenolic, polycarbonate ABS, acrylic, cellulosic, phenolic, polyethylene, polypropylene, polystyrene, polyvinyl chloride ABS, cellulosic, phenolic, polycarbonate, polyethylene, polypropylene, polystyrene Acrylic, polycarbonate, polystyrene, polysulfone Acetal, nylon, phenolic, polyimide, polyurethane, ultrahigh molecular weight polyethylene

Page 7-14

Load-Elongation Curve for Rubber

Figure 7.12 Typical load-elongation curve for rubbers. The clockwise lop, indicating the loading and the unloading paths, displays the hysteresis loss. Hysteresis gives rubbers the capacity to dissipate energy, damp vibraion, and absorb shock loading, as is necessary in automobile tires and in vibration dampers placed under machinery.



Page 7-15

CHAPTER 8 Ceramics, Graphite, and Diamond: Structure, General Properties, and Applications



Page 8-1

Examples of Ceramics (a)

(b)

Figure 8.1 A variety of ceramic components. (a) High-strength alumina for high-temperature applications. (b) Gas-turbine rotors made of silicon nitride. Source: Wesgo Div., GTE.



Page 8-2

TABLE 8.1 Type Oxide ceramics Alumina Zirconia Carbides Tungsten carbide

Types and General Characteristics of Ceramics

Titanium carbide Silicon carbide Nitrides Cubic boron nitride Titanium nitride Silicon nitride Sialon Cermets Silica

Glasses Glass ceramics Graphite Diamond


General Characteristics High hardness, moderate strength; most widely used ceramic; cutting tools, abrasives, electrical and thermal insulation. High strength and toughness; thermal expansion close to cast iron ; suitable for heat engine components. Hardness, strength, and wear resistance depend on cobalt binder content; commonly used for dies and cutting tools. Not as tough as tungsten carbide; has nickel and molybdenum as the binder; used as cutting tools. High-temperature strength and wear resistance ; used for heat engines and as abrasives. Second-hardest substance known, after diamond; used as abrasives and cutting tools. Gold in color; used as coatings because of low frictional characteristics. High resistance to creep and thermal shock; used in heat engines. Consists of silicon nitrides and other oxides and carbides; used as cutting tools. Consist of oxides, carbides, and nitrides; used in high-temperature applications. High temperature resistance; quartz exhibits piezoelectric effect; silicates containing various oxides are used in high-temperature nonstructural applications. Contain at least 50 percent silica; amorphous structures; several types available with a range of mechanical and physical properties. Have a high crystalline component to their structure ; good thermalshock resistance and strong. Crystalline form of carbon; high electrical and thermal conductivity; good thermal shock resistance. Hardest substance known; available as single crystal or polycrystalline form; used as cutting tools and abrasives and as dies for fine wire drawing.


Page 8-3

Properties of Various Ceramics at Room Temperature TABLE 8.2

Material Aluminum oxide Cubic boron nitride Diamond Silica, fused Silicon carbide Silicon nitride Titanium carbide Tungsten carbide Partially stabilized zirconia

Symbol Al2O3

Transverse rupture strength (MPa) 140–240

Compressive strength (MPa) 1000–2900

Elastic modulus (GPa) 310–410

Hardness (HK) 2000–3000

Poisson’s ratio (ν) 0.26

Density (kg/m3) 4000–4500

CBN

725

7000

850

4000–5000

—

3480

— SiO2 SiC

1400 — 100–750

7000 1300 700–3500

830–1000 70 240–480

7000–8000 550 2100–3000

— 0.25 0.14

3500 — 3100

Si3 N4

480–600

—

300–310

2000–2500

0.24

3300

TiC

1400–1900

3100–3850

310–410

1800–3200

—

5500–5800

WC

1030–2600

4100–5900

520–700

1800–2400

—

10,000–15,000

PSZ

620

—

200

1100

0.30

5800

Note: These properties vary widely depending on the condition of the material.



Page 8-4

Properties of Various Glasses TABLE 8.3

Density Strength Resistance to thermal shock Electrical resistivity Hot workability Heat treatability Chemical resistance Impact-abrasion resistance Ultraviolet-light transmission Relative cost

Soda-lime glass High Low Low

Lead glass Highest Low Low

Borosilicate glass Medium Moderate Good

96 Percent silica Low High Better

Fused silica Lowest Highest Best

Moderate Good Good Poor Fair

Best Best Good Fair Poor

Good Fair Poor Good Good

Good Poor None Better Good

Good Poorest None Best Best

Poor

Poor

Fair

Good

Good

Lowest

Low

Medium

High

Highest



Page 8-5

Graphite Components Figure 8.2 Various engineering components made of graphite. Source: Poco Graphite, Inc., a Unocal Co.



Page 8-6

CHAPTER 9 Composite Materials: Structure, General Properties, and Applications



Page 7-1

Application of Advanced Composite Materials Figure 9.1 Application of advanced composite materials in Boeing 757-200 commercial aircraft. Source: Boeing Commercial Airplane Company.



Page 7-2

Methods of Reinforcing Plastics Figure 9.2 Schematic illustration of methods of reinforcing plastics (matrix) with (a) particles, and (b) short or long fibers or flakes. The four layers of continuous fibers in illustration (c) are assembled into a laminate structure.



Page 7-3

Types and General Characteristics of Composite Materials TABLE 9.1 Material Fibers Glass Graphite Boron Aramids (Kevlar) Other fibers Matrix materials Thermosets Thermoplastics Metals Ceramics

Characteristics High strength, low stiffness, high density; lowest cost; E (calcium aluminoborosilicate) and S (magnesia-aluminosilicate) types commonly used. Available as high-modulus or high-strength; low cost; less dense than glass. High strength and stiffness; highest density; highest cost; has tungsten filament at its center. Highest strength-to-weight ratio of all fibers; high cost. Nylon, silicon carbide, silicon nitride, aluminum oxide, boron carbide, boron nitride, tantalum carbide, steel, tungsten, molybdenum. Epoxy and polyester, with the former most commonly used; others are phenolics, fluorocarbons, polyethersulfone, silicon, and polyimides. Polyetheretherketone; tougher than thermosets but lower resistance to temperature. Aluminum, aluminum-lithium, magnesium, and titanium; fibers are graphite, aluminum oxide, silicon carbide, and boron. Silicon carbide, silicon nitride, aluminum oxide, and mullite; fibers are various ceramics.



Page 7-4

Strength and Stiffness of Reinforced Plastics Figure 9.3 Specific tensile strength (tensile strength-to-density ratio) and specific tensile modulus (modulus of elasticity-to-density ratio) for various fibers used in reinforced plastics. Note the wide range of specific strengths and stiffnesses available.



Page 7-5

Typical Properties of Reinforcing Fibers TABLE 9.2 Tensile strength (MPa) 3500

Elastic modulus (GPa) 380

Density 3 ( kg/m ) 2600

Relative cost Type Boron Highest Carbon High strength 3000 275 1900 Low High modulus 2000 415 1900 Low Glass E type 3500 73 2480 Lowest S type 4600 85 2540 Lowest Kevlar 29 2800 62 1440 High 49 2800 117 1440 High Note: These properties vary significantly depending on the material and method of preparation.



Page 7-6

Fiber Reinforcing

Figure 9.4 (a) Cross-section of a tennis racket, showing graphite and aramid (Kevlar) reinforcing fibers. Source: J. Dvorak, Mercury Marine Corporation, and F. Garrett, Wilson Sporting Goods Co. (b) Cross-section of boron fiber-reinforced composite material.



Page 7-7

Effect of Fiber Type on Fiber-Reinforced Nylon Figure 9.5 The effect of type of fiber on various properties of fiber-reinforced nylon (6,6). Source: NASA.



Page 7-8

Fracture Surfaces of Fiber-Reinforced Epoxy Composites (a)

(b)

Figure 9.6 (a) Fracture surface of glass-fiber reinforced epoxy composite. The fibers are 10 µm (400 µin.) in diameter and have random orientation. (b) Fracture surface of a graphite-fiber reinforced epoxy composite. The fibers, 9 µm-11 µm in diameter, are in bundles and are all aligned in the same direction. Source: L. J. Broutman. Kalpakjian • Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology


Page 7-9

Tensile Strength of Glass-Reinforced Polyester

Figure 9.7 The tensile strength of glass-reinforced polyester as a function of fiber content and fiber direction in the matrix. Source: R. M. Ogorkiewicz, The Engineering Properties of Plastics. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1977.



Page 7-10

Example of Advanced Materials Construction Figure 9.8 Cross-section of a composite sailboard, an example of advanced materials construction. Source: K. Easterling, Tomorrow’s Materials (2d ed.), p. 133. Institute of Metals, 1990.



Page 7-11

Metal-Matrix Composite Materials and Applications TABLE 9.3 Fiber Graphite

Boron

Alumina

Silicon carbide Molybdenum, tungsten

Matrix Aluminum Magnesium Lead Copper Aluminum Magnesium Titanium Aluminum Lead Magnesium Aluminum, titanium Superalloy (cobalt-base) Superalloy


Applications Satellite, missile, and helicopter structures Space and satellite structures Storage-battery plates Electrical contacts and bearings Compressor blades and structural supports Antenna structures Jet-engine fan blades Superconductor restraints in fission power reactors Storage-battery plates Helicopter transmission structures High-temperature structures High-temperature engine components High-temperature engine components


Page 7-12

CHAPTER 10 Fundamentals of Metal-Casting



Page 10-1

Cast Structures of Metals Figure 10.1 Schematic illustration of three cast structures of metals solidified in a square mold: (a) pure metals; (b) solid-solution alloys; and (c) structure obtained by using nucleating agents. Source: G. W. Form, J. F. Wallace, J. L. Walker, and A. Cibula.



Page 10-2

Preferred Texture Development

Figure 10.2 Development of a preferred texture at a cool mold wall. Note that only favorably oriented grains grow away from the surface of the mold.



Page 10-3

Alloy Solidification Figure 10.3 Schematic illustration of alloy solidification and temperature distribution in the solidifying metal. Note the formation of dendrites in the mushy zone.



Page 10-4

Solidification Patterns Figure 10.4 (a) Solidification patterns for gray cast iron in a 180-mm (7-in.) square casting. Note that after 11 min. of cooling, dendrites reach each other, but the casting is still mushy throughout. It takes about two hours for this casting to solidify completely. (b) Solidification of carbon steels in sand and chill (metal) molds. Note the difference in solidification patterns as the carbon content increases. Source: H. F. Bishop and W. S. Pellini.



Page 10-5

Cast Structures Figure 10.5 Schematic illustration of three basic types of cast structures: (a) columnar dendritic; (b) equiaxed dendritic; and (c) equiaxed nondendritic. Source: D. Apelian.

Figure 10.6 Schematic illustration of cast structures in (a) plane front, single phase, and (b) plane front, two phase. Source: D. Apelian. Kalpakjian • Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology


Page 10-6

Riser-Gated Casting Figure 10.7 Schematic illustration of a typical riser-gated casting. Risers serve as reservoirs, supplying molten metal to the casting as it shrinks during solidification. See also Fig. 11.4 Source: American Foundrymen’s Society.



Page 10-7

Fluidity Test Figure 10.8 A test method for fluidity using a spiral mold. The fluidity index is the length of the solidified metal in the spiral passage. The greater the length of the solidified metal, the greater is its fluidity.



Page 10-8

Temperature Distribution Figure 10.9 Temperature distribution at the interface of the mold wall and the liquid metal during solidification of metals in casting.



Page 10-9

Solidification Time Figure 10.10 Solidified skin on a steel casting. The remaining molten metal is poured out at the times indicated in the figure. Hollow ornamental and decorative objects are made by a process called slush casting, which is based on this principle. Source: H. F. Taylor, J. Wulff, and M. C. Flemings.



Page 10-10

Solidification Contraction for Various Cast Metals TABLE 10.1

Metal or alloy Aluminum Al–4.5%Cu Al–12%Si Carbon steel 1% carbon steel Copper Source: After R. A. Flinn.

Volumetric solidification contraction (%) 6.6 6.3 3.8 2.5–3 4 4.9


Metal or alloy 70%Cu–30%Zn 90%Cu–10%Al Gray iron Magnesium White iron Zinc


Volumetric solidification contraction (%) 4.5 4 Expansion to 2.5 4.2 4–5.5 6.5

Page 10-11

Hot Tears

Figure 10.11 Examples of hot tears in castings. These defects occur because the casting cannot shrink freely during cooling, owing to constraints in various portions of the molds and cores. Exothermic (heat-producing) compounds may be used (as exothermic padding) to control cooling at critical sections to avoid hot tearing.



Page 10-12

Casting Defects Figure 10.12 Examples of common defects in castings. These defects can be minimized or eliminated by proper design and preparation of molds and control of pouring procedures. Source: J. Datsko.



Page 10-13

Internal and External Chills Figure 10.13 Various types of (a) internal and (b) external chills (dark areas at corners), used in castings to eliminate porosity caused by shrinkage. Chills are placed in regions where there is a larger volume of metals, as shown in (c).



Page 10-14

Solubility of Hydrogen in Aluminum Figure 10.14 Solubility of hydrogen in aluminum. Note the sharp decrease in solubility as the molten metal begins to solidify.



Page 10-15

CHAPTER 11 Metal-Casting Processes



Page 11-1

TABLE 11.1 Process

Summary of Casting Processes

Advantages

Limitations

S and

Almos t any metal cas t; no l imit to s i ze, s hape or weight; low tooling cos t.

S ome finis hing r equi red; s omewhat coars e finis h; wide tole rances .

S hel l mold

Good dimens ional accuracy and s urface finis h; high production

Part s i ze l imited; expens ive patterns and equipment

rate .

requi red.

Expendable pattern

Mos t metals cas t with no limit to s i ze; compl ex s hapes

Patterns have low s trength and can be cos tly for low quantities

Plas ter mold

Intri cate s hapes ; good dimens ional accuracy and finis h; low poros ity.

Limited to nonferrous metals ; l imited s ize and volume of production; mold mak ing time re latively long.

Ceramic mold

Intri cate s hapes ; c los e tol erance parts ; good s urfac e

Limited s i ze.

finis h. Inves tment

Intri cate s hapes ; excel lent s urface finis h and accuracy;

Part s i ze l imited; expens ive patterns , molds , and labor.

almos t any metal cas t . Permanent mold

Good s urface finis h and dimens ional accuracy; low

High mold cos t; l imited s hape and intri cacy; not s uitabl e for

poros ity; high production rate .

high-melting-point metals .

Die

Exce ll ent dimens ional ac curacy and s urface finis h; high production rate .

Di e cos t is high; part s i ze l imited; us ually limited to nonferrous metals ; long lead time.

Centrifugal

Large cylindr ical parts with

Equipment is expens ive; part

good qual ity; high production rate .

s hape l imited.



Page 11-2

Die-Casting Examples

(a)

(b)

Figure 11.1 (a) The Polaroid PDC-2000 digital camera with a AZ91D die-cast, high purity magnesium case. (b) Two-piece Polaroid camera case made by the hot-chamber die casting process. Source: Courtesy of Polaroid Corporation and Chicago White Metal Casting, Inc.



Page 11-3

General Characteristics of Casting Processes TABLE 11.2

Process Sand Shell Expendable mold pa ttern Plas t er mold

Inves tment Permanent mold

Die Centrifuga l

Typical surface finish

Typical materials cast

Minimum

Maximum

A ll A ll

0.05 0.05

No limit 100+

5-25 1-3

4 4

1-2 2-3

A ll Nonferrous (A l, M g, Zn, Cu) A ll

0.05

No limit

5-20

4

0.05

50+

1-2

0.005

100+

A ll

0.5

Nonferrous (A l, M g, Zn, Cu) A ll

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